id
stringlengths 2
8
| url
stringlengths 31
792
| title
stringlengths 1
109
| text
stringlengths 15
202k
|
|---|---|---|---|
538778
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
|
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ
|
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ โ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแแแแก แ แแคแแ แแแช-แแแแคแกแแแแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแ แแ แฃแแแแจแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแฏแแแแก แแฅแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแกแแแ แ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแ แแแ แขแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแ, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแแฃแจแแแ แแ แฃแกแแแแแ แคแแแแแแ แจแแแแ, แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแ แแขแแแแกแแ แแ แแแแแแแแกแขแแ แคแ แแแ แแฎ แแแ แ แคแแ แแแแแแ แคแ แแแฐแแ แคแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแ 1821 แฌแแแก, แ แแแแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแ แแ แฃแกแแแก แแแแแแแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ.
แแแฃแคแแแแแแ 1821 แฌแแแก 15 แแแแแแ แก แแแแแแฅแแแงแแ แแแจแ แแแ โแกแแแแคแ แแ แฃแกแแแก แแแแแ แแแฃแ แ แจแขแแแแก แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แกแแแฃแจแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแโ, แกแแแแช แแแ 1:25 000 แแแกแจแขแแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแแ, แกแแคแฃแซแแแแ แฉแแฃแงแแ แ แแแ แแ แฌแแแแแฃแ โแแ แฃแกแแฃแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแกโ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แแแแ แแแแฆแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ โแแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแโ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแแแแฌแ แแแงแแคแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แฎแแแแ โแกแคแแ แแแแฃแ แขแ แแแแชแแแแแโ, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ แแกแแแ โแขแ แแแแชแแโ แแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแ แขแงแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแฌแแก แแแแแแแ แแก แแฎแแแแ โแขแ แแแแชแแแกโ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แฌแแ แขแแแจแ. แแแฆแแแฃแแ แขแ แแแแชแแ แจแแแแแแแก แ แฃแแแก แชแแแแแฃแ แคแฃแ แชแแแก. แแแแแแแแแ, 1:50 000 แแแกแจแขแแแแกแแแแก แแกแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแฅแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแ =10โฒ แแ แแ แซแแแแ =15โฒ. แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแแแฌแแก แกแฎแแฃแแ แแแฉแแแฃแแแ แกแคแแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แ แกแคแแ แแ.
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแญแแแฃแแ แ แแแแแ แแ แแแญแแแแแก แแแแแแแ 1:100 000 แแ แฃแคแ แ แแกแฎแแแแ แแแกแจแขแแแแก แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแกแแแแก. แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแ แจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ แคแฃแ แชแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแฎแแแฏแแแ แฃแแแแจแแแแแ แแงแ, แแฃแแชแ แคแฃแ แชแแแแแก แแแแแแแแก แคแแ แแแ แแแแกแแก แฌแแ แแแแฅแแแแแแแ แฎแแแแแ แแแ แแ ฮตโฒ แแแ แฆแแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แแแกแ แแแแแงแแแแแ แแแแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแแกแแแแแก แแแฃแฎแแ แฎแแแแแ แแงแ. แแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแกแแแ แ แคแกแแแแแชแแแแแแ แฃแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแ.
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแ แกแ แจแแแแแแจแแ: แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแแแฌแแก แกแคแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ แ แแชแแ แ แกแคแแ แแแแฃแ แขแ แแแแชแแแแแ แแแงแแคแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแขแแ แแแแแแแ. แจแแแแแ, แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแจแฃแแแ แฌแแ แขแแแแก แขแ แแแแชแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแก แฌแแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแก. แแแ แแแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แแแแแฆแแแ แจแแแแฎแแแฃแ, แฎแแแ แแแแ แ แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แฉแแฎแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแแแก. แจแแแแแแแ แแแแชแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแกแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแแก แฌแแฎแแแแแ. แแแจแแกแแแแแ, แกแคแแ แแแแฃแแ แขแ แแแแชแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแก แแ แขแงแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแ แกแฌแแ แฎแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ.
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแ แแแแแฎแแแฏแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แจแแแฅแแแแก แแแขแแ แแชแแ แ แแ แกแแแ แขแงแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแกแแก แกแแแแแแ แแแฌแ แ, แแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แซแแ แฎแแแแ (แกแแ แขแงแแแ, แแแแแแ), แแแแแแแแแ, แแฆแแ แฃแแ แแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแ แ แแแ แแแแแแ. แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฃแฎแแ แฎแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแ. แแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแ แขแ แแแแชแแแก แฌแแแ แแแแ แแแแกแแแฆแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแ แแ แกแแงแ แแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแแแก แแแแแจแแขแแ แแแขแแแแกแแก แแ แแฃแแฅแขแแแแก แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแก แชแแแแแ แกแแญแแ แ. แแแแแแ แแ, แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแ แแฌแแแแก แแกแแแแแ แแแแแจแแขแแแแ แแแขแแแแแ แงแแแแ แกแแงแ แแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแก แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แซแแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฃแชแแแแแแแแแก. แงแแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแก แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แขแ แแแแแฃแแแชแแแ. แแ แแแแแแฎแ แแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ, แแแ แจแแ แแก, แแแขแแ แ แแแแกแแก แขแ แแแแแแแแขแ แแฃแแ แฅแกแแแแแแก แกแแแฃแจแแแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฃแฌแงแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแฌแแกแแแฃแแแแแก แแแแ . แแ แกแแแฃแจแแแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ, แแฅแแแแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแจแ. แแกแแแ แกแแแฃแจแแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแก แกแแกแขแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแ แฎแแแแแ, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ. แแแแก แแแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแแ, แกแแฃแฌแงแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแฃแจแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแก แแแแฃแจแแแแแ แฎแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแฃแแแแ แแ, แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแก แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แกแแกแขแแแแจแ. แแก แแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแแก แแฎแ แแ, แแ แแซแแแแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแ แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แกแแฃแฌแงแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แขแ แแแแแฃแแแชแแแก แกแแงแ แแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแก แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแแก. แแแแ แแแฃแฎแแ แฎแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแฅแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแจแแขแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแกแแก แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแแชแแแแก แแแแแกแแฌแงแแแขแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแแแขแแ, 1928 แฌแแแก แกแกแ แ-แจแ แจแแแแแฆแแก แแแกแแแแก แแแแคแกแแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแ แแแฃแก-แแ แแฃแแแ แแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ, แแฃแแชแ แกแแฌแงแแก แแขแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ 1:500 000-แแ แแกแฎแแแแ แแแกแจแขแแแแก แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแแ, แฎแแแ 1939 แฌแแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแ แจแแแแแฆแแก 1:500 000 แแแกแจแขแแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแกแแแแกแแช.
แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแก, แแแแแก แแ แแแ, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแงแแแแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแ. 1848 แฌแแแก แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแจแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แขแแแแแ แแคแแแแก แแแ แแฃแกแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแแ แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแกแแแ แแกแฎแแแแแแกแจแขแแแแแแ แ แฃแกแฃแแ แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแฆแ แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แแแแแแแฌแแก แแแแแแแ แแก แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แแฆแแ แฃแแ แ แแแแแก แขแ แแแแชแแแแแ. 1920-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแขแ แฃแ แแแกแจแขแแแแแจแ แแแแแฌแงแแ แแฎแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแก แแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแก แกแแแแแฎแ. แแ แ แฃแแแแแกแแแแก แแแขแแแแก แแแ แ แแแฆแแแฃแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแงแ 1:100 000 แแ แฃแคแ แ แแกแฎแแแแ แแแกแจแขแแแแก แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แกแกแ แ-แจแ แแแแแแงแแแแแแแ 1934โ39 แฌแแแแแแแ.
แกแแแ แแแ, แแ แแแแแฌแแฎแแแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแแก แแฅแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแ, แแแ แซแแ, แคแฃแ แชแแแแ แกแแแ แขแงแแแ แฉแแ แฉแแแ แแแ แฆแแแแแก แแแ แแจแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแฌแงแแแ. แแฃ แแแแแแแก แกแแแ แขแงแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแแ แแแฎ แแ แชแฎแ แ แ แฃแแแก แคแฃแ แชแแแก แแ แจแแแแชแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแก, แแแจแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแ, แ แแ แแก แคแฃแ แชแแแแ แแ แจแแแ แแแแแ. แแแ แจแแ แแก แแฃแชแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแฅแแแแแ แแแ แฆแแแแ. แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แจแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แขแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แ แฃแแแแ แแฅแแแแแแแ แแแ แจแแ แแก, แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแแช. แชแแแแแแแ แกแกแ แ แจแกแกแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแแแ แแคแแแก แแแแแแ แ แกแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแชแแแจแ แแแแแชแแแฃแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ 1937 แฌแแแก 1:200 000 แแแกแจแขแแแแแแ แ แฃแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแแ แแแฃแก-แแ แแฃแแแ แแก แแแแ แแแแแขแแ แกแแกแขแแแแแ. แแแกแ แแแกแฃแฎแแกแแแแแแแ แ แแแแฅแขแแ แแ แกแแ แแ แชแฎแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแ แขแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแ
แแแฃแก-แแ แแฃแแแ แแก แแ แแแฅแชแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแ แขแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแ แแแฅแชแแแแ
|
45553677
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogo%20Jota
|
Diogo Jota
|
Diogo Jota
Diogo Josรฉ Teixeira da Silva (born 4 December 1996), known as Diogo Jota, is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a centre forward for Premier League club Liverpool and the Portugal national team.
Jota started his career with Paรงos de Ferreira, before signing for La Liga club Atlรฉtico Madrid in 2016. After two seasons in the Primeira Liga, he was consecutively loaned to Primeira Liga club FC Porto in 2016 and EFL Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers in 2017. Having helped them gain promotion to the Premier League, he joined the club in 2018 for a reported โฌ14 million and went on to make 131 appearances for them, scoring 44 goals. In 2020, he signed for Liverpool for a fee reported to be ยฃ41 million.
Jota is a former Portugal youth international, representing his country at under-19, under-21 and under-23 levels. He was included in the squad for the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals, which Portugal won on home soil, and made his senior international debut in November 2019, playing at UEFA Euro 2020.
Club career
Paรงos de Ferreira
Born in Porto, Jota joined Paรงos de Ferreira's youth setup in 2013, from Gondomar. He was promoted to the main squad at the start of the 2014โ15 season, and made his senior debut on 19 October 2014 by starting in a 4โ0 home win against Atlรฉtico de Reguengos for the Taรงa de Portugal.
Jota first appeared in the Primeira Liga on 20 February 2015, coming on as a late substitute for Diogo Rosado in a 2โ2 home draw against Vitรณria de Guimarรฃes. He scored his first goals in the competition on 17 May, netting a brace in a 3โ2 home success over Acadรฉmica de Coimbra and becoming the youngest player to score for the club in the top tier in the process.
On 30 May 2015, Jota signed a new five-year deal with Paรงos, keeping him tied up until 2020. In the first game of the campaign, a 1โ0 win over Acadรฉmica at the Estรกdio da Mata Real on 17 August, he was sent off at the end for pushing Hugo Seco; Ricardo Nascimento was also sent off for retaliating on his teammate's behalf.
Atlรฉtico Madrid
On 14 March 2016, Jota agreed a five-year contract with Atlรฉtico Madrid effective as of 1 July. On 26 August 2016, however, he returned to his homeland and joined FC Porto on a one-year loan. On 1 October, Jota scored a first-half hat-trick in a 4โ0 away victory against Nacional. Jota also took part in the 2016โ17 UEFA Champions League, scoring his first goal in the competition on 7 December in a 5โ0 home victory against Leicester City.
Wolverhampton Wanderers
2017โ19: Premier League promotion and Europa League finish
On 25 July 2017, Jota signed for EFL Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers on a season-long loan. He scored his first goal on 15 August, in a 3โ2 away win over Hull City. On 30 January 2018, it was announced that a permanent deal with Jota had been agreed for a reported โฌ14 million, being made effective on 1 July. He scored a career-best 17 league goals in his first year, ranking fifth in the league top scorer charts, as Wolves achieved promotion to the Premier League as champions; due to English Football League regulations, he wore his legal surname on his jersey in the Championship but was able to change it to "Diogo J" after the feat.
Jota made his debut in the Premier League on 11 August 2018, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2โ2 home draw against Everton. He scored his first goal in the competition on 5 December, helping the hosts come from behind to beat Chelsea 2โ1. His second came four days later, in a win at Newcastle United by the same scoreline. On 19 January 2019, Jota scored three times in the 4โ3 home victory over Leicester City โ his second career hat-trick. In the process, he became only the second Portuguese player to achieve the feat in the Premier League after Cristiano Ronaldo 11 years earlier. This was a first-ever for the club in the competition and a first for the club in the top flight of English football since John Richards, against the same opposition, in the Football League First Division in October 1977. On 16 March 2019, Jota scored a goal in a 2โ1 win against Manchester United in the 2018โ19 FA Cup, to help Wolves reach their first semi-final in the competition since 1997โ98.
2019โ20: Final season with Wolves
On 25 July 2019, Jota scored in a 2โ0 win over Northern Irish club Crusaders in the Europa League second qualifying round, Wolves' first European goal since October 1980, and in the next round on 15 August, he scored an overhead kick to conclude a 4โ0 (8โ0 aggregate) victory over Pyunik.
In the final Europa League group stage game at home to Beลiktaล on 12 December 2019, Jota replaced compatriot Rรบben Neves as a 56th-minute substitute with the game goalless, scored after 72 seconds and completed a hat-trick within twelve minutes as Wolves ran out 4โ0 victors. The following 20 February, he netted another treble in a win by the same score over Espanyol in the first leg of the last 32 of the tournament. His 131st and last appearance for Wolves was as a second-half substitute in their Europa League quarter-final against Sevilla on 11 August 2020; his 44th and final goal for the club in a 3โ0 league victory over Everton on 12 July.
Liverpool
2020โ21: Debut season and adaptation
On 19 September 2020, Jota joined Liverpool on a long-term deal, reportedly for a ยฃ41 million transfer fee, rising to ยฃ45 million with potential add-ons. He made his debut in the EFL Cup five days later, coming on as a second-half substitute against Lincoln City in a 7โ2 win. On 28 September, he scored on his Premier League debut for the club, with the third in a 3โ1 win against Arsenal at Anfield. On 25 October, he scored the winning goal in a 2โ1 win against Sheffield United at Anfield. Three days later, Jota scored the club's 10,000th goal in their history when he netted the opener against FC Midtjylland in the UEFA Champions League group stage, and scored a hat-trick on 3 November in a 5โ0 win at Atalanta in the Champions League in the same competition on 3 November. In doing so, he became the first player since Robbie Fowler in 1993 to score 7 goals in his first 10 Liverpool appearances. On 22 November, Jota scored the second goal in a 3โ0 victory against Leicester City, becoming the first Liverpool player to score in each of his first four home matches in the Premier League. For his performances in October, Jota was awarded Liverpool Player of the Month by the club's supporters. On 9 December, Jota suffered a leg injury during a UEFA Champions League match against Midtjylland, in a dead rubber match, sidelining him for three months.
Jota ended his debut season at the club with nine league goals, including a back heel in a 4โ2 away win against Manchester United, which helped Liverpool finish third in the Premier League and qualify for the Champions League.
2021โ22: Domestic double and European final
On 14 August 2021, Jota scored Liverpool's first goal of the 2021โ22 Premier League season in a 3โ0 away victory against newly promoted Norwich City. On 24 October, he scored in a 5โ0 away victory against Liverpool's arch rivals Manchester United at Old Trafford. On 3 November, he opened the scoring in a 2โ0 home victory in the Champions League against his former club Atlรฉtico Madrid to ensure Liverpool's qualification to the round of sixteen, as group winners. On 20 November, Jota scored in a 4โ0 home win against Arsenal, followed by a brace against Southampton a week later in a game of the same score. On 1 December, he scored Liverpool's fourth goal in a 4โ1 away win against local rivals Everton in the Merseyside derby, as the club became the first team in English top-flight history to score at least two goals in eighteen successive games in all competitions. For his performances in November, he was awarded PFA Fans' Player of the Month. On 16 December, Jota scored Liverpool's first goal in a 3โ1 home win against Newcastle United, in what was Liverpool's 2,000th top-flight win.
On 20 January 2022, in the second leg of the EFL Cup semi-finals, Jota scored both goals in a 2โ0 away win over Arsenal to send Liverpool into the final. On 27 February, following a goalless draw against Chelsea after extra time, he scored his penalty to help Liverpool win their first league cup since 2012. On 14 May, in the 2022 FA Cup final, Jota came on as a substitute for the injured Mohamed Salah after 33 minutes. Liverpool won the final after a penalty shoot-out, in which Jota scored his penalty. On 28 May, Jota made a substitute appearance in the 65th minute of the 2022 UEFA Champions League Final, as Liverpool lost to 1โ0 Real Madrid.
2022โ23: Contract extension
Jota suffered a hamstring injury in the pre-season which made him miss the start of the season. On 2 August 2022, Jota signed a new long-term deal with the club. He made his return from injury on 3 September, replacing Darwin Nรบรฑez in the 80th minute of a 0โ0 draw against rivals Everton in the Merseyside derby. On 12 October, Jota came off the bench in a Champions League match away to Rangers, before providing three assists in one match for the first time in his career to Mohamed Salah, who completed a hat-trick in the space of six minutes and twelve seconds of an eventual 7โ1 win. On 16 October, he suffered a calf injury during Liverpool's 1โ0 home win over Manchester City, which ruled him out for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He returned from injury on 13 February, replacing Darwin Nรบรฑez in the 70th minute in a 2โ0 victory against Everton.
Having not registered a goal since 10 April 2022, Jota returned to scoring ways on 17 April 2023, with two goals in Liverpool's 6โ1 away win over Leeds United. On 30 April, with Liverpool conceding a last minute equaliser, having led the match by three goals, Jota scored the dramatic late winner in added time in Liverpool's 4โ3 home win over Tottenham Hotspur, leading him to be nominated for the Premier League Player of the Month award. At the conclusion of the season, Liverpool narrowly missed out on Champions League qualification.
2023โ24
Following an injury riddled season, Jota started the new season on 19 August, by closing Liverpool's 3โ1 win against Bournemouth. On 30 September, after replacing Cody Gakpo in the 46th minute, Jota was sent off just 24 minutes after coming on against Tottenham, leaving his team with 9-men, following a missed timed tackle on Destiny Udogie, as Liverpool were defeated for the first time in the season, ending 19-game unbeaten run that started at the end of the previous season. He would receiving various criticism, with former Liverpool player Stephen Warnock claiming that he had "been poor since coming on at half time, not up to the pace of the game at all", while formed Manchester United player Gary Neville, agreed with his red-card, as he believed Jota's actions were a "stupidity". On 5 October, he scored his first goal for Liverpool in the 2023โ24 UEFA Europa League, closing the 2โ0 win against Union Saint-Gilloise in a group stage match.
International career
Youth
Jota started playing for Portugal at under-19 level, scoring his first goal on 29 May 2015 in a 6โ1 home win over Turkey in 2015 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualification. He won his first cap for the under-21 team on 17 November of the same year at not yet 19, playing 15 minutes in the 3โ0 away defeat of Israel in another qualifier. On 25 May 2018, he netted a brace for the under-21s in their 3โ2 friendly win over Italy held in Estoril.
Senior
In March 2019, Jota was called up to the senior side for the first time, ahead of the opening UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying matches against Ukraine and Serbia. Still uncapped, he was part of the squad that won the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals on home soil in June but did not make an appearance. On 14 November, he made his debut by coming on as an 84th-minute substitute for Cristiano Ronaldo in a 6โ0 win against Lithuania in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifier. He scored his first international goal on 5 September 2020 in a 4โ1 home win over Croatia in the UEFA Nations League.
Jota was named in Portugal's final squad for the delayed UEFA Euro 2020 tournament, scoring in a 4โ2 group stage defeat to Germany. He played all games in a round of 16-exit defeat to Belgium. On 18 October 2022, Jota was ruled out of the 2022 FIFA World Cup due to a calf injury he sustained during a league match with Liverpool against Manchester City on 16 October 2022.
On 11 September 2023, Jota scored a brace in Portugal's 9โ0 home defeat of Luxembourg in the UEFA Euro 2024 qualifiers, their biggest win in international history.
Personal life
Jota, whose true surname is "Silva", chose to use the name "Jota" to distinguish himself from other players named Diogo and Silva in the youth academy. "Jota" is the Portuguese pronunciation of the letter "J", making this equivalent to calling himself "Diogo J".
Jota is an avid gamer, and as of 6 February 2021, was ranked world No. 1 in FIFA 21's Champions Leaderboard. He has his own eSports team known as "Diogo Jota eSports" and regularly streams on Twitch. During the lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic he took part in an invitational series of FIFA matches, run by the Premier League, eventually beating future teammate Trent Alexander-Arnold in the final of the competition.
Jota and his wife Rute Cardoso have a son born in 2021.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Portugal's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Jota goal
Honours
Wolverhampton Wanderers
EFL Championship: 2017โ18
Liverpool
FA Cup: 2021โ22
EFL Cup: 2021โ22
UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2021โ22
Portugal
UEFA Nations League: 2018โ19
Individual
SJPF Young Player of the Month: October/November 2015
Primeira Liga Goal of the Month: February 2016
UEFA Champions League Breakthrough XI: 2020
Notes
References
International appearances
General
External links
Diogo Jota at the Liverpool F.C. website
1996 births
Living people
Footballers from Porto
Portuguese men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
F.C. Paรงos de Ferreira players
FC Porto players
Atlรฉtico Madrid footballers
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
Primeira Liga players
English Football League players
Premier League players
Portugal men's youth international footballers
Portugal men's under-21 international footballers
Portugal men's international footballers
UEFA Euro 2020 players
UEFA Nations League-winning players
Portuguese expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in England
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Spain
|
164941
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแขแ
|
แแแแแแขแ โ แแแแ แ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแจแ. แแก แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแฃแแแแก แแแแแแก. แกแแจแฃแแแแ, แแ แ แแแแแแขแจแ 5-แแแ 15-แแแ แแแแแ แจแแแแก. แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแจแ.
แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ 379 (65 แกแแฅแแแแฅแ แแ 314 แกแแกแแคแแ) แแแแแแขแแ. แแแแแแขแก แแแ แแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ - แแแแแแขแแก แ แแแ. แ แแแ แแ แฉแแแก แแฆแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแ แฎแแแกแฃแคแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แก แกแขแแ แแกแขแแก
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
(แแแ แแแแฃแแ) Nationale und transnationale Vernetzung polnischer Stรคdte und Regionen
แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แแแงแแคแ
|
11075
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98
|
แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ
|
แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ
แแแแแแ แกแขแแแคแแ แ แฃแแชแ แแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ, แจแแแแแแแแแ แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ โ แแแ แซแ แแแคแแแแแกแแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ แกแขแแแคแแ แแจแ, แแแแแคแแ แแแแก แจแขแแขแจแ. แกแแ-แคแ แแแชแแกแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ 60 แแ-แจแ แกแแแขแ-แแแแ แแก แฅแแฃแแแแจแ แฅแแแแฅ แแแแ-แแแขแแกแแแ แแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ แกแแแแแแแแก แแแแแก แจแฃแแแฃแแจแแ, แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแแแ แแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแแแแช.
แแ แชแแ แแแแแฃแกแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ แกแแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแฏแแแแแ แแ แแแ แกแขแฃแแแแขแแแก แกแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแ แ, แแฃแ แแแแฃแ, แกแแแแแชแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแก, แแแแแแกแแก, แแฃแแแแแกแแแขแงแแแแแแแกแ แแ แฐแฃแแแแแขแแ แฃแแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแก แกแแแแแแก. แกแขแแแคแแ แแก แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแแแแแแงแแคแ แแฅแแก แกแแแแแแชแแแ แแ แแฅแขแแแแกแแแแก. แแก แแกแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแแกแแแแซแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแฎแแแแกแแแ แฌแแแแฌแงแแแแแก. แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแ แแจแ แขแแ แแแแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแขแแแแจแ, แแแแคแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแขแแแแแแแแแจแ.
แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ 2016 แแแแแฎแแ แแแแ แแแฃแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแก แจแแ แแก U.S. News and World Report-แแก แแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ. แแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแฃแ แแแ Slate-แแก แ แแแขแแแแจแ "21-แ แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แฐแแ แแแ แแ". The New York Times-แแ 2014 แฌแแแก แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแแฌแแ แ: "แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ แแแแ แแแแกแแแแก แแแฎแแ แกแแกแฌแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แแช แแ แ แแ แแก แฐแแ แแแ แแ แแงแ". 2013, 2014, 2015 แแ 2016 แฌแแแแจแ The Princeton Review-แก แแแแแแแแฎแแแ แแแแแฎแแแ แกแขแแแคแแ แแจแ แกแฌแแแแแแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแจแแ แแชแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแฃแแแ แฃแแ แแงแ แแจแแแแแแก แจแแ แแกแแช.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแขแแแคแแ แแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแจแจ-แแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแ
แกแแ-แคแ แแแชแแกแแ
|
311097
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
|
แแแแ แแแแแแแ
|
แแแแ แแแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแก แแแฅแแก แแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. 2013 แฌแแแก แกแแคแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 363 แแแชแก แจแแแแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแคแแแก แแแแแแ
แแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
147600
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
|
แแแ แ
|
แแแ แ โ แแแแแแ แ แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ. แฃแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแก. แแแกแ แกแแแ แแ แกแแแ แซแ 249 แแ-แแ. แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแ แแก แกแแแ แซแแ แแแชแแแแขแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแแแ. แฌแงแแแจแแแแ แแแ แแฃแแแก แคแแ แแแแ แแ 5,322 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแฅแแแ: แแแแแฃแแ; แ แแซแแแฃแแ; แกแขแแแแแแ; แแแแแแแชแแ; แกแแฎแแฉแแแ; แแแแแแชแ; แแแแแแฎแฃแแแแ; แแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแแแชแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแ
แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ
|
33361
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
|
แแแ แ แแ แแฃแแแแ
|
แแแ แ แแ แแฃแแแแ
แแแ แ แแแแแแก แซแ แแ แแฃแแแแ (แ. 23 แแแแแแแแ แ [แซแ. แกแข. 12 แแแแแแแแ แ], 1799, แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแ โ แ. 23 แแแแแกแ [แซแ. แกแข. 11 แแแแแกแ], 1852, แแแ แฉแแแ, แ แแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแ) โ แ แฃแกแ แคแแ แแฌแแ แ. แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แแ แแฃแแแแแก แซแแ. แแแแฃแแแแขแแแแกแขแ, แแแแแ แแแแกแขแ, แแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ.
แชแแแแแแ แแแแฃแจแแแ แแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 23 แแแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1799
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 23 แแแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1852
แ แฃแกแ แแฎแแขแแ แแแ
แแฎแแขแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ
แฌแแแแแ แกแขแแแแกแแแแแก II แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ
แฌแแแแแ แกแขแแแแกแแแแแก III แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ
แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแก IV แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ
แฌแแแแแ แแแแก III แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ
|
76074
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
|
แ แแแแ แข แแแขแแแกแแแ
|
แ แแแแ แข แแแขแแแกแแแ
แ แแแแ แข แขแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแแ (แ. 13 แแแแกแ, 1986) โ แแแแแแกแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ, แแแแแแ แแ แแฃแกแแแแกแ. แแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแก แ แแแ โแแแแแแก แกแแแแจแโ, แ แแแแแแช แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแแ แกแขแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแก แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแ, แแกแแแ - แกแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ แฐแแ แ แแแขแแ แแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแ แคแแแแจแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแขแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแแกแจแ. แแก แฉแแแ แแ แกแแแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแแแขแ แแก แกแแฅแแแจแ โแแแ แแแก แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแกโ แแแจแแแแแแ. แแฃแแแกแแแก แแแฆแแ แกแแแฃแจแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแฆแ แกแแแกแแฎแแแแ แ แแแแแ. แแแแก แแแ แ แแก แแแแแจแแแแ โแแแแแแขแแกโ แกแแแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแแ แกแแแจแ โOld Sorting Office Arts Centreโ-แจแ, แแกแแแ แกแชแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแช.
แแแขแแแกแแแแ แแแแฆแ แแแแ แแฎแแ แแกแฎแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แขแแแแคแแแแจแ โแแแแแแฃแแแแแแก แแแญแแแโ (2004) แแ แ แแแแกแแ แแแ แ แแแแ แแก แคแแแแจแ โแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แโ (2004), แกแแแแช แแแกแ แกแชแแแแแ แแแแญแ แแก แแ แแฎแแแแ DVD แแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแฉแแแ. 2005 แฌแแแก แแแแกแจแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแฆแ โแฌแแแ แฅแแแแกโ แแแแแแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแแแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแ Royal Court Theatre-แจแ, แแแแ แแ แแแฎแกแแแ แกแแฆแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแแก แแ แฉแแแแแชแแแ แแกแแฎแแแ แขแแ แ แแแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก, แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแ แ แกแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ แคแแแแจแ โแฐแแ แ แแแขแแ แ แแ แชแแชแฎแแแแแแ แแแกแโ แแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแก แแฅแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแฃแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแแ แฌแแแก โแแแแแแแแก แแ แแขแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแโ โTimes Online-แแกโ แแแแ . แแกแแแ แแแกแแ แแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแก แแฅแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แฏแฃแ แแแฃ.
แแแขแแแกแแแ แแแแแฉแแแ โHackett-แแกโ 2007 แฌแแแก แแแแแฅแชแแแก แกแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแจแ. แแก แแแแแจแแแก แแแแแ แ แแแแแแก แคแแแแจแ โแแแแแโ, แ แแแแแแช แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแแ แกแขแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแก แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แแแกแขแกแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแช 2008 แฌแแแก 21 แแแแแแแ แก แแแแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแจแ.
แแแขแแแกแแแก แแฅแแก แแแแแแ แ แ แแแแแ แคแแแแแแจแ: โแฌแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแโ, แกแแแแช แแก แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแจแแแก แแ โแ แแแแ แแแ แกแแแโ - แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแ.
แคแแแแแแ แแคแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแกแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1986
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 13 แแแแกแ
XXI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแแแกแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแแ
|
44268430
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall%20Eriksen
|
Marshall Eriksen
|
Marshall Eriksen is a fictional character on the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother, portrayed by Jason Segel. Series co-creator Craig Thomas explained that he based Marshall and Lily on himself and his wife Rebecca.
Character overview
The series revolves around the adventures of the five main characters: Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) and his best friend Marshall, his friend and Marshall's girlfriend (later fiancee and wife) Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), friend Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and friend/love interest (and future love interest and wife to Barney Stinson) Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders).
Marshall met Ted and Lily during their freshman year at Wesleyan University in 1996, and they moved into an apartment in New York City together after graduation. In the show's pilot episode, he proposes to Lily, inspiring Ted to start looking for the love of his life.
Marshall is fascinated by the paranormal, and has absolute faith that mythical creatures such as Sasquatch and the Loch Ness Monster are real. He has even discovered a paranormal event himself: a bizarre creature he names "the cockamouse". He is also a huge fan of the Minnesota Vikings, much like his father.
Although very few references were made to identify Marshall's birthday, it can be assumed he was in the same school year as best friend and roommate Ted Mosby and then-girlfriend Lily Aldrin. In "The Yips" Marshall says he is 29. This episode aired in November 2007. This confirms Marshall's birth year to be either 1977 or 1978. Ted turned 30 on April 25, 2008 in "The Goat". The dialogue in this episode implies that Lily, Marshall and Robin have not yet reached this milestone. In "Glitter", Lily says Marshall is 384 months old, thus 32 years, 1 week, 1 day and 21 hours old. Since the episode plays somewhere between November 9 (the date the previous episode played in) and November 24, 2010 (the date the next episode plays in) it can only be concluded that he was born between November 2 and November 14, 1978.
Life before first episode
Marshall was born and raised in St. Cloud, Minnesota, the youngest of three brothers. His last name, the fact that he is from Minnesota and his references to lutefisk suggests that he might be a Scandinavian American. He has been shown to be extremely close to his family, particularly his father, Marvin (Bill Fagerbakke). His relationships with his two older brothers, Marvin, Jr. and Marcus, was depicted in several episodes as involving pranks and brutal fighting matches when they were teenagers. By the time the series begins, both of his brothers are married and have started families. It was depicted that his brothers were the ones who gave Marshall his very first car, a Pontiac Fiero, which had a cassette single stuck in it containing the song "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)".
In an episode it's shown Marshall starts smoking while still in high school and struggles to stop until his children are born.
After graduating from an unnamed St. Cloud high school, Marshall attended and received his B.A. from Wesleyan University. He met both Lily and Ted during the move-in process. Ted was his first roommate in college. Marshall is shown to frequently smoke marijuana, though in the show, Future Ted refers to this as "eating a sandwich" in order to hide their past drug use from his children. In fact, Marshall is shown to have smoked marijuana before initially meeting Ted and confuses him for the dean of the school. Marshall is also shown to enjoy drinking to the point of intoxication in college. One of those times, he is involved in a hazing where he becomes so drunk that he streaks and proclaims himself "Beercules" following the drinking game "Edward 40-Hands", a reference to the film Edward Scissorhands, but instead of scissors for hands, the participant tapes 40 fl. oz. drinks to their hands.
Marshall and Ted became good friends after this. During a break during school, Marshall plans to drive back to Minnesota in his Fiero. Marshall offers Ted a ride to his own home in Shaker Heights saying that it is on the way, which Ted eventually accepts. They bond during a blizzard and over the song "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)". Ted's friendship with Marshall is shown to help strengthen Lily and Marshall's early relationship, by him inviting her into their first roommate photo, Ted encouraging Marshall to commit to Lily, despite Marshall not having much prior relationship experience. Ted and Marshall would also take frequent roadtrips to Chicago to get pizza from their favorite shop. They also begin their tradition of watching the original Star Wars trilogy while in school together.
Marshall met Lily during the move-in process, when Lily was determined to meet him and found his room. She asked him to install her stereo for her and they were in love at first sight. They exclusively date through college, even when she studies abroad in Paris. Their nicknames for each other are "Lily-pad" and "Marsh-mallow".
After graduating, Marshall and Ted move in together into the apartment in New York. Marshall is initially terrified of living in a large city, though he eventually overcomes his fear. He takes several years off, working in a clothing store, before attending Columbia University Law School to receive his Juris Doctor (J.D.).
How I Met Your Mother
During the pilot episode, Marshall proposes to Lily. Throughout the series, his relationship with Lily progresses through their engagement, their break up when she decides to move to San Francisco for an art fellowship, Lily's eventual return to New York City and their attempt at a friendship outside of a romantic relationship, their reconciliation and re-engagement, their wedding, and finally their marriage.
Initial engagement
Marshall and Lily are initially engaged during the first season. Their engagement is what initially prompts Ted to begin pursuing marriage for himself.
Marshall at times is shown to feel left out of the hijinks that Ted and Barney get into without him, going so far as to drive to Philadelphia to have a "legendary" adventure with them.
Marshall is shown to be completely committed in spite of his sadness at being left out of Ted and Barney's "single man" shenanigans. In Best Prom Ever, he sneaks into a high school prom in order to provide Lily with sheet music for the song they want to dance to at their wedding, "Good Feeling" from the Violent Femmes album.
During this period, the couple is generally happy, but the instability of their engagement and relationship is foreshadowed in several episodes. In "Okay Awesome", Marshall is shown to be jealous of the fun that Barney and Ted have by going out to clubs while Lily wants to have a "grown up" wine and cheese party with other couples. In "Belly Full of Turkey", the couple go to Minnesota to visit Marshall's family for Thanksgiving. There, Lily vocalizes that she does not want to change her name, that she is hesitant about starting a family with Marshall, and that the couple are not on the same page about where they would raise their family if they chose to have children. In "Zip, Zip, Zip", Marshall and Lily are trapped in the apartment bathroom and openly discuss that they are sad about no longer having new milestones. This period of their relationship ends in the first season finale, "Come On", when Marshall discovers that Lily interviewed for an art fellowship in San Francisco. They have a fight, during which Lily claims that she was never going to actually take the fellowship, but due to Marshall's comments during the fight, she decides that she needed to take a break from the relationship in order to pursue her dream as an artist.
During this time, it was demonstrated that Marshall and Lily have a psychic connection and are able to communicate with each other through thought.
Break-up and Lily's return to New York
The second season begins with Marshall dealing with the break-up of his long-term relationship and engagement. He was shown to be extremely depressed during the first few months post-break-up. He becomes obsessed with credit card bills that are still sent to their apartment. This obsession leads him to believe that Lily returned to New York and didn't tell him, causing him to believe that she does not want to get back together. When he goes to a New York hotel shown on her credit card bill to confront her and the man that had answered the phone when he had called their room, he discovers that Lily had not returned, but had been a victim of identity fraud. This allows him to let go of the relationship.
He eventually tries dating, though most of his attempts are stymied by his friend Barney Stinson, who is later revealed to be intentionally sabotaging these attempts in order to ensure the reunification of Marshall and Lily.
Marshall, while single, misses parts of being in a relationship, such as having someone to attend concerts with and going to brunch, which his friends tell him is something that can only be done when in a couple. Marshall begins a "bromance" with his friend and fellow law student, Brad Morris (Joe Manganiello), who had also recently gone through a break-up. Marshall thinks that Brad is becoming too romantic for the relationship, which culminates in Marshall reluctantly agreeing to attend a wedding with him, only to arrive in front of Brad's apartment to see him with flowers. Marshall assumes that the flowers are for him and panics, but Brad reveals that he had gotten back together with his recent break-up.
When Marshall encountered Lily after her return to New York City, Lily proposed they get back together, saying that leaving him was a mistake and that she still loves him. Marshall refused and said that he also needed time to discover who he is outside the relationship.
Marshall managed to date one woman, a barista, who his friends claimed has "crazy eyes". She tells him several outlandish stories, which are revealed to be true and caused by Lily, who is still obsessed with Marshall. At the end of their date, it is revealed that Lily had broken into the apartment to sabotage the date with a picture of Marshall and Lily together. This culminates with them making up and getting back together.
Second engagement and wedding
After reconciling, Marshall and Lily decide to elope in Atlantic City in order to avoid the judgment of Marshall's family for Lily having left him. They decide not to go through with it at the last moment and want to instead have a celebration with their families and friends present.
Marshall's friendship are further explored during this time in the episode "Slap Bet". Marshall agrees to a bet with Barney about the reason Robin doesn't like malls. Marshall, being from Minnesota, believes that Robin doesn't like malls because she was married in one, as some people had done in the Mall of America. This results in Marshall being given several slaps which he inflict upon Barney throughout the series, because, although Robin was not married at a mall, Barney was incorrect that she had been in a pornographic film.
During this time, Marshall's first car dies. He reminisces with his friends about the times that they all shared in the car and is reluctant to scrap the vehicle. He reveals that he is unhappy with the corporate job he had been working and felt that only his old, beaten car kept him connected with the kind of man that he wanted to be.
Toward the end of the second season, before the wedding, when Ted is planning to move in with his girlfriend, Robin, it is shown that most of the possessions in the apartment belonged to Ted. Marshall and Lily, while still wanting to get married, learn that they are somewhat dependent on Ted. The couple is relieved when Ted ultimately decides not to move in with Robin and returns to the apartment.
On the day of their wedding, Marshall begins to have anxiety about the day and shave his head. To relieve some of the stress of the day, Marshall and Lily have a two ceremonies; first, one that is private and only their closest friends attend and the second one which is in before all of their guests.
Post-wedding
After their wedding, Marshall and Lily continue to live with Ted in the apartment for some time until they decide that they need to move out to be on their own. In "I'm Not That Guy" Marshall ends up taking a job working at another corporate position, though he is unhappy about doing so. He takes the job instead of pursuing his dream of working in environmental law after being offered his dream job working for the Natural Resources Defense Council in order to provide for Lily, who had helped to support him during law school on her kindergarten teacher's salary. He was informed that his only client at the corporate office would be an amusement park, which is shown to be equally awful as the other clients of the office.
With his new salary, Marshall believes that he is able to afford a new home and makes plans with Lily to purchase an apartment in "Dowisetrepla". He finds out that Lily has massive credit card debt, which negatively affects their ability to get a good interest rate on a mortgage. They still decide to get the mortgage to afford the apartment, learn that "DOWISETREPLA" stands for "DOwn WInd of the SEwage TREatment PLAnt", which causes the area to reek of sewage when it is running during the week. Upon their initial move in to the apartment, they also discover that it is crooked and they temporarily move back in with Ted while the floors are levelled.
Marshall goes through several more life milestones. In "Spoiler Alert", he ends up passing the bar; then he ends up snapping when confronting his boss at the law office, resulting in Marshall quitting his job in "The Chain of Screaming".
Marshall also confronts Ted about his behavior. Ted attempting to pursue a married woman deeply offends Marshall now that he is married.
Toward the beginning of season 4, it is revealed that Barney has gotten a job for Marshall working the fictional Goliath National Bank (GNB). Lily and Marshall also discuss having a baby; initially Lily doesn't believe they are ready and Marshall does, but while working for GNB Marshall is extremely busy and while having to balance work with taking care of a drunken Lily, he realizes that he doesn't believe they are ready at that time and they decide to wait.
During this period of his life, Marshall reveals that he hates living in a small apartment in New York when visiting Ted's fiancee's home in New Jersey. He also reveals that he cannot fantasize about women other than Lily without first imagining that she has died and he has gone through a grieving process. It is shown in "The Sexless Innkeeper" that Lily and Marshall are terrible hosts during "couple's nights". Marshall is apparently relegated to picking the cheese, because Lily is a gifted chef; Marshall takes this too far and is obsessed with the gouda during a night spent with Robin and Barney.
It is also shown that Ted somewhat resents Lily, because Marshall and Lily have become inseparable. Marshall is unable or unwilling to take road trips with Ted the way they would when they were both unmarried.
Attempts at pregnancy and death of Marshall's father
Eventually, Marshall and Lily decide to start trying for a baby. They agree to only do so once they have seen a doppelganger for each of their friends. Marshall decides that when Lily sees someone who looks nothing like Barney, however, and decides that it is his doppelganger, to not tell her and that it must mean that she is ready. They make this agreement during the formation of their friend group's tradition of going to "Robots vs Wrestlers".
Marshall's relationship with his father is depicted around this time as being overly close. Lily was angered when she learned that Marshall had told his father that they were trying to conceive. Marshall realizes that while he loves his father and their relationship, he should keep some details of his private married life from him.
Marshall realizes that he would like his children to boys, due to some internalized misogyny after recalling how he spoke to and treated girls when he was in high school and various strippers he has seen with Barney. Marshall's father gives him advice on how to only conceive boys, based on their family traditions. Marshall learned that Lily had hoped for a girl and was trying her own absurd methods for guaranteeing a girl; they decide not to try to influence the sex of the baby while trying to conceive.
After trying for several months, Marshall and Lily to see a specialist hoping that they won't have issues conceiving. This is where they ultimately see Barney's true doppelganger, a gynecologist. Marshall is able to have an open and frank discussion about his worries with fertility with his parents, which he is later grateful to Lily for being able to have. They learn that they have no fertility issues.
The same day that they learn that they have no fertility issues, Marshall's father passes away from a heart attack. When Marvin dies Marshall is devastated, and takes a long time to recover; not to mention that during the episode "Last Words" he struggles with remembering what Marvin's last words were to him. After the funeral, Marshall temporarily regresses to his teenage personality while staying with his mother under the guise of helping her to emotionally recover from Marvin's death.
Upon returning to New York, Marshall and Lily take a break from attempting to conceive, though by the season 6 finale, "Challenge Accepted", Lily is pregnant. Marshall leaves his job at GNB, hoping to start his career working in environmental law.
Pregnancy
After Marshall finds out that Lily is pregnant, he begins a new job working in an environmental law office. They begin to prepare their apartment for the baby's arrival and learn that they will be having a boy. During this time, Lily's paternal grandparents gift them their home on Long Island and despite Marshall wanting to move out of New York City to raise their children, they decide not to make any major decisions while Lily is having "pregnancy brain". They do eventually begin moving into the home, much to the chagrin of their friends. At this time, Lily's father also moves in with them.
After realizing that they do not enjoy living in the home on Long Island, Marshall and Lily are informed by Ted that they were never taken off the lease. Ted decided to move out of the apartment and gifts it to them. They happily move back, taking Ted's bedroom and converting Marshall's old room into the baby's nursery.
Toward the end of Lily's pregnancy, Marshall demonstrates his anxiety about beginning parenthood; he panics about their (perceived) lack of preparation for when the baby comes. Lily is frustrated by this and has him sent on a trip to Atlantic City with Barney, so that she can have some quiet time before the baby comes. She goes into labor while Marshall is away.
Beginning of parenthood and dream job
Marshall is able to return to New York in time for the birth of their son, whom they name after Marshall's late father, Marvin. Marshall also promised Barney that they would give Marvin the middle name "Wait-for-it". After returning home from the hospital, Marshall and Lily institute a new rule that their friends cannot come them with personal problems unless they are an 8 out of 10 or higher; this results in the couple not being aware of the struggles in their friends' lives, which the come to regret and rescind the rule after trying to find out whom they will appoint to be Marvin's godparents.
During this time, they agree to hire Lily's father Mickey as Marvin's nanny after Mickey recounts to Lily how he took care of her as a stay-at-home parent when she was young.
Marshall, now working his dream job, starts having new challenges there as well. He learns that his boss believes that the environment is already too devastated to save, so Marshall, to save the planet for his newborn son, marshals the office into being more aggressive when suing a pharmaceutical company. He also learns that he is not a credible reference, because he is too willing to approve of others; he learns this when he is a reference for his friend Brad, who actually works for the adverse pharmaceutical company on their big case and steals some of their work for the case. In the show, this is shown to be bad for Marshall's case, but in actuality, would have been detrimental for the pharmaceutical company under the Laws of Civil Procedure disallowing this type of activity. Marshall was still able to overcome this and win at trial, but the judge awards him a pittance. This inspires him to seek a position as a judge in New York.
Career conflicts
After he submits his application for a judge position, Lily starts a new career as a fine-arts consultant for Ted's now ex-girlfriend's ex-husband, The Captain. Marshall was at first supportive, but once Lily started, she began to spend very little time at home and he grew frustrated with feeling like he was handling more than his fair share of the parenting responsibilities. After communicating this to Lily, she helps to even the parenting load more.
After this, Lily was offered an opportunity to move to Rome to consult for the Captain. which she turns down so that Marshall can continue pursuing his dream job of working in environmental law. Marshall then reveals that since the disappointing outcome of the case, the office has functionally been shut down from a lack of clients. Marshall told her that he would be thrilled to move to Italy, so Lily took the position.
Marshall's mother then learns from Lily that they are planning to move to Italy and she wants to spend time with her grandson before they leave. Marshall flies out to Minnesota where he receives a phone call granting him a recently vacated judgeship. In the last episode of the eighth season, he had applied to become a judge, deciding that this is where he will be able to make the most impact. He accepts the judgeship without discussing it with Lily. This effectively cancelled their plans to move to Italy.
Robin and Barney's wedding weekend
Marshall spent time on the road trying to find his way back to New York City from Minnesota with his new companion Daphne who worked for an oil corporation. They initially butted heads, but became friends during their travels, bonding over their shared frustration with Ted's step-father and sharing their struggles with various aspects of parenthood. While Marshall was separated from Lily, she missed him so much that she attached a tablet to a body pillow so that he could be present for their conversations. She named it "Marsh-pillow" after him.
He has several attempts at trying to hide that he took the judgeship from Lily while he is on the road, but ultimately comes clean to her when he arrives at the wedding venue. He decided to do so because he didn't want to have any secrets from his wife.
Lily and Marshall had a fight about him accepting the position without first discussing it with her. After Lily stormed out, Marshall considered the consequences of the fight by having a discussion with his internal monologue which he pictured as his father and Lily from 10 years ago. He came to the conclusion that he doesn't want to win a fight over their careers, but wants them both to be happy. Lily and Marshall reconciled and Lily told Marshall to take the job, even though he was willing to give it up for her to be happy. Marshall soon learned that this was because Lily found out that she was pregnant with their second child. Marshall decided that since she has provided him with so much happiness from having a family, that he wanted to make her happy and agreed to move to Rome for her and her career.
Post Stinson-Scherbatsky wedding
The series finale, "Last Forever", reveals that he worked for another corporate firm after returning to New York, until another judge's seat opened up for him. In the year 2020, he is elected to the New York State Supreme Court. It is also shown that Marshall and Lily have a daughter for their second child, whom they name Daisy after the flower whose pot Lily stuck her pregnancy test into. Additionally, it is revealed that Lily becomes pregnant a third time, though the gender and name are not revealed. This pregnancy happens around the same time as Robin and Barney's divorce. Marshall and Lily eventually help their oldest son, Marvin, move into Wesleyan where they met.
How I Met Your Father
Though Marshall does not himself appear in the How I Met Your Father spinoff, it is revealed that by 2022, his, Ted's and Lily's apartment has been sold to Jesse who is roommates with Sid who also own the swords left behind.
Relationships
Lily Aldrin
Marshall and Lily meet on their first day of college and fall in love at first sight. They move in together and eventually get engaged. In the final episode of the first season, Lily breaks off their engagement to accept a painting fellowship in San Francisco. Marshall falls into a deep depression, but nevertheless refuses to take Lily back when she returns to New York. They eventually reconcile, however, and get married in the end of the second season. They initially have trouble conceiving a child, but Lily finally gets pregnant at the end of the sixth season, and gives birth to a boy, Marvin, at the end of the seventh.
Marshall and Lily are soul mates; they do virtually everything together, tell each other about every minute detail of their lives, and have only had sex with each other. They can even understand each other perfectly when they are seemingly incoherent, such as when Lily is trying to speak through bouts of morning sickness or when Marshall is speaking in pseudo-Italian gibberish.
Throughout the final season, which takes place over one weekend, Marshall travels with Marvin to the Farhampton Inn, where Robin and Barney are getting married. He struggles with telling Lily about his new job, as it conflicts with her dream of working as an art consultant in Rome. When he finds out she is pregnant with their second child, however, he gives up the judgeship and agrees to go to Rome with her and their new family.
By the end of the series, Marshall and Lily have three children: Marvin, Daisy, and a third child whose name is never revealed.
Ted Mosby
Marshall and Ted are college roommates and best friends. They first bonded during an ill-fated college road trip. Marshall and Lily consider Ted a part of their family, their "third Musketeer". Ted helps Marshall recover when he and Lily briefly break up. Along with the other main characters, Marshall is by Ted's side during every major event in his life, including a serious car accident, being left at the altar, and, finally, Ted's marriage to the titular Mother. Ted is best man at Marshall's wedding, and Marshall does the honors when Ted gets married in the series finale.
Barney Stinson
Marshall and Barney know each other through Ted, Barney having taken it upon himself to "teach them how to live". Along with the other characters, Marshall is both amused and horrified by Barney's promiscuity, deceptiveness and penchant for over-the-top schemes. Barney has shown himself to be a good friend, however; he gets Marshall an internship, persuades Lily to return to New York from San Francisco, and gets him his job at Goliath National Bank. Barney serves as "co-best man" (along with Ted) at Marshall and Lily's wedding. Along with Ted, Lily, and the Mother, Marshall is present for the birth of Barney's daughter in the series finale.
In the episode "Slap Bet", Barney loses a bet with Marshall and agrees to let Marshall slap him five times at random occasions "throughout eternity", which is later extended to eight. Marshall administers these slaps in the episodes "Slap Bet", "Stuff", "Slapsgiving", "Slapsgiving 2: Revenge of the Slap", "Disaster Averted", "Slapsgiving 3: Slappointment in Slapmarra", and "The End of the Aisle".
Robin Scherbatsky
During the first season, Marshall and Robin are friends, but he nevertheless advises Ted to forget about his unrequited love for her. When the two finally get together, however, he accepts her as a permanent part of the group, and continues to do so after they break up. When Robin quits her job, he and Lily take her in to live with them, and do so again in the seventh season after Robin breaks up with her boyfriend, Kevin (Kal Penn). Marshall asks her to move out when it becomes clear that Ted has unrequited feelings for her. However, he has an ongoing bet with Lily that Robin and Ted will end up together, which he eventually wins in 2030.
A running joke throughout the series is that Marshall believes that Robin is attracted to him, despite all evidence to the contrary.
When Robin briefly leaves the group in 2016, as portrayed in the series finale, Marshall resents her for it, but nevertheless welcomes her back four years later to celebrate Ted's wedding.
References
How I Met Your Mother characters
Fictional American lawyers
Fictional judges
Fictional characters from Minnesota
Fictional Columbia University people
Television characters introduced in 2005
American male characters in television
|
2676934
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitryl%20fluoride
|
Nitryl fluoride
|
Nitryl fluoride, NO2F, is a colourless gas and strong oxidizing agent, which is used as a fluorinating agent and has been proposed as an oxidiser in rocket propellants (though never flown).
It is a molecular species, not ionic, consistent with its low boiling point. The structure features planar nitrogen with a short N-F bond length of 135 pm.
Preparation
Henri Moissan and Paul Lebeau recorded the preparation of nitryl fluoride in 1905 by the fluorination of nitrogen dioxide. This reaction is highly exothermic, which leads to contaminated products. The simplest method avoids fluorine gas but uses cobalt(III) fluoride:
NO2 + CoF3 โ NO2F + CoF2
The CoF2 can be regenerated to CoF3. Other methods have been described.
Thermodynamic properties
The thermodynamic properties of this gas were determined by IR and Raman spectroscopy The standard heat of formation of FNO2 is -19 ยฑ 2 kcal/mol.3
The equilibrium of the unimolecular decomposition of FNO2 lies on the side of the reactants by at least six orders of magnitude at 500 kelvin, and two orders of magnitude at 1000 kelvin.
The homogeneous thermal decomposition cannot be studied at temperatures below 1200 kelvin.
The equilibrium shifts towards the reactants with increasing temperature.
The dissociation energy of 46.0 kcal of the N-F bond in nitryl fluoride is about 18 kcal less than the normal N-F single bond energy. This can be attributed to the โreorganization energyโ of the NO2 radical; that is, the NO2 radical in FNO2 is less stable than the free NO2 molecule. Qualitatively speaking, the odd electron โused upโ in the N-F bond forms a resonating three-electron bond in free NO2, thus stabilizing the molecule with a gain of 18 kcal.
Reactions
Nitryl fluoride can be used to prepare organic nitro compounds and nitrate esters.
See also
Nitryl
References
External links
WebBook page for NO2F
National Pollutant Inventory - Ionic Fluoride and related compounds fact sheet
Oxyfluorides
Fluorinating agents
Nitrogen(V) compounds
Nitrogen oxohalides
Substances discovered in the 1900s
|
52190446
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babushkin%20Bay
|
Babushkin Bay
|
Babushkin Bay (Russian: ะะฐะปะธะฒ ะะฐะฑััะบะธะฝะฐ, tr.: Zaliv Babushkina) is a deep bay with steep shores on the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. It lies to the east of Taui Bay and to the west of Shelikhov Bay. It is entered between Capes Yevreinov and Babushkin and is 59.5 km (about 37 mi) wide.
References
Bays of the Sea of Okhotsk
Bays of Magadan Oblast
Pacific Coast of Russia
|
36310
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/...%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90
|
...แแ แแแ
|
...แแ แแแ (แฎแแแ, แแกแ, แแแฌแแ แแแแแ) โ แ แแฃแแ แกแแขแงแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแ แแแฌแแแ, แแฆแแแจแแแแก แแ แแคแแแฃแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแแก, แฉแแแแฌแแ แก (แแแ., แแแแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแ แแแ, แขแแแแแ แแแ).
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแ แแแ
|
481814
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leased%20line
|
Leased line
|
Leased line
A leased line is a private telecommunications circuit between two or more locations provided according to a commercial contract. It is sometimes also known as a private circuit, and as a data line in the UK. Typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect geographically distant offices.
Unlike traditional telephone lines in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) leased lines are generally not switched circuits, and therefore do not have an associated telephone number. Each side of the line is permanently connected, always active and dedicated to the other. Leased lines can be used for telephone, Internet, or other data communication services. Some are ringdown services, and some connect to a private branch exchange (PBX) or network router.
The primary factors affecting the recurring lease fees are the distance between end stations and the bandwidth of the circuit. Since the connection does not carry third-party communications, the carrier can assure a specified level of quality.
An Internet leased line is a premium Internet connectivity product, normally delivered over fiber, which provides uncontended, symmetrical bandwidth with full-duplex traffic. It is also known as an Ethernet leased line, dedicated line, data circuit or private line.
History
Leased line services (or private line services) became digital in the 1970s with the conversion of the Bell backbone network from analog to digital circuits. This allowed AT&T to offer Dataphone Digital Services (later re-branded digital data services) that started the deployment of ISDN and T1 lines to customer premises to connect.
Leased lines were used to connect mainframe computers with terminals and remote sites, via IBM's Systems Network Architecture (created in 1974) or DEC's DECnet (created in 1975).
With the extension of digital services in the 1980s, leased lines were used to connect customer premises to Frame Relay or ATM networks. Access data rates increased from the original T1 option with maximum transmission speed of 1.544 Mbit/s up to T3 circuits.
In the 1990s, with the advances of the Internet, leased lines were also used to connect customer premises to ISP point of presence whilst the following decade saw a convergence of the aforementioned services (frame relay, ATM, Internet for businesses) with the MPLS integrated offerings.
Access data rates also evolved dramatically to speeds of up to 10Gbit/s in the early 21st century with the Internet boom and increased offering in long-haul optical networks or metropolitan area networks.
Applications
Leased lines are used to build up private networks, private telephone networks (by interconnecting PBXs) or access the internet or a partner network (extranet).
Here is a review of the leased-line applications in network designs over time:
Site to site data connectivity
Terminating a leased line with two routers can extend network capabilities across sites. Leased lines were first used in the 1970s by enterprise with proprietary protocols such as IBM System Network Architecture and Digital Equipment DECnet, and with TCP/IP in University and Research networks before the Internet became widely available. Note that other Layer 3 protocols were used such as Novell IPX on enterprise networks until TCP/IP became ubiquitous in the 2000s. Today, point to point data circuits are typically provisioned as either TDM, Ethernet, or Layer 3 MPLS.
Site to site PBX connectivity
Terminating a leased line with two PBX allowed customers to by-pass PSTN for inter-site telephony. This allowed the customers to manage their own dial plan (and to use short extensions for internal telephone number) as well as to make significant savings if enough voice traffic was carried across the line (especially when the savings on the telephone bill exceeded the fixed cost of the leased line).
Site to network connectivity
As demand grew on data network telcos started to build more advanced networks using packet switching on top of their infrastructure. Thus, a number of telecommunication companies added ATM, Frame-relay or ISDN offerings to their services portfolio. Leased lines were used to connect the customer site to the telco network access point.
International private leased circuit
An international private leased circuit (IPLC) functions as a point-to-point private line.
IPLCs are usually time-division multiplexing (TDM) circuits that utilize the same circuit amongst many customers. The nature of TDM requires the use of a CSU/DSU and a router. Usually the router will include the CSU/DSU.
Then came the Internet (in the mid-1990s) and since then the most common application for leased line is to connect a customer to its ISP point of presence. With the changes that the Internet brought in the networking world other technologies were developed to propose alternatives to frame-relay or ATM networks such as VPNs (hardware and software) and MPLS networks (that are in effect an upgrade to TCP/IP of existing ATM/frame-relay infrastructures).
Availability
In the United Kingdom
In the UK, leased lines are available at speeds from 64 kbit/s increasing in 64 kbit/s increments to 2.048 Mbit/s over a channelised E1 tail circuit and at speeds between 2.048 Mbit/s to 34.368 Mbit/s via channelised E3 tail circuits. The NTE will terminate the circuit and provide the requested presentation most frequently X.21 however higher speed interfaces are available such as G.703 or 10BASE-T. Some ISPs however use the term more loosely, defining a leased line as โany dedicated bandwidth service delivered over a leased fibre connection".
As of March 2018, Leased Line services are most commonly available in the region of 100 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s. In large cities, for example, London, speeds of 10 Gbit/s are attainable.
In the United States
In the U.S., low-speed leased lines (56 kbit/s and below) are usually provided using analog modems. Higher-speed leased lines are usually presented using FT1 (Fractional T1): a T1 bearer circuit with 1 to 24, 56k or 64k timeslots. Customers typically manage their own network termination equipment, which include a Channel Service Unit and Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU).
In Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, leased lines are usually available at speeds of 64k, 128k, 256k, 512k, T1 (channelized or not) or E1 (less common). Whatever the speed, telcos usually provide the CSU/DSU and present to the customer on V.35 interface.
Fibre circuits are slowly replacing the traditional circuits and are available at nearly any bandwidth.
In India
In India, leased lines are available at speeds of 64 kbit/s, 128 kbit/s, 256 kbit/s, 512 kbit/s, 1 Mbit/s, 2 Mbit/s, 4 Mbit/s, 8 Mbit/s, 1000 Mbit/s T1(1.544 Mbit/s) or E1(2.048 Mbit/s) and up to 622 Mbit/s. Customers are connected either through OFC, telephone lines, ADSL, or through Wi-Fi. Customers would have to manage their own network termination equipment, namely the channel service unit and data service unit.
In Italy
In Italy, leased lines are available at speeds of 64 kbit/s (terminated by DCE2 or DCE2plus modem) or multiple of 64 kbit/s from 128 kbit/s up to framed or unframed E1 (DCE3 modem) in digital form (PDH service, known as CDN, Circuito Diretto Numerico). Local telephone companies also may provide CDA (Circuito Diretto Analogico), that are plain copper dry pair between two buildings, without any line termination: in the past (pre-2002) a full analog base band was provided, giving an option to customer to deploy xDSL technology between sites: nowadays everything is limited at 4 kHz of bearer channel, so the service is just a POTS connection without any setup channel.
For many purposes, leased lines are gradually being replaced by DSL and metro Ethernet.
Leased line alternatives
Leased lines are more expensive than alternative connectivity services including (ADSL, SDSL, etc.) because they are reserved exclusively to the leaseholder. Some internet service providers have therefore developed alternative products that aim to deliver leased-line type services (carrier Ethernet-based, zero contention, guaranteed availability), with more moderate bandwidth, over the standard UK national broadband network. While a leased line is full-duplex, most leased line alternatives provide only half-duplex or in many cases asymmetrical service.
See also
Circuit ID
Dark fibre
Dry loop
Tie line (telephony)
References
Communication circuits
Local loop
|
208537
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
|
แแกแแแ แ
|
แแกแแแ แ โ แกแแคแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แกแแแแแ แแแ-แแแแ แกแแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแกแขแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ, แแชแแ แแก แแแแ (แกแแคแแแแ: แแแ แจแ, แแแแแแแ แ, แแกแแแ แ, แแแแแจแ, แแแแ แแ แ, แแแแขแแแ, แแแจแฎแ แแ แ, แฃแกแแแแ แ, แฃแฆแแแแ, แคแฎแฃแขแ แแ แ, แฅแฃแ แแจแ, แชแแแแแแ แ, แญแแแแ แ, แฐแแแฃแแ).
แแแแแแ แแคแแ
2014 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก 99 แแแแแแแแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแกแขแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
163375
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แฌแแคแแแแแแกแฌแงแแแ
|
แฌแแคแแแแแแกแฌแงแแแ, แแแขแแ แ แฌแแคแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแ แ แแฎแแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ, แแแแแแ แ แกแแแงแฃแ แแกแฌแงแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แจแแแแแแแ. แแฌแงแแแ แแแฎแแแแก แแแแแแกแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแแแแ, 3000 แ แกแแแแฆแแแแ. แกแแแ แซแ 24 แแ, แแฃแแแก แคแแ แแแแ 92 แแยฒ. แกแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแก, แฌแแแแแกแ แแ แแแฌแแกแฅแแแจแ แฌแงแแแ. แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแชแแก แแแแแคแฎแฃแแแ, แฌแงแแแแชแแ แแแ โ แแแแแแ แจแ, แแแคแฎแฃแ-แจแแแแแแแแแแ โ แฌแงแแแแแแแ แแแแแ.
แกแแจแฃแแแ แฌแแแฃแ แ แฎแแ แฏแ แจแแกแแ แแแแแแ 3,1 แยณ/แฌแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแฎแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแแ
|
225554
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridomyrmex%20dromus
|
Iridomyrmex dromus
|
Iridomyrmex dromus โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Iridomyrmex-แก แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Dolichoderinae-แก แฅแแแแฏแแฎแก..
แกแฅแแแแ
แญแแแแญแแแแแแ
|
24052587
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingazeira
|
Ingazeira
|
Ingazeira is a city in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. The population in 2020, according with IBGE was 4,543 inhabitants and the total area is 243.67 kmยฒ.
Geography
State - Pernambuco
Region - Sertรฃo Pernambucano
Boundaries - Sรฃo Josรฉ do Egito and Tabira (N); Iguaraci (S and W); Tuparetama (E).
Area - 243.67 kmยฒ
Elevation - 534 m
Hydrography - Pajeรบ River
Vegetation - Caatinga hiperxerรณfila
Climate - semi arid - (Sertรฃo) hot
Annual average temperature - 23.8 c
Distance to Recife - 372.5 km
Economy
The main economic activities in Ingazeira are based in agribusiness, especially creation of sheep, goats, cattle, chickens; and plantations of corn, beans and tomatoes.
Economic Indicators
Economy by Sector
2006
Health Indicators
References
Municipalities in Pernambuco
|
18928263
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seytas
|
Seytas
|
Seytas is a village in the Qubadli District of Azerbaijan.
References
Populated places in Qubadli District
|
386012
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ
|
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ, แแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ (แ. 10 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1638, แแกแแแ แแแแ, แแกแแแแแแ โ แ. 30 แแแแแกแ, 1683, แแแ แกแแแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแ) โ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแจแขแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแขแ, แแแกแขแ แแแก แแ แชแฐแแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแคแแแ 1660-1683 แฌแแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แช แแฃแ XIV-แแก แแแ แแแแ แแแฃแฆแแ.
แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ IV-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแ แแแแ แชแแแแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแแแแแแข แคแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแ. แแแแแกแ แแ แซแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแซแแแแ แแแ แแงแ แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แ. 1660 แฌแแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแแแ แแจแแแแแแแก แแแกแแแงแแ แแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XIV-แก. แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แฃแแฆแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแฃแแกแ แแ แแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแแแก แฉแ แแแแจแ แแแแขแแ แ.
แ แแแแกแแช แแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แฌแแแแแ แกแแแแ แแ, 1672 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแขแ แแงแ, แ แ แแ แแกแแช แชแแแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แกแฃแแแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แแแแซแแแแ แซแแแแแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แฆแแแแกแแแจแแจแ แฅแแแ แแงแ.
แแแ แแงแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ V-แแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XV-แแกแ.
แฌแแ แแแจแแแ แแ แแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแแแ (1638-1655)
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ 1638 แฌแแแก 10 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅ แแแแ แแแจแ แแแแแแ แ แแกแแแ แแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแจแ. แแแ แแงแ แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ IV-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแ แแแแ แชแแแแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแแแแแแข แคแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแ. แแแแแก แฎแแแแ แแแแแ-แแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ III แแ แแแกแ แชแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแ แแข แแแกแขแ แแแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแก แฎแแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแก แแแคแ แแแ แ IV แแ แแแกแ แแแแ แ แชแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแฉแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแจแแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแแ แแแแขแ แจแแแแ แฐแงแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแจแ แกแแแแแแแก แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแ แแแกแ แซแแ, แแกแขแฃแ แแแก แแ แแแชแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแกแ แแแแแฃแ แฉแแแ.
1644 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแขแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแฐแงแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแข แคแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแก แแแแแแ แแแฐแงแแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แฃแแแแฃแ แแแ. 1646 แฌแแแก 17 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แซแแ, แแกแขแฃแ แแแก แแ แแแชแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแกแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แแแคแ แคแแแแแ แฃแชแแแแ แแ แฃแแแแแ แแแ แฉแ, แ แแช แแแแก แแแจแแแแแ, แ แแ แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแกแฃแแแงแ, แแ แแแคแแก แแแแ แแ แฃแแแ แแฅแแ แฌแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ, แกแแแแ แแแคแแก แแแแ แจแแแซแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแฅแชแ.
แคแแแแแ IV-แก แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแคแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แแ แฎแแแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แ แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ แแแแ แ แกแแชแแแแก แซแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ. แแแ แแ แฉแแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แแแก, แกแแฆแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแขแ แแชแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแ แจแแแฉแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแงแ แแแแแจแแฃแแ. 1649 แฌแแแก แคแแแแแ IV แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแชแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแกแแ แกแฃแ แแแฎแ แฌแแแ แแงแ แฃแคแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแจแแแแแช แแงแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แฉแแแแฃแงแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แฆแ แแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แซแแแแแ แแแแชแ แ แแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแ. แแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแ แฌแงแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแฆแแ, แแฃแแชแ แซแแแแแ แแแแแแฎแ แแ แแแฎแแแฌแแแ แแงแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XIV-แแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแฎแแแแแแแ, แแแก แแ แช แคแ แแแแฃแ แแแแก แแ แแ แช แคแ แแแแฃแ แฉแแแฃแแแแแแก แแ แแกแฌแแแแแแแแ. แแแคแ แคแแแแแ แแแ แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแแก แฃแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แฅแแแแจแแแแ แญแแจแแแ แแขแ แแกแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแ แแงแ. แ แแแแกแแช แฎแฃแแ แฌแแแ แจแแฃแกแ แฃแแแ แแแกแ แแฆแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแ แก, แจแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแ แแฃแแแแแฃแแแก, แแแแแก แแ แแแแ แแแคแแแกแ แแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแแแแแจแ แแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแแช แแแ แแฎแแแ. 1653 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแกแแแกแแ แจแแฅแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแ แขแ แแขแ, แ แแแแแแช แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแแ-แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ (แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแงแ), แ แแแ แกแแ แซแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแแแแช แจแแแคแแกแแแแแ.
แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแฃแ XIV-แกแแแ (1656-1659)
1656 แฌแแแก แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแฃแ แ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแ แแแแกแฃแ แแแก, แ แแแแแแช 1635 แฌแแแแแ แแแงแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแขแ แแกแแแแแแ. แแแแขแแแแช แแแแแฌแงแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XIV-แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฃแกแขแแ แแแกแ แแกแแแแก แแงแ. แแฃแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แฆแแแซแแ แแแซแแจแแแ-แแแแแแแจแแแแแแ แแงแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแก, แแแคแ แคแแแแแ IV-แก แชแแแแ แฐแงแแแแ แแแแแแแแข แคแ แแแแ, แฎแแแ แคแแแแแแก แแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ แชแแแแ แฐแงแแแแ แแแแแแแแข แคแ แแแแแก แซแแแก, แกแแคแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XIII-แก, แ แแแแแแ แแแแแช แแงแ แแฃแ XIV. แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแ แ แแ แแแแ แแแแแกแขแแฃแ แ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แฎแจแแ แ แแ แฉแแแฃแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแงแ. แแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแแ แแ แ แแฎแแแแ แคแแแแแ IV-แก, แแ แแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแแแแกแ แแ แแแก แแ แฉแแแแแก, แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแกแแช แแแกแฌแแแแแ. แแแแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแ. แแ แแ แแก แคแแแแแแก แแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แแ แฐแงแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแจแ แกแแแแก แแแแแแ (แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แฅแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ แแกแแแ แแ แจแแฃแซแแแ) แแ แแแฅแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฅแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ, แ แแช แฎแแแก แฃแจแแแแ แแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแฎแแแแแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแกแแแแแ แแแแซแแแแ. แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแฃแ XIV-แก แกแแแฃแแแ แแแแฌแแ แแแแก แฎแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แแ แช แแแก แแ แแ แช แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแก แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแ แฐแฅแแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แแ แแก แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแ แแแแกแฃแ แแ แแแกแ แแ แคแแแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแแก, แแแคแแแขแ แแแ แแแ แแขแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแก แซแแแแ, แแแแแ แแขแแ แแแแแแแ I-แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแแ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแ แแงแ. แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแขแ แขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ แแ แแขแแแแแแก แแแแแแฅแแแก แฃแคแแแแ แแแฃแขแแแแก, แแฎแแแแ แแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ, แแฃ แคแแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแญแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแแแแก. 1658 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแ แแฃแแก แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแก แแแกแจแแแแแ โ แแแ แแ แแแแฉแแแแ, แ แแแแช แแแแ แฃแแ แ แแฅแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแแ-แแแแแคแแแแ, แแแ แแแขแ แแแ แแ แคแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแแ แแฃแแก แแแแแแ แแงแ, แฌแแแแแงแแแ แแแกแ แฅแแแแจแแแแแก, แแ แแแชแแกแ แฐแแแ แแแขแ แแแ แกแขแแฃแแ แขแแกแ แแ แแฃแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแแแแช แแแแแคแแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แแฃแกแแแแ แแฃแแก แแแก แฅแแแแจแแแ แแแขแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแกแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแ-แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แงแแแแแก แฃแแ แแ แแกแขแฃแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแก แแฃแแก แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแก แซแแแจแแแแแ แกแฃแ แแ. แแแแแ 1658 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฉแแแ แฉแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแแ แแฃแแก แแแแแแแ, แแ แแกแขแแแ แแแ แแ แคแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแกแขแแแแกแแช แแฃแแก แแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแแ, แแแ แแแ แแขแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แกแฃแ แแ. แแแ แแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแฃแ แแแขแ แแแแแฃแฉแแแ. แแแแ แแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแชแแชแฎแแ, แคแแแแแ แแแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแฎแแแก แแแ แแแฃแฌแแแแ แฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแกแฃแ แแแแก, แ แแก แแแแแช 1658 แฌแแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแจแแแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแ แแแแคแแ แแ. แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแแก แคแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแคแแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแก แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแขแ แแฅแขแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แกแแแชแแ แ แแแแแแแก แแแแ แคแ แแแแแแ แแ แแกแแ แแก แแแแฃแฅแแแแแแแ. แคแแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแจแ แแขแแแแ แกแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแ แแแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ 500 000 แแฅแ แแก แแแแฃแก. แแแแงแแคแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแฃแงแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแแ แแแจแ แแ แกแแแแคแ แแฏแแฎแก แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแขแ แแฅแขแแก แแแแแแ แแฎแแ แ. แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแซแแแแ แแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แคแแแแแ IV-แแก แแแฉแก แจแแ แแก แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แซแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแฎแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแ แแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแกแแแแแแก แจแแ แแก แแ แกแแแฃแแ แงแแแแ แกแแแแแ แกแแแแแฎแ, แ แแก แแแ แแแแแฃแ แแแแช แแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแก แจแแแแก แแแแฃแแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แฌแแ แฃแขแ แแแแแแแ แแฃแแก, แ แแแ แ แแแแ แแ แจแแฐแงแแแ แแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแ.
แกแแแแแแแ แแแ แขแแแแ แจแแแแแฎแแแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแแแแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แแ แ แแแแแ. 1659 แฌแแแก 17 แแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแแแ แแแจแ แฉแแแแแ แแฃแ XIV-แแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแชแแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แฎแแแ แแแฎแแแแก, แ แแแแช แชแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแกแฃแฎแ แแแแฆแแก. แแแแแ แฌแแแก 7 แแแแแแแ แก แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแ แฎแแแ แแแแฌแแ แแก แกแแแจแแแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก, แ แแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แกแแแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแแงแ แแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแฌแแ แ แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแขแ แแฅแขแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แแแคแแแขแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ แฉแแ แแแแแแ แแแ, แแแก แแแแแแจแ แแแฐแฅแแแแ แกแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แ แแ แแแแก แแแแ, แ แแ แจแแแแแแจแ แแแ แจแแแแแแก แแกแแแแแแแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแงแแแแแแแแ 500 000 แแฅแ แแก แแแแฃแก. แแ แแ แแก แฃแแแ แแแแแขแ แแแฃแแแ แแกแแแแแแแ แแแ แจแแซแแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแฎแแก แแแแแฎแแ, แ แแกแแช แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แแแ แแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แแแฌแงแแแฃแแ แแแ แแแฐแงแแ. แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แฃแซแแแแ แแกแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแงแ แแ แงแแแแแคแแ แก แแแแแก แกแแกแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ. แแฃแแชแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ แแแแ แจแแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแแฌแแแแแ แแจแแแแแแ แแแฃแขแแแ แแกแแแแแแก.
แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ (1660)
แแจแแแแแแแก แแแแงแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แฃแแแแแกแ แกแแแแคแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แกแ แฃแแ แจแแแแ แแแ แแแกแญแแ แแ. แแ แกแแแแแแแกแจแ แคแ แแแแแแแช แแ แแกแแแแแแแแแช แแงแแแแ แฉแแ แแฃแแแแ แแ แแแ แซแแแแกแฎแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแกแจแ. แคแแแแแ IV-แก แกแฃแ แแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แฅแแแแจแแแแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ, แ แแกแ แแแแแแฎแแแแแแแแแช แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแขแฃแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ 1660 แฌแแแก 3 แแแแแกแก แจแแแแ แคแฃแแแขแแ แแแแแก แขแแซแแ แจแ, แแกแแแแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแฃแแก แแกแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แกแแแ แแฆแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแฏแแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแ-แแกแแแแแแแก แกแแแฆแแแ แแ, แกแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแฎแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแฅ, 45-แฌแแแแแ แแแแจแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แจแแฎแแแ แคแแแแแ IV แแแแแก แแแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแก. 4 แแแแแกแก แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแ แแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแแฃแแแ แจแแฎแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแแชแแแแ แซแแแแแ แกแฃแ แแแ. 6 แแแแแกแก แแแแแ แแฃแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แกแแแแแแ แจแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แ แแแคแ แแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ แแ แฎแแแแก แฉแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก. แคแ แแแแแแก แแฎแแแแฃแ แ แแ แซแแแแแ แคแแ แแแ แขแแแกแแชแแแแ แแชแแแ, แแกแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแจแ แแงแแแแ แจแแแแกแแแแแ. แแแแฎแจแ แแแคแแแแ แฎแแแแฉแแแ แแแแงแแคแ แฎแแแ แแงแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แ แแช แแกแแแแแ-แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แกแแแฆแแแ แก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแ แฎแแแแก แแฅแแ แแ แช แคแ แแแแแแ แจแแฃแจแแแก แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แช แแกแแแแแแแแ แคแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแ แ แแฆแแก แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแก แแแแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแฆแแ แแแแ แคแ แแแแฃแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแกแฃแแแงแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แฎแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแ แชแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแจแแแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแฎแแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแ แแชแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแแฆแแ แแกแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแ. แ แแแแ แช แแ แฎแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แกแแกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแฎแแแแก แแกแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแกแ แแ แคแ แแแแฃแแ แขแแแกแแชแแแแ แฉแแแชแแแก. แคแ แแแแฃแแ แแขแแแแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแขแแ แซแแแก แแ แแคแแ แ แแ แฃแแแ แฐแฅแแแแแ แ แแช แกแฎแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แฌแแแแฆแแแฃแแ.
1660 แฌแแแก 9 แแแแแกแก แกแแ-แแแ-แแ-แแฃแแแก แขแแซแแ แจแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแ XIV แคแ แแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ. แแ แแ แแก แแ แแแ 22 แฌแแแกแแแ แแงแแแแ. แกแแแแคแ แฅแแ แฌแแแ แกแแแชแแ แ แแ แฌแงแแแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแจแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แกแแแชแแ แ แแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแก แแฎแแ แกแขแแขแฃแกแก โ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแคแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแขแแแแ. แแแก แแชแแ แแฃแ แฏแ แฎแแแแ แแแก แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแฅแ แแก แซแแคแแ แแแแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแงแ แคแ แแแแฃแแ แฏแแ แแแ.
แ แแแแกแแช แกแแแแคแ แแแแแแขแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ แแฃแแก แกแแกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแกแแแ แแแแแแ แขแแแแแ แแแฃแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแ-แแแแแคแแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ แแ แแคแ แแ แแ แแแ แแแ. แแแกแ แแแแชแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แฆแแแแก แแ แแแแก แแแแ แฃแแแ แจแแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแ แ แฆแแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแกแแแแแกแแ แแแแแชแ แแแแ แกแแฌแแแ แแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแกแชแแก แแ แแแ แแแฌแแแแก แแแแ. แแแแ แ แแฆแแก, แ แแแแ แช แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแ แแแ แแแฃแฆแแ แแแแงแแคแแแ แแแ แฉแ แฆแแแแ.
1660 แฌแแแก 26 แแแแแกแขแแก แกแแแแคแ แฌแงแแแแ แแแ แแแจแ แ แแแแฃแแ แขแ แแฃแแคแแก แแแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแ. แแแ แฃแแแ แแแฐแงแแแแแแแแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแแ แแ แกแแกแฃแแแ แ แฌแแแแแแก แฎแแแฎแ, แ แแแแแแแช แกแแกแแฎแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แ แแแแฃแแ แฆแแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ.
แแแแแคแแแแ (1660-1672)
แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแแฅแแแ. แคแ แแแแแแแ แแแก แแแ แ แขแแ แแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ แจแแแ แฅแแแก, แ แแแแ แช แแแแแแแแแกแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแก (แแฃแ XIV-แแก แแแแแก). แแฃแแชแ แแก แแ แแฎแแแ แฅแแแงแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแก, แแแแแแแ แคแ แแแแแแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแแ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแ แแแกแขแ แแแก แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แฎแจแแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แงแแแแ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแก แแแกแขแ แแแแก แแซแแฎแแแแ, แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแแ แ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแ (แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ) แแ แช แแแกแขแ แแแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแ แแฅ แแ แแฎแแแแ แแ แงแแคแแแ. แแก แแแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ, แ แแ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแฃแแ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แแแ แฎแแแจแ แแฅแชแ แแแกแขแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแ.
แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แซแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแฌแงแ แแ แแฃแแกแแช แแแกแฌแแแแ โแแแแแกแ แชแแกแคแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแโ, แแแกแ แชแแแแกแแแแ แกแแแแ แแ แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแ แแฎแแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแ แแแ แฌแแแก แแแแ แซแแแแ. แแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแฉแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แกแแงแแแ แแแ. แแฃแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แขแแแฃแ แ แแกแแแแแแ แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแกแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แฐแฅแแแแ แจแแแ แฎแจแแ แ แแแ, แแแแ แ แแแแ, แแ แแแแแ แคแแ แแแแ, แชแแกแคแแ แ แแแแแแแ แแ แชแฃแแ แแแแแแแ. แ แแแแ แช แแแ แแแแแแ, แแแ แฃแแแแฃแ แแกแแ แฆแแแแกแแแจแแจแ, แแแ แฌแแฃแแ, แฅแแ แแก แแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแกแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแงแ, แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแฃแแก แแฎแ แแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแ แฆแแแแขแแกแ. แฃแแแแชแ แแกแ แแขแแแแขแแ แแฆแแ แแแ, แแแ แฌแแฃแแ แแแแแคแแแก แซแแแแแ แฃแญแแ แแ แแฆแแแ แแฎแกแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ. แแฅ แแแแฅแแแก แแ แชแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแแ. แแแ แซแแแแแ แแแฎแแแ, แ แแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แ แแแแฅแแแแแแแแ แแงแ แกแแแกแ แแ แแแแฅแแแก แแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแก แแกแแแ แกแแ แแแแฃแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแญแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แ แแแกแชแแแแแ แแฃแ แแก แฃแแแ. แแแ แแแ แจแแซแแ แแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฆแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแ แฃแซแแแแ แแกแ แคแแแฃแ แ แแงแ. แแแ แซแแแแแ แแแ แแแขแแ แแกแก แแฉแแแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก, แชแแแแแกแ แแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแ แ.
แแฃแ XIV แแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแฃแแแแแก, แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แฃแชแฎแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ. แแแก แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแซแฆแแแ แ แแแคแแแกแ แแแแแแ แแ แแ แแ แแฅแแแ แแแฐแงแแ. แแแคแแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแแ แแขแแแแแแ แแฃแแก แฅแแแแแแแแกแแก, แแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแก แกแแฎแแแก แแ แแแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแแ แแงแ, แ แแ แแแกแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแคแแก แแฏแแฎแแก แแ แแแฃแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแกแแแแ แแแฃแฌแแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แแฃแแ แแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแซแแแ. แแกแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแแฃแ แแแคแแแกแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแก แแ แฅแแแแแกแแแแแกแแแ แฃแแแซแ.
แแแแแคแแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแแกแขแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแ แแฃแแก, แ แแ แแแก แแแแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แจแแฎแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแ แแ แแแแแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแช แแแกแแแแฎแแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแแแช แแแ แ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแก แแแแ แฉแฃแแแแแ แฅแแ แแก แแฎแแ-แแฎแแ โแแแขแแชแแแแแแแโ. แแกแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแฃแแก แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ, แ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แงแแแแ แฆแแแแ, แแแฎแแแแ แ แกแแแแแ แแแแแช แแแฌแแแแแแงแ แแแก แกแแ แแชแแแแ, แ แแแแช แแฃแ แแกแแแ แแแกแแแแฎแแแ. แแแคแ แแคแแกแแแแ แแแก แแ แแแฃแแแแแก แแ แฃแแ แก แแแแฅแแแก แแ แแกแแ แแก แแ แแฃแแแแแแแ. แ แแแแกแแช แแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แชแแ-แฅแแ แฃแ แแแแแแแแแแก แจแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแแ แ แแฆแแก แงแแแแแแแแก แกแแแชแแ แฎแแกแแแแแ แแงแ, แแแแขแแแแช แ แแแแ แช แแแกแ แ แซแแแ, แแแแแแแขแ แแคแแแชแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแกแแชแแแแ แแงแ, แ แแแแก แแงแแแแ แแ แแแ.
1661 แฌแแแก 9 แแแ แขแก แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช แแฃแ XIV-แ แแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แฎแแแจแ แแแฆแ แแ แแแกแแแฃแขแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ. แแแ แคแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแฃแขแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแงแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแแแฃแจแแ แแฅแชแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแฃแแ แแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแแขแแแแจแ แฉแแ แแฃแแแงแ, แแฃแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแแคแแแก แแแคแแกแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแ, แ แแกแแช แแแ แแแขแงแแแ แแแคแแก แคแแแแ แแขแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแแแคแแแก แงแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแกแแแก แแแ แแ, แแฃแแก แแแแแ แฃแแแ แแ แคแฃแแก แแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแแชแแ แคแฃแคแฃแแแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ. แแแ แแแ แคแฃแแก แแฎแแ แฏแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแก แซแแฆแแแแก, แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแแก แแแซแแแแ แแแแก, แแแ แขแแก แแแแแจแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแ แญแแแแก. แแแแแคแแแ แซแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแก แฃแแแแแแ แแแ แขแแก แแแแแจแก แแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแขแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแแกแแแแก แฉแแแฃแแแแแ แแฅแชแ, แแก แฎแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แแงแ แ แแกแแช แแแกแแแแก แแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแชแแแจแ แกแฃแ แแกแแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแกแแช แแจแแแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแแแแแ แฎแแแแ. แแ แ แแ แแ แ แแก แแฃแแก แแฆแแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแชแแแ แแ แแแแฉแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแก แ แแฆแแชแแแก แแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแแแ.
แแแแ-แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแงแ, แงแแแแแแแแ แแ แชแแแแแแแ แแแก แแแชแแแก แคแ แแแแแแแก แแแขแ แแแแแแกแแแแ. แแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แจแแ แแก แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแฎแแแ แแแแก แแญแแแ แ แแแแจแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแ. แแแแแคแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ แกแแฃแแ แแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แจแแแแแแแแก แคแแแแ. แแกแแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแญแแ แแแแแ แแงแแแแ, แแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แคแ แแแแแแก แแจแแแแแแ. แแแแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแกแแแแกแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแก แจแแแแ แแ แแกแแแ แแแแแ แแแแชแ แ แแแ แแแแแ แแฆแแ แแแแ แฅแแแ แแงแ. แแกแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแแชแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ, แแฎแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแฅแแแแแแแก, แฆแแ แแแแแก แแแชแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแแก แแแกแแแแฎแฃแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแ แ แแแแแก, แแ แแแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แคแแแแ I-แแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ, แ แแแแแกแแช 1661 แฌแแแก แชแแแแ แจแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแจแแแแ, แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ-แแแแแคแแ แฉแแ แแ I-แแกแ แแ แแแ แแแขแ แแแ แแ แคแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ แ แแกแฃแแ โ แฐแแแ แแแขแ แแแ แแแแแแกแแแ. แ แแแแ แช แแฆแแแฉแแแ แคแแแแแ แแแกแแฅแกแฃแแแ แแงแ แแ แ แแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ, แฐแแแ แแแขแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แแแชแแก แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฌแงแ แแฃแแแจแแก แซแแแแ. แแก แแแชแ แแ แแฃแ XIV แแฆแแแฉแแแ. แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ แฆแแแแขแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแแแแ แกแแจแแแแแ แแแแ แแกแฎแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแ แกแฃแ แแ แแญแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแกแขแ แแแแแคแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ, แแแแขแแแแช แแ แแคแแ แ แแ แแแฃแแแแแแแ. แแฃแแชแ แแฃแแก แฐแแแ แแแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแ แแฎแแแ แกแแงแแแ แแแ แแแแฉแแแ. แฌแแแแแก แแแแซแแแแ แแฃแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแงแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แจแแแแ แจแแแซแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แกแชแแ แแ แแแฆแแแ แฌแแแแแแช แฃแแแซแ. 1661 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแแแ แก แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแแแ แแแแฉแแแ. แแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแช แแแแ แแแแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแชแ แแแแแกแ แแแงแแคแแแ แแแ. แแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแคแแแก แแกแแแแแแ แแแชแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแกแแแแกแแแ แฉแแแแฃแงแแแแ, แ แแช แแแก แซแแแแแ แแแฃแฎแแ แแ.
1661 แฌแแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแแกแแก แกแแแแแแ แ แแแแแก แแแแแแแก แกแแแชแแ แ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแจแแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแฌแงแ, แ แแแแแก แแจแแแแแแแแแกแแช 2 000 แแฃแจแ แแแแฆแฃแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ 1664 แฌแแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแ. แแแก แแแ แกแแแ แฃแฌแแแ แแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแแ แแแแแแชแฎแแแ. แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แ แแแ แกแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ. แแแกแ แแแฎแกแแแก แกแแแแแแ แชแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ. แแฃแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แกแแกแแฎแแ แชแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ แแงแ แแแฌแงแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แ แแแแฃแ แแ แแแ แกแแแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแ แกแแงแแแ แแแก, แแฃแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ.
1666 แฌแแแก 20 แแแแแแ แก แแแแ-แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ, แ แแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแกแแแแแก แฃแแซแแแแกแ แแแ แขแงแแ แแงแ. แแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แฃแซแแแแ แแกแ แแแแแแจแแ แ แแแแแ แแ. แแแแแคแแแกแแแแก แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแซแแแ แแก แแงแ, แ แแ แแฃแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแ แแแ แแแแกแแ. แแฃแแชแ แกแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแจแ แแฃแแ แแฎแแแ แกแแงแแแ แแแ แแแแฉแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแกแแแแแก แกแแฎแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแซแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแก แแแแ แ แกแแงแแแ แแแ แ แฉแแแแแ.
1665 แฌแแแก แแแ แกแแแจแ แแแแแแ แชแแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแ, แแแคแ แคแแแแแ IV แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแคแ แแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแงแแคแ, แแแฎแ แฌแแแก แแแ แ II แแแแแ, แ แแแแแขแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแจแแ. แแฃแ XIV-แ แแจแแแแแแ แแ แแชแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแก แแ แจแแแซแแ แแแแแแแแ แแก แแแขแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แกแแฅแแ แฌแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแ แแแ แฃแแ แงแ แแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ แแแแแแฅแแ, แแก แแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ, แ แแ แแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแฎแ แแ แแแแแฃแฎแแแแก. แกแแแแแแแ 1667 แฌแแแก แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แจแแญแ แแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแกแ แแ แแแก แ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฅแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ. แแแกแ แแ แแขแแแแแ แแแแงแแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ แแ แแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แขแแฎแขแแ แแแ แแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแจแ แแแฉแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแกแฃแแแงแแแแ (แ แแแแ แแช แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแงแ). แแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแ IV-แก แแแ แแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแ แฉแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแแ แแแแแก แแกแแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ แแ แจแแแญแ แ แแแแแช. แแฃแแ แแ แซแแแแจแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแกแ แแ แ แกแแงแแแ แแแแช แฌแแแงแแแแ. แฎแแแฎแ แแ แแแ แแแแก โแกแแ แแแแแคแแแแ แฎแแแแกโ แฃแฌแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแแแแแ แแฅแชแแแแแแ. แแฃแแ แแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแ แฅแแแแแ แแฅ แฃแแแ แแ แซแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ แ แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ.
แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แฌแแแแ (1672-1683)
แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แแกแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแคแแแก แงแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแฌแแฌแแแแแ แแ แ แแแแ แแแงแ แแแแแ, แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแกแแแแ แซแแแแแ แแแแงแ แแ แแแแแ แขแแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แ. แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแกแแแแ แกแแจแแแแแ แฃแฎแแจแแ แแ แแแแชแแแแแแ แแฅแชแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก, แ แแแแช แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แฌแงแแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแขแแกแแแแก แแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแก แแแแแแกแฌแ แแแแ โแกแแแแคแ แแแแโ แฃแฌแแแ. แแแแแ แแฃแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แ แแแฅแชแแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แฅแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแคแ แแ แแแแแแแ. 1672 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแฃแแก แแฅแแกแ แจแแแแ แแแฃแฉแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแฆแฃแแ, แแแฎแ แแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ. 1664 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแฉแแแ แแ แแแชแแกแ แแแ แ แแแ แแ แแฃแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแฆแฃแแฃแแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแแแแก แแฅแแแ แแงแ แแ แฎแแแฎแจแ แแ แแฉแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแแแ แชแแขแ แฎแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแแ แแ แแก แจแแแฎแแฃแแ แฃแกแแคแฃแซแแแ แแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแ แแแ แแฃแแแขแ แแแแจแแ แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแก แแกแแฎแฃแ แ แจแแแแแแแแแแกแแแแ แจแแแซแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแขแแแชแแแก. แแแแแคแแแก แแแ แแแ, แ แแ แฉแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แ แแ แแแก แแฃแชแแแแแแแ แแแกแฏแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แแแแแคแแแก แฃแแแ แแแ แจแแแแแแแ, แแฎแแแแ แแแกแแ แแแ แแแแแ แจแแแแแ, แแแคแแแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแชแฎแแ แแแแฎแแแก แแ แแแขแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ.
1674 แฌแแแก แแฃแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแกแแแ แแแแแ แแแขแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแฆแแแแแชแ. แแแ แแฃแแฌแ แคแแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแฎแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแคแแแก แฌแแแแจแ แแแคแแกแแแ แ แแแแแแก แแแแแแกแแแแก, แแฃแแแกแฎแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแ แแแก แแแฃแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แฎแแแก แฌแแ แแแแขแแ.
แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแ แแฆแแ แช แแ แแญแแแแแแแแ แแแคแแแ. แแแ แจแแแแฃแ, แ แแ แแฃแ แแฎแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแกแแ แแก แแฅแแแแแแ, แแแแขแแแแช แแแ แแแกแ แกแฃแแแกแแแแแก แแแแฌแงแ แแแชแแ. แชแฎแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแแ แฆแแแแกแแแกแแแ แแ แซแแแแ แ แฅแแแ แแงแ. แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแกแแแแ, แกแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแกแแแแ แแ แแแแซแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแแแ. แแแแขแแกแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแคแแแก แแ แแ แ แแแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแฏแแฎแก แกแซแฃแแแ. 1671 แฌแแแก แแ แฐแแแ แแแขแ แแแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แคแแแแ I-แก แแแแ แ แชแแแ แจแแ แแแก โ แแแแแแแแ แจแแ แแแขแ แแฃแ แแคแแแชแแแ, แจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแคแแแชแแแ. แแแแแแแขแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแฃแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ แแแฎแแ, แ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแช แฎแจแแ แแ แแแแแจแแแแ แแแ แขแก แแ แแแฃแกแ แฃแแแแแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแแแแ แฎแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแ แแ แแฎแแ แแแก แกแแฎแแแฎแแ แฃแแฎแ แ: โแแฐ, แแแแแแแขแ, แจแแ แฎแแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แ แแ, แ แแช แฉแแแก แแฅ แงแแคแแแก แแแแแ แแกแแขแแแก แฐแฎแแแก!โ. แแแแแคแแแ แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแคแ, แแแ แฎแฃแแจแแแแแก 12 แแแแฎแแแก แคแแฎแแแก แแแแแ แฎแแแแ. แแก แฃแซแแแแแกแ แคแ แแแแฃแแ แขแ แแแแชแแ แแงแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแ แชแแ แแ แคแ แแแแ แแแแแ แฅแ แแ แแ แฆแแแแแ. แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแแแช แแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แกแแ-แแแ แแแแแก แกแแแแแแแงแแคแแจแ. แแแจแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แแแญแ แแแ แแแฐแงแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแ แแกแ แแแแแแแ แแ แฐแงแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแแคแแแแ แฎแแแฎแแก แฃแแแแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแ แ. 1672 แฌแแแก แ แแแแกแแช แแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แแแ แซแแแ, แแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแแก แ แแแแ แช แ แแแแแขแ, แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแ. แแแ แแฃแแแแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แคแ แแแแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแแแก แฆแแแแก แแแแแ แแแงแแแแแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแ. แแแ แแแ แซแแแ แฆแแแแแก แกแแ, แแ แแแแแ, แแแแแแขแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแจแ แกแแแ แฃแแ, แกแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแแ แงแแแแแแฆแแฃแ แแ แฌแแ แแแแ แแแกแฌแ แแแ, แแแแ แแ แ แแแแ แช แแ แแฃแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แงแแแแแคแแ แ แซแแแ แแแแแแแขแจแ แฉแแแแ.
แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแกแ แแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแ แฆแแแแขแแกแ, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แฅแแแ แ แฃแงแแแ แแ. แแแ แงแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแ แฆแแแแขแก แแ แแฃแแแแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแก แแแแแก แแแฌแแแแแแก.
แแแก แจแแแแแ แ แแช แแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแกแแแแแก แแแฌแแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแแแแแ แแแแจแแ แ, แแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแแแแแก. แแแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแก แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แแแ แ แแ แแแกแ แคแ แแแแแแ แแงแ. แแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแฆแแจแคแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแ แแคแแ แก แแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแแชแแแแแแ แแ แแแก แจแแแแแ (1683)
1683 แฌแแแก 20 แแแแแกแก แแแแแคแแแ แแแจแจแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแฏแแแแ แแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแแ แกแแจแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ. แแแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแชแแกแ แแแแฃแแแแแ แแ. แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแก แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแฅแแแแแแแช แแ แแแ แจแแกแซแแแก แแแกแ แแแ แฉแแแ. แแแ แแฅแแ แแแแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แซแแแ แแแแแแชแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแแแจแ แแแฃแแแกแฎแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแ แกแแกแฎแแแก แแฆแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช แแฅแแแแ แแแ แแ แแฎแแแ แกแแกแฎแแ แฌแแ แแแแจแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแคแแแแช แแแแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแกแฎแแแแแแชแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แขแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแฃแแซแแคแ แแ. แแฃแ แแแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แฎแแแแแแ แแชแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแแแแ แแแจแแแฆแ แแแฎแแแ, แ แ แซแแแ แคแแกแ แแงแ แแก แแแกแแแแก. แแฃแแ แแแก แกแแกแแแแแแแ แกแแ แแชแแแแ แแขแแ แ แแแแแช. แแฃแแ แแแกแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ: "แแแแแ แฉแแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแแซแแแแ, แแก แแแ แแแแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แแ แแแแกแแชแแแแ แแแแแขแแแ. 1683 แฌแแแก 30 แแแแแกแก, 44 แฌแแแก แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แแแ แกแแแชแ แแ แแ แฌแงแแแแแแแ แแแแ แซแแแแก. แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฅแแแแแแ แฃแแซแแแแกแ แกแแขแงแแ แฌแแ แแแแฅแแ, แ แแกแแช แงแแแแ แแแแแชแ แแแแแแแ แฃแกแแแแแ. แแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแก แฃแแแ แแแ แกแแกแฃแแแแ แ แแแ แ แแแแกแฌแ แ.
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแ แกแแ แแแแแก แกแแแแคแ แกแแซแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แซแแแแก. แแแกแ แฃแชแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแ แแ แญแแ แแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแแฌแแแแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แแขแแแชแแแฃแแแแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแก. แแฃแ XIV, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก แแฃแแฌแ แคแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แชแแแก. แแฃแแชแ แแแคแแก แแแแแ แแแแฎแแแก แแ แแแแ แซแแแแแฃแแ แแ แกแฃแ แ แแฆแแช แแ แแแแจแ แแแ แคแแ แฃแแแ แแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแแแแแ.
แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แซแแ, แแแคแ แแแ แ II 1700 แฌแแแก แฃแจแแแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแฌแงแ แแแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแก, แกแแแแช แขแแฎแขแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแฃแ XIV แแ แแแแแแแ I แแฏแแแ แแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแ แฏแแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ แแแแแกแ แจแแแแแจแแแแ, แคแแแแแ V แแแกแแ, แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แงแแแแ แแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฆแ. แแฃแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แฌแแแ แแชแแชแฎแแ แแ 1715 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แขแแฎแขแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแจแแแแ แแฃแ XV แแแแแ.
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแฃแชแแแก แแ แแก 1793 แฌแแแก แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แงแแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแแแ แฅแแก แกแแคแแแแ, แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แกแแคแแแแแช แแแฎแกแแแก, แแแซแแ แชแแแก แแ แแแกแ แแแจแขแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแ แแ แแแแแ แฎแแก. 1815 แฌแแแก แแฃแ แแแแแ แ แแกแขแแแ แแชแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแแก แแแจแขแ แแแแแ แกแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแกแแแแแก แแ แกแ แฃแแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แฌแแกแแแแก แแแชแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแ แซแแแแก.
แจแแแแแแ
แแฃแ (แ. 1 แแแแแแแ แ, 1661 โ แ. 14 แแแ แแแ, 1711), แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแแแ, แชแแแแ แจแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแฅแขแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแช แจแแแซแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ V, แแกแแแ แแแกแ แจแแแแแจแแแแ แแงแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแฃแ XV;
แแแ แแแแแแแแขแ (แ. 18 แแแแแแแ แ, 1662 โ แ. 30 แแแแแแแแ แ, 1662), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแจแ;
แแแ แ แแแ (แ. 16 แแแแแแแ แ, 1664 โ แ. 26 แแแแแแแแ แ, 1664), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแจแ;
แแแ แ แขแแ แแแ (แ. 2 แแแแแแ แ, 1667 โ แ. 1 แแแ แขแ, 1672), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ;
แคแแแแ แจแแ แแ (แ. 5 แแแแแกแขแ, 1668 โ แ. 10 แแแแแกแ, 1671), แแแแฃแก แฐแแ แชแแแ, แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ;
แแฃแ แคแ แแแกแฃแ (แ. 14 แแแแแกแ, 1672 โ แ. 4 แแแแแแแ แ, 1672), แแแแฃแก แฐแแ แชแแแ, แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ;
แฌแแแแแ แแแ
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแ
แฐแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Uwe Schultz, 2006, S. 50โ64; B.-R. Schwesig, 1993, S. 25 f.
Benedetta Craveri, 2008, S. 185โ190; Uwe Schultz, 2006, S. 65โ68.
Dieser entsprach allerdings vollkommen der damaligen Mode und war รผberhaupt kein Nachteil.
Benedetta Craveri, 2008, S. 188โ191; Uwe Schultz, 2006, S. 65 und 150โ152.
Es ist allerdings die Frage, ob die geistig nicht gerade brillante Marie Therese รผberhaupt ein Interesse an politischen Fragen hatte.
Uwe Schultz, 2006, S. 167 und 205โ207; B.-R. Schwesig, 1993, S. 39 f. und 58โ61.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ, แแฃแ XIV-แแก แแแฃแฆแแ (แคแ แแแแฃแแแ)
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ, แแฃแ XIV-แแก แแแ แแแแ แแแฃแฆแแ (แแแแแแกแฃแ แแ)
แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแ (แแแแแแกแฃแ แแ)
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 10 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1638
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 30 แแแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1683
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแคแแแแ
แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแแ
แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแแแขแแแ
แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแขแแแ
แฅแแแ แ แแแแแขแแแ
แแแกแขแ แแแก แแ แแแชแแกแแแ
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแขแแแ
|
171064
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
|
แแแแแแแ
|
แแแแแแแ โ แแแแ แ แแแ แฏแแแก แฅแแแจแแแแ แแแแแ แฌแงแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แ แฉแแแแก แแฃแแแแแ แแฆแแแแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแ, แ แแแ-แแฃแแก แแ แแแแฃแ แแแ แแจแ. แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแ แ แแฐแฃ (แแแแขแคแแ แแ) แ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแฎแแแแ แแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแแแ (แแแแ) แแฆแแแ แแฃแแ, แแแแ แแแ แแ แแฅแแกแ.
แแแแแแแ แฃแฉแแแฃแแแ แแฆแแแแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแกแแแแแก, แ แแแแแ แแก แแ แ-แแ แแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ แกแฃแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแแแกแแแ.
แแฃแแซแฃแแแก แแแแแ แ แแแแแแชแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ, แกแฌแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แฐแแขแฃ แแแขแฃแ โ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแ แกแ.
แแแแแแแแแแแ แแก แกแแชแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฎแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแ แแ แแแคแแแก แแแแฎแฃแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ-แคแ แแแแแแแก แแฃแแขแแ, แ แแแแแ แ แแแแกแแช แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ-แคแ แแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ แแงแ, แแแกแ แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแแแ แแฅ แแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแขแแแชแแแก, แ แแ แแแแแแแ แแฎ. แฌ. 1200 แฌแแแแ แแแ แ แงแแคแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ. แแแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แแ แกแฎแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแก, แ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ แแฎ. แฌ. 300 - 1200 แฌแแแแจแ แฉแแแกแแฎแ.
แแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแ แ แฉแแขแแ แแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแงแ แแแขแ แแ แ แฃแขแแแฏแแก 1914 แฌแแแก, แฃแแแแแ แแฃแแแแกแ แแ แแฃแ แฐแแแแ แแแแแก 1950-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ. แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแฆแแแแแแ แแฅแแ แแฐแฃแแแ.
แแแแแแแ แแแแแฆแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแกแแก แคแแแ แ แแแแแฃแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แแแแแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแจแแแแ แฏแแแกแแ แกแแแข แแ, แแกแแ แแแ แแแแกแ, แกแแแแ แแ แฐแแแขแ แแ แกแฎแ. แคแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแกแขแแแ แ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Rapa Nui at IMDb
PBS Nova: Anakena
แแฆแแแแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแ
|
182232
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
|
แกแแฅแกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแ
|
แกแแฅแกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแ
โแกแแฅแกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแโ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แกแแจแแ แแแกแแแแแ แแ แแฌแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แ-แแแแแแแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ โ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแจแ 1958 แฌแแแก. แแแกแจแ แจแแแแแแ แกแแแชแแแแแแแแฃแ แกแแแ แแแฅแขแ-แกแแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแขแแ แ แแ แแแแแฃแจแแแแแแ-แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแชแแ โแแ แแขแแฅแกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแโ, แแแ แแแแ แกแแชแแแแ แฅแแ แฎแแแ. แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แจแแกแแแแกแ แกแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแก, แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแก, แชแแแแแขแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแญแแแ แแแกแแแแก, แแแแ- แแ แแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแชแแ แแแกแแแแแแก, แแฃแแแแ แแแ แฅแแแแแก, แคแแ แแแแ แจแแแแกแแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแแก, แกแแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแ แชแแแแแขแแแแ แแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแงแแแแแแก แแแแแแ.
โแกแแฅแกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแโ แแขแแ แแแแ แกแแชแแแ-แกแแแ แแฌแแแแ แแแแแชแแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แกแแจแแ แแแกแแแแแ แแ แแฌแแแแแแแก แแ แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแแแฃแกแขแ แแแก แแแ แแจแ, แกแแแ แแแฅแขแ-แกแแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแขแแ แ แแ แแแฃแจแแแแแ-แแแแแ แแแแก แกแแแฃแจแแแแแก, แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแก แฃแฌแแแแ แกแแฌแแ แแแแแก. แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ แแแแแกแชแแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แจแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแฃแแก. แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแแ แแงแ แแกแแแ แแแขแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแแ -แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แกแแแแแแก แแแแแแคแแแแชแแแก แแแแฆแแแแแก แแฃแ แกแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ -แแก แแ แแแแแแแชแแแแ
|
28916841
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadezhda%20Suslova
|
Nadezhda Suslova
|
Nadezhda Suslova
Nadezhda Prokofyevna Suslova (1 September 1843 โ 20 April 1918) was Russia's first woman medical doctor and the sister of Polina Suslova. She worked as a gynecologist in Nizhny Novgorod, and was involved in many charity efforts.
Early life
Nadezhda was born in Panino village, Nizhny Novgorod guberniya, the second of three children. Her father, Prokofii, and her mother, Anna, were serfs for the Sheremetev family, but Prokofii was able to succeed as a merchant and manufacturer. He decided to give a proper education to his daughters, Polina (a diminutive form of the given name Apollinaria) and Nadezhda. At home they had a governess and a dancing teacher. Later she entered Penichkau boarding school in Moscow, where she learned several foreign languages. Like other young people at that time, Nadezhda was fond of reading, enjoyed the works of Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov and befriended revolutionary democrats. In 1859 the Suslov sisters moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1861 her short stories Rasskaz v pismah and Fantazyorka were published in Sovremennik. These stories espoused a feminist, nihilist philosophy that would later cause her political trouble. In the 1860s Nadezhda Suslova joined the revolutionary organization Land and Liberty.
Education
She was allowed by Ivan Sechenov and Sergey Botkin to attend classes at the Imperial Military Medical Academy with Mariia Obrucheva (Bokov), another young woman with revolutionary sympathies who had met Suslova in school. Suslova's first article, Changes in skin sensations under the influence of electrical stimulation, was published in Meditsinskiy Vestnik in 1862. In 1865, after women were officially banned from universities, she moved to Switzerland, partially influenced by the arrest of her siblings and Bokov and her husband for political activities. In Switzerland, she audited medical classes at the University of Zurich for two years, then became an official student when the university was opened to women. She had intended to study obstetrics in Paris for her doctoral research, but instead moved to St. Petersburg. For her dissertation, she researched the muscular reflexes of frogs and their relationship to the function of lymph hearts at Graz Medical University in Sechenov's lab. She graduated in 1867. Suslova was the first Russian woman to be awarded a Doctor of Medicine degree, which was conferred after having to defend her research and education in front of a large audience and the medical school faculty.
Career and research
Suslova's first publication after earning her doctorate was a summary of her dissertation research, published in 1868 in Germany. In order to be allowed to practice medicine in Russia, Suslova (at the time, Erismann) had to pass a special examination, which she did in 1868. She then began practicing gynecology and pediatrics in St. Petersburg with patients from all socioeconomic classes. The next year, Friedrich Erismann moved to St. Petersburg and the couple collaborated in medical practice and researching public health issues affecting the city's slums. After her divorce and another period of police surveillance, she moved to Nizhny Novgorod to continue her practice. After a period there, she moved to Alushta with her second husband and gave free medical care to the local poor Tatar people. She was known for her philanthropy during this period of her life, and for building a library and school on her property to serve the local population.
Personal life
On April 16, 1868, Suslova married her first husband, Friedrich Erismann, in Vienna, Austria. They met while both students at the University of Zurich. The couple divorced on August 18, 1883. In 1885, Suslova married Aleksandr Golubev, a histology professor and physician.
References
Obstetricians and gynaecologists from the Russian Empire
Women physicians from the Russian Empire
University of Zurich alumni
1843 births
1918 deaths
Expatriates from the Russian Empire in Switzerland
|
493866
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%202006-2007
|
แแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ 2006-2007
|
แแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ 2006-2007 โ แแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแก 76-แ แแแแแแแจแแแ. แกแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ 2006 แฌแแแก 27 แแแแแกแขแแก แแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ 2007 แฌแแแก 17 แแแแแกแก. แ แแแแ 30-แแ แฉแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก โแ แแแแแโ. แแแแ แ แแแแแแแกแแแแ โแแแ แกแแแแแแโ แแแแฆแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแก แฅแฃแแแแ แแแแ แแ แฃแ แแแแ แแจแแฎแแแแ แแแจแ แแแคแแฅแกแแ แแแฃแแ แจแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก โแ แแแแโ แแแแแชแฎแแแแ. แฉแแแแแแแแขแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ โแกแแแขแโ, โแ แแแ แกแแกแแแแแแโ แแ โแฎแแแแแกแขแแแโ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแ
|
1027881
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukoil
|
Lukoil
|
Lukoil
The PJSC Lukoil Oil Company (stylized as LUKOIL or ะะฃะะะะ in Cyrillic script) is a Russian multinational energy corporation headquartered in Moscow, specializing in the business of extraction, production, transport, and sale of petroleum, natural gas, petroleum products, and electricity. It was formed in 1991 when three state-run, western Siberian companies named after the respective town in KhantyโMansi Autonomous Okrug that each was based in, Langepasneftegaz, Urayneftegaz, and Kogalymneftegaz, merged. Its name is the combination of the acronym LUK (initials of the oil-producing cities of Langepas, Uray, Kogalym) and the English word "oil".
Lukoil is the second largest company in Russia after Gazprom, and the country's largest non-state enterprise in terms of revenue, with โฝ4,744 billion in 2018. In the 2020 Forbes Global 2000, Lukoil was ranked as the 99th-largest public company in the world. Internationally, it is one of the largest global producers of crude oil. In 2019, the company produced 87.488 million metric tons of oil (1.639 million barrels per day) and 35.046 billion cubic meters of natural gas. , the company had operations and subsidiaries in more than 30 countries around the world. In 2022, the company's revenue amounted to 2.9 trillion rubles.
History
Origins
"Langepas, Uray, and Kogalym" oil (Lukoil) was established by the USSR Council of Ministers Decree No. 18 on November 25, 1991, as a state-owned enterprise. In the new company, three oil production companies, Langepasneftegaz, Uraineftegaz, and Kogalymneftegaz, processing company Permnefteorgsintez, and the Volgograd and Novosibirsk refineries, were merged (the latter soon came under the control of the authorities of Bashkortostan).
The central figure in the company's founding was the Soviet deputy minister of oil production Vagit Alekperov. He came to believe the only way Russians could compete against western companies was to copy their business model. That meant vertically integrating the three branches of the industryโexploration, refining, and distributionโthat were strictly separate under the old Soviet system.
On April 5, 1993, Lukoil transformed itself from a state-owned enterprise to a private open joint-stock company based on Presidential Decree No. 1403 of November 17, 1992.
1990s
In 1994, Lukoil became the first company to begin offering shares of stock on the new Russian Trading System.
In 1995, Lukoil controlled the stakes of nine oil-producing, marketing and service enterprises in Western Siberia, the Urals, and Volgograd Oblast in order to abide by Government Decree No. 861 of September 1, 1995. In the same year, a 5% stake of Lukoil was sold by the state with a minimum excess of the starting price in an auction. In November 1995, Lukoil filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission to issue American depositary receipts on Western stock markets. This allowed United States investors for the first time, to be able to buy shares in a Russian company.
In 1997, Lukoil signed a contract with the Iraqi Ministry of Oil for the development and production of the second stage of the West Qurna-2 oil field. After Saddam Hussein's regime was overthrown, the project was suspended and later terminated.
In 1999, Lukoil acquired numerous enterprises such as the Odesa Oil Refinery in Ukraine, the Burgas Oil Refinery in Bulgaria, and KomiTEK.
2000s
In 2000, Lukoil acquired the distribution and marketing operations of American oil company Getty Oil. This resulted in the control of a network of gas stations in the United States as well as the first time Lukoil enters the American oil market.
In September 2004, ConocoPhillips purchased a 7.6% stake in Lukoil for about $2 billion. According to some commentators, the sale of this deal was planned before in a personal meeting between Russian President Vladimir Putin and ConocoPhillips' president and CEO, James Mulva. After the auction, Lukoil and ConocoPhillips announced the creation of a strategic alliance. Later, the American company increased its stake to 20% in Lukoil and sold to the Russian company part of its network of gas stations in the United States and Western Europe. The two oil companies also agreed to jointly develop an oil and gas field in the northern Timan-Pechora area of Russia (Komi Republic) and intended to secure the rights to develop the West Qurna Field in Iraq, one of the country's largest.
Uzbekistan's deputy prime minister Ergash Shaismatov announced on 30 August 2006 that the Uzbek government and an international consortium consisting of state-run Uzbekneftegaz, Lukoil Overseas, Petronas, Korea National Oil Corporation, and China National Petroleum Corporation signed a production sharing agreement to explore and develop oil and gas fields in the Aral Sea, stating "The Aral Sea is largely unknown, but it holds a lot of promise in terms of finding oil and gas. There is risk of course but we believe in the success of this unique project". In December 2006, Lukoil announced the acquisition of 376 filling stations in six European countries: Belgium, the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, from ConocoPhillips.
In 2007, Lukoil established a joint-venture with Gazprom and in 2008, established a joint-venture as well with Italian oil company ERG S.p.A. In 2009, Lukoil and Norwegian oil company Statoil won a tender offer for the development of the West Qurna Field in Iraq. However, in early 2012, Statoil withdrew from the project, resulting in Lukoil consolidating 75% of development of the oil field.
2010s
From 2010 to February 2011, ConocoPhillips sold its whole 20% stake in Lukoil due to its difficult financial situation.
In September 2012, Lukoil created a shared service centre in the Czech Republic to provide accounting services to its subsidiaries in Belgium, Poland, and Bulgaria. In December 2012, Lukoil bought the Imilor field for โฝ50.8 billion in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug to explore and develop the hydrocarbon deposits located there.
In February 2013, Lukoil sold the Odesa Oil Refinery to the Ukrainian "East European Fuel and Energy Company" (VETEK). For Lukoil, the oil refinery was unprofitable when production was stopped as early as October 2010 and the refinery finally closed in the summer of 2013. In April 2013, Lukoil agreed to buy Hess Corporation's Russian unit for $2.05 billion.
In 2014, the company faced a sharp decline in retail sales in Ukraine by 42%, caused by Russian intervention in Ukraine. As a result, the management of Lukoil agreed to sell 100% of its subsidiary Lukoil Ukraine to the Austrian company AMIC Energy Management, which was announced at the end of July 2014.
In 2014, Lukoil sold its service stations in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.
In 2015, it sold its service stations in Estonia and Ukraine, and in 2016, it sold its service stations in Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Cyprus.
2020s
In March 2022, Lukoil's market stock price dropped 95 percent, as a result of international sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
On 21 April 2022, Lukoil issued a statement saying that president Vagit Alekperov had stepped down and resigned from the board of directors after 29 years.
The Norway state-owned oil company Equinor exited the last of their joint ventures in Russia by withdrawing the joint venture with Lukoil and exiting the Kharyaga project on 2 September 2022.
Operations
Oil and gas production
Hydrocarbon reserves
The company's proved hydrocarbon reserves as of January 1, 2011 amounted to 17.255 billion barrels of oil equivalent, including 13.319 billion barrels of petroleum and 0.67 trillion cubic meters of natural gas. In terms of proved oil reserves, Lukoil, according to its own information, was the sixth-largest private oil company in the world at the time.
In addition, probable hydrocarbon reserves as of January 1, 2011 were 8.46 billion barrels of oil equivalent (including oil 6.47 billion barrels of petroleum and 0.34 trillion cubic meters of natural gas). Possible reserves were 3.17 billion barrels of oil equivalent (including 2.78 billion barrels of petroleum and 65.7 billion cubic meters of natural gas).
Major oil fields
Since 2016, Lukoil has been trying to get a development license for Nadezhda field in Baltic field, situated in Kaliningrad region aside of Continental shelf, which is booked for state companies only. In October 2021, due to ecology risks, the Russian government withdrew the decision to provide the license for geological exploration at Nadezhda field.
Domestic projects
In December 2011, Lukoil established a joint venture with Bashneft to develop the Trebs and Titov oil fields. Total recoverable reserves and oil resources from these fields are 89.73 million tons in C1 category, 50.33 million tons in C2 category and 59.29 million tons in category C3.
Foreign projects
The operator of Lukoil's foreign projects in the exploration and production sector is its subsidiary, Lukoil Overseas.
Lukoil is involved in the implementation of 16 projects for the exploration and development of structures and deposits in the following countries:
Azerbaijan (D-222 (Yalama), Shah-Deniz)
Kazakhstan (Tengiz, Karachaganak, Kumkol, Karakuduk, Northern Buzachi, Alibekmola, Kozhasai, Arman, Zhambai South, Atash, Tyub-Karagan);
Uzbekistan (Kandym-Khauzak-Shady-Kungrad, Aral, Kungrad, South-West Gissar)
Egypt (Meleiha, West Esh-El-Mallah, West Geisum, Northeast Geisum)
Iraq (West Qurna-2)
Iran (Anaran);
Colombia (the Condor project in conjunction with the Colombian state company Ecopetrol)
Ivory Coast (production sharing agreement on the offshore block CI-205 in the Gulf of Guinea)
Venezuela (Junin Block 3)
Saudi Arabia
Ghana (Cape Three Points Deepwater)
Romania
Cameroon (Etinde floating LNG project)
The extraction of hydrocarbons from all the above projects is carried out only in Kazakhstan (5.5 million tons of oil and 1.9 billion cubic meters in 2006) and Egypt (0.2 million tons).
Oil and gas processing
Lukoil owns seven oil-processing companies in Eastern Europe with total capacity of 82.1 million tons per year. In Russia it owns large refineries in Volgograd, Perm, Nizhny Novgorod, and Ukhta refineries and mini-refineries in Uray and Kogalym. It also owns refineries in Bulgaria and Romania and has a 45%-stake in an oil refining complex in the Netherlands. In 2020, the company was also in talks to reconstruct a refinery plant in Cameroon, which belongs to Cameroon's national refining company, Sonara.
* โ 49% and 45% shares respectively
Speaking at a press conference in New York on October 18, 2006, the company's CEO Vagit Alekperov said Lukoil is refusing to build a new refinery in Russia. According to him, "at this stage it is inexpedient and economically inefficient." At the same time, Lukoil planned to build a large complex in Kalmykia for the processing of natural gas from the North Caspian fields worth over $3 billion. The work was supposed to start in the spring of 2008. Also in March 2007, Lukoil announced it would expand the capacity in the Lukoil Neftochim Burgas refinery in Burgas, Bulgaria from 7.5 million tons to 10 million tons of oil per year.
The Lukoil ISAB refinery in Italy was sold in 2023.
Petrochemistry
The subsidiary company Lukoil-Neftekhim specializes in petrochemistry, and operates the Stavrolen (Budyonnovsk), Saratovorgsintez, and the Karpatneftekhim (Kalush, Ukraine) petrochemical plants. Petrochemical facilities are also part of the Neftochim Burgas Combine in Bulgaria. "Lukoil" is the largest producer of alkene and acrylonitrile in Eastern Europe. Together with Sibur, Lukoil-Neftekhim owns a controlling stake in the Polief plant.
Transportation
Transportation of oil produced by Lukoil in Russia is carried out for the most part by the pipelines of Transneft, as well as by rail and water transport. Oil produced at the company's fields in Kazakhstan is transported through pipelines such as the Caspian Pipeline Consortium.
Lukoil owns a number of oil and oil products terminals used for the export of oil and oil products:
The terminal near Varandey off of the Barents Sea with a capacity of 12.5 million tons of oil a year is used for shipment of oil produced in the Timan-Pechora Basin.
Sales
Lukoil sells petrol in 59 regions of Russia and in 17 other countries, both CIS and Western: Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium (through its subsidiary Jet until late 2008, since rebranded to Lukoil), Bulgaria, Croatia (operated by Lukoil Croatia, but under the brand name "Europa-Mil"), Finland (Teboil), Georgia, Italy, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Turkey and the United States. , it had 166 tank farms and 5,867 filling stations.
Power generation
Lukoil has the aggregate power generation capacity of 5,800 MW, of which 73% is for commercial use. Lukoil generates about 99% of electrical power of the Astrakhan Oblast and 62% of the Krasnodar Krai. Its main power generation subsidiaries are Lukoil-Volgogradenergo, Lukoil-Rostovenergo, Luikoil-Kubanenergo, Lukoil-Astrakhanenergo, and Lukoil-Stavropolenergo.
Lukoil operates two solar power plants at its own refineries in Romania and Bulgaria with respective capacity of 9 MW and 1.3 MW. A 10-MW solar plant is under construction at the Volgograd Refinery. It also owns an 84-MW wind farm in Topolog, Romania.
Sponsorship
Lukoil has been titular sponsor of FC Spartak Moscow since 2000. In August 2022, the company acquired ownership of the club (100% of the shares) along with the Otkritie Arena stadium.
In particular, the company sponsors the Volgograd water polo club Lukoil-Spartak. Lukoil also sponsors the Russian Olympic Committee and is one of the founders of the Russian Olympians Support Fund. In February 2014, Lukoil signed an agreement with the government of Arkhangelsk Oblast about supporting Vodnik.
Corporate affairs
Shareholders
In July 2010, the top managers of the company owned the largest stake (more than 30%) of the company's shares: CEO Vagit Alekperov owning 20.6% and vice-president Leonid Fedun owning 9.8%. The American oil company ConocoPhillips owned 19.21% but due to financial difficulties, completely withdrew from the shareholders of Lukoil, selling its shares, and in part to Lukoil itself by February 2011. The remaining shares were freely traded on the London Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Russian Trading System, and the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange. Market capitalization of the company was $60.4 billion as of June 2018.
Management
Chief executive officer
1993โ2022: Vagit Alekperov
2022โpresent: Vadim Vorobyev
Board of directors
List of directors that were elected on June 21, 2018:
Vagit Alekperov - CEO
Ravil Maganov, Chairman of the Board
Victor Blazheev
Lyubov Khoba
Leonid Fedun
Sergey Shatalov
Pavel Teplukhin
Boris Porfiryev
Invasion in Ukraine 2022
In March 2022, Toby Gati, Roger Munnings and Wolfgang Schรผssel left the board of directors due to International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the chairman of Lukoil Ravil Maganov had criticised the Russian attack on Ukraine. On 1 September 2022 he was found dead outside his hospital window the day that President Putin visited the hospital. Nearby video cameras had been turned off. The company has acknowledged the death in a statement saying that Ravil Maganov: "passed away following a severe illness".
The refinery in Italy was sold in 2023, the one in Bulgaria was allowed to continue after agreeing to pay taxes in Bulgaria and the refinery in Romania was permitted to continue provided it only refined non-Russian oil. In September 2023, the Bulgarian authorities transferred the Rosenets port oil terminal under state control. By decision of parliament, Lukoil's 35-year concession was terminated early without payment of compensation.
Subsidiaries
The company "Lukoil" owns controlling stakes or otherwise controls the following main organizations:
Lukoil-Western Siberia
Lukoil Centernefteproduct
Lukoil-Volganefteproduct
Lukoil-KaliningradMorneft (Kaliningrad)
Lukoil-Komi
Lukoil Neftechim
Lukoil-Nizhnevartsk milling factory
Lukoil Chernozemchenefteproduct
Lukoil-Nizhnevarq Neft
Lukoil Overseas Holding Ltd. (Perm)
Lucoil-Permeagnophosphoretic Acid
Lukoil-Permnefteproduct
Lukoil-Perm
Lukoil-Severo-Zapadnefteproduct
Lukoil-Severnefteproduct
Lukoil-Energogas
Lukoil-Yugnefteproduct
Lukoil Americas Corporation
LITASCO
Lukoil Bulgaria ะะะะ
Lukoil Macedonia Ltd.
Lukoil Croatia
Lukoil Serbia AD
Lukoil-Engineering
Lukoil-Inform
Lukoil-Energosethy
Lukoil-Uralnefteproduct
Lukoil-Uhtanepoparerepotka
Lukoil-Ecoenergo
Lukoil-Rostovenergo
Lukoil-Energoinjing
Lukoil-TsUR
Lukoil-Astrakhanenergo
Lukoil-Kubanenergo
Lukoil-Volgogradenergo
Lukoil-TTK
RITEK
Trade house "Lukoil"
Lukoil-Inter-Card
Lukoil-Belorussia (Minsk, Belarus),
Lukoil-Belgium N.V. (Belgium)
Lukoil-Reservnnefteproduct
Arkhangelskgeolaspredka (Arkhangelsk)
Environmental record
According to Lukoil, their numbers in 2007 recorded a drop of 7.8% in the volume of pollutant effects and a drop of 3.8% in the area of contaminated lands compared to 2006. These numbers came after an appeal from EMERCON, the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Natural Disaster Recovery, which proposed that Lukoil participate in the development of monitoring, prevention, and emergency recovery systems.
In an effort to increase productivity, Lukoil organized a contract to begin an oil pumping block in the Azerbaijani sector of the Caspian Sea. It arranged an Environmental Impact Assessment of the drill site in order to organize a second exploration drill. This block, D-222, was the largest prospective structure in the north-east section of the Caspian Sea as of 2008. The key issue was to assess how much damage the oil block would inflict on local fish populations. Taking into account the depth of the operation, around 700 meters, the amount of harm was projected to be minimal, with the majority of the damaged marine life being plankton and benthos. A rescue and salvage ship would be stationed there to mitigate the environmental effects on the area. Lukoil would develop contingency plans for oil spills and implement an environmental monitoring system.
At the same time, Lukoil faces criticism from various environmental organizations. In particular, the company's oil production in the Baltic Sea near Kaliningrad Oblast was criticized as it is 22 kilometers away from the Curonian Spit, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
According to a number of critics, Lukoil inherited the worst standards of the Soviet oil industry with respect to the environment, not taking enough responsibility to minimize pollution in its oil fields and refineries.
Lukoil has been ranked as among the 14th best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights and resource extraction in the Arctic.
In the Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index (AERI) Lukoil is ranked no. 37 out of 120 oil, gas, and mining companies involved in resource extraction north of the Arctic Circle.
Controversies
Environmental incidents
On one of the storage ponds of JSC "Lukoil-Volgograd-neftepererabotka" during the period from July 25 to August 8, 1996, the oil sludge was ignited due to the unacceptable conduct of welding operations. The surface layer of oil products was formed during the last two decades, and a similar ignition in this area was already noted in 1972. As a result of the 1996 fire, about 50,000 tons of oil products were burned, since even the soil was saturated with volatile fractions at this site. Where the fire was first lit, the concentration of carbon monoxide exceeded the permissible standards by almost 28 times, nitrogen dioxide tripled, hydrogen sulfide and phenol more than 1.5 times. In the residential areas of the Krasnoarmeysky district of Volgograd, located 7 km from the fire, as well as in the nearby settlements - B. and M. Chapurnik, Dubov Gully, Chervlen, Tingut - the content of combustion products in the air also exceeded the maximum permissible concentration. In the liquidation of this major technogenic emergency situation with severe environmental consequences, the divisions of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia took part.
In the fall of 2003, the Russian Emergencies Ministry revealed the oil spill as a result of the depressurization of the interfacial oil pipeline belonging to the TPP Lukoil-Usinskneftegaz on the territory of the Komi Republic near the city of Usinsk. The area of oil pollution in one case was about 1.8 thousand m2, in the second - 377 m2.
On January 25, 2011 at about 10:00 (local time), as a result of oil leakage in the engine room LGPZ (CCI "Langepasneftegaz"), there was a fire. Fire extinguished more than 50 fighter. The plant suspended its work.
On April 20, 2012, at the Trebs field, developed jointly by Lukoil and Bashneft, there was an accident that caused significant damage to the natural environment: over a day, continued flowing of oil from the re-opened well, which led to large-scale contamination of the territory. According to the press service of the administration of the Nenets Autonomous District, the contamination area exceeded 5 thousand square meters, the volume of spilled oil, according to Bashneft, was 600 tonnes (in independent sources numbers were up to 2.2 thousand tonnes).
On May 11, 2021, a leakage was identified in a pipeline connected to Lukoil's Oshkoye field. The spill was estimated at 100 tons of oil, yet environmentalists argued that 100 tons is an underestimate. The spill had infiltrated the Kolva river and traveled upstream, affecting the river habitats. Russia's Northwest Komi Republic declared emergency. The damage was estimated at $4.1 billion.
Ukrainian investigation
In January 2015, the Security Service of Ukraine announced an investigation into whether Lukoil had financed separatists in Donbas.
Antitrust law violations
In November 2009, the Federal Antimonopoly Service of Russia (FAS) imposed a record fine of โฝ6.54 billion on the company for violating antitrust legislation. The fine was imposed for the abuse of the company's dominant position in the wholesale market of petroleum products in the first half of 2009, expressed in "the seizure of goods from circulation" and the creation of "discriminatory conditions for the sale of petroleum products to individual counterparties". As FAS has calculated, these actions led to an increase in prices in the wholesale markets of motor gasoline, diesel fuel, and aviation kerosene in the first half of 2009.
Cambridge Analytica
In March 2018, the data firm Cambridge Analytica, tied to the 2016 Trump Campaign, was accused of discussing "political targeting" of American voters with representatives of Lukoil. โCambridge Analytica sought to identify mental and emotional characteristics in certain subsets of the American population and worked to exploit them by designing them to activate some of the worst vulnerabilities in people, such as neuroticism, paranoia and racial biases,โ whistleblower Christopher Wylie told the Senate Judiciary Committee in 2018. With Lukoil, the consulting firm shared election disruption strategies, which included videos and posters intended to demoralise and alarm voters. Lukoil is on the Sectoral Sanctions Identifications list, has been linked to Russian influence in the past, and CEO Vagit Alekperov, a former oil minister, had made statements suggesting that he considers helping Russia to be a strong political ambition.
VP driving accident
On February 25, 2011, Lukoil's vice president Anatoliy Barkov crashed his Mercedes S500 into a Citroรซn C3 car with doctor Olga Alexandrina and famous obstetrician Vera M. Sidelnikova inside; both women died in the collision. The General Administration for Traffic Safety blamed the driver of the Citroรซn but it was suggested the administration was covering up that the real culprit of the accident was the driver of the Mercedes, who, according to eyewitnesses, was driving around a traffic jam and went into the oncoming lane. There is also some speculation that the driver of the Mercedes was the vice-president of Lukoil himself. A few days after the accident, the Head of the State Traffic Safety Inspectorate of Moscow issued a notice of misconduct to the commander of the Traffic Police battalion who registered the accident on Leninsky Avenue because he had prematurely called the driver of the Citroรซn, Olga Alexandrin, the culprit of the accident. The incident caused a public reaction, in particular, a boycott of this company's gas stations was organized. Blogger Andrei Bocharov announced a mock advertisement of Lukoil based on this accident, and rapper Noize MC wrote the song "Mercedes S666 (Make Way for the Chariot)".
Bulgarian license
In July 2011, Lukoil had a conflict with Bulgarian authorities. According to the latter, the company's Bourgas refinery did not have timely installed meters for the manufactured fuel (used to determine the amount of excises paid), which, according to officials, Lukoil allegedly underpaid about โฌ250 million to the country's budget. As a result, the company lost its license and was stopped, but in early August 2011 the plant was re-launched.
Sanctions
On 11 September 2014, US President Obama said that the United States would join the EU in imposing tougher sanctions on Russia's financial, energy and defence sectors, following the escalation of Russo-Ukrainian War. The U.S. added Lukoil to the Sectoral Sanctions Identifications list on September 12, 2014.
The effect of sanctions in 2022 against shipped Russian oil has had a detrimental effect on the Priolo Gargallo ISAB refinery in Sicily with an inability to bring in oil from Russia and related cash flow finance problems. This has resulted in the refinery being put under Italian trusteeship with a buyer being sought.
Lukoil has been sanctioned by New Zealand.
Criticism
The Association of Small and Medium-Sized Oil Production Enterprises, also known as Assoneft, criticized Lukoil and the authorities of the Komi Republic for providing tax breaks to the oil companies of the region, which are obliged to extract at least 7 million tons of oil per year and (or) recycle at least 3 million tons. Only two enterprisesโLukoil-Komi and Lukoil-Ukhtaneftepererabotkaโcorrespond to these conditions in the region. In March 2007, the Federal Antimonopoly Service initiated a case against the State Council of the Komi on the grounds of violation of Part 1 of Art. 15 of the Law "On Protection of Competition" with regard to restricting competition in the oil production and refining markets.
In October 2005, then-prime minister of Lithuania, Algirdas Brazauskas, was in the center of the scandal involving Lukoil. The opposition of the Lithuanian parliament, Homeland Union, began collecting signatures for the creation of a parliamentary commission to investigate the entrepreneurial activity of Brazauskas' wife, Christina Butrimene-Brazauskiene, in particular with the acquisition of a 38% stake in the elite Vilnius Crowne Plaza hotel from the wife of the head of the Lukoil-Baltija company. The charges were related to Lukoil's contention at that time for a stake in one of the largest enterprises in Lithuania, the oil refinery ORLEN Lietuva, part of Polish energy company ORLEN. Brazauskas rejected allegations of corruption, but admitted his wife owns 51% of the hotel shares, and another 48% belong to his son. On November 22, at the insistence of the country's president Valdas Adamkus, Algirdas Brazauskas spoke on television, saying he was not involved in the privatization of the hotel, and that all charges should be considered by law enforcement bodies, not by the parliamentary commission.
On September 14, 2012, more than fifty Lukoil gas station owners in New Jersey and Pennsylvania temporarily raised their prices to over $8 a gallon to protest Lukoil's wholesale gas pricing. The owners are typically charged a wholesale price that is 5 to 10 cents a gallon more than their competitors and some are assessed an additional 25 to 30 cents per gallon based on their location. According to the station owners this makes it difficult to be competitive with stations that sell more established brands for lower prices.
In March 2016, there were accusations by the press of the company not acquiring rights to part of the Massandra vineyards in Crimea.
See also
List of companies of Russia
Petroleum industry of Russia
Companies of comparable role
Exxon-Mobil
Shell plc
2022 Russian businessmen suspicious deaths
References
External links
Oil companies of Russia
Natural gas companies of Russia
Companies based in Moscow
Retail companies established in 1991
Energy companies established in 1991
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1991
1991 establishments in Russia
Multinational companies headquartered in Russia
Companies listed on the Moscow Exchange
Automotive fuel retailers
Russian brands
|
265501
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9F%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98
|
แขแแแแจแแก แแฃแแแชแ
|
แขแแแแจแแก แแฃแแแชแ โ แแฃแแแชแ แแแกแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแแจแ, แขแ แแแกแแแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแ แแแฅแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ 8697 แแยฒ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 649 777 แแแแแแแแ (2011). แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แ แขแแแแจแแแ แ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ แฐแฃแแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแ, แฉแ แแแแแแแแ โ แแ แแแแก แแฃแแแชแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแ โ แแแ แแจ-แกแแแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแชแ, แฉแ แแแแ-แแแกแแแแแแแ โ แฃแแแ แแแแก แฉแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแแแ โ แกแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ, แฉแ แแแแ-แแแแแขแแกแ แแ แจแฃแ-แแแแแขแแก แ แแแแแแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แ แฃแแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แขแแแแจแแก แแฃแแแชแ โ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แ แฃแแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแ
|
421193
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AC%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90
|
แฌแแแแแฏแแฎแแก แแแฌแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแ
|
แฌแแแแแฏแแฎแแก แแแฌแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแ โ แแแฌแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แฌแแแแแฏแแฎแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแ แแแ แฐแฅแแแแ 46 000 แฐแแฅแขแแ แ แกแแแแแแ แ แกแแแแ แแฃแแ. แแแกแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแ แแงแ: แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ โ แฉแฎแแ แแฌแงแฃแก แ แแแแแ, แแแกแแแแแแแ โ แแคแฎแแแแแแก แแกแกแ , แฉแ แแแแแแแแ โ แแแกแขแแแก แ แแแแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแ โ แแฃแแแแแแกแ แแ แฉแฎแแ แแฌแงแฃแก แ แแแแแแแ.
แแแฃแ แแแแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแคแแ แฃแแ แแงแ แขแงแแแแแ. แขแงแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแงแ แฃแแแแแ แแกแแ แคแแแแแแแแ แฏแแจแแแแ (แ แชแฎแแแ, แฌแแคแแแ แแ แกแฎแ.). แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแฃแแ แแงแ แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แแแแกแแแแแก. แ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแฃแ แแฃแจแแแแแก แแขแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแกแแแแแก, แแ แแแแแแ แแฅ แฉแแแแแงแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแ โแฌแงแแแแจแโ. แกแแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแก แแฃแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแ, แกแแแแแแ แแ แแแแจแแกแแคแแ แ แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแ, แ แแ แแฅ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแ แขแฃแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแกแแแแแงแแคแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแงแ แฏแแฎแแ, แแ แฉแแ, แจแแแแ, แแฎแแแ แจแแงแแแแแแ แแแ แแฃแแ แฆแแ แ, แแแฉแแ, แแแแ แแ, แแแแแ, แแแแแ, แขแฃแ แ, แแแแ, แแแ แแฃแแ แแแขแ, แแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแ. แแแแแ -แคแ แแแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ. แแฃแ แฏแแแแซแ, แแแแแแแ แแก แชแแแแแ แ, แแ. 196โ197, แแ.: โแกแแแญแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแโ, 1969.
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แแแฌแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแแแ
|
348681
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
|
แกแแแแแแแแ
|
แกแแแแแแแแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแแก แจแขแแขแจแ; แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 598 แแแขแ แแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแแแ-แแ-แแแขแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแก. แจแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ -แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแฃแแกแฃแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 18 298 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 37.61 แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 486 แ543 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แจแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ, 2010 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแแก แจแขแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
|
133141
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%20VI
|
แแแแแแแขแ VI
|
แแแแแแแขแ VI (แแ แแกแแแชแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแ แแแแ แ; แ. ? โ แ. 12 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1362) โ แคแ แแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแ 1352โ1362 แฌแแแแจแ.
แขแฃแแฃแแแก แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แกแแแแ แแแแก แแ แแคแแกแแ แ. 1338 แฌแแแก แแแฎแแ แแแแแแแก, แฎแแแ 1340 แฌแแแก โ แแแแ แแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแกแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แคแ แแแแ แแแแแแแก แกแแ
แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แขแงแแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแชแแแแแแแแแ โแแ แแขแแแแแโ
แ แแแแก แแแแแแ
แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแฆแแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 12 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1362
แคแ แแแแ แแแแแแ
|
629572
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population%20transfer%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union
|
Population transfer in the Soviet Union
|
Population transfer in the Soviet Union
From 1930 to 1952, the government of the Soviet Union, on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin under the direction of the NKVD official Lavrentiy Beria, forcibly transferred populations of various groups. These actions may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population (often classified as "enemies of the people"), deportations of entire nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill ethnically cleansed territories. Dekulakization marked the first time that an entire class was deported, whereas the deportation of Soviet Koreans in 1937 marked the precedent of a specific ethnic deportation of an entire nationality.
In most cases, their destinations were underpopulated remote areas (see Forced settlements in the Soviet Union). This includes deportations to the Soviet Union of non-Soviet citizens from countries outside the USSR. It has been estimated that, in their entirety, internal forced migrations affected at least 6 million people. Of this total, 1.8 million kulaks were deported in 1930โ31, 1.0 million peasants and ethnic minorities in 1932โ39, whereas about 3.5 million ethnic minorities were further resettled during 1940โ52.
Soviet archives documented 390,000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement and up to 400,000 deaths of persons deported to forced settlements during the 1940s; however, Nicolas Werth places overall deaths closer to some 1 to 1.5 million perishing as a result of the deportations. Contemporary historians classify these deportations as a crime against humanity and ethnic persecution. Two of these cases with the highest mortality rates were recognized as genocidesโthe deportation of the Crimean Tatars was declared as genocide by Ukraine and three other countries, whereas the deportation of the Chechens and Ingush was recognized as genocide by the European Parliament, respectively. On 26 April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman Boris Yeltsin, passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide."
The Soviet Union also practiced deportations in occupied territories, with over 50,000 perishing from the Baltic States and 300,000 to 360,000 perishing during the expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe due to Soviet deportation, massacres, and internment and labour camps.
Deportation of social groups
Many Soviet farmers, regardless of their actual income or property, were labeled "Kulaks" for resisting collectivization. This term historically referred to relatively affluent farmers since the later Russian Empire. Kulak was the most common category of deported Soviet citizen. Resettlement of people officially designated as kulaks continued until early 1950, including several major waves: on 5 September 1951 the Soviet government ordered the deportation of kulaks from the Lithuanian SSR for "hostile actions against kolhozes", which was one of the last resettlements of that social group.
Large numbers of "kulaks", regardless of their nationality, were resettled in Siberia and Central Asia. According to data from Soviet archives, which were published in 1990, 1,803,392 people were sent to labor colonies and camps in 1930 and 1931, and 1,317,022 reached the destination. Deportations on a smaller scale continued after 1931. The reported number of kulaks and their relatives who died in labour colonies from 1932 to 1940 was 389,521. The total number of the deported people is disputed. Conservative estimates assume that 1,679,528-1,803,392 people were deported, while the highest estimates are that 15 million kulaks and their families were deported by 1937, and that during the deportation many people died, but the full number is not known.
Ethnic operations
During the 1930s, categorisation of so-called enemies of the people shifted from the usual MarxistโLeninist, class-based terms, such as kulak, to ethnic-based ones. The partial removal of potentially trouble-making ethnic groups was a technique used consistently by Joseph Stalin during his government; between 1935 and 1938 alone, at least ten different nationalities were deported. Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union led to a massive escalation in Soviet ethnic cleansing.
The Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union, originally conceived in 1926, initiated in 1930, and carried through in 1937, was the first mass transfer of an entire nationality in the Soviet Union. Almost the entire Soviet population of ethnic Koreans (171,781 persons) were forcibly moved from the Russian Far East to unpopulated areas of the Kazakh SSR and the Uzbek SSR in October 1937.
Looking at the entire period of Stalin's rule, one can list: Poles (1939โ1941 and 1944โ1945), Kola Norwegians (1940โ1942), Romanians (1941 and 1944โ1953), Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians (1941 and 1945โ1949), Volga Germans (1941โ1945), Ingrian Finns (1929โ1931 and 1935โ1939), Finnish people in Karelia (1940โ1941, 1944), Crimean Tatars, Crimean Greeks (1944) and Caucasus Greeks (1949โ50), Kalmyks, Balkars, Italians of Crimea, Karachays, Meskhetian Turks, Karapapaks, Far East Koreans (1937), Chechens and Ingushs (1944). Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.
Western annexations and deportations, 1939โ1941
Lavrentiy Beria, the Chief of NKVD, the Soviet secret police, was responsible for organizing and executing numerous deportations of ethnic minorities during that time.
After the Soviet invasion of Poland following the corresponding German invasion that marked the start of World War II in 1939, the Soviet Union annexed eastern parts (known as Kresy to the Polish or as West Belarus and West Ukraine in the USSR and among Belarusians and Ukrainians) of the Second Polish Republic, which since then became western parts of the Belarusian SSR and the Ukrainian SSR. During 1939โ1941, 1.45 million people inhabiting the region were deported by the Soviet regime. According to Polish historians, 63.1% of these people were Poles and 7.4% were Jews. Previously it was believed that about 1.0 million Polish citizens died at the hands of the Soviets, but recently Polish historians, based mostly on queries in Soviet archives, estimate the number of deaths at about 350,000 people deported in 1939โ1945.
The same followed in the Baltic republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia (see Soviet deportations from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been deported from the Baltic in 1940โ1953. In addition, at least 75,000 were sent to the Gulag. 10% of the entire adult Baltic population was deported or sent to labor camps. In 1989, native Latvians represented only 52% of the population of their own country. In Estonia, the figure was 62%. In Lithuania, the situation was better because the migrants sent to that country actually moved to the former area of Eastern Prussia (now Kaliningrad) which, contrary to the original plans, never became part of Lithuania.
Likewise, Romanians from Chernivtsi Oblast and Moldavia had been deported in great numbers which range from 200,000 to 400,000. (See Soviet deportations from Bessarabia.)
World War II, 1941โ1945
During World War II, particularly in 1943โ44, the Soviet government conducted a series of deportations. Some 1.9 million people were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. According to the Soviets, of approximately 183,000 Crimean Tatars, 20,000 or 10% of the entire population served in German battalions, though the figure in question is derived from a single SS report on how many individuals were expected to be willing to collaborate and is contradicted by official statistical records, which suggest the number was actually around 3,000, with only 800 being volunteers. Consequently, Tatars too were transferred en masse by the Soviets after the war. Vyacheslav Molotov justified this decision saying "The fact is that during the war we received reports about mass treason. Battalions of Caucasians opposed us at the fronts and attacked us from the rear. It was a matter of life and death; there was no time to investigate the details. Of course innocents suffered. But I hold that given the circumstances, we acted correctly." Historian Ian Grey writes "Towards the Moslem peoples, the Germans pursued a benign, almost paternalistic policy. The Karachai, Balkars, Ingush, Chechen, Kalmucks, and Tatars of the Crimea all displayed pro-German sympathies in some degree. It was only the hurried withdrawal of the Germans from the Caucasus after the battle of Stalingrad that prevented their organizing the Moslem people for effective anti-Soviet action. The Germans boasted loudly, however, that they had left a strong "fifth column" behind them in the Caucasus."
Volga Germans and seven (non-Slavic) nationalities of the Crimea and the northern Caucasus were deported: the Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, and Meskhetian Turks. All Crimean Tatars were deported en masse, in a form of collective punishment, on 18 May 1944 as special settlers to Uzbekistan and other distant parts of the Soviet Union. According to NKVD data, nearly 20% died in exile during the following year and a half. Crimean Tatar activists have reported this figure to be nearly 46%. (See Deportation of Crimean Tatars.)
Other minorities evicted from the Black Sea coastal region included Bulgarians, Crimean Greeks, Romanians and Armenians.
The Soviet Union also deported people from occupied territories such as the Baltic states, Poland, and territories occupied by Germans. A study published by the German government in 1974 estimated the number of German civilian victims of crimes during expulsion of Germans after World War II between 1945 and 1948 to be over 600,000, with about 400,000 deaths in the areas east of the Oder and Neisse (ca. 120,000 in acts of direct violence, mostly by Soviet troops but also by Poles, 60,000 in Polish and 40,000 in Soviet concentration camps or prisons mostly from hunger and disease, and 200,000 deaths among civilian deportees to forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union), 130,000 in Czechoslovakia (thereof 100,000 in camps) and 80,000 in Yugoslavia (thereof 15,000 to 20,000 from violence outside of and in camps and 59,000 deaths from hunger and disease in camps).
By January 1953, there were 988,373 special settlers residing in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, including 444,005 Germans, 244,674 Chechens, 95,241 Koreans, 80,844 Ingush, and the others. As a consequence of these deportations, Kazakhs comprised only 30% of their native Republic's population.
Post-war expulsion and deportation
After World War II, the German population of the Kaliningrad Oblast, former East Prussia was expelled and the depopulated area resettled by Soviet citizens, mainly by Russians.
Poland and Soviet Ukraine conducted population exchanges; Poles who resided east of the established PolandโSoviet border were deported to Poland (c.a. 2,100,000 persons) and Ukrainians that resided west of the established Poland-Soviet Union border were deported to Soviet Ukraine. Population transfer to Soviet Ukraine occurred from September 1944 to April 1946 (ca. 450,000 persons). Some Ukrainians (ca. 200,000 persons) left southeast Poland more or less voluntarily (between 1944 and 1945).
Post-Stalin policy on deportation
In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev in his speech "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninist principles:
According to a secret Soviet ministry of interior report dated December 1965, for the period 1940โ1953, 46,000 people were deported from Moldova, 61,000 from Belarus, 571,000 from Ukraine, 119,000 from Lithuania, 53,000 from Latvia and 33,000 from Estonia.
Labor force transfer
Punitive transfers of population transfers handled by the Gulag and the system of forced settlements in the Soviet Union were planned in accordance with the needs of the colonization of the remote and underpopulated territories of the Soviet Union. (Their large scale has led to a controversial opinion in the West that the economic growth of the Soviet Union was largely based on the slave labor of Gulag prisoners.) At the same time, on a number of occasions the workforce was transferred by non-violent means, usually by means of "recruitment" (ะฒะตัะฑะพะฒะบะฐ). This kind of recruitment was regularly performed at forced settlements, where people were naturally more willing to resettle. For example, the workforce of the Donbas and Kuzbass mining basins is known to have been replenished in this way. (As a note of historical comparison, in Imperial Russia the mining workers at state mines (bergals, "ะฑะตัะณะฐะปั", from German Bergbau, 'mining') were often recruited in lieu of military service which, for a certain period, had a term of 25 years).
There were several notable campaigns of targeted workforce transfer.
Twenty-five-thousanders
NKVD labor columns
Virgin Lands campaign
Baku oil industry workers transfer: during the German-Soviet War, in October 1942, about 10,000 workers from the petroleum sites of Baku, together with their families, were transferred to several sites with potential oil production (the "Second Baku" area (Volga-Ural oil field), Kazakhstan and Sakhalin), in face of the potential German threat, although Germany failed to seize Baku.
Khetagurovite Campaign
Repatriation after World War II
When the war ended in May 1945, thousands of Soviet citizens were forcefully repatriated (against their will) into the USSR. On 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the USSR.
The interpretation of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviet citizens regardless of their wishes. Allied authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union millions of former residents of the USSR (some of whom collaborated with the Germans), including numerous persons who had left Russia and established different citizenships for up to decades prior. The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945 to 1947.
At the end of World War II, more than 5 million "displaced persons" from the Soviet Union survived in German captivity. About 3 million had been forced laborers (Ostarbeiter) in Germany and occupied territories.
Surviving POWs, about 1.5 million, repatriated Ostarbeiter, and other displaced persons, totalling more than 4,000,000 people were sent to special NKVD filtration camps (not Gulag). By 1946, 80% civilians and 20% of PoWs were freed, 5% of civilians, and 43% of PoWs re-drafted, 10% of civilians and 22% of PoWs were sent to labor battalions, and 2% of civilians and 15% of the PoWs (226,127 out of 1,539,475 total) transferred to the NKVD, i.e. the Gulag.
Modern views
Several historians, including Russian historian Pavel Polian and Lithuanian Associate Research Scholar at Yale University Violeta Davoliลซtฤ consider these mass deportations of civilians a crime against humanity. They are also often described as Soviet ethnic cleansing. Terry Martin of Harvard University observes:
Other academics and countries go further to call the deportations of the Crimean Tatars, Chechens and Ingushs genocide. Raphael Lemkin, a lawyer of Polish-Jewish descent who initiated the Genocide Convention and coined the term genocide himself, assumed that genocide was perpetrated in the context of the mass deportation of the Chechens, Ingush, Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks and Karachay. Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depended on ties to their particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland". Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay and Pyotr Grigorenko both classified the population transfers of the Crimean Tatars as genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide". French historian and expert on communist studies Nicolas Werth, German historian Philipp Ther, Professor Anthony James Joes, American journalist Eric Margolis, Canadian political scientist Adam Jones, professor of Islamic History at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Brian Glyn Williams, scholars Michael Fredholm and Fanny E. Bryan also considered the population transfers of the Chechens and Ingush as the crime of genocide. German investigative journalist Lutz Kleveman compared the deportations of Chechens and Ingush to a "slow genocide".
On 12 December 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament issued a resolution recognizing the deportation of Crimean Tatars as genocide and established 18 May as the "Day of Remembrance for the victims of the Crimean Tatar genocide." The parliament of Latvia recognized the event as an act of genocide on 9 May 2019. The Parliament of Lithuania did the same on 6 June 2019. Canadian Parliament passed a motion on 10 June 2019, recognizing the Crimean Tatar deportation of 1944 (Sรผrgรผnlik) as a genocide perpetrated by Soviet dictator Stalin, designating 18 May to be a day of remembrance. The deportation of Chechens and Ingush was acknowledged by the European Parliament as an act of genocide in 2004:
Experts of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum cited the events of 1944 for a reason of placing Chechnya on their genocide watch list for its potential for genocide. The separatist government of Chechnya also recognized it as genocide. Some academics disagree with the classification of deportation as genocide. Professor Alexander Statiev argues that Stalin's administration did not have a conscious genocidal intent to exterminate the various deported peoples, but that Soviet "political culture, poor planning, haste, and wartime shortages were responsible for the genocidal death rate among them." He rather considers these deportations an example of Soviet assimilation of "unwanted nations." According to Professor Amir Weiner, "...It was their territorial identity and not their physical existence or even their distinct ethnic identity that the regime sought to eradicate." According to Professor Francine Hirsch, "although the Soviet regime practiced politics of discrimination and exclusion, it did not practice what contemporaries thought of as racial politics." To her, these mass deportations were based on the concept that nationalities were "sociohistorical groups with a shared consciousness and not racial-biological groups". In contrast to this view, Jon K. Chang contends that the deportations had been in fact based on ethnicity and that "social historians" in the West have failed to champion the rights of marginalized ethnicities in the Soviet Union.
Possible motivations
The dominant view among historians of Russia and the USSR was and remains that of Harvard's Terry Martin and his theory of "Soviet xenophobia." This theory espouses the belief that the Soviet Union ethnically cleansed the border peoples of the USSR from 1937 to 1951 (including the Caucasus and the Crimea) to remove Soviet nationalities whose political allegiances were allegedly suspect or inimical to Soviet socialism. In this view, the USSR did not practice direct negative ethnic animus or discrimination ("In neither case did the Soviet state itself conceive of these deportations as ethnic."). Political ideology of all Soviet peoples was the primary consideration. Martin stated that the various deportations of the Soviet border peoples were simply the "culmination of a gradual shift from predominantly class-based terror" which began during collectivization (1932โ33) to "national/ethnic" based terror (1937). Accordingly, Martin further claimed that the nationalities deportations were "ideological, not ethnic. It was spurred by an ideological hatred and suspicion of foreign capitalist governments, not the national hatred of non-Russians." His theory entitled "Soviet xenophobia" paints the USSR and the Stalinist regime as having practiced and carried out in politics, education and Soviet society relatively pure socialism and Marxist practices. This view has been supported by many of the major historians of the USSR, those in Russian and even Korean studies such as Fitzpatrick, Suny, F. Hirsch, A. Weiner and A. Park. A. Park, in her archival work, found very little evidence that Koreans had proven or were able to prove their loyalties beyond a shadow of a doubt, thus 'necessitating' deportation from the border areas. Robert Conquest stated that these nationalities were transferred because "in Stalinโs view, either welcomed or not opposed the Germans".
In contrast, the views of J. Otto Pohl and Jon K. Chang affirm that the Soviet Union, its officials and everyday citizens produced and reproduced (from the Tsarist era) racialized (primordialist) views, policies and tropes regarding their non-Slavic peoples. Norman M. Naimark believed that the Stalinist "nationalities deportations" were forms of national-cultural genocide. The deportations at the very least changed the cultures, way of life and world views of the deported peoples as the majority were sent to Soviet Central Asia and Siberia.
"Primordialism" is simply another way of saying ethnic chauvinism or racism because the said "primordial" peoples or ethnic groups are seen as possessing "permanent" traits and characteristics, which they pass on, one generation to the next. Interestingly, both Chang and Martin agree that the Stalinist regime took a turn towards primordializing nationality in the 1930s. After the "primordialist turn" by the Stalinist regime in the mid-1930s, the Soviet Greeks, Finns, Poles, Chinese, Koreans, Germans, Crimean Tatars and the other deported peoples were seen to have loyalties to their "titular" nations (or to non-Soviet polities) as the Soviet state in the 1930s regarded nationality (ethnicity) and political loyalty (ideology) as a primordial equivalents. Thus, it was no surprise that the regime would choose "deportation."
Martin's different interpretation is that the Soviet regime was not deporting the various diaspora peoples because of their nationality. Rather, nationality (ethnicity or phenotype) served as a referent or a signifier for the political ideology of the deported peoples. Amir Weiner's argument is similar to Martin's, substituting "territorial identity" for Martin's "xenophobia." The "Soviet xenophobia" argument also does not hold up semantically. Xenophobia is the fear by natives of invasion or loss of territory and influence to foreigners. The "Russians" and other Eastern Slavs are coming into the territory of the natives (the deported peoples) who were simply Soviet national minorities. They were not foreign elements. The Russian empire was not the "native" state, polity or government in the Asian Far East, the Caucasus and many other regions of the deported peoples. Koguryo followed by Parhae/Balhae/Bohai were the first states of the Russian Far East. John J. Stephan called the "erasure" of Chinese and Korean history (state-formation, cultural contributions, peoples) to the region by the USSR and Russiaโthe intentional "genesis of a 'blank spot.' "
Chang notes that all forms of racism could be explained away in a like manner. Regardless, all of the Stalinist orders for "total deportation" of the thirteen nationalities (from 1937 to 1951) list each of the peoples by ethnicity as well as a charge of treason. Soviet law required that one's guilt or innocence (for treason) be determined individually and in a court of law prior to sentencing (per 1936 Constitution). Finally, on the other end of the "primordial" spectrum, the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) were seen as inherently more loyal and more representative of the Soviet people. This is clearly a deviation from socialism and MarxistโLeninism.
Death toll
The number of deaths attributed to deported people living in exile is considerable. The causes for such demographic catastrophe lie in harsh climates of Siberia and Kazakhstan, disease, malnutrition, work exploitation which lasted for up to 12 hours daily as well as the lack of any kind of appropriate housing or accommodation for the deported people. Overall, it is assumed that the fatalities caused by this relocation upheaval range from 800,000 up to 1,500,000.
The partial documentation in the NKVD archives indicated that the mortality rates of these deported ethnic groups were considerable. The Meskhetian Turks had a 14.6% mortality rate, the Kalmyks 17.4%, people from Crimea 19.6%, while the Chechens, the Ingush and other people from the Northern Caucasus had the highest losses reaching 23.7%. The NKVD did not record excess deaths for the deported Soviet Koreans, but their mortality rate estimates range from 10% to 16.3%.
Additionally, around 300,000โ360,000 Germans deported after World War II from occupied territories in Eastern Europe perished, but the Soviet Army was not the sole perpetrator of these expulsions, since other European countries also participated.
Timeline
See also
Against Their Will
The Black Book of Communism
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
Criticism of communist party rule
Demographic engineering
Doctors' plot: Speculation about a planned deportation of Jews
Ethnic cleansing
Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
Human rights in the Soviet Union
Gulag
Jewish Autonomous Oblast: Jewish settlement in the region
Mass killings under communist regimes
National operations of the NKVD
German operation of the NKVD
Latvian operation of the NKVD
Polish operation of the NKVD
On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples
Operation North (Jehovah's Witnesses)
Operation Priboi (Baltics)
Repatriation of Poles (1955โ1959)
World War II evacuation and expulsion
Evacuation of East Prussia
Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944โ1950)
Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union
June deportation (Baltics)
NaziโSoviet population transfers
Polish population transfers (1944โ1946)
Soviet deportations from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Polian, Pavel (ะะฐะฒะตะป ะะพะปัะฝ), Deportations in the USSR: An index of operations with list of corresponding directives and legislation, Russian Academy of Science.
ะะฐะฒะตะป ะะพะปัะฝ, ะะต ะฟะพ ัะฒะพะตะน ะฒะพะปะต... (Pavel Polyan, Not by Their Own Will... A History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR), ะะะ ะะตะผะพัะธะฐะป, Moscow, 2001,
28 ะฐะฒะณัััะฐ 1941 ะณ. ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ "ะ ะฒััะตะปะตะฝะธะธ ะฝะตะผัะตะฒ ะธะท ัะฐะนะพะฝะพะฒ ะะพะฒะพะปะถัั".
1943 ะณ. ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ "ะ ะปะธะบะฒะธะดะฐัะธะธ ะะฐะปะผััะบะพะน ะะกะกะ ะธ ะพะฑัะฐะทะพะฒะฐะฝะธะธ ะัััะฐั
ะฐะฝัะบะพะน ะพะฑะปะฐััะธ ะฒ ัะพััะฐะฒะต ะ ะกะคะกะ ". *ะะพััะฐะฝะพะฒะปะตะฝะธะต ะฟัะฐะฒะธัะตะปัััะฒะฐ ะกะกะกะ ะพั 12 ัะฝะฒะฐัั 1949 ะณ. "ะ ะฒััะตะปะตะฝะธะธ ั ัะตััะธัะพัะธะธ ะะธัะฒั, ะะฐัะฒะธะธ ะธ ะญััะพะฝะธะธ ะบัะปะฐะบะพะฒ ั ัะตะผััะผะธ, ัะตะผะตะน ะฑะฐะฝะดะธัะพะฒ ะธ ะฝะฐัะธะพะฝะฐะปะธััะพะฒ, ะฝะฐั
ะพะดััะธั
ัั ะฝะฐ ะฝะตะปะตะณะฐะปัะฝะพะผ ะฟะพะปะพะถะตะฝะธะธ, ัะฑะธััั
ะฟัะธ ะฒะพะพััะถะตะฝะฝัั
ััะพะปะบะฝะพะฒะตะฝะธัั
ะธ ะพััะถะดะตะฝะฝัั
, ะปะตะณะฐะปะธะทะพะฒะฐะฝะฝัั
ะฑะฐะฝะดะธัะพะฒ, ะฟัะพะดะพะปะถะฐััะธั
ะฒะตััะธ ะฒัะฐะถะตัะบัั ัะฐะฑะพัั, ะธ ะธั
ัะตะผะตะน, ะฐ ัะฐะบะถะต ัะตะผะตะน ัะตะฟัะตััะธัะพะฒะฐะฝะฝัั
ะฟะพัะพะฑะฝะธะบะพะฒ ะธ ะฑะฐะฝะดะธัะพะฒ"
ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ ะพั 13 ะดะตะบะฐะฑัั 1955 ะณ. "ะ ัะฝััะธะธ ะพะณัะฐะฝะธัะตะฝะธะน ะฒ ะฟัะฐะฒะพะฒะพะผ ะฟะพะปะพะถะตะฝะธะธ ั ะฝะตะผัะตะฒ ะธ ัะปะตะฝะพะฒ ะธั
ัะตะผะตะน, ะฝะฐั
ะพะดััะธั
ัั ะฝะฐ ัะฟะตัะฟะพัะตะปะตะฝะธะธ".
17 ะผะฐััะฐ 1956 ะณ. ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ "ะ ัะฝััะธะธ ะพะณัะฐะฝะธัะตะฝะธะน ะฒ ะฟัะฐะฒะพะฒะพะผ ะฟะพะปะพะถะตะฝะธะธ ั ะบะฐะปะผัะบะพะฒ ะธ ัะปะตะฝะพะฒ ะธั
ัะตะผะตะน, ะฝะฐั
ะพะดััะธั
ัั ะฝะฐ ัะฟะตัะฟะพัะตะปะตะฝะธะธ".
1956 ะณ. ะะพััะฐะฝะพะฒะปะตะฝะธะต ะฆะ ะะะกะก "ะ ะฒะพัััะฐะฝะพะฒะปะตะฝะธะธ ะฝะฐัะธะพะฝะฐะปัะฝะพะน ะฐะฒัะพะฝะพะผะธะธ ะบะฐะปะผััะบะพะณะพ, ะบะฐัะฐัะฐะตะฒัะบะพะณะพ, ะฑะฐะปะบะฐััะบะพะณะพ, ัะตัะตะฝัะบะพะณะพ ะธ ะธะฝะณัััะบะพะณะพ ะฝะฐัะพะดะพะฒ".
29 ะฐะฒะณัััะฐ 1964 ะณ. ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ "ะ ะฒะฝะตัะตะฝะธะธ ะธะทะผะตะฝะตะฝะธะน ะฒ ะฃะบะฐะท ะัะตะทะธะดะธัะผะฐ ะะตัั
ะพะฒะฝะพะณะพ ะกะพะฒะตัะฐ ะกะกะกะ ะพั 28 ะฐะฒะณัััะฐ 1941 ะณ. ะพ ะฟะตัะตัะตะปะตะฝะธะธ ะฝะตะผัะตะฒ, ะฟัะพะถะธะฒะฐััะธั
ะฒ ัะฐะนะพะฝะฐั
ะะพะฒะพะปะถัั".
1991 ะณ: Laws of Russian Federation: "ะ ัะตะฐะฑะธะปะธัะฐัะธะธ ัะตะฟัะตััะธัะพะฒะฐะฝะฝัั
ะฝะฐัะพะดะพะฒ", "ะ ัะตะฐะฑะธะปะธัะฐัะธะธ ะถะตััะฒ ะฟะพะปะธัะธัะตัะบะธั
ัะตะฟัะตััะธะน".
Wikisource
State Defense Committee Decree No. 5859ss: On Crimean Tatars (See also Three answers to the Decree No. 5859ss)
External links
These Names Accuse (Soviet Deportations in Latvia)
Baltic Deportation Instructions โ Full text, English
DEPORTATIONS Revelations from the Russian Archives at the Library of Congress
Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944
The scale and nature of German and Soviet repression and mass killings, 1930โ45
ะญะดะธะตะฒ ะ.ะ. ะะตะผะพะณัะฐัะธัะตัะบะธะต ะฟะพัะตัะธ ะดะตะฟะพััะธัะพะฒะฐะฝะฝัั
ะฝะฐัะพะดะพะฒ ะกะกะกะ . ะกัะฐะฒัะพะฟะพะปั, 2003
Polish deportees in the USSR List compiled in 1941 by Tadeusz Romer, the Polish ambassador to Japan
Deportation
Political repression in the Soviet Union
Soviet World War II crimes
Ethnic cleansing in Europe
Ethnic cleansing in Asia
Ethnic cleansing of Germans
Soviet ethnic policy
Crimes against humanity
Joseph Stalin
Persecution of Buddhists
Persecution of Muslims
NKVD operations
Internal migration
Genocides in Asia
Genocides in Europe
|
3218829
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preamble%20to%20the%20United%20Nations%20Charter
|
Preamble to the United Nations Charter
|
Preamble to the United Nations Charter
The Preamble to the United Nations Charter is the opening (preamble) of the 1945 United Nations Charter.
History
Jan Smuts from South Africa originally wrote the opening lines of the Preamble as, "The High Contracting Parties, determined to prevent a recurrence of the fratricidal strife which twice in our generation has brought untold sorrow and loss upon mankind. . ." which would have been similar to the opening lines of the Covenant of the League of Nations. After considerable argument at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, held in San Francisco, Virginia Gildersleeve from the US was successful in changing and shortening the Preamble, however, with much of Smuts' original text reattached at the end.
The opening phrase "We the peoples of the United Nations ..", echoing the preamble of the United States Constitution, was suggested by US congressman and Conference delegate Sol Bloom. The preambulatory phrase "In Larger Freedom" became the title of a UN reform proposal by the seventh Secretary-General, Kofi Annan.
Text
The Preamble reads as follows:
Notes
External links
Preamble of the charter of The United Nations: calligraphic manuscript by Hermann Zapf. Frankfurt am Main, 1960. Morgan Library & Museum, New York.
Divisions and sections of the Charter of the United Nations
Jan Smuts
United Nations
de:Prรคambel zur Charta der Vereinten Nationen
|
6538127
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mata%20Hari%20%281931%20film%29
|
Mata Hari (1931 film)
|
Mata Hari (1931 film)
Mata Hari is a 1931 American pre-Code drama film directed by George Fitzmaurice loosely based on the life of Mata Hari, an exotic dancer and courtesan executed for espionage during World War I. The Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film stars Greta Garbo in the title role. It was Garbo's most commercially successful vehicle. Only a censored version of the film is currently available.
Plot
In 1917, France is embroiled in World War I. Dubois, head of the French spy bureau, offers to spare the life of a captured agent (an uncredited Mischa Auer) if he will reveal who he is protecting. Dubois suspects it is Mata Hari, a celebrated exotic dancer, but the prisoner chooses execution by firing squad.
Lieutenant Alexis Rosanoff of the Imperial Russian Air Force lands in Paris after a dangerous flight over enemy territory, bringing important dispatches from Russia. He persuades his superior, General Serge Shubin, to take him to see Mata Hari perform that night.
Rosanoff is instantly smitten by her (as are most of the men of Paris). By youthful exuberance and good looks, he persuades her to spend the night with him. However, the next morning, she makes it clear to him that it was a one-time dalliance.
Carlotta secretly instructs Mata Hari to report to Andriani, their spymaster. Andriani orders her to find out from General Shubin the contents of the dispatches Rosanoff brought.
Meanwhile, when Dubois discloses his suspicions about Mata Hari to Shubin, the general laughs them off as ridiculous. However, Shubin has himself passed secret information to his lover Mata Hari, whom he is expecting for a private dinner. Rosanoff arrives unexpectedly, in case Shubin has further instructions before the pilot returns to Russia with more important dispatches. Upon learning of Rosanoff's mission, Mata Hari arranges for a confederate to steal the dispatches, photograph them and then return them undetected, while she keeps a puzzled, but delighted Rosanoff occupied.
This is the opportunity for which Dubois has been waiting. He informs Shubin of Mata Hari's recent activities, inciting his jealousy. She comes to see the general, but is unable to persuade him she was only doing her job. In fact, she has fallen in love with the younger man. Furious, Shubin telephones Dubois and confirms that Mata Hari is a spy. She shoots him dead before he can carry through on his threat to implicate Rosanoff.
Mata Hari goes into hiding, but when Andriani informs her that Rosanoff crashed and was seriously injured on his way back to Russia, she defies him and resigns to go to her love. Rosanoff has been blinded, but may recover his sight. After a joyful reunion (in which she does not reveal her desperate predicament), she is arrested by Dubois.
At her trial, her lawyer, Major Caron, points out that Dubois' case is weak; all his testimony is second-hand. However, when Dubois threatens to have Rosanoff brought in to testify that he met her outside Shubin's office just after the murder, Mata Hari gives up. She is sentenced to death. She writes to Rosanoff, telling him that she cannot see him for a while, as she has to go to a sanatorium for her health.
Shortly before her execution, Rosanoff is brought to her. The jailor and the attending nuns all maintain the pretense that they are in a sanatorium. Rosanoff tells the prisoner that he will likely see again and he looks forward to their future life together once she has recovered her health. Finally, Mata Hari is taken away to face the firing squad, with Rosanoff under the impression that she is going into surgery for a routine operation.
Cast
Greta Garbo as Mata Hari
Ramon Novarro as Lieutenant Alexis Rosanoff
Lionel Barrymore as General Serge Shubin
Lewis Stone as Andriani
C. Henry Gordon as Dubois
Karen Morley as Carlotta
Alec B. Francis as Major Caron
Blanche Friderici as Sister Angelica (as Blanche Frederici)
Edmund Breese as Warden
Helen Jerome Eddy as Sister Genevieve
Frank Reicher as The Cook-Spy, ordered by Andriani to commit suicide for his past failures
Reception
Commercially, Mata Hari was Garbo's most successful film and MGM's biggest hit of the year, netting a profit of $879,000. The film grossed $931,000 in the United States and $1,296,000 elsewhere. These combined grosses amounted to $2,227,000 (or $40,474,668 in 2018 dollars).
International Photographer called the film "drama in its sternest mood" with "few smiles and no laughs," but gave the film an excellent review.
Censorship upon reissue
As with many pre-Code Hollywood films, Mata Hari was censored upon its reissue after strict enforcement of the Hays Code began in mid-1934.
Mata's erotic dance to the statue of Shiva was drastically shortened. At the end of what remains, a glimpse of Mata (played in long shots by a dance double) almost completely nude and slumped motionless at the feet of the statue was left in, evidence now of how much was cut out. A brief fragment of the deleted portion of her dance of the veils survives at the end of a pre-Code trailer.
In Rosanoff's first visit to Mata's apartment, the fade-out that ends the scene was moved up, eliminating views of Mata after she changes into a see-through negligee, more love-making, and the clear implication of a consummation after the fade-out.
In Mata's visit to Rosanoff's apartment, after he blows out the candle he was shown carrying Mata off to his bedroom. As part of the following sequence showing the removal, copying and return of the secret documents, there was a scene of the pair in bed, engaged in pillow talk, discreetly lit only by the glowing ends of their cigarettes โ a once-famous scene the censors removed completely. One line of dialog from that now-missing minute, in which Rosanoff comments on Mata's "ridiculously long" eyelashes, is referred to later in the film.
According to online reports, not officially confirmed but for more than ten years apparently never contradicted, a print of the original uncut version, subtitled in French and Dutch, survives at the Cinรฉmathรจque Royale de Belgique in Brussels, where it was publicly shown in 2005. That institution's program guide for March 2009 documents a showing of Mata Hari with a stated running time of 92 minutes. The censored version released on DVD in 2005 has a running time of 89 minutes.
See also
Mata Hari (1927)
Mata Hari, Agent H21 (1964)
Mata Hari (1985)
Spy film
References
External links
Production notes and still gallery at GarboForever.com
1931 films
1930s spy drama films
American spy drama films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by George Fitzmaurice
Films produced by Irving Thalberg
Films set in Paris
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
World War I spy films
Films set in 1917
Films with screenplays by Benjamin Glazer
Cultural depictions of Mata Hari
1931 drama films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films
English-language spy drama films
|
68555
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch
|
Eunuch
|
Eunuch
A eunuch is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium BCE. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics, for espionage or clandestine operations, castrato singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants.
Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them less threatening servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lowly domestic functionsโsuch as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter, or even relaying messagesโcould, in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices.
Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private "dynasty". Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants.
Etymology
Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word , first attested in a fragment of Hipponax, the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words. The acerbic poet describes a particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese patรฉ like a Lampsacene "
The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity. The 5th century (CE) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first "guarding the bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse, the things that the ancients used to call irrational (literally: 'mindless')". Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Ancient Greek, as shown by entries for , and in Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, while the first option is not listed as an idiom under in that standard reference work. However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment. The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of maleโfemale intercourse specifically to castration, which he said was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex". The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain, opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from ("good" + "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants. Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eupnoeic and ekhein, "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them. The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos) essentially repeats the entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica (Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein, "deprived of mating".
In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible, the word eunuchs as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men, even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos.
The early 17th-century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that the word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunฤ and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper"). He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not a personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies".
Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option. In an influential 1925 essay on the word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunฤ and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"), without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind").
In Latin, the words eunuchus, spado (Greek: spadon), and castratus were used to denote eunuchs.
By region and epoch
Ancient Middle East
The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women."
Castration was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law, homosexual acts were punishable by castration.
Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Neo-Assyrian Empire ("the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated as ; until 622 BCE) and in the court of the Egyptian pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII, 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to the throne, as it seems to be the case for the Syro-Hittite state of Carchemish.
Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achaemenid Empire. Eunuchs (called , an Assyrian loanword) held powerful positions in the Achaemenid court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas) was the vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV, and was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns until he was killed by Darius III.
Marmon (1995) writes "Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)."
Ancient Greece, Rome, and Byzantium
The practice was also well established in other Mediterranean areas among the Greeks and Romans, although a role as court functionary does not arise until Byzantine times. The Galli or Priests of Cybele were eunuchs.
In the late period of the Roman Empire, after the adoption of the oriental royal court model by the Emperors Diocletian (r. 284โ305) and Constantine (r. 306โ337), emperors were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, haircutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact, thus enjoying great influence in the imperial court (see Eusebius and Eutropius). Julian (r. 361โ363) released the eunuchs from their service because he felt they were overpaid, and he subsequently realized how much they had contributed to palace operations.
The Roman poet Martial rails against a woman who has sex with partially castrated eunuchs (those whose testicles were removed or rendered inactive only) in the bitter epigram (VI, 67): "Do you ask, Panychus, why your Caelia only consorts with eunuchs? Caelia wants the flowers of marriage โ not the fruits." It is up for debate whether this passage is representative of any sort of widely practiced behavior, however.
At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchsโeach in charge of a group of eunuchsโwere among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors. Under Justinian in the 6th century, the eunuch Narses functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns.
Advantages of eunuchs were that they prevented offices from becoming hereditary, allowing appointments to be made on merit; they were more dedicated to their jobs, not being distracted by family obligations; and they were ineligible for the throne, and for that reason thought by emperors to be safe. Those who had been deprived not only of their testicles but also their penises were known in Greek as carzimasia, and were highly prized.
By the last centuries of the Empire, the number of roles reserved for eunuchs had reduced, and their use may have been all but over.
Following the Byzantine tradition, eunuchs had important tasks at the court of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily during the middle 12th century. One of them, Philip of Mahdia, has been admiratus admiratorum, and another one, Ahmed es-Sikeli, was prime minister.
China
In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.
Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty. From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He, gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal.
It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials. As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."
The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.
The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.
Korea
The eunuchs of Korea, called , were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon dynasty, the naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi".
The naesi system included two ranks, those of , who held the official title of senior second rank, and , both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140 naesi served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month. The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform.
During the Yuan dynasty, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for tributes.
Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ยฑ 1.76 years, which was 14.4โ19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status.
Vietnam
The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off. The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing. Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.
Thailand
In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court. The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard.
Burma
Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs during the Konbaung dynasty period of Burma (modern Myanmar) while on a diplomatic mission.
Arabian Peninsula
For several centuries, Muslim Eunuchs were tasked with honored roles in Medina and Mecca. They are thought to have been instituted in their role there by Saladin, but perhaps earlier. Their tasks included caring for the Prophet's Tomb, maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces. They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward. In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain.
Ottoman Empire
In the Ottoman Empire, eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.
The Ottoman court haremโwithin the Topkapฤฑ Palace (1465โ1853) and later the Dolmabahรงe Palace (1853โ1909) in Istanbulโwas under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were slaves from sub-Saharan Africa who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were slaves from the Balkans or the Caucasus, either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the jizya tax. They served the recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kฤฑzlar Aฤasฤฑ or Darรผssaade Aฤasฤฑ). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials. One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.
Coptic involvement
In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam, a title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes. In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]: the zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys.
Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University, in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in the American Journal of Medicine, refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhรจ in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys.
Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino, in his book History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present, published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghรจ" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan, published by a French explorer, Count Raoul du Bisson, in 1868, though this detail does not appear in Du Bisson's book.
Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in the American Journal of Urology and Sexology. Spooner, an associate of William J. Robinson, referred to the monastery as "Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt".
According to Remondino, Spooner, and several later sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles off Nubian or Abyssinian slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas in Sudan like Darfur and Kordofan, then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables, then, after slicing off their sexual organs, stuck a piece of bamboo into the urethra and submerged them in neck-high sand under the sun. The survival rate was ten percent. Slave traders made especially large profits off eunuchs from this region.
However, neither "Abou Gerbe", as an actual monastery, nor "Mount Ghebel Eter", as an actual location, are known. Additionally, the cited references from Andrews, Remondino and Spooner appear circular, originating in tales told by a single French explorer. The later cited sources simply copy the earlier ones. Further, the 90% mortality rate seems economically improbable, given that it would require that markets paid at least 15 times the value of an uncastrated slave boy for a eunuch slave boy. A modern peer-reviewed source reports survival in Chinese court castrations of children at 33%, which is quite low, but nevertheless far higher than reported by Remondino. The same source reports later adult castrations as having a survival rate of 98%. Consequently, the accounts of castration by Coptic monks reported above, along with the 90% mortality figure, should be treated with considerable skepticism.
Fatimid Caliphate
In the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909โ1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court. These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants".
Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas: the service of the male members of the court; the service of the harem, or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service. For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons (shurta) and marketplaces (hisba), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were the ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants. Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch, Jawdhar, became hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im, a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death.
There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly being Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim and Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh. Rifq was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fight force which was able to successfully combat the Mirdasids, Bedouins, and Byzantines.
Barjawan was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then student al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from the caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim.
Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground
Algiers
In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie, was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers.
Indian subcontinent
Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals)
Eunuchs were frequently employed in imperial palaces by Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur. Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.
The hijra of South Asia
Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transvestites or transgender women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third gender). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancient Kama Sutra, which refers to people of a "third sex" (tritiya-prakriti). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not.
They usually dress in saris or shalwar kameez (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination. Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances. They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn a living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away. The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashionโthey knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying. Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan.
Religious castration
Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occupying religious roles, have been established prior to classical antiquity. Archaeological finds at รatalhรถyรผk in Anatolia indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a forerunner of the goddess Cybele found in later Anatolia and other parts of the near East. Later Roman followers of Cybele were called Galli, who practiced ritual self-castration, known as sanguinaria. Eunuch priests also figured prominently in the Atargatis cult in Syria during the first centuries AD.
The practice of religious castration continued into the Christian era, with members of the early church practicing celibacy (including castration) for religious purposes, although the extent and even the existence of this practice among Christians is subject to debate. The early theologian Origen found evidence of the practice in : "His disciples said to him, 'If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is better not to marry.' But he said to them, 'Not everyone can accept this teaching, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can. (NRSV)
Tertullian, a 2nd-century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts. Quoting from the cited book: "Tertullian takes 'spado' to mean virgin". The meaning of spado in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy. Tertullian even goes so far with the metaphor as to say St. Paul had been "castrated". Tertullian also ridiculed his theological opponent Marcion of Sinope as a eunuch who advocated for sexual abstinence.
Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the hijra, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals โ notably the devotees of Yellammadevi, or jogappas, who are not castrated, and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.
The 18th-century Russian Skoptzy (ัะบะพะฟัั) sect was an example of a castration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the sins of the flesh. Several members of the 20th-century Heaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.
In the Christian Bible
The reference to "eunuchs" in Matthew 19:12 has yielded various interpretations.
One of the earliest converts to Christianity was an Ethiopian eunuch who was a high court official of Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia, but was already a eunuch at the time of conversion (Acts 8:27โ39).
In Judaism
Eunuchs are mentioned many times in the Bible, such as in the Book of Isaiah (56:4) using the word ืกืจืืก (saris). Although the Ancient Hebrews did not practice castration, eunuchs were common in other cultures featured in the Bible, such as ancient Egypt, Babylonia, the Persian Empire, and ancient Rome. In the Book of Esther, servants of the harem of Ahasuerus, such as Hegai and Shashgaz, as well as other servants such as Hatach, Harbonah, Bigthan, and Teresh, are referred to as sarisim. Being exposed to the consorts of the king, they would likely have been castrated.
The Hebrew word saris (ืกืจืืก) has been generally understood by scholars as referring to eunuchs. However, its technical meaning is a male who has not shown signs of typical sexual maturity by the age of 20. Per the Talmud, only one known as a saris adam โ a castrated male; one made sterile intentionally or via accidental injury โ might be considered a eunuch (a saris แธฅama is one who is congenitally sterile, and is not considered a eunuch). For a further discussion of ambiguous gender in Jewish culture, see: Gender and Jewish Studies.
Non-castrated eunuchs
The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for a wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate. Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs.
Some men have falsified the status of their castration to gain entrance into the palace. Chinese eunuch Lao Ai, for instance, became the lover of the mother of Qin Shi Huang, who bore him two sons, before Lao Ai and his sons were executed after participating in a rebellion against Qin Shi Huang.
Castrato singers
Eunuchs castrated before puberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch (a high-pitched voice). Such eunuchs were known as castrati.
As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. Castrati became very popular in 18th century opera seria. The practice, known as castratism, remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato, Giovanni Battista Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in the Sistine Chapel Choir, who died in 1922.
This Italian practice of castrating young males to maintain their soprano voices was ended by Pope Leo XIII (1878).
In popular culture
Notable eunuchs
In chronological order.
First millennium BCE
Mutakkil-Marduk (8th century BCE): Assyrian chief eunuch, eponym of the year 798 BCE in an Assyrian eponym chronicle.
Yariri (8th century BCE): regent of Neo-Hittite Carchemish thought likely to be a eunuch.
Sin-shumu-lishir (7th century BCE): Assyrian eunuch who attempted to usurp power in the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BCE): bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer.
Artoxares: an envoy of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia.
Bagoas (4th century BCE): prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his assassin (Bagoas is an old Persian word meaning eunuch).
Bagoas (4th century BCE): a favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the diffusion of Greek culture to the East.
Batis (4th century BCE): resisted Alexander the Great at the Siege of Gaza.
Philetaerus (4th/3rd century BCE): founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum
Zhao Gao (died 210 BCE): favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si.
Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BCE): the first person to have practiced modern historiography โ gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire.
Ganymedes (1st century BCE): highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister and rival, Princess Arsinoe. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria.
Pothinus (1st century BCE): regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII.
First millennium CE
Sporus (died 69): an attractive Roman boy who was castrated by, and later married to, Emperor Nero.
Unidentified "Ethiopian eunuch" (1st century AD), from the Kingdom of Kush in modern-day Sudan, described in the Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). Philip explained that the section prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, which Philip described to the eunuch. The eunuch was baptized shortly thereafter.
Halotus (20โ30 CE โ 70โ80 CE), servant to the Roman Emperor Claudius and suspected of poisoning him.
Cai Lun (โ121): Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper. It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper.
Zhang Rang: head of the infamous Ten Attendants of the Eastern Han dynasty.
Huang Hao: eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Cen Hun (died 280): eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period.
Origen (185โ 253): early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 ("For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it."). Despite the fact that the early Christian theologian Tertullian wrote that Jesus was a eunuch, there is no corroboration in any other early source. (The Skoptsy did, however, believe it to be true.)
Chusdazat (died 344): He served King Shapur II, who killed him for declaring his Christian identity.
Dorotheus of Tyre (255โ362): A bishop who attended the Council of Nicaea, was exiled by Diocletian and Julian, and was martyred.
Eutropius (died 399): only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished office of Roman Consul.
Chrysaphius (died 450): chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns.
Narses (478โ573): general of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and reconquering Rome for the empire.
Solomon (480s/490sโ544): general and governor of Africa under Justinian I.
Gao Lishi (684โ762): a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong.
Li Fuguo (704โ762): Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule.
Yu Chao'en (722โ770): Tang eunuch who began his career as army supervisor.
Staurakios (died 800): chief associate and minister of the Byzantine empress Irene of Athens.
Ignatius of Constantinople (799โ877): twice Patriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times (847โ858 and 867โ877). First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.)
Yazaman al-Khadim (died 891): Emir of Tarsus and successful commander in the wars against the Byzantine Empire.
Mu'nis al-Muzaffar (845/846โ933/934): Commander-in-chief of the Abbasid armies between 908 and his death.
Joseph Bringas (died 965): chief minister of the Byzantine Empire under Romanos II (959โ963).
Second millennium CE
Jia Xian (1010โ 1070): Chinese mathematician; invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots.
Ly Thuong Kiet (1019โ1105): general during the Lรฝ dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero.
Tatikios (1048โafter 1110): Byzantine general who led the forces of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and acted as a guide during the First Crusade.
Pierre Abรฉlard (1079โ1142): French scholastic philosopher and theologian. Forcibly castrated by his girlfriend's uncle while in bed.
Lu'lu' al-Yaya (died 1117): Regent of the Seljuk sultanate of Aleppo.
Malik Kafur (fl. 1296โ1316): a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khalji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate.
Zheng He (1371โ1433): famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean.
Yishiha (15th century): admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors.
Wu Rui (15th century): a Chinese eunuch in Lรช dynasty Annam (Vietnam).
Gang Bing (died 1410): patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor.
Wang Zhen (died 1449): first Ming eunuch with much power; see Tumu Crisis.
(1421โ1505): one of the most famous eunuchs during the Korean Joseon dynasty period, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is the subject of a historical drama in South Korea.
Liu Jin (1451โ1510): corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty and de facto emperor, member of the Eight Tigers.
Judar Pasha (1562โ1606): a Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the Songhai Empire.
Wei Zhongxian (1568โ1627): eunuch of the Ming dynasty, considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history.
Senesino (1686โ1758): Italian contralto castrato singer.
Farinelli (1705โ1782): Italian soprano castrato singer.
Giusto Fernando Tenducci (1736โ1790): Italian soprano castrato singer.
Mohammad Khan Qajar (1742โ1797): chief of the Qajar tribe. He became the King/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty.
Lรช Vฤn Duyแปt (1763โ1832): Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (not a true eunuch, he was born a hermaphrodite).
Thomas P. "Boston" Corbett (b. 1832; presumed dead 1894): killer of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, who castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes.
Li Lianying (1848โ1911): a despotic eunuch of the Qing dynasty.
Alessandro Moreschi (1858โ1922): Italian castrato singer, the only one to make recordings.
Xin Xiuming (1878โ1959): Entered Emperor Puyi's service in 1902; left palace service in 1911; became abbot of the Taoist temple at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930; wrote memoir Eunuch's Recollection (่ๅคช็็ๅๅฟ).
Sun Yaoting (1902โ1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history.
Marshall Applewhite (1931โ1997): Leader of the religious doomsday UFO cult Heaven's Gate that took part in a mass suicide event in 1997
See also
Nullification (body modification)
References and bibliography
Citations
Further reading
English translation of Rudople Guilland's essay on Byzantine eunuchs "Les Eunuques dans l'Empire Byzantin: รtude de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines", in 'รtudes Byzantines', Vol. I (1943), pp. 197โ238 with many examples
Tuotuo. Liaoshi [History of Liao]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974 (or Tuotuo, Liaoshi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974))
"A Eunuch Cooks Boys to Make a Tonic of Male Essence," in Zhang Yingyu, The Book of Swindles: Selections from a Late Ming Collection, translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2017), pp. 138โ141.
Mary M. Anderson, Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China (Prometheus Books, 1990)
David Ayalon, Eunuchs, Caliphs and Sultans: A Study in Power Relationships (Magnes Press, 1999)
Patrick Barbier, The World of the Castrati: The History of an Extraordinary Operatic Phenomenon (Souvenir Press Ltd, 2010)
Vern L. Bullough and James Brundage (eds), Handbook of Medieval Sexuality (Routledge, 2000), especially chapter by M.S. Kuefler, 'Castration and Eunuchism in the Middle Ages'
Laura Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom: A Russian Folktale (Cornell University Press, 2003)
Zia Jaffrey, The Invisibles: A Tale of the Eunuchs of India (W&N, 1997)
Shaun Marmon, Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society (Oxford University Press, 1993)
Taisuke Mitamura (trans. by Charles A. Pomeroy), Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics (Tuttle Publishing, 1970)
Serena Nanda, Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India (Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc, 1998)
Kathryn M. Ringrose, The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium (University of Chicago Press, 2003)
Lynn E. Roller, In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele (University of California Press, 1999)
Piotr O. Scholz, Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2014)
Shaun Tougher (ed.), Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond (Classical Press of Wales, 2002)
Shaun Tougher, The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society (Routledge, 2008)
Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (State University of New York Press, 1995)
Caroline Vout, Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
English language Abstracts of the thesis
Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty
Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty
Further listening
In Our Time: The Eunuch. Presenter: Melvyn Bragg. Interviewed Guests: Karen Radner, Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London; Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University; Michael Hoeckelmann, British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of History at King's College London. Producer: Thomas Morris. Broadcaster: BBC Radio 4. Date: 26 February 2015
External links
Castrated people
|
315947
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
|
แแแ แแแแแก-แแแ แแฎแแกแ
|
แแแ แแแแแก-แแแ แแฎแแกแ, แแกแแแ แชแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แฌแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ โ แแแแชแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแก แฏแแฃแคแ (16-แแแ 40-แแแ) แแ แแแ แฏแแแก แ แแคแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแจแ. แแแแ แแแแก แแแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแ แแแฌแแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก 300 แแ-แแ แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แกแแแ แแ แคแแ แแแแ โ 1,3 แแยฒ. แ แแคแ แแแแแญแแแฃแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแกแแแแ 50 แแ-แแ แแแขแ แแแแซแแแแ, แกแแแแแ โ แแแแฎแแแแแแ 5 แแ. แแแแฏแแ แแแ แแแแแก-แแแ แแฎแแกแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ แจแแฐแงแแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแจแ.
แแแแแแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแ แฅแแฅแแกแแก แแแแแ.
แซแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ
แแแแแขแ แแกแ (Albatross Island) โ 1,01 แแยฒ
แฉแ แแแแแแแแก (North Island)
แ แแคแแแแ (รle Raphael)
แกแแ แแแ (รlot Siren)
แขแแ แขแ (รle Tortue) โ 0,13 แแยฒ
แแแ แแ (รle Perle)
แกแแแฎแ แแแแก (รle du Sud)
แแแแแแ แ (Avocare Island) โ 0,02 แแยฒ
แแขแ-แแแแแขแแแ (Petite Capitane)
แแ แแ-แแแแแขแแแ (Grande Capitane)
แแแแแ แ (Mapare Islet) โ 0,4 แแยฒ
แคแ แแแแขแ (รle Frรฉgate)
แแแแ (รlote du Paul)
แแแข-แ-แ (Puits A Eau)
แแแแแแ-แ แแแกแ (Baleine Rocks)
แแแ แแแแ (รle Veronge) (Verronge)
แแแ แแแแ (แแแแชแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแ) (Veronge Ilot)
แแฃแแแแแ แ (รle Poulailer)
แแแแแ (Palm Islet)
แจแแแฃแแ (Chaloupe)
แแฃแ แกแแแ (Courson)
แฅแแฅแแกแ (รฎle aux Cocos) โ 0,5 แแยฒ
แแ แแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแฃแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก-แแแ แแฎแแกแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแก. แแแแชแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแ แ แแคแแแแแ (Raphael) แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแ แซแ แแแแแกแแญแแ แ แกแแแแฃแ แ (แแ แ แแแแแแ 35 แแฃแจแแกแ, แกแแแแแจแ 800-แแแ), แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแขแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแฃแ แ (8 แแแแแแแแ 1996 แฌแแแก). แแแขแแ แ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแชแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ: แแแแแแ แ (Avocarรฉ), แฅแแฅแแกแ (Cocos) แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแ (Sud). แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแ แแแแแขแ แแกแแ (Albatros) แแแขแแแแแฃแแแ 1988 แฌแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Map of Mauritius
Dispersal of the Genus Phelsuma in the Mascarenes
Expeditions and Trips to St. Brandon
แแแแ แแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ
แแคแ แแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ
แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ
|
507172
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%94
|
แกแแ
|
แกแแ โ แฅแแแแฅแ แแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแแแแกแแแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ-แแแ แฃแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แคแแแแกแขแแ แแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 52,2 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 7550 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแ-แแแ แฃแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแ-แแแ แฃแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แแ-แแแ แฃแแแแก แฅแแแแฅแแแ
|
335962
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%20%28%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%29
|
แจแขแแแแแฃ (แแแแแก แแแขแ แ)
|
แจแขแแแแแฃ (แแแแแก แแแขแ แ)
แจแขแแแแแฃ โ แแแแแก แแแขแ แแแแแแขแแแแก แกแแแแฃแ แ. แแแแแแ แแแแก U2 แฎแแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแ 1 แแแฅแแแกแแแแ. แกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแกแแ 2010 แฌแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแก แแแขแ แแแแแแขแแแแก แกแแแขแ
แแแแแก แแแขแ แแกแแแแฃแ แแแ
|
159042
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%29
|
แแแแแ แ (แฎแแแฎแ)
|
แแแแแ แ (แฎแแแฎแ)
แแแแแ แ โ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แฏแแฃแคแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแ แแแแจแ, แแแแแแแก แแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแจแ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแชแฎแแ 2 แแแแแแแแ แแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แแแ แฃแกแ แแ แฉแแแแจแ. แแกแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแจแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแ, แกแแแแ แแฅ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแก แฎแแแฎแ XV แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแแก, แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แฃแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแงแ แ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแชแแแก, แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแจแ แแแ แแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแแขแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแฃแแแแฃแแ. แแแแแกแขแฃแ แแแฃแแแ, แ แแ แแก แฎแแแฎแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแแ แฃแจแ แแงแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแแแก แแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแแแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแชแแแ.
แแฆแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแแแแ แแก แฎแแแฎแแก แฃแแแแแกแ แแแฌแแแ แแแขแแแแแแแจแ, แแแฌแแแ แแ แขแแขแแแแแแก แขแแแก แแฃแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก. แแแแแ แแก แฃแแแแแกแ แฃแ แแแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แแ แฅแแแแฅแ แแ-แแแขแ แแ-แแแกแแก แกแแแฎแแแแแก, แกแแแแช 750 000 แแแแแ แ แชแฎแแแ แแแก.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแ แ (แแแ)
แแแแแขแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Adelson, Laurie, and Arthur Tracht. Aymara Weavings: Ceremonial Textiles of Colonial and 19th Century Bolivia. [Washington, D.C.]: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1983. ISBN 0-86528-022-3
Buechler, Hans C. The Masked Media: Aymara Fiestas and Social Interaction in the Bolivian Highlands. Approaches to Semiotics, 59. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. ISBN 90-279-7777-1
Buechler, Hans C., and Judith-Maria Buechler. The Bolivian Aymara. Case studies in cultural anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. ISBN 0-03-081380-8
Carter, William E. Aymara Communities and the Bolivian Agrarian Reform. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964.
Eagen, James. The Aymara of South America, First peoples. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co, 2002. ISBN 0-8225-4174-2
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแ แ, แแแชแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแขแแแแแ
Aymara site in English
Society: an essay
Aymara worldview reflected in concept of time
NGO Chakana
Aymara communities in Bolivia, Peru & Chile, Video de UNESCO
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแ แแแแก แฎแแแฎแแแ
แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแคแแ
|
19321
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/1522
|
1522
|
1522 แฌแแแ (MDXXII) แแงแ แแแฎแจแแแแแก แแแฌแงแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแฌแแแ แแฃแแแฃแกแแก แแแแแแแ แแ.
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแ แโแแแแแกแ
9 แแแแแแ แ โ แแแ แแแแ VI-แ แจแแชแแแแ แแแ X. แแก แแแฎแแ แ แแแแก 218-แ แแแแ.
27 แแแ แแแ โ แแแแแแแก แแ แซแแแ: แคแ แแแแฃแแแ แแ แจแแแแชแแ แแฃแแแ แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแแ แซแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแ แแ แคแฃแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแแชแแแ แกแแฆแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแกแแแ.
18 แแแ แขแ โ แแกแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแแแฃแ แแ แฎแฃแแ แกแแแแกแขแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแจแ แแฆแแแแฉแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแ แแแกแขแแ แแแแ.
19 แแแ แขแ โ แแแแ แกแแ แแแฅแกแแแแก แฅแแแแฅแ แขแแแฃแแ.
แแแแแกแโแแแแแแแแ แ
19 แแแแแกแ โ แแแ แ V แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแ แแฌแแแ แแแแแแกแก. แแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแ แแแ แแกแ แแ แฐแแแ แ VIII-แก แจแแ แแก, แ แแแแแก แซแแแแแแช แแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แจแแขแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแ.
28 แแแแแกแ โ แแกแแแแแแแก แกแฃแแแแแก แกแฃแแแแแแ I-แแก แคแแแขแแ แแแงแ แจแแแแแ แขแงแ แแฃแแซแฃแ แ แแแแกแก.
6 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ โ แคแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแฅแกแแแแแชแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แฉแแแ แแแแ แแแฅแขแแ แแ, แแแแ แฃแแแ แกแแแแฃแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแจแ, แแกแแแแแแ. แแก แแแแ แแแฎแแ แแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแฌแแก แแแ แจแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแ แชแแแแ.
15 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ โ แแ แแแ แแแ แขแแกแ แแแฎแแ แแฎแแแ แจแแฅแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแฎแแแ แแแฅแกแแแแก แแฃแแแ แแแขแแ แ.
18 แแแแแแแแ แ โ แแฃแ แฅแฃแแแ แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแแ แซแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแ แฎแ แแฃแแซแฃแ แ แแแแกแแ แจแแกแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแ แซแแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แฅแฃแฉแแแจแ แแแแแแแแชแแแ.
แแแฃแแแ แแฆแแแแแ
Textus Receptus-แก แแแแ แแแแแฅแแแงแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแแ แแแแแชแแแ.
แฐแแแ-แแ-แแแ แแแ แแแ แแกแแ แแแฆแ แฅแแแแฅแ แแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแ แ
แแแแแ แแแแ
2 แแแแแ แแแแ: แแฃแแแแแแ แคแแ แแ แ โ แแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแแขแแแแกแ (แ. 1565)
แแแ แขแ
แแแ แแแ
แแแแกแ
24 แแแแกแ: แฏแแ แฏแแแแแ โ แแแแแแกแแแ แแแแกแแแแแกแ (แ. 1571)
แแแแแกแ
แแแแแกแ
แแแแแกแขแ
แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแ แ
9 แแแแแแแ แ: แแแ แขแแ แฉแแแแชแ โ แแฃแแแ แแแ แ แแคแแ แแแขแแ แ (แ. 1586)
18 แแแแแแแ แ: แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแ โ แคแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแฆแแแฌแ (แ. 1568)
แแแแแแแแ แ
28 แแแแแแแแ แ: แแแ แแแ แแขแ แแแกแขแ แแแแ โ แแแแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแขแ (แ. 1568)
แแแ แแฆแ แฃแชแแแแแ
แฅแแแฎแแกแ แ II โ แกแแแชแฎแ-แกแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ (แ. 1573)
แแแแแแแ แ แขแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแ I แแแแแฉแแก แแแฃแฆแแ (แ. 1562)
แแแ แแแแชแแแแแแ
แแแแแแ แ
แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแ แขแ
แแแ แแแ
แแแแกแ
แแแแแกแ
25 แแแแแกแ โ แคแ แแแแแแ แแแคแฃแ แ, แแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแ แ (แ. 1451)
30 แแแแแกแ โ แแแฐแแ แ แแแฐแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแแ แฐแฃแแแแแกแขแ (แ. 1455)
แแแแแกแ
แแแแแกแขแ
แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ โ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแกแ, แจแแขแแแแแแแแ แแแแขแ แแ แแแแกแแแแแกแ (แ. แแแแฎ. 1474)
แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
30 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ โ แแแ แแแฃแขแแแ, แคแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแ แ (แ. แแแแฎ. 1459)
แแแแแแแ แ
14 แแแแแแแ แ โ แแแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแขแ (แ. 1461)
แแแแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแฆแ แฃแชแแแแแ
|
125462
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98
|
แขแแแแกแแแก แจแขแแขแ
|
แขแแแแกแแแก แจแขแแขแ
แขแแแแกแแ โ แจแขแแขแ แแแฅแกแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแงแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แขแแฃแแแขแแแแแแก แงแแแแ. แแแกแแแฆแแ แ แจแขแแขแแแแ: แแแกแแแแแแแ โ แแแ แแแ แฃแกแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแ โ แฉแแแแแกแ, แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแฉแ. แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแแกแแกแแแแแ แแฅแแก แแแฅแกแแแแก แงแฃแ แแจแ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแก แแกแแแ แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ แแแแขแแแแแ.
แจแขแแขแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแ. แกแฎแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแแแ: แแแ แแแแแกแ, แแแแแแแแแแ, แขแแแแกแแแ.
แซแ. แฌ. 800 แฌแแแก, แขแแแแกแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แฎแแแฎแ, แ แแแแแแ แแแฆแแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแแแช, แฉแ.แฌ. IX แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแฅ แแแแแฉแแแ แแแแแก แชแแแแแแแแชแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
Tabasco State Web Directory
แแแฅแกแแแแก แจแขแแขแแแ
|
1147409
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ein%20Gedi
|
Ein Gedi
|
Ein Gedi, also spelled En Gedi, meaning "spring of the kid", is an oasis, an archeological site and a nature reserve in Israel, located west of the Dead Sea, near Masada and the Qumran Caves. Ein Gedi, a kibbutz, was established nearby in 1954.
Ein Gedi is a popular tourist attraction, and was listed in 2016 as one of the most popular nature sites in Israel. The site attracts about one million visitors a year.
Etymology
The name Ein Gedi is composed of two words (In both Arabic and Hebrew): ein means spring or a fountain and gวdi means goat-kid. Ein Gedi thus means "kid spring" or "fountain of the kid".
History and archaeology
Neolithic
At Mikveh Cave archaeologists found Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) flint tools and an arrowhead.
Chalcolithic
A Chalcolithic temple (ca. mid-fourth millennium BCE) belonging to the Ghassulian culture was excavated on the slope between two springs, Ein Shulamit and Ein Gedi. More Chalcolithic finds were made at the Moringa and Mikveh Caves.
Bronze Age
No traces of Bronze Age settlement have been found at Ein Gedi.
Iron Age
The remains of the Iron Age settlement at Ein Gedi are located at a tell on the north bank of Wadi Arugot, known in Arabic as Tell el-Jurn (grid position 187/097 PAL) and in Hebrew as Tel Goren. The first permanent Iron Age settlement was Judean and was established around 630 BCE. The site was destroyed or abandoned after the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 587/86 BCE.
Hebrew Bible
In , Ein Gedi is enumerated among the wilderness cities of the Tribe of Judah in the desert of Betharaba, and in , it is prophesied that one day, its coastal location will make it into a fishing village, after the water of the Dead Sea has been made sweet:
Fishing nets will be spread from En-gedi to En-eglaim.
Fleeing from King Saul, David hides in the strongholds at Ein Gedi (and ) and Saul seeks him "even upon the most craggy rocks, which are accessible only to wild goats". Psalm 63, subtitled a Psalm of David when he was in the wilderness of Judah, has been associated with David's sojourn in the desert of En-gedi.
In Ein Gedi is identified with Hazazon-tamar, Hazezon Tamar, Hatzatzon-Tamar or Hazezontamar (ืึทืฆึฐืฆืึนื ืชึธึผืึธืจ แธฅaแนฃแนฃลn tฤmฤr, "portion [of land] of date palms"), on account of the palm groves which surrounded it, where the Moabites and Ammonites gathered in order to fight Josaphat, king of Judah. In Hazazon-tamar is mentioned as being an Amorite city, smitten by Chedorlaomer in his war against the cities of the plain.
The Song of Songs speaks of the "vineyards of Ein Gedi". The words of Ecclesiasticus 24:18, "I was exalted like a palm tree in Cades" ('en aรญgialoรฎs), may perhaps be understood as the palm trees of Ein Gedi.
Persian period
The settlement at Tel Goren is a rare example of a town which reached its zenith during the Persian period, probably during the late 5th century BCE.
Hellenistic and Hasmonean periods
Ein Gedi receives a fortress and becomes a royal Hasmonean estate.
Early Roman period
According to Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, Ein Gedi served as the capital of a toparchy, and there were excellent palm trees and balsam growing there. The date palm's fruit and the balsam plant's fragrance were essential to the village's economy. The balsam plant also served as a source for expensive medications.
During the First Jewish-Roman War, the Sicarii, who fought the Romans until their defeat and mass suicide at Masada, plundered local villages including Ein Gedi. At Ein Gedi, they drove out the defenders, and killed over seven hundred women and children who could not run away. Pliny claims that Ein Gedi was destroyed during the war, although the Babatha archive shows that Jews lived there once again during the reign of Hadrian and probably earlier. The Babatha archive mentions Ein Gedi as a crown property; the Cohors I Milliaria Thracum is attested there, indicating the presence of Roman soldiers there at the time. The Babatha archive also refers to Ein Gedi as "a village in the territory of Jericho in Judaea". This evidence led researchers to believe that Ein Gedi was no longer a toparchy in its own right following the First Jewish-Roman War and had instead become a village inside the toparchy of Jericho.
Late Roman and Byzantine periods
Ein Gedi survived the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhba revolt and continued to exist until the sixth or seventh centuries. Eusebius described Ein Gedi as "a large Jewish village" in his early fourth-century Onomasticon. In the early third century CE, a synagogue was built in the center of the village. Its remains include a Judeo-Aramaic inscription mosaic now on display at Jerusalem's National Archaeology Campus warning inhabitants against "revealing the town's secret" โ possibly the methods for extraction and preparation of the much-prized balsam resin, though not stated outright in the inscription โ to the outside world.
Ein Gedi was destroyed in a fire during the late Byzantine period. According to the archeologists who excavated the synagogue, the village was destroyed during the early 6th century by Byzantine emperor Justinian as part of his persecution campaign against Jews in his empire. Others claim that the village was destroyed in a Bedouin raid that occurred before the Persian invasion, probably around the late 6th or early 7th century.
After Ein Gedi was destroyed, the cultivation of balsam around the Dead Sea ceased, and it is believed that its Jewish residents, who were now refugees, took the knowledge of cultivating the balsam with them, causing this knowledge to be lost forever.
Ottoman period
In 1838, Edward Robinson reported that the whole area was covered with gardens, mainly cucumbers, all belonging to the Rashaideh tribe.
In April 1848, Lieutenant William Francis Lynch led an American expedition down the Jordan River into the Dead Sea, that stopped at Ein Gedi (Ain Jidy).
Israel
In 1998โ99, the archaeological expedition of Yizhar Hirschfeld at Ein Gedi systematically excavated what has been called "the Essenes site", first discovered by Yohanan Aharoni in 1956.
Nature reserve and national park
Ein Gedi nature reserve was declared in 1971 and is one of the most important reserves in Israel. The park is situated on the eastern border of the Judean Desert, on the Dead Sea coast, and covers an area of 14000 dunams (or ).
The elevation of the land ranges from the level of the Dead Sea at 423 meters (1,388 ft) below sea level to the plateau of the Judean Desert at 200 meters above sea level. Ein Gedi nature reserve includes two spring-fed streams with flowing water year-round: Nahal David and Nahal Arugot (German article at: :de:Nachal Arugot). Two other springs, the Shulamit and Ein Gedi springs, also flow in the reserve. Together, the springs generate approximately three million cubic meters of water per year. Much of the water is used for agriculture or is bottled for consumption.
The reserve is a sanctuary for many types of plant, bird and animal species. The vegetation includes plants and trees from the tropical, desert, Mediterranean, and steppian regions, such as Sodom apple, acacia, jujube, and poplar. The many species of resident birds are supplemented by over 200 additional species during the migration periods in the spring and fall. Mammal species include the Nubian ibex and the rock hyrax.
The Ein Gedi national park features several archaeological sites including the Chalcolithic Temple of Ein Gedi and a first-century CE village. The park was declared in 2002 and covers an area of 8 dunams (or ).
Sinkholes
Ein Gedi has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, which have even damaged the highway built in 2010 which was supposedly built to a "sinkhole-proof" design. The sinkholes are due to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea, at an annual rate of more than a metre, which is attributed to the battle for scarce water resources in the very arid region. The sinkholes form as a result of the receding shoreline (with the surface of the Sea having shrunk by about 33 per cent since the 1960s), where a thick layer of underground salt is left behind. When fresh water arrives in the form of heavy rains, it dissolves the salt as it sinks into the ground, forming an underground cavity, which eventually collapses under the weight of the surface ground layer.
Tourism has been affected by the receding shoreline and the sinkholes, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the sea has diminished since flash floods started pouring into the sinkholes. Huge cave systems called karsts convey water underground between the sinkholes. Scientists in the floodplain area south of Ein Gedi have been using cameras, water testing, videos using drones and satellite monitoring to map the area for safety.
Kibbutz
Kibbutz Ein Gedi, founded in 1956, is a kibbutz located about a kilometer from the oasis. It offers various tourist attractions and takes advantage of the local weather patterns and the abundance of natural water to cultivate out-of-season produce. The kibbutz area contains an internationally acclaimed botanical garden covering an area of 100 dunams (10 ha, 24.7 acres). There one can find more than 900 species of plants from all over the world. The kibbutz is also home to the Ein Gedi Eco Park, which functions as both a zoo and an environmental education center, demonstrating sustainable technologies such as solar cookers, greywater systems, mud buildings, and compost toilets.
Shalom Marathon โ Dead Sea Half Marathon
The Ein Gedi race, also known as the Shalom Marathon โ Dead Sea Half Marathon is a popular road running event over several distances that has been held by the Tamar Regional Council since 1983. The starting point for all races is the Ein Gedi Spa, southeast of Jerusalem and 4 kilometers south of Kibbutz Ein Gedi.
See also
Archaeology of Israel
Tourism in Israel
Wildlife of Israel
Hiking in Israel
En-Gedi Scroll
References
Bibliography
(pp. 384-386)
(Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Appendix 2, p. 116)
(pp. 143-150)
External links
Virtual Tour of Ein Gedi - View from the Ein Gedi Promenade
Ein Gedi in the Dead Sea Map - Bird's-eye view in Flash
The Israel Nature and Parks Authority - Site page
Ein Gedi Travel Guide
Pictures of Ein Gedi synagogue
Ein Gedi mill, 1893
Survey of Western Palestine, Map 22: IAA, Wikimedia commons
Photos of Ein Gedi synagogue at the Manar al-Athar photo archive
Times of Israel - Nature of Ein Gedi - a Photo Essay
Nature reserves in Israel
National parks of Israel
Oases of Israel
Springs of Israel
Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1972
Botanical gardens in Israel
Protected areas of Southern District (Israel)
Tells (archaeology)
Canaanite cities
Ancient Jewish settlements of Judaea
Hebrew Bible places
Israeli mosaics
Dead Sea basin
Judaean Desert
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
Ghassulian
|
20255
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95.%20%E1%83%AC.%20380
|
แซแ. แฌ. 380
|
แซแ. แฌ. 380
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ
แกแแแ แกแแแแก แแแแแ แแ
แแฅแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแขแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ แแแแแแฎแแแก. แฉแแแ แแแกแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแขแแ แคแแ แแแแแแก แแฅแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแ แฉแฃแแแแแจแ.
แแแแแแขแ
แแแแแแขแแก แคแแ แแแแแก, แแฐแแ แแกแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแแกแ แแแแ แแแคแแ แแข II แแแแก, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแฅแขแแแแ I แแแฎแแแก แแ XXX แแแแแกแขแแแก แฃแแแแก แกแแแแแแก.
แกแแแแ แซแแแแ
แแแแกแแแแแแก I-แแก แจแแแแแ แกแแแ แขแแก แแแคแ แแแกแ แซแแ, แแแแแแแ แแขแ I แฎแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแ แแแก III โ แแฅแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแคแ.
แแแ แแแแชแแแแแแ
แแฐแแ แแกแ โ แซแแแแ แแแแแแขแแก XXIX แแแแแกแขแแแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แคแแ แแแแ.
แแแคแแ แแข II โ แแฐแแ แแกแแก แแแแ, แซแแแแ แแแแแแขแแก XXIX แแแแแกแขแแแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แแแคแ.
แแแแกแแแแแแก I โ แกแแแ แขแแก แแแคแ.
|
521306
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแก แแแแแแ
|
แแแแแก แแแแแแ (แ. 17 แแแแแ แแแแ, 1999) โ แฃแแ แแแแแแ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแ. แแแแแแก โแแแแแแแกแโ แแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแคแแฎแแฃแ แแ แแแแ แแแแก แแชแแแแ. แแแแแจแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแก 17, 18, 19, 20 แแ 21 แฌแแแแแ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 17 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1999
แฃแแ แแแแแแ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
2020 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแก แกแแคแแฎแแฃแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
|
60751
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/222%20BC
|
222 BC
|
222 BC
Year 222 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Calvus (or, less frequently, year 532 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 222 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
By place
Roman Republic
Mediolanum (modern Milan), stronghold of the Gallic tribe of the Insubres (led by Viridomarus), falls to Roman legions in Lombardy (led by consul, Marcus Claudius Marcellus), in the Battle of Clastidium. Marcus Claudius Marcellus personally slays the chief, Viridomarus. This victory removes the Gallic threat to Rome. Marcellus wins the spolia opima ("spoils of honour": the arms taken by a general who kills an enemy chief in single combat) for the third and last time in Roman history.
Greece
Cleomenes III of Sparta is defeated in the Battle of Sellasia (north of Sparta) by Antigonus III and his allies, the Achaean League and the Illyrians (under the command of Demetrius of Pharos), and flees to Egypt under the protection of King Ptolemy III. Antigonus III's forces occupy Sparta, which is the first time this city has ever been occupied.
Almost all of Greece falls under Macedonian suzerainty after Antigonus III re-establishes the Hellenic Alliance as a confederacy of leagues, with himself as president.
Seleucid Empire
The Seleucid forces under their general Achaeus succeed in winning back, from Pergamum, all the Seleucid domains in Anatolia lost six years earlier.
Mithridates II of Pontus gives his daughter Laodice in marriage to the Seleucid king Antiochus III. Another of his daughters, also named Laodice, is married about the same time to Achaeus, a cousin of Antiochus.
China
The Qin general Wang Jian conquers Wuyue, forcing the capitulation of its ruler. The conquered region becomes the province of Kuaiji. This campaign completes the subjugation of the lands formerly held by the State of Chu, and it also serves as a precursor for the Qin campaign against the Yue tribes.
The Qin generals Wang Ben and Li Xin conquer Liaodong, thereby completing the subjugation of Yan.
Wang Ben conquers Dai, thereby completing the subjugation of Zhao.
Deaths
Ctesibius, Greek inventor and mathematician
Eucleidas, king of Sparta (killed in the Battle of Sellasia)
Ptolemy III Euergetes (the Benefactor), king of Egypt
Viridomarus, military leader of the Insubres (Gaul)
Xi of Yan, king of the Yan State (Warring States Period)
References
|
114282
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaparte%2C%20Iowa
|
Bonaparte, Iowa
|
Bonaparte, Iowa
Bonaparte is a city in Van Buren County, Iowa, United States. The population was 359 at the 2020 census.
The town is located on the Des Moines River and contains a number of historical buildings, including a large pottery.
History
The area was established in 1837 by William Meek, and named Meek's Mill. The lots were resurveyed in 1841, and the name was changed to Bonaparte. Another townsite called Napoleon was established across the river, though it was never developed. William Meek was an admirer of the Emperor, and was responsible for both names. The town was incorporated in 1899.
The town was flooded during the Flood of 1851.
Bonaparte is located along the historic Mormon Trail, and there are five sites in or near Bonaparte listed on the National Register of Historic Places:
Aunty Green Hotel
Bonaparte Historic Riverfront District
Bonaparte Pottery Archeological District
Meek's Flour Mill
Des Moines River Locks No. 5 and No. 7
Charles E. Pickett, who served two terms as a U.S. Representative from Iowa's 3rd congressional district, was born near Bonaparte.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
2010 census
At the 2010 census, there were 433 people, 190 households and 117 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 212 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 99.3% White, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 0.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.
There were 190 households, of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.2% were married couples living together, 15.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.4% were non-families. 33.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.91.
The median age was 37.3 years. 25.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 26.5% were from 45 to 64; and 15.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup was 48.0% male and 52.0% female.
2000 census
At the 2000 census, of 2000, there were 458 people, 190 households and 121 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 212 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup was 100.00% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.31% of the population.
There were 190 households, of which 32.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.3% were non-families. 31.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.02.
27.3% of the population were under the age of 18, 10.5% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.1 males.
The median household income was $28,438 and the median family income was $33,750. Males had a median income of $30,057 and females $19,479. The per capita income was $12,479. About 16.5% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.0% of those under age 18 and 20.0% of those age 65 or over.
Education
The community is served by the Van Buren County Community School District. It was previously in the Harmony Community School District, until it merged into Van Buren County CSD on July 1, 2019.
In the news
On October 14, 2006, five Bonaparte natives were murdered in their home. Michael Bentler, 53, his wife Sandra, 47, and their three daughters: Sheena, 17, Shelby, 15 and Shayne, 14, were pronounced dead at the scene. The family's oldest and surviving child, Shawn Michael Bentler, 22, was arrested in Illinois on unrelated drug charges. The following Sunday afternoon, he was charged with five counts of first-degree murder, in what has been characterized by the media as one of the worst mass murders in Iowa history. Shawn was found guilty on May 24, 2007.
On October 25, 1996, Bonaparte was the location of a supposed birthday party for Laura Van Wyhe, the 21-year-old mother who was found fatally injured hours later in Kahoka, Missouri. "Bonaparte" is the name of the 2021 podcast about the circumstances of her death, and her decades-old unsolved case.
Notable person
Ida Sedgwick Proper, writer and suffragist
References
Further reading
History of Bonaparte, from Van Buren County Historical Society.
External links
Bonaparte webpage
The Old Bonaparte Pottery
Cities in Iowa
Cities in Van Buren County, Iowa
|
443163
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%202016%20%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%20%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%96%E1%83%94
|
แแแฆแแแแแ 2016 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
|
แแแฆแแแแแ 2016 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
แแแฆแแแแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ แแแแแแฎแแแขแแ 2016 แฌแแแก, แแ แแแแแแแก แฅแแแแฅ แ แแ-แแ-แแแแแแ แแจแ แแแกแแแ แแแ. แแ แแแแแจแแแแ แแแ แแแ แชแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแ แขแฃแแ แแแฃแแแแ
แฅแแแงแแแแ 2016 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
แแแฆแแแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
แแแแแก แฅแแแงแแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
|
222141
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavatula%20sacerdos
|
Clavatula sacerdos
|
Clavatula sacerdos โ แแแแฃแกแแแแแก แขแแแแก แแฃแชแแแคแแฎแแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Turridae-แก แแฏแแฎแก.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฃแชแแแคแแฎแแแแแแ
|
267900
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแ แแแแฃแแจแแแแ
|
แแแแแแ แแแแฃแแจแแแแ (แ. 1928, แฅแแแแ แแแฉแฎแแแแ, แกแแฆแแแฆแแก แ แแแแแ โ แ. แแแแแกแ, 2013) โ แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฅแขแแ แ, แแ แแคแแกแแ แ.
แแแแแแแ 1928 แฌแแแก แกแแฆแแแฆแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแ แฅแแแแ แแแฉแฎแแแแจแ. 1944 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแกแแก แแแแแ แแ-7 แกแแจแฃแแแ แกแแแแ, แแแแแ แฌแแแก แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแ, แ แแแแแแช 1949 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแฅแแ แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แแกแแแ แแแขแฃแ แแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแกแ แฃแแ 1952 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแ แซแแแแจแแแแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ. 1954 แฌแแแก แแแแชแแ แแแกแแ แขแแชแแ แแแแแแ: โแญแแ -แแแแแฅแแแ (แแแ-แแแแกแแแ) XIX แก-แแก I แแแกแแแแแจแโ, แฎแแแ 1971 แฌแแแก - แกแแแแฅแขแแ แ แแแกแแ แขแแชแแ แแแแแแ: โแฐแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แกแแแแแฎแแแโ. 1960 แฌแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแแงแแคแแแแแแจแ แฏแแ แฃแคแ แแก, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแ แฌแแแงแแแ แแแชแแแแ -แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ.
แจแ แแแแแ
แแแแแแ แแแแฃแแจแแแแ แแ แแก 98 แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแจแ แแแแก แแแขแแ แ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแฅแแกแ แแแแแแ แแคแแแกแ. แแแกแ แแแแแฅแแแงแแแแฃแแ แฌแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ:
โแฐแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แกแแแแแฎแแแโ (1970)
โแญแแ -แแแแแฅแแแโ (1972)
โแ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแแ แกแแแแคแ - VIII-XI แกแก.โ (1982)
โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แแแ แแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแโ (1989)
โแฌแฃแฅแแแแก แกแแซแแแแแแโ (2002)
โแกแแแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแแโ (2013)
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ. แแแแฃแแจแแแแ, แกแแแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ, แแ., 2013
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแกแขแแ แแแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1928
แกแแฆแแแฆแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
|
25017621
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous%20Region%20of%20Pr%C3%ADncipe
|
Autonomous Region of Prรญncipe
|
Autonomous Region of Prรญncipe
The Autonomous Region of Prรญncipe is an autonomous administrative division of the Republic of Sรฃo Tomรฉ and Prรญncipe. Established on 29 April 1995, it covers the island of Prรญncipe and a number of small uninhabited islands around it, with an area of in total. As defined by the constitution of Sรฃo Tomรฉ and Prรญncipe, the Autonomous Region of Prรญncipe has a Regional Assembly and a Regional Government. Its population was 7,324 at the 2012 census; the latest official estimate was 8,420. It consists of a single district: Paguรฉ. Its seat is the town Santo Antรณnio.
Islands
The main island of the autonomous region is Prรญncipe. Smaller offshore islets are:
Ilhรฉu Bom Bom
Ilhรฉu Caroรงo
Tinhosa Grande
Tinhosa Pequena
History
In 1995, a few years after the country's democratic transition, Prรญncipe became an autonomous region. The island's first regional government was elected in the same year. The central government's failure to hold any local election in the years thereafter caused another popular protest in June 2006 that forced Prรญncipe's regional government to step down.
Population
Settlements
The main settlement is the town of Santo Antรณnio. Other settlements are:
Aeroporto
Belo Monte
Bom Viver
Hospital Velho
Ilhรฉu Bom Bom
Nova Estrela
Picรฃo
Portinho
Porto Real
Praia Inhame
Santa Rita
Sรฃo Joaquim
Sundy (or Sundi)
Terreiro Velho
Notable persons
Damiรฃo Vaz d'Almeida, a former president of the regional government of Prรญncipe from 1995 to 2002, and subsequently a prime minister of Sรฃo Tomรฉ and Prรญncipe from 2004 to 2005.
See also
List of presidents of the Regional Government of Prรญncipe
References
External links
Map of Prรญncipe
Principe portal
Histรณrias da Ilha do Prรญncipe
Prรญncipe
Prรญncipe
Prรญncipe
1995 establishments in Sรฃo Tomรฉ and Prรญncipe
States and territories established in 1995
|
318131
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%202014-2015
|
แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แจแฃแฅแฃแ แแก แกแแแแแ 2014-2015
|
แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แจแฃแฅแฃแ แแก แกแแแแแ 2014-2015
แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แจแฃแฅแฃแ แแก แกแแแแแ 2014-15, แแงแ แกแแคแแฎแแฃแ แแ แแแฃแ โแจแฃแฅแฃแ แแกโ แแแแแแแ แแ-2 แกแแแแแ แฃแแแฆแแแก แแแแแจแ แแฆแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ. แแ แกแแแแแจแ โแจแฃแฅแฃแ แแโ แแ แแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแจแ แแแแแแแ แแ-7 แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแก แแแแแแแจแแแแก 1/8 แคแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแจแ โแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแโ แแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแจแ.
แกแแแฌแแ แแแแแ แจแขแแแ
แขแฃแ แแแ แแแ
แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแ
แ = แฉแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แจแแฎแแแแ แ; แ = แแแแแแฃแแ; แค = แคแ แ; แฌ = แฌแแแแแฃแแ; แแข = แแแขแแแแแ แแแแ; แแจ = แแแจแแแแฃแแ แแแแ; แแก = แแแขแแแแ แแ แแแจแแแแฃแ แแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแ; แฅ = แฅแฃแแ.
แแแแแแ แแแ แแแ
แขแ แแแกแคแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแแ
* โ แแฏแแ แแ
** โ แแฏแแ แแแแ
แฌแแแแแแแ
* โ แแฏแแ แแ
** โ แแฏแแ แแแแ
แแฃแฅแ แจแ แแคแขแแ โ แขแ แแแกแคแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแ แแแแแ แแก แกแแขแ แแแกแคแแ แ แคแแแ แฏแแกแแก.
แกแฅแแแแ
2014-15
|
5436
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20relations%20of%20Cambodia
|
Foreign relations of Cambodia
|
Foreign relations of Cambodia
The Cambodian government has diplomatic relations with most countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, as well as all of its Asian neighbors, including China, India, Vietnam, Laos, South Korea, and Thailand. The government is a member of most major international organizations, including the United Nations and its specialized agencies such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The government is an Asian Development Bank (ADB) member, a member of ASEAN, and of the WTO. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural East Asia Summit. The government is also a member of the Pacific Alliance (as observer) and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (as dialogue partner).
International disputes
Cambodia is involved in a dispute regarding offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam. In addition, the maritime boundary Cambodia has with Vietnam is undefined. Parts of Cambodia's border with Thailand are indefinite, and the maritime boundary with Thailand is not clearly defined.
Illicit drugs
Cambodia is a transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin, and possibly a site of money laundering. There is corruption related to narcotics in parts of the government, military and police. Cambodia is also a possible site of small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production. The country is a large producer of cannabis for the international market.
International organization participation
ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), International Monetary Fund, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WB, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
Diplomatic relations
List of countries with which Cambodia maintains diplomatic relations with:
Bilateral relations
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Country with no relations
There are 17 countries that haven't establish any diplomatic relations with Cambodia:
See also
List of diplomatic missions in Cambodia
List of diplomatic missions of Cambodia
References
Further reading
Deth, Sok Udom, and Serkan Bulut, eds. Cambodia's Foreign Relations in Regional and Global Contexts (Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 2017; comprehensive coverage) full book online free.
Path Kosal, "Introduction: Cambodia's Political History and Foreign Relations, 1945-1998" pp 1โ26
Acharya, Amitav. The Making of Southeast Asia: International Relations of A Region (Cornell UP, 2012)
Chandler, David. The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War, and Revolution since 1945 (Yale UP, 1991)
Ciorciari, John D. "Cambodia in 2019: Backing Further into a Corner." Asian Survey 60.1 (2020): 125โ131. online
Clymer, Kenton. Troubled Relations: The United States and Cambodia since 1870 (Northern Illinois UP, 2007).
Leighton, Marian Kirsch. "Perspectives on the Vietnam-Cambodia border conflict." Asian Survey 18.5 (1978): 448โ457. online
Leng, Thearith. "2016: A Promising Year for Cambodia?." Southeast Asian Affairs (2017): 133โ146. online
Morris, Stephen J. Why Vietnam invaded Cambodia: Political culture and the causes of war (Stanford University Press, 1999).
Peou, Sorpong. "Cambodia in 2018: a year of setbacks and successes." Southeast Asian Affairs 2019.1 (2019): 104โ119. online
Richardson, Sophie. China, Cambodia and the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (Columbia UP, 2010)
Smith, Roger. Cambodia's Foreign Policy (Cornell UP, 1965).
Un, Kheang, and Jing Jing Luo. "Cambodia in 2019: Entrenching One-Party Rule and Asserting National Sovereignty in the Era of Shifting Global Geopolitics." Southeast Asian Affairs 2020.1 (2020): 117โ134. online
Westad, Odd Arne, and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds. The third Indochina war: conflict between China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972-79 (Routledge, 2006).
Womack, Brantly. "Asymmetry and systemic misperception: China, Vietnam and Cambodia during the 1970s." Journal of Strategic Studies 26.2 (2003): 92-119 online.
External links
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
US Department of State: Foreign relations with Southeast Asia 1961โ63
Foreign relations between Cambodia and Germany
Japan-Cambodia Relations
List of foreign embassies in Cambodia
Foreign relations between Cambodia and Australia
AsiaSociety: essays relating to the development of Cambodia
|
55220
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/If%20I%20Were%20You
|
If I Were You
|
If I Were You
{{แแแคแแแแคแ แกแแแแแ
| แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ = If I Were You
| แแแ แแแแแ = Were-you.jpg
| แจแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแ = Mike + The Mechanics
| แแแแแแ = Rewired
| แแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแฆแ = 2004
| แคแแ แแแขแ =
| แฉแแแฌแแ แ =
| แแแแ แ = แแแ-แ แแแ
| แฎแแแแ แซแแแแแแ =
| แแแแแแ = Virgin Records
| แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แ =
| แแแแแแ แ แแแขแแแแจแ =
| แกแแ แขแแคแแแแขแ =
| แฌแแแ แกแแแแแ = One Left Standing(1999)
| แแก แกแแแแแ = If I Were You(2004)
| แจแแแแแแ แกแแแแแ = Perfect Child(2004)
}}If I Were You''' โ แแ แแก แฏแแฃแคแแก Mike + The Mechanics แกแแแแแ 2004 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแ Rewired.
2004 แฌแแแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
2004 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแแ
Mike + The Mechanics-แแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
|
366531
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแแแแ
|
แแแแแแแแแ โ แจแขแแขแ แแแแแฃแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแงแแแก แงแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแก โ แแแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ. แจแขแแขแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ 2015 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแก 334 แแแแแแแแก, แฎแแแ แจแขแแขแแก แคแแ แแแแแ 52 แแยฒ. แขแแ แแขแแ แแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แจแขแแขแแ แแแแแฃแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Honorary Consulate of the Republic of Palau to the UK &NI
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแฃแก แจแขแแขแแแ
|
346153
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
|
แแแแ
|
แแแแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแแก แจแขแแขแจแ; แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 895 แแแขแ แแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแแก แจแขแแขแแก แขแ แแแแแฃแแฃ-แแแแแแ แฃ-แ-แแแขแฃ-แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแก. แจแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ -แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แแจแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 23 218 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 8.59 แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 2 704 132 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แจแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ, 2010 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแแแก-แแแ แแแกแแก แจแขแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
|
7745592
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chacha%20%28brandy%29
|
Chacha (brandy)
|
Chacha (brandy)
Chacha (chโachโa ) is a Georgian pomace brandy, clear and strong (ranging between 50% alcohol for commercially produced to 85% for home brew), which is sometimes called "wine vodka", "grape vodka", or "Georgian vodka/grappa". It is made of grape pomace (grape residue left after making wine). The term chacha is used in Georgia to refer to grape distillate. It may be also produced from unripe or wild grapes. Other common fruits or herbs used are figs, tangerines, oranges, mulberries or tarragon.
Many Georgians claim chacha has medicinal properties and is suggested as a remedy for a number of ailments, including ear blockages and indigestion. Also, it is claimed to cure stomach aches by applying it to the abdomen. It is also claimed to cure acne by applying to the face.
The Kakheti region, which is in the easternmost part of the country, accounts for 75% of all vineyards (approximately 33,000 hectares) in Georgia.
Traditionally only a homebrewed drink of Georgians, it is today commonly produced by professional distillers and most wineries who include it in their product range.
The type and flavor of the different varieties of local chacha can differ depending on the region in which they are produced. For example, chacha made by producers in the Kakheti region tend to have more of an oak flavoring than chacha made in the capital city of Tbilisi. Among the larger companies, some of the more popular include Chateau Mukharni, Teliani Valley, Telavi Wine Cellar, and Vazi+. These distilleries have enhanced the traditional flavor and aromas of chacha through the addition of natural ingredients. Teliani Valley, for instance, distills four types of distinct chacha: Gold, made in aged oak barrels; Silver, made only with pomace from Rkatsiteli grapes; Honey, in which the chacha is distilled with honeycombs; and Ice, a version with a higher alcoholic content. Vazi+ has commercialized three types of chacha under their โBinekhiโ label, all of which have proved to be exceedingly popular. All three types are distilled twice, and the most expensive โ Binekhi Estragon โ includes the addition of natural estragon.
One of the most famous chacha products is the Binekhi Estragon, which became distinguished with the silver medal at the 2007 Mundus Vini awards. Competing with over 5,000 other wines and spirits, Chateau Mukhrani's chacha won the gold medal at the 2011 Hong Kong International Wine and Spirits Competition. At the 2012 Chisinau Wines and Spirits Contest in the Republic of Moldova, the Traditional Winery of Kakheti won five silver medals for its chacha.
In 2005 the government of Georgia enacted new intellectual property legislation called the โLaw on Appellations of Origin and Geographical Indications of Goodsโ (the AOGI Law). This law primarily allows for the registrations of appellations of origin (AO) and geographical indications (GI) for wines, spirits, and mineral waters originating in Georgia. Many of Georgia's famous wines that make up the grape pomace were registered as AOs internationally through the Lisbon System for the International Registration of Appellations of Origin. On 13 December 2011, the Ministry of Agriculture of the Government of Georgia registered โchachaโ as the first GI in the country.
The city of Batumi, second largest city of Georgia has implemented a unique campaign based on the power of the chacha brand. In the center of the city, a 25-meter tower was built in 2012 that house an observation deck, clock, pools, and tourist information center. Outside the chacha tower is an ornate water fountain, which for 10 โ 15 minutes once per week flows with chacha made from local distillers instead of water.
References
External links
"Hvino News" - wine news from Republic of Georgia
Wines and Spirits of Georgia
Georgian Chacha
Pomace brandies
Georgian cuisine
Georgian vodkas
Georgian words and phrases
Georgian products with protected designation of origin
|
21324451
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel%20Intourist%20Palace
|
Hotel Intourist Palace
|
Hotel Intourist Palace
The Hotel Intourist Palace is a luxury hotel in Batumi, Georgia.
The hotel is located in the very centre of Batumi, on the seaside Ninoshvili boulevard on the Black Sea. Established in 1939, the hotel has since been an accommodation for over 450,000 foreign travellers, politician, diplomats, businessmen, and sportsmen. International conferences, symposiums and forums have also been held in the hotel.
The hotel has a notable casino, two restaurants, an open-air pool, an ATM in the lobby, a spa with sauna, Turkish bath, fitness centre and a range of massages.
References
External links
Hotels in Georgia (country)
Buildings and structures in Batumi
Hotels built in the Soviet Union
Hotels established in 1939
Hotel buildings completed in 1939
|
13170841
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Ginebrosa
|
La Ginebrosa
|
La Ginebrosa is a municipality located in the province of Teruel, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2018 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 200 inhabitants.
References
Municipalities in the Province of Teruel
|
544212
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
|
แฉแแ แแแแ
|
แฉแแ แแแแ, แงแแค. แแแแแ แแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแกแแแแก แแ แแแแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ, แ แฃแกแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแ 12 แแ-แแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแ. แกแแคแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแก แคแแแแ แแแฃแ แ แแแขแแกแขแ แแแ โแแแแแแกแแโ แแ แแแแแแแกแแแฃแแแ แคแแแแ แแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแ โแฉแแ แแแแโ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แกแแคแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแ แฉแแฃแงแแ แแก แแแแฃแจแแแแ แแแฉแแ แแแแแ แแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแชแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช 1844 แฌแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแจแฃแ แ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแ แ แกแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ. แกแแคแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแค แฃแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแฃแจแแแแกแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแฅ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแฃแจแ แฎแแแฎแแก แแแแงแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแฅ แแแแแแแกแแแฃแแ แแงแ แ แแแแแฃแชแแแก แจแขแแแ.
1944 แฌแแแแ แกแแคแแ แฉแแ แแแแก แแ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแ แฉแแฉแแแ-แแแแฃแจแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแญแแแ แกแแชแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแ แแแแ แแงแ แแแแฃแจแแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แชแแแขแ แ. แแแ แซแแ, แแฅ 1917 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแฃแจแแแจแ แแแแแชแฎแแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแ.
แกแแคแแแก แแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ. แแฅ แแแแฎแกแแ แแแแฃแจแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแแ. แแ แกแแคแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ, แแแชแแแแ แแแ, แแฌแแ แแแแ, แแแแขแแแ, แกแแแ แขแกแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแ, แแฌแแ แแแ แแ แแแชแแแแ แ แแแ แแก แแแแแ แแแแ, แแแแขแ แ. แฉแแฎแแแแแ, แแแคแแก แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ แ. แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแ. แแแแ แกแแแแแฃแแ แแแแก แฌแแแแจแ แแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แขแแแแแฃแ
แ แแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแแแ. แแแแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแขแ แ แแแแแแฎแแแ แ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแก แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แฃแชแฎแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแขแกแแฎแแแแ โแแแแแ แแแโ แแฌแแแแแแแ.
1944 แฌแแแก, แแแแฃแจแแแแก แจแฃแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแ แขแแชแแแกแ แแ แฉแแฉแแแ-แแแแฃแจแแแแก แแกแกแ -แก แแแฃแฅแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แกแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแชแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแกแแแแก แแกแกแ -แก แแ แแฌแแแ แฉแแ แแแแ. แกแแคแแแจแ แแแแฌแงแแก แฉแแกแแฎแแแแ แแกแแแแ แแ แฃแกแแก แฎแแแแแแแ (แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แงแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแ). แแกแแแ, แแกแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแ (แแแแแแแ). แแกแแ แฎแแแแ แงแแแแแแแก แแแแก แซแแ แจแ, แกแแแแแแแช แกแแแแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแ.
1957 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแ แแแแฃแจแแแ. แกแแคแแแ แกแแแ แซแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แ แแแ แจแแ แแฃแ แกแแคแแแ แแแแแแฅแชแ. แกแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแกแ แแ แแแแฃแจแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แจแแ แแก แแแฉแแฆแแแฃแแ แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแก (แแ แแแแ แแแแแก แแแแคแแแฅแขแ) แแ แแก.
1992 แฌแแแก แแแแคแแแฅแขแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแคแแแ แกแแ แแแฌแแแแ แแแแงแ: แฉแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแฃแจแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ, แฎแแแ แชแแแขแ แจแ โ แแกแแแ. แแกแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แกแแคแแแ แ แฃแกแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แกแแแแแแจแ แกแแกแฌแแแแ แแ แแชแแกแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแจแแแแแ แแแงแแคแแแ.
แแแกแแฎแแแแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแ แแแแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
290921
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius%20of%20Salamis
|
Epiphanius of Salamis
|
Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310โ320 โ 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy. He is best known for composing the Panarion, a compendium of eighty heresies, which included also pagan religions and philosophical systems. There has been much controversy over how many of the quotations attributed to him by the Byzantine Iconoclasts were actually by him. Regardless of this he was clearly strongly against some contemporary uses of images in the church.
Life
Epiphanius was either born into a Romaniote Christian family or became a Christian in his youth. Either way, he was a Romaniote Jew who was born in the small settlement of Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis (modern-day Beit Guvrin in Israel), and lived as a monk in Egypt, where he was educated and came into contact with Valentinian groups. He returned to Roman Palestine around 333, when he was still a young man, and he founded a monastery at Ad nearby, which is often mentioned in the polemics of Jerome with Rufinus and John, Bishop of Jerusalem. He was ordained a priest, and lived and studied as superior of the monastery in Ad that he founded for thirty years and gained much skill and knowledge in that position. In that position he gained the ability to speak in several tongues, including Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin, and was called by Jerome on that account Pentaglossos ("Five tongued").
His reputation for learning prompted his nomination and consecration as Bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, in 365 or 367, a post which he held until his death. He was also the Metropolitan of the Church of Cyprus. He served as bishop for nearly forty years, as well as travelled widely to combat differing beliefs. He was present at a synod in Antioch (376) where the Trinitarian questions were debated against the heresy of Apollinarianism. He upheld the position of Bishop Paulinus, who had the support of Rome, over that of Meletius of Antioch, who was supported by the Eastern Churches. In 382 he was present at the Council of Rome, again upholding the cause of Paulinus.
Origenist controversy and death
During a visit to Palestine in 394 or 395, while preaching in Jerusalem, he attacked Origen's followers and urged the Bishop of Jerusalem, John II, to condemn his writings. He urged John to be careful of the "offence" of images in the churches. He noted that when travelling in Palestine he went into a church to pray and saw a curtain with an image of Christ or a saint which he tore down. He told Bishop John that such images were "opposed . . . to our religion" (see below). This event sowed the seeds of conflict which erupted in the dispute between Rufinus and John against Jerome and Epiphanius. Epiphanius fuelled this conflict by ordaining a priest for Jerome's monastery at Bethlehem, thus trespassing on John's jurisdiction. This dispute continued during the 390s, in particular in the literary works by Rufinus and Jerome attacking one another.
In 399, the dispute took on another dimension, when the Bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, who had initially supported John, changed his views and started persecuting Origenist monks in Egypt. As a result of this persecution, four of these monks, the so-called Tall Brothers, fled to Palestine, and then travelled to Constantinople, seeking support and spreading the controversy. John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, gave the monks shelter. Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria saw his chance to use this event to bring down his enemy Chrysostom: in 402 he summoned a council in Constantinople, and invited those supportive of his anti-Origenist views. Epiphanius, by this time nearly 80, was one of those summoned, and began the journey to Constantinople. However, when he realised he was being used as a tool by Theophilus against Chrysostom, who had given refuge to the monks persecuted by Theophilus and who were appealing to the emperor, Epiphanius started back to Salamis, only to die on the way home in 403.
The curtain incident
Letter LI in Jerome's letters gives Jerome's Latin translation, made at Epiphanius' request, of his letter, originally in Greek from c. 394, "From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem" (see previous section for wider context). The final section covers the often quoted incident of the curtain, which unlike other passages attributed to Epiphanius and quoted by the Iconoclasts, is accepted as authentic by modern scholars:
9. Moreover, I have heard that certain persons have this grievance against me: When I accompanied you to the holy place called Bethel, there to join you in celebrating the Collect, after the use of the Church, I came to a villa called Anablatha and, as I was passing, saw a lamp burning there. Asking what place it was, and learning it to be a church, I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loth that an image of a man should be hung up in Christโs church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person. They, however, murmured, and said that if I made up my mind to tear it, it was only fair that I should give them another curtain in its place. As soon as I heard this, I promised that I would give one, and said that I would send it at once. Since then there has been some little delay, due to the fact that I have been seeking a curtain of the best quality to give to them instead of the former one, and thought it right to send to Cyprus for one. I have now sent the best that I could find, and I beg that you will order the presbyter of the place to take the curtain which I have sent from the hands of the Reader, and that you will afterwards give directions that curtains of the other sortโopposed as they are to our religionโshall not be hung up in any church of Christ. A man of your uprightness should be careful to remove an occasion of offence unworthy alike of the Church of Christ and of those Christians who are committed to your charge. Beware of Palladius of Galatiaโa man once dear to me, but who now sorely needs God's pityโfor he preaches and teaches the heresy of Origen; and see to it that he does not seduce any of those who are intrusted to your keeping into the perverse ways of his erroneous doctrine. I pray that you may fare well in the Lord.
Writings
Panarion
His best-known book is the Panarion (from Latin panarium, "bread basket" < panis, "bread"), also known as Adversus Haereses, "Against Heresies", presented as a book of antidotes for those bitten by the serpent of heresy. Written between 374 and 377, it forms a handbook for dealing with the arguments of heretics.
It lists, and refutes, 80 heresies, some of which are not described in any other surviving documents from the time. Epiphanius begins with the 'four mothers' of pre-Christian heresy โ 'barbarism', 'Scythism', 'Hellenism' and 'Judaism' โ and then addresses the 16 pre-Christian heresies that have flowed from them: four philosophical schools (Stoics, Platonists, Pythagoreans and Epicureans), and 12 Jewish sects. There then follows an interlude, telling of the Incarnation of the Word. After this, Epiphanius embarks on his account of the 60 Christian heresies, from assorted gnostics to the various trinitarian heresies of the fourth century, closing with the Collyridians and Messalians.
While Epiphanius often let his zeal come before facts โ he admits on one occasion that he writes against the Origenists-based only on hearsay (Panarion, Epiphanius 71) โ the Panarion is a valuable source of information on the Christian Church of the fourth century. It is also an important source regarding the early Jewish gospels such as the Gospel according to the Hebrews circulating among the Ebionites and the Nazarenes, as well as the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus.
One unique feature of the Panarion is in the way that Epiphanius compares the various heretics to different poisonous beasts, going so far as to describe in detail the animal's characteristics, how it produces its poison, and how to protect oneself from the animal's bite or poison. For example, he describes his enemy Origen as "a toad noisy from too much moisture which keeps croaking louder and louder." He compares the Gnostics to a particularly dreaded snake "with no fangs." The Ebionites, a Christian sect that followed Jewish law, were described by Epiphanius as "a monstrosity with many shapes, who practically formed the snake-like shape of the mythical many-headed Hydra in himself." In all, Epiphanius describes fifty animals, usually one per sect.
Another feature of the Panarion is the access its earlier sections provide to lost works, notably Justin Martyr's work on heresies, the Greek of Irenaeus' Against Heresies, and Hippolytus' Syntagma. The Panarion was first translated into English in 1987 and 1990.
Other works
His earliest known work is the Ancoratus (the well anchored man), which includes arguments against Arianism and the teachings of Origen. Aside from the polemics by which he is known, Epiphanius wrote a work of biblical antiquarianism, called, for one of its sections, On Weights and Measures (ฯฮตฯแฝถ ฮผฮญฯฯฯฮฝ ฮบฮฑแฝถ ฯฯฮฌฮธฮผฯฮฝ). It was composed in Constantinople for a Persian priest, in 392, and survives in Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian translations (this last is found in Shatberd ms 1141 along with Physiologus and De Gemmis). The first section discusses the canon of the Old Testament and its versions, the second of measures and weights, and the third, the geography of Palestine. The texts appear not to have been given a polish but consist of rough notes and sketches, as Allen A. Shaw, a modern commentator, concluded; nevertheless Epiphanius' work on metrology was important in the history of measurement.
Another work, On the Twelve Gems (De Gemmis), survives in a number of fragments, the most complete of which is the Georgian. The letter written by Epiphanius to John, Bishop of Jerusalem, in 394 and preserved in Jerome's translation, is discussed above. The collection of homilies traditionally ascribed to a "Saint Epiphanius, bishop" are dated in the late fifth or sixth century and are not connected with Epiphanius of Salamis by modern scholars.
Such was Epiphanius's reputation for learning that the Physiologus, the principal source of medieval bestiaries, came to be widely falsely attributed to him.
Works
The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1โ46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden)
The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book II and III (Sects 47โ80, De Fide) Frank Williams, translator, 1993 (E.J. Brill, Leiden)
The Panarion of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis Philip R. Amidon, translator, 1990 (Oxford University Press, New York) (This translation contains selections rather than the full work.)
Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, James Elmer Dean, ed, 1935. (Chicago) [English translation of On Weights and Measures; available at Epiphanius of Salamis, Weights and Measures (1935) pp.11-83. English translation]
Epiphanius de Gemmis: the Old Georgian Version and the Fragments of the Armenian Version. ed. Robert Pierpont Blake; de Vis, H. (1934). London: Christophers.
Epiphanius von Salamis, รber die zwรถlf Steine im hohepriesterlichen Brustschild (De duodecim gemmis rationalis). Nach dem Codex Vaticanus Borgianus Armenus 31 herausgegeben und รผbersetzt by Felix Albrecht and Arthur Manukyan (Gorgias Eastern Christian Studies 37), 2014 (Gorgias Press: Piscataway) (German edition).
Anacephalaiosis (originally thought to be the work of Epihanius of Salamis, although this opinion is now disputed).
Notes
References
Kitzinger, Ernst, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 8, (1954), pp. 83โ150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, JSTOR
Kim, Young Richard. Epiphanius of Cyprus: Imagining an Orthodox World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Jacobs, Andrew S. Epiphanius of Cyprus: A Cultural Biography of Late Antiquity. Christianity in Late Antiquity. Oakland: University of California Press, 2016.
External links
St Epiphanius of Salamis Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion
Epiphanius, On Biblical Weights and Measures English translation of a Syriac text
Some excerpts from the Panarion
(The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Book I Sects 1-46)
Letter from Epiphianus, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
Stephen Craft Goranson, The Joseph of Tiberias Episode in Epiphanius: Studies in Jewish and Christian Relations (1990)
4th-century births
403 deaths
4th-century Byzantine bishops
4th-century Christian saints
5th-century Byzantine bishops
Ancient Christians involved in controversies
Christian anti-Gnosticism
Archbishops of Cyprus
Church Fathers
Cypriot Jews
Cypriot non-fiction writers
Cypriot Roman Catholic saints
Doctors of the Church
Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire
People who died at sea
Romaniote Jews
Saints from the Holy Land
Year of birth unknown
Aniconism
4th-century Byzantine writers
|
310320
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%98
|
แคแ แแแ
|
แคแ แแแ
แแแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแแจแ, แคแ แแแ (แซแ. แแแ แกแ), แคแ แแ (แซแ. แแแ แแแแฃแแ), แคแ แแ (แแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแแ) แแ แคแ แแฏแ (แซแ. แแแแแแกแฃแ แ) แแ แแก แแขแแแกแคแแ แแก แฅแแแฆแแแ แแ, แแ แฆแ แฃแแแแแแก. แแแแฅแแแก แงแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแจแ แแก แแ แแก แแแฎแกแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแแแแก แชแแแ. แแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแ แกแแก แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแก แแ แแก แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ แฅแแแฆแแแ แ แคแฃแแแกแแแ. แแแแแแกแฃแ แ แแแแ แแก แแฆแ แแแ แแกแแแแ (Friday) (แซแ. แแแแแแกแฃแ แ "Frฤซge's day" ) แแขแแ แแแก แแแก แกแแฎแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แคแ แแแ โ แฃแชแฎแ แกแแขแงแแแแ แแแฅแกแแแแแ
แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แฅแแแฆแแแ แแแแ
แฌแแแแกแฌแแ แแแขแงแแแแ แฅแแแฆแแแ แแแแ
|
217846
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%29
|
แแแแ (แฅแแแแฅแ)
|
แแแแ (แฅแแแแฅแ)
แแแแ โ แฅแแแแฅแ แแกแขแแแแแจแ, แขแแ แขแฃแแแแก แแแแ แแจแ. 2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 5 762 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก, แคแแ แแแแ 9,92 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแแแแจแ แแ แ แแแแ แขแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแ แแแแก แขแแแก แฅแแแจแแแแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแ แแฅแแก, แ แแแแแแช แซแแแแแ แแแแฃแแแ แฃแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแจแ, แแ แแ แแก แแฅ แแแแ แแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฆแแแแกแซแแแแ แฆแแ แชแแก แฅแแแจ. แแแแ แ, แแ แแแก แขแแแก แแแแฅแแจแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแฅแแก.
แแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแช 1886-1889 แฌแแแแจแ แขแแ แขแฃ-แแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ, แแแแแแ แฉแแแงแแ แ แกแแคแฃแซแแแแ แแแแแกแแช. แแ แ-แแ แ แแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแแแจแ แแก แแแ แแแแแ 1889 แฌแแแก แแฎแกแแแแแแ. แกแแฎแแแ แแฌแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแกแแแ. 1913 แฌแแแก แแแแฎแกแแ แแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแแแ แกแแแแ. 1938 แฌแแแก แแแแแแญแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แกแขแแขแฃแกแ.
แแแซแแแแแแแแฃแแ แฅแแแแฅแแแ
แแแแแแแ, แคแแแแแ
แแ แแกแขแแแแฐแแแแ, แจแแแแแแ
แกแแแ , แคแแแแแ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแกแขแแแแแแก แฅแแแแฅแแแแก แกแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแกแขแแแแแแก แฅแแแแฅแแแ
|
352883
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%20%28%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A6%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%29
|
แแ แแแฅแแแ (แแฃแ แฆแฃแแ)
|
แแ แแแฅแแแ (แแฃแ แฆแฃแแ)
แแ แแแฅแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแฆแแแก แ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแฃแ แฆแฃแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ โ 184 แแแชแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฃแ แฆแฃแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
380920
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%20%282017%20%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%29
|
แแแแแ แแแจแแ (2017 แฌแแแก แคแแแแ)
|
แแแแแ แแแจแแ (2017 แฌแแแก แคแแแแ)
โแแแแแ แแแจแแโ โ 2017 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แคแแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแ แแ, แ แแแแแก แ แแแแกแแ แ แแ แแแแแกแชแแแแ แแกแขแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแ. แแแ แแ แแก แกแขแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแก แกแแ แแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแ, แแแ แแก แแแแแก แ แแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแก แ แแแจแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ. แ แแแแแแ แแกแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แฃแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแก แแแแแ แแแจแแ - แแแแฃแ แ แกแขแ แฃแฅแขแฃแ แ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแแฃแแแ แงแแแแ แกแแแงแแ แ. แแแแแแ แ แฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แแแแ แแ แฃแแแขแแ แ'แแแแ (แแแแแฃ แแแ-แแแแแฐแ), โแแแแแแแชแ แจแแแแแจแโ.
แแแแแแแแแ แแงแ, แ แแ แคแแแแ แแฅแแแแแแ แจแแกแแแแแ แขแแแแกแแ แแแแแกแแแแก. แแแกแจแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแ แช โแแแแแ แแแจแแแกโ แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แแแแแแแขแแแ แฌแแแแแแแแแ โแแแแแแโ แแ โแแแฅแขแแ แ แซแแแโ. แแแฅแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแจแ แแ แ แแแแแแแก แแจแแแแแฃแ แจแฃแ-แกแแแงแแ แแจแ. แแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแงแแแ แฃแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแก แแแแจแแ แก แฃแคแ แ แแแ แแฃแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แ แแ แแแ แแ แแคแฃแซแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแก แแ แ แกแแฃแแแขแก.
แคแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแแจแ, 2917 แฌแแแก 31 แแแแแกแก, แฎแแแ แซแแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแ แแจแจ-แจแ 4 แแแแแกแขแแก แแแแฌแงแ, Columbia Pictures-แแก แแแกแขแ แแแฃแชแแแ. แแแแฃแจแแแแ แแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แจแแคแแกแแแแแ แแแแฆแ - โแแแฃแแแแแ แ แจแแแแแ แกแแกโ, แแกแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แฌแแแแแแแกแแแ แจแแ แก แแงแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแ แกแแแแ แขแแแแก แแแแ. แแแแกแแแ, แแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแขแแแแกแแ แแแแแแแแแ แจแแแคแแกแ แแแแแก แแ แแแ-แแแแแฐแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ. แคแแแแแก แจแแแแกแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ 110.3 แแแแแแแ แแจแจ แแแแแ แ.
แกแแฃแแแขแ
แฏแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแ 11 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแงแแแ แฃแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแแแฉแแแก แแแ แแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแงแแ แแก แแ แกแแแแแแก. แแแ แแแฎแแแแแ แจแฃแ-แกแแแงแแ แแจแ แแ แฎแแแแแ แแกแ แแแแแก, แ แแแแแ แแแกแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแช, แแแแแก แแฎแ แแ, แแซแแแก แแแแ แแแจแแก, แฃแแแแแกแแแแแแก แแแแแกแแ แฉแแแแ. แแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแกแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแฃแฅแ แแแ แ แแแแแ แคแแแแแก, แแแแแ แฃแแแขแแ แ'แแแแแก, แจแแแแแจแ แฉแแชแแฃแแ แแแแแแแชแแก แฉแแ แแแ.
แ แแแแแจแ
แแแ แแก แแแแ โ แ แแแแแ แแแกแแแแแ/แแกแ แแแแแ แ แแแแกแแ แ แแแแแแแก แแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ
แแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แฎแแแแ, แแแกแฌแแแแ แแแกแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ. โแแแ แแกแก แแแกแแฃแแ แ แแแแแแแแกแแแแแแก แแ แแ-แขแแขแแก แฎแแแแแแ. แแแแแแฎแแแแ, แแฃ แแแ แแงแ แแก แแแ แกแแแแแ. แ แ แแ แแก แแแกแ แแแแแแ? แ แ แแ แแก แแแกแ แคแกแแฅแแแแแแ? แแแแแแขแแ แแกแแแแ, แแแแฎแแแแแ แแฃ แแ แ แฉแแแแ แฎแแแแแแ. แแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแฎแแ. แ แแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแ แแแฅแแแแ.โ แกแขแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ: โแแแแฌแแแก. แแคแแฅแ แแ, แกแแแชแแ แ แแกแแฎแแแแแ, แแฆแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แกแแฃแแแแแกแ.โ โแฉแแแแแแก แแก แแแ แกแแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแฅแแแก แกแแ แฏแ แแแแแแก แแแ แกแแแแแ, แฃแกแแฎแแแ แแแแแแแชแแแแ. แแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแงแแก แแแแ แ แแ แจแแแ, แฉแแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแ แแแ. แแแแแฎแแแแ แแกแขแแ แแแกแแแแก แแก แแแแ แกแแแแขแแ แแกแ แแแ แแแชแแแก แฅแแแแก.โ
แแแแแฃ แแแ-แแแแแฐแ โ แฃแแแขแแ แ'แแแแ / แฃแแแขแแ แแแแแแ / แแแแแแแชแ แจแแแแแจแ. แฃแแแแแแ แแ แซแแแฃแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แกแฃแ แก แแแจแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแ แงแแแแ แกแแแงแแ แแก แแแ แแแ. แแแ-แแแแแฐแแก แแ แฉแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแ: โแแแแแฃ แจแแกแแแแจแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แงแแแแแคแแ แ แจแแฃแซแแแ. แแแแก แแคแแฅแ แแ แฃแแแขแแ แแ. แแแกแแช แงแแแแแคแแ แ แจแแแซแแ.โ แแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ: โแแแ แฃแแแแแแ แแ แซแแแฃแแแ. แ แแแแ แช แกแขแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแงแแแ แฃแแก, แฌแแแแแแแฎแแแก แแ แแแฎแแแแแก แฃแแแขแแ แ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแฎแแโ.
แขแแ แขแแแแแ แ โ แฏแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแ
แแแแฃแแแ แแแแ โ แแ แ แจแแแแแแแแแ
แคแ แแ แแ แแแชแ โ แแแแแ
แแแ แแ แแแ แจแแฃ โ แขแแ แแแ
แฏแแแ แแ แ แฐแแแแ โ แกแแแ แ
แแแแ แแ แฃแแแแแ โ แแแ แ แฉแแแแแ แแ
แแแแแก แฐแแแกแแแ แขแ โ แกแขแแแแ แแแกแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแก แแแแ
แแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แ โ แขแแแ
แฎแแกแ แแฃแแแแ โ แแฅแแแ แฐแแฉแแแกแ
แแแแฅแก แแแแแ แแแแ แ โ แกแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแก แฐแแแแแขแแแ โ แแฃแแแก แฐแแแกแแแ
แแ-แแแข แแแแฏแแแ โ แขแแฐแแแ
แจแแแแจแแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแฅแแแแ
2017 แฌแแแก แคแแแแแแ
แแแแ แแแฃแแ แคแแแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแจแแ
Columbia Pictures-แแก แคแแแแแแ
แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แคแแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแก แคแแแแแแ
|
18836796
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C9%99mirli%2C%20Agdam
|
Nษmirli, Agdam
|
Nษmirli, Agdam
Nษmirli (also, Namarly and Namyrly) is a village in the Agdam Rayon of Azerbaijan.
References
Populated places in Aghdam District
|
33283033
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20University%20of%20Tbilisi
|
Free University of Tbilisi
|
Free University of Tbilisi
Free University is a private research university in Tbilisi, Georgia, founded by Kakha Bendukidze, Georgian statesman, businessman and philanthropist often regarded as the Man Who Remade Georgia. Founded in 2007, the university has grown to comprise seven undergraduate and graduate schools, among which are, the university's oldest, School of International Relations, School of Business, Architecture, Governance and Social Sciences, Mathematics and Computer Science, Physics, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Law, and School of Visual Arts and Design.
The main goal of Kakha Bendukidze, FreeUni's founder, was to provide opportunities for a quality education to every motivated person in Georgia, regardless of his or her financial conditions. Benudkidze believed that clarity of purpose and the future were essential to any human endeavour.
The Free University is organized into 7 constituent schools: the university's oldest, International Relations (Institute of Asia and Africa), School of Business, Law, Physics, Computer Sciences and Math, Visual Arts and Design, Governance and Social Sciences. While the Free University is governed by a combination of its Board of Overseers and the Knowledge Foundation, each school's faculty oversees its curriculum and degree programs. In addition to a central campus shared with Agricultural University of Georgia in downtown Tbilisi, the University owns facilities all around Georgia, including Anaseuli Education Center.
The current Rector of The Free University is Vakhtang Lezhava. There are 56 full-time and 84 part-time lecturers. 44 hold PhDs; 25 are PhD students. The programs are run on a daily basis by deans and academic coordinators.
Kakha Bendukidze
The Free University was founded by Kakha Bendukidze (20 April 1956 โ 13 November 2014), Georgian statesman, businessman and philanthropist. The main aim of Kakha Bendukidze was providing opportunities for a quality education for every motivated adult, regardless of financial conditions, was the goal of Kakha Bendukidze. He made unprecedented investments in education in Georgia. Since the foundation of the Knowledge Foundation and head of the united supervisory board of Agricultural and Free Universities.
A biologist by education, Bendukidze started his own business, Bioprocess, which manufactured biochemicals for scientific research in 1987. Soon he became known as one of Russiaโs leading libertarians. He led a working group on tax and currency within the Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs and pressed for changes in tax policy, which ultimately included adoption of a flat 13 percent tax rate. In Russia, he was a strong opponent of government intervention in the economy, a view that put him at odds with President Vladimir Putin. Soon Bendukidze sold his stake and moved back to Georgia.
After the Rose Revolution, shortly after returning from Russia, he was appointed as Minister of Economy by former President Mikheil Saakashvili and the late Prime Minister Zurab Jvania in 2004. He served as Georgian Minister of Economy (JuneโDecember 2004), Minister for Reform Coordination (December 2004 โ January 2008) and Head of the Chancellery of Government of Georgia (February 2008 โ February 2009) and was the author of liberal reforms that overhauled Georgiaโs post-Soviet economy.
The appointment of Bendukidze and his service as the Minister of Economics gave Georgia a yearly 9.3% economic growth in 2004โ2007 and almost four times more foreign investments. The government managed to decrease the taxes fourfold, the number of licenses by 90% and liberalize the labour market. These liberal steps were what led to the formation of the previously almost non-existent middle class.
He created a charity called the Knowledge Foundation, and he was the force behind the establishment of the Free University of Tbilisi and the Agricultural University of Georgia.
Faculties
The School of International Relations - the oldest School at the University - began as the Institute of Asia and Africa in 1991 and retains a special emphasis on cultures and politics. In the past, that has meant extensive offerings on the cultures and languages of the Near, Middle East, and Far East. Now the program also offers European and the US studies.
The program in international relations prepares students for careers in diplomacy, foreign policy, defence, national security, international organizations, international business, and education. Apart from the broad range of courses in international diplomacy, political theory, law, and economics. The curriculum provides knowledge in literature, culture, religion and history with a choice of specialization in one language.
The Business School began as the independent European School of Management and for more than 20 years has been the leader of business education in Georgia. The program includes a rich variety of courses at both undergraduate and graduate (MA) levels, such as: management, marketing, accounting and finance, business studies, operations management, business in action, etc. The principal defining feature of the program is teaching business in action. This ensures breadth and generality and encourages flexibility, creativity, and entrepreneurship.
The Computer Science and Mathematics (MACS) program offers a bachelor's degree with two concentrations, one in mathematics and the other on computer science. Students choose one of the concentrations to better focus their education in that particular direction. The MACS program has the highest-performing students in Georgia according to their performance on the Georgian Unified National Examinations. For example, the top seven scorers on the 2014 Exam are currently enrolled in the MACS program.
The undergraduate program in Governance and Social Sciences offers liberal arts education covering the social sciences and humanities. Students gain knowledge in the fields of philosophy, anthropology, sociology, psychology, history, art, and literature. A top priority is to encourage independent thought and critical analysis. Students work closely with classic texts and engage in heated discussions and debates, engage in studies in different fields. Additionally, students take courses in business, economy, law, and project management to further prepare them for career development and future leadership in government, commercial and non-government organizations, and the media.
The four-year undergraduate program in Physics provides a solid foundation leading to a B.S. degree in Physics. The program exposes students to both traditional and cutting-edge areas of physics: astrophysics and general relativity, condensed-matter physics, and particle physics. The degree provides a sound basis either for entering graduate school or for pursuing a variety of careers in various sectors.
References
External links
Future Diplomats' Club official Page
Universities in Georgia (country)
Free University of Tbilisi
Education in Tbilisi
Educational institutions established in 2007
2007 establishments in Georgia (country)
|
57753
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%90
|
แแแแ
|
แแแแ, แแแแแก แฎแ โ แแแแแ แฉแฎแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแ. แแแคแฎแฃแแแฌแแแแ แฎแแ. แแแกแ แกแแแแฆแแ 30 แแแขแ แก, แแแแแแขแ แ แแ 1 แแแขแ แก แแฆแฌแแแก. แแฅแแก แแฃแ แ-แ แฃแฎแ แแ แแแแฅแแแก แจแแแ แฅแแ แฅแ, 5-7 แแแแแแแแแ แแฌแแแแ แคแแแแแ. แแแงแแคแ แแแแแแกแแแ แแ (แแ แชแแแ), แแแ แแแแฅแแแก แฐแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแ แแแคแแ แฉแฎแฃแแ แคแ แแแกแแแ แ แแแแแแแขแแแแ (โแแ แคแ แแแแแโ).
แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แกแแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแจแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแแ แแแแแแกแแแจแ, แจแแ แแฃแแแ แงแแแแ แคแแแแแแแ (แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแฃแฎแแแ แแแจแ) แแ แฌแแฌแแแแแ แขแงแแจแ, แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 2000 แ-แแแ (แ. แ. แแแขแฌแแแแ แกแฃแแแแแฃแ แกแแ แขแงแแแแแ).
แฎแแ แแแก แแแงแแแ แแ แขแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแขแแแก แแแก แแแแแแจแแแแก แแ แฉแแแฃแแแแฃแ แขแแแแแแแแแก. แฉแ แแแแแก แแแขแแแแ. แงแแแแแแแแก แแแแกแจแ แคแแแแแก แแแจแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ. แแกแฎแแแแแ แแแก แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ. แกแฌแ แแคแแแแ แแแ, 50-60 แฌแแแกแ แกแ แฃแ แกแแแแฆแแแก แแฆแฌแแแก. แแแญแ แแก แจแแแแแ แฃแฎแแแ แแแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแงแแ แก แแ แแ แแแแกแแแแก 80 แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แฉแฃแแแแก. แแแแแแ, แจแแแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแ แแฅแ แแกแคแแ แแ แแ แฌแแแแแ. แแแฆ-แแแ แแแแจแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแแ แฎแแแแแแแแ, แฏแแฃแคแแแแ แแ แแฃแแแ. แแแคแแแแแแแ. แคแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแแแแ แจแแ แแ แงแแแแแ แกแแฆแแแแแก.
แแแแ แแ, แแแแแ , แแแงแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแ แฅแแแก แกแแแฃแ แแแ แแ แกแแฎแแ แแขแ แกแแฅแแแจแ แแงแแแแแแ. แแ แกแแแแแก แแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแแฆแแก แคแแ แแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแแ แฉแฎแแแกแแแ แแ
|
21827785
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubkhaes
|
Nubkhaes
|
Nubkhaes (The Gold [=Hathor] appears) was an ancient Egyptian queen with the titles Great Royal Wife and the one united with the beauty of the white crown. She is so far only known from her family stela now in the Louvre and a few later references. The stela is the main monument of the queen. Here is mentioned her father Dedusobek Bebi and other family members, many of them high court officials. These are all datable to about the time of king Sobekhotep IV.
The husband of the queen is not mentioned on the stela, but it is assumed that he was one of the successors of Sobekhotep IV, as his wife is known and Nubkhaes belongs to a generation after Sobekhotep IV. Khons was a daughter of the queen. She married a vizier coming from Elkab.
Family
Attestation
This queen is only attested in Upper Egypt between Thebes and Elephantine. However, she comes from a family who is well attested. At Thebes, Sobekemsaf II is said to have been buried with a queen Nubkhaes.
Thebes (?), Stela Louvre C 13 | as Iripat, Great King's Wife, United with the White Crown
Elephantine, Statue Kaiser, MDAIK 28, 188 | as Great King's Wife
Elkab, Tomb 64 (9) | In this later monument we learn that King's Wife Nubkhaes is the mother of King's Daughter Khonsu who is married to Governor of Elkab Ay. Also mentioned is King's Wife Senebsen, wife of Neferhotep I.
Theories
Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton suggest that she was married to either Sobekhotep V, Sobekhotep VI or Wahibre Ibiau.
References
18th-century BC women
Queens consort of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Great Royal Wives
|
329502
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
|
แกแฃแแแฅแแก แ แแแแแ
|
แกแฃแแแฅแแก แ แแแแแ โ แ แแแแแ แงแแ แแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แฏแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฅแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แแ แกแแคแแแ แกแฃแแแฅแ.
แแแกแแฎแแแแแ
2009 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแก 241 198 แแชแฎแแแ แแแแแแ แงแแ แแแแ แแงแ 147 662 แแแแแแแแ (61,2 %), แฃแแแแแ โ 83 551 (34,6 %), แแฃแ แฅแ โ 4 654 (1,9 %), แฅแฃแ แแ โ 1 561 (0,6 %), แ แฃแกแ โ 1 061 (0,4 %), แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแแ โ 875 (0,4 %), แฃแแฆแฃแ แ โ 410 (0,2 %), แแแแแ แ โ 361 (0,2 %).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แฏแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฅแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แฏแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฅแแก แ แแแแแแแ
แงแแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแ
|
8856485
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesquita%2C%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro
|
Mesquita, Rio de Janeiro
|
Mesquita, Rio de Janeiro
) is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro. Its population was 176,569 (2020) and its area is .
The municipality contains part of the Mendanha State Park, created in 2013. The name is a reference to the second Baron of Mesquita, Jerรดnimo Roberto de Mesquita, the owner of the old farms (fazendas) in the present central region of the municipality.
References
Municipalities in Rio de Janeiro (state)
|
367151
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90
|
แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แฏแแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแ
|
แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แฏแแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแ โ แแ แ-แแ แแ แฏแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแแงแ แแแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ 1107-1110 แฌแแแแจแ, แกแแแฃแ แ I แฏแแแ แแกแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแแแ. แแแ แแงแ แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแคแ, แ แแแแแแแช แฌแแแแแ แแแฌแแแ แแแแแ แคแแฎแ. แแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแก แแ แแก, แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แงแแแแ แแ แซแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แฏแแแก.
แแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแ แฃแกแแแแแแกแแแ
แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแ (1107-8)
1107 แฌแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฃแ แแ แแ แแแกแ แแ แแแ แกแแแแชแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแฆแแแจแ. แฏแแ แแกแแแชแแแแก แ แแชแฎแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ 5 000-แก แจแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแ แจแแแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแกแก แแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแคแแแแ แฐแแแ แ I. แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแจแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแก แแ 1108 แฌแแแก แแแแแคแฎแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แซแแแแก.
แแแแ แแแก แแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ (1108-9)
แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแฌแแแก แกแแแขแแแแ-แแ-แแแแแแกแขแแแแก, แกแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแ แแแกแชแ แฃแคแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแ. แแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแกแแแแแแ แจแแแฅแแแ แกแแแแแแแก แแแคแแชแแขแ แแ แแแ แแแ แฃแแ แ แแแแแชแฎแแแ แกแแแแแแแก แแแงแแแแแแ. แกแแแฃแ แแ แแแแก แแแแกแฎแ แแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแ แแแซแแ แชแแ แแแ.
แแแแแแฃแ แแแแก แแ แแก แกแแแฃแ แแ แจแแแงแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แคแแแขแก, แ แแแแแแแช แกแแแแญแ แ แแแแแแก แซแแ แชแแแแแแแ. แแแ แกแฌแ แแคแ แจแขแฃแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแกแแแ แแ แแแแ แ แแ แแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแแก แจแแแแขแ.
แแแแก แจแแแแแ แฏแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ-แแแแแแฃแกแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แชแแฎแแก, แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแก (แแฆแแแแแแแแ แกแแแขแ แ). แแแ แแแฆแแก แชแแฎแ แแ แงแแแแ แแแฎแแชแแก, แ แแแแแ แแแฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแแแ แฃแแ แ แแแแฆแแก. แจแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแแแแแกแแแ โ โแแแฎแแแ แแ แฅแ แแกแขแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแฎแแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแ แแฃแแ แฅแแแแฅแโ-แกแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแงแแค แฎแแแก แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแฐแแแแแแแแแก แจแแ แแก. แฏแแแ แแกแแแแแ แแแฆแแก แฅแแแแฅแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแซแ.
แแแกแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแจแฃแ แแแ แแแแแกแแ แแกแแแ (แแฆแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแ -แแฃ-แกแแแ) แแ แแแฆแแก แแแ. แแฅ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แฎแแแฎแ แแแฌแงแแแขแแก, แ แแ แจแแกแแซแแแ แแแฅแแแก แฅแแแแฅแ แแแชแแ แแแแแ. แฏแแแ แแกแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแจแ แฃแแแ แแแ แซแแแ แคแแกแแฃแแแแแช แแแแแแแแก.
แแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ (1109)
แแแแ แแแขแแ แแก แกแ แฃแขแแจแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแฏแแ แแแแแแ แชแฎแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แจแแ แก แแฆแแแฉแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแ แแแฌแแแแแแ แฎแแแแแแจแฃแ แแฆแแแจแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแก. แแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแจแแกแแคแแ แก แแ แแแแแแแ แแแญแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แก. แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแจแ แแงแ แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแกแฎแแ แแฃแกแแแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแ.
แแแ แแแ แ แแแจแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแแแ แคแแ แแแแขแแ แแก, แกแแแแช แแแ แแแฃแแแแแ แจแแขแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแแ แกแแ แแชแแแแแแแ. แแ แซแแแแจแ แฏแแแ แแกแแแแแ แแ แฌแงแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแแแแก. แแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแจแ แแก แแงแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแกแแฉแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแกแ แซแแแ แคแแกแแฃแแแแ แแ แจแแฃแขแแแก แแแแกแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแแก. แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แจแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ แจแแขแแแแกแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แกแแแแแแ แซแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ 1114-1115 แฌแแแแแก แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแก แฌแแ แแแขแแแ.
แกแแชแแแแแแ (1109-1110)
1109 แฌแแแก แแแแแคแฎแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแฌแแแก แกแแชแแแแแก, แกแแแแช แแแ แแแแแแแแแฌแงแแแแ แจแแฎแแแ 12-13 แฌแแแก แแ แแคแ แ แแฏแแ II.
แแแ แฃแกแแแแแแก แกแแแแคแแจแ
1110 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแจแ แฏแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแก (แจแแกแแซแแแ แแแคแแก). แจแแแแแ แกแแแฃแ แแ แฉแแแแแ แแแ แฃแกแแแแแจแ แแ แจแแฎแแแ แแแแแฃแแ I-แก. แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แจแแฎแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก, แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแแกแแแ แแ แจแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แกแแฌแแแแแ แแ แซแแแ แคแแกแแฃแแแแ แแแแแกแชแแก.
แกแแแแแแก แแแงแ
แกแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแฃแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแจแฃแ แ แกแแ แแแจแ แแ แแแงแ แจแแแแแ แขแ แกแแแแแก. 47 แแฆแแก แจแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแ แแแแชแ. แแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแก แกแแแแแ แแ.
แแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแกแแแ
แแแแกแขแแแขแแแแแแแแกแแแ
แกแแแฃแ แแ แแ แแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แแกแจแ, แกแแแแช แชแแขแ แฎแแแ แแแฐแงแ, แแแฃแชแแแ แแฃแ แแแก แฅแแ แก แแ แแแกแชแฃแ แ แกแแแแ แซแแแแแกแแแ. แแกแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแกแขแแแขแแแแแแแก, แแแ แแฅ แแฎแแแแก โแแแฌแ แกแแแแช แแ แกแแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แแแแ, แกแแคแแแ แแแฅแแแแฅแ. แแกแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แซแแแแแ แแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ, แแแขแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแจแโ. แแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ, แ แแแ แกแแแฃแ แแก แจแแฎแแแแ แแแ. แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแแฅแกแ I-แแ แแแฎแกแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แแแแกแแแแฃแ แ.
แแแ แแแแแแกแแแ
แ แแแแกแแช แกแแแฃแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแ, แแแแแแขแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แก แชแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแ แคแแแขแ แแ แซแแแ แคแแกแแฃแแแแ แแแแแกแชแ. แฃแแแ แแแ แแแกแ แฏแแ แแกแแแชแ แแแ แฉแ แแแแกแขแแแขแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแแ แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แจแ แฉแแแแ.
แกแแแฃแ แแแก แแแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ แกแแแ แฌแแแ แแแแ แซแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแ แ แแฃแแแแ แแแ, แฃแแแ แแแ, แแแแแแแ, แจแแแแแ, แแแแแ แแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแ II-แก แจแแฎแแแ. แแฅแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแกแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแคแ แแแแกแแ แแแก แแแแ แแฉแฃแฅแ, แ แแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแแแช แกแแฎแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แฏแแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแแ
XII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแแ
|
18871570
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yola%C4%9Fac
|
Yolaฤac
|
Yolaฤac (also, Yelagach) is a village and municipality in the Masally Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 729.
References
Populated places in Masally District
|
92675
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yum%20Kaax
|
Yum Kaax
|
Yum Kaax (Mayan pronunciation: [jum kสผaหส], "Lord of the forest") is a Yukatek Maya name for the god of the wild vegetation and guardian of its animals.
In the past, this god has wrongly been described as an agricultural deity or even as the Maya maize god (god E of the codices), which has become a popular and still existing misconception. In ethnographic reality, Yum Kaax is a god of wild plants and of animals that are important to hunters. As such, he grants protection of the fields against the incursions of the wild nature he himself represents. This type of deity is also found among indigenous peoples of North America. Invoked by hunters, he is the owner of all the game. He can appear to hunters in an instant and possesses songs that will warrant a hunter success and allow his arrows to come back to him.
Role in Mayan culture
Pre-Columbian contact, Yum Kaax was considered one of the most important deities in the Maya pantheon and was used to help those who hunted for their food. Tradition farmers would invoke his name and present him with the first fruits of their fields, carved out from the forest, so that wild animals and vegetation would not destroy their fields. Hunters far out in the wilderness would sometimes take off their shirt, spread it over four stakes in the ground, and then crawl underneath to try and find deer. This is a ritual to Yum Kaax so that deer become easier to find.
Mayan beliefs from Yum Kaax
Mayan sorcerers have learned many secrets from Yum Kaax and these would be used to help one get better results while hunting. Some of the advice given was: When you go hunting, you must first offer Yum Kaax 5 jars of Balchรฉ or nine of chocozacan. To find game, create a candle of Copal and follow the flicker of the flame. To select your own private hunting ground, kill a deer and cut off its head and then drag the head around the hunting ground and bury the head with its liver โ the area that you have dragged the head over will become your own private hunting ground.
References
Bibliography
Thompson, J.E.S., Ethnology of the Mayas of southern and central British Honduras. Chicago 1930.
Thompson, J.E.S., Maya History and Religion. Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press 1970.
Steele, R.L., "Dying, Death, and Bereavement Among the Maya Indians of Mesoamerica A Study in Anthropological Psychology". American Psychologist 1977.
Thompson, J.E.S., "The Civilization of the Mayas". Field Museum of Natural History 1927.
Spence, L., "The Gods of the Maya". The Open Court 1926.
Muntsch, A., "Some Magico-Religious Observances of the Present-Day Maya Indians of British Honduras and Yucatan". The George Washington University Institute for Ethnographic Research 1943.
Hunting gods
Maya gods
Nature gods
|
18839811
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%9Fanverdil%C9%99r
|
Soฤanverdilษr
|
Soฤanverdilษr (also, Soganverdilar and Subkhanverdilar) is a village and municipality in the Barda Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 1,487.
References
Populated places in Barda District
|
208780
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%90
|
แแแขแแแแ
|
แแแขแแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแแจแแแแแแก:
แแแขแแแแ (แแแแแแกแ) โ แกแแฆแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแขแ แแชแ, แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ (1102โ1167)
แแแขแแแแ แคแแแแแ แแแแ โ แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ แฃแแแแแ I-แแก แแแฃแฆแแ (1031โ1083)
แแแขแแแแ แจแแขแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ แฐแแแ แ I-แแก แแแฃแฆแแ (แแแแฎ. 1080โ1118)
|
21545914
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev%20Kulidzhanov
|
Lev Kulidzhanov
|
Lev Kulidzhanov
Lev Aleksandrovich Kulidzhanov (19 March 1924 โ 17 February 2002) was a Soviet and Armenian film director, screenwriter and professor at the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography. He was the head of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR (1965โ1986). People's Artist of the USSR (1976). He directed a total of twelve films between 1955 and 1994.
Biography
Born on 19 March 1924 (according to other sources including his tomb โ on 19 August 1923) in Tiflis, Transcaucasian SFSR. His father Aleksandr Nikolayevich Kulidzhanov (originally Kulidzhanyan) was an Armenian revolutionary who served as a high-ranking Communist Party official. He was arrested during the Great Purge of 1937 and disappeared without a trace. Kulidzhanov's mother Yekaterina Dmitriyevna was either of Russian or of Armenian descent. She was arrested along with her husband and sentenced to five years in the Akmol labor camp in Kazakhstan. She returned home only in 1944. All those years Kulidzhanov spent with his grandmother Tamara Nikolaevna.
From 1942 to 1943 he studied at the Tbilisi State University. In 1944 he traveled to Moscow and enrolled in the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography to study film direction under Grigori Kozintsev, but left it in just a year because of the poor living conditions and returned to Tbilisi. In 1948 Kulidzhanov became a VGIK student again, with Sergei Gerasimov and Tamara Makarova as his teachers. He graduated in 1955 and immediately started working at the Gorky Film Studio, releasing his first short film Ladies co-directed with Genrikh Oganisyan.
His first success happened with a movie The House I Live In co-directed with Yakov Segel. It became one of the 1957 Soviet box office leaders, reaching the 9th place with 28.9 million viewers. Not only it was the first cinema role of the acclaimed Russian actress Zhanna Bolotova, but Kulidzhanov himself also played one of the characters. It was his only big screen role in the entire career. His next film A Home for Tanya turned to be another success and competed for the Palme d'Or at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival.
But his real breakthrough happened with the 1961 drama film When the Trees Were Tall that introduced such actors as Yuri Nikulin, Inna Gulaya, Lyudmila Chursina and Leonid Kuravlyov in their first serious roles. While not as successful with Soviet viewers at the time of release, it turned into a cult classic with years. In 1962 it was also selected for the 1962 Cannes Film Festival. In 1969 Kulidzhanov directed the first Soviet adaptation of the Crime and Punishment novel with many acclaimed Soviet actors involved. Although it failed at the box office and left some of his colleagues unimpressed (like Andrei Tarkovsky who also dreamed of adapting the novel), it was praised by critics and intelligentsia. The movie was officially selected for the 31st Venice International Film Festival, and the filming crew was awarded with the Vasilyev Brothers State Prize of the RSFSR in 1971.
In 1965 Kulidzhanov was elected as the head of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR, substituting Ivan Pyryev at this post. As the head of the Union he helped to preserve a lot of films, founded the Cinema Museum and saved the archive of Sergei Eisenstein. He held this position for 20 years straight, up till the scandalous 5th Congress of the Soviet Filmmakers in 1986 when a group of activists (presumably encouraged by Alexander Yakovlev) started booing the lecturers, accusing Kulidzhanov and other leading directors of ยซnepotismยป and ยซpolitical conformismยป and demanding a reelection of the whole board. All this led to a split, restructuring and a quick demise of the Soviet cinema.
After Kulidzhanov left the Union, he wasn't able to direct anything up until the 1990s when he made his two final films. Both of them symbolized a return to his earlier days of film making and were written by his wife Natalia Anatolyevna Fokina (born 1927), a professional screenwriter whom he met during the 1940s. They had two sons: Aleksandr (born 1950, died 2018), a cinematographer, and Sergei (born 1957), a historian.
Kulidzhanov died on 17 February 2002 and was buried in Moscow at the Kuntsevo Cemetery.
Filmography
Awards and honors
People's Artist of the RSFSR (1969)
Vasilyev Brothers State Prize of the RSFSR (1971) โ for the film Crime and Punishment (1969)
Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1974)
People's Artist of the USSR (1976)
Lenin Prize (1982)
Hero of Socialist Labour (1984)
Two Orders of Lenin
Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class (1999) โ for an outstanding contribution to cinema and at his 75th birthday
References
Literature
Margarita Kvasnetskaya (1968). Lev Kulidzhanov. Moscow: Iskusstvo, 120 pages.
Natalia Fokina (2004). Back Then the Trees Were Tall. Lev Kulidzhanov in his Wife's Memories. Yekaterinburg: U-Fakrotia, 292 pages.
Natalia Fokina. When the Trees were Tall. Dedicated to Lev Kulidzhanov. Part 1. // The Art of Cinema journal, โ 11, 2003 (in Russian)
Natalia Fokina. When the Trees were Tall. Dedicated to Lev Kulidzhanov. Part 2. // The Art of Cinema journal, โ 12, 2003 (in Russian)
External links
The Observer. 90 years since Kulidzhanov was born talk-show by Russia-K
1924 births
2002 deaths
20th-century Russian screenwriters
Film people from Tbilisi
Academic staff of the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni
Academic staff of High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors
Members of the Central Auditing Commission of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Central Auditing Commission of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Seventh convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
Eighth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
Ninth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
Tenth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
Eleventh convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Heroes of Socialist Labour
People's Artists of the RSFSR
People's Artists of the USSR
Recipients of the Lenin Prize
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Recipients of the Vasilyev Brothers State Prize of the RSFSR
Russian male screenwriters
Russian educators
Russian film directors
Russian screenwriters
Soviet educators
Soviet film directors
Soviet screenwriters
Burials at Kuntsevo Cemetery
|
32877022
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilea%2C%20La%20Rioja
|
Galilea, La Rioja
|
Galilea, La Rioja
Galilea is a village in the province and autonomous community of La Rioja, Spain. The municipality covers an area of and as of 2011 had a population of 401 people.
References
Populated places in La Rioja (Spain)
|
139134
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
|
แซแแแแกแ
|
แซแแแแกแ โ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแ, แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแแแแแ แกแแคแแ แซแแแแกแจแ, แแฃแฎแ แแแแก แแแแแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแ แแ, แแชแฎแแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแ-แแแกแแแแแแแ 20 แแ-แแก แแแจแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแคแแชแแ แแแฃแแแ แฅแแแแฅ แซแแแแกแแกแแแ (Zalissa), แ แแแแแกแแช แแฎ. แฌ. II แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแ แซแแแ แแแแแ แแคแ แแแแแแแแก แแขแแแแแแแแกแ โแแแแแ แแคแแฃแ แกแแฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแจแโ (Geographike Hyphegesis) แแแแ แแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแกแแก แกแฎแแ แฅแแแแฅแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแฎแกแแแแแแก.
แซแแแแกแแกแ แแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ 1971-1975 แฌแฌ. แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แกแแแฃแจแแแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแแแ แแ. แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก, แแ แฅแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแ แแคแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแกแขแแแแกแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแ (แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแ แแแแฅแกแ แแแฎแแฉแแซแ). 1975-1985 แฌแฌ. แแ แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฎแ แแแก แแแ แซแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแก แชแแแขแ แแก แแแกแขแแแแกแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแ แแแแแ แ.แแแฎแแฉแแซแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ.
1971-1976 แฌแฌ. แซแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ. แแฆแแแฉแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแกแ แแ แขแแซแ แแก แแแจแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแแแแก แแฅแแแ แแแแแ, แขแแซแแ -แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแแแแฅแกแ, แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแจแแแแ, แแแแแฅแขแแ แแแ, แขแงแแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ แฌแงแแแกแแแแแแก แฅแกแแแ, แแแฃแ แแ แแแแแ แฌแงแแฃแแ แฅแฃแฉแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ, แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแแแ, แจแแแแฃแแ แแชแแแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแขแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแแ แแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแแแ, แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแขแแแแแ, แแแฎแแกแ แแ แแแแแก แญแฃแ แญแแแ แแ แกแฎแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แซแแแแกแแก แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ แแแ แแฆแแแแ แซแ. แฌ. II - แแฎ. แฌ. VIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แ แซแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ. แแแขแแแฃแ แฎแแแแจแ, แซแแแแ แแ แแฎแแแ แฌแแแแแฆแ แแชแฎแแแแแก แแแฏแแแแ, แแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแกแฃแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแฅ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แฌแแ แแแฅแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแ แฃแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ 1971-1982 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแฎแแ แ แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแกแขแแแแกแแก แแชแฎแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแแ (แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแ แ. แแแฎแแฉแแซแ). 80-แแแ แฌแแแแแกแแแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แขแแซแแ แก แแแฃแแแแแก แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ (แแแขแแ แแแ: แ. แกแแแแแแแจแแแแ, แ. แแแแฃแแแจแแแแ), แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแ, แ แแ แฅแแแแฅแแ แซแ. แฌ. II แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ แแฎ.แฌ. VIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-แแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แฃแแแฆแแแก แแแแแก แแฎ. แฌ. I-III แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแแแฆแฌแแ. IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแ แแแก แขแแ แแขแแขแ แแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแ แจแแฌแงแแ. VI-VII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแฅ แฃแฆแแแฆแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แซแแแแ, แฎแแแ VIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แฅแแแแฅแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแฃแ แแแ แงแ แฃแก แแแจแฅแ แแแแก แแ แแก.
แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแ แแแแแฎแแ แ แขแแซแแ -แกแแกแแฎแแแก (แขแแซแแ แ, แกแแกแแฎแแ, แแแแแ) แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแฅแกแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแจแแแแ แ แแงแแก แฅแแแแ แแ แแฃแฆแแแแ, แงแแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแก แแแฃแ แแ. แขแแซแแ -แกแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแแฏแแ, แแแแฏแแ แแ แกแฃแคแแ แแแ แฎแกแแแ แแแแ แจแแแแกแแแ. แงแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแฃแ แฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แแ แแแแขแแ, แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแ, แกแแ แแแแแก แแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แญแฃแ แญแแแก แแแขแแฎแแแ, แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแ แ.แจ. แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแฎแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแฃแแแฃแแจแ, แแชแฎแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแแกแ แแ แแแกแขแแแแกแแก แแฅแกแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแ.
แขแแซแแ แ
แขแแซแแ แ แแแแแแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแ. แจแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแกแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแแกแแแแ. แแแ แแแแก แกแแแแแแ แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแฆแฃแ แแแแก แฌแแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แขแฃแคแแกแ แแ แฅแแแจแแฅแแแก แแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ (4,9X2,75 แ). แแแ แแแแแก (แคแแ แแ 48,6 แแ.แ.) แแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแ (แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแฎ. แฌ. II แกแแฃแแฃแแแ) แแแ แแแขแ แคแแ แแก แแแแญแแแแกแแแแ แแ แแก แจแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแก แแแกแฌแแ แแ แแแขแแแก แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แจแแแแ แแแแ แแกแฎแแแแ แแแแญแแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แจแแ (แกแแ. 0,45-0,7 แ). แแแแแแแแก แจแฃแ แแแฌแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแ แจแแ, แคแแ แแ แขแแแคแแ แแแแ แฏแแแ แก แฌแแแแแแก. แฐแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแแฌแแแจแ แกแแฃแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแชแแแ: แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแแ. แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแแกแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแขแแแก แแแแแแแก. แแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แฎแแกแแแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแ, แ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแฅแแก แแแขแแแฃแ แกแแแงแแ แแจแ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแ แ.แฌ. โแแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแโ. แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแคแแ, แแ แแแแแแขแแชแแแก แ แแแแ แขแฃแแ แ แแ แกแขแแแ แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแแก แแฎ. แฌ. III แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแฎแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแจแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแฅแแแก แกแแแแแกแแแ.
แกแแกแแฎแแ
แกแแกแแฎแแ แงแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก. แแแกแ แคแแ แแแแ 2500 แยฒ แแฆแฌแแแก แแ แจแแแแแแ แแชแแแแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแแแแแก แแแแฎแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแกแแแแ, แ แแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แจแ แแแแแแงแแคแ แฆแแ แแแ โ แแขแ แแฃแแ. แแขแ แแฃแแแก แชแแแขแ แจแ แแแแแแกแแแฃแแ แแงแ แแแ แแแฃแ แแ แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แจแแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแฃแแฎแ แแฃแแ, แ แแแแแก แแฃแแฎแแแแจแ แแแแแ แ แกแแแขแแแ. แแขแ แแฃแแแก แแแกแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแ แแแแแแ แขแแซแแ แ, แกแแแแช แแฆแแแ แแฃแแ แฃแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ แฆแแแแแแ. แแแฎแแแ แแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแฆแฃแแฃแแ แแขแ แแฃแแแก แคแแ แแแแแ 8,35X8,35 แ. แกแแกแแฎแแแก แฉแ แแแแ-แแแกแแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แกแแซแแแ แแแแฎแแแ, แแ แแแแงแแคแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแแแ แคแแ แแจแแแ, แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฌแงแแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแชแแแ. แฆแแ แแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแจแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแแแแแก แแแแฎแแแ แแ แฌแแแแแ แแ. แกแแกแแฎแแแก แกแแซแแ แแแแแ แ แแงแแก แฅแแแกแแ, แแแกแแ แแ แ แฌแงแแแแ แแแฌแงแแแแแแ แฅแแแก แแแแแ แคแแแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแงแแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแฃแ แแ. แแแขแแ แแแ แจแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแแกแแแ แงแแคแแแ แแ แแแฎแแขแฃแแแช. แแฃแชแแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแแ แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแแก แฆแแ แกแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแก แกแแกแขแแแ. แแแ แฆแแ แแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แแแแฅแแแก แชแแแขแ แจแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ. แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แฐแแแแแแฃแกแขแแก แกแแกแขแแแแกแแ. แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแฆแฃแแฃแ แแแแฎแก, แ แแแแแจแแช แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแงแ แแแแแ แแคแแ แแแ, แแฅแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แฐแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แกแแชแแ แแแแแจแ โ แแ แฎแแแจแ.
แแคแกแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
แแคแกแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแฃแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแแแ แแ, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก, แฃแคแ แ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแจแแแแแฃแแ. แจแแแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแ 703 แยฒ. แแแกแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแกแฅแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแแ. แจแแแแแแจแ แแแคแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแ แแแ แจแแ แแก. แกแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแคแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแ แแ แ แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแฃแแแ. แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแคแกแแแ แกแแแฌแแฎแแแแแแแแแ. แแคแกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแจแ แจแแฅแแแแแแ แแแฌแ แ แแแแญแแแ แแแฆแแแ, แกแแคแแฅแ แแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแ แฎแแแแกแแแแแก. แงแแแแ แแแแแชแแแแ แแฅ แแแแฅแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แจแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแ แแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแก โ แกแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแก, แฎแแแ แแชแแ แ แแแแฎแแแ แแฆแ แแชแฎแแแกแ แแ แกแแฅแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแก แแงแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแ. แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแ แแฅแแช แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแแ แ แแงแแก แฅแแ, แแแแแแก แแแฃแ แ, แแแ แแก แแฃแฆแแแ, แกแแฎแฃแ แแ แแแกแแแแ โ แแ แแแแขแ.
แแขแ แแฃแแ
แแแแแแก แแแแแแแฅแกแจแ แจแแแแแแแ แแขแ แแฃแแ (แฆแแ แแแ) แแแแแแ แแแฎแแฃแแฎแแ (7,75X6,95 แ). แแแขแแแ แแแคแแแแแแ แขแฃแคแแกแ แแ แฅแแแจแแฅแแแก แแแแแ แฅแแแแแ. แแขแ แแฃแแแก แชแแแขแ แจแ 51-52 แกแ แกแแแแแแก แแแ แแแฃแ แแ แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แจแแแ แแแแแก แแฃแแแ (2X1,8 แ, แกแแฆแ แแ 17 แกแ), แ แแแแแก แแฃแแฎแแแแจแ แแฆแแแ แแฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แแแฎแแฃแแฎแ แแแแแแแแ. แแขแ แแฃแแก แแแกแแแแแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแแแแแจแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แแแงแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแแแ แกแแขแแซแ แ แแแแงแแคแแแแแ (9,95X2,6 แ), แ แแแแแแช 15 แกแ-แแ แแแฆแแแ แแขแ แแฃแแแก แแแขแแแแ แแ แ แแแแแก แฉแ แแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแจแแแแแแฃแแ แ แแแแแแฆแแช แฆแแแแแแ แงแแคแแแ แแฆแแแ แแฃแแ. แแขแ แแฃแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแ.
แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแแ
แซแแแแกแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก, แ แแแแฃแแ แขแแแแกแแ แแ แกแแแ โ แชแแแ, แแแแแ แแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแงแแคแแแแแแแแกแแแแ แจแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแ แแแแงแแคแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ แกแแแแแแกแแ แแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแฅแแ แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแฃแแ แแคแกแแแแแ. แแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแ แซแแ 5 แ, แฎแแแ แกแแแแแ โ 2,5 แ. แแแแแแก แฅแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แจแแแแกแแแแ. แชแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แฅแแแจ แแแฌแงแแแแแแ แฐแแแแแแฃแกแขแแแแก แกแแกแขแแแแก แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แกแแแขแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแแ แแ แขแงแแแ, แแแแแ แแขแฃแแ แแ แแ แแแแแ แแแฃแ แ. แชแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแ. แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแ แจแแ แแชแแแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแ, แฎแแแ แแ แจแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแ แแฆแแแก แคแแฃแแ. แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแจแแช แงแแคแแแ, แ แแช แแจแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแก แแแแฏแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแ โ แแแแแแขแแ แแฃแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแจแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแ (4,9X4,7 แ). แแฅ แฃแแแ แแแแแ แแแขแแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแแ แกแแแแขแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแขแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แกแแชแฃแ แแ แแฃแแ
แซแแแแกแแก แกแแชแฃแ แแ แแฃแแ แแ แแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแก แกแ แฃแแแแ แฃแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแจแ แฌแแกแแแ แ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแ. แกแแชแฃแ แแ แแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฅแกแ แแแ แแฆแแแแ I-III แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ.
แกแแแแ แแแแแแ
แซแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแก แแ แแแแแแแ แกแแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแ. แแฅแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แ แกแแแแ แแแแแ, แแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแขแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแฃแ แคแแแแก แฃแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแแก.
แกแแค. แซแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแช แซแแแแกแแก แจแแแแชแแฎแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แฌแแแแแ แจแแฆแแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแ แแแแแฎแฃแ แฃแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แจแแแแแแก แแแจแแแแ. แแแ แแก แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแ แแแจแแแ แแแฆแแแแแ แแแแแแแ (4X4,7X4 แ), แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแแกแแแแแ-แแแกแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แแงแ แแแแฎแ แแแแแ. แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแแแกแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแขแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ แฅแแแ. แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแชแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแกแแแ แซแแแแแ 2 แขแแฎแขแ-แกแแ แแชแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแ แซแแแฃแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ 3 แแแชแแแแแแฃแแ. แแแแแแแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแ แแแฏแแแก 3 แกแแแแแซแ. แแฅแ แแก แชแแแแแแ แฃแแ แฉแแ แฉแ, แแแฎแแก แญแ แแฅแ. แแแกแแแ แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแฎ. แฌ. II-IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ IV-V แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
museum.ge - แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแ แซแแแแกแ
แซแแแแกแ
แซแแแแกแแก แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ
แซแแแแกแ (แแแฅแแแแฅแแ แ)
แกแฅแแแแ
แแชแฎแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแแแ
|
166628
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
|
แแฃแ แแแฃแแ
|
แแฃแ แแแฃแแ โ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแ แแแ แจแแแแจแ, แจแ แฃแแแแแจแชแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
แแขแแแแแแแแ
แแฃแ แแแฃแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแ, แแแฉแแแ XVII แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ. แแ แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ แแแแ แแแแแชแแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แก, แแแแแค แแแแแขแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แกแแแฃแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแฃแ แแแฃแแ แฃแฌแแแ แแแแแชแแแก แแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแก, แแฃแ แแแแก, แแแแ. แแฅแแแแ แแแแแก แฃแแแแก แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แฃแแแแ แแงแ. แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแแขแแก แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แฃแแแแจแ แจแแฅแแแ. แแแ แจแแแแก แแแขแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแ. 1943 แฌแแแก, แแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแแแแแฉแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแ แจแแแแก แแแขแแก แแฏแแแงแแแ. แแฏแแแงแแแ แกแแกแขแแแแ แฉแแแฎแจแแแก, แแ แฃแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแก. แแแแแ แฉแ แแฎแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแ. 50-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแฎแแ แแฃแ แแแฃแแแก แฎแแแแฎแแแ แแแแแจแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แฃแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแ. แแแ แจแแแแก แแแขแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแจแแแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแ แกแแชแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แ แแแแแแแแก แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแ.
แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ
แแฆแแกแแฆแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแฃแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแฅ แแ แแก แแแ แจแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแฎแกแแแ แ แแแคแแแ, แแแ แจแแแแก แแแขแแก แแแแ แแแแก แแแแฃแแแแขแ, แฃแแจแแแแแแแชแแก แแแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแ แ แกแแแแฃแ แแฃแ แแแฃแแแก (แแแแแแแแฉแแก แแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแก แฅแฃแฉแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแ) แแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแกแขแแ แแแก แแฃแแแฃแแแก แแจแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแ-แแแแ แแ แแฃแ แแแฃแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ
แแแ แจแแแแก แฃแแแแแ
|
534857
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฃแแ
|
แแแแแแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฃแแ โ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แซแแแแ แแแแแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแ แแแแแแแจแ. แแแ แแฆแแแแ IV-XVIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ.
แกแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแแ, แแแแแก แแแกแแแจแแ แแแแแญแ แแแ. แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแแแ แแฅแแก. แฅแแแแฃแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแก แคแแ แแแกแแ. แแแขแแแ แแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแแแแ, แแแแแแแแก แแแกแฌแแ แแ แแแ แแก แแฆแฃแ แแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแขแแแ, แจแฃแแจแ แแ แแ แแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแแ. แแฃแแฎแแจแ แแแขแแ แ แฉแแฆแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ, แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ แญแฃแ แญแแแก แฉแแกแแแแแแแแ. แญแแ แ แแฃแแแแแแก แแแแขแแชแแแกแแ. แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แแแ แ แแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแแ แขแแแแแแแกแแแ แ แแแแกแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแฉแแ แฉแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแ แกแ แฃแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแก แฌแแ แคแแ แแ แแแฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแแแ
|
222512
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidirona%20multiseriata
|
Epidirona multiseriata
|
Epidirona multiseriata โ แแแแฃแกแแแแแก แขแแแแก แแฃแชแแแคแแฎแแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Turridae-แก แแฏแแฎแก.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฃแชแแแคแแฎแแแแแแ
|
542398
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D
|
แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแ
|
แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแ-แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แแแแแแแขแ. แแแก แแแคแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแก. แกแแแญแ แจแแแแแแ แแแคแแก, แแ แแแชแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแแแกแแแ. แกแแแแคแ แแฏแแฎแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแกแแแ แแ แแก แแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แ แแ แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แ. 2015 แฌแแแแแ แแฆแแแแ แแ แแก 23 แแแ แแแแ แแแ แแ แจแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแแกแขแ แ, แ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แก แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแแ แแแกแฃแฎแแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแกแ แแแ. แกแแแญแแก แงแแแแ แฌแแแ แ แแแแแจแแฃแแแ แกแแแแคแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแแแแ.
แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแ แแแแ แกแแ แแแคแ แแแแฃแแแแแแแก แแแแ 1953 แฌแแแก. แแแ แแแกแฃแฎแแกแแแแแแแแ โแกแแจแแแแ, แกแแแแ แแ, แคแแแแแกแฃแ แ, แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ, แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแขแแแแกแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแแแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแก แจแแแฃแจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแฎแแแแแแแแแแโ. แแก แคแฃแแฅแชแแแแแ แแแก แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แซแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแกแแ แแ แกแแแแแฎแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแก แกแแแแแกแฃแแขแแชแแ แแกแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแแแแแ แ แแขแแคแแชแแ แแแฃแแ แฃแแแ แแงแแก แกแแแแคแ แแ แซแแแแแฃแแแแแ. แแแ แแแ แแแแแ แงแแแแ แกแแแจแแแแแก แแ แแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแก แแแคแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแก แแ แแแกแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแแแแแแก แ แแแแจแ. แแก แแ แแก แคแแแแแกแฃแ แ, แแฆแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แกแแแแแฎแแแแก แแแแกแแฎแแแแแแ แงแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแ แ แแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแ แแ แแแแ. แแแกแ แ แแแแแฃแชแแแแ แแ แแ แแก แกแแแแแแแแฃแแ, แแฃ แแ แแ แแก แจแแแแแฎแแแแฃแแ แฎแแแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแแ. แแแแแแแ แ แฎแแแแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แแแแญแแกแงแ แแก แแ แแแแแ -แแแแแกแขแ แ แแแจแแแแก. แฌแแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแแฃแแแ แแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแแก แคแแ แแแกแ แแ แคแฃแแฅแชแแแก, แแแแแกแชแ แแแคแ แคแแฐแแแ 1993 แฌแแแก. แแแ แแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแก, แ แแ แกแแแญแแก แงแแแแ แฌแแแ แ แฃแแแ แแงแแก "แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแ; แแแ แแแ แชแแแแแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแแแแ;" แแ โแแ แฃแแแ แแงแแก แแแกแแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแแแแก แแ แจแแฃแ แแชแฎแงแแคแแก แแแแแจแแฃแแแกแแแแกโ.
2015 แฌแแแก 29 แแแ แแแก, แแแคแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแชแ 25 แกแแแแคแ แแ แซแแแแแฃแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแชแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แจแแชแแแแก. แแก แแแแชแแแแ แแแกแ แซแแแก, แแฃแฅแ แแ แแแ แแแแฃแแแแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแก แแ แแแกแ แซแแแกแจแแแแแก แแฃแฐแแแแ แแแ แแแแคแแก แแแแแจแแแแก. แแแคแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแ แแฃแฐแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแแจแแ แแ แแแชแแก แแแแแแแแแ.
2017 แฌแแแก 21 แแแแแกแก แแแ แแแ แชแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแคแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแ แแแแแกแ แซแแแกแจแแแแ แแ แแฎแแ แแ แแแชแแ แแแแแจแแ แแแกแ แแแแ, แแฃแฐแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ.
แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแญแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแญแ
2015 แฌแแแก 29 แแแแแแ แก, แแแคแ แกแแแแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแฎแ แซแแ แแฃแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แแแก แแแแแ แแแแจแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แจแแชแแแ. แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแก แแแแแ แขแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแก แแแฃแแฏแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแแ, แแแคแแ แแแแฃแฅแแ 12 แกแแฏแแ แ แแ แแแแ. แแแคแ แกแแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แฉแแแแแชแแแ แแ แ แแฎแแแ แกแแแญแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแแกแแแ: แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแญแ (CSPA), แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแแชแ แแแฐแแแแ แแแ แแแแคแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแญแ (CEDA), แ แแแแแกแแช แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแคแแกแแแชแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแฐแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แกแแแญแ
แกแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ
|
265981
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
|
แฅแแแแแแแแ
|
แฅแแแแแแแแ
แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแ แฅแแแแแแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแก:
แแแฅแกแแแ แฅแแแแแแแแ โ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแ
แแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแแ โ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแ
|
359921
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%202
|
แแแแ แแก แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แ แแแแแฃแชแแ 2
|
แแแแ แแก แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แ แแแแแฃแชแแ 2 แแแแฆแแก 1946 แฌแแแก 30 แแแแแแ แก. แ แแแแแฃแชแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแฃแฌแแแแก แแ แแแกแ แแ แกแกแ แ-แก แแจแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฌแงแแแขแแ แแแ แจแแ แแก แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแกแ. แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แกแแแญแแ แแแฃแฌแแแ แฅแแแงแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแ แแ แแก.
แ แแแแแฃแชแแ แแแแฆแแก แแ แแฎแแแ.
แฌแแแแแแ แแแ
แแแแคแแแฅแขแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแ แแแฎแแ แแ แแแแก แแแแ 1942 แฌแแแก แแแแแแฃแแ แจแแแแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแ แแขแแแฃแ แแ แกแแแญแแแ แฏแแ แแแก แจแแแซแแแ แแ แแแจแ แแแกแแแชแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแฎแแแกแแแ แแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแก แแแชแแแก แแแขแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแแแฃแแ แจแขแแขแแแแก แฏแแ แ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแคแแ แแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแกแแแ แจแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ. 1942 แฌแแแก แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแ แแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แฃแชแฎแ แฅแแแงแแแก แงแแแแ แฏแแ แแกแแแชแก แฃแแแ แแแแขแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแแแ แแฅแแกแ แแแแก แแแแซแแแแ. แจแแแแแฎแแแแแก แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแแ แกแแแแคแแ, แจแแแ แแแแฃแแแ แจแขแแขแแแแ แแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแ แแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแก แแฅแกแแแฃแแขแแชแแ แแแแฌแงแแก.
แฐแแ แ แขแ แฃแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแ แฉแแแแก แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแแแฃแแ แจแขแแขแแแแก แแฎแ แแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แฎแแกแขแ แแแแแขแแแแก แแแขแแ แแแ แแแฐแงแแ. แแแกแแแแแ แแ แแแจแ แแแแแฎแแแฃแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแแญแแ แ แแ แแแแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแแก แแชแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ, แ แแแ แแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแ แฉแฃแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแแแฃแแแ แจแขแแขแแแแ แกแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแก แแ แแแแแแแชแแแก, แ แแช แแ แแแแกแแก แแแฌแงแแแแก แแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแแ.
แจแแแแแ
แฃแชแฎแ แฅแแแงแแแก แฏแแ แแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแแงแแแแแก แแแ แแฆแแ 1946 แฌแแแก 2 แแแ แขแ แแแแแชแฎแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แกแแแญแแแ แซแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ แแ แแแ แแฆแแก แจแแแแแแแช แ แฉแแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแ, แกแแแญแแแ แแ แแแแ แแ แแแ 1946 แฌแแแก 25 แแแ แขแก แแแขแแแ, แแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแช แแ แแแแ แแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแ แจแแแแแฎแแแแแก แแแแฆแฌแแแก. แแ แแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แก, แซแแแแแแก แแแงแแแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ, แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแก แแฅแกแแแฃแแขแแชแแแก แฃแคแแแแ แแแ แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแฐแแแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ
แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแก แกแแฎแแแฎแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Text of Resolution at UN.org
แกแฅแแแแ
0002
1946 แฌแแแ แแ แแแจแ
1946 แฌแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แจแ
แแ แแแ-แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแก แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแ
แแ แแแ-แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแก แกแแแฆแแแ แ
แแแแ แแก แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แ แแแแแฃแชแแแแ แแ แแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ
แแแแ แแก แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แ แแแแแฃแชแแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแก แจแแกแแฎแแ
|
60837
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A6%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแแแชแฃแ แ แฆแแ แ
|
แแแแแแแแชแฃแ แ แฆแแ แ, แแแแแแแแชแ โ แกแแฅแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแก แฆแแ แ. แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแ แฃแแแ แแแจแ, แ แฃแแแแแแจแ, แฉแแฎแแแจแ, แกแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแแกแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแแแชแฃแ แ แฆแแ แก แแ แฃแแ แฏแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแช แแฅแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแชแแแก แกแแชแแแแกแแแแ. แแแ แแแ แแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก. แแแแแแแแ แขแงแแก แแแงแแคแแ, แกแแแแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแฎแแแแแ, แแแงแแคแแแ แแแ โ 6-8 แแแญแ. แแแ แซแแฃแแแแ 40-50 แแ, แชแแชแฎแแแ แแแกแ แแแ แแขแแกแ 160-180 แแ, แแแแแแกแ 120-150 แแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แจแแแแงแแแแแแแ 1948 แฌแแแก. แแแแแแแแ แฏแแจแแ. แแแแแแแแ แ แแแฆแแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแแแจแ แฎแแแแกแแ แแแจแแแแแแกแแก แแ แแแฎแฃแ แแแ แจแแฏแแแ แแแแ แแแ แ แจแแแแแก แแซแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แฆแแ แแก แฏแแจแแแ
|
305296
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%20%28%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%29
|
แแแ แแแแฏแ (แขแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
|
แแแ แแแแฏแ (แขแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
แแแ แแแแฏแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แขแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 120 แแแขแ แแ. 2004 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 49 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แแแงแแคแ
แขแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 2004 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แขแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
496519
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%20%E1%83%A7%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94
|
แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแ
|
แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแ
แแ แแแแ (แแแแ) แงแแคแจแแซแ (แคแกแแแแแแแแ: แ. แแแแแ แแ; แ. 1858 โ แ. 1921, 13 แแแแแแแ แ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแ, แแ แแแแแแแกแ, แแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแ แแแแแแแ 1858 แฌแแแก แแแ แแก แแแแ แแก แกแแคแแ แฌแแแ แจแ แแฆแแแแแก แแฏแแฎแจแ. แกแฌแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแก แกแแกแฃแแแแ แ แกแแกแฌแแแแแแแแจแ, แกแแกแฃแแแแ แ แกแแแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแจแ (1877 แฌ. แแแแแกแฃแคแแ แแกแแแแแแแ). แกแแแจแแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแ (1878) แแแกแฌแแแแแแแแแแ แฌแ แแแกแ แแ แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแจแ. 1879 แฌแแแแแ แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แแฃแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแกแแก แฌแแแ แแ. แแงแ แแแแแ แแแฎแ. 1882-85 แฌแแแแจแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แฌแแ แ-แแแแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แชแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แกแแฅแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแแแแ, 1907-21 แฌแแแแจแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแ แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแ, แจแแแแแ โ แแแ แแฅแขแแ แแ. แแงแ แแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแแก แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแแ แแคแ. แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแ-แแ แแขแแแฃแ (แแแแฎแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แงแแแแแแแก, แแแแแ แแแแแแจแแแแแก, แแแแกแขแแกแแ แแ แแกแแแแ-แฎแแจแขแแ แแแก, แ แแคแแแ แแ แแกแแแแแก แจแแแแฅแแแแแแ), แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแ แแฃแแแแชแแกแขแฃแ แฌแแ แแแแแก แแฅแแแงแแแแแ โแแแแ แแแจแโ, โแแ แแแแแจแโ, โแแแแแจแโ, โแแแแแแแจแโ. แแแกแ แแฎแแฃแแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แแก แแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แฅแแ แแแแก แกแแคแแแ, แแแแฎแแแแก แงแแคแ, แกแแคแแแก แแแกแฌแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแ, แกแแฎแแแฎแ แแแแแแแแแ (แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ โแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแโ, 1895). แกแแคแแแก แกแแแฃแฎแญแแ แ แแแกแแฎแ แแแก แแฎแแขแแ แฃแ แฅแแแแแแแแแจแแช: โแแ แแ แแแชแแแแแแฃแแแก แแแแโ (1878), โแแ แแ แฆแแแ แแแแแฅแแแจโ (1883), โแฅแแ แแแแแแก แคแแฅแ แ แแแแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแ แแแโ (1878), โแซแแแแแ แแฆแแแแ แแ แแงแ, แ แแแแแชแแแแโ (1885). แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแ แฌแแแแ โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แกแแขแงแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ แแโ (1908), แ แแแแแแช แ แแแแแแฏแแ แแ แแแแแแญแแ. แแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแ แ แฃแกแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแชแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแ แแกแแก แแแแแแแแ แแคแแ (1901).
แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแฅแแก แฐแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแฉแแก โแชแแชแฎแแแแ แแ แแแฎแแแแแโ, แแแ แแฃแ แแแก โแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแโ, แแแแแแ แแ แแแแฉแแก โแแแ แแแแโ, แคแ แแแกแฃแ แแแแแก โแแแแแแแแแแโ, แแแขแแแแ แกแแ แแแแก โแแแแแแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแกแโ, แแ-แแ-แแฃแแก โแแแ แแแแกแแฏแฃแแแแโ, แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แกแฃแแแแแแจแแแ-แแฃแแแแแก โแฆแแแแขแโ.
แแ แแแแ แงแแคแจแแซแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1921 แฌแแแก 13 แแแแแแแ แก แแ แแแกแแแ แแแแแ แซแแก แแแแแฎแแแ แแแแ แซแแแฃแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแ แกแแฆแแแแจแแแจแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แก. แแแแแแแแแจแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแ, 1838;
แ. แแแแกแแแขแแจแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแ, แแแฎแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ, 1936.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1858
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1921
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 13 แแแแแแแ แ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแ แแขแแแแกแแแ
แแ แแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแกแขแแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ แแคแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
|
6570
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
|
แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ
|
แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ โ แแฃแแแกแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แ (แแฃแแ โ แแแแแ แ, แกแแแแ โ แแแ), แ แแแแแแช แแแแฆแแก แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแขแแแแก แจแแ แฌแงแแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแแแ แแงแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแ แก แงแแแแแแฆแแฃแ แ แฎแแแ แแแแกแแแแก, แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแงแแแแแ แแกแแแ แฆแแ แกแจแแกแแแแจแแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแแก แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แแชแแ, แฉแแแฃแ แ แแฎแแแ แฌแแแ (แแแแแคแฎแฃแแแก แคแแกแขแแแแแ) แแ แจแฃแ-แจแแแแแแแแแก แคแแกแขแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแกแขแ แแแแแแแจแ โ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแกแแแแก แแ แจแแแแแแก แกแแซแแ แแแแแก แฉแแงแ แแก แจแแกแแคแแ แแกแ แแฆแแก แจแแกแแ แฉแแแแ. แแ แแแแแแแแ แก แแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแงแแแแแ แงแแแแแแฆแแฃแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแจแ แแฅแแก แแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แ แคแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแแแแแ, แ แแช แแแแจแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแแแก.
แกแฎแแ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแกแแแแกแแ, แแฃ แแ แ แแแแแขแฃแ แ, แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแกแ: แแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแขแฃแ แแ, แแแแขแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแ แจแ แแแขแ แฉแแแแชแแแแแฃแแแ แแฃแ แแฆแแแ แแแ แแแข แชแฎแแแแแจแ, แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ แแงแแแแแก แแแแกแฎแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแก, แ แแช แแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แก แจแแ แแก แฃแแแแฎแแแแแแก แแฌแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แฌแแแแฌแแแก. แฉแแแฃแ แ (แแแฃ แฉแแแ-แฃแแฆแฃแ แฃแแ) แแแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแขแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแฃแ แกแแแงแแ แแจแ แแแแฆแแแแ แจแแแแกแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแข-แฌแแแแแ แชแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแชแแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแฃแ/แแแแฆแแแฃแ แแแขแแ แแ แแขแแชแแแก แฎแแแ แแแแจแ แจแแแแ แฉแ แฅแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ, แแกแขแแ แแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแ แแแฃแ แแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแกแแแแก แกแแแ แกแฃแ แแ แแฃแ แฅแฃแ แแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ, แแชแแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฉแแแแแแ, แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแงแแแแแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแแแฃแกแขแ แแฃแ แฎแแแแแแ. แแ แแแจแ แแก แกแแกแขแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแ แแแ แแฃแ แแ-20 แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแ แกแแแแแแกแแฎแแแ แแฆแ แแชแฎแแแแจแ, แแแแ แ 1925 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแฃแฅแแแ (แแฎ. แแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แ).
แฉแแแแแจแ แแจแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แ.แฌ. "แคแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แ" - แแฃแแแแ (แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ: ๅๅ๏ผ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ: ่พฒๆ; แคแแแแแ: nรณnglรฌ), แ แแช แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ "แกแแแ แ แแแแแแแ แแกแแแแ" - แแฃแแแแ (แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ:ๅ
ฌๅ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ:ๅ
ฌๆ; แคแแแแแ: gลnglรฌ), แแ "แแแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแกแแแ" - แกแแแ (แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ: ่ฅฟๅ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ:ๅ
ฌๆ; แคแแแแแ: xฤซlรฌ). แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แ แแกแแแ แแฌแแแแแ "แซแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ" - แซแแฃแแ (แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ: ๆงๅ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แฉแแฃแ แ: ่ๆ; แคแแแแแ: jiรนlรฌ), แแฎแแแ - แกแแแแ (แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแฃแ แ: ๆฐๅ๏ผ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แฉแแฃแ แ: ๆฐๆ๏ผ แคแแแแแ: xฤซnlรฌ) แแแฃ แแ แแแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแ แแก แจแแแแฆแแแแก แแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแขแแแชแแแแก แจแแแแแ.
แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ แฌแแแแ แแงแแคแ แ แแแแ แช: แแแ แแฎแแก - ้ผ shลญ, แจแฃ; แฎแแ แแก - ็ niรบ, แแแฃ; แแแคแฎแแแก - ่ hลญ, แฎแฃ; แแฃแ แแฆแแแก - ๅ
tรน, แแฃ; แแ แแแแแแก - ้พ (้พ) lรณng, แแฃแแ; แแแแแแก - ่ shรฉ, แจแ; แชแฎแแแแก - ้ฉฌ (้ฆฌ) mฤ, แแ; แแฎแแก - ็พ yรกng, แแแแ; แแแแแฃแแแก - ็ด hรณu, แฎแแฃ; แแแแแแก - ้ธก (้ท) jฤซ, แซแ; แซแแฆแแแก - ็ gลu, แแแฃ; แขแแฎแแก - ็ช (่ฑฌ) zhลซ, แญแฃ แฌแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแ แ
แฉแแแฃแ แ แแฃแแขแฃแ แ
|
72646
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
|
แฌแแแแแฃแจแแแ
|
แฌแแแแแฃแจแแแ, แจแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแ, แแแฃ แแแชแแแแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแก แแฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแแกแ (แแแแฎแแแแแแ 3 แแแแกแ แแแชแ). แแกแขแแ แแฃแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแฃแจแแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแฃแจแแแแก แแกแแแแกแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแ แแแ แจแ, แแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแกแแฎแแแแ. แฌแแแแแฃแจแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แกแแฃแแ แแแแ แ แแแแ แช แฅแแ แแฃแแแ, แแกแแแ แแแฎแฃแ แ แฅแแแฏแแฃแคแแก แฌแแแแแฃแจแฃแ (แแแชแแฃแ ) แแแแแ.
แแ แแแแ แแคแแ
แแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแฌแแ แ แแแฌแแ แแแแแ แแ แแก โแฌแแแแแฃแจแโ, โแฌแแแแแฃแจแแแโ (แแแคแแกแแก แแแ แแจแ), แแฃแแชแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแจแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แฅแกแ-แจแ, แฎแจแแ แแ แแฎแแแแแแ แแแก แแ แแกแฌแแ แแแฌแแ แแแแแแกแแช โ โแฌแแแ-แแฃแจแโ, โแฌแแแ-แแฃแจแแแโ.
แแแ
แฌแแแแแฃแจแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแแ แแ แแแ. แกแแฃแแ แแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แฌแแแแแฃแจแฃแ แแ (แแแชแแฃแ แแ), แ แแแแแแช แแแแฃแจแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแฃแ แแแแแ แฏแแฃแคแจแ แจแแแแก.
แแแแกแแฎแแแแ
แฌแแแแแ (แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช, แแแฌแแแแแ แแ, แแแ แแฅแแแ แแฃแจแแแ) แแแแแแแแ แ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แฌแแกแก แแแกแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแชแฎแแแ แแแแ. แแ แคแแฅแขแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแ, แ แแ แฌแแแแแฃแจแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแแจแ, แแกแ โ แแแ แจแ:
แแแแจแ แแแ แฐแฅแแแแแ แกแแคแแแแ: แแแแฃแ แแ, แแแแแ แแ, แแแแแแ, แแแแแ แแ, แฌแแ แ, แจแแแฌแงแแแ, แกแแแแ แแ (แกแขแแฅแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแ 1861 แฌแแแก) แแ แแแแแ แแ;
แแแ แจแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแแแ:
แแแแแแกแแก แฎแแแแแจแ: แแแแแ, แฎแแแแฌแแแ, แแแฌแแ แ, แแแ แแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ;
แแแแแแแก แแแแแ: แแแฎแขแ แแแแ, แฌแแฌแแแงแฃแ แ, แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ, แแฃแ แแแแญแแแ, แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแแ, แแแคแแแงแฃแ แ แแ แแแแฉแแแงแฃแ แ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแคแฉแแจแแแแ แ ., แฌแแแ-แแฃแจแแแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแคแแ /แแแแแแแแแ / แแแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแ. แแ-แขแ. แแ., 2010, แแ.154-162
แแแแแ แแซแ แ. แแกแขแแ แแฃแโแแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แกแขแแขแแแแ. แขแแแ 1. แแ., 1962
แแฃแฅแฃแ แแฃแแ แแ. แแฃแจแฃแ แ แแแฅแกแแแ.แแแแแแ. โ3. แขแคแแแแกแ, 1895
ะจะฐะฒั
ะตะปะธัะฒะธะปะธ ะ. ะขััะธะฝั. ะขะฑะธะปะธัะธ, 2001
ะฆะธัะบะฐัะธัะฒะธะปะธ ะะฒ. ะะฐะฟะธัะบะธ ะพ ะขััะตัะธ. ะะฐะฒะบะฐะท. 1848. โ7, 1848
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแ แจแแแฎแแแแจแแแแ, แฌแแแ-แแฃแจแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ แกแแชแแแแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแ แกแแแงแแ แแจแ, แแแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แฐแฃแแแแแขแแ แฃแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แ แแชแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแฃแ แแแแ "แกแแแแแแ", โ4
แแฃแจแแแ
|
4876091
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reamonn
|
Reamonn
|
Reamonn was a German pop rock band fronted by local-based Irish singer/songwriter Rea Garvey. Formed in 1999, they have recorded and released a total of six full-length studio albums which were highly successful in Germany and also saw some success in other European countries. They gained recognition in 2000 with their song "Supergirl" from their debut album Tuesday. The band has been on an indefinite hiatus since 2012.
History
The 1990s: Formation and first contract
In 1997, Rea Garvey left his band the Reckless Pedestrians and his hometown of Tralee in Ireland to go to Germany with little money and a demo CD in his pocket. He put an advertisement in the local paper Stockacher Anzeiger stating, "Singer requires band for recording and live shows". Mike "Gomezz" Gommeringer saw this ad and accurately assumed it must have been Garvey, whose original band he had once seen play live. The two met up and subsequently recruited Uwe Bossert, Sebastian "Sebi" Padotzke and Philipp "Phil" Rauenbusch. Their first gig was played on New Year's Eve 1998 in Stockach. The name Reamonn is taken from an Irish-language form of Rea Garvey's first name Raymond.
In order to secure a recording contract, the band set up a showcase at Logo, a small club in Hamburg, in front of 16 representatives from various record labels in 1999. The band was quickly offered several contracts, settling on signing with Virgin Records Germany. In 2006, they switched to Universal Music.
The 2000s: Breakthrough with Supergirl
Reamonn's first chart success came with "Supergirl," a track that received heavy airplay on mainstream radio stations in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria and Russia. Taken from the album Tuesday, it reached the top 10 in 2000 in each of those countries.
The track "Alright" is another of the signature songs from Reamonn's early period. Performing at the Roxy in Hollywood, California, to impress record executives, the band played the song twice. Alas, the crowd was sparse, as most of the action was at the Viper Room to catch then-hot British talent Jem.
Reamonn never got the U.S. deal, but back in Europe, their popularity continued to soar with a mix of radio-friendly sounds. To date, their most successful "international" single is "Tonight" from the album "Wish". Released in the summer of 2006, the track hit No. 1 in Romania, but did not crack the top 10 in Germany. The track also opened Reamonn up to new markets, such as Greece and Portugal, where the band continued to receive airplay.
On 7 July 2007, the band performed at the German leg of Live Earth at Hamburg's HSH Nordbank Arena. The same year, Garvey provided vocals for trance DJ Paul van Dyk's song "Let Go".
On 24 July 2008, the group was chosen as the opening act for Barack Obama's speech at The Siegessรคule in Berlin, before an estimated crowd of 200,000. The band made the then-US Senator an honorary Reamonn member, presenting him with a band ring.
On 20 December 2008, Reamonn played their song "Faith" as an entrance theme for boxer Nikolai Valuev leading up to his WBA championship fight versus Evander Holyfield in Zรผrich.
"Faith" was also the official song of the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters 2009 season.
In November 2009, Reamonn went on a world tour with Status Quo as a backup act.
The 2010s: Breakup and new projects
On 27 August 2010, Reamonn released their greatest hits album Eleven, which features three new tracks: the new singles "Yesterday", "Colder" and "Let The Morning Sleep". Each of the album's two disks feature 11 songs taken from every album Reamonn have recorded. The deluxe edition features a DVD with videos of the 19 album tracks plus 20 live tracks. In December 2010, Reamonn released their DVD Eleven: Live & Acoustic at the Casino recorded in 2010 at the Kurhaus of Baden-Baden.
Subsequently, the members decided to concentrate on other musical projects. Rea Garvey's first solo single "Can't Stand the Silence" was released on 9 September 2011. The album of the same name was released on 30 September 2011. The following year, Can't Stand the Silence: The Encore Edition was released, featuring several new songs including the single "Wild Love". The tour in support of the album consisted of dates in Germany during 2011 and 2012, and continued in 2013 with dates in Switzerland, France, Ireland, the UK, Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. For the 2013 dates, Ryan Sheridan was the supporting act. Rea Garvey released his second solo album Pride in May 2014, featuring the single "Can't Say No". In September 2014, Rea Garvey released the Oh My Love EP, a maxi-single which features the original song from Pride and a new version with Amy Macdonald. Rea Garvey was also a member of the jury for The Voice of Germany for several seasons between 2011 and 2022.
The other members of Reamonn teamed up with , the former frontman of , to form the band . They released their first album Stereo Loves You in September 2012 and their second album Boy A in 2015.
Members
The members are
Lead vocals, guitar: Rea Garvey, born as Raymond Michael Garvey on
Guitar: Uwe Bossert, born
Beats: Mike "Gomezz" Gommeringer, born 26 September 1973
Bass: Philipp "Phil" Rauenbusch, born 7 May 1973
Keyboard, saxophone, flute: Sebastian "Sebi" Padotzke, born
Discography
Tuesday (2000)
Dream No. 7 (2001)
Beautiful Sky (2003)
Wish (2006)
Reamonn (2008)
Eleven (2010)
References
External links
Official website
Reamonn on Facebook
German musical groups
Musical groups established in 1999
English-language singers from Germany
1999 establishments in Germany
|
346579
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
|
แแแแแแ แแแแแแ
|
แแแแแแ แแแแแแ (แ. 9 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ [ แซแ. แกแข. 26 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ], 1904, แแแแแแแช-แแแแแแกแแ, แฎแแแแแแชแแแก แแแฅแ โ แ. 23 แแแแแแแ แ, 1983, แแแแแ) โ แฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแขแ, แแฃแแแแชแแกแขแ, แแฃแแขแฃแ แแแแแ, แแแชแแแแแแแแแกแขแ, แแแแ แแแแแแ. โแแแคแฎแแกแขแงแแแกแแแกโ แฃแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแขแแแ
|
303603
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
|
แแแ แแแแขแแก แ แแแแแ
|
แแแ แแแแขแแก แ แแแแแ โ แ แแแแแ แแแ แฃแจแ, แแฃแแแก แ แแแแแแแก แกแแ-แ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 3 825 แแแขแ แแ. 2007 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 7 570 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 26 แแแแแแแแ แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 285.87 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแ แฃแก แ แแแแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
2007 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแ แฃแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแกแ แแ แแแคแแ แแแชแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ
แแฃแแแก แ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแ
แกแแ-แ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แ แแแแแแแ
|
438946
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แงแฃแแแฎแแแแแ
|
แงแฃแแแฎแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแแแแ แจแแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแแแก แแกแแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ โ 2,349 แแแชแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแกแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
|
120141
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94
|
แกแแคแ แแแแแ แแซแ
|
แกแแคแ แแแแแ แแซแ (แ. 6 แแแแแ แแแแ, 1985, แแแแแแกแ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแ, แแกแแฎแแแแ แแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แแแขแแ แ.
แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แฏแฃแแแแขแแก แ แแแ แแแฃแแแแ โแ แแแแ แแ แฏแฃแแแแขแแกโ-แก แ แฃแกแฃแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแจแ (2004โ2006). 2005 แฌแแแก แ แฃแกแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ โแแฎแแแ แขแแแฆแแจแโ, แกแแแแช แแ-7 แแแแแแ แแแฆแ. 2010 แฌแแแก แแแแกแจแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แกแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแ โShineโ, แฅแฃแแแแ แกแแแ แแ แฏแแแจแ แแ-9 แแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแ แ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ.
แแแแจแแแแ
แกแแคแ แแแแแ แแซแ แแแแแแแ 1985 แฌแแแก 6 แแแแแ แแแแก, แฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแกแจแ. แแก แแแแแแแ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแ แแซแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแงแ แแแแช แแฏแแฎแจแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แแ แแคแแกแแแ แแแ แฉแแ. แแแแ (แฅแแแ แแแแแแแแจแแแแ) แแ แแแกแ แฌแแแแแ แแแ แแฅแแแแแ แแ แแแ, แแแแ (แแแฎแแแแ แแแแแ แแซแ) แแแแแแแ แ แแงแ.
แแแ แแฃแแ แจแแแแฅแแแแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แจแแแแ แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แกแแคแ แฏแแแกแฃแ แแแฎแแซแแ แจแแแแฉแแแ แแ แแแแฌแแแ แคแแแแจแ "แแแแแแแแ แ แ แฐแฅแแ", แกแแแแช แแแ แชแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแ แแแแ แแแ แญแแฎแแแแแแซแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแฆแแ แ. แแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ แกแแคแ แแแแฌแแแแก แกแแแแแจแแ แกแขแฃแแแแจแ, "แแแกแขแ-แแฃแแฃแก" แกแแแแกแขแแ, แกแแแแช แแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ แแแ แแ แฌแแแงแแแแ แแแ แขแแ แกแแแฅแขแแแแแแจแ, แจแแฃแแแกแ แแ แขแแแแแ แแแฅแขแแแจแ. แชแฎแ แ แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แกแแคแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แกแแแแฉแแก แฌแแแฃแแแแแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แแกแแคแแแ แฐแแขแ "Sous Le Ciel De Paris". แคแ แแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแ แแแ แแแแ แแฆแคแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแ แฉแ แกแแคแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแชแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแชแแแแจแ TV5 แแแแฌแแแ.
1995 แฌแแแก แกแแคแ แแแฎแแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก "แแ แแแแก แแแซแแแก" แแแฃแ แแแขแ แแแแแแแชแแแจแ "แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแแแแแ", แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแก แแขแแแแแจแ, แแแแแแจแ "แแ แแแ-แแ แแแแกแแแแก" แแแฃแ แแแขแ. แแแแก แแแฐแงแแ แฎแฃแแฌแแแแแ แแแแขแ แแฅแขแ แแขแแแแแจแ แแ แแฅแแฃแ แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แแแ, แแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แกแแคแแ แแแแฆแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก "แแแแแก" แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแกแแแแก "ะ ัะตะฑะต", แแกแแแ แแงแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก "แแ แแแแก แแแซแแแก" แแแแแฌแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แ แฃแกแแแจแ, แแแกแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแ (แแแกแแแแแก 850 แฌแแแกแแแแ).
1999 แฌแแแก "แแฃแจแแแแแก แแฆแแแแแก"แแฃแแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแแแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแฆแ, แแกแแแ แแแแแแชแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแ "แฃแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแชแแแแแ".
2000 แฌแแแก แแแฏแแแแแแแ "แแฅแ แแก แแแ แกแแแแแแแ" แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแแแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแกแขแฃแแแ "แคแแ แขแแกแ" แแ แกแขแฃแแแ "แแแ แกแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแก" แแแแ . แแ แฌแแแก แกแแคแแ แฌแแ แฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แกแแจแฃแแแ แกแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแ แแแกแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแฅแกแแแ แแแแแขแฃแแ แกแแกแฌแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแฅแแ แแ แคแแแแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแฃแกแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แคแแ แขแแแแแแแก แแแแฎแ แแ. แแ แฌแแแแจแ แกแแคแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แคแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แแแฃแแ แ แจแแแแ แแแแซแแก แกแขแแแแแแแแแขแ แแงแ.
2001-2008 แ แฃแกแแแ. แแฃแกแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแ แแก แแแฌแงแแแ
2001 แฌแแแก แกแแคแแ แกแฌแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแกแแแแแแก แแฃแกแแแแแฃแ แกแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แซแแแ. แแแกแแแแจแ แกแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแจแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแก แกแแแฅแขแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแฃแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แแชแแ "แฉแฎแแแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแ", "แ แแแแ แแ แฏแฃแแแแขแ", "แแแ แแแแก แฆแแแแกแแจแแแแแก แขแแซแแ แ". แฏแแ แแแแแ "แฉแฎแแแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแจแ" แกแแคแ แจแแแแฉแแแ แแแขแแ แแแ แคแแ แแแฉแแแ-แแแแแแแแ - แแแแแแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแก แกแคแแ แแจแ, แแแกแ แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แ แแแฎแแ แแ แจแแกแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแก แ แแแ "แแแ แแแแก แฆแแแแกแแจแแแแแก แขแแซแแ แจแ".
2005 แฌแแแก แกแแคแ แแแแแ แแซแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ "แแฎแแ แขแแแฆแแจแ", แกแแแแช แแแจแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฆแ.
2009-2010 แแแ แแแ แ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ
แกแแคแแก แแแแแฃแขแ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แฌแแแแจแ 2009 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแจแ แแแแ แแแแก แแแชแ-แแ แแแแแแแขแแกแแแแก แฏแแแแค แแแแแแแแกแแแแก แแแซแฆแแแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แกแแฆแแแแแ แจแแแแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฃแฌแงแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแซแ 2010 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แกแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แฌแแแ แแแแแ แแแแกแแฎแแแ. แแ แฌแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แกแแ แฅแฃแแแแ แกแแแ แแ แฏแแแแ แแแชแฎแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
2020 แฌแแแก 2 แแแแแกแก แจแแแซแแแ แแแ แแแแ แจแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแกแ-แแแ แแ แแแแ แฅแแ .
แฏแแแแแแแ
1995 โ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก โแแ แแแแก แแแซแแแกโ แแแฃแ แแแขแ แแแแแแแชแแแจแ โแกแแฃแแแแแกแ แแแแแแโ.
1996 โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก โแแแแแกโ แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแกแแแแก โะ ัะตะฑะตโ; แคแแกแขแแแแ โแแ แแแแกแแแ-แแ แแแแกแแแแกโ แแแฃแ แแแขแ, แแแแ-แแ แกแแแแ (แแขแแแแ).
1997 โ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแก โแแ แแแแก แแแซแแแกโ แแแแแฌแแแ (แแแกแแแแแก 850 แฌแแแกแแแแ).
1999 โ แแแ แแแแ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแแแแแแ แฆแแแแกแซแแแแแจแ โแแแจแแแแแก แกแแฆแแแแแแโ.
1998 โ 2001 โ แแแฃแแ แ แจแแแแ แแแแซแแก แกแขแแแแแแแแแขแ.
2004 โ 2005 โ แแแแแแ แ แ แแแ แแแฃแแแแแจแ โRomeo & Julietteโ
2005 โ แแฎแแแ แขแแแฆแแก แแ-5 แแแแแแแก แแแฃแ แแแขแ
2010 โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแ
Where Are You (2008)
My Dream
Every Moment
Where Are You...
Leave Me Alone
I'm Running Away
Over and Over
Leave Me Alone (Remix)
Over and Over (Remix)
We Are All (2014)
No Way Out
Hero
Why Won't You Love Me
When We Danced
We Are All
Without Your Love
The Reason I Go On
Shine
So In Love
Call Me
Without Your Love (Remix)
Two of a Kind
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแคแ แแแแแ แแซแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแ Eurovision.Tv-แแ
www.sofianizharadze.ru แ แฃแกแฃแแ/แแแแแแกแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 6 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1985
แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แกแแแขแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแแ
|
407288
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2%20Fast%202%20Furious
|
2 Fast 2 Furious
|
2 Fast 2 Furious is a 2003 action film directed by John Singleton from a screenplay by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, based on a story by Brandt, Haas, and Gary Scott Thompson. It is the sequel to The Fast and the Furious (2001) and the second installment in the Fast & Furious franchise. The film stars Paul Walker as Brian O'Conner alongside Tyrese Gibson, Eva Mendes, Cole Hauser, Chris "Ludacris" Bridges, and James Remar. In the film, ex-LAPD officer Brian O'Conner and his friend Roman Pearce (Gibson) go undercover for the United States Customs Service and the FBI to apprehend drug lord Carter Verone (Hauser) in exchange for the erasure of their criminal records.
A second Fast & Furious film was planned after the box office success of its predecessor in 2001, and was confirmed with the returns of Walker and producer Neal H. Moritz. Vin Diesel and Rob Cohen, the co-star and director of the first film, were unable to return; Gibson and Singleton joined the cast in their absence in 2002. To canonically account for Diesel's departure, the short film The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) was produced and released. Principal photography for 2 Fast 2 Furious commenced in September 2002 and lasted until that December, with filming locations including Miami and the surrounding areas in southern Florida.
2 Fast 2 Furious premiered at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles on June 3, 2003, and was released in the United States on June 6, by Universal Pictures. The film received mostly negative reviews from critics, but grossed $236.4 million worldwide. A standalone sequel, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, was released in 2006.
Plot
Having aided wanted felon Dominic Toretto in LA, ex-LAPD officer Brian O'Conner has escaped to Miami and is in hiding, making a living street racing in events organized by his friend, mechanic Tej Parker. Brian is arrested following a race, and offered a deal by his former boss, FBI Special Agent Bilkins and Customs Enforcement Agent Markham. Brian is offered to have his record cleared by going undercover to help secure the arrest of Argentinian drug lord Carter Verone. Brian agrees on the condition he choose his partner. Brian enlists the help of estranged childhood friend, Roman Pearce, in Barstow. Roman, on house arrest for grand theft auto, is distrustful of Brian due to his time as a cop, and blames the latter for his own arrest, resulting in a scuffle. Roman reluctantly agrees on the condition he get the same deal.
Back in Miami, Customs Agent Monica Fuentes, who is undercover working for Verone, gets them an audience. After acquiring confiscated vehicles from an impound lot, Brian and Roman are informed Verone intends to smuggle money out of a house under surveillance in South Miami, and flee the country in his personal jet. An angry Brian and Roman relay this information to Markham, the latter of which nearly compromised their identities during the car heist. To prevent Markham from undermining the job, Brian and Roman acquire a 1969 Yenko Camaro SYC and 1970 Dodge Challenger R/T in a pink slip race from drivers they raced earlier. At a nightclub, Verone tortures MPD Detective Whitworth into giving the men a window to make their getaway. Afterwards, Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica, believing she is dirty and the threat of Verone; the two patch up their differences. Monica warns Brian the next morning they will be killed after the drop. Regardless, Markham refuses to call off the mission.
On the day of the job, while Brian and Roman load the money with Verone's hitmen, Enrique and Roberto, riding along, Whitworth orders the police move in early, resulting in a police chase across the city. The pair lead the police to a warehouse where a scramble organized by Tej causes chaos. Brian and Roman elude the police in the muscle cars, while Tej and Suki, another street racer, are detained driving the police GPS-tagged vehicles. As Brian approaches the airfield, Enrique orders him to detour to the marina. At the same time, Roman ejects Roberto from his car with an improvised ejection seat using nitrous. At the airfield, Customs surround the plane but realizes they've been duped. At the marina, Verone reveals he was aware he was under surveillance and gave Monica false information. Verone orders Brian killed, and Monica onto his private yacht, intending to use her as leverage. Before Enrique can kill Brian, Roman arrives and the pair incapacitate him. Verone flees aboard the yacht, but is intercepted when Brian drives the Yenko off of a ramp and crashes into the deck. Brian, Roman, and Monica incapacitate and apprehend Verone.
Their deal upheld, Markham clears Brian and Roman's record, and Roman hands over Verone's cash. Brian and Roman agree to stay in Miami and move on, funded by a cut of the cash they kept for themselves.
Cast
Production
Development
Plans to make a sequel came about after the box office success of The Fast and the Furious, which grossed over $200 million worldwide. John Singleton had seen the first film and was awed by it, saying: "When I saw The Fast and the Furious, I was like, 'Damn, why didn't I think of that?' Growing up in South Central L.A., we had street races all the time." Singleton's rave reaction of the film as well as the culture of street racing in general influenced his decision to direct the sequel. The director also claimed that the concept of street racing could be something young audiences can relate to.
The screenplay was written by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, along with Gary Scott Thompson (the co-writer from the first film). There were two film treatments submitted early on, one of which did not involve Vin Diesel's character in the event the actor would not return for the sequel. Singleton credited Top Gun as a major influence for the film, particularly with regard to the action sequences.
Pre-production
Vin Diesel was offered $25 million to return in the sequel as Dominic Toretto. However, he refused after reading the screenplay as he felt that its potential was inferior compared to that of its predecessor; rather, he chose to appear in The Chronicles of Riddick instead. According to Variety magazine in 2015 he was less taken with what the screenwriters had in mind for the film, "They didn't take a Francis Ford Coppola approach to it. They approached it like they did sequels in the '80s and '90s, when they would drum up a new story unrelated for the most part, and slap the same name on it." However, Diesel reflected on his decision in a July 2014 report from Uproxx, saying: "I would've said, 'Don't walk away from it just because the script sucked in 2 Fast 2 Furious because there's an obligation to the audience to fight, no matter what, to make that film as good as possible.' ... I might have had a little bit more patience or belief in the long-term of it."
Paul Walker, who had just finished Timeline at the time, reprised his role in the second picture as Brian O'Conner. Tyrese Gibson, then known mononymously as Tyrese, also became a part of the cast having previously acted in Singleton's Baby Boy, which was the singer's feature film acting debut; he portrayed Roman Pearce. Ja Rule, another prominent rap artist who appeared in The Fast and the Furious, was originally tapped for the role of Tej Parker. Ja Rule was offered $500,000 for the role, which was more than what he had been paid to appear in The Fast and the Furious, $15,000. According to Singleton, "Ja got too big for himself. He turned it down. He turned down a half a million dollars. ... He was acting like he was too big to be in the sequel. He wouldn't return calls." The director then hired Chris "Ludacris" Bridges as a substitute. Bridges would later rise to prominence for appearing in the film and star in later films such as Crash and Hustle & Flow. Additional cast also included Cole Hauser as key villain Carter Verone, who appeared in Singleton's Higher Learning; Eva Mendes as undercover agent Monica Fuentes; and Devon Aoki as Suki, the sole female driver in the film.
Filming
Principal photography began in the fall of 2002, and Matthew F. Leonetti served as the director of photography. Filming was done mostly in various parts of South Florida such as Miami Beach, Seven Mile Bridge, and Homestead Air Reserve Base. Hauser's character's mansion was shot in Coral Gables, in a house owned by Sylvester Stallone. At Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park, 2 Fast 2 Furious was filmed on one side, while Bad Boys II was filmed on the other side at the same time.
A car enthusiast himself, Walker drove a Nissan Skyline GT-R model R34 borrowed from the film's Technical Advisor, Craig Lieberman, in the film's opening scenes. Aoki did not have a driver's license or any driving experience prior to the film's production, and took driving lessons during filming; she drove a pink 2001 Honda S2000 AP1 in the film. Gibson drove a convertible Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder, while Michael Ealy drove a Toyota Supra Turbo MkIV model JZA80 that had been used by Walker in The Fast and the Furious.
Music
The musical score was composed by David Arnold. The soundtrack was released on May 27, 2003 on Def Jam Recordings, the same record label that Ludacris was signed to.
Release
2 Fast 2 Furious premiered at the Universal Amphitheatre on June 3, 2003. The short film The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious was released before select screenings and on special edition home releases of the first film.
Home media
2 Fast 2 Furious was released on DVD and VHS on September 30, 2003. It was later released on Blu-Ray on March 24, 2009 and 4K Ultra-HD on October 2, 2018.
Video game
A mobile game was released in 2004 by Digital Bridges.
Reception
Box office
2 Fast 2 Furious earned $52.1 million in its U.S. opening in 3,408 theaters, ranking first for the weekend above Finding Nemo. The film went on to score the fourth-highest June opening weekend, behind Batman Forever, Scooby-Doo and Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me. This was also the second consecutive Universal film of 2003 to make an opening weekend above $50 million, after Bruce Almighty. Furthermore, the film suprassed Shaft to have the highest opening weekend for a John Singleton film and XXX to have the biggest opening weekend for a Neal H. Moritz film respectively. During its second weekend, it fell behind Finding Nemo, making $19.1 million. Throughout its 133 days in release, the film reached a peak release of 3,418 theaters in the U.S. and earned $127.2 million in domestically. The film had the 15th largest US gross of 2003 and the 16th largest worldwide gross of 2003; combined with the international gross of $109.2 million, the film earned $236.4 million worldwide.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, 2 Fast 2 Furious has an approval rating of 36% based on 162 reviews and an average rating of 4.80/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Beautiful people and beautiful cars in a movie that won't tax the brain cells." On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 38 out of 100 based on reviews from 36 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "Aโ" on scale of A+ to F.
Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine wrote: "While this John Singleton-directed sequel provides a breezy enough joyride, it lacks the unassuming freshness and appealing neighborhood feel of the economy-priced original."
Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club wrote: "Singleton abandons the underground racing subculture that gave the first film its allure, relying instead on lazy thriller plotting that's only a bag of donuts and a freeze-frame away from the average TV cop show." USA Todays Mike Clark gave film 2 out of 4, and wrote "The movie is all about racing, and character be damned, though the still dazed-looking Walker and Tyrese finally get a little rapport going after a worn-out story's very rocky start." He concludes "Lack of pretension helps the viewer get over the fact that this is just another retread." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 out of 4 and said, "It doesn't have a brain in its head, but it's made with skill and style and, boy, it is fast and furious." In 2018, Derek Lawrence of the Entertainment Weekly called it "the forgotten Fast and Furious gem" and praised the chemistry between Walker and Gibson and John Singleton's direction. In 2019, Bilge Eberi of Vulture also praised the movie especially Singleton's direction.
In 2014, John Singleton said:"It was awesome. The heads of the studio at the time were just like, just make it fun, make it cool, make it this gen. I didn't do all that techno music that they did in the first movie. I used nothing but Southern Hip Hop which was like the rage at the time. I just funked it up, I made it more multi-ethnic. They kind of followed the paradigm that I set up. What we're going to do here is Paul [Walker]'s characterโGod bless his soul โ Paul Walker is going to be edgy. He's going to be more like a bad boy. That was the film where he was the star. That was the movie where he was the star of the picture because we didn't have Vin [Diesel]. It was a real fun experience."
Accolades
Sequel
After failing to secure the returns of Diesel, Walker, or any other member of the original cast, Universal ordered a standalone sequel, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift. Moritz returned and hired director Justin Lin, who would go on to direct several subsequent installments in the series.
References
External links
2003 films
2003 action thriller films
2000s chase films
2003 crime thriller films
2000s heist films
2000s road movies
American action thriller films
American chase films
American crime thriller films
American heist films
American road movies
American sequel films
2000s English-language films
Fast & Furious films
Fictional portrayals of the Miami-Dade Police Department
Films about automobiles
Films directed by John Singleton
Films produced by Neal H. Moritz
Films scored by David Arnold
Films set in California
Films set in Miami
Films shot in Miami
Original Film films
Films with screenplays by Gary Scott Thompson
Universal Pictures films
2000s American films
San Bernardino County, California in fiction
|
21658268
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taf%C3%AD%20del%20Valle%20Department
|
Tafรญ del Valle Department
|
Tafรญ del Valle Department is a department in Tucumรกn Province, Argentina. It has a population of 13,883 (2001) and an area of 2,741 kmยฒ. The seat of the department is in Tafรญ del Valle.
Municipalities and communes
Amaicha del Valle
Colalao del Valle
El Mollar
Tafรญ del Valle
Departments of Tucumรกn Province
|
443368
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
|
แงแแแแแแแ แแกแ
|
แงแแแแแแแ แแกแ โ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแแ แแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แฃแซแ แแแ แซแแแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แกแแคแแ แแแแจแ, แกแแแฎแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แกแแแชแฎแ-แฏแแแแฎแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแกแแแแซแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ, แแฎแแแชแแฎแแก แฅแแแแฃแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแก. แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก 1897 แแแขแ แแ. แแกแแแแซแแก แแแแแ, แแแแฎแแแแแแ 4 แแแ แกแแ แแกแแแแซแแก แฎแแแแก แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแกแ แแแ แแกแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแแกแแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแ VIII-IX แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแก. แฃแแแแแ, แ แฃแฎแ แแแแแกแขแแก แฅแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแกแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แชแแแฅแแแแแแแแ แแแแแจแแแแแแ. แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแแแแจแแแ แแ แแแฌแแแแแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแ แแก (แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แกแแแ แชแแแแ) แแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แแแ แแ แแ แแแฆแแแแ แแแฎแกแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแ แจแแแ-แแญแแกแแแแ". แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแฃแแ แแแฌแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแแกแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แแแแขแแ แแแ.
แแแแแกแแ แแแฎแแขแฃแแ แงแแคแแแ, แแแกแ แแแจแแ แจแแแแแแฎแฃแแแ แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แแแแญแจแ. แแฅ แแแฎแแขแฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แฅแ แแกแขแ. แแแก แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแ แจแแแแแแฎแฃแแแ แแแแแแกแแชแแแแแก แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแฎแ แแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แซแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแแ.
แแ แแแ แแแแขแแ แ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแก แแแแแแแก. แกแแแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ แ แฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแแ แฅแแ แแ แแก. แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแก แแ แแก แแแแขแแ แแก แแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแแแกแแ แงแแแแแแแ แแกแ 2006 แฌแแแก 7 แแแแแแแ แก, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แแ แซแแแแแฃแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ แแแแแแญแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แฃแซแ แแแ แซแแแแแก แแแขแแแแ แแ.
แแฆแแก แซแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแก. แแแแก แแแ แขแ แแแแแแแ , แแแฆแ แแ แกแฃแ แแแฅแชแแฃแแแ. แจแแ แฉแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแ, แแกแแช แแแฌแแแแแ แแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแ แแ แแแญแแ แแซแ, แแแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแแชแฎแ-แฏแแแแฎแแแจแ, แแ., 1992, แแ., 22-23
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแกแแ แงแแแแแแแ แแกแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแแ แแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แฃแซแ แแแ แซแแแแแแ
|
52154
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
|
แแฃแแ แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ
|
แแฃแแ แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ
แแฃแแ-แแฆแ แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ, แแฃแ-แแฆแ แแแแแช-แแฆแแ, (แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แฅแแแแแแซแ) (แ. 1840 โ แ. 1923, แกแแค. แกแแแแแ, แฅแแแฃแแแแ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแ.
แแฆแแฌแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแคแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแฅแชแแฃแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแฌแแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแกแแแ แจแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแก. แแฎแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แ. แญแแแญแแแแซแแกแแแ, แ. แฌแแ แแแแแแแ, แก. แแแกแฎแแแ, แ. แงแแแแแแแแ, แ. แแฃแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแแแ. แแฃแแ แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแขแ แแแขแ แแงแ แแญแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแ-19 แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 70-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแกแแแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ แฎแแ แแฆแแแแฆแแ. แแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแแ โแแญแแ แแก แแฃแแโ แฃแฌแแแ . แกแแกแขแแแแขแฃแ แแ แแฅแแแงแแแแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแแชแแแแก แฅแแ แแฃแ แแ แแกแแจแ. แแฌแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแก แแแชแแแก แแ แแแแแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแแแก แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแจแ. แแแ แซแแแ แแฃแฐแแฏแแ แแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ 1877โ1878 แฌแแแแจแ แ แฃแกแแ-แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแก แแ แแก. แแฃแ แฅแแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแแก แจแแแแแ แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแ แแแแกแ แแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแชแแแก แกแแ แแแแแแก. แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แจแแแแแ แฅแแแฃแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแฎแ แแแแแชแแแก แ แแแแจแ แแ แแแแ แฃแ แแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ. แแแกแ แฅแแแแแแฅแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ-แแฆแ แแแแแ แแซแแก แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแชแแจแแแแแก แกแแแฃแแ แแแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแฃแแจแ แแแแฎแกแแ แแแ แแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แกแแแแ แฅแแแฃแแแแจแ.
แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แแ แแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแแแ แแแฐแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแฆแแ แซแแแแแแก แกแแฅแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฃแ แแฃแแแซแ แ., แแฃแแ แแแแแแชแแจแแแแ, แแ., 1973;
แซแแซแแ แแ แ, แแแก แแแแแ แแญแแ แแก แแฃแแ'' แฃแฌแแแ. - แแแแแแ แแญแแ แ, 2011, 16 แแแแแกแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1840
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1923
|
525290
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%98
|
แแฃแแแ แแกแแแแ
|
แแฃแแแ แแกแแแแ (แ. 6 แแแ แขแ, 1998, แแแแแ, แฃแแ แแแแ) โ แฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแญแแแ แแแ, แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแแแแกแขแแขแ (2016), แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแกแขแแขแ แแแแแแแชแแแก แจแแ แแก (2017). แแกแแคแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแ 12 แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแ แแก (2010), แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แแ แแแฏแแแก แแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแ (2017), แฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแ (2018), แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฃแแ (2017).
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแฃแแแ แแกแแแแ 1998 แฌแแแก 6 แแแ แขแก แแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ.
2006 แแ 2008 แฌแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแก 10 แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ.
แแ แ แแ แแแฏแแ แแฅแแก แแฆแแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแก แแกแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ. 2008 แฌแแแก 10 แฌแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแงแ แแแกแแแ, แฎแแแ 2010-แจแ 12 แฌแแแแแแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก 12 แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแ แ แแฅแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แฏแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแ แแแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแ แแกแแคแแแ.
2012-แจแ 14 แฌแแแกแแ แฃแแ แแแแแจแ แแ แ แแฅแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแฆแ. แฏแแ 16 แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแงแ แแแ แแแแ, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแ 20-แจแ แฌแแแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแจแ 20 แฌแแแแแแแแ แแกแแคแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแกแแแฏแ แซแแแแแ แแ แแ-11-14 แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฌแแแ.
2013-แจแ แแ แ แแฅแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแแแ, 16 แแ 20 แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ. แแ-แแแแจแ แแกแแคแแแแก 16 แฌแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแ-6 แแแแแแก แแแกแฏแแ แแ.
2014 แแ 2015 แฌแแแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแฏแแแก แแแแแแ แแแฆแ.
2015 แฌแแแก แฃแ แแแจแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แกแแญแแแ แแแ แแแฃแ โแกแแแแแ แแแแกโ แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ.
2016 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแ แขแแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแ แแแแก 18 แฌแแแแแแแแ แแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแฅแ แแก แแแแแแแ แแแฆแ. แแแแแแแแ แจแ แ แแแแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแ แแแ, 9 แแแ แขแแแแแ 3 แแแแแ, 2 แฌแแแแ, 4 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 5 แฅแฃแแแ แแแแแฎแ แแแแแแก แแแกแฏแแ แแ.
2017 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแจแ แ แแแแจแ แแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแกแแแ แแแ, 11 แแแ แขแแแแแ 5 แแแแแ, 2 แฌแแแแ, 4 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ แแ-17 แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแแแกแจแ แฎแแแขแ-แแแแกแแแกแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแฎแฃแแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแ แจแ แแแแแ แฃแฎแแแก แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แแแฏแแ แแ แแ แแขแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแฏแแแก แแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ.
แแแแแแแแ แจแ แแแขแแแแ แจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, 9 แแแขแแแแแ 5 แแแแแ, 4 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ.
2018 แฌแแแก 30 แแแ แขแแแแ 1 แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแกแจแ แกแฌแ แแค แแ แแแแแกแแแฃแ แญแแแ แแแจแ แแแ แแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแกแแแ แแแ. แกแฌแ แแคแจแ 11 แแแ แขแแแแแ 6 แแแแแ, 5 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 35-แ แแแแแแก แแแกแฏแแ แแ. แจแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแกแ แแงแ แแแแแกแแแฃแ แญแแแ แแแจแ, แกแแแแช 13 แแแ แขแแแแแ 8 แแแแแ, 3 แฌแแแแ, 2 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 9 แฅแฃแแแ แแแแฅแแกแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แแแแฃแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แกแแ แแแแ แแ แแแคแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแแฃแ แแแ แชแฎแแก แแแแฃแคแแ. 6 แแแ แขแแแแแ 3-3 แแแแแแ-แงแแแแ แแแแคแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแแก 4,5 แฅแฃแแ แจแแกแซแแแ.
2019 แฌแแแก แแฅแขแแแแแ -แแแแแแแ แจแ แแแแฃแแจแ แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแฎแ แแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแ. 7 แแแ แขแแแแแ 3 แแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแ, 1 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ แแแแแก แแแแแชแแแแ แแแชแฎแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแฎแ แแแแแแก แแแกแฏแแ แแ.
แแแแแแแแ แจแ แแฃแชแแจแ แฃแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แแแฎแแ. แแแ แแแขแแแแ แแฃแแแแแก แแกแแแแกแแ 7 แฅแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแ, แแฃแแช แแแแแขแแแแแ แแแฉแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแฉแแฉแแก.
แแแแแแแ แแก แแแแแก แกแฌแ แแค แแ แแแแแกแแแฃแ แญแแแ แแแจแ แแกแแคแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแกแแแ แแแ. แกแฌแ แแคแจแ 12 แแแ แขแแแแแ 6 แแแแแ, 4 แฌแแแแ, 2 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 36-แ แแแแแแก แแแกแฏแแ แแ. แแแแแกแแแฃแ แญแแแ แแแจแ, 17 แแแ แขแแแแแ 7 แแแแแ, 5 แฌแแแแ, 5 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 9,5 แฅแฃแแแ 43-แแ แแแแแแ.
2020 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแจแ โแแแกแแแ แแคแแแแกโ แขแฃแ แแแ แ แแแแแ. แแแ 9 แแแ แขแแแแแ 8-แจแ แแแแ แฏแแ, 1 แแ แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ.
2021 แฌแแแก แแแแกแจแ แแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแแแ แจแ แ แแแแจแ FIDE Women's Grand Swiss Tournament แขแฃแ แแแ แแ 50 แแแญแแแ แแแแก แจแแ แแก แแ-6 แแแแแแ แแแฆแ.
แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แกแแฅแขแแแแแ -แแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แกแแฏแแกแจแ แแกแแคแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแฎแ แแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแฃแแแฃแ แแ แแแฏแแแก แจแแกแฌแแแ.
แแแแ แแแ
แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แกแฃแ 28 แแแ แขแแ แแแแแแจแ แแ 17,5 แฅแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแ. แแฅแแแแ 12 แแแแแ, 11 แงแแแแแ แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแ 5 แฌแแแแ.
แกแแญแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแแ 2018 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ
แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแ แแ แฏแแ 2017 แแ 2019 แฌแแแแจแ แแแกแแแ แแแ.
แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแแช แแ แฏแแ 2017 แแ 2021 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแจแ.
แกแฃแ แแ แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแ แแ แ แแ แแแฏแแแก แแแแแแ แแฅแแก แแแแแแฃแแ.
แแแกแแแแแแคแแแแชแแ
2021 แฌแแแก 27-28 แแแ แขแก แแฃแแแแ แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แคแแแแก แแแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแแ แแแแแ. 5-แแแ 4,5 แฅแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแ. แขแฃแ แแแ แแก แจแแแแแ แแแกแ แแแขแแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแกแแก แแญแแ แแแฃแฉแแแแ แ แแ แแแญแแแ แแแ แแแแแจแแกแแก แแแ แซแแแฃแ แแแแฎแแแ แ แกแแจแฃแแแแแแแก แแงแแแแแแ, แคแแแแก แกแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแจแแก (The Fair Play Panel) แแแแแกแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแแฃแฃแฅแแ แแ แแแกแแแแแแคแแแแชแแแช แแแกแชแ. แคแแแแ แกแฃแ 20 แแแญแแแ แแแแก แแแกแชแ แแแกแแแแแแคแแแแชแแ, แแกแ แ แแ แแแแ แแแแแจแแฃแแแก แแแแแแขแแแชแแแแแ แกแแแฃแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแฃแแแแแแ.
แแแกแแแแแแคแแแแชแแแก แจแแแแแ แแกแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแ แแแกแ แกแแแแ แแแ แกแแชแ แฃแแก แแแขแแฅแขแแ แแ แจแแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แแ แแแกแแแแแแคแแแแชแแ แแแแฃแฅแแแแแแแ, แแฃแแช แแแแก แคแแแแก แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแฅแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
https://ratings.fide.com/profile/14101602
https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=138996
https://www.365chess.com/players.php
http://www.olimpbase.org/2015ge/2015smgr.html
http://www.olimpbase.org/players-ind/j/j15tlprc.html
https://players.chessbase.com/en/player/Osmak_Iulija/191613
https://www.chess.com/players/iulija-osmak
แกแฅแแแแ
แญแแแ แแแแก แแแแแกแขแแขแแแ แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก
แญแแแ แแแแก แแแแแกแขแแขแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 6 แแแ แขแ
1998 แฌแแแ แกแแแ แขแจแ
|
365282
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kubuntu
|
Kubuntu
|
Kubuntu โ Ubuntu-แแ แแ Linux-แแก แแแกแขแ แแแฃแขแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแชแแฃแแ แกแแกแขแแแ. แแแ แแงแแแแแก KDE แแ แแคแแแฃแ แกแแแ แชแแก Ubuntu Unity แแแชแแแแ. Kubuntu-แก แกแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช โ โแแแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแโ (แแแแแแกแฃแ แแ โFriendly Computingโ). แแแกแขแ แแแฃแขแแแ แจแแฅแแแแแแ แแ แแแแฃแจแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแแ Canonical Lt-แแก แแแแ 12.04 แแแ แกแแแแแ. แแ แแแฅแขแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก Ubuntu-แก แแ แแแฅแขแแก แแแฌแแแก แแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแก แแแก.
แแฃแแฃแแขแฃ แแซแแแแ แ แแแแ แช KDE แแ แแคแแแฃแแ แกแแแ แชแแก (แแแแแขแ kubuntu-desktop), แแกแแแ Unity (แแแแแขแ ubuntu-desktop) แแ แแแ แแฃแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแก แแ แฉแแแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแชแแฃแแ แกแแกแขแแแแก แฉแแ แแแแกแแก. แงแแแแแ แแแแ แแชแแฃแแ แกแแกแขแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแแ Ubuntu-แแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก Kubuntu-แช, แแฅแแ แกแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแขแแ แแแ. แแแแ แแชแแฃแแ แกแแกแขแแแ แแแฎแแแแแ แงแแแแ แแแฎแแแแ แฌแแแจแ (6 แแแแจแ) Ubuntu-แกแแแ แกแแแฅแ แแแฃแแแ.
Kubuntu-แก แฉแแแแขแแแ แแแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โKubuntuโ แฌแแ แแแแจแแ แกแแขแงแแ โUbuntuโ-แกแ แแ โKโ แแกแแก แจแแ แฌแงแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แฉแแฃแแ แแฅแแ KDE แแแ แแแแแขแฃแ แแแแ. แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ, แ แแ แกแแขแงแแ Kubuntu แแแแแแก แแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแก โแแแชแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแกแแฎแแแกโ แแ โแฃแคแแกแโ-แก แแแ แฃแแแแก แแแแแ.
แแแแแชแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
kubuntu DistroWatch-แแ
Kubuntuguide
แกแฅแแแแ
Linux
2005 แฌแแแก แแ แแแ แแแฃแแ แฃแแ แฃแแแแแงแแคแ
IA-32-แแแแ Linux-แแก แแแกแขแ แแแฃแขแแแแแ
KDE
Ubuntu-แกแแแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแแแแ
X86-64-แแแแ Linux-แแก แแแกแขแ แแแฃแขแแแแแ
|
25217654
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C8%99nov%C4%83%C8%9B
|
Iศnovฤศ
|
Iศnovฤศ is a village in Criuleni District, Moldova.
References
Villages of Criuleni District
|
372770
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA%20Euro%202004
|
UEFA Euro 2004
|
UEFA Euro 2004
The 2004 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as Euro 2004, was the 12th edition of the UEFA European Championship, a quadrennial football competition contested by the men's national teams of UEFA member associations. The final tournament was hosted for the first time in Portugal, from 12 June to 4 July 2004. A total of 31 matches were played in ten venues across eight cities โ Aveiro, Braga, Coimbra, Guimarรฃes, Faro/Loulรฉ, Leiria, Lisbon, and Porto.
As in 1996 and 2000, the final tournament was contested by 16 teams: the hosts plus the 15 teams that came through the qualifying tournament, which began in September 2002. Latvia secured their first participation in a major tournament after overcoming Turkey in the play-offs, while Greece returned to the European Championship after 24 years.
The tournament was rich in surprises and upsets: Traditional powerhouses Germany, Spain, and Italy were eliminated in the group stage, while defending champions France were knocked out in the quarter-finals by Greece. Portugal recovered from an opening defeat against Greece to reach the final, eliminating England and the Netherlands along the way. For the first time in a major European football tournament, the last match featured the same teams as the opening match. Portugal were again defeated by Greece with a goal from Angelos Charisteas. Greece's triumph was unexpected, considering that they had only qualified for two other major tournaments: UEFA Euro 1980, at which they managed just one point, and the 1994 FIFA World Cup, where they lost all three matches. As winners, Greece earned the right to represent Europe at the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup.
During the opening ceremony, one of the tableaux depicted a ship โ symbolising the voyages of the Portuguese explorers โ sailing through a sea that transformed into the flags of all competing countries. In the closing ceremony, Portuguese-Canadian singer Nelly Furtado performed her single and official tournament theme song, "Forรงa".
Bid process
Portugal were announced as hosts for UEFA Euro 2004 on 12 October 1999, in Aachen, Germany, beating Spain and the joint bid of Austria and Hungary.
Summary
Group A opened with a shock as Greece, ranked outsiders from start, defeated the hosts 2โ1. Giorgos Karagounis put the Greeks ahead after only seven minutes and Angelos Basinas made it 2โ0 from the penalty spot on 51 minutes. A stoppage-time goal by Cristiano Ronaldo proved no more than a consolation. Greece then drew with Spain before losing to Russia in their last group stage game. Portugal recovered from their opening defeat by defeating Russia 2โ0, who had their keeper Sergei Ovchinnikov sent off. Nuno Gomes scored the winning goal against Spain, which ensured Portugal finished top of Group A. Greece advanced to the quarter-finals as runners-up, ahead of Spain on goals scored.
Defending champions France scored twice in stoppage time to go from 1โ0 down to beat England 2โ1. Zinedine Zidane scored both goals; the second from the penalty spot. England's other two games were memorable for the performances of their young star Wayne Rooney. Only 18 at the time, Rooney's goal-scoring ability proved instrumental in victories over Switzerland (3โ0) and Croatia (4โ2). France and England qualified from the group as winners and runners-up respectively.
Group C featured a three-way tie between Sweden, Denmark and Italy. All matches between the three sides had ended in draws and all three had beaten Bulgaria. Italy were ultimately eliminated on the number of goals scored after Sweden and Denmark drew 2โ2 and qualified as group winners and runners-up. The Italians accused Sweden and Denmark of fixing their match, as both sides knew that a 2โ2 result would advance them both over Italy, but UEFA dismissed the complaint.
The Czech Republic won Group D as the only team to win all three of their group matches. They defeated Latvia 2โ1, the Netherlands 3โ2, and Germany 2โ1. It was another disappointing European campaign for the Germans, who failed to advance from the group stage for the second consecutive time. The Netherlands claimed a quarter-final berth as runners-up.
In the first quarter-final between England and Portugal, the English opened the score after only two minutes through Michael Owen. Portugal's constant attacking pressure from then on resulted in Hรฉlder Postiga's 83rd-minute equaliser. In the dying minutes, Owen hit the Portuguese crossbar and Sol Campbell headed in the rebound, but the goal was ruled out by referee Urs Meier for a foul on the Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo. The sides exchanged goals in extra-time, sending the match to a penalty shoot-out. Portugal won 6โ5, as Ricardo saved from Darius Vassell and then scored the winning goal himself.
The Greeks, meanwhile, continued to stun everybody. Firm defensive play and an Angelos Charisteas goal on 65 minutes helped Greece defeat France 1โ0 and progress to the semi-finals. This victory made Greece the first team to defeat both the holders and the hosts in the same tournament. Sweden and the Netherlands played out an exciting but goalless encounter, even after a dramatic period of extra-time in which Freddie Ljungberg hit the inside of the Dutch goalpost. The Dutch progressed after winning the penalty shoot-out 5โ4, their first victory on penalties in a major tournament. The last quarter-final match saw the Czechs dispatch Denmark, as a two-goal effort from Milan Baroลก helped seal a 3โ0 win.
Portugal and the Netherlands faced each other in the first semi-final. Cristiano Ronaldo put the hosts in the lead from a corner kick midway through the first half, and just before the hour mark Maniche made it 2โ0 with a spectacular goal from the corner of the penalty area. An own goal from Jorge Andrade gave the Netherlands a glimmer of hope. The game ended 2โ1 to Portugal and the hosts, after their opening day failure, were through to the final of the European Championship for the first time. The Czech Republic looked likely candidates to face the hosts in the final. They were favourites to take the trophy, having won all four of their games. However, they would have to see off the upstart Greeks to do so. The Czechs had several chances, including a shot from Tomรกลก Rosickรฝ that struck the bar. The game remained goalless until the dying moments of the first half of extra time, when Traianos Dellas headed home the winner, the first and only silver goal in a European Championship.
The final was a repeat of the opening game of the tournament and Portugal were hoping to avenge their defeat. Portugal attacked and dominated possession but once again, sturdy defending and goalkeeping from Greece kept the hosts off the scoreboard. Just before the hour mark, Greece earned a corner kick from which Angelos Charisteas scored. Portugal continued to press after the goal but even with five minutes of stoppage time, they could not find an equaliser. Greece won the match 1โ0 and were crowned European champions, a title that they were given a 150โ1 chance of winning before the tournament. All of Greece's wins in the knockout stage came in an identical manner: a 1โ0 win, with the goal being a header off a cross from the right wing. Portugal became the first host nation to lose in a European Championship final.
Qualification
The draw for the qualifying round was held on 25 January 2002 at the Europarque Congress Centre, in Santa Maria da Feira, Portugal. Fifty teams were divided into ten groups of five and each team played two matches against all its opponents, on a home-and-away basis. Qualification matches took place from September 2002 to November 2003. The first-placed teams from each group qualified automatically to the final tournament, whereas the ten runners-up took part in a two-legged play-off to select the remaining five teams that would join the host nation in the final tournament.
Qualified teams
Ten of the sixteen finalists participated in the previous tournament in 2000. Latvia made its first appearance in a major football competition, while Greece returned to the European Championship finals after a 24-year absence. Bulgaria, Croatia, Russia and Switzerland also took part in their second tournament finals since their debut in 1996.
As of 2022, this was the last time that Bulgaria qualified for the European Championship finals and also the last time Bulgaria qualified to a major tournament, the only time that Latvia qualified, as well as the last time that Poland failed to qualify.
Final draw
The group stage draw took place on 30 November 2003 at the Pavilhรฃo Atlรขntico in Lisbon, Portugal, and was televised live: Euro 2004 Draw on BBC Sport.
The 16 qualified finalists were drawn from four seeded pots into four groups. The pot allocations were based on the 2003-edition of the UEFA national team coefficient ranking, which measured performance of teams in the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying and UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying. The coefficient was calculated by dividing the number of all points scored (three points for a win, one for a draw) by the number of all matches played. Results from the final tournaments, play-off matches and friendly games were all ignored. As host country, Portugal were automatically placed in position A1, and would hereby play the opening match of the final tournament. The remaining 15 teams were split into four pots, with title-holders France seeded alongside Sweden and the Czech Republic in the first pot.
The Pot 1 teams were assigned to the first positions of their groups. For the purpose of determining the exact match schedules in each group, the 2nd/3rd/4th group positions were drawn separately for all other teams drawn from pot 2-4. The draw started by using pot 4 to draw one team to each of the four groups in alphabetic order from A to D. This same procedure was followed for pot 3 and pot 2. Finally the three remaining teams from pot 1 were drawn in alphabetic order into group B, C and D.
The draw resulted in the following groups:
Venues
The final tournament was played in ten venues located in eight different cities. Lisbon and Porto, the two biggest cities, had two venues each, while Aveiro, Braga, Coimbra, Faro-Loulรฉ, Guimarรฃes and Leiria had one venue. In order to meet UEFA's requirements on venue capacity and infrastructure, seven new stadiums were built โ Estรกdio Municipal de Aveiro (Aveiro), Estรกdio Municipal de Braga (Braga), Estรกdio Algarve (Faro-Loulรฉ), Estรกdio Dr. Magalhรฃes Pessoa (Leiria), Estรกdio da Luz (Lisbon), Estรกdio Josรฉ Alvalade (Lisbon), and Estรกdio do Dragรฃo (Porto) โ and three underwent renovation works โ Estรกdio Cidade de Coimbra (Coimbra), Estรกdio D. Afonso Henriques (Guimarรฃes), and Estรกdio do Bessa (Porto). The Estรกdio da Luz was the largest stadium with a tournament capacity of 65,647 seats, and served as the venue for the final. The opening ceremony and match took place at the Estรกdio do Dragรฃo.
This was the first European Championship where matches took place in more than eight venues since the tournament was expanded to 16 teams in 1996.
The table below lists stadium capacity for the final tournament, which may not correspond to their effective maximum capacity.
Ticketing
A total of 1.2 million tickets were available for the 31 matches of the final tournament, of which 77% were to be sold to the general public, and the remainder reserved for sponsors and partners (13%), media (5%), and corporate hospitality (5%). Public sales for an initial batch of 450,000 tickets (38%) were launched on 28 April 2003, in a ceremony in Lisbon which gathered former European football stars Eusรฉbio and Ruud Gullit. Ticket prices were divided in three categories, ranging from โฌ35 (group matches) to โฌ270 (final).
In a first phase lasting until 16 June 2003, supporters could apply for tickets via UEFA's tournament website or through forms available at the Portuguese Football Federation and match venues. Applicants could request a maximum of four tickets per match but were limited to one match per day. In parallel to individual match tickets, UEFA created a new category of tickets called "Follow My Team", which allowed supporters to see all the matches of their favourite team (group stage and, if qualified, knockout stage matches). If there were oversubscribed matches by the end of the first phase of sales, a match-specific draw would take place to select the successful applicants.
Between 1 August and 24 November 2003, available tickets were placed again on sale in a first-come, first-served basis. After the draw for the group stage on 30 November, a third phase of public sales began on 9 December, which included a second batch of tickets (39%) that could be bought until March 2004 through the national associations of the finalist teams. Every national association was awarded 20% of the venue capacity for each of their team's matches. From 1 to 30 April 2004, surplus tickets from UEFA or national associations were made available to the public for the last time. Ticket distribution began in May, after sales were officially closed.
Team base camps
Each team was provided a base camp for residence and daily training between tournament matches. An initial list of 25 bases approved by the Portuguese Football Federation, following a selection process started in November 2001, was announced by the organisation on 5 February 2003.
Squads
Each national team had to submit a squad of 23 players, three of whom must be goalkeepers, at least ten days before the opening match of the tournament. If a player became injured or ill severely enough to prevent his participation in the tournament before his team's first match, he would be replaced by another player.
Match officials
On 4 December 2003, UEFA revealed the twelve referees and four fourth officials. Each refereeing team was composed by one main referee and two assistant referees from the same country. In April 2004, the UEFA Referees Committee replaced Russian assistant referee Gennady Krasyuk with Yuri Dupanov of Belarus. The switch was made after Krasyuk incorrectly disallowed a second goal from Paul Scholes for offside in the Champions League round of 16 second leg between Manchester United and Porto.
Group stage
UEFA announced the match schedule for the final tournament on 10 March 2003, in Porto, Portugal. In a change from the previous tournament schedule, where two quarter-final matches were played per day, over two days, the quarter-finals at the Euro 2004 were to be played over four consecutive days, with one match per day.
All times are local, WEST (UTC+1).
Tiebreakers
If two or more teams were equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie-breaking criteria were applied:
Higher number of points obtained in the matches played between the teams in question;
Superior goal difference resulting from the matches played between the teams in question;
Higher number of goals scored in the matches played between the teams in question;
Superior goal difference in all group matches;
Higher number of goals scored in all group matches;
If on the last round of the group stage, two teams are facing each other and each has the same number of points, as well as the same number of goals scored and conceded, and the score finishes level in their match, their ranking is determined by a penalty shoot-out. (This criterion is not used if more than two teams have the same number of points.);
Higher coefficient derived from 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying and UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying (points obtained divided by number of matches played);
Fair play conduct of the team in the final tournament;
Drawing of lots.
Euro 2004 marked the introduction of the penalty shoot-out as a tiebreaker between two teams in the group stage, although no match required the use of this procedure. The same procedure was used in future European Championship tournaments.
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Knockout stage
The knockout stage was a single-elimination tournament involving the eight teams that advanced from the group stage. There were three rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round, culminating in the final to decide the champions. Any game in the knockout stage that was not decided by the end of the regular 90 minutes was followed by up to 30 minutes of extra time (two 15-minute halves).
For the first time in an international football tournament, the silver goal system was applied, whereby the team that led the game at the half-time break during the extra time period would be declared the winner. If the scores were still level after the initial 15 minutes of extra time, play would continue for a further 15 minutes. If the teams could still not be separated after the extra time, there would be a penalty shoot-out (at least five penalties each) to determine which team progressed to the next round. The silver goal replaced the golden goal from the previous two championships and was used in the semi-final between Greece and the Czech Republic.
As with every tournament since UEFA Euro 1984, there was no third place play-off.
All times are local, WEST (UTC+1).
Bracket
Quarter-finals
Semi-finals
Final
Statistics
Goalscorers
Awards
UEFA Team of the Tournament
The UEFA Technical Team was charged with naming a squad composed of the 23 best players over the course of the tournament. The group of eight analysts watched every game at the tournament before making their decision after the final. Five players from the winning Greek team were named to the team of the tournament. Michael Ballack and Gianluca Zambrotta were the only players to be included whose teams were knocked out in the group stage.
Golden Boot
The Golden Boot was awarded to Milan Baroลก, who scored all five of his goals in three group stage matches and in the quarter-finals against Denmark.
Milan Baroลก (5 goals)
UEFA Player of the Tournament
Theodoros Zagorakis
Prize money
Overall, CHF200 million was awarded to the 16 teams, a boost from the CHF120 million in the previous event. Below is a complete list of the allocations:
Prize for participating: CHF7.5 million
Extra payment based on teams performance:
Winner: CHF10 million
Runner-up: CHF6 million
Semi-finals: CHF4 million
Quarter-finals: CHF3 million
Group stage (per match):
Win: CHF1 million
Draw: CHF500,000
Discipline
If a player was shown a red card โ whether as a result of two bookable offences or a straight red โ he would become suspended from playing in his team's next match. A player would also become suspended for one match for picking up two yellow cards in separate matches. However, any yellow cards accumulated would be cancelled once a team was eliminated from the tournament or reached the semi-finals. In extreme cases of ill-discipline, UEFA could choose to have a disciplinary panel examine the incident in order to determine whether or not further suspension would be required.
The following players were suspended for one or more games as a result of red cards or yellow card accumulation:
Marketing
Logo, mascot and official song
The official tournament logo was created by Euro RSCG Wnek Gosper agency and unveiled on 13 May 2002 at a ceremony held in Lisbon's Belรฉm Cultural Center. It represents a football in the centre of a heart, surrounded by seven green dots. The football โ displaying typical Portuguese folk artistic motifs on its panels โ and the heart โ shaped in the traditional style of the filigree art from Viana do Castelo โ conveyed the football passion of the host country. The seven dots represent significant Portuguese elements and achievements, such as the number of castles in the national coat of arms or the conquest of the seven seas during the Age of Discoveries. The logo's colour palette was based on the Portuguese flag and its warm tones recall the light and sun associated with the Portuguese landscape and climate. The competition slogan used was "Vive O 2004!".
The official mascot was a boy named Kinas โ derived from quinas, one of the symbols of the Portuguese coat of arms โ who wore a football kit with the Portuguese colours (red shirt and green shorts) and was constantly playing with a football. He possessed the knowledge and talent of generations of highly gifted football players, and embodied the energy and passion of football. Created by Warner Bros., Kinas was officially unveiled on 29 March 2003 at the Casa de Serralves, in Porto, Portugal.
The official song, called "Forรงa", was written and performed by Portuguese-Canadian singer Nelly Furtado. The song was taken from her second studio album, Folklore, and released as its third single, soon after the start of the tournament. Furtado was selected to sing the official song of the tournament, because of her familial connection to the host country (her parents are both Portuguese from the Azores). She wrote "Forรงa" with "the passion the Portuguese people have for football" in mind. The song was played at every match, and performed live by Furtado at the closing ceremony prior to the final.
Match ball
The official match ball was presented during the final draw ceremony on 30 November 2003 in Lisbon. It was produced by Adidas and named Adidas Roteiro, after the logbook used by Portuguese maritime explorers such as Vasco da Gama. Roteiro was the first official tournament football to employ the new thermal-bonding technique in its production, which resulted in a seamless surface and a more homogeneous design. Portuguese Football Federation president Gilberto Madaรญl praised the ball, stating: "Adidas has delivered a stunning, modern and state-of the-art Portuguese football. This is very much how we envisage the UEFA Euro 2004 event to be". Roteiro was also used at the 2004 AFC Asian Cup, and during the mid-season of the 2004โ05 German Bundesliga.
The new ball received mixed reactions from players and technical staffs. England midfielder David Beckham, who was asked by Adidas to test it, was pleased with Roteiro's performance, particularly in free-kicks. France midfielder Zinedine Zidane believed the ball would "improve the game". Several Spanish players, however, regarded it as "horrible, difficult to control and to pass", with Real Madrid footballer Ivรกn Helguera describing it as a "beach ball". Notable players of the Italy national team, such as Francesco Totti, Andrea Pirlo and goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon also voiced criticisms.
Trophy tour
During the two months ahead of the tournament, the Henri Delaunay Trophy travelled across Portugal to promote the European Championship finals in the host country. The tour began on 8 April 2004 at the Praรงa do Comรฉrcio in Lisbon, where the launching ceremony took place with the presence of Portuguese football legend and tournament ambassador Eusรฉbio. A total of twenty towns and cities were visited by the trophy tour caravan, including the ten that would host matches.
Merchandise and memorabilia
In November 2002, UEFA appointed Warner Bros. Consumer Products (WBCP) as the tournament's exclusive worldwide licensing agent. As the global licensing rights owner, WBCP was responsible for negotiating product licence contracts with third parties on the behalf of UEFA and delineate product sales strategies across the host country. Other tasks included setting up and managing marketing plans, product distribution and prices, and prevent illegal use of trademarks and product sales. Over 2,000 merchandise items were developed by the 28 licencees chosen by WBCP, and were distributed not only within Portugal but also in major European and Asian markets.
To celebrate Portugal's hosting of the Euro 2004 finals, commemorative coin and stamp collections were issued by the Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, the Portuguese national mint and printing house, and CTT, the national postal service.
Sponsorship
UEFA distinguishes between global sponsors and national sponsors. Global Euro sponsors can come from any country and have together exclusive worldwide sponsorship rights for a UEFA European Football Championship. National sponsors come from the host country and do only have sponsorship rights within that country. Eight sponsors were announced by UEFA in December 2002.
Broadcasting
Nineteen cameras were used in each of the ten venues to broadcast the live matches, with three additional cameras in the opening and knockout stage matches.
See also
Vive O 2004!, the official album for UEFA Euro 2004
UEFA Euro 2004, the official video game for UEFA Euro 2004
References
External links
UEFA Euro 2004 at UEFA.com
Official Technical Report
2004
2003โ04 in European football
2003โ04 in Portuguese football
2004
June 2004 sports events in Europe
July 2004 sports events in Europe
|
514046
|
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
|
แจแขแแ แแก แชแแฎแแก แแแแแกแแ
|
แจแขแแ แแก แชแแฎแแก แแแแแกแแ โ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แซแแแแ แงแแแ แแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแ แจแแแแแจแ. แแแแแกแแ แแแแก แจแขแแ แแก แชแแฎแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แแ (แแแแแแแ แชแแฎแแก แแฎแแแแ แคแ แแแแแแขแแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแแ), แแแแแแแก แคแแแขแแก แแแ แแก. แแแแแกแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแจแแแแแฃแแแ แ แแงแแก แฅแแแ แแฃแฆแแแแ. แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแฃแ แแแขแแแแแจแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแแ แแ แขแงแแแ แแแฃแ แ, แแแแแกแแ แแแ แแแแ แจแแแแแฅแแจแแแฃแแ แแงแ, แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แแแก แกแแแฎแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแกแแแแแแแแแ แแฅแแก. แแแ แแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแแ, แแแแแงแแแแแแแ แแแฃแ แแ แแ แฉแแกแแฃแแแ แแ แแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแ แจแแฆแ แแแแแแฃแ แฉแแ แฉแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แฎแแ แฎแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแแ. แแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแจแ แแแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแ แฉแแ แแ แแแแแแจแ แแ -แแ แ แกแแ แแแแแ แแฅแแก, แแฃแแชแ แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแฎแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แกแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแ แฐแฅแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแชแแ แ แแแแแกแแ, แแแฆแแแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแ แแชแ แ แแคแ แแฅแแ. แฉแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แกแแ แแแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แคแแ แแแ แแ แแแฃแ แแ แแแแแงแแแแแแแแฆแแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแแ แแก แแฎแ แแแแ แกแแ แแแแแแก แฃแคแ แ XVIII-XIX แกแแฃแแแแแแแแก แแแฏแแแก แกแแ แแแแแแแกแแแแก แแแฎแแกแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแฎแแแแ แแ แ แแคแ แแฅแแก. แแแแกแแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแแ แแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฃแ แแก แคแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฏแแแ แ แงแแคแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแแแแช แแฎแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแ. แแกแแแแแ แฏแแ แแก แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แคแ แแแขแแแจแแช. แแแแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแแ แแแฃแ แแก แฎแแ แฎแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแฃแ แฃแแแ แแ แแแแขแแ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแฃแแ แแคแกแแแแ แแฎแ แแ แแแแแงแแคแแแ แแแ แแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแ แแแแฆแแแแฃแแ. แแแแฅแ แแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแกแฃแ แแแฆแแแ แแแแฏแแแแแ. แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแกแแแ แแฎแแแ แแแฏแแ แจแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฏแแฃแแ. แแแ แแแแแก แแ แซแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แฌแงแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแแ แแแแแฌแแแ แแแฃแแ, แ แแแแแแแแช แแแแแ แแก แกแแแฏแแแ แแแฆแแ แแแแแงแแแแแแ. แแแแแกแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฏแแแแ แจแแแแกแแแ, แแแขแแแ แแแฃแ แคแแแแแแ, แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แฌแแ แแ XVIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแ แ แกแแคแแแแแก แฅแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แงแแแ แแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แขแแซแ แแแ
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.