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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Korean%20won
North Korean won
North Korean won The Korean People's won, more commonly known as the North Korean won (Symbol: โ‚ฉ; Code: KPW; ) and sometimes known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea won, is the official currency of North Korea. It is subdivided into 100 chon. The currency is issued by the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, based in the North Korean capital city of Pyongyang. Etymology Won is a cognate of the Chinese yuan and Japanese yen. All three names derive from the Hanja , which means "round shape". The won is subdivided into 100 chon (McCune-Reischauer: chลn; Revised Romanization: jeon). History 1947โ€“2009 After the division of Korea, North Korea continued using the Korean yen for two years, until the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established on 6 December 1947 and the first North Korean won was issued. In February 1959, the second North Korean won was introduced, equal to 100 old won. From 1978 on, the North Korean government maintained an iconic rate of 2.16 won to the US dollar (which is said to have been based upon Kim Jong Il's birthday, 16 February). Over the decades, however, rampant inflation eroded the currency's value, and from 2001 the government abandoned the rate in favor of those closer to the black market's. A report by defectors from North Korea claimed the black market rate was โ‚ฉ570 to the Chinese yuan (about โ‚ฉ4,000 per U.S. dollar) in June 2009. 2009 revaluation The third North Korean won was introduced in a revaluation , the first in 50 years. North Koreans were given seven days to exchange a maximum of โ‚ฉ100,000 (worth approximately US$40 on the black market) in โ‚ฉ1,000 notes for โ‚ฉ10 notes, but after protests by some of the populace, the limit was raised to โ‚ฉ150,000 in cash and โ‚ฉ300,000 in bank savings. The official exchange rate at this time was around $740, but black market value of the โ‚ฉ150,000 was estimated to be near $30. The revaluation, seen as a move against private market activity, wiped out many North Koreans' savings. The Times speculated that the move may have been an attempt by the North Korean government to control price inflation and destroy the fortunes of local black market money traders. The announcement was made to foreign embassies but not in North Korean state media. As part of the process, the old notes ceased to be legal tender on 30 November 2009, but notes valued in the new won were not distributed until 7 December 2009. North Koreans were thus unable to exchange any money for goods or services for a week, and most shops, restaurants and transport services were shut down. The only services that remained open were those catering to the political elite and foreigners who both continued to trade exclusively in foreign currency. The measure led to concerns amongst North Korean officials that the move would result in civil unrest. China's Xinhua news agency described North Korean citizens as being in a "collective panic"; army bases were put on alert and there were unconfirmed reports of public protests in the streets in a handful of North Korean cities and towns, forcing authorities to slightly increase the amount of currency people were allowed to exchange. Piles of old bills were also set on fire in separate locations across the country, old paper notes were dumped in a stream (against laws of the desecration of images of Kim Il Sung), and two black market traders were shot dead in the streets of Pyongsong by local police, according to international reports. Authorities threatened "merciless punishment" for any person violating the rules of the currency change. Pictures of the new notes were published on 4 December 2009 in the Chosun Shinbo, a North Korean newspaper based in Japan. The paper claimed that the measure would weaken the free market and strengthen the country's socialist system. However, the won plummeted 96 percent against the U.S. dollar in the ensuing days after revaluation. Authorities eventually raised the limit to 500,000 won, Chosun reported, and promised no probes into savings of up to one million won, and unlimited withdrawals if savings of more than one million were properly accounted for. In February 2010, some of the curbs on the free market were eased, and a senior party official was sacked after incidents of unrest. Pak Nam-gi, the director of the Planning and Finance Department of North Korea's ruling Workers' Party, was executed later in 2010. North Korea denied any serious crisis relating to the revaluation. Coins First Won No coins were issued under the first won of 1947โ€“1959. Second Won The first North Korean coins for circulation were minted in 1959 in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 chon. These coins were often restruck with the original dates in later years; however, 1970 and 1974 dates also appear on the 1 and 5 chon. In 1978, 50 chon coins featuring the Chollima Statue and a rising sun were introduced into circulation during the 1979 currency reform to allow greater flexibility for vendors by eliminating the 50 chon banknote and large amounts of "small change" coinage carried. In 1987, 1 won coins featuring the Grand People's Study House were introduced, but did not fully replace the 1 won note which remained legal tender. When the historic 2.16 peg to the dollar was abandoned in 2001 to allow for greater convertibility the coins began to lose value. After 2003, these coins were rarely seen in circulation but were still redeemable. Later, a new set of coins was introduced in 2005 in denominations of 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. These coins were less impressive compared to the older series, being very plain and generic in design. All circulation coins of the Second Won were struck in aluminum. Following other socialist economies like Cuba and China, North Korea developed a special system of marking coins for two groups of foreign visitors. Issued in 1983, these coins were part of the "Pakkundon" convertible series. Coins with no "stars" were for general circulation in North Korea, coins marked with one star were for "socialist visitors", and coins marked with two stars were designated for "capitalist visitors". A fourth set, intended for collectors rather than circulation, was struck with the word "specimen" or "example" in Korean characters in the areas where the stars would be. The specimen/example set is the least common of the four. Besides the general circulating coins, there is an abundance of different commemorative coins minted in the name of the DPRK. Most, if not all of them, are sold to foreign numismatists. Some of these are official, state approved coins, others are not. Third Won Coins were issued in 10, 50 chon and 1 won denominations in 2002, and 1 and 5 chon denominations in 2008. All denominations are struck in aluminum. These coins feature the national coat of arms on the obverse and flowers, particularly the Kimjongilia and the Kimilsungia, on the reverse of the 10 and 50 chon coins. A magnolia adorns the 1 won coin. Initially struck in 2002, the coins were intended for use shortly after the dollar peg was removed from the currency. The 50 chon and 1 won coins were smaller than the previous designs, while the new 10 chon coin was the same size as the old. Hyperinflation became a very sudden reality, however, and the new coins were never released as planned. In 2008, 1 and 5 chon coins were also struck when a plan for monetary revaluation began. The coins were finally released into circulation in December 2009, but due to the flawed nature of the revaluation, these coins again have very little value, the 1 and 5 chon coins in particular being virtually irrelevant. Banknotes The first banknotes of "North Korea" were issued in 1945 by the Soviet-backed provisional government above the 38th parallel. These were in denominations of 1, 5, 10, and 100 won. These were discontinued shortly after Soviet forces withdrew and recognized the newly independent state. First Won This currency was issued in all-banknote form, with the first banknotes of this issue in denominations of 15, 20, and 50 chon along with 1, 5, 10 and 100 won in 1947. The chon notes had stylized art designs, while the won denominations were fairly uniform in design, featuring a farmer and a worker standing together and holding the symbolic tools. This currency was later revalued in 1959 at a rate of one new won to 100 old won to curb the inflation that had occurred as a result of the Korean War. Second Won In 1959, the old won was replaced with the Second Won, with price and exchange rates fixed to the U.S. dollar. This banknote series was issued in denominations of 50 chon, and 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. These notes were much larger than the previous issue and depicted images representing various industries in the North Korean economy. In 1979, the currency was again reformed, and a new banknote series was issued in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. There is ongoing speculation as to why this move was made. All 1959 banknotes were removed from circulation. Circulating coins, however, were not affected by this change. The designs for this issue were much more symbolic and charismatic than previous ones, with Kim Il Sung featuring for the first time on the 100 won note. In 1992, another redesign was carried out for banknotes, again in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. Older notes were once again withdrawn. These notes were smaller and crisper than the previous issue and depicted more modern themes. The 5 and 10 won banknotes were again issued in 1998, along with a 500 won banknote that same year but were stamped rather than engraved reflecting poorer production quality. In 2002, 1,000 and 5,000 won notes were introduced, followed by a 200 won note in 2005. The former two were identical in design to the 100 won though differing in colors and added security features, but the colored fields behind the text no longer extended all the way to the margins. In 2007, the 500 won had also been revised in this same manner along with being engraved for the first time to protect against counterfeiting. From 1998 onwards, all notes were dated using the Juche year (Juche year) along with the standard dating. In 2005, the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea issued commemorative 200, 500, 1000 and 5000 won notes to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the foundation of North Korea. It consists of an overprint on its regular issue notes. In 2007, a commemorative version of this banknote series was released, stamped "Great Leader Comrade Kim Il Sung's 95th Birthday" on all denominations. Banknotes in circulation for the second won, up to December 2009, were as follows: Third won In 2009, was initiated to tackle hyperinflation and black market activities. Unlike previous reforms, the 2009 move sparked a nationwide panic when it was announced there would be a two-week waiting period between the withdrawal of the old currency and the introduction of the new currency, coupled with an exchange limit of only 500,000 old won for each person, effectively wiping out savings. The state eventually pulled back on most exchange limits; however, the revaluation proved to be a failure. Like the coins for this series, some of the denominations were initially printed in 2002 but were never released into circulation, pointing to a planned monetary revaluation much earlier than 2009 that was never carried out. The current series of banknotes of the third won are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 5,000 won. Kim Il Sung is depicted only on the obverse of the highest denomination, with the 100 won note featuring the Magnolia (National Flower) and other notes depicting North Koreans of different professions and various monuments in North Korea. The exchange rate was 100 second won to 1 third won. Unlike all previous series, these notes were all uniform in dimensions rather than staggered in size from smallest to largest. There are rumors that the original designs for the 1,000 and 2,000 won notes depicted Kim Il Sung and had similar design features to the 5,000 won that were scrapped and destroyed due to counterfeiters or thieves breaking into a bank warehouse and stealing early notes or printing materials, resulting in a total redesign of the two denominations in question. In 2012, another commemorative series of banknotes was released, this time in the 2002โ€“2009 series but similarly stamped "Great Leader Comrade Kim Il Sung's 100th Birthday". Once again this stamp appeared on all denominations. In 2018, 1,000 and 2,000 won notes were released with an overprint referencing the 70th Anniversary of its independence. On 25 July 2014, a new 5,000 won note dated 2013 was released into circulation. Instead of depicting the portrait of North Korea's founder Kim Il Sung, the note depicts an image of his birthplace in Mangyondae and on the back the International Friendship Exhibition in Myohyangsan that displays gifts he and his son Kim Jong Il received from foreign leaders. There has been ongoing speculation that this could indicate plans for higher denominations to be released later which would depict Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il, or possibly both. However the official reason behind the change was to combat counterfeiters. Donpyo emergency currency Lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic have caused shortages in ink and paper used to print regular KPW banknotes, resulting in the issuance in the second half of 2021 of an emergency currency printed with the word "donpyo" (๋ˆํ‘œ or "money coupon"). It is denominated 5,000 won and printed in red ink on white paper of poor quality. Shortages in regular KPW banknotes after 2020 have also resulted in a premium in their exchange values in the black markets. The donpyo is discounted versus regular banknotes at only 3,800-4,000 KPW, and KPW banknotes have even appreciated versus the US dollar from 8,000 KPW to 5,200 KPW/USD. Exchange rates The North Korean won is not traded in the international markets. It is traded in the unofficial black markets at around US$1 = 8,000 KPW as of 2019 and around $1 = 5,000 KPW as of 2021. Concurrent use with foreign currencies Before 2009 North Korean won are intended exclusively for North Korean citizens, and the Bank of Trade (๋ฌด์—ญ์€ํ–‰) issued a separate currency (or foreign exchange certificates) for visitors, like many other socialist states. However, North Korea made two varieties of foreign exchange certificates, one for visitors from "socialist countries" which were colored red and hence nicknamed "red won", and the other for visitors from "capitalist countries" which were colored blue/green and hence known as "blue won". For the 1978 banknote series, foreign certificates, called "Pakkundon", meaning "exchangeable money" were implemented by an overstamp and serial number color. This was intended to protect the value of the national currency in North Korea's command economy. These were first released in 1983 in two forms, one for "socialist visitors" which had a red stamp, and one for "capitalist visitors" which had a green stamp. Another series was released in 1986 with either a blue or red Guillochรฉ style stamp. These were issued in all denominations, except for the โ‚ฉ100 note, presumably because it was assumed by the government that foreign visitors to North Korea would not show proper respect for its depiction of Kim Il Sung. These notes were discontinued in 1988 and replaced with a new series of Pakkundon in all banknote form that was more distinguishable and unmistakable from generic circulation currency. In 1988, the Bank of Trade (๋ฌด์—ญ์€ํ–‰) (as opposed to the Central Bank) issued two unique series of foreign certificates. They both included 1 chon, 5 chon, 10 chon, 50 chon, โ‚ฉ1, โ‚ฉ5, โ‚ฉ10, and โ‚ฉ50. The series for "capitalist visitors" was blue-green, while the series for "socialist visitors" was pink. The chon notes had a simple design of patterns and corresponding values, while the socialist won notes depict the International Friendship Exhibition, and the capitalist won notes depict the Chollima Statue. FECs were used until 1999, then officially abolished in 2002, in favor of visitors paying directly with hard currencies. Since 2009 After the 2009 revaluation, the BBC reported that in some department stores in Pyongyang, the North Korean won is not accepted; the stores only take Japanese yen and U.S. dollars. As of 2018 it has evolved to most North Korean stores accepting U.S. dollars, euros and Chinese yuan/renminbi, with change from transactions primarily returned in renminbi or U.S. dollars. Foreign visitors (and privileged locals) can buy goods priced in 'tied' won using a local debit card, which is credited when exchanging foreign currency at the official bank rate of around 104 won/USD or 130 won/EUR (as of 2012). This card can be used for instance at the famous Pyongyang Department Store No. 1 or at the different stores at the international hotels, where the goods are priced at the tied won rate. This tied won does not exist in the form of bank notes, and is effectively a separate currency and accounting unit for sales involving foreign exchange. In normal stores and markets goods are priced in what has been called the 'untied' won or free market rate which is represented by regular KPW banknotes. At for instance the Tongil Market and the Kwangbok Department Store (a.k.a. the Chinese Market) there are semi-official exchange agents who will give in regular banknotes around 8,000 KPW/USD or 10,000 KPW/EUR to locals and foreign visitors alike (as of 2012, or 77 times the tied or official rate). The untied KPW is used for prices in normal shops outside restricted state shops/tied won shops. See also Economy of North Korea South Korean won References External links Currencies of North Korea Currencies introduced in 1947 1947 establishments in North Korea
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D
แƒ˜แƒฃแƒกแƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ
แƒ˜แƒฃแƒกแƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก. แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒš แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ  แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ 19 แƒ™แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ  แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 3 แƒ™แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒก แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ  แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 19 แƒ™แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ˜. 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ 183 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Got%20to%20Be%20There%20%28%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A6%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%29
Got to Be There (แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ)
Got to Be There (แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ) Got to Be There โ€” แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒš แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒš แƒฏแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ Got to Be There. แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒšแƒ-แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ— 1971 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒš แƒฏแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ Discogs-แƒ–แƒ” แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒš แƒฏแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 1971 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
9567053
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sretensky%20Bulvar
Sretensky Bulvar
Sretensky Bulvar is a Moscow Metro station in the Meshchansky District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow. It is located on the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line, between and stations. Sretensky Bulvar opened on 29 December 2007 after more than 25 years since groundbreaking. History The construction, which began in the late 1980s, has frequently stalled as a result of continuous lack of funds. Only in 2004 did proper funding resume, which allowed finishing the construction. The station opening had been long-awaited, as it is an interchange: Chistye Prudy of the Sokolnicheskaya Line and Turgenevskaya of the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line. The projected passenger dynamics for the station are 10,800 per hour on entry and 20,100 on exit, which allows for a dramatic occupancy decrease on the Koltsevaya Line, particularly on the Komsomolskaya โ€” Kurskaya path. Design The station, designed by architects N. Shumakov and G. Mun, features a standard Lyublinskaya pylon-trivault design with the base set as a monolith concrete plate. White fibreglass is used on the vaults of the central (9.5-metre (31.17 foot) diameter) and the platform halls as well as the escalator and transfer corridor ceilings, which also doubles the hydroisolation. Initially it was thought that the station's main decorative feature would include a set of bronze and rock sculptures in the niches of all 30 pylons. Made by leading Russian sculptors, they would stand on granite pedestals with luminescent lamps lighting down on top of them. However, recently it has emerged that this would be too costly, and hence the pylon design was altered to now include a set of metallic artworks on themes of the Boulevard Ring. White marble covers the floors, whilst flooring are done with granite. There are two escalator tunnels leading from both ends of the station: one directly to Chistye Prudy station, and the other to a combined transfer to Turgenevskaya as well as a diversion to a second escalator tunnel to the surface. The combined vestibule will be located underground the Turgenevskaya Square at the beginning of Academician Sakharov Avenue and next to the Sretensky Boulevard for which the station is named. In an effort to conserve the spendings and time, the vestibule and the escalator tunnel to the surface will open later. References Moscow Metro stations Railway stations in Russia opened in 2007 Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line Railway stations located underground in Russia
6890709
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dig%20It%20%28Klaus%20Schulze%20album%29
Dig It (Klaus Schulze album)
Dig It (Klaus Schulze album) Dig It is the thirteenth album by Klaus Schulze. It was originally released in 1980, and in 2005 was the sixth Schulze album reissued by Revisited Records. It is Schulze's first fully digital recording. The 2005 reissue includes a bonus DVD with the video recording of the 1980 performance at Ars Electronica, which was previously released as audio on The Ultimate Edition (2000). The opening track, "Death of an Analogue", would later find use as the main theme to the 1982 Australian horror film Next of Kin, starring Jacki Kerin and John Jarratt. Track listing All tracks composed by Klaus Schulze. Disc 1 (CD) Disc 2 (DVD) Personnel Klaus Schulze โ€“ synthesizer, guitar, drums, keyboards, vocals, engineer, computers Fred Severloh โ€“ drums References External links Dig It at the official site of Klaus Schulze Klaus Schulze albums 1980 albums
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ
แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ(แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ˜) โ€” แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ, แƒแƒœแƒฃ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ  แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก, แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ  แƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜(0 แƒ“แƒ 1), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“(แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒคแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“) โ€” แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“, แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“. แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก(แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“ 32 แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒขแƒก[=4 แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒก]) แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ
360394
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4-%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90-%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98
แƒ—แƒแƒค-แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ-แƒแƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒ˜
แƒ—แƒแƒค-แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ-แƒแƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
41538810
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates%20Motel%20%28season%201%29
Bates Motel (season 1)
Bates Motel (season 1) The first season of Bates Motel aired from March 18-May 20, 2013. The season consisted of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 10 p.m. ET/PT on A&E. The series is described as a "contemporary prequel" to the 1960 film Psycho and follows the life of Norman Bates and his mother Norma prior to the events portrayed in the Hitchcock film. The series takes place in the fictional town of White Pine Bay, Oregon. The season received positive reviews from television critics. In its premiere episode, the series broke rating records for an original drama series on A&E, drawing in a total of 3.04 million viewers. Bates Motel was renewed for a second season after three episodes of the first season had aired. Vera Farmiga received particular praise for her performance as Norma Louise Bates, she won the 2013 Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television, and was nominated for the 2013 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, the 2013 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series, and the 2013 TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama. The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 17, 2013. Cast and characters Main Vera Farmiga as Norma Louise Bates Freddie Highmore as Norman Bates Max Thieriot as Dylan Massett Olivia Cooke as Emma Decody Nicola Peltz as Bradley Martin Recurring Nestor Carbonell as Sheriff Alex Romero Mike Vogel as Deputy Zack Shelby Keegan Connor Tracy as Miss Blair Watson Brittney Wilson as Lissa Jere Burns as Jake Abernathy Diana Bang as Jiao Vincent Gale as Gil Turner Richard Harmon as Richard Sylmore Ian Tracey as Remo Wallace Terry Chen as Ethan Chang Ian Hart as Will Decody Hiro Kanagawa as Dr. Fumhiro Kurata David Cubitt as Sam Bates Keenan Tracey as Gunner Aliyah O'Brien as Regina Guest W. Earl Brown as Keith Summers Lara Gilchrist as Rebecca Craig Ben Cotton as Danny Production Casting A&E gave Bates Motel a straight-to-series order in July 2012. Vera Farmiga was the first to be cast, as protagonist Norma Louise Bates in August. Shortly after, Freddie Highmore was cast as Norman Bates in September. The same month, Max Thieriot was cast as Norman's half brother, Dylan Massett. Nicola Peltz was cast as Bradley Martin. Olivia Cooke was the final main cast member to join the series, portraying Emma Decody. Filming A replica of the original Bates Motel set from the film Psycho was built on location in Aldergrove, British Columbia on 272nd Street, where the series is filmed. Production also took place in Greater Vancouver, and Richmond, British Columbia. Principal photography for the first season began on October 1, 2012. Though filming for the first season was expected to wrap on January 24, 2013, production continued into early February. Episodes Reception Critical response The first season of Bates Motel received mostly positive reviews. It received 66 out of 100 from Metacritic, based on 34 critical responses, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rotten Tomatoes aggregated that 81% of 37 television critics gave the series a positive review. The site's consensus reads, "Bates Motel utilizes mind manipulation and suspenseful fear tactics, on top of consistently sharp character work and wonderfully uncomfortable familial relationships". A&E renewed the series for a second season following the positive reviews and good ratings after the first three episodes. Ratings On its premiere night, the series broke rating records for an original drama series on A&E. It drew in a strong 3.04 million viewers total, including 1.6 million viewers watching it in the 18-49 demographic. The season finale episode drew in a total of 2.70 million viewers, with a 1.2 ratings share in the 18โ€“49 demo. Overall, the first season averaged 2.70 million viewers, with 1.5 million tuning in from both the 18โ€“49 and 25โ€“54 demographics. Awards and nominations In its first season, Bates Motel was nominated for 24 awards, winning one. References External links 2013 American television seasons Season 1 Murder in television Patricide in fiction Rape in television
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แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ (แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ)
แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ (แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ) แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ โ€” แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒจแƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 577 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ -แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜-แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 3 854 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒญแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” 20.07 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒ–แƒ”. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ 192 011 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜, 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
57132905
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity%20Church%20in%20the%20Kremlin
Nativity Church in the Kremlin
Nativity Church in the Kremlin The Church of the Nativity of the Theotokos "na Senyakh" is the oldest surviving building in the Moscow Kremlin and the city of Moscow. It has been part of the Grand Kremlin Palace since the mid-19th century. The church cannot be visited. Only the underground floor of the Annunciation Cathedral goes back to the same period of the Middle Ages as this church. The church was built in 1393 or 1394 by Princess Eudoxia of Moscow, the widow of Dmitry Donskoy. It adjoined the hall (seni) of the royal palace, hence its name "at the hall" (na senyakh). N.N. Voronin believed that the temple was laid in memory of the Battle of Kulikovo, as it is dedicated to the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which coincided with the date of the Battle of Kulikovo in the church calendar. However, S.V. Zagraevsky showed that there was a low probability of building a church on the 13th ("unhappy") anniversary of the battle. The church took the place of the wooden church of the Resurrection of Lazarus and was located at the part of the princely palace reserved for women as a house church of the Grand Princess. The church of 1393-1394 was preserved to half the height of the walls (before the choir ) with the main portal and part of the windows. It was a four-pillared three-pagan church built of white stone. Round in plan, the western pillars carry a vaulted overlapping chorus. The architecture of the church combines the features of Vladimir-Suzdal (round pillars, framing of the portal, scapula) and early Moscow (the keeled end of the portal and niches, windows-rosettes) of architectural schools. In 1395 the church was painted by Theophanes and Symeon Black with his disciples .. In 1479, probably because of a fire, the top of the building collapsed, but soon the church was rebuilt. In 1514-1518 the architect Aloisio the New (Aleviz) rebuilt the church at the level of the residential tier of the palace in a new volume, which housed the main throne of the Nativity of the Virgin. The architect preserved the lower part of the ancient church as a podlet in which the chapel of Lazar was built, previously, apparently, located in the altar. We can judge the appearance of the Aleviz church only from the blueprint "Kremlenagrad" of the early 1600s, where it is shown with three-headed, with three apses and two aisles (probably not before the second half of the 16th century). Under Tsar Feodor Alekseevich in the years 1681-1684. the building was rebuilt and turned into a one-domed church with a rectangular altar and a refectory on the west side. The Saint Lazare chapel at the same time was abolished. In the XVIII century. The podlet turned into a storage room. At the beginning of the construction of the Great Kremlin Palace, the upper part was again rebuilt, and in the ancient podlet the special church of the Resurrection of Lazarus was again constructed. Notes Bibliography ะ’ะพั€ะพะฝะธะฝ ะ. ะ. ะ—ะพะดั‡ะตัั‚ะฒะพ ะกะตะฒะตั€ะพ-ะ’ะพัั‚ะพั‡ะฝะพะน ะ ัƒัะธ XIIโ€”XV ะฒะฒ. ะœ., 1961โ€”1962. ะข. 2. ะก. 253โ€”262. ะŸะฐะผัั‚ะฝะธะบะธ ะฐั€ั…ะธั‚ะตะบั‚ัƒั€ั‹ ะœะพัะบะฒั‹. ะšั€ะตะผะปัŒ, ะšะธั‚ะฐะน-ะณะพั€ะพะด, ั†ะตะฝั‚ั€ะฐะปัŒะฝั‹ะต ะฟะปะพั‰ะฐะดะธ. ะœ., 1982. ะก. 329โ€”330. Churches completed in 1394 14th-century Eastern Orthodox church buildings Churches in Moscow Moscow Kremlin 14th-century churches in Russia Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Moscow
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ” แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ” แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ
แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ” แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ” แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ (แƒ“. 24 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, 1903, แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’. 20 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1936, แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”) โ€” แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒš แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ”แƒš แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ” แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก, 1936 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 6 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 20 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฏแƒ”แƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ” แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ” แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ Find a Grave-แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 24 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1903 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 20 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1936
517856
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
แƒงแƒแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜
แƒงแƒแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ โ€” XIII แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 60-70-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒงแƒแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ” แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ˜. แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ”แƒก 1261-1280 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ“, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒช. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
154984
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D
แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ
แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ–แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒšแƒแƒขแƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒฏแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก (แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ˜) แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒก. แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 1740 แƒ›., แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ 16 แƒ™แƒ›โ€“แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ 2014 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก 467 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
266167
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98-%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜-แƒ™แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜
แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜-แƒ™แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ•แƒฃแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ–แƒ”. แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ” 3415 แƒ›. แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒฐแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒก. แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 70-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜-แƒ™แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒš แƒ•แƒฃแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ  แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— 4600 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜: แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ 12ั…15 แƒ™แƒ›, แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” โ€” แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 2-3 แƒ™แƒ›, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒ›แƒ” 350 แƒ›. แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ–แƒ”. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ 1938 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒขแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃ แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” โ€žแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜โ€œ แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒก โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒš แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒกโ€œ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ โ€žแƒ™แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜โ€œ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒœแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜-แƒ™แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒฃแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
435534
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
แƒกแƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜
แƒกแƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ–แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
502288
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜
แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ (แƒ“. 21 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, 1921 โ€” แƒ’. 28 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜, 2011) โ€” แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒก-แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ 40-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ 1950-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒขแƒ. แƒฎแƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ-แƒแƒจแƒจ แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜- แƒ แƒแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒ - แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒœ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜-แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒก , แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒš แƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› 1936 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ, แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒฃแƒ›แƒฏแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒฐแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒช, 1940 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ  แƒฐแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒฐแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ–แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒฐแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒฐแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒซแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒฏแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก - แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒฐแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒšแƒแƒœแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒก. แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ  แƒชแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— - "แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ”" , แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”1943 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ, แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜ โ€žแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ˜โ€œ (1954). แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ 1985 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒš แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒŸแƒแƒœแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ "แƒฏแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒšแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก" (1953), แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ - แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ. 1970-แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒš แƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒš, แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘ แƒฃแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒชแƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ. แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒ›แƒซแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒซแƒ˜แƒœแƒ. แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ: แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒญแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ. แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ 1955 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒงแƒแƒค แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘ แƒ แƒแƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ. 1968 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒฃแƒซแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœ แƒžแƒ˜แƒžแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜, แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ 25 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“. 1999 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฏแƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒฏแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒกแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ-แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ) 89 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒœแƒ—แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— 2011 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 28 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก. แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ Jane Russell (1985). Jane Russell: My Path and Detours. New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-0-517-67208-2. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1921 แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 21 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 2011 XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 28 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜
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แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ
แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช 1461 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฐแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ II-แƒ› (แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—. 1444โ€“1481) แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ“ (โ€žแƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜โ€œ) แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒงแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜ (แƒšแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ) แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ. แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ— แƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก 1486 แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒ—แƒฃ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ˜แƒแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ แƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ˜แƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ IX แƒแƒœ X แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜แƒช. แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒฅ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• 1021/22 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช 1223 แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒคแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ 1222-23 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒงแƒแƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒฏแƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ˜. แƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ. 1291 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ“แƒ. แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏ แƒคแƒ˜แƒœแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ 1850 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ, แƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ 1340 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜ III-แƒ› (แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—. 1349โ€“1390) แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ. XI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒžแƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜. XI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ II-แƒ› (แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—. 976โ€“1025) แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒชแƒ. แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ : 21 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒก โ€“ แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜; แƒ“แƒ 24 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒก โ€“ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒแƒ“, แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜ III แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒก แƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฏแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ” 28 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜, แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ” 16 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜, แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ” แƒ™แƒ˜ 11 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ•แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ—แƒฌแƒแƒฎแƒœแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ, แƒจแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜. แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒญแƒ”, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒชแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ— แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒญแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ. แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒขแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ. แƒ˜แƒกแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฐแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ˜แƒ-แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜ (แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜) แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ The Church of Saint Evgenios, Trabzon St. Eugenius Church แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜
แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ-แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜ โ€žแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒขแƒโ€œ-แƒจแƒ˜ 2012 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ 2012 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 10 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒก แƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ–แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ’แƒ. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒซแƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒ›แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช. แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ/แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฐแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒคแƒแƒขแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ–แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ/แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒฆแƒ˜แƒก/แƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒžแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒžแƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒžแƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ”แƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒจแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฐแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜: แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒš แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“. แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒกแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒžแƒšแƒแƒขแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒฆแƒ” แƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก 2 แƒกแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒขแƒงแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒคแƒแƒขแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒญแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒแƒขแƒแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก 3,5 แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒžแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ. แƒขแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ -แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€“ 6-8 แƒกแƒแƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ” โ€“ 100-3000 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ” โ€“ 60-160 แƒ™แƒ›/แƒกแƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ - 150 แƒ™แƒ›. แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ - 3 แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ - 12 แƒ™แƒ’ แƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ - 3075 แƒ›แƒ› แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ” - 1960 แƒ›แƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ www.geo-army.ge; แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiz%20Mehdiyev
Ramiz Mehdiyev
Ramiz Mehdiyev Ramiz Anvar oghlu Mehdiyev (born April 17, 1938) is an Azerbaijani politician and academician who served as the Head of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan from 1994 to 2019 and the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan between 2019 and 2022. Early life Mehdiyev was born in Baku. His father was born in the Sharur District of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. He attended Baku Maritime School (now Azerbaijan State Marine Academy) in his youth, until his graduation in 1957. Career in the Soviet Union In 1957 he was hired as a maritime engineer by the state-run oil company ("Caspian Sea Oil Fleet") at which time he became very active in his local Komsomol branch. In 1961 Mehdiyev enrolled in the history department (then called the S.M. Kirov department) at Azerbaijan State University (now Baku State University) in Baku. His activity in the Baku Komsomol branch earned him the attention of Azerbaijan Communist Party officials, and he was promoted to a position as a student adviser for the Azerbaijani branch of the Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization in 1965. It was during this time that he'd be acquainted with Heydar Aliyev, a fellow Azerbaijani with Nakhchivan roots who at the time was a high-ranking official in the Azerbaijani KGB, headquartered down the street from the university. After his graduation from ASU , Mehdiyev was elected in 1967 to a secretary position of the Komsomol wing of the Nakhchivan Communist Party (regional branch of the Azerbaijan Communist Party in charge of the Nakhchivan ASSR). However, he was quickly admitted to Moscow State University (then known just as Lomonosov University) in 1968 as a PhD candidate in social philosophy. During Mehdiyev's time in Moscow in 1969, Heydar Aliyev was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. Upon defense of his dissertation, titled V.I. Lenin on the Interactions of Nationalism and Opportunism, Mehdiyev was awarded his PhD in May 1972. Mehdiyev returned immediately to Baku having been granted a job as a professor in the Scientific Communism Department of Azerbaijan State University. Aliyev's ambitious plans for improving education, bolstering ideological rigor, and cracking down on corruption in the Azerbaijan SSR were aided by the return of Mehdiyev to Azerbaijan and the resumption of his party work, which still focused heavily on students and youth. In 1974, Mehdiyev was appointed as a lecturer in the Ideology and Propaganda department as well as assistant director of the Science and Education committee of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. In 1978, he was appointed the first secretary of the 26 Baku Commissars Party Committee. In 1980 he was elected to the Party's Central Committee and became the director of Party Organization. Later career In 1988, Mehdiyev was made department director of the Institute of Political Research for the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences. In the 1980s and 1990s, he was a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR elected twice. In 1993, Heydar Aliyev was elected President of Azerbaijan (now an independent country) and Mehdiyev was subsequently elected to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan. On February 7, 1995, Aliyev appointed Mehdyiev to be the Head of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan. This move was thought to be partially influenced by Aliyev's desire to keep a close-knit group of Nakhchivan advisors to consolidate power in the region. In 2007, Mehdiyev was selected to be a full member of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS). He is also Chairman of the Editorial Board of the "Philosophy and Social and Political Sciences" journal published by the Azerbaijan Philosophy and Social-Political Sciences Association (AFSEA). According to the decree signed by the President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev on September 8, 2020 on amending the decree "On approval of the new composition of the Pardon Commission under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan", the chairman of the Pardon Commission under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ramiz Mehdiyev was dismissed. Head of the Presidential Administration of the Republic of Azerbaijan Samir Nuriyev was appointed the new chairman. Academic works and writings Mehdiyev is the author of over 250 scientific articles on social phenomena, economic development, and philosophy and dialectics, focusing on the post-Soviet development of Azerbaijan. He has also published over 20 books, 7 of which have been translated to different languages. These include: Interethnic relations at the end of the 20th century (his second doctoral thesis), Realities of Azerbaijani genocide, Dialectics of development of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan: historical heritage and philosophy of independence, Philosophy textbook, Azerbaijan: Calls for globalization, Parliament elections of 2005: preliminary analysis, Ideas, opening the paths to civil society, On the path of national ideology, statehood and independence in two volumes, On the path to democracy, and Determining the development strategy: modernization course. Mehdiyev has been awarded with two Orders of the Red Banner of Labour, the Order of Glory (Shohrat Order) and was elected a member of New York Academy of Sciences in 2001. See also Cabinet of Azerbaijan Politics of Azerbaijan Notes References 1938 births Living people Politicians from Baku Academic staff of Baku State University Baku State University alumni Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Azerbaijan Communist Party (1920) politicians Members of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic New Azerbaijan Party politicians Recipients of the Heydar Aliyev Order Recipients of the Istiglal Order Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia) Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Recipients of the Sharaf Order Recipients of the Shohrat Order Social philosophers Azerbaijani academicians Azerbaijani philosophers Azerbaijani professors Soviet politicians
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98
แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜
แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ (แƒแƒฆแƒฅแƒ›แƒ, แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ) โ€” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ. แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ. แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜แƒ: โ€žแƒแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒแƒ  แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜โ€œ. แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”แƒช. แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›แƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ: แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ โ€” แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ˜; แƒ”แƒžแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ”; แƒฏแƒแƒœ แƒšแƒแƒ™แƒ˜; แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒœ แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒ˜. แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ  แƒ™แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ โ€žHistoire gรฉnรฉrale de la philosophieโ€œ แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก แƒ“แƒ, แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“, แƒแƒ› แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒแƒ“. แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก แƒ’แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš แƒฎแƒ”แƒ แƒฎแƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ’แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ โ€” แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%20%282002%29
แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒจแƒ˜ (2002)
แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒจแƒ˜ (2002) แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒจแƒ˜ โ€” 2002 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ, แƒกแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒฃแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ 2002 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ 100 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ” แƒ˜แƒ›แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒžแƒšแƒ. แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ. แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 10 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ. แƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒฃแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒแƒช แƒฌแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ™แƒ”แƒก แƒ’แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒžแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ•แƒšแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ› 7 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก 10 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ. แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ› แƒ“แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ˜แƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก, แƒกแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก, แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒแƒšแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒจ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ: แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒฅแƒฃแƒฉแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ.แƒจ. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒจแƒ˜ (2005) แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Flood Photographs of Prague Photographs of flooded metro in Prague แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ
30009223
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Mata%20de%20Morella
La Mata de Morella
La Mata de Morella is a town in the province of Castellรณn, Valencian Community, Spain, pertaining to the region of the Ports of Morella. , it has 192 inhabitants. Ports (comarca)
19180547
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia
Parthia
Parthia (Parฮธava; Parฮธaw; Pahlaw) is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire after the 4th-century BC conquests of Alexander the Great. The region later served as the political and cultural base of the Eastern Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC โ€“ 224 AD). The Sasanian Empire, the last state of pre-Islamic Iran, also held the region and maintained the seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy. Name The name "Parthia" is a continuation from Latin , from Old Persian , which was the Parthian language self-designator signifying "of the Parthians" who were an Iranian people. In context to its Hellenistic period, Parthia also appears as Parthyaea. Parthia was known as Pahlaw in the Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period, and Pahla or Fahla by later Islamic authors, but mainly referred to the Parthian region in the West of Iran. Geography The original location of Parthia roughly corresponds to a region in northeastern Iran, but part is in southern Turkmenistan. It was bordered by the Kopet Dag mountain range in the north, and the Dasht-e-Kavir desert in the south. It bordered Media on the west, Hyrcania on the north west, Margiana on the northeast, and Aria on the east. During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with Hyrcania as one administrative unit, and that region is therefore often (subject to context) considered a part of Parthia proper. By the early Sasanian period, Parthia was located in the central part of the Iranian plateau, neighboring Pars to the south, Khuzistan to the south-west, Media to the north-west, the Alborz Mountains to the north, Abarshahr to the north-east, and Kirman to the east. In the late Sasanian era, Parthia came to embrace central and north-central Iran but also extended to the western parts of the plateau as well. In the Islamic era, Parthia was believed to be located in central and western Iran. Ibn al-Muqaffa considered Parthia as encompassing the regions of Isfahan, Ray, Hamadan, Mah-i Nihawand and Azerbaijan. The same definition is found in the works of al-Khawazmi and Hamza al-Isfahani. Al-Dinawari, while not using the word Parthia, considered Jibal to be the realm of the last Parthian king, Artabanus IV. History Under the Achaemenids As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the Medes, and 7th century BC Assyrian texts mention a country named Partakka or Partukka (though this "need not have coincided topographically with the later Parthia"). A year after Cyrus the Great's defeat of the Median Astyages, Parthia became one of the first provinces to acknowledge Cyrus as their ruler, "and this allegiance secured Cyrus' eastern flanks and enabled him to conduct the first of his imperial campaigns โ€“ against Sardis." According to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by Darius I, the Parthians united with the Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. Hystaspes, the Achaemenid governor of the province (said to be father of Darius I), managed to suppress the revolt, which seems to have occurred around 522โ€“521 BC. The first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the Behistun inscription of Darius I, where Parthia is listed (in the typical Iranian clockwise order) among the governorates in the vicinity of Drangiana. The inscription dates to c. 520 BC. The center of the administration "may have been at [what would later be known as] Hecatompylus". The Parthians also appear in Herodotus' list of peoples subject to the Achaemenids; the historiographer treats the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Areioi as peoples of a single satrapy (the 16th), whose annual tribute to the king he states to be only 300 talents of silver. This "has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars." At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC between the forces of Darius III and those of Alexander the Great, one such Parthian unit was commanded by Phrataphernes, who was at the time Achaemenid governor of Parthia. Following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander. Under the Seleucids Following the death of Alexander, in the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC, Parthia became a Seleucid governorate under Nicanor. Phrataphernes, the former governor, became governor of Hyrcania. In 320 BC, at the Partition of Triparadisus, Parthia was reassigned to Philip, former governor of Sogdiana. A few years later, the province was invaded by Peithon, governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained a governorate in its own right. In 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of Seleucus I Nicator and governor of Bactria (and, it seems, also of Aria and Margiana) was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II, Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch, and "so left the future of the Seleucid dynasty for a moment in question." Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins. Meanwhile, "a man called Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, [was] elected leader of the Parni", an eastern-Iranian peoples from the Tajen/Tajend River valley, south-east of the Caspian Sea. Following the secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his borders, and about 238 BC โ€“ under the command of "Arsaces and his brother Tiridates" โ€“ the Parni invaded Parthia and seized control of Astabene (Astawa), the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital of which was Kabuchan (Kuchan in the vulgate). A short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Although an initial punitive expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II was not successful, the Seleucids under Antiochus III recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209 BC from Arsaces' (or Tiridates') successor, Arsaces II. Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status, and it was not until Arsaces II's grandson (or grand-nephew) Phraates I, that the Arsacids/Parni would again begin to assert their independence. Under the Arsacids From their base in Parthia, the Arsacid dynasts eventually extended their dominion to include most of Greater Iran. They also quickly established several eponymous branches on the thrones of Armenia, Iberia, and Caucasian Albania. Even though the Arsacids only sporadically had their capital in Parthia, their power base was there, among the Parthian feudal families, upon whose military and financial support the Arsacids depended. In exchange for this support, these families received large tracts of land among the earliest conquered territories adjacent to Parthia, which the Parthian nobility then ruled as provincial rulers. The largest of these city-states were Kuchan, Semnan, Gorgan, Merv, Zabol and Yazd. From about 105 BC onwards, the power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a "contributory factor in the downfall" of the dynasty. From about 130 BC onwards, Parthia suffered numerous incursions by various nomadic tribes, including the Sakas, the Yuezhi, and the Massagetae. Each time, the Arsacid dynasts responded personally, doing so even when there were more severe threats from Seleucids or Romans looming on the western borders of their empire (as was the case for Mithridates I). Defending the empire against the nomads cost Phraates II and Artabanus I their lives. The Roman Crassus attempted to conquer Parthia in 52 BC but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar was planning another invasion when he was assassinated in 44 BC. A long series of Roman-Parthian wars followed. Around 32 BC, civil war broke out when a certain Tiridates rebelled against Phraates IV, probably with the support of the nobility that Phraates had previously persecuted. The revolt was initially successful, but failed by 25 BC. In 9/8, the Parthian nobility succeeded in putting their preferred king on the throne, but Vonones proved to have too tight a budgetary control, so he was usurped in favor of Artabanus II, who seems to have been a non-Arsacid Parthian nobleman. But when Artabanus attempted to consolidate his position (at which he was successful in most instances), he failed to do so in the regions where the Parthian provincial rulers held sway. By the 2nd century AD, the frequent wars with neighboring Rome and with the nomads, and the infighting among the Parthian nobility had weakened the Arsacids to a point where they could no longer defend their subjugated territories. The empire fractured as vassalaries increasingly claimed independence or were subjugated by others, and the Arsacids were themselves finally vanquished by the Persian Sassanids, a formerly minor vassal from southwestern Iran, in April 224. Under the Sasanians Parthia was likely the first region conquered by Ardashir I after his victory over Artabanus IV, showing the importance of the province to the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Some of the Parthian nobility continued to resist Sasanian dominion for some time, but most switched their allegiance to the Sasanians very early. Several families that claimed descent from the Parthian noble families became a Sasanian institution known as the "Seven houses", five of which are "in all probability" not Parthian, but contrived genealogies "in order to emphasize the antiquity of their families." Parthia continued to hold importance throughout the 3rd century. In his Ka'be-ye Zardusht inscription Shapur I lists the province of Parthia in second place after Pars. The Abnun inscription describes the Roman invasion of 243/44 as an attack on Pars and Parthia. Considering the Romans never went further than Mesopotamia, "Pars and Parthia" may stand for the Sasanian Empire itself. Parthia was also the second province chosen for settlement by Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Edessa in 260. Language and literature The Parthians spoke Parthian, a northwestern Iranian language. No Parthian literature survives from before the Sassanid period in its original form, and they seem to have written down only very little. The Parthians did, however, have a thriving oral minstrel-poet culture, to the extent that their word for "minstrel" (gosan) survives to this day in many Iranian languages and especially in Armenian (gusan), on which it exercised heavy (especially lexical and vocabulary) influence. These professionals were evident in every facet of Parthian daily life, from cradle to grave, and they were entertainers of kings and commoners alike, proclaiming the worthiness of their patrons through association with mythical heroes and rulers. These Parthian heroic poems, "mainly known through Persian of the lost Middle Persian Xwaday-namag, and notably through Firdausi's Shahnameh, [were] doubtless not yet wholly lost in the Khurasan of [Firdausi's] day." In Parthia itself, attested use of written Parthian is limited to the nearly three thousand ostraca found (in what seems to have been a wine storage) at Nisa, in present-day Turkmenistan. A handful of other evidence of written Parthian has been found outside Parthia, the most important of these being the part of a land-sale document found at Avroman (in the Kermanshah province of Iran), and more ostraca, graffiti and the fragment of a business letter found at Dura-Europos in present-day Syria. The Parthian Arsacids do not seem to have used Parthian until relatively late, and the language first appears on Arsacid coinage during the reign of Vologases I (51โ€“58 AD). Evidence that use of Parthian was nonetheless widespread comes from early Sassanid times; the declarations of the early Persian kings wereโ€”in addition to their native Middle Persianโ€”also inscribed in Parthian. The old poems known as fahlaviyat mostly come from the areas which were considered part of Parthia in the Islamic period. These poems have the characteristics of oral literature and may have continued the oral traditions of Parthian minstrels. Society City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids." However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal. Communities with free peasants also existed. By Arsacid times, Parthian society was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom. Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with the establishment of the Silk road in 114 BC, when Hecatompylos became an important junction. Parthian cities Nisa (Nissa, Nusay) or Mithradฤtkert, located on a main trade route, was one of the earliest capitals of the Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC). The city is located in the northern foothills of the Kopetdag mountains, 11 miles west of present-day city of Ashgabat (the capital of Turkmenistan). Nisa had a "soaring two-story hall in the Hellenistic Greek style" and temple complexes used by early Arsaces dynasty. During the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (c. 171 BCโ€“138 BC) it was renamed Mithradatkirt ("fortress of Mithradates"). Merv (modern-day Mary) was another Parthian city. Asaak Hecatompylos Gurgan See also Pahla Parthians List of Parthian kings Khwarasan Greater Khorasan Adur Burzen-Mihr Parthian shot References Bibliography . . . . . . . . . Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1998), Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden der eurasischen Steppen, Munich. Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016), "Manpower Resources and Army Organisation in the Arsakid Empire", Ancient Society, 46, pp. 291โ€“338 (DOI: 10.2143/AS.46.0.3167457). . Verstandig Andre,(2001) Histoire de l'Empire Parthe. Brussels, Le Cri. Wolski, Jรณzef (1993), Lโ€™Empire des Arsacides (= Acta Iranica 32), Lovanii: Peeters . Parthian Empire Historical regions of Iran Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Achaemenid satrapies ja:ใƒ‘ใƒซใƒ†ใ‚ฃใ‚ข
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyzyl-Adyr
Kyzyl-Adyr
Kyzyl-Adyr (formerly Kirovka) is a village in the Kara-Buura District of Talas Region of Kyrgyzstan. It is the seat of the Kara-Buura District. Its population was 13,612 in 2021. To the north is the Kirovskaya Reservoir. From the main eastโ€“west highway through Talas Region, one road goes north to Taraz in Kazakhstan and another goes south to Jalal-Abad Region over the Kara-Buura Pass to the Chatkal Valley (Jangy-Bazar and Kanysh-Kyya). Population References Populated places in Talas Region
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20at%20the%201984%20Summer%20Olympics
Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics Cyprus competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, United States. Ten competitors, all men, took part in nine events in four sports. Athletics Men's 10.000 metres Marios Kassianidis Qualifying Heat โ€” 29:06.08 (โ†’ did not advance) Men's Marathon Marios Kassianidis โ€” 2:32:51 (โ†’ 62nd place) Filippos Filippou โ€” did not finish (โ†’ no ranking) Men's 3.000m Steeplechase: Philippos Philippou Semifinals โ€” 8:39.47 (โ†’ did not advance) Men's Long Jump Dimitrios Araouzos Qualification โ€” 5.67m (โ†’ did not advance, 30th place) Cycling One cyclist represented Cyprus in 1984. Individual road race Spyros Agrotis โ€” did not finish (โ†’ no ranking) Judo Men's under 78 kg: Ioannis Kouyallis - Preliminary:Lost to Gueye-Eljdji from Senegal Men's under 86 kg: Costas Papacostas - Preliminary:Lost to Nose Seiki from Japan Shooting Men's trap: Anastasios Lordos - 173 (47th position) Demetrios Papachrysostomou - 176 (35th position) Men's skeet: Petros Kyritsis - 192 (13th position) Michael Tymvios - 85 (abandon) References External links Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics by Cyprus Olympic Committee Nations at the 1984 Summer Olympics 1984 Summer Olympics
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%97%E1%83%98
แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ—แƒ˜
แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ—แƒ˜ (แƒงแƒแƒค. แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฅแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜) โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ–แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒš แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒจแƒ˜. 1992 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ . แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฅแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜, 1999 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 5 แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ—แƒ˜. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%20%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™ แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜
แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™ แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ (แƒ“. 1502, แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒ’. 1571, แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ) โ€” แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ 1554-1571 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” IV-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ. แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” IV-แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ. แƒ”แƒก แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒฃแƒš-แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒก, แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ, แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช โ€žแƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—-แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฃแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒ›แƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜. แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’ แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” IV แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒงแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒงแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ, แƒชแƒแƒ แƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒ“, แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ› แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” 1557 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ. แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜: แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ-แƒงแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ—-แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ—. แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒแƒ“, แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”, แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒกแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—-แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒช แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ—แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒชแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒžแƒงแƒ แƒ แƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ. 1560 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” IV-แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒจแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ. แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒแƒคแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ 1561 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ. แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒ“, แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ. แƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒแƒ แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ–แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ. แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ 1570 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒก. แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก, 1571 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒซแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ˜ 130,000 แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒš, แƒงแƒแƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒš, แƒงแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒš แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒš แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒก แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—. แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒ แƒšแƒแƒฉแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒก, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ“แƒ”แƒก. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1502 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1571 แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCl%C3%B6vl%C3%BCk
Bรผlรถvlรผk
Bรผlรถvlรผk is a village in the Lachin District of Azerbaijan. History The village was located in the Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh, coming under the control of ethnic Armenian forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in the early 1990s, subsequently becoming part of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh as part of its Kashatagh Province, referred to as Antaramej, being part of the Vazgenashen community. The village was returned to Azerbaijan as part of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement. References External links Villages in Azerbaijan Populated places in Lachin District
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜
แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ-แƒ“แƒ”-แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” 40,5 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€” 671 แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜ (2020 แƒฌ.). แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrk%C9%99k%C9%99ran
Tรผrkษ™kษ™ran
Tรผrkษ™kษ™ran (also, Tyurkyakeran) is a village and municipality in the Lankaran Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 1,170. References Populated places in Lankaran District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Nations%20Security%20Council%20Resolution%20901
United Nations Security Council Resolution 901
United Nations Security Council Resolution 901 United Nations Security Council resolution 901 was adopted unanimously on 4 March 1994. After reaffirming resolutions 849 (1993), 854 (1993), 858 (1993), 876 (1993), 881 (1993), 892 (1993) and 896 (1994), the council extended the mandate of the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) until 31 March 1994. The council noted the negotiations to be held in New York City on 7 March 1994 following talks held in Geneva on 22โ€“24 February 1994, between the Georgian and Abkhaz sides, urging both to achieve progress as soon as possible so that the council could consider the establishment of a peace-keeping force in Abkhazia. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was requested to report back to the council by 21 March 1994 on developments in the negotiations and situation on the ground. See also Abkhazโ€“Georgian conflict List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 901 to 1000 (1994โ€“1995) United Nations resolutions on Abkhazia War in Abkhazia (1992โ€“1993) References External links Text of the Resolution at undocs.org 0901 Abkhazโ€“Georgian conflict 1994 in Georgia (country) 1994 in Abkhazia 0901 March 1994 events
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ
แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ โ€” แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ”แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒฎแƒ-แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” 11,50 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€” 113 แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜ (2020 แƒฌ.). แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒฃแƒ”แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa - แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒ”แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
169450
https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ
แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ (แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ) โ€” แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก(แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—). แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒžแƒก: แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ—แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒ“แƒ 1954 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฉแƒแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒš. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—(แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ“แƒ). แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ 1957 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒกแƒ  แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ. แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜: แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜(แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ) แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜(แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ). แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ“แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almod%C3%B3var%20del%20R%C3%ADo
Almodรณvar del Rรญo
Almodรณvar del Rรญo is a small historic city located in the province of Cรณrdoba, Spain. References External links Almodรณvar del Rรญo - Sistema de Informaciรณn Multiterritorial de Andalucรญa Municipalities in the Province of Cรณrdoba (Spain)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C5%A1lavs%20Egl%C4%ABtis
Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis
Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis (October 14, 1906 โ€“ March 4, 1993) was a Latvian writer, journalist and painter who became a war refugee in 1944. He had a prolific career as a novelist, and his later work often examined aspects of exile life. Biography Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis was born in Riga, Latvia, the first of two children born to the writer Viktors Eglฤซtis and the teacher and translator Marija Eglฤซte, nรฉe Stalbova. His father was one of the most notable representatives of Decadence in Latvian literature. During the First World War, his family lived in other parts of the Russian Empire, but returned to Latvia in 1918. For a short time they settled in Alลซksne. After 1919, his family lived in Riga and Eglฤซtis started his studies in Riga City gymnasium No. 2. He also studied painting in the studio of a Latvian painter Voldemฤrs Tone at this time. The family spent all their summer holidays in Inciems cottage, which he later described in his novel Pansija pilฤซ (1962). He caught tuberculosis in 1925. His mother, who suffered pulmonary disease, died in 1926, during his stay in Leysin sanatorium. In 1930, his father remarried the artist and writer Hilda Vฤซka, whose works and personality came to influence Anลกlavs' literature. He continued his studies in the Art Academy of Latvia and graduated in 1935. After graduation, he worked as a teacher of drawing. In 1936 his first collection of novels, Maestro was published. In 1938 Eglฤซtis started to work as a journalist in the biggest Latvian newspaper Jaunฤkฤs ziล†as. In 1940, he also collaborated on the magazine Atpลซta. He left Riga for Courland in October 1944 and later fled to Germany, where he settled in Berlin. During the Battle of Berlin his flat was destroyed in an air raid, and Eglฤซtis moved to Switzerland. In 1950, he moved to California, US. His father, writer Viktors Eglฤซtis, was arrested, tortured and killed in the Cheka building in Riga in 1945. His grave is unknown. In his American exile, Eglฤซtis wrote more than 50 novels and short stories. Parallel to his literature career he became a theatre and film critic for the Latvian newspaper Laiks published in Brooklyn, New York, which also serialized a number of his novels. In 1957, his Neierasta Amerika began to be serialized in the Soviet Latvian magazine Zvaigzne, but it was immediately qualified as an 'import of bourgeois nationalism' and soon discontinued. The success of his works resides in their avangardist flavour combined with loyalty to the popular taste. In post-Soviet Latvia, his Shameless Old Men, directed by Mihail Kublinskis, is one of the most successful productions of the National Theater. He died of cancer in Los Angeles in 1993. In 2006, the Latvian Post issued a commemorative stamp in honor of Eglฤซtis. A monument to the writer was installed in 2008 in Inciems. Sources References External links Writers from Riga People from Kreis Riga 20th-century Latvian writers Latvian journalists 20th-century journalists Latvian World War II refugees Latvian emigrants to the United States Deaths from cancer in California 1906 births 1993 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6rek
Bรถrek
Bรถrek or burek is a family of pastries or pies found in the Balkans, Middle East and Central Asia. The pastry is made of a thin flaky dough such as filo with a variety of fillings, such as meat, cheese, spinach, or potatoes. Boreks are mainly associated with the Middle East, Armenia, and also with the former Ottoman Empire, including the Balkans and the South Caucasus, Eastern European and Central European countries, Northern Africa and Central Asia. A borek may be prepared in a large pan and cut into portions after baking, or as individual pastries. They are usually baked but some varieties can be fried. Borek is sometimes sprinkled with sesame or nigella seeds, and it can be served hot or cold. It is a custom of Sephardic Jews to have bourekas for their Shabbat breakfast meal on Saturday mornings. In Bosnia and Herzegovina it has become commonplace to have borek as a breakfast food with coffee. It is commonly served with afternoon tea in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is commonly served with a yogurt drink in Serbia and North Macedonia. Origin and names The English name borek comes from Turkish (Turkish pronunciation: [bล“หˆษพec]), while burek is the form used in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Other variants include byrek, in Albania; boureki in Greece; byurek in Bulgaria; bourek and brick Annabi in Algeria; brik in Tunisia. According to Sevan NiลŸanyan, the Turkish word is ultimately originated from Turkic , from bรถฤŸรผr (meaning 'kidney'). NiลŸanyan noted that the word is also used in Siberian Turkic languages such as Saqa as bรถrรผรถk. According to another theory, it may have come from the Persian , the diminutive form of or or, meaning "stew", and refers to any dish made with yufka (filo). The Persian word bureh goes back to the Middle Persian *bลrak. This word ultimately goes back to the Proto-Indo-European root *bher- which meant "to carve, cut, split". The name of another pastry, shekarbura, is also borrowed from the same Persian word. NiลŸanyan noted the possibility of Turkic origin for the Persian word. Borek may have its origins in Persian or Turkish cuisine and may be one of its most significant and, in fact, ancient elements of the Turkish cuisine, having been developed in Central Asia before some westward migration to Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, or by nomadic Turks of central Asia some time before the seventh century. Another popular theory posits that it may be a descendant of the pre-existing Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Anatolian dish en tyritas plakountas (Byzantine Greek: ฮตฮฝ ฯ„ฯ…ฯฮฏฯ„ฮฑฯ‚ ฯ€ฮปฮฑฮบฮฟฯฮฝฯ„ฮฑฯ‚) "cheesy placenta", itself a descendant of placenta, the classical baked layered dough and cheese dish of Ancient Roman cuisine. The dish was a popular element of Ottoman cuisine, and may have been invented at the Ottoman court, though there are also indications it was made among Central Asian Turks; other versions may date to the Classical era of the eastern Mediterranean. One alternative etymological origin that has been suggested is that the word comes from the Turkic root bur- 'to twist', but the sound harmony for this proposal would dictate the suffix "-aq", and Turkic languages in Arabic orthography invariably write with an ูƒ not an ู‚, which weighs against this origin. Regional variants Even though borek is very popular in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, especially in North Africa and throughout the Balkans, it originated in Anatolia. Borek is also part of Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish traditions. They have been enthusiastically adopted by the Ottoman Jewish communities, and have been describedโ€”along with boyos de pan and bulemasโ€”as forming "the trio of preeminent Ottoman Jewish pastries". Turkish variants The word "bรถrek" in Turkish can be modified by a descriptive word referring to the shape, ingredients of the pastry, or a specific region where it is typically prepared, as in the above kol bรถreฤŸi, su bรถreฤŸi, talaลŸ bรถreฤŸi or Sarฤฑyer bรถreฤŸi. There are many variations of bรถrek in Turkish cuisine: Balkans In the former Yugoslavia, burek, also known as pita in Bosnia and Herzegovina, is an extremely common dish, made with yufka. This kind of pastry is also popular in Croatia, where it was imported by Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albanians. In Serbia, Albania, Kosovo, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Slovenia, burek is made from layers of dough, alternating with layers of other fillings in a circular baking pan and then topped with a last layer of dough. Traditionally it may be baked with no filling (prazan, meaning empty), with stewed minced meat and onions, or with cheese. Modern bakeries offer cheese and spinach, meat, apple, sour cherries, potato, mushroom, and other fillings. It is often eaten along with a plain yoghurt drink. Zeljanica is a spinach burek common in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Albania In Albania, this dish is called . In Kosovo and few other regions byrek is also known as "pite". Byrek is traditionally made with several layers of dough that have been thinly rolled out by hand. The final form can be small, individual triangles, especially from street vendors called 'Byrektore' which sell byrek and other traditional pastries and drinks. It can also be made as one large byrek that is cut into smaller pieces. There are different regional variations of byrek. It can be served cold or hot. The most common fillings include: cheese (especially gjizรซ, salted curd cheese), ground meat and onions (ragรน style filling), spinach and eggs, milk and eggs with pre-baked dough layers, but it can also be made with tomato and onions, peppers and beans, potato or a sweet filling of pumpkin, nettles (known as byrek me hithra), or kidney beans (popular in winter). Lakror is an Albanian pie dish from southern Albania. The pie is sometimes called a type of byrek pastry. Lakror is generally filled with a variety of greens or meats. Another related dish is Fli, typical from the North of Albania and Kosovo. It is made up of layers of a flour and water batter, cream and butter. Traditionally, it is baked on embers like lakror. Bosnia and Herzegovina In 2012, Lonely Planet included the Bosnian burek in their "The World's Best Street Food" book. Eaten for any meal of the day, in Bosnia and Herzegovina the burek is a meat-filled pastry, traditionally rolled in a spiral and cut into sections for serving. The same spiral filled with cottage cheese is called sirnica, with spinach and cheese zeljanica, with potatoes krompiruลกa, and all of them are generically referred to as pita. Eggs are used as a binding agent when making sirnica and zeljanica. Bulgaria The Bulgarian version of the pastry, locally called byurek (Cyrillic: ), is typically regarded as a variation of banitsa, a similar Bulgarian dish. Bulgarian byurek is a type of banitsa with sirene cheese, the difference being that byurek also has eggs added. In Bulgarian, byurek has also come to be applied to other dishes similarly prepared with cheese and eggs, such as chushka byurek, a peeled and roasted pepper filled with cheese, and tikvichka byurek, blanched or uncooked bits of squash with eggs filling. Greece In Greece, boureki or bourekaki, and Cyprus poureki (in the Greek dialects of the island) are small pastries made with phyllo dough or with pastry crust. Pastries in the bรถrek family are also called pita (pie): tiropita, spanakopita, and so on. Galaktoboureko is a syrupy phyllo pastry filled with custard, common throughout Greece and Cyprus. In the Epirus, ฯƒฮบฮตฯ-ฮผฯ€ฮฟฯ…ฯฮญฮบ (derives from the Turkish ลŸeker-bรถrek, "sugar-borek") is a small rosewater-flavoured marzipan sweet. Bougatsa (Greek is a Greek variation of a borek which consists of either semolina custard, cheese, or minced meat filling between layers of phyllo, and is said to originate in the city of Serres, an art of pastry brought with the immigrants from Constantinople and is most popular in Thessaloniki, in the Central Macedonia region of Northern Greece. Serres achieved the record for the largest puff pastry on 1 June 2008. It weighed 182.2 kg, was 20 metres long, and was made by more than 40 bakers. In Venetian Corfu, boureki was also called burriche, and filled with meat and leafy greens. The Pontian Greek piroski (ฯ€ฮนฯฮฟฯƒฮบฮฏ) derives its name from borek too. It is almost identical in name and form to pirozhki (Russian: ะฟะธั€ะพะถะบะธ), which is of Slavic origin, and popular in Russia and further east. Serbia The recipe for "round" burek was developed in the Serbian town of Niลก. In 1498, it was introduced by a famous Turkish baker, Mehmed OฤŸlu from Istanbul. Eventually burek spread from the southeast (southern Serbia, Kosovo and North Macedonia) to the rest of Yugoslavia. Niลก hosts an annual burek competition and festival called Buregdลพijada. In 2005, a 100 kg (220 lbs) burek was made, with a diameter of 2 metres (โ‰ˆ6 ft) and it is considered to have been the world biggest burek ever made. Slovenia In Slovenia, burek is one of the most popular fast-food dishes, but at least one researcher found that it is viewed negatively by Slovenes due to their prejudices towards immigrants, especially those from other countries of former Yugoslavia. A publication of a diploma thesis on this at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana in 2010 stirred controversy regarding the appropriateness of the topic. The mentor of the student that had written the thesis described the topic as legitimate and burek as denoting primitive behaviour in Slovenia in spite of it being by his account "sophisticated food". He explained the controversy as a good example of the conclusions of the student. In 2008, an employee of the Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SRC SASA) had attained his PhD degree with a thesis on meta-burek at the University of Nova Gorica. Other countries Algeria In Algeria, this dish is called bourek, a delicious roll of pastry sheet stuffed with meat, onions, and spice, is one of the main appetizers of Algerian cuisine. It is a starter served when receiving guests and especially during Ramadan evenings during the round meal of the holy month, usually accompanied by Algerian Chorba or Harira. Other forms include bourek packed with chicken and onions, shrimp and bรฉchamel sauce, or a vegetarian alternative usually made of mashed potatoes and spinach. Another Algerian variant of Bourek is called Brik or Brika, a speciality of Algeria's east, notably Annaba. It is a savory entree made from brik leaf, stuffed with mashed potatoes and a mixture of minced meat, onions, cheese and parsley. The whole is topped with a seasoned raw egg which cooks once the sheet of brik has been folded and soaked in boiling oil. Armenia In Armenia, byorek (ีขีตีธึ€ีฅีฏ) or borek (ีขีธึ€ีฅีฏ) consists of dough, or filo dough, folded into triangles and stuffed with spinach, onions and feta cheese or ground beef. Israel Burekas have long been part of Sephardic cuisine were introduced to Israel by Sephardic Jews who settled there. Burekas can be filled with various fillings, although meat is less common in Israel because of the Jewish dietary restrictions. Most burekas in Israel are made with margarine-based doughs rather than butter-based doughs so that (at least the non-cheeseโ€“filled varieties) can be eaten along with either milk meals or meat meals in accordance with the kosher prohibition against mixing milk and meat at the same meal. The most popular fillings are salty cheese, spinach, eggplant, and mashed potato, with other fillings including mushrooms, sweet potato, chickpeas, olives, mallows, swiss chard, and pizza flavor. Other related pastries traditionally consumed by Sephardic Jews include bulemas and boyoz, which are also popular in the Turkish city of Izmir. Libya Known in Libya as brik, it is also a popular dish in Libya. Moldova and Romania The regional cuisine of the Moldavian West bank of the Pruth still yields a type of dumpling-like food called burechiuลŸe (sometimes called burechiลฃe) which is described as dough in the shape of a ravioli-like square which is filled with mushrooms such as Boletus edulis, and sealed around its edges and then tossed and subsequently boiled in borscht like soups or chorbas. They are traditionally eaten in the last day of fasting at the time of the Christmas Eve. It is not clear if the burechiuลŸe derive their name from the Turco-Greek bรถrek (which is a distinct possibility given the fact that Moldavia was ruled for many decades by dynasties of Greek Phanariotes and that encouraged Greek colonists to settle in the area), so at the receiving end of cultural and culinary influences coming from them, or it takes its name from that of the mushroom Boletus (burete in its Romanian language rhotacised version, and it meant "mushroom" as well as "sponge") by the pattern of the ravioli, which were named after the Italian name of the turnip with which they were once filled. In Romania, the plฤƒcintฤƒ is considered a variation of the phyllo-wrapped pie, with the dough traditionally stuffed with cheese. In Dobruja, an eastern territory that used to be a Turkish province, one can find both the Turkish influenceโ€”plฤƒcintฤƒ dobrogeanฤƒ either filled with cheese or with minced meat and served with sheep yoghurt or the Tatar street food Suberekโ€”a deep-fried half-moon cheese-filled dough. Saudi Arabia In Saudi Arabia, Burฤ“k, is usually made in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, it mostly resembles the Bosnian rolled burek but can also come in other variants, and it is stuffed with minced meat or with salty cheese and dill. It's usually served during the month of Ramadan, same goes to samosas. Tunisia In Tunisia, there is a variant known as the brik that consists of thin crepe-like pastry around a filling and is commonly deep fried. The best-known is the egg brik, a whole egg in a triangular pastry pocket with chopped onion, tuna, harissa and parsley. The Tunisian brik is also very popular in Israel, due to the large Tunisian Jewish population there. It is often filled with a raw egg and herbs or tuna, harissa, and olives, and it is sometimes served in a pita. This is also known as a boreeka. See also List of ancient dishes and foods List of pastries Zelnik Banitsa Bierock Bourekas Boyoz Gibanica Pastel Pirog Pirozhki Samosa Mongolian Khuushuur References Albanian cuisine Algerian cuisine Ancient dishes Armenian cuisine Assyrian cuisine Austrian cuisine Balkan cuisine Belarusian cuisine Bulgarian cuisine Central Asian cuisine Croatian cuisine Cypriot cuisine Czech cuisine Egyptian cuisine Estonian cuisine German cuisine Greek pastries Hungarian cuisine Iraqi cuisine Israeli cuisine Jewish cuisine Jordanian cuisine Kosovan cuisine Latvian cuisine Lebanese cuisine Libyan cuisine Macedonian cuisine Maltese cuisine Mediterranean cuisine Montenegrin cuisine Moroccan cuisine Ottoman cuisine Palestinian cuisine Polish cuisine Romanian cuisine Russian cuisine Savoury pies Serbian cuisine Slovak cuisine Slovenian cuisine Stuffed dishes Syrian cuisine Tunisian cuisine Turkish tea culture Ukrainian cuisine
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แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”
แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ” โ€” แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ (XIV โ€” XV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜). แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒžแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ›แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ 1309-1424 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒฌแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒ›แƒšแƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ, แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ–แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒฎแƒก. แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒ› แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”, แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒกแƒแƒœ-แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒก แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒš แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒšแƒก. IX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒก, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒขแƒแƒก แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ—. แƒแƒฅ แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” XIV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ›แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒช 1340 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒก. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒฃ โ€œแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ—โ€. แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ› แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒ แƒกแƒแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒš แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ“แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒงแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒก. แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒแƒฏแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒแƒคแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ: แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒฃแƒฅแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒฏแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ— โ€” แƒ”.แƒฌ. แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ“แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒแƒฏแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ™แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒคแƒแƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒขแƒงแƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก. แƒ–แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒคแƒแƒœแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก โ€œแƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒโ€ แƒ›แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ—แƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒก แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒ–แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ แƒ-แƒ—แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒฃแƒฅแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš แƒ™แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฐแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก โ€œแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒโ€. แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ™แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ - โ€œแƒกแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒโ€, โ€œแƒœแƒแƒ”แƒก แƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒโ€ แƒ“แƒ โ€œแƒจแƒ”แƒชแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒโ€ 1400 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ” แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ” แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒช โ€” แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ—. แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒžแƒแƒกแƒฃแƒฎแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก โ€” แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒคแƒแƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒก โ€œแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜โ€ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ—แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. โ€œแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜ (แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ” 54 แƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ” 25 แƒ›) แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒจแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ”. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒแƒฅ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  480, แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ™แƒ˜ 1700 แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ“แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ 1340 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ 1577 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒก แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒขแƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก. แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš โ€œแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒžแƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ–แƒจแƒ˜โ€ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”. แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒฎแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒฐแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ โ€œแƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒš แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ“โ€, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ“, โ€œแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒโ€ แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—: 7X22 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ โ€œแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœโ€ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒแƒฅ แƒ”แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช. แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒฏแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒฅ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜ โ€œแƒแƒ—แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒจแƒ˜โ€ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฆแƒแƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ โ€œแƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜โ€ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒฃแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ, แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ” แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ  แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ—. แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒœแƒฏแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒกแƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒซแƒšแƒแƒ—, แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ— แƒ›แƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ  แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ - แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒŸแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ, แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒš แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ โ€” แƒ—แƒฃ แƒจแƒ”แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” โ€œแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒกโ€ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒแƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ– แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒซแƒ”, โ€žแƒ“แƒแƒŸแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”โ€œ, แƒŸแƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜ โ€œแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜โ€, 2013 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜, #1/25 แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Ballestero
El Ballestero
El Ballestero is a municipality in Albacete, Castillaโ€“La Mancha, Spain. It is 68 km west of Albacete, a small town in La Mancha. The municipality was likely founded after the meeting between Alfonso X (the wise) and his son-in-law, Jaime I of Aragรณn. The goal of the meeting was to settle the ownership of the recently captured territory. Local legend has it that this fertile, well-watered area was settled by crossbowmen ("ballestero" in Spanish) now redundant following the cessation of hostilities. The town was established around a crossroads on the main road between Munera and Robledo. Like many of the small towns in La Mancha, El Ballestero lost a significant share of its population in the mid-20th century. In the 1949 census, El Ballestero had 1,858 inhabitants, but the population shrank over the following decades; in the peak emigration year, 1964, over 500 left. The emigrants largely moved to large cities and the coast, where employment opportunities had increased in the growing tourist industry. In recent years, many abandoned homes have been purchased by people from Madrid, Valencia and other large cities who have refurbished them as second homes. Over the last 10 years, the number of abandoned houses still in ruins has reduced substantially. Facilities The town hosts an 18th-century church built in the Renaissance style, two bars serving food, a supermarket, a pharmacy, a bread shop, a hairdresser, a public library, a bank, a school and an Olympic-sized swimming pool which is open to the public in July and August. On weekends, a music bar opens its doors. There is a small market held on Thursdays. There are also various guest houses (casas rurales) and a small hotel. Economy The main industry is farming (largely lamb, wheat and barley), but there is also a large factory producing embutidos and hams. El Ballestero has many wind turbines. In June, crops are harvested and the countryside looks like a prairie. La Mancha has the slow-growing Juniperus sabina, now fully protected and beginning to rebound.. Tourism The town is on the Ruta de Don Quijote, and nearby attractions include Libisosa, the remains of a Roman town near Lezuza; Alcaraz, a medieval town; Las Lagunas de Ruidera; and the Sierra de Alcaraz, a home to wildlife. El Santuario de Nuestra Seรฑora de Cortes is also nearby. In addition to the fictional hero Don Quixote, Hannibal, the Carthaginian general who almost conquered Rome in the 3rd century BCE also passed close to the town along a prehistoric track that crosses the Iberian Peninsula; this ancient road was rebuilt by the Romans, and some 800 metres remain in good condition north of town. The Caรฑada Real de Los Serranos, which forms part of the medieval network of cattle tracks across Spain between Cordoba and Teruel is slightly further north. Climate In summer, the temperature during the day is significantly hotter than in coastal towns such as Benidorm. However, because of its elevation of 3,000 feet (1045 metres) above sea level, the nights stay cool even in midsummer , and the town fills with people from the coast and Madrid in July and August, many with secondary homes here. In autumn, the town is popular with those who hunt the abundant hares, rabbits and partridges. In winter, the temperature can fall well below zero and it snows several times a year, although it tends to melt after a few days. The main local fiestas are San Lorenzo (10 August) and San Miguel (29 September). Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn A local tradition that takes place on Whitsunday and the Feast of St Michael is Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn, celebrating events that took place 400 years ago. According to tradition, in the 17th century, a severe plague outbreak occurred in Villalgordal, a small village 14 km south of El Ballestero. This epidemic killed most of the population; this was possibly the Great Plague of Seville of 1646 to 1652. Once it was over, the survivors decided to burn down the village on health grounds and moved to the surrounding towns. The majority came to El Ballestero and brought with them their "Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn", a statue of the Virgin Mary slightly smaller than life size, to place in the local church. Each Whitsunday, the villagers come together and carry her over the old track to the site of Villalgordal which is now merely a stony field with a small refurbished chapel in the middle of it overlooking a river. Once they get to Villalgordal, the Virgin is returned to her original home in the chapel and a mass is celebrated. The town then provides a meal for all the participants and spectators. Once this is over, the chapel is locked up and the townsfolk return home. On 29 September, during the Fiesta de San Miguel, there is another Mass at Villalgordal and, after another meal, she is carried back to El Ballestero being met at the entrance to the town by floats depicting local life. She is escorted back to the church whilst bonfires are lit in celebration of her return. This is followed by a firework display. The statue spends the winter in the church and is returned to its summer chapel the following year. This has been done for around 400 years. References External links Mayorship site Community website Municipalities of the Province of Albacete
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevl%C3%A2na%20Museum
Mevlรขna Museum
Mevlรขna Museum {{Infobox religious building |name = Mevlana Museum |native_name = |image = Maulana Jelaledin Muhammad Rumi in konya.jpg |image_size = 250px |caption = Mevlana Museum |map_type = Turkey #Turkey |map_size = |map_caption = |coordinates = |religious_affiliation = Islam |location = Konya, Turkey |established = Islamic era |administration = Turkish government |leadership = Imam(s): |architecture_type = Mosque |capacity = |length = |width = |minaret_quantity = 1 |minaret_height = |website = }} The Mevlรขna Museum, in Konya, Turkey, started life as the dervish lodge (Tekke) of the Mevlevi order, better known as the whirling dervishes. It houses the mausoleum of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (Turkish: Celaleddin-i Rumi), a Persian Sufi mystic. History Sultan 'Ala' al-Din Kayqubad, the Seljuk sultan who had invited Mevlรขna to Konya, gave his rose garden as a burial place for Rumi's father, Baha' ud-Din Walad (also written as Bahaeddin Veled), who died on 12 January 1231. When Mevlรขna died on 17 December 1273 he was buried next to his father. Mevlรขna's successor Hรผsamettin ร‡elebi decided to build a mausoleum (Kubbe-i-Hadra) over the grave of his master. The Seljuk construction, under architect Badr al-Din Tabrizi, was completed in 1274. The construction costs were met by Gurju Khatun, the wife of the Seljuk Emir Suleiman Pervรขne, and Emir Alameddin Kayser. The cylindrical drum of the dome originally rested on four pillars. The dome is covered with turquoise tiles. Additional sections were added to the original complex until 1854. SelimoฤŸlu Abdรผlvahit decorated the interior and carved the wood for the catafalques. A decree issued by Atatรผrk on 6 April 1926 ruled that the mausoleum and the dervish lodge (dergah) must be turned into a museum which duly opened on 2 March 1927. In 1954 it was officially renamed the Mevlรขna Museum. Description The main gate (Devisan Kapฤฑsฤฑ) of the museum leads into a marble-paved courtyard. The dervishes' kitchen (matbah) and the tomb of Hurrem Pasha, built during the reign of Sรผleyman the Magnificent, stand on the right side. On the left are 17 cells for dervishes, built during the reign of Murad III, each of them covered with a small dome. The kitchen was also used for educating the dervishes and teaching them to perform the sema, the famous whirling ritual. The แนฃadirvan (ablutions fountain) in the middle of the courtyard was built in the reign of Yavuz Sultan Selim. Ritual Hall The Ritual Hall (Semahane) was built during the reign of Sultan Sรผleyman the Magnificent at the same time as the adjoining small mosque. In this hall the dervishes used to perform the Sema, the ritual whirling dance, performed to the rhythm of musical instruments such as the kemence (a small violin with three strings), the kemane (a larger violin), the halile (a small cymbal), the daire (a kind of tambourine), the kudรผm (a drum), the rebab (a guitar) and the ney (flute), once played by Mevlรขna himself. Examples of these instruments are on display in this room, together with an 18th-century KirลŸehir prayer rug, dervish clothing (including Mevlรขna's) and four crystal-glass mosque lamps (16th century, Egyptian Mameluk period). In this room there is also a rare Divan-i-Kebir (collection of lyric poetry) from 1366 and two fine specimens of Masnavis (books of poetry written by Mevlรขna) from 1278 and 1371. Sacrophagi Mevlana's sarcophagus is placed under the turquoise dome (Kibab'ulaktab) that is a symbol of the city, with the actual burial chamber beneath it. It is covered with brocade embroidered in gold with verses from the Koran. This, and all other covers, were a gift of sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1894. Next to Mevlรขna's sarcophagus are several others, including those of his father Bahaeddin Veled and his son Sultan Veled. The wooden sarcophagus of Mevlรขna, dating from the 12th century, is a masterpiece of Seljuk woodcarving. The silver lattice, separating the sarcophagi from the main chamber, was built by Ilyas in 1579. Mausoleum The Tomb gate (Tรผrbe Kapisi) leads into the mausoleum and the small mosque. Its two doors are decorated with Seljuk motifs and a Persian text from the Mollah Abdurrahman Cami dating from 1492. It leads into the small Tilavet (Chanting) Room (Tilavet Odasฤฑ) which is decorated with rare Ottoman calligraphy in the sรผlรผs, nesih, and talik styles. In this room the Koran used to be recited and chanted continuously before the mausoleum was turned into a museum. A silver door leads from the Tilavet Room into the mausoleum. According to an inscription on the door, this was made by the son of Mehmed III in 1599. On the left side six coffins are lined up in rows of three; they belonged to the dervishes (Horasan erler) who came to Konya with Mevlรขna and his family from Belkh. Opposite them on a raised platform beneath two domes stand cenotaphs belonging to descendants of the Mevlรขna family (his wife and children) and some high-ranking members of the Mevlevi order. Mosque The adjoining small mosque (masjid) is now used to exhibit a collection of old illuminated Korans and valuable prayer rugs. A box (decorated with nacre is believed to contain the Holy Beard of Muhammad (Sakal-i แนขerif'') . Tourism and culture The mausoleum was depicted on the reverse of the 5000 lira Turkish banknotes used between 1981 and 1994. It received 3.4 million visitors in 2019, making it Turkey's most visited museum that year. Gallery See also Rumi References External links Virtual Tour of Mevlรขna Museum Turkish and English Museums established in 1927 1927 establishments in Turkey Biographical museums in Turkey Religious museums in Turkey Museums in Konya Mevlevi Order Rumi 20th-century religious buildings and structures in Turkey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal%20Khan
Sal Khan
Sal Khan Salman "Sal" Amin Khan (born October 11, 1976) is an American educator and the founder of Khan Academy, a free online non-profit educational platform with which he has produced over 6,500 video lessons teaching a wide spectrum of academic subjects, originally focusing on mathematics and science. He is also the founder of Khan Lab School, a private brick-and-mortar school in Mountain View, California. , the Khan Academy channel on YouTube has 7.94 million subscribers, and its videos have been viewed more than two billion times. In 2012, Khan was named in the annual publication of Time 100. In the same year, he was featured on the cover of Forbes, with the tagline "The $1 Trillion Opportunity." Early life and family Khan was born in Metairie, Louisiana, on October 11, 1976, into a Bengali Muslim family. His father Fakhrul Amin Khan (d. 1990) was a physician, originally hailing from the village of Rahmatpur in Babuganj Upazila, Bangladesh. His mother Masuda Khan is from Murshidabad in West Bengal, India. He grew up poor, recalling that his mother made $16,000 in 1993โ€”he knew this because he had to do her taxes to get financial aid. They are descendants of Rahmat Khan, a 16th-century Pashtun chieftain who was killed in battle with Kandarpanarayan Rai, the erstwhile Raja of Chandradwip. Khan's grandfather Abdul Wahab Khan was a prominent Pakistani politician who served as the country's second official Speaker of the National Assembly. Education He attended Grace King High School, where, as he recalls, "a few classmates were fresh out of jail and others were bound for top universities." He was a cartoonist for the high school's newspaper. Khan took upper-level mathematics courses at the University of New Orleans while he was in high school and graduated as valedictorian in 1994. He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), graduating in 1998 with Bachelor's and Master of Science degrees in electrical engineering and computer science, and another bachelor's degree in mathematics. In his final year, Khan was the president of the "Senior Gift Committee," a philanthropy program of the graduating class. Khan also holds a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School. Career In 2002, Khan was a summertime intern at PARC. From 2003 to late 2009, he worked as a hedge fund analyst at Connective Capital Management. Khan Academy In 2004, Khan began tutoring his cousin, Nadia, in mathematics over the internet using Yahoo!'s Doodle notepad. When other relatives and friends sought his tutoring, he moved his tutorials to YouTube, where he created an account on November 16, 2006. The popularity of his educational videos on the video-sharing website prompted Khan to quit his job as a financial analyst in late 2009. He moved his focus to developing his YouTube channel, Khan Academy, full-time with the aid of close friend Josh Gefner. Khan subsequently received sponsorship from Ann Doerr, the wife of John Doerr. His videos received worldwide interest from both students and non-students, with more than 458 million views in the first number of years. Khan outlined his mission as to "accelerate learning for students of all ages. With this in mind, we want to share our content with whoever may find it useful." Khan plans to extend the "free school" to cover topics such as English literature. Khan published a book about Khan Academy and education goals titled The One World Schoolhouse: Education Reimagined. Khan Academy, initially a tool for students, added the Coach feature in 2012, promoting the connection of teachers with students through videos and monitor tools. In 2012, Khan received the American Academy of Achievementโ€™s Gold Medal. In 2014, Khan received the 19th Annual Heinz Award in the Human Condition category. In 2015, Khan announced that Khan Academy was partnering with the College Board to create free practice resources for the SAT test. Khan believes that supplementing traditional classroom education with the technology being developed by his Academy can improve the effectiveness of teachers by freeing them from traditional lectures and giving them more time for instruction specific to individual students' needs. Stanford AI researcher Andrew Ng has named Khan as a huge inspiration for the founding of Coursera, one of the first massive open online course (MOOC) platforms. Khan Lab School Khan's pedagogical idea is that students learn better when they can manage the process of acquiring knowledge independently and at their own pace. They should then work in teams to apply the knowledge they have learned. This concept is known as flipped classroom. His approach to learning incorporates elements of Benjamin Bloom's Mastery Learning. This Personalized Learning method is tested at his Khan Lab School, founded in 2014. Schoolhouse.world In early 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, Khan launched Schoolhouse: a free non-profit initiative to provide small-group tutoring for students worldwide through Zoom meetings. Schoolhouse certifications, developed in partnership with the University of Chicago, test studentsโ€™ mastery of subjects and certify their knowledge. MIT, Caltech, and Case Western Reserve University have since signed on. Awards In 2016, Khan received the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, the Padma Shri, from the President of India. On May 27, 2021, Khan received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard University. Personal life Khan is married to a Pakistani physician, Umaima Marvi. The couple live with their children in Mountain View, California. Khan has said about his beliefs: "If you believe in trying to make the best of the finite number of years we have on this planet (while not making it any worse for anyone else), think that pride and self-righteousness are the cause of most conflict and negativity, and are humbled by the vastness and mystery of the Universe, then I'm the same religion as you." References External links 1976 births American chief executives of education-related organizations Mathematics popularizers American financial analysts American hedge fund managers American nonprofit businesspeople American people of Bangladeshi descent Bangladeshi people of Afghan descent American technology chief executives American technology company founders Businesspeople from New Orleans Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area Grace King High School alumni Harvard Business School alumni Living people MIT School of Engineering alumni People from Mountain View, California People from Metairie, Louisiana American YouTubers Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education Asia Game Changer Award winners Educators from Louisiana People from Barisal District 21st-century American businesspeople 20th-century Bengalis 21st-century Bengalis
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แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜
แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜ โ€” แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒš แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒขแƒก แƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ 2,5-3 แƒ›-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜, แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒข. III, แƒ—แƒ‘., 2004 แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ
แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ (แƒ“. 22 แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1897, แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’. 29 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜, 1992, แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜) โ€” แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜ 1938-1950 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒข แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ— แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ 1897 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 22 แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒขแƒฃแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒกแƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”, แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒฃแƒžแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒช. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒฅ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ, แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. 1916 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 13 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ–แƒ”. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 21 แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ 1918 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜, 1919 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜. 1920 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ› แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒš-แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒคแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช 1921 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. 1922 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜, แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒฃแƒš แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก. 1924 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜, แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒช แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒ. 1926 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜, แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช 1930 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ–แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜. 1934 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“, แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒญแƒแƒ—. แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ›, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒ›, แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ. 1938 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 10 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒข แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒคแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒš แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒก, 11 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ— แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช 1950 แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”, แƒแƒœแƒฃ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒš แƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ” แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜. 1949 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. 1973 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 25 แƒ“แƒ”แƒ™แƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒฐแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒ— แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ แƒงแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ. 1991 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฐแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒ แƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒงแƒแƒคแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ 1992 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 29 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก, 94 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ Temur, ลžahika (2009-11-09). "An elegant journey with the Republic's second lady". Hรผrriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2010-11-01. "ฤฐnรถnรผ Vakfฤฑ" (in Turkish). ฤฐsmet ฤฐnรถnรผ. Archived from the original on 2008-12-31. Retrieved 2010-11-01. Mevhibe ฤฐnรถnรผ: รถrnek bir Cumhuriyet kadฤฑnฤฑ. T.C. Kรผltรผr Bakanlฤฑวงฤฑ. 1996. แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 22 แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1897 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 29 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1992 แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%20III
แƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฃ III
แƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฃ III (แƒ“. 5 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, 1717, แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒ’. 25 แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, 1786, แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ) โ€” แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 1777โ€“1786 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒŸแƒฃแƒแƒœ V-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. 1760 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒŸแƒฃแƒ–แƒ” I-แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ I. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒŸแƒฃแƒ–แƒ” I-แƒก แƒแƒ  แƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฃ III แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ Sousa, Antรณnio Caetano de. Histรณria genealรณgica da Casa Real portuguesa (in Portuguese). VIII. Lisbon: Silviana. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 5 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1717 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 25 แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1786
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แƒฏแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜
แƒฏแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜ โ€” แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒš-แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒš แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—-แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—, 500 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก. แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒจแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ: แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒ. แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜แƒ. แƒคแƒแƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒจแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก. แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ•แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒœแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒ›แƒŸแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“ แƒขแƒงแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒœแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜
แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ-แƒšแƒ-แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฉแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒ-แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ-แƒ“แƒ”-แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” 60 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€” 1955 แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜ (2020 แƒฌ.). แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D
แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ
แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ โ€” แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜. แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ 2000 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒงแƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก. แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ. 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 1 038 590 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘-แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ (1282-1305)
แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ (1282-1305) แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ (แƒ“. 1282, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’. 1 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜, 1305, แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ) โ€” แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒž III-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒแƒ’ แƒ แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒค III-แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ˜ 1300-1305 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ 1282 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒž III-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ-แƒซแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒšแƒฃแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ -แƒซแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒž IV-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒแƒก แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒค แƒจแƒแƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ 1290 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒแƒ’ แƒŸแƒแƒœ I-แƒ–แƒ”. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, 1291 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 31 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ แƒฃแƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒžแƒšแƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ–แƒ” (แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“ II), แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒฃแƒš แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ 1293 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ’แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒก, แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“ I-แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒœแƒแƒ  แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒฃแƒžแƒ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก. แƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒฃ แƒแƒ  แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ›แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒž IV แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“ I-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒจแƒแƒšแƒ. แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒก-แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒž IV-แƒ› แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, 1296 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒ˜แƒแƒฐแƒแƒœแƒ–แƒ”, แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒค แƒ˜แƒแƒฐแƒแƒœ II-แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“, 1295 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒฎแƒข I-แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒžแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฃแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒก แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ 1300 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 25 แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒฎแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”, แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒแƒ’ แƒ แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒค III-แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒฉแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก โ€žแƒœแƒ˜แƒญแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—โ€œ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒจแƒคแƒแƒ—แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ–แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒฃแƒคแƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ. แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒชแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฐแƒแƒ‘แƒกแƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ’แƒ—แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ”. 1304 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ›แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒคแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช 1306 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ“, แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒก. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ 1305 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒชแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜, 22 แƒแƒœ 23 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒคแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ แƒ˜แƒฉแƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒฐแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ Morrison, Elizabeth; Hedeman, Anne Dawson, eds. (2010). Imagining the Past in France: History in Manuscript Painting, 1250-1500. J. Paul Getty Museum. แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1282 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1305 แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpjuhorn
Alpjuhorn
Alpjuhorn The Alpjuhorn is a mountain of the Bernese Alps, located north of Mund in Valais. It is situated on the ridge separating the Baltschiedertal and the Gredetschtal. References External links Alpjuhorn on Hikr Mountains of the Alps Alpine three-thousanders Mountains of Switzerland Mountains of Valais
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜
แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜ (แƒ“. 1633 โ€“ แƒ’. 1659) โ€” แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ IV, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ  แƒฎแƒแƒ—แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜. 1644 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅ แƒแƒฐแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“-แƒคแƒแƒจแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”, 26 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒก, แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘, แƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒ›แƒซแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”. แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ IV-แƒก (แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜) แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜. 13 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅ แƒแƒฐแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“-แƒคแƒแƒจแƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒš แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ“ 1644 แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒก แƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ˜แƒชแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒคแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ”แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ› แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ-แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒช แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒฃแƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒชแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ—แƒฅแƒ•แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒแƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒฆแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒšแƒแƒชแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒช แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅ แƒแƒฐแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“-แƒคแƒแƒจแƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› 1000 แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒฆแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ, 2000 แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” 300 แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ 100-แƒช แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒกแƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒก แƒแƒฃแƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ . แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒชแƒœแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒก. แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒชแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒขแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒชแƒ แƒฃแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒฆแƒ” แƒฆแƒ•แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒช, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฅแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒชแƒ . แƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“. แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก, แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒœแƒแƒก แƒงแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ โ€žแƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒกแƒโ€œ. แƒ˜แƒ› แƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ—แƒแƒคแƒฅแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒžแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ•แƒ”แƒ  แƒจแƒ”แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒก. 3 แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”-แƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒขแƒแƒœแƒฏแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒฃแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ” แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ Celebi, Evliya. 1991 [1659]. โ€œKaya Sultan (1659).โ€ In The Intimate Life of an Ottoman Statesman: Melek Ahmed Pasha (1588โ€“1662) As Portrayed in Evliya ร‡elebi's Book of Travels (Seyahat-Name). Ed. Robert Dankoff. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 221โ€“36. Peirce, Leslie. "The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire". New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1633 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1659 แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90-%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90
แƒšแƒ-แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒ
แƒšแƒ-แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒ โ€” แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” 54,52 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€” 1810 แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜ (2020 แƒฌ.). แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ-แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiolepis%20montivaga
Plagiolepis montivaga
Plagiolepis montivaga โ€” แƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒญแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ Plagiolepis-แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ Formicinae-แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒก.. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒญแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒญแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8A%A5
๐Šฅ
๐Šฅ โ€” แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Graphemica (๐Šฅ) แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90-%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98
แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ-แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜
แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ-แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, 2001 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 35 350 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ 1 695 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ-แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก 2001 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ Provincia de Corrientes. Viviendas, poblaciรณn por sexo e รญndice de masculinidad, segรบn departamento. Aรฑo 2010 แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
แƒแƒฆแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ
แƒแƒฆแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒแƒกแƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒ โ€” แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ“. แƒ’แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒก แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒฅแƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ-แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒก, แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก โ€žแƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒ  แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒขแƒจแƒ˜), แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒกแƒแƒค. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒแƒงแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ“. แƒ’แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒค. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒฅแƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 3-4 แƒ™แƒ›-แƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ” 22 แƒ™แƒ›. แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒขแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒฃแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒญแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒฃแƒฉแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ แƒฃแƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ / แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒซแƒ” แƒ”., แƒŸแƒแƒ แƒŸแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒช. แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ โ€žแƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ, แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, ISSN 1512-1976, แƒข. 6, แƒฅแƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ, 21-22 แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 2018, แƒ’แƒ•. 242-243. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (Ascidiae) โ€” แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜แƒกแƒ. แƒฃแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒก. แƒ’แƒ•แƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ— - แƒขแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ”แƒžแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒก. แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ แƒšแƒแƒœแƒฉแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ–แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ - แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒ. แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒฏแƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ แƒแƒ“, แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ แƒแƒ“, แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ แƒแƒ“, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฆแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒคแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก. แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒขแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒญแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒแƒœแƒก. แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ (แƒžแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“) แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒกแƒฅแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ“, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒ“ (แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—). แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ•แƒแƒก แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒก แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ˜แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ. แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ› แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ. แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก 150-แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒชแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ (Phallusia mammilata), แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ (Ciona intestinalis) แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ. แƒ›แƒชแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ 5000 แƒ› แƒกแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒฅแƒกแƒ”, แƒข. 1, แƒ’แƒ•. 663, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1975 แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Ascidiacea.com The Dutch Ascidians Homepage แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgi%20Botkoveli
Giorgi Botkoveli
Giorgi Botkoveli (Georgian: แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜; born 2 June 1979) is a Georgian politician who has served as a Member of Parliament from the United National Movement since 2020. A former official during the presidency of Mikheil Saakashvili, he joined the public service following the Rose Revolution of 2003, serving several national and local public agencies until 2004. A vocal critique of the Georgian Dream-led government, he currently serves as deputy chairman of the SIU Faction in Parliament. Personal life and education Giorgi Botkoveli was born on June 2, 1979, in Tbilisi, at the time the capital of Soviet Georgia. He first started working in the private sector in 2002, managing a limited company until 2004. In 2005, he received a degree in Applied Mathematics from the Sukhumi State University. He is married to Tamuna Galdava and has four children. On January 1, 2013, he was awarded the Order of Honor by President Mikheil Saakashvili. Early career Giorgi Botkoveli entered public service shortly after the Rose Revolution that brought to power the pro-Western President Saakashvili to power. In 2004, he was appointed as head of the Tax Service of Gldani-Nadzaladevi district of Tbilisi. In 2006, he became head of the Samtskhe-Javakheti Bureau of the Environmental Protection Inspection at the Ministry of Environmental Protection, before joining politics by being included in 71st position in the electoral list of the United National Movement during the 2008 parliamentary elections, falling short of receiving a seat. In 2008, he was appointed as head of the Administrative Department of the Chamber of Control, which was at the time chaired by Levan Bezhashvili. He kept the position until 2012, when he was appointed First Deputy Governor of Kakheti, a post he held until 2013. One year later, he briefly served as an adviser to the prefect of the Gldani-Nadzaladevi district, before UNM lost the local elections that same year. During those elections, he was the party's nominee for Mayor of Telavi, running against Georgian Dream's Alexandre Shatirishvili, to whom he lost with 29.1% of the vote. A vocal member critique of the Georgian Dream-led government since its rise to power in 2012, he was the UNM's nominee for the parliamentary district of Telavi in the 2016 legislative elections, running against ten candidates including GD's Irakli Sesiashvili. Moving to the runoff, he lost with 30.5% of the vote. On January 20, 2017, Giorgi Botkoveli was elected to the new 60-member Political Council of UNM, after the party underwent reorganization following the split by a faction that created the European Georgia party. As an activist, he led protest rallies in Telavi against the inauguration of President Salome Zourabichvili, refusing to move the protests' location as was requested by local authorities. Elected as Regional Secretary of the party in 2022, he came to the defense of UNM activist Artur Mkoyan, who was arrested by police officers for resisting arrest in August 2022, accusing authorities of persecuting the man. In Parliament Giorgi Botkoveli was selected as UNM's nominee for the parliamentary majoritarian district of Telavi-Akhmeta-Kvareli-Lagodekhi during the 2020 legislative elections, running against several well-known candidates, including former Tbilisi Mayor Zurab Tchiaberashvili (EG), Irakli Kadagishvili (GD), and far-right activist Alexandre Palavandishvili, and 13 other candidates. In the first round, he won 40.4% of the vote, securing a place in the runoffs, which he boycotted due to allegations of massive voter fraud. Refusing to run a campaign, he won only 11.2%. Placed 27th on the electoral list of UNM, he nonetheless won a seat in Parliament, which he refused to take at first, claiming that the elected legislature was illegitimate. Botkoveli nonetheless took his seat in May 2021 after a short-lived EU-facilitated agreement between the opposition and the government. On June 7, he was selected as deputy chairman of the UNM - United Opposition 'Strength is in Unity' parliamentary faction, the largest opposition formation in the legislature, along with Levan Bezhashvili. In Parliament, he is a member of the Agrarian Issues Committee. During the 2021 local elections, he was UNM's nominee for Mayor of Telavi once again, running against GD's Levan Andriashvili, to whom he lost in a runoff with 43.1%. He has been one of the most vocal opponents of the Georgian government, supporting the idea of repeat parliamentary elections. In response to the arrest of former President Mikheil Saakashvili upon the latter's return to Georgia in 2021, Botkoveli was one of 300 activists to launch a mass hunger strike, calling for his immediate release. He has visited Saakashvili in jail several times. In July 2022, he was involved in a verbal clash in Telavi after local GD-affiliated city council members confronted him as he handed out pro-European Union flyers. He has stated his belief that former State Security Service deputy head Soso Gogashvili had been arrested under the orders of Russia-affiliated businessman Bidzina Ivanishvili. References 1979 births Living people 21st-century politicians from Georgia (country)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th%20Golden%20Globe%20Awards
39th Golden Globe Awards
39th Golden Globe Awards The 39th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1981, were held on January 30, 1982. Winners and nominees Film The following films received multiple nominations: The following films received multiple wins: Television The following programs received multiple nominations: The following programs received multiple wins: Ceremony Miss Golden Globe Laura Dern (daughter of Bruce Dern & Diane Ladd) See also 54th Academy Awards 2nd Golden Raspberry Awards 33rd Primetime Emmy Awards 34th Primetime Emmy Awards 35th British Academy Film Awards 36th Tony Awards 1981 in film 1981 in American television References IMdb 1982 Golden Globe Awards 039 1981 film awards 1981 television awards January 1982 events in the United States 1981 awards in the United States
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ
แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ (Yรคityop'ya ortodoks tรคwahedo bรฉtรคkrestyan) โ€“ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ 1959 แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”, แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ›แƒ, แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ” VI-แƒ› แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒญแƒ. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก 1992 - 2012 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”. แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Listen and Watch Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Songs, Begena and Preaching Ethiopian Orthodox Timket Ceremony in Gondar Divine Liturgy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Directory Ethiopian Orthodox Church Directory Ethiopian Review's Directory of Ethiopian churches Ethiopian Religions - Christianity, Islam, Judaism & Paganism Bilingual Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church site - English version Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Info EOTC INFO Provides Basic Information and more for members born outside of Ethiopia List of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church websites Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Tewahedo Songs & Records Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Phoenix Ethiopian Orthodox Archdiocese of the Caribbean & Latin America CNEWA article: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Historical Evolution of Ethiopian Anaphoras Abbink, J. A Bibliography on Christianity in Ethiopia. Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2003 Biblical Canon AN INTRODUCTION TO Ethiopic Christian Literature BY J. M. HARDEN, D.D., LL.D. Canon of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1926 The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church faith and Order -in Amharic The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church faith and Order Ethiopian Icons Through The Centuries - Images from the Church Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church outside of Ethiopia - includes music and preaching Ethiopian Crucifixes Gallery แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation%20of%20Independent%20Football%20Associations
Confederation of Independent Football Associations
Confederation of Independent Football Associations The Confederation of Independent Football Associations (CONIFA) is the international governing body for association football teams that are not affiliated with FIFA. Competitions Women's football All members of CONIFA are encouraged to invest in women's football in their communities, and to create female national selections to play and compete against other CONIFA members. CONIFA's first ever official women's football match took place on 10 November 2018 in Northern Cyprus, with Sรกpmi ladies beating their Northern Cypriot hosts 4โ€“0 in the Women's Friendship Cup. CONIFA announced their first Women's World Football Cup on 31 January 2021, to be hosted by Szรฉkely Land between 23 and 30 June 2021 and involve 6 teams. Men's CONIFA World Football Cup CONIFA European Football Cup CONIFA Africa Football Cup CONIFA South America Football Cup CONIFA No Limits European Championship CONIFA Asian Football Cup Women's CONIFA Women's World Football Cup Futsal CONIFA No Limits Mediterranean Futsal Cup National leagues sanctioned by CONIFA Liga de Balompiรฉ Mexicano Current title holders Members Types of members CONIFA expressly uses the term "members" rather than "countries" or "states". A football association may be eligible to apply for membership of CONIFA if it, or the entity (ethnic and/or linguistic minority, indigenous group, cultural organization, territory) it represents, is not a member of FIFA and satisfies one or more of the following criteria: The football association is a member of one of the six continental confederations of FIFA, which are: AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC, UEFA. The entity represented by the football association is a member of the International Olympic Committee. The entity represented by the football association is a member of one of the member federations of Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF). The entity represented by the football association is in possession of an ISO 3166-1 country code. The entity represented by the football association is a de facto independent territory. A territory is considered de facto independent if it meets all of the following criteria: (a) a well-defined territory; (b) a permanent population; (c) an autonomous government, and (d) diplomatic recognition by at least one of the member states of the United Nations. The entity represented by the football association is included on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories. The entity represented by the football association is included in the directory of countries and territories of the Travelers' Century Club. The entity represented by the football association is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) and/or the Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN). The entity represented by the football association is a minority included in the World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, maintained and published by Minority Rights Group International. The entity represented by the football association is a linguistic minority, the language of which is included on the List of ISO 639-2 codes. List of members As of Important personalities Presidency Vice-Presidents of ConIFA General Secretaries Africa President Asian President European President Latin America President North American and Caribbean President Oceanian President Directors of Womenโ€™s Football See also Non-FIFA international football New Football Federations-Board World Unity Football Alliance โ€“ Several CONIFA members also hold membership of the WUFA. CONIFA World Football Cup CONIFA European Football Cup References External links Association football governing bodies Sports organizations established in 2013
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แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒœ-แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ
แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒœ-แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒ โ€” แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” VI-VIII แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒก e-แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ. แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒแƒ  แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ™แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒแƒฅแƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ). แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ L. Johanson, A History of Turkic, in: The Turkic Languages, eds. L. Johanson & E.A. Csato, Routledge, London (1998), ISBN 0-415-08200-5 M. Erdal, Old Turkic, in: The Turkic Languages, eds. L. Johanson & E.A. Csato, Routledge, London (1998),ISBN 978-99929-944-0-5 แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Old Turkic inscriptions (with translations into English), reading lessons and tutorials Turkic Inscriptions of Orkhon Valley (with translations into Turkish) VATEC แƒแƒœแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onno%20Tun%C3%A7
Onno Tunรง
Onno Tunรง Ohannes Tunรงboyacฤฑ, better known as Onno Tunรง (20 December 1948 โ€“ 14 January 1996), was a leading Armenian musician from Turkey, working mainly as a composer, arranger and a music producer. Tunรง also played bass guitar and occasionally double bass, contributing to the albums of several musicians. He was one of the prominent names of Turkish pop music in the 1980s and 1990s with his arrangements. He was the elder brother of musician Arto Tunรงboyacฤฑyan. Early years Of Armenian descent, Onno Tunรง was born in 1948 in Istanbul. His music experience started with the church choir of Harur Mangaz (Hundred students). In his first year of middle school, he had to drop out to go to work to support his family. Born in a financially limited family, he could not afford a musical instrument although they fascinated him, until Anush ("Sweet" in Armenian), the mother of his friend Arman bought her son a guitar, and one for Onno too. Onno, a fast-learning autodidact, started a music band and soon repaid Anush. Career He started music by singing in church choirs. He founded a music group called "Black Stones" during his high school years. In 1965, he started his professional music career as a bass guitarist with the "รœstรผn Poyraz Set Orchestra". He started jazz music with Emin FฤฑndฤฑkoฤŸlu's orchestra in 1967. In the following years, he increased his musical experience by working with the orchestras of Durul Gence and Sรผheyl Denizci. He made a name for himself with his arrangement in the 1970s. At that time, he contributed to the albums of many names including ร–zdemir ErdoฤŸan, Nilรผfer, Bรผlent Ortaรงgil, Gรผlden Karabรถcek, Ajda Pekkan, Nรผkhet Duru and Gรถkben. In 1973 he released his record "The Bracelet / Melissa". Sรถz Sevgilim Sรถz, one of Tunรง's first compositions, whose lyrics was written by ร‡iฤŸdem Talu, was voiced by Cรถmert Baykent. Many times he competed as a composer and arranger in the Eurovision Song Contest Turkey Finals. In 1978 and 1981, he represented Turkey in this contest as arranger and conductor. Turkish pop icon Sezen Aksu met Onno Tunรง and started taking lessons from Tunรง after listening Nรผkhet Duru's song called "Seninle", which was composed by Tunรง in 1981. Later, they started working together during Aksu's show at ลžan Theater. After being the music director of Nilรผfer'84 album, he worked only with Sezen Aksu and her orchestra for many years. The composition and arrangement of many songs written by Sezen Aksu and Aysel Gรผrel from the album Sen AฤŸlama in 1984 to the album Gรผlรผmse in 1991 was directed by Onno Tunรง. The album, Sen AฤŸlama, triggered the rise of Turkish pop music and led to the emergence of pop music as a strong rival to Turkish Arabesque music that was monopolized in the period. In the 90's, he was the music director of the albums by AลŸkฤฑn Nur Yengi, Bรผlent Ortaรงgil, Harun Kolรงak, Nilรผfer, Zerrin ร–zer, Zuhal Olcay and AyลŸegรผl Aldinรง. The songs composed or arranged by Tunรง also took place in the albums of Asya, YeลŸim Salkฤฑm, Bendeniz, Emel MรผftรผoฤŸlu and Rรผya Ersavcฤฑ. Before his death, he contributed to the albums of Sezen Aksu's DรผลŸ Bahรงeleri and the last songs of Levent Yรผksel. He also composed the soundtracks for films such as โ€œAh Belindaโ€, โ€œRumuz Goncagรผlโ€ etc. Besides his pop music compositions, he has a piece called "Su" for solo saxophone and orchestra. He played bass guitar in Bรผlent Ortaรงgil's Will You Play With Me ?, Okay Temiz's Zikir, gNรผkhet Ruacan's Ruacan albums, MFร–'s Yalnฤฑzlฤฑk Omur Boyu and Mustafa Sandal's Beni Aglatma. He composed 175 songs and represented Turkey in many European music contests. A very close friend of Turkish singer Sezen Aksu, he co-wrote and composed many of the songs she performed throughout her career, as well as arranging all of her albums. It was widely known that his death tipped Sezen Aksu into depression. She dedicated her album DรผลŸ Bahรงeleri to Onno (and numerous songs on virtually all of her albums since). His symphony Su was performed by the Istanbul Symphony Orchestra. He collaborated with Hulki Aktunรง and DaฤŸhan Baydur on the Turkish entry Sevince at the Eurovision Song Contest 1978, which was performed by Nilรผfer and Nazar. In the 80's, he had a relationship with singer-songwriter Sezen Aksu that was both romantic and professional. As a couple they put their signatures to works that broke new ground in Turkish pop music, such as Sen AฤŸlama (Don't Cry), Git (Go), Sezen Aksu'88 and Sezen Aksu Sรถylรผyor (Sezen Aksu Sings). Sezen's music matured in the 90's, when she co-produced her best selling album to-date Gรผlรผmse (Smile) with Onno. The A-1 track from the album called Hadi Bakalฤฑm (Come On Now) was a hit in Turkey and Europe, and was published as a single in Germany. It was to be later rediscovered in Europop by singer Loona as Rhythm of the Night. She also began to produce albums for her vocalists, notably producing AลŸkฤฑn Nur Yengi's debut album Sevgiliye (To a Lover) again with Tunรง. She was to repeat her success with artists Erener and Yรผksel also. Onno's younger brother Arto Tunรงboyacฤฑyan worked with him musically for 25 years. Arto is highly inspired by his brother, having dedicated numerous songs to him (and the mountain that caused Onno's accident) and an album "Onno" (1996), together with Ara Dinkjian. On performances, you can often read the letters O N N O on Arto's clothing. Death Onno Tunรง died on 14 January 1996, when his private plane he was piloting crashed in bad weather on a mountain at TazdaฤŸ near Selimiye village of Armutlu, Yalova on his journey from Bursa to Istanbul. Hasan Kanฤฑk, his friend aboard also died in the accident. Two amateur Turkish mountaineers who came from Istanbul to search for him were also found dead 6 days later because of hypothermia. Onno Tunรง is buried in ลžiลŸli Armenian Catholic Cemetery in ฤฐstanbul. He was survived by two daughters Selin and Ayda from his first wife, Canan AteลŸ who was the first Turkish female athlete to swim a marathon. In 2002, a monument was erected in his memory at the crash site and in the city center of Yalova. The monument to the composer of Armenian origin was subjected to numerous vandalism over the course of the years. In 2012 Yalova City Hall completely disassembled the monument as the city council decided that the old monument was not aesthetic enough for such a valued composer, particularly in its vandalized state. A more artistic bronze (Tunรง in Turkish) monument in the abstract shape of a G-clef was constructed as replacement. Onno Tunรง tribute In 1996 his former lover and partner in music Sezen Aksu released a compilation album called โ€œDรผลŸ Bahรงeleriโ€ as a tribute to honor his contributions to the Turkish music industry. In 2007, several renowned Turkish singers and pop groups came together and released a compilation album Onno Tunรง ลžarkฤฑlarฤฑ ("Onno Tunรง Songs"). Some of His Songs Ah Mazi Alev Alev (AyลŸegรผl Aldinรง-Alev Alev-1994) Ayrฤฑlฤฑk (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) Ayrฤฑlฤฑklar Bitmez (Sezen Aksu - Firuze) - 1982 Bana Ellerini Ver (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990) Ben Yoldan Gรถnรผllรผ ร‡ฤฑktฤฑm (YeลŸim Salkฤฑm-Hiรง Keyfim Yok-1994) Beni Bฤฑrakฤฑn (Levent Yรผksel-Med Cezir-1993) Beni Unutma Bir BaลŸka AลŸk Bir ร‡ocuk Sevdim Bu Gece DeฤŸer mi Deli Gรถnlรผm Demek ki ร–yle (lyrics: รœlkรผ Aker, AyลŸe Mine - 1978 ) Dokun Bana (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992) Dรผet (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) Dรผnden Sonra Yarฤฑndan ร–nce (Zuhal Olcay) EฤŸrisi DoฤŸrusu (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) Geรงer (lyrics:Sezen Aksu-1988) Geri Dรถn Gir Kanฤฑma (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990) Git Gรถzlerin Bulutlu (Nรผkhet Duru -1981) Gรผzel ลžeyler Sรถyle (AลŸkฤฑn Nur Yengi&Harun Kolรงak-Eurovision Turkey Finals 1987) Hadi Bakalฤฑm Haydi Gel Benimle Ol Hep Bana (Zerrin ร–zer-Olay Olay-1992) HoลŸgรถrรผ ฤฐyisin (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) Kapฤฑnda Gรผllerim (Bendeniz II - 1995) Kavaklar KฤฑลŸ Masalฤฑ Kฤฑzmayฤฑn Bana (Neco, lyrics: Mehmet Teoman - 1975) Kolay DeฤŸil Mรผptelayฤฑm Sana (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990) Ne Masal Ne Rรผya (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) Ne Kavgam Bitti Ne Sevdam (Sezen Aksu-Gรผlรผmse-1991) Olay Olay (Zerrin ร–zer-Olay Olay-1992) Oldu mu? Oldu Olanlar (Serpil Barlas, lyrics: Zeren , 1976) Olsun Varsฤฑn (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) Oyuncu (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) ร–yle Bakma (Fatih Erkoรง-Eurovision Turkey Finals 1989) (AลŸkฤฑn Nur Yengi-Sevgiliye-1990) Papatya Falฤฑ (Nรผkhet Duru - 1981) Ruhun Duymaz (Emel-Ruhun Duymaz-1995) Sen AฤŸlama Seni ฤฐstiyorum Seninle (Nรผkhet Duru - Nรผkhet Duru 81 ) Son BakฤฑลŸ Sonbahar Sultan Sรผleyman ลžinanay ลžiribim ลžiribom (Gรถkben - ลžiribim ลžiribom/Ve Birgรผn Sen 45'lik(1976) ve ลžiribim ลžiribom (1977) ลžov Yapma (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992) Tam Bana Gรถresin (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) Tango (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) Tenna Uรงurtma Bayramlarฤฑ (Levent Yรผksel-Med Cezir-1993) Uykun Olsam (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993) รœnzile VurulmuลŸum Sana (Asya-Asya-1994) Yeni AลŸk (Zerrin ร–zer-Olay Olay-1992) (YeลŸim Salkฤฑm-Hiรง Keyfim Yok-1994) Yeniden Sev (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992) Yฤฑllar (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990) Yoksun (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) Zorba (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994) 1945 Collabrations to albums Arrangements Bir Gรผn Mutlaka (Music:Mustafa Sandal) for the album (Zerrin ร–zer-Olay Olay-1992) Kรผรงรผk Bir AลŸk Masalฤฑ (Music:Ali Kocatepe) Vazgeรงtim (Music: Ara Dinkjian) Dokunma Keyfine Yalan Dรผnyanฤฑn (Music: AลŸฤฑk Mahzuni ลžerif) (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Dokunma Keyfine Yalan Dรผnyanฤฑn - 1976) Kฤฑr ร‡iรงekleri (Music: Ferdi Tayfur) (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Kฤฑr ร‡iรงekleri - 1976) Dur Bฤฑrakma Beni "NonCe N'est Pas Fini" (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Dur Bฤฑrakma Beni - Vokal: Nilรผfer, Fรผsun ร–nal - 1974 ) BambaลŸka Biri, Haykฤฑracak Nefesim, Dile Kolay, Ya Sonra by Ajda Pekkan Melankoli, Cambaz, Benimsin DiyemediฤŸim, ร‡akฤฑr by Nรผkhet Duru References 1948 births 1996 deaths Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Turkey Musicians from Istanbul Turkish people of Armenian descent Armenian composers Turkish composers Armenian musicians 20th-century composers Burials at ลžiลŸli Armenian Cemetery Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1996
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo%20TV%3A%20Live%20from%20Sydney
Zoo TV: Live from Sydney
Zoo TV: Live from Sydney โ€” แƒ˜แƒ แƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ™-แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒค U2-แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒก 1993 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒก. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ Zoo TV แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ. แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒฃ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก. แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ”แƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒจแƒแƒฃ แƒŸแƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒฃแƒœแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒœแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒฃ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒ’แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ™-แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒฃแƒก แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”-แƒฉแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ. แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ Show Opening Zoo Station The Fly Even Better Than the Real Thing Mysterious Ways One Unchained Melody Until the End of the World New Year's Day Numb Angel of Harlem Stay (Faraway, So Close!) Satellite of Love Dirty Day Bullet the Blue Sky Running to Stand Still Where the Streets Have No Name Pride (In the Name of Love) Daddy's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car Lemon With or Without You Love Is Blindness Can't Help Falling in Love แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ Tryin' to Throw Your Arms Around the World แƒ“แƒ Desire โ€” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ-แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒจแƒ˜, 1992 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 29 แƒ“แƒ 30 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒก The Fly แƒ“แƒ Even Better than the Real Thing โ€” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ–แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฉแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1992 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 19 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ A Fistful of ZooTV ZooTV โ€“ The Inside Story Trabantland แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ Numb - แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒแƒ™แƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜ แƒคแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ› แƒกแƒแƒฆแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ Tryin' to Throw Your Arms Around the World, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก Numb แƒ“แƒ Angel of Harlem แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก. แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒกแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก The Fly แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”, แƒฃแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ• แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒคแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ-แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒœแƒ’แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ— แƒ˜แƒแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ. แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒก. 2007 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒฃแƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ, แƒฃแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ”แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒŸแƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒแƒ  แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒฎแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ U2-แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 1994 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ U2-แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 1994 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ Island Records-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ Island Records-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ PolyGram-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ PolyGram-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ (แƒแƒจแƒจ)
แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ (แƒแƒจแƒจ) แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ (Republicans, Grand Old Party, GOP) โ€” แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ โ€” แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒ, โ€žแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜โ€œ โ€” แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒœแƒ“แƒ 1854 แƒฌ. 22 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก แƒฃแƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅ. แƒ แƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒšแƒแƒขแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒš แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”-แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ”-แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒ 1854 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒ˜-แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒก แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ . แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก, แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒก. แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒแƒ› แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒจ แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ 1865 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. 1912 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ. XXI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ  แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒš แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก, แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒขแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  1973 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒขแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”, แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒ— 19 แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ XIX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ” แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ— แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  1854 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒแƒคแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒ แƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—. แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒแƒคแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒ˜-แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒก แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒแƒ  แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. 1856 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ— แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒšแƒแƒขแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ 1860 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฉแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒแƒ› แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒœแƒ˜. XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ” 1896 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ  แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒขแƒ›แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ. 1901-1909 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒฐแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒขแƒแƒคแƒขแƒ˜ 1908 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒฃแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒขแƒแƒคแƒขแƒ›แƒ 1912 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก, แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— 1930-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒš แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ. XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ˜แƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒ˜แƒข แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒฐแƒแƒฃแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒ˜แƒฉแƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒœแƒ˜แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ, แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏ แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒข แƒฃแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ  แƒ‘แƒฃแƒจแƒ›แƒ. 1952 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒฐแƒแƒฃแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒข แƒขแƒแƒคแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒฐแƒแƒฃแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒฐแƒแƒฃแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒœแƒ—, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ. 1976 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ-แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒ. 1989 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒซ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒแƒ  แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ. XXI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ” แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏ แƒฃแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ  แƒ‘แƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ™ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ 2000 แƒ“แƒ 2004 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ‘แƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฃแƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“. แƒ‘แƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—: แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜. 2016 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒฏแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“. แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— - แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒžแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒšแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ - แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒก. NBC-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—: แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ• แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ™แƒ”แƒœแƒญแƒ˜แƒกแƒงแƒ แƒแƒก 2020 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ,แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ•แƒ˜แƒชแƒ”-แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ™ แƒžแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ• แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ 1850-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ”แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ, แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒก - แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒกแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒงแƒ โ€žแƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜โ€œ, แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“. แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ โ€žแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒโ€œ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ— GOP (Grand Old Party). แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒก 1884 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ—แƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“, 1874 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 7 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ— แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃ-แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜, แƒแƒฐแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ. แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ 2000 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒš แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒคแƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก. แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒœ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก. แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒš แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ”แƒก แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ–แƒ”, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ—แƒก. แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒฆแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒซแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฆแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ  แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ˜แƒฉแƒแƒ แƒ“ แƒœแƒ˜แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก 1970 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ”แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ 1980-แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒข แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ”แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒงแƒ แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒฃแƒกแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ 1850โ€“1870 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ›, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜-แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒแƒ—แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ-แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ (แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜), แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ (แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก). 1970-แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ• แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ  แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“: แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒœแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ (แƒžแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—). 2016 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒšแƒ“ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 2020 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก 19 แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ American National Biography (20 volumes, 1999) covers all politicians no longer alive; online at many academic libraries. Aistrup, Joseph A. The Southern Strategy Revisited: Republican Top-Down Advancement in the South (1996). Barone, Michael. The Almanac of American Politics 2014: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (2013); revised every two years since 1975. Critchlow, Donald T. The Conservative Ascendancy: How the Republican Right Rose to Power in Modern America (2nd ed. 2011). Ehrman, John, The Eighties: America in the Age of Reagan (2005). Fauntroy, Michael K. Republicans and the Black vote (2007). Frank, Thomas. What's the Matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won the Heart of America (2005). Frum, David. What's Right: The New Conservative Majority and the Remaking of America (1996). Kurian, George Thomas ed. The Encyclopedia of the Republican Party (4 vol., 2002). Lamis, Alexander P. ed. Southern Politics in the 1990s (1999). Levendusky, Matthew. The Partisan Sort: How Liberals Became Democrats and Conservatives Became Republicans (2009). Chicago Studies in American Politics. Mason, Robert. The Republican Party and American Politics from Hoover to Reagan (2011). Reinhard, David W. The Republican Right since 1945 (1983). Rutland, Robert Allen. The Republicans: From Lincoln to Bush (1996). Sabato, Larry J. Divided States of America: The Slash and Burn Politics of the 2004 Presidential Election (2005). Sabato, Larry J. and Bruce Larson. The Party's Just Begun: Shaping Political Parties for America's Future (2001), textbook. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ Republican National Committee Senate Republican Conference House Republican Conference National Republican Senatorial Committee National Republican Congressional Committee Republican Governors Association Republican State Leadership Committee National Black Republican Association Young Republican National Federation Asian American Republicans College Republican National Committee 2016 National Platform แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒจแƒจ-แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ•แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”
แƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ•แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ” โ€” แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš-แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒซแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ•แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ•แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒก. แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒ 2009 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒก, แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš-แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก 3 114 แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒก. แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ 190,5 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜
แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 210 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ–แƒ”. 2004 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 65 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก 2004 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Orta
Lake Orta
Lake Orta (Lombard and ) or Cusio (Lombard and ) is a lake in northern Italy, west of Lake Maggiore. It has been so named since the 16th century, but was previously called Lago di San Giulio, after Saint Julius (4th century), the patron saint of the region. Its southern end is about by rail to the northwest of the city of Novara (located on the main Turin-Milan line), while its northern end is about by rail south of the Gravellona-Toce railway station, itself located halfway between Ornavasso and Omegna. Its scenery is characteristically Italian, while San Giulio island has some picturesque buildings, and takes its name from the local saint, who lived in the 4th century. The island was fortified between the 5th and 6th centuries. Located around the lake are Orta San Giulio, built on a peninsula projecting from the east shore of the lake, Omegna at its northern extremity, Pettenasco to the east, and Pella to the west. It is supposed that the lake is the remnant of a much larger sheet of water by which originally the waters of the Toce flowed south towards Novara. As the glaciers retreated the waters flowing from them diminished, and were gradually diverted into Lake Maggiore. The inaugural European Rowing Championships were held on Lake Orta in 1893. Frequent ferry service connects towns and villages around the lake. Gallery See also Italian Lakes List of lakes of Italy References CNR - ISE: Laghi LIMNO Banca dati dei laghi italiani: Orta External links Lake Orta at World Lake database Orta.net Pictures, history and curiosities about lake of Orta
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แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ
แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ (แƒ“. 5 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜, 1974, แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒกแƒ ) โ€” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ”แƒšแƒฉแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ 1974 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 5 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. 1996 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, 1998-1999 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ’-แƒแƒฃแƒ’แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ˜, แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. 2002 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒญแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ’-แƒแƒฃแƒ’แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ˜, แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. 1992-1995 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•. แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ›แƒฏแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ (1995-1998). 1999-2002 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ’แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ“ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ 2002 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—. แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ -แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ 2002-2005 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•. แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ“. 2006-2007 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ (2006-2007) แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ -แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒžแƒแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒฐแƒฃแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒ˜; 2007-2009). แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš-แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ (2009-2011) แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ (2009-2010). 2010-2011 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฐแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒก-แƒžแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. 2011-2014 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒซแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒจแƒกแƒก-แƒก แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก (2014-2016) แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ 2003 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒชแƒ”แƒคแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ 2004-2006 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒกแƒก-แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“. แƒแƒ› แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ 2006 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ. แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ 2009 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒก, โ€žแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกโ€œ แƒจแƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒกแƒก-แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ โ€žแƒ“แƒแƒชแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ” โ€“ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜โ€œ. 2011 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒ™แƒแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒš. แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒแƒ• แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ. 2012 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 30 แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ โ€“ 2015 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 3 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, 2015 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 3 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ โ€“ 2016 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ“ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. 2016 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒก แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ. 2019 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ. 2019 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 11 แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒ“. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 13 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒแƒ“. 2020 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒšแƒฉแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒ , แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒš แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒฃแƒš แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ โ€žEigentumsschutz von Grund und Boden, insbesondere im Naturschutzrechtโ€œ. Cuvillier Verlag, Gรถttingen โ€” 2002 โ€žTransformation der Verwaltung Georgiens in eine klassisch-europรคische Verwaltungโ€œ. In: DรถV, Stuttgart โ€” 2008 โ€žVerfassungsentwicklung in Georgienโ€œ. In: JรถR, Tรผbingen โ€” 2010 "Freiheit โ€“ Ein Prozess fรผr Gerechtigkeit". Mitteldeutscher Verlag โ€” 2022 โ€žแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜. Development of Democracy in Georgiaโ€œ. แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€žแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒฃแƒ–แƒโ€œ โ€” 2005 โ€žแƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜โ€œ (แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜). 2005 โ€žแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ, แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒโ€œ. แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€žแƒกแƒ˜แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒโ€œ โ€” 2009 โ€žแƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ (แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜). 2013 โ€žแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ โ€” แƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ. แƒ‘แƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ™แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ โ€” 2021 แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 2020 โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 5 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1974 แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒญแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20I%20of%20Great%20Britain
George I of Great Britain
George I of Great Britain George I (George Louis; ; 28 May 1660 โ€“ 11 June 1727) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 and ruler of the Electorate of Hanover within the Holy Roman Empire from 23 January 1698 until his death in 1727. He was the first British monarch of the House of Hanover. Born in Hanover to Ernest Augustus and Sophia of Hanover, George inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lรผneburg from his father and uncles. In 1682, he married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle, with whom he had two children; he also had three daughters with his mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg. George and Sophia Dorothea divorced in 1694. A succession of European wars expanded George's German domains during his lifetime; he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover in 1708. As the senior Protestant descendant of James VI and I, his great-grandfather, George inherited the British throne following the deaths in 1714 of his mother, Sophia, and his second cousin Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Jacobites attempted, but failed, to depose George and replace him with James Francis Edward Stuart, Anne's Catholic half-brother. During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished, and Britain began a transition to the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual political power was held by Robert Walpole, now recognised as Britain's first de facto prime minister. George died of a stroke on a trip to his native Hanover, where he was buried. He is the most recent British monarch to be buried outside the United Kingdom. Early life George was born on 28 May 1660 in the city of Hanover in the Duchy of Brunswick-Lรผneburg in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, and his wife, Sophia of the Palatinate. Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother, Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia. For the first year of his life George was the only heir to the German territories of his father and three childless uncles. George's brother, Frederick Augustus, was born in 1661, and the two boys (known respectively by the family as "Gรถrgen" and "Gustchen") were brought up together. Their mother was absent for almost a year (1664โ€“1665) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy but corresponded regularly with her sons' governess and took a great interest in their upbringing, even more so upon her return. Sophia bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters. By 1675 George's eldest uncle had died without issue, but his remaining two uncles had married, putting George's inheritance in jeopardy, for his uncles' estates might pass to their own sons, were they to have any, instead of to George. George's father took him hunting and riding and introduced him to military matters; mindful of his uncertain future, Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle. In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons, and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Gรถttingen, with his capital at Hanover. George's surviving uncle, George William of Celle, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, the succession of George and his brothers to the territories of their father and uncle now seemed secure. In 1682 the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers. Marriage In the same year, George married Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the daughter of his uncle George William, thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws. This marriage of state was arranged primarily to ensure a healthy annual income, and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother at first opposed the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea's mother, Eleonore (who came from lower nobility), and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea's legitimated status. She was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage. In 1683, George and his brother Frederick Augustus served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture, meaning he would no longer receive part of his father's territory as he had expected. This led to a breach between Frederick Augustus and his father, and between the brothers, that lasted until his death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians' continuing contributions to the Empire's wars, Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692. George's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father's electorate and his uncle's duchy. Sophia Dorothea had a second child, a daughter named after her, in 1687, but there were no other pregnancies. The couple became estrangedโ€”George preferred the company of his mistress, Melusine von der Schulenburg, and Sophia Dorothea had her own romance with the Swedish Count Philip Christoph von Kรถnigsmarck. Threatened with the scandal of an elopement, the Hanoverian court, including George's brothers and mother, urged the lovers to desist, but to no avail. According to diplomatic sources from Hanover's enemies, in July 1694, the Swedish count was killed, possibly with George's connivance, and his body thrown into the river Leine weighted with stones. The murder was claimed to have been committed by four of Ernest Augustus's courtiers, one of whom, Don Nicolรฒ Montalbano, was paid the enormous sum of 150,000 thalers, about one hundred times the annual salary of the highest-paid minister. Later rumours supposed that Kรถnigsmarck was hacked to pieces and buried beneath the Hanover palace floorboards. However, sources in Hanover itself, including Sophia, denied any knowledge of Kรถnigsmarck's whereabouts. George's marriage to Sophia Dorothea was dissolved, not on the grounds that either of them had committed adultery, but on the grounds that Sophia Dorothea had abandoned her husband. With her father's agreement, George had Sophia Dorothea imprisoned in Ahlden House in her native Celle, where she stayed until she died more than thirty years later. She was denied access to her children and father, forbidden to remarry and only allowed to walk unaccompanied within the mansion courtyard. She was, however, endowed with an income, establishment, and servants, and allowed to ride in a carriage outside her castle under supervision. Melusine von der Schulenburg acted as George's hostess openly from 1698 until his death, and they had three daughters together, born in 1692, 1693 and 1701. Electoral reign Ernest Augustus died on 23 January 1698, leaving all of his territories to George with the exception of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrรผck, an office he had held since 1661. George thus became Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg (also known as Hanover, after its capital) as well as Archbannerbearer and a Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. His court in Hanover was graced by many cultural icons such as the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and the composers George Frideric Hรคndel and Agostino Steffani. Shortly after George's accession to his paternal duchy, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was second-in-line to the English and Scottish thrones, died. By the terms of the English Act of Settlement 1701, George's mother, Sophia, was designated as the heir to the English throne if the then reigning monarch, William III, and his sister-in-law, Anne, died without surviving issue. The succession was so designed because Sophia was the closest Protestant relative of the British royal family. Fifty-six Catholics with superior hereditary claims were bypassed. The likelihood of any of them converting to Protestantism for the sake of the succession was remote; some had already refused. In August 1701, George was invested with the Order of the Garter and, within six weeks, the nearest Catholic claimant to the thrones, the former king James II, died. William III died the following March and was succeeded by Anne. Sophia became heiress presumptive to the new Queen of England. Sophia was in her seventy-first year, thirty-five years older than Anne, but she was very fit and healthy and invested time and energy in securing the succession either for herself or for her son. However, it was George who understood the complexities of English politics and constitutional law, which required further acts in 1705 to naturalise Sophia and her heirs as English subjects, and to detail arrangements for the transfer of power through a Regency Council. In the same year, George's surviving uncle died and he inherited further German dominions: the Principality of Lรผneburg-Grubenhagen, centred at Celle. Shortly after George's accession in Hanover, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out. At issue was the right of Philip, the grandson of King Louis XIV of France, to succeed to the Spanish throne under the terms of King Charles II of Spain's will. The Holy Roman Empire, the United Dutch Provinces, England, Hanover and many other German states opposed Philip's right to succeed because they feared that the French House of Bourbon would become too powerful if it also controlled Spain. As part of the war effort, George invaded his neighbouring state, Brunswick-Wolfenbรผttel, which was pro-French, writing out some of the battle orders himself. The invasion succeeded with few lives lost. As a reward, the prior Hanoverian annexation of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg by George's uncle was recognised by the British and Dutch. In 1706, the Elector of Bavaria was deprived of his offices and titles for siding with Louis against the Empire. The following year, George was invested as an Imperial Field Marshal with command of the imperial army stationed along the Rhine. His tenure was not altogether successful, partly because he was deceived by his ally, the Duke of Marlborough, into a diversionary attack, and partly because Emperor Joseph I appropriated the funds necessary for George's campaign for his own use. Despite this, the German princes thought he had acquitted himself well. In 1708, they formally confirmed George's position as a Prince-Elector in recognition of, or because of, his service. George did not hold Marlborough's actions against him; he understood they were part of a plan to lure French forces away from the main attack. In 1709, George resigned as field marshal, never to go on active service again. In 1710, he was granted the dignity of Arch-Treasurer of the Empire, an office formerly held by the Elector Palatine; the absence of the Elector of Bavaria allowed a reshuffling of offices. The emperor's death in 1711 threatened to destroy the balance of power in the opposite direction, so the war ended in 1713 with the ratification of the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip was allowed to succeed to the Spanish throne but removed from the French line of succession, and the Elector of Bavaria was restored. Accession in Great Britain and Ireland Though both England and Scotland recognised Anne as their queen, only the Parliament of England had settled on Sophia, Electress of Hanover, as the heir presumptive. The Parliament of Scotland (the Estates) had not formally settled the succession question for the Scottish throne. In 1703, the Estates passed a bill declaring that their selection for Queen Anne's successor would not be the same individual as the successor to the English throne, unless England granted full freedom of trade to Scottish merchants in England and its colonies. At first Royal Assent was withheld, but the following year Anne capitulated to the wishes of the Estates and assent was granted to the bill, which became the Act of Security 1704. In response the English Parliament passed the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to restrict Anglo-Scottish trade and cripple the Scottish economy if the Estates did not agree to the Hanoverian succession. Eventually, in 1707, both Parliaments agreed on a Treaty of Union, which united England and Scotland into a single political entity, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and established the rules of succession as laid down by the Act of Settlement 1701. The union created the largest free trade area in 18th-century Europe. Whig politicians believed Parliament had the right to determine the succession, and to bestow it on the nearest Protestant relative of the Queen, while many Tories were more inclined to believe in the hereditary right of the Catholic Stuarts, who were nearer relations. In 1710, George announced that he would succeed in Britain by hereditary right, as the right had been removed from the Stuarts, and he retained it. "This declaration was meant to scotch any Whig interpretation that parliament had given him the kingdom [and] ... convince the Tories that he was no usurper." George's mother, the Electress Sophia, died on 28 May 1714 at the age of 83. She had collapsed in the gardens at Herrenhausen after rushing to shelter from a shower of rain. George was now Queen Anne's heir presumptive. He swiftly revised the membership of the Regency Council that would take power after Anne's death, as it was known that Anne's health was failing and politicians in Britain were jostling for power. She suffered a stroke, which left her unable to speak, and died on 1 August 1714. The list of regents was opened, the members sworn in, and George was proclaimed King of Great Britain and King of Ireland. Partly due to contrary winds, which kept him in The Hague awaiting passage, he did not arrive in Britain until 18 September. George was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 20 October. His coronation was accompanied by rioting in over twenty towns in England. George mainly lived in Great Britain after 1714, though he visited his home in Hanover in 1716, 1719, 1720, 1723 and 1725. In total, George spent about one fifth of his reign as king in Germany. A clause in the Act of Settlement that forbade the British monarch from leaving the country without Parliament's permission was unanimously repealed in 1716. During all but the first of the King's absences, power was vested in a Regency Council rather than in his son, George Augustus, Prince of Wales. Wars and rebellions Within a year of George's accession the Whigs won an overwhelming victory in the general election of 1715. Several members of the defeated Tory Party sympathised with the Jacobites, who sought to replace George with Anne's Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart (called "James III and VIII" by his supporters and "the Pretender" by his opponents). Some disgruntled Tories sided with a Jacobite rebellion, which became known as "The Fifteen". James's supporters, led by Lord Mar, an embittered Scottish nobleman who had previously served as a secretary of state, instigated rebellion in Scotland where support for Jacobitism was stronger than in England. "The Fifteen", however, was a dismal failure; Lord Mar's battle plans were poor, and James arrived late with too little money and too few arms. By the end of the year the rebellion had all but collapsed. In February 1716, facing defeat, James and Lord Mar fled to France. After the rebellion was defeated, although there were some executions and forfeitures, George acted to moderate the Government's response, showed leniency, and spent the income from the forfeited estates on schools for Scotland and paying off part of the national debt. George's distrust of the Tories aided the passing of power to the Whigs. Whig dominance grew to be so great under George that the Tories did not return to power for another half-century. After the election, the Whig-dominated Parliament passed the Septennial Act 1715, which extended the maximum duration of Parliament to seven years (although it could be dissolved earlier by the Sovereign). Thus Whigs already in power could remain in such a position for a greater period of time. After his accession in Great Britain, George's relationship with his son (which had always been poor) worsened. George Augustus, Prince of Wales, encouraged opposition to his father's policies, including measures designed to increase religious freedom in Britain and expand Hanover's German territories at Sweden's expense. In 1717, the birth of a grandson led to a major quarrel between George and the Prince of Wales. The King, supposedly following custom, appointed the Lord Chamberlain (Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle) as one of the baptismal sponsors of the child. The King was angered when the Prince of Wales, disliking Newcastle, verbally insulted the Duke at the christening, which the Duke misunderstood as a challenge to a duel. The Prince was told to leave the royal residence, St. James's Palace. The Prince's new home, Leicester House, became a meeting place for the King's political opponents. The King and his son were later reconciled at the insistence of Robert Walpole and the desire of the Princess of Wales, who had moved out with her husband but missed her children, who had been left in the King's care. Nevertheless, father and son were never again on cordial terms. George was active in directing British foreign policy during his early reign. In 1717, he contributed to the creation of the Triple Alliance, an anti-Spanish league composed of Great Britain, France and the Dutch Republic. In 1718, the Holy Roman Empire was added to the body, which became known as the Quadruple Alliance. The subsequent War of the Quadruple Alliance involved the same issue as the War of the Spanish Succession. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht had recognised the grandson of Louis XIV of France, Philip V, as king of Spain on the condition that he gave up his rights to succeed to the French throne. But upon Louis XIV's 1715 death, Philip sought to overturn the treaty. Spain supported a Jacobite-led invasion of Scotland in 1719, but stormy seas allowed only about three hundred Spanish troops to reach Scotland. A base was established at Eilean Donan Castle on the west Scottish coast in April, only to be destroyed by British ships a month later. Jacobite attempts to recruit Scottish clansmen yielded a fighting force of only about a thousand men. The Jacobites were poorly equipped and were easily defeated by British artillery at the Battle of Glen Shiel. The clansmen dispersed into the Highlands, and the Spaniards surrendered. The invasion never posed any serious threat to George's government. With the French now fighting against him, Philip's armies fared poorly. As a result, the Spanish and French thrones remained separate. Simultaneously, Hanover gained from the resolution of the Great Northern War, which had been caused by rivalry between Sweden and Russia for control of the Baltic. The Swedish territories of Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover in 1719, with Hanover paying Sweden monetary compensation for the loss of territory. Ministries In Hanover, the King was an absolute monarch. All government expenditure above 50 thalers (between 12 and 13 British pounds), and the appointment of all army officers, all ministers, and even government officials above the level of copyist, was in his personal control. By contrast in Great Britain, George had to govern through Parliament. In 1715 when the Whigs came to power, George's chief ministers included Robert Walpole, Lord Townshend (Walpole's brother-in-law), Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland. In 1717 Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole resigned from the Cabinet over disagreements with their colleagues; Stanhope became supreme in foreign affairs, and Sunderland the same in domestic matters. Lord Sunderland's power began to wane in 1719. He introduced a Peerage Bill that attempted to limit the size of the House of Lords by restricting new creations. The measure would have solidified Sunderland's control of the House by preventing the creation of opposition peers, but it was defeated after Walpole led the opposition to the bill by delivering what was considered "the most brilliant speech of his career". Walpole and Townshend were reappointed as ministers the following year and a new, supposedly unified, Whig government formed. Greater problems arose over financial speculation and the management of the national debt. Certain government bonds could not be redeemed without the consent of the bondholder and had been issued when interest rates were high; consequently each bond represented a long-term drain on public finances, as bonds were hardly ever redeemed. In 1719, the South Sea Company proposed to take over ยฃ31 million (three fifths) of the British national debt by exchanging government securities for stock in the company. The Company bribed Lord Sunderland, George's mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg, and Lord Stanhope's cousin, Secretary of the Treasury Charles Stanhope, to support their plan. The Company enticed bondholders to convert their high-interest, irredeemable bonds to low-interest, easily tradeable stocks by offering apparently preferential financial gains. Company prices rose rapidly; the shares had cost ยฃ128 on 1 January 1720, but were valued at ยฃ500 when the conversion scheme opened in May. On 24 June the price reached a peak of ยฃ1,050. The company's success led to the speculative flotation of other companies, some of a bogus nature, and the Government, in an attempt to suppress these schemes and with the support of the Company, passed the Bubble Act. With the rise in the market now halted, uncontrolled selling began in August, which caused the stock to plummet to ยฃ150 by the end of September. Many individualsโ€”including aristocratsโ€”lost vast sums and some were completely ruined. George, who had been in Hanover since June, returned to London in Novemberโ€”sooner than he wanted or was usualโ€”at the request of the ministry. The economic crisis, known as the South Sea Bubble, made George and his ministers extremely unpopular. In 1721, Lord Stanhope, though personally innocent, collapsed and died after a stressful debate in the House of Lords, and Lord Sunderland resigned from public office. Sunderland, however, retained a degree of personal influence with George until his sudden death in 1722 allowed the rise of Robert Walpole. Walpole became de facto Prime Minister, although the title was not formally applied to him (officially, he was First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer). His management of the South Sea crisis, by rescheduling the debts and arranging some compensation, helped the return to financial stability. Through Walpole's skilful management of Parliament, George managed to avoid direct implication in the Company's fraudulent actions. Claims that George had received free stock as a bribe are not supported by evidence; indeed receipts in the Royal Archives show that he paid for his subscriptions and that he lost money in the crash. Later years As requested by Walpole, George revived the Order of the Bath in 1725, which enabled Walpole to reward or gain political supporters by offering them the honour. Walpole became extremely powerful and was largely able to appoint ministers of his own choosing. Unlike his predecessor, Queen Anne, George rarely attended meetings of the cabinet; most of his communications were in private, and he only exercised substantial influence with respect to British foreign policy. With the aid of Lord Townshend, he arranged for the ratification by Great Britain, France and Prussia of the Treaty of Hanover, which was designed to counterbalance the Austro-Spanish Treaty of Vienna and protect British trade. George, although increasingly reliant on Walpole, could still have replaced his ministers at will. Walpole was actually afraid of being removed from office towards the end of George I's reign, but such fears were put to an end when George died during his sixth trip to his native Hanover since his accession as king. He suffered a stroke on the road between Delden and Nordhorn on 9 June 1727, and was taken by carriage about 55 miles to the east, to the palace of his younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Prince-Bishop of Osnabrรผck, where he died two days after arrival in the early hours before dawn on 11 June 1727. George I was buried in the chapel of Leine Palace in Hanover, but his remains were moved to the chapel at Herrenhausen Gardens after World War II. Leine Palace was entirely burnt out as a result of Allied air raids and the King's remains, along with his parents', were moved to the 19th-century mausoleum of King Ernest Augustus in the Berggarten. George was succeeded by his son, George Augustus, who took the throne as George II. It was widely assumed, even by Walpole for a time, that George II planned to remove Walpole from office but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, Caroline of Ansbach. However, Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability. Legacy George was ridiculed by his British subjects; some of his contemporaries, such as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, thought him unintelligent on the grounds that he was wooden in public. Though he was unpopular in Great Britain due to his supposed inability to speak English, such an inability may not have existed later in his reign as documents from that time show that he understood, spoke and wrote English. He certainly spoke fluent German and French, good Latin, and some Italian and Dutch. His treatment of his wife, Sophia Dorothea, became something of a scandal. His Lutheran faith, his overseeing both the Lutheran churches in Hanover and the Church of England, and the presence of Lutheran preachers in his court caused some consternation among his Anglican subjects. The British perceived George as too German, and in the opinion of historian Ragnhild Hatton, wrongly assumed that he had a succession of German mistresses. However, in mainland Europe, he was seen as a progressive ruler supportive of the Enlightenment who permitted his critics to publish without risk of severe censorship, and provided sanctuary to Voltaire when the philosopher was exiled from Paris in 1726. European and British sources agree that George was reserved, temperate and financially prudent; he disliked being in the public light at social events, avoided the royal box at the opera and often travelled incognito to the homes of friends to play cards. Despite some unpopularity, the Protestant George I was seen by most of his subjects as a better alternative to the Roman Catholic pretender James. William Makepeace Thackeray indicates such ambivalent feelings as he wrote: Writers of the nineteenth century, such as Thackeray, Walter Scott and Lord Mahon, were reliant on biased first-hand accounts published in the previous century such as Lord Hervey's memoirs, and looked back on the Jacobite cause with romantic, even sympathetic, eyes. They in turn, influenced British authors of the first half of the twentieth century such as G. K. Chesterton, who introduced further anti-German and anti-Protestant bias into the interpretation of George's reign. However, in the wake of World War II continental European archives were opened to historians of the later twentieth century and nationalistic anti-German feeling subsided. George's life and reign were re-explored by scholars such as Beattie and Hatton, and his character, abilities and motives re-assessed in a more generous light. John H. Plumb noted that: Yet the character of George I remains elusive; he was in turn genial and affectionate in private letters to his daughter, and then dull and awkward in public. Perhaps his own mother summed him up when "explaining to those who regarded him as cold and overserious that he could be jolly, that he took things to heart, that he felt deeply and sincerely and was more sensitive than he cared to show." Whatever his true character, he ascended a precarious throne, and either by political wisdom and guile, or through accident and indifference, he left it secure in the hands of the Hanoverians and of Parliament. Arms As King his arms were: Quarterly, I, Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England) impaling Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France); III, Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); IV, tierced per pale and per chevron (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lรผneburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent (for Westphalia), overall an escutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or (for the dignity of Archtreasurer of the Holy Roman Empire). Issue and mistresses Issue Mistresses In addition to Melusine von der Schulenburg, three other women were said to be George's mistresses: Leonora von Meyseburg-Zรผschen, widow of a Chamberlain at the court of Hanover, and secondly married to Lieutenant-General de Weyhe. Leonore was the sister of Clara Elisabeth von Meyseburg-Zรผschen, Countess von Platen, who had been the mistress of George I's father, Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover. Sophia Charlotte von Platen, later Countess of Darlington (1673 โ€“ 20 April 1725), shown by Ragnhild Hatton in 1978 to have been George's half-sister and not his mistress. Baroness Sophie Caroline Eva Antoinette von Offeln (2 November 1669 โ€“ 23 January 1726), known as the "Young Countess von Platen", she married Count Ernst August von Platen, the brother of Sophia Charlotte, in 1697. Family tree Ancestry Notes References Sources Further reading External links George I at the official website of the British monarchy George I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust George I at BBC History |- |- 1660 births 1727 deaths 17th-century German people 18th-century German people 18th-century British people 18th-century Irish monarchs Prince-electors of Hanover Heirs to the British throne Monarchs of Great Britain Electoral Princes of Hanover Dukes of Bremen and Verden Dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg Princes of Calenberg Princes of Lรผneburg English pretenders to the French throne House of Hanover Garter Knights appointed by William III Nobility from Hanover British monarchs buried abroad Burials at Berggarten Mausoleum, Herrenhausen (Hanover) Burials at the Leineschloss Osnabrรผck Military personnel from Hanover German army commanders in the War of the Spanish Succession
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แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ
แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ - แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒกแƒแƒขแƒ แƒแƒœแƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒก แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 26 แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ โ€žApplus+โ€, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก 70 แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. โ€žApplus+โ€-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ–แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒญแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ Actia -แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ โ€žactia-แƒกโ€œ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ 350 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก. แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒœ. แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒจแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ› แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ. 2018 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ 3.0 แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก, 2019 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 1 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒ˜ - แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒแƒขแƒ แƒแƒœแƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก. แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ
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แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ
แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ (1368-1644 แƒฌแƒฌ.). แƒ“แƒแƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’. XV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก. 1407 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒก แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ”แƒขแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜. แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ”แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒฃ-แƒซแƒฃแƒœแƒ›แƒ 1521 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก (แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ) แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ. 1644 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒฎแƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒšแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ˜แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ. แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฏแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒญแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฉแƒแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ”แƒก แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒฎแƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฏแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜. แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—โ€“แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒกแƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒก, แƒ—แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒ˜ 1363 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒœแƒแƒœแƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒคแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. 1368 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒžแƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒก. แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ–แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฏแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒ”แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— (แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ) แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒก. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘ (ๆฐ‘ๆœฌ), แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœ แƒšแƒ”แƒก (ๆฐธๆจ‚) แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก (1403โ€“1424 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœ แƒšแƒ”แƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ. แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒšแƒแƒจแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฅ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒš แƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”แƒช. แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ-แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒญแƒฃ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒแƒœแƒญแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— XV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ โ€žแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜
แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜ โ€” แƒจแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒขแƒแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒœแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ–แƒ” (แƒแƒ›แƒŸแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜แƒ). แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ (แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒกแƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒชแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒ˜) VII แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 30-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒžแƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒžแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒกแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ. แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒข แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฎแƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒก, VII แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก. แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒšแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒก โ€žแƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒซแƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜โ€œ: แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ IX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก I แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒซแƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ› แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ. X แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ• แƒกแƒแƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ” แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ 1032 แƒ‘แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒข IV-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก, แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒซแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ. แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. 2011 แƒฌ. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒฃแƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ›แƒ” โ€žแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”โ€œ, แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ“. แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“, แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ . แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒกแƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒฌแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœ-แƒ’แƒฃแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒœแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒšแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒฃแƒแƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก. แƒ’แƒฃแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ 4 แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ› แƒ‘แƒแƒซแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒฅแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก. แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒฃแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, XI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก I แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฉแƒฃแƒฅแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒšแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ (1066). แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒœแƒฃแƒกแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก (X-XI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒ—แƒฎแƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ (A-35) แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ (1033) แƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก (XVI แƒก.) แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ— 1233-แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ (A-85). แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒคแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ•., แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1974 แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒก แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ‘., แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜ โ€“ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒœแƒ–แƒ”, แƒขแƒแƒ-แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ‘., 2014 แƒ™แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ‘., แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, II แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜ "แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜", แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ‘., 2013 แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒจแƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒžแƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒžแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜
แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ (แƒ“. 23 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜, 1984, แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒกแƒ ) โ€” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”. 2003 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ 2004 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก. 2008 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒญแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒฏแƒแƒแƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜. 18-แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” (1999 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜) แƒ“แƒ 20-แƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜ (2001 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜). แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ’แƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ 2003-2004-2005 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜ 2002-2009 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. 2006 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜, 2011 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2017, แƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2017, แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜-แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜, แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2011, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ-แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2009, แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2015, แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ; แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2015, แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒฃ, แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜ 2011, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ - แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ XXIV แƒกแƒแƒญแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ 2010, แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜-แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜, แƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜; แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 23 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1984 แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜ (แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜)
แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜ (แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜) แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒจแƒ˜; แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 212 แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—-แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒ›แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ -แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜. 2010 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ 5 398 แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒญแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ” 1.83 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒ–แƒ”. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ 2 950 แƒ™แƒ›ยฒ-แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃ-แƒ’แƒ แƒแƒกแƒฃ-แƒ“แƒฃ-แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barira
Barira
Barira, officially the Municipality of Barira (Maguindanaon: Ingud nu Barira; Iranun and Mรซranaw: Inged a Barira), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Maguindanao del Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 36,143 people. Barira was established on August 29, 1977, through Presidential Decree No. 1188 signed by then President Ferdinand Marcos from the municipality of Buldon. The town was part of the province of Shariff Kabunsuan from October 2006 until its nullification by the Supreme Court in July 2008. Geography Barangays Barira is politically subdivided into 14 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks while some have sitios. Barira (Poblacion) Bualan Gadung Korosoyan Lamin Liong Lipa Lipawan Marang Nabalawag Panggao Rominimbang Togaig Minabay Climate Demographics Economy Gross Domestic Product The Gross Domestic Product of the Municipality (2022) is 11,074,500,000(PHP). References External links Barira Profile at the DTI Cities and Municipalities Competitive Index [ Philippine Standard Geographic Code] Philippine Census Information Local Governance Performance Management System Municipalities of Maguindanao del Norte Establishments by Philippine presidential decree
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒœแƒ˜. XVI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜, 1512 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— X-แƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒจแƒแƒšแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒซแƒ” แƒกแƒแƒšแƒแƒฆแƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒก แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒข. I, แƒ’แƒ•. 585, แƒ—แƒ‘. 1993
2634784
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Llanos%20de%20Aridane
Los Llanos de Aridane
Los Llanos de Aridane is a municipality of the Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. It is located in the west of the island of La Palma, in the Aridane Valley. With 20,930 inhabitants (2013) it is the most populous municipality of La Palma. History In August 1812, the town of Los Llanos was established. At that time it also included the towns El Paso, Tazacorte and Argual. In 1837, El Paso was separated from Los Llanos. In 1925 Tazacorte, which was then the most populous and most economically developed town of the municipality, was separated from Los Llanos. Geography The municipality covers an area of . Its altitude is above sea level and has a coastal length of . Its main neighborhoods are: Los Llanos, Argual, Montaรฑa Tenisca, El Roque, Los Barros, La Laguna, Todoque, Las Manchas de Abajo, Puerto Naos, Triana, Retamar Jedey and El Remo. The municipality is one of the economic engines of the island with an economy based on bananas and tourism. Sites of interest City Hall: Was initially located in a traditional house located in the place now occupied by the modern House of Culture. The present building of the City Hall marking regionalist style by the architect Tomas Machado, was begun in 1945. The faรงade projecting balconies overhanging open and covered by tiles and on the latter, a mullioned window with lattice Mudejar. The hall saves seven oil paintings by Antonio Palma Suarez Gonzalez, which reproduces historical events and scenes. Plaza de Espaรฑa: Spain Square and its surroundings are the administrative center of life, recreational, historic place must be visited and a meeting place and rest for all citizens and visitors, where they are most representative buildings of this city. The Plaza is located in the heart of the town, and the recent renewal of pavement (year 2,000) and pedestrianization of surrounding streets has prompted the dynamism of the same in the lives of its people. In its vicinity are 11 stunning Indian laurels (Ficus microcarpa) which together with royal palm trees were brought from Cuba by migrants in the mid-nineteenth century to beautify the ride of your hometown. These laurels have become a symbol of the city and inspiration of poets and travelers, being undoubtedly the most long-lived on the island. Llano de Argual: A place where economic history of Aridane Valley began and it speaks of the splendor of an era, thanks to the use of the waters of La Caldera, to irrigate the cane fields before, and now the banana zones. They are in El Llano four old mansions of the seventeenth and eighteenth century: Ontanilla Velez home, Massieu Van Dalle house (property of Cabildo Isular and converted into an exhibition center, showroom and tourist information office), Poggio Maldonado home and the house of Sotomayor (the oldest preserved). Plaza de Los Cuatro Caminos: This Plaza or mirador designed by the versatile islander artist Luis Morera, was made between 1993 and 1996, and noted for its beautiful mosaic work in which banks have built pergolas with ceramic tiled chips, a stage made of lava stones and battering rams towns of plants belonging to the Canarian flora. Puerto Naos beach: It is situated in the best area to the west of the island, with mild temperatures throughout the year, which enabled it to obtain the Blue Flag award thanks to its services and crystalline waters. It has a boulevard that runs along the entire natural beach of black sand, where people can stroll or sit in some bar-terrace to watch the sea, the beach or a beautiful sunset to sunset. Charco Verde beach: A black sand cove south of Puerto Naos, and where there is an ancient hot spring which once was used for medicinal purposes. It won the Blue Flag award for the first time in 2009. Education The municipality has an extensive educational system, both primary and secondary school and university. The public network of childhood education centers and primary and secondary schools depends on the Ministry of Education, Universities, Culture and Sports of the Canary Government. Among the primary schools are: CEIP El Roque, C.E.I.P. Mayantigo, C.E.I.P. Puerto Naos, C.E.I.P. Tajuya, C.E.I.P. Todoque, C.E.I.P. 25 Years of Peace, C.E.I.P. Las Manchas and C.E.I.P. Los Campitos. In addition to two secondary schools, IES Eusebio Barreto Lorenzo and I.E.S. Jose Maria Perez Pulido are the Agricultural Training School in Los Llanos, the College of Special Education Acerina Princess and Official Language School of Los Llanos. The university presence in Los Llanos is composed of the National University of Distance Education (UNED) There is only one private center in the municipality, the Holy Family of Nazareth School offers childhood, primary and secondary education. Libraries Los Llanos and has 2 libraries, the main one in the House of Culture of the municipality and the other in the Cultural Center of Argual. They share resources, effort, knowledge and experience in order to improve the educational and cultural city. Historical population See also List of municipalities in Santa Cruz de Tenerife References Municipalities in La Palma
509174
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20Shit%3A%20Binge%20%26%20Purge
Live Shit: Binge & Purge
Live Shit: Binge & Purge is the first live album by the American heavy metal band Metallica, released in a box set format on November 23, 1993. The initial first pressings contained three CDs or cassette tapes, with songs from concerts in Mexico City on the Nowhere Else to Roam tour, as well as three VHS tapes while a newer version contains two DVDs from concerts in San Diego on the Wherever We May Roam Tour and Seattle on the Damaged Justice Tour. It was originally released as a cardboard box depicting the style of a typical tour equipment transport box. Besides the audio and video media, the box featured additional bonus material (booklet showing photos, typical tour correspondence as sent and received by the band and their management, and internal documents and handwritten notes; a recreated copy of an access pass to the "Snakepit" part of the tour stage; a cardboard drawing/airbrush stencil for the "Scary Guy" logo) and a black "Metalli'Fukin'ca" T-shirt. Live Shit: Binge & Purge has been certified 15ร— platinum by the RIAA as a long-form video format. When the set was reissued in 3-CD / 2-DVD format, the box was abandoned in favor of a jewel case format. The booklet that was released in the initial set was made available as DVD-ROM content. Track listing Audio CDs Recorded at the Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico, on February 25, 26, 27, and March 1 and 2, 1993. VHS/DVD San Diego Recorded at the San Diego Sports Arena, San Diego, California, on January 13 and 14, 1992. VHS one/DVD one VHS two/DVD one Seattle Recorded at the Seattle Coliseum, Seattle, Washington on August 29 and 30, 1989. VHS three/DVD two Personnel Metallica James Hetfield โ€“ lead vocals, rhythm guitar Kirk Hammett โ€“ lead guitar, backing vocals Jason Newsted โ€“ bass, backing vocals, occasional lead vocals Lars Ulrich โ€“ drums Production James Hetfield; Lars Ulrich โ€“ producers Guy Charbonneau; Mick Hughes โ€“ engineers James "Jimbo" Barton; Kent Matcke; Mike Fraser โ€“ mixing Scott Humphrey โ€“ digital editing Chart positions Video certifications References Metallica video albums 1993 live albums 1993 compilation albums 1993 video albums Live video albums Metallica live albums Elektra Records live albums Elektra Records video albums Elektra Records compilation albums Vertigo Records compilation albums Vertigo Records live albums Vertigo Records video albums Live thrash metal albums Albums recorded at the Palacio de los Deportes
50999219
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino%20Hamzi%C4%87
Dino Hamziฤ‡
Dino Hamziฤ‡ (born 22 January 1988) is a Bosnian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Georgian side Torpedo Kutaisi. International career In 2009, he played for the Bosnia and Herzegovina under-21 national team. Honours Olimpik Bosnian Cup: 2014โ€“15 Chikhura Sachkhere Georgian Cup: 2017 Torpedo Kutaisi Georgian Cup: 2022 References External links 1988 births Living people Footballers from Sarajevo Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina Men's association football goalkeepers Bosnia and Herzegovina men's footballers Bosnia and Herzegovina men's under-21 international footballers FK Sarajevo players FK Olimpik players Widzew ลรณdลบ players FC Chikhura Sachkhere players FC Torpedo Kutaisi players Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina players I liga players Erovnuli Liga players Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Poland Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Poland Expatriate men's footballers in Georgia (country) Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Georgia (country)
25566784
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landri%20Sales
Landri Sales
Landri Sales is a municipality in the state of Piauรญ in the Northeast region of Brazil. See also List of municipalities in Piauรญ References Municipalities in Piauรญ
573
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy (from Arabic: al-kฤซmiyฤ; from Ancient Greek: ฯ‡ฯ…ฮผฮตฮฏฮฑ, khumeรญa) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries AD. Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus ("Great Work"). The concept of creating the philosophers' stone was variously connected with all of these projects. Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the 12th-century translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy. This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine). Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as Eric J. Holmyard and Marie-Louise von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Etymology The word alchemy comes from old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself adopted from the Arabic word . The Arabic in turn was a borrowing of the Late Greek term khฤ“meรญa, also spelled khumeia and khฤ“mรญa, with al- being the Arabic definite article 'the'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rdโ€“4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the Khemeu. Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from ฯ‡ฯฮผฮฑ, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting. Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name (hieroglyphic ๐“†Ž๐“…“๐“๐“Š– ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word สพ actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic). This Coptic word derives from Demotic , itself from ancient Egyptian . The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "black Land", by contrast with the "red Land", the surrounding desert). History Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. Hellenistic Egypt The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD), can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as Mary the Jewess, Pseudo-Democritus, and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD. Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the Final Abstinence (also known as the "Final Count"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "the guardians of places" and those who offered them sacrifices "priests", it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. Mythology โ€“ Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology โ€“ The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 250โ€“300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. Philosophy โ€“ Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries. Byzantium Greek alchemy was preserved in medieval Byzantine manuscripts after the fall of Egypt, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period. India The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century AD text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/nitre, perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abลซ Rayhฤn Bฤซrลซnฤซ, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit jฤซvan-mukti). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god ลšiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devฤซ. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyฤแน‡akฤrakam of Ugrฤditya, written in South India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha and Nityanฤtha Siddha. Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanฤtha Siddha wrote Rasaratnฤkara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold. Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White. A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White. The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasaล›ฤstra and ratnaล›ฤstra (or Various works on alchemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy. Islamic world After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kฤซmiyฤ (ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to Jฤbir ibn Hayyฤn (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy. Paul Kraus, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows: Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Abลซ al-Rayhฤn al-Bฤซrลซnฤซ, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals. From the 14th century onwards, many materials and practices originally belonging to Indian alchemy (Rasayana) were assimilated in the Persian texts written by Muslim scholars. East Asia Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of Abลซ Mลซsฤ Jฤbir ibn แธคayyฤn at some point over the proceeding several hundred years. Other commonalities shared between the two alchemical schools of thought include discrete naming for ingredients and heavy influence from the natural elements. The silk road provided a clear path for the exchange of goods, ideas, ingredients, religion, and many other aspects of life with which alchemy is intertwined. Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. As early as 317 AD, Ge Hong documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents, titled Scripture of Great Clarity, Scripture of the Nine Elixirs, and Scripture of the Golden Liquor, as texts containing fundamental alchemical information. He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend. In his work Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature (317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide. In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese Daoists was reduced. In 499 AD, Tao Hongjing refuted Hong's statement that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as Shangqing meditation. While Hongjing did not deny the power of alchemical elixirs to grant immortality or provide divine protection, he ultimately found the Scripture of the Nine Elixirs to be ambiguous and spiritually unfulfilling, aiming to implement more accessible practicing techniques. In the early 700s, Neidan (also known as internal alchemy) was adopted by Daoists as a new form of alchemy. Neidan emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practicing alchemy with compounds found in the body, rather than the mixing of natural resources that was emphasized in early Dao alchemy. For example, saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce. The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person, but rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body part or region. Although those who practiced Neidan prioritized meditation over external alchemical strategies, many of the same elixirs and constituents from previous Daoist alchemical schools of thought continued to be utilized in tandem with meditation. Eternal life remained a consideration for Neidan alchemists, as it was believed that one would become immortal if an inner god were to be immortalized within them through spiritual fulfillment. Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion. In the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.) Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West by Obed Simon Johnson. Medieval Europe The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attributed to Khalid ibn Yazid. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non-exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. Roman Catholic Inquisitor General Nicholas Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture. This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist to the point where he had many pseudepigraphic imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "Homeric chain of wise men that link[ed] heaven and earth" that included ancient pagan philosophers and other important historical figures. Renaissance and early modern Europe During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486โ€“1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493โ€“1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. John Dee (13 July 1527 โ€“ December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels. Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus. Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrรผger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546โ€“1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (Michaล‚ Sฤ™dziwรณj, 1566โ€“1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. Later modern period The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and moreโ€”plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof." Robert Boyle (1627โ€“1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of Lavoisier and John Dalton. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvรฉ, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium. Women Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also played roles in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess. Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in alchemical literature. Towards the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance, due to the emergence of print, women were able to access the alchemical knowledge from texts of the preceding centuries. Caterina Sforza, the Countess of Forlรฌ and Lady of Imola, is one of the few confirmed female alchemists after Mary the Jewess. As she owned an apothecary, she would practice science and conduct experiments in her botanic gardens and laboratories. Being knowledgeable in alchemy and pharmacology, she recorded all of her alchemical ventures in a manuscript named ('Experiments'). The manuscript contained more than four hundred recipes covering alchemy as well as cosmetics and medicine. One of these recipes was for the water of talc. Talc, which makes up talcum powder, is a mineral which, when combined with water and distilled, was said to produce a solution which yielded many benefits. These supposed benefits included turning silver to gold and rejuvenation. When combined with white wine, its powder form could be ingested to counteract poison. Furthermore, if that powder was mixed and drunk with white wine, it was said to be a source of protection from any poison, sickness, or plague. Other recipes were for making hair dyes, lotions, lip colors. There was also information on how to treat a variety of ailments from fevers and coughs to epilepsy and cancer. In addition, there were instructions on producing the quintessence (or aether), an elixir which was believed to be able to heal all sicknesses, defend against diseases, and perpetuate youthfulness. She also wrote about creating the illustrious philosophers' stone. Due to the proliferation in alchemical literature of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. As the sixteenth century went on, scientific culture flourished and people began collecting "secrets". During this period "secrets" referred to experiments, and the most coveted ones were not those which were bizarre, but the ones which had been proven to yield the desired outcome. Some women known for their interest in alchemy were Catherine de' Medici, the Queen of France, and Marie de' Medici, the following Queen of France, who carried out experiments in her personal laboratory. Also, Isabella d'Este, the Marchioness of Mantua, made perfumes herself to serve as gifts. In this period, the only book of secrets ascribed to a woman was ('The Secrets of Signora Isabella Cortese'). This book contained information on how to turn base metals into gold, medicine, and cosmetics. However, it is rumored that a man, Girolamo Ruscelli, was the real author and only used a female voice to attract female readers. This contributed to a bigger problem in which male authors would credit prominent noblewomen for beauty products with the purpose of appealing to a female audience. For example, in ("Gallant Recipe-Book"), the distillation of lemons and roses was attributed to Elisabetta Gonzaga, the duchess of Urbino. In the same book, Isabella d'Aragona, the daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, is accredited for recipes involving alum and mercury. Ippolita Maria Sforza is even referred to in an anonymous manuscript about a hand lotion created with rose powder and crushed bones. Mary Anne Atwood's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marks the return of women during the nineteenth-century occult revival. Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society. Core concepts Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. Magnum opus The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis Modernity Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Cฤƒlian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought. Esoteric interpretations of historical texts In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. According to this view, early alchemists such as Zosimos of Panopolis highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Thรฉodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic: Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been important in analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text translated by his friend Richard Wilhelm, he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called "individuation." Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of gold or Lapis as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation." Together with his alchemical mystica soror (mystical sister) Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting old alchemical texts, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references, and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos, or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general psychology, but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that comprise all psychic life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Coniunctionis. Literature Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. Science One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941. See also Alchemical symbol Corentin Louis Kervran ยง Biological transmutation Cupellation Historicism History of chemistry List of alchemists List of alchemical substances Chemistry Nuclear transmutation Outline of alchemy Porta Alchemica Renaissance magic Spagyric Superseded theories in science Synthesis of precious metals Western esotericism Notes References Citations Sources used Bibliography Introductions and textbooks (focus on technical aspects) (focus on technical aspects) (general overview) (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) (focus on technical aspects) (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) (the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are not relevant for alchemy) (general overview, focus on esoteric aspects) (general overview, written in a highly accessible style) Greco-Egyptian alchemy Texts Marcellin Berthelot and Charles-ร‰mile Ruelle (eds.), Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887โ€“1888, Vol 1: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923, Vol 2: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s. Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, La Rรฉvรฉlation d'Hermรจs Trismรฉgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 (OCLC 897235256). Robert Halleux and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (eds.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 1 : Papyrus de Leyde โ€“ Papyrus de Stockholm โ€“ Recettes, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981. Otto Lagercrantz (ed), Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, Uppsala, A.B. Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1913, Papyrus graecus holmiensis (P. holm.); Recepte fรผr Silber, Steine und Purpur, bearb. von Otto Lagercrantz. Hrsg. mit Unterstรผtzung des Vilh. Ekman'schen Universitรคtsfonds. Michรจle Mertens and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 4.1 : Zosime de Panopolis. Mรฉmoires authentiques, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995. Andrรฉe Collinet and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacrรฉ and divin de la chrysopรฉe par un anonyme, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. Andrรฉe Collinet (ed), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) โ€“ Cosmas le Hiรฉromoine โ€“ Chrysopรฉe, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. Matteo Martelli (ed), The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, Maney Publishing, 2014. Studies Dylan M. Burns, " ฮผฮฏฮพฮตฯŽฯ‚ ฯ„ฮนฮฝฮน ฯ„ฮญฯ‡ฮฝแฟƒ ฮบฯฮตฮฏฯ„ฯ„ฮฟฮฝฮน : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79โ€“106. Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73โ€“98. Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di etร  imperiale ", Annali di storia dell'esegesi 19 (2002), p. 59โ€“99. Rรฉgine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3), Le Musรฉon 114 (2001), p. 41-50. Rรฉgine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", Vigiliae Christinae 59 (2005), p. 438-456. Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfรจvres ร  Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'ร‰gypte, vol. 65, no 130, 1990, p. 219โ€“242. Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016), p. 251โ€“274. Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity. Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.), Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 59โ€“69. Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, La Rรฉvรฉlation d'Hermรจs Trismรฉgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 , . Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ", Aries 4.2 (2004), p. 125โ€“147. Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ", Dionysius 25 (2007), p. 33โ€“54. Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721โ€“742. 2018. . Shannon Grimes, Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt, Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018, Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ", American Journal of Numismatics 7โ€“8 (1995โ€“1996), p. 209โ€“234. Paul Keyser, " The Longue Durรฉe of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409โ€“430. Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, Alchimie: art, histoire et mythes, SEHA-Archรจ, 1995, p. 11โ€“93. Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt. Barnes & Noble, 1970. Paul Magdalino and Maria Mavroudi (eds.), The Occult Sciences in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006. Matteo Martelli, " The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition " in Sven Duprรฉ (ed.), Laboratories of Art, Springer, 2014, . Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ", Religion in the Roman Empire 3.2 (2017), p. 202โ€“220. Gerasimos Merianos, " Alchemy ", In A. Kaldellis & N. Siniossoglou (eds.), The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium (pp. 234โ€“251). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, . Efthymios Nikolaรฏdis (ed.), Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity, Brepols, 2019, . Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ", Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences 49 (1999), p. 3โ€“31. Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943โ€“964. C. Vlachou and al., " Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage ", Material Research Society Symposium Proceedings 712 (2002), p. II9.2.1-II9.2.9, . Early modern Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press, 2002. External links SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism Association for the Study of Esotericism Esotericism Hermeticism Natural philosophy History of science
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94
แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”
แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ” โ€” แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ (แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ”แƒช แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ‘แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก, แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒซแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก, แƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒก, โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒจแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒกโ€œ, แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒช โ€žแƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒโ€œ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ”แƒช แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ—แƒฃ แƒ˜แƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒชแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ. แƒจ.; แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒก โ€žแƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒโ€œ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก. แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒก แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ› แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒšแƒก. แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ— แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ› แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒคแƒกแƒ˜แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒžแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian%20wine
Georgian wine
Georgian wine Georgia is the oldest wine producing region in the world. The fertile valleys and protective slopes of the South Caucasus were home to grapevine cultivation and neolithic wine production (ษฃvino) for at least 8000 years. Due to millennia of winemaking and the prominent economic role it retains in Georgia to the present day, wine and viticulture are entwined with Georgia's national identity. In 2013, UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using the Kvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The best-known Georgian wine regions are in the country's east, such as Kakheti (further divided into the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli) and Kartli, but also in Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, and coastal areas like Adjara and Abkhazia. History The roots of Georgian viticulture have been traced back by archeology to when people of the South Caucasus discovered that wild grape juice turned into wine when it was left buried through the winter in a shallow pit. This knowledge was nourished by experience, and from 6000 BC inhabitants of the current Georgia were cultivating grapes and burying clay vessels, kvevris, in which to store their wine ready for serving at ground temperature. When filled with the fermented juice of the harvest, the kvevris are topped with a wooden lid and then covered and sealed with earth. Some may remain entombed for up to 50 years. Due to its diverse and unique microclimate, there are about 500 grape varieties in modern Georgia. Wine vessels of every shape, size and design have been the crucial part of pottery in Georgia for millennia. Ancient artifacts attest to the high skill of local craftsmen. Among vessels, the most ubiquitous and unique to Georgian wine-making culture are probably the Kvevris, very large earthenware vessels with an inside coat of beeswax. Not only kvevris were used to ferment grape juice and to store up wine, but also chapi and satskhao; others yet were used for drinking, such as khelada, doki, sura, chinchila, deda-khelada, dzhami and marani. The continuous importance of winemaking and drinking in Georgian culture is also visible in various antique works of art. Many of the unearthed silver, gold and bronze artifacts of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC bear chased imprints of the vine, grape clusters and leaves. The State Museum of Georgia has on display a cup of high-carat gold set with gems, an ornamented silver pitcher and some other artifacts dated to the 2nd millennium BC. From classical Antiquity, Georgian museums display a cameo depicting Bacchus, and numerous sarcophagi with wine pitchers and ornamented wine cups found in ancient tombs. From the 4th century AD, wine has gained further importance in Georgian culture due to the Christianisation of the country. According to tradition, Saint Nino, who preached Christianity in Kartli, bore a cross made from vine wood. For centuries, Georgians drank, and in some areas still drink, their wine from horns (called kantsi in Georgian) and skins from their herd animals. The horns were cleaned, boiled and polished, creating a unique and durable drinking vessel. During Soviet times wines produced in Georgia were very popular. In comparison with other Soviet wines from Moldavia and Crimea that were available on the Soviet market Georgian wines had been preferable for Soviets. In 1950, vineyards in Georgia occupied 143,000 acres, but by 1985 this had reached 316,000 acres due to an increase in demand. In 1985 wine production was 881,000 tons. During Mikhail Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign, many old Georgian vineyards were cut off. As of 2016, Georgia exported 64% of its wine to Russia. Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in the country's recent relationship with Russia. Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006 Russian embargo of Georgian wine, with Russia claiming that Georgia produced counterfeit wine. This was the "official" reason given, but the instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, and Russia uses their economic power for political purposes. Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified โ€œGeorgian Wineโ€ labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced. Some winemakers in Georgia have also been known to import grapes and produce โ€œfalsifiedโ€ Georgian Wine, leading then defense minister Irakli Okruashvili to note in 2006 that โ€œ[He thought] several wineries that are still producing fake wine in Gori should be closedโ€. The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channeled through Russian managed customs checkpoints in the Russian occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs. Georgia is optimistic that its recent Association Agreement with the European Union will expand its export markets and reduce the risk presented by any future unilateral embargoes by Russia. Viticulture in Georgia today Georgia ranks 2nd (in terms of volume) in grape production in the former Soviet Union behind Moldova. Its wines had a high reputation in the Soviet Union. Currently, the wine is produced by thousands of small farmers (using primarily traditional techniques of wine-making), as well as certain monasteries and modern wineries. According to the Minister of Agriculture of Georgia, wine production has increased from 13.8 million 750ml bottles in 2009 to 15.8 million bottles in 2010. In 2009, Georgia exported 10.968 million bottles of wine to 45 countries. In 2010, Georgia exported wines to Ukraine (about 7.5 million bottles), Kazakhstan (about 2 million bottles), Belarus (about 1.2 million bottles), Poland (about 870,000 bottles) and Latvia (590,000 bottles). By 2019 exports and productions had increased significantly, with the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Agriculture's annual report declaring total export as "94 million bottles (0.75 liter)" to 53 countries, including increases in exports to Russia of 9% (58,384,540 bottles), to China of 2% (7,089,259 bottles), and to the United States of 48% (678,148 bottles). Growing conditions Georgia's territorial and climate conditions are optimal for wine-making. Extremes of weather are unusual: summers tend to be sunny and warm, and winters mild and frost-free. Natural springs abound, and the Caucasian Mountain streams drain mineral-rich water into the valleys. Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by the Black Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivating. The soil in vineyards is so intensively cultivated that the grapevines grow up the trunks of fruit trees eventually hanging down along the fruit when they ripen. This method of cultivation is called maglari. Georgian grape varieties Traditional Georgian grape varieties are little known outside of the Black Sea region. Now that the wines of Eastern and Central Europe are coming to greater international awareness, grapes from this region are becoming better known. Although there are nearly 400 to choose from, only 38 varieties are officially grown for commercial viticulture in Georgia: Red grapes White grapes Georgian wine styles Traditionally, Georgian wines carry the appellation name of the source region, district, or village, much like French regional wines such as Bordeaux or Burgundy. As with these French wines, Georgian wines are usually a blend of two or more grapes. Georgian wines are classified as sweet, semi-sweet, semi-dry, dry, fortified and sparkling. White Pirosmani is a semi-sweet white wine made from a 40% Tsolikauri, 60% Tsitska blend. It has won 3 gold medals and one silver medal at international competitions. Tsinandali is a blend of Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grapes from the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli in the Kakheti region. Tvishi is a natural semi-sweet white wine made from Tsolikauri in the Lechkhumi region. It has won one gold medal, two silver medals and one bronze medal in international competitions. Mtsvane is a dry white wine made from Mtsvani. Alaznis Veli is white semi-sweet wine made from the Rkatsiteii, Tetra, Tsolikauri and other industrial grape varieties cultivated in Western and Eastern Georgia. The wine of straw color has a characteristic aroma, a fine, fresh and a harmonious taste. It contains 9-11% alcohol and has 6-7% titrated acidity. Anakopia is a white semi-dry table wine made from the Tsolikauri grape variety grown in the Sukhumi and Gudauta districts in Abkhazia. The color range is from light to dark-straw. It has a specific aroma and a subtle fresh taste. The alcohol content in the ready wine is 9-11%, sugar content 1-2 g/100 mL, titrated acidity 5-8 g/L. The wine has been produced since 1978. Tbilisuri is pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Saperavi, Cabernet and Rkatsiteli grape varieties grown in East Georgia. The wine has a rich fruity taste. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L. Khikhvi is a vintage white dessert wine made from the Khikhvi grape variety grown in Kardanakhi. It has a pleasant amber color, a characteristic aroma and a delicate taste. Its strength is 15 vol.%, sugar content 18-20%, titrated acidity 4-8 g/1. The wine has been produced since 1924. At international competitions, it received 4 gold medals. Saamo is a vintage dessert white sweet wine is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in the Kardanakhi vineyards of the Gurjaani district in Kakheti. It takes the wine three years to mature. The golden-color wine has an original fine bouquet, a pleasant taste with a harmonious honey fragrance. When ready for use, the wine contains 17% alcohol, 13% sugar and has 4-6 g/1 titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1980. At international exhibitions, Saamo was awarded 4 gold and 1 silver medal. Gelati is a white dry ordinary wine made of the Tsolikauri, Tsitska and Krakhuna grape varieties cultivated in Western Georgia. The wine of straw color has a characteristic savor with a fruity flavor and fresh harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 5-8%. Kakheti is a white table wine made of the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in Kakheti. The amber-color wine has a fruity aroma with a vanillic flavor. It is characterized by an energetic, velvety and harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.5-13.0 vol.% and titrated acidity 4-6%. At international wine competitions, the Kakheti wine was awarded one silver and one bronze medal. It has been produced since 1948. Bodbe is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety in the village of Bodbe in the Magaro micro-district, one of the most beautiful places of Kakheti. The wine has a light-straw color, a fine aroma of wildflowers and a pleasing tender taste which give the wine piquancy highly estimated by connoisseurs. The ready wine contains 10.5-11.5% alcohol and has 5-7% titrated acidity. Dimi is an Imeretian-type white ordinary wine. It is made from the Tsolikauri and Krakhuna grape varieties grown on small areas in Imereti (Western Georgia) by the old local technique consisting in fermenting the grapes pulp to which some quantity of grapes husks is added. The dark-straw color has a pleasant specific bouquet with a fruity flavor, a fresh harmonious taste and savory astringency. Its strength is 10.5-13.0 vol.% and titrated acidity 6.5-8.0%. The wine has been produced since 1977. Gareji is a white dry ordinary wine made of the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in Kakheti. The wine has a color ranging from pale-straw to amber, a pleasing bouquet and a full harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 4-7%. Ereti is a white dry ordinary wine made from the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties. It has a straw color, a fine fruity bouquet and a full fresh and harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 5-8%. Shuamta is a dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties according to the Kakhetian recipe. The wine is of amber or dark-amber color and has a moderately astringent harmonious taste with a fruity aroma. The alcohol content is 10-12%, titrated acidity 4-6 g/L, extractability over 25 g/L. Alazani (white), named after Alazani river, is a mid-straw colored semi-sweet wine made from 100% Rkatsiteli. The climate of the Alazani Valley is slightly warmer than that of other wine-growing Georgian regions, making the local grapes sweeter than the rest. It has won one silver and one gold metal in international competitions. See also list of Georgian wine appellations. Red Akhasheni is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in the Akhasheni vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district in Kakheti. The wine has a dark-pomegranate color and a harmonious velvety taste with a chocolate flavor. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1958. At international exhibitions, it has been awarded 6 gold and 5 silver medals. Khvanchkara is a high-end, naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Alexandrouli & Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in the Khvanchkara vineyards in Racha, Western Georgia. The wine has a strong, distinctive bouquet and a well-balanced tannin profile with flavors of raspberry. It has a dark ruby color. Khvanchkara wine is one of the most popular Georgian semi-sweet wines. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5.0-7.0% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1907. It has been awarded 2 gold and 4 silver medals at various international exhibitions. This wine was Stalin's favorite. Kindzmarauli is a high quality naturally semi-sweet wine of dark-red color. It is made from the Saperavi grape variety cultivated on the slopes of the Caucasian mountains in the Kvareli district of Kakheti. It has a strong characteristic bouquet and aroma, a gentle harmonious and velvety taste. Its taste and curative properties have won Kindzmarauli wide recognition. The wine contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5.0-7.0% titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1942. Kindzmarauli has won 3 gold, 4 silver & 1 bronze medal at international wine competitions. Mukuzani is a dry red wine made from 100% Saperavi in Mukuzani, Kakheti. The wine is sourced from the best wines of the vintage that have been fermented at controlled temperatures and with selected yeast strains. The wines are then matured for 3 years in oak to give the wine-added complexity and flavor. Mukuzani is considered to be the best of the Georgian Dry Red wines made from Saperavi. It has won 9 gold medals, 2 silver medals and 3 bronze medals in international competitions. Napareuli Ojaleshi is a red semi-sweet wine made from the grape variety of the same name cultivated on the mountain slopes overhanging the banks of the Tskhenis-Tskali river, particularly in the Orbeli village and Samegrelo district (Western Georgia). Odzhaleshi has dark-ruby color, a gentle bouquet and aroma, a harmonious rich taste with a fruity flavor. It contains 10-12% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has a titrated acidity of 5-6%. Pirosmani is a naturally semi-sweet red wine. It is made from the Saperavi grape variety cultivated in the Akhoebi vineyards of the Kardanakhi village in the Alazani Valley. The wine is fermented in clay jars buried in the ground, an ancient Kakhetian wine-making technique. When ready for use, the wine contains 10.5-12% alcohol, 1.5-2.5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. Saperavi is a red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in some areas of Kakheti. It is an extractive wine with a characteristic bouquet, a harmonious taste and pleasant astringency. Its strength is 10.5-12.5% and titrated acidity 5-7%. It has been produced since 1886. Usakhelauri is a naturally semi-sweet wine. It is produced from the Usakhelauri grape variety cultivated mostly in the Zubi-Okureshi district in Western Georgia. Vineyards are arranged on the mountain slopes. The wine has an attractive ruby color, harmonious sweetness with a wild strawberry flavor. It is noted for a pleasant velvety taste, a delicate bouquet and inimitable piquancy. The wine contains up to 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1943. The word "Usakhelauri" means "nameless" in Georgia. The wine was considered so fine that it was hard for winemakers to find an adequate name for it. At international exhibitions, Usakhelauri has been awarded 2 gold and 3 silver medals. Apsny is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made of red grape varieties cultivated in Abkhazia. The wine of pomegranate color has a pleasant aroma, a full and harmonious taste with gentle sweetness. When ready for use, the wine contains 9-10% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. At an international exhibition, the wine has received one silver medal. Lykhny is a naturally semi-sweet pink wine made of the Izabela grape variety cultivated in Abkhazia. The wine has pink color, a specific aroma and a fresh harmonious taste. When ready for use, the wine contains 8-9% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. At international exhibitions, Lykhny has been awarded one silver and one bronze medal. Mtatsminda is a pink table semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is prepared using traditional technology from the Saperavi, Tavkveri, Asuretuli, Rkatsiteli and other grape varieties grown in Tetritskaro, Kaspi, Gori and Khashuri districts. The wine is characterized by a harmonious taste with a fruity aroma. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L. Aguna is a pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Saperavi, Cabernet and Rkatsiteli grape varieties grown in East Georgia. The wine has a rich fruity taste. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L. Sachino is a pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made using traditional methods from the Aleksandreuli, Aladasturi, Odzhaleshi, Tsitska, Tsolikauri and other grape varieties cultivated in West Georgia. The wine is notable for a mild taste, a moderate extractability, a pure aroma and a beautiful color. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L. Barakoni is a naturally semi-dry red wine made from the unique Aleksandrouli and Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in Western Georgia on the steep slopes of the Rioni gorge in the Caucasian mountains. This top quality wine, of light-ruby color, has a fragrance of violets, natural pleasant sweetness and a tender harmonious taste. When ready for use, Barakoni contains 10-12% alcohol, 1.5-2.5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been manufactured since 1981. Salkhino is a liqueur-type of dessert wine made from the Izabella grape variety with an addition of the Dzvelshava, Tsolikauri and other grape varieties cultivated in the Mayakovski district (Western Georgia). It has characteristic ruby or pomegranate color. The alcohol content is 15%, sugar content 30%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/L. At international competitions the wine has received 6 gold medals. It has been produced since 1928. Alaverdi (White and Red) Alazani (Red) is a light red, semi-sweet wine made from a 60% Saperavi, 40% Rkatsiteli blend. It has won 3 gold medals and 3 silver medals at international competitions. The name comes from one of the major river systems of Georgia that borders Georgia with Azerbaijan. The climate is slightly warmer than the rest of the Georgian Wine growing regions and gives rise to much sweeter grapes than those found elsewhere. Rkatsiteli Mtsvani Saperavi Dzelshavi See also list of Georgian wine appellations. Fortified Kardanakhi is a fortified vintage white wine of the type. It is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in the Kardanakhi vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district. The wine matures in oak barrels for three years. The amber color wine has a pleasant specific bouquet with a typical port wine flavor and a fine honey fragrance. It contains 18% alcohol, 10% sugar and has 4-6% titrated acidity. It was awarded 8 gold and one silver international medals. Anaga is a madeira-type top-quality strong wine made from the Rkatsiteli, Khikhvi and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in the Gurjaani, Sighnaghi and Dedoplistskaro districts. The wine has light-golden to dark-amber color, a strong peculiar bouquet, an extractive harmonious taste with a clearly pronounced Madeira touch. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 4 g/mL, titrated acidity 3 - 7 g/L. The Anaga wine was awarded 1 international silver medal. Sighnaghi is an ordinary strong wine of the port type made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety grown in the Sighnaghi district in Kakheti. The amber-color wine has an extractive harmonious taste with a clearly pronounced fruity touch. The alcohol content 3 g/100 mL, titrated acidity 5 g/L. Veria is a fortified vintage white port made from the Rkatsiteli, Mtsvane, Chinuri and other commercial grape varieties grown in Eastern Georgia. The amber-color wine has a peculiar aroma and harmonious taste. Its strength is 18 vol.%, sugar content 7%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/1. At an international wine competition it received 1 gold medal. The wine has been produced since 1977. Lelo is a port-type wine made from the Tsitska and Tsolikauri grape varieties grown in Zestaphoni, Terjola, Baghdati and Vani districts. The wine has a rich harmonious taste with a fruity aroma and a beautiful golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L. Marabda is a port-type wine made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety grown in Marneuli and Bolnisi districts. It has a full harmonious taste with a fruity aroma & light-golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L. Kolkheti is a fortified vintage white port is made from Tsolikauri, Tsitska and other commercial white grape varieties grown in Western Georgia. The amber-color wine has a specific bouquet and harmonious taste. Its strength is 18 vol.%, sugar content 7%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/L. At an international competition the wine received one silver medal. It has been produced since 1977. Taribana is a port-type wine made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in Kakheti. The wine has a mild oily taste, a low sugar content and a beautiful color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 5 g/L. Wine styles Lelo is a port-type wine made from the Tsitska and Tsolikauri grape varieties grown in Zestaponi, Terjola, Baghdati and Vani districts. The wine has a rich harmonious taste with a fruity aroma and a beautiful golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L. Akhasheni is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in the Akhasheni vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district in Kakheti, a province of Georgia. The wine of dark-pomegranate color has a harmonious velvety taste with a chocolate flavor. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been manufactured since 1958. Khvanchkara is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Alexandrouli & Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in the Khvanchkara vineyards, near the town of Ambrolauri in the Racha region of western Georgia. It is one of the most popular Georgian semi-sweet wines. Along with Kindzmarauli, it was the favourite wine of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. It is of dark-ruby color. It contains 10.5 - 12.0% alcohol, 3 - 5% sugar and has 5.0 - 7.0% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1907. Wine-producing regions of Georgia There are five main regions of viniculture, the principal region being Kakheti, which produces seventy percent of Georgia's grapes. Traditionally, Georgian wines carry the name of the source region, district, or village, much like French regional wines such as Bordeaux or Burgundy. As with these French wines, Georgian wines are usually a blend of two or more grapes. For instance, one of the best-known white wines, Tsinandali, is a blend of Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grapes from the micro regions of Telavi and Kvareli in the Kakheti region. Kakheti, containing the micro-regions Telavi and Kvareli Kartli Imereti Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti Adjara See also Old World wine Amber wine, a winemaking style believed to have originated in Georgia Rtveli, a traditional vintage and rural harvest holiday in Georgia Sweetness of wine List of Georgian wine appellations Winemaking Agriculture in Georgia References External links Georgian National Wine Agency Stalin's million-dollar wine cellar; BBC World Service; Outlook Wine tours for travel groups Georgia Wine Tours Wine tours for individuals Georgian drinks Wine by country Agriculture in Georgia (country)
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แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ
แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ โ€” แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. III โ€” แƒแƒฎ. แƒฌ. VI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ, แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ (แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜). แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ– I, แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช โ€žแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ แƒแƒœ โ€žแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“. แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ โ€žแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœ (แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšโ€“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒš) แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ™แƒšแƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ, แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“. แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš โ€žแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒกโ€œ (แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”) แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒš แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ“, แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. V แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒก (แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒฅแƒก). แƒ—แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ– แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ โ€žแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒจแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒฐแƒแƒžแƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒก แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—: แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก (แƒแƒฎ. แƒฌ. IV-XV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ‘ (ฮฒ-แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ) แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ แƒ•-แƒก (แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒก). แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒš แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— โ€” โ€žแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ. แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒซแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—: แƒ—แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ– แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜: แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ , แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก (แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก) แƒฃแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ. แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒ˜ โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก (แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก (แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—) แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒซแƒฆแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒš-แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒแƒ“ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒก. แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒจแƒฃแƒแƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒชแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒฒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒฒโ€œ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœ-แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒœ - แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ-แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒฅแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒจ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”, แƒ˜แƒ› แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒแƒ›แƒŸแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒโ€œ, แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ—, แƒกแƒแƒœแƒแƒ› แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. IV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒก (แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒก) แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ-แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒฃแƒ -แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜-แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒฅ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ (แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒแƒฅแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ—-แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒ  แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœ-แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก (โ€žแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒกโ€œ) แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒš แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒฃแƒ -แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. IVโ€“III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฏแƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒซแƒšแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ–แƒ”แƒช. แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ—แƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ— แƒแƒฅ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฆแƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒ˜ (แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒก แƒฆแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ” โ€” แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”. แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜) แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒ (โ€žแƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒ) แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก โ€” แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก (แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. III แƒก.) แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“ แƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ (แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒแƒญแƒแƒ แƒ). แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ”, แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒœแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜, แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. IIโ€“I แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก). แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”แƒช (แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜). แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒœแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. II แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ I แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ. แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ โ€“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒœแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒฃแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒšแƒฃแƒแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก. แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒคแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ–แƒ” แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ˜แƒชแƒ”แƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒฎแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒขแƒแƒฎแƒขแƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ”แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฉแƒแƒชแƒ›แƒ-แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒœแƒ”-แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒš-แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒš แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. 65 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒฅแƒ แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ›แƒžแƒฃแƒ”แƒกแƒ›แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ, แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ” แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ. แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒแƒฆแƒ แƒ˜แƒชแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— I-II แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ• แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒฃแƒฌแƒงแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒšแƒแƒจแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ›. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ แƒฎแƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ I แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 30-50-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ (แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœ I-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก) แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒฎแƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ—แƒ”แƒš แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ. I แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก II แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ II แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก 30-50-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒคแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœ II-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒซแƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒจแƒแƒ• แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ. แƒคแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœ II-แƒ› แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ’แƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ  แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก โ€“ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒœแƒฃแƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒฆแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ•แƒแƒŸแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒก. แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ–แƒ” แƒคแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” โ€žแƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒโ€œ, แƒ”. แƒ˜. แƒฃแƒชแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒแƒช, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒจแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒจแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒ  I-แƒก (242-272) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒš แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒขแƒ˜แƒกโ€œ (โ€žKaโ€™ba-i Zardoลกtโ€œ) แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒจแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒ  I แƒ˜แƒ› แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒก แƒฃแƒฎแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก: แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒก, แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒฎแƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒœแƒก, แƒ›แƒ”แƒจแƒแƒœแƒก, แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒก, แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒก, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ—แƒก, แƒแƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒžแƒแƒขแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒก, แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก (แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ  แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒจแƒ˜: โ€žVyrลกnโ€œ, แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ โ€“ โ€žฮŠฮฒฮตฯฮนฮฑโ€œ), แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒก (แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš-แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜: Ardan, แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ -แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, Arrฤn), แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” (แƒ”. แƒ˜. แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” (แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜) แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ› แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜: 1. แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜, แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ  I-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก โ€“ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก, 2. แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ  I-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ 3. แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒช แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒจแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒ  I-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ› แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ โ€žแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒโ€œ (แƒžแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš-แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ  แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒจแƒ˜: Xmzasp Vyrลกn (แƒกแƒขแƒ . 28); แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ -แƒคแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒจแƒ˜: amฤspy vl rvcan (แƒกแƒขแƒ . 30-31); แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒกแƒขแƒ . 60): ฮ‘ฮผฮฑฯ‚ฮฑฯƒฯ€ฮฟฯ… ฯ„oฯ‚ ฮฒฮฑฯƒฮฏฮปฮตฯฯ‚ ฯ„oฯ‚ ฮŠฮฒฮตฯฮนฮฑฯ‚). แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“, แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’. แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒก, แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ” แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ›แƒ โ€žแƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ (แƒฅแƒช., I, 57). แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒก, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒš แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒšแƒแƒจแƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก (แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒก แƒฃแƒญแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒœ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ“แƒ’แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒฃแƒš แƒ“แƒแƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜: แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜, แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒซแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒก, แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ“แƒแƒ  แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ โ€žแƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒฃแƒžแƒ. แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“, III แƒก. แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒฆแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ–แƒ”. 283 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ”. 287 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒข III (287-330). 298 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ 40 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ (แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ) แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒชแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒšแƒฅแƒ˜, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ”. III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜แƒช, แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ“, แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒ“แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ›แƒ™แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒ›. โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜โ€œ แƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒš แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ–แƒ”, แƒกแƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒšแƒแƒจแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒก (แƒฅแƒช., I, 55-57). III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒš แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” IV แƒก. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ“แƒ. แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ, แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒก, แƒ”แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒ  II-แƒ˜แƒก (310-379) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ  แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ›แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“, IV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ. V แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ’ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒฅแƒชแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ—-แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. 482 แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒœแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ. 523 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฏแƒแƒœแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ I-แƒ›แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฃแƒฅแƒ›แƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ“ VI แƒก. 40-แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒš แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ I-แƒก (531-579) แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ 18 แƒฅแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“ (แƒแƒšแƒฅแƒแƒ“). แƒฅแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒžแƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ - แƒกแƒžแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜. แƒฅแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒคแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒแƒฐแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ–แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ–แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•-แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ. แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒกแƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒงแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•, แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎ-แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜, แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—-แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฃแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒšแƒแƒ–แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒชแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ“, IV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•-แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ, แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ, แƒฃแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒก: โ€žแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒชแƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒดแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒฒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒฅแƒกแƒœแƒ˜แƒ—โ€œ. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› IV แƒก. แƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒขแƒ›แƒ โ€žแƒ แƒฃแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒฒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฆแƒโ€œ. แƒแƒ› แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, VI แƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ— แƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ™แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒฃ. แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› V-VI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ’แƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒฃแƒฎแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ แƒฃแƒ˜แƒก-แƒฃแƒ แƒ‘แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช. แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ. แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒฏแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ“แƒ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜ โ€“ แƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜. แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒฏแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒ–แƒ” แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒซแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒฏแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅ แƒชแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒฆแƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก . แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ: แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ-แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒขแƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ, แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒญแƒ˜แƒ แƒ. แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒคแƒฅแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœ. แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒฅแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒ”แƒขแƒ•แƒ˜. แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ-แƒ›แƒ”แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒแƒฆแƒ›. แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ“แƒแƒก. แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ’แƒฃแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ’แƒฃแƒคแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ IVโ€“V แƒกแƒก. แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒแƒ“, แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ I-III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒแƒš แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก ("แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก") แƒจแƒ”แƒ”แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ, แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ "แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒ" (แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ˜แƒกแƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ—แƒ) แƒคแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ–แƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ แƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ "แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ" แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒš "แƒแƒ–แƒœแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ" แƒฌแƒ แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ. แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒจแƒขแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒฌแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒงแƒแƒคแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒขแƒแƒฎแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›, IV แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก. แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜ (แƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒจแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ– แƒ‘แƒแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒซแƒ”, แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ” แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒ, แƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒฃแƒ‘แƒแƒ– แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒซแƒ”) แƒแƒ  แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกโ€œ (XII แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”) แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ  แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ‘แƒก. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ›แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒš แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒฃแƒ  แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก (แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒšแƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜). แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒแƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ” แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ– I-แƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ 8 แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒกแƒžแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ: แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฎแƒฃแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฌแƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒซแƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ” แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒก แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒกแƒžแƒแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒก แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. V แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜. แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ’ I แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒฅ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ’แƒ–แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒ“แƒแƒœ, แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ— แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ. แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒแƒขแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ–แƒ˜แƒขแƒ-แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒ–แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒœ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ - แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”, แƒฌแƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ, แƒแƒซแƒ แƒฎแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ. แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒญแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒš แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒก, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ›แƒแƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ— แƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ•แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒกแƒœแƒ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒ’., แƒซแƒ•. แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. 169 แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”. แƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜: แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ” - แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ” - แƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ, แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ - แƒœแƒ”แƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜, แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ, แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒก แƒฆแƒ•แƒ—แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ˜) แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ. แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ›แƒ™แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒซแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒชแƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ™แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒชแƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ. แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒญแƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒกแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒžแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒœแƒแƒžแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ - แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒแƒซแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ. แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒฃแƒชแƒฎแƒ (แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒš-แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ) แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒก แƒ›แƒซแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ  แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒก. แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒแƒคแƒแƒฅแƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ., แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅแƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฌแƒ’แƒœ. 1, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1963; แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ’., แƒ™แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎ. แƒฌ. II แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1957; แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฅแƒ˜แƒคแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ., แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ (แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ), แƒ—แƒ‘., 1968; แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ, แƒข. 1 - แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒ”แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ 1937-1946 แƒฌแƒฌ. แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1955; แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ”แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1959; แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ™แƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒข. 1, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1970; แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’., แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ•แƒ, ยซแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”ยป, 1942, แƒข. 13; แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ•., แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒฌแƒ’แƒœ. 1, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1965; แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒก., แƒจแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒข. 1-2, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1943-1952; แƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’., แƒฅแƒกแƒ”, แƒข. 5, แƒ’แƒ•.67-68, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1980 แƒ™แƒฃแƒžแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฐ., แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒฃ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ?, แƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ โ€žแƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜โ€œ. #003, 2007 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 11 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜" แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒซแƒ” แƒ ., แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒฐแƒงแƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ‘., 1992 แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ Roger Rosen, Jeffrey Jay Foxx. Georgia: A sovereign country of the Caucasus Thomson, Robert W. Rewriting Caucasian History (1996) Braund, David. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) Lang, David Marshall. The Georgians (London: Thames & Hudson, 1966) Toumanoff, Cyril. Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1963 Edward Gibbon, Volume II, Chapter XLII, discusses Iberia as one of the areas in the "Barbaric world" แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ แƒแƒฎ. แƒฌ. III แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ IVโ€“V แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒžแƒแƒฅแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ โ€žะŸั€ะฐะฒะพัะปะฐะฒะฝะฐั ะญะฝั†ะธะบะปะพะฟะตะดะธัโ€œ-แƒก แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒซแƒ”, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒฃแƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ 20 แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” (แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ I, แƒซแƒ•. แƒฌ. XII-แƒแƒฎ. แƒฌ. V แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) Iberia โ€“ ANCIENT KINGDOM, GEORGIA, Encyclopรฆdia Britannica CYRIL TOUMANOFF "Chronology of the Early Kings of Iberia" แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒคแƒ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasioglossum%20gilesi
Lasioglossum gilesi
Lasioglossum gilesi โ€” แƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒกแƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ˜แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœ โ€” Lasioglossum-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ 1905 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” Lasioglossum-แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ gilesi
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แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜
แƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ–แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%20%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%98
แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒš แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜
แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒš แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒแƒš แƒกแƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒšแƒแƒ• แƒแƒšแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒกแƒ™แƒ˜, (แƒ“. 29 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜, 1846, แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒฃแƒ•แƒ˜ โ€” แƒ’. 24 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜, 1919, แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜) โ€” แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜, แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ (1888). แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ 1872 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒฐแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜. 1876 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ™แƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜. 1883 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ แƒแƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒŸแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ 1895 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜. 1896-1905 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฐแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1846 แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 29 แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1919 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 24 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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แƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒคแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒšแƒ˜
แƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒคแƒฃแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒฏแƒแƒ -แƒšแƒแƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒจแƒ˜. 1993-2020 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”-แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒžแƒฃแƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ . แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ‘แƒแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrientes
Corrientes
Corrientes (Guaranรญ: Taragรผรญ, literally: "Currents") is the capital city of the province of Corrientes, Argentina, located on the eastern shore of the Paranรก River, about from Buenos Aires and from Posadas, on National Route 12. It has a population of 346,334 according to the 2010 Census. It lies opposite its twin city, Resistencia, Chaco. Corrientes has a mix of colonial and modern architecture, several churches and a number of lapacho, ceibo, jacaranda and orange trees. It is also home to one of the biggest carnival and chamamรฉ celebrations in the country. The annual average temperature is . The annual rainfall is around . Transportation Located in the Argentine Littoral, near the Argentinaโ€“Paraguay border, the General Belgrano Bridge crosses the Paranรก River which serves as the natural border with the neighbouring Chaco Province. On the other side of the bridge is Resistencia, capital of Chaco. To the west and up the Paranรก, between Paraguay and Argentina, lies the Yaciretรก dam, one of the largest hydroelectric power generators in the world. The Doctor Fernando Piragine Niveyro International Airport at coordinates , away from the city, serves the city. The Ferrocarril Econรณmico Correntino narrow gauge railway line to Mburucuyรก operated from 1912 until 1927. History Sebastian Cabot established in 1527 the Sancti Spiritu fort upstream of the Paranรก River, and in 1536 Pedro de Mendoza reached further north into the basin of the river, searching for the Sierras of Silver. Juan Torres de Vera y Aragรณn founded the city on April 3, 1588, and named it as San Juan de Vera de las Siete Corrientes ("Saint John of Vera of the Seven Currents"), which was later shortened to Corrientes. The "seven currents" refer to the seven peninsulas on the shore of the river at this place, that produced wild currents that made difficult the navigation of the river through this part. Nevertheless, its position between Asunciรณn - in present Paraguay - and Buenos Aires made it an important middle point, especially because of its 55-metre-high lands that prevent flooding when the water level rises. In 1615 Jesuits settled near the Uruguay River. In 1807 the city resisted the British invasions. During the Argentine War of Independence it was in permanent conflict with the centralist government of Buenos Aires, but the Paraguayan War united them after the city was attacked by Paraguayan forces in 1865. Climate The annual average temperature is . The annual rainfall is around . The Kรถppen climate classification subtype for this climate is Cfa (humid subtropical climate). Frosts are rare; with the dates of the first and last frost being July 5 and July 12 respectively, indicating that most of the year is frost-free. The highest temperature recorded was on September 30, 2020, and the next day, the all-time record was broken again with . The lowest temperature ever recorded was on June 15, 1979. Education National University of the Northeast University of Cuenca del Plata Sister cities Corrientes is twinned with: Encarnaciรณn, Paraguay Estepa, Spain In fiction The Graham Greene spy novel The Honorary Consul (1973) takes place in Corrientes. Gallery Sports The city's main football teams are the: Huracรกn Corrientes, Boca Unidos, and Deportivo Mandiyรบ. Notable people Josรฉ Andrรฉs Bilibio, Born in Argentina, he represented the Armenia national football team at international level. See also Barrio Esperanza References External links MCC Sights (English) Map Populated places established in 1588 Populated places in Corrientes Province Capitals of Argentine provinces Paranรก River Cities in Argentina
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XIV แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ
XIV แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒชแƒฃแƒœ แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒคแƒ”แƒš แƒœแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ’ แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ’ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒจแƒ” แƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒ–แƒ˜แƒœ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒชแƒ (แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ˜) (แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘.เฝ–เฝฆเพŸเฝ“เผ‹เฝ เฝ›เฝฒเฝ“เผ‹เฝขเพ’เพฑเผ‹เฝ˜เฝšเฝผเผ‹ แƒ•แƒแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜: bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho แƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒซแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ’แƒฒแƒแƒชแƒ) แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ 6 แƒ˜แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒก 1935 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ-แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒแƒช แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒจแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒแƒก, แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒฐแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒขแƒขแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒก, แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒชแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒš แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ—. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1937 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก, 1950 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. 1959 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ“แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒš แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก. 1989 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒš แƒขแƒแƒ’แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ 9 แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒฎแƒฃแƒ—แƒ” แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒœแƒ˜. แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ›แƒ, แƒขแƒฃแƒคแƒขแƒ”แƒœ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ›แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒฃ 8 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒขแƒแƒ™แƒชแƒ”แƒ  แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒžแƒแƒฉแƒ”แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ  แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ "แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒ - แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜": "แƒ›แƒ” แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ  แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒš แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒœ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒฆแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ›แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒฃแƒ’แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—, แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ  แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒแƒกแƒ” แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒฃแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘ แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒ•แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“." 1909 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก XIII แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒฌแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒ’แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒฌแƒแƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. 1935 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒ’แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜ 1937 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒžแƒงแƒ แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒแƒฎแƒแƒš แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ“. แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ“แƒ˜แƒฅแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒแƒ“, แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ แƒกแƒญแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ—. แƒ แƒ แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒก, แƒ—แƒฃ แƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ–แƒœแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ 1939 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒก แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒก. แƒ‘แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ 1940 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 22 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒก แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜. 6 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ— แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก: แƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ, แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒฃแƒ— แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก: แƒžแƒแƒ”แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ›แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ’ แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒžแƒแƒฉแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒฏแƒแƒœแƒ’ แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒžแƒแƒฉแƒ”. 25 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก - แƒ’แƒ”แƒจแƒ” แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ 14 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒงแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒš แƒแƒšแƒžแƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒก แƒฐแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ˜แƒฎ แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒฆแƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ’แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ "แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜". แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” 1912 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ” แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. แƒ›แƒ”แƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ›แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ–แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ. แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ™แƒแƒชแƒ  แƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒšแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒก แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒ แƒ— แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ  แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒžแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒแƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”. 1949 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”. แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒš แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ  แƒฐแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ. 1950 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒญแƒ แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜. แƒแƒ› แƒคแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ›แƒแƒงแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฅแƒ•แƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒแƒ  แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒฌแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ. แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒš แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ. 17 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก 16 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ—แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฉแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒจแƒ”แƒฃแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ. 1954 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ“แƒฃแƒœแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒแƒžแƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก. 1956 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒแƒก 2500 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ -แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒก แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒš แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ. 1959 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜, แƒšแƒแƒชแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒ”, แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒขแƒแƒซแƒแƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒชแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ 20 000 แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒœแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜. 1959 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 10 แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒก แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ แƒฃแƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒชแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒจแƒขแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฏแƒแƒœแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒแƒกแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฆแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒก. แƒแƒฏแƒแƒœแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ“ แƒฉแƒแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ˜แƒซแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• 80 000 แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒฃแƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒแƒฅ แƒ“แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ แƒšแƒฐแƒแƒกแƒแƒก แƒฃแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ. แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒจแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒš แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ -แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒก แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒš แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ— แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒแƒ•แƒจแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ 3 แƒ แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒฌแƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒชแƒ•แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฉแƒœแƒ”แƒ•แƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ› แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒšแƒขแƒแƒšแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒฃแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ. แƒแƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒชแƒแƒ— แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ  แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ— แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒแƒ‘แƒ. 1959 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ (TIPA) แƒ“แƒ แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜. แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ 200 แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜. 1963 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒคแƒฃแƒซแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒžแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒช. 1987 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒแƒจแƒจแƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ 5 แƒžแƒฃแƒœแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ’แƒ›แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ, แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒจแƒ”แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒแƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฎแƒ•แƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ–แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜. แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ 1988 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒกแƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ›แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฌแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ, แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ› แƒฃแƒแƒ แƒงแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒฃแƒ™แƒแƒœแƒแƒกแƒ™แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ 1991 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” 1991 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒฅแƒ•แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒคแƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“. 2001 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ™แƒ แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒœ แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒžแƒ (แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜). แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ› แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒแƒฆแƒแƒ  แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ—แƒฃ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’, แƒ”แƒก แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ. แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ |} แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘ แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒšแƒแƒ˜ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ˜แƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1935 1989 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒขแƒ™แƒ˜แƒชแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒจแƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW%20M4
BMW M4
BMW M4 โ€” แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒžแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ BMW-แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ . BMW-แƒ› แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ 2013 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ, แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. BMW M4 แƒแƒฆแƒญแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก 3.0 แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒชแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก 6 แƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒซแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ 425 แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ 550 แƒœแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒš แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒก 100 แƒ™แƒ›/แƒกแƒ— แƒกแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒแƒก 4.1 แƒฌแƒ›-แƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ 250 แƒ™แƒ›/แƒกแƒ—-แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”. BMW M4 GTS แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ 2015 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒจแƒ˜. BMW M4-แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ›แƒฏแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒแƒฉแƒœแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ 493 แƒชแƒฎแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒš แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒซแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒช แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒก 100 แƒ™แƒ›/แƒกแƒ—-แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒแƒฉแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒก 3.8 แƒฌแƒ›-แƒจแƒ˜. แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ“แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒ 1510 แƒ™แƒ’-แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒก. แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒฉแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒ™แƒ˜ 305 แƒ™แƒ›/แƒกแƒ—-แƒ˜แƒ. แƒกแƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ“ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ”แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ‘แƒฃแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒœแƒ’แƒ–แƒ” แƒฃแƒกแƒฌแƒ แƒแƒคแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒ แƒ”, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช 7 แƒฌแƒฃแƒ—แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ 28 แƒฌแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒคแƒแƒ แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช Ferrari 458-แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒ–แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ. BMW M4 GTS-แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ 500 แƒ”แƒ’แƒ–แƒ”แƒ›แƒžแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒ” แƒ’แƒแƒ˜แƒงแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ BMW M4 BMW-แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒขแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
5678643
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutesheim
Rutesheim
Rutesheim is a town located in the district of Bรถblingen, Baden-Wรผrttemberg, Germany. Location Rutesheim is situated directly to the Highway 8 (Bundesautobahn 8), from the town Leonberg, from the city Stuttgart and just from Stuttgart Airport and from the new exhibition center, way west from the town Heimsheim. History Rutesheim was first mentioned in the year 767 in a deed from the convent of Lorsch. The council of ministers decided on 22 January 2008, to award Rutesheim the designation town on 1 July 2008. Prime Minister Oettinger assigned the deed to the town in a ceremonial act on 26 June 2008. Population development The sources are census results (ยน) or the data of the statistical office Baden-Wรผrttemberg. Politics Mayor Since 2018 Susanne Dornes (nรฉe Widmaier) has been the mayor of the city. City council The current legislative period lasts until 2014. Distribution of seats after the election of June 2009: Partnerships Scheibbs (Niederรถsterreich), since 1972 Saalburg-Ebersdorf (Thรผringen), since 1989 Perosa Argentina (Italien), friendship treaty since October 2008 Religions There are three Evangelical churches, two New-Apostolic churches, one Evangelical Methodist church and one Roman Catholic church in Rutesheim. The town has a history with the Waldensians (Perouse). Sport The most well-known sports club from Rutesheim is SKV Rutesheim. Its first football team is playing in the seven-rated Landesliga Wรผrttemberg. References Bรถblingen (district) Wรผrttemberg
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜
แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ (แƒ“. 23 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1979, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜) โ€” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜, แƒžแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ˜. แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ 1979 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก 23 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒก. แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ›แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ›แƒชแƒแƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. 2012-2016 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ”-8 แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒกแƒแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ™แƒ˜: โ€žแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒซแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒชแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒโ€œ. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 23 แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1979 แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก VIII แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒฌแƒ˜แƒคแƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%20V%20%28%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%29
แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš V (แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜)
แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš V (แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜) แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒš V (แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ™แƒแƒชแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒœแƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ ; แƒ“. 970 โ€” แƒ’. 18 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ 999) โ€” แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜ 996โ€“999 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜. แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒแƒขแƒ III-แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒฎแƒขแƒ–แƒ”. แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒแƒž แƒ˜แƒแƒแƒœแƒ” XV-แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ 26 แƒฌแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒจแƒ˜. แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ โ€žแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒ™แƒโ€œ แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 970 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 18 แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 999 แƒ’แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
28557579
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20Day%20of%20Ukraine
Independence Day of Ukraine
Independence Day of Ukraine is a state holiday in modern Ukraine, celebrated on 24 August in commemoration of the Declaration of Independence of 1991. History When Ukraine was still a Soviet republic, the Ukrainian diaspora traditionally recognized 22 January (the Declaration of Independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918) as Ukrainian Independence day. The current form of the holiday was first celebrated on 16 July 1991, as the first anniversary of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine passed by the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's parliament) in 1990. Since the Declaration of Independence was issued on 24 August 1991, and confirmed by the referendum of 1 December 1991, the date of the holiday was changed. Traditions National Flag Day Beginning in 2004, 23 August is celebrated as National Flag Day. Parade Generally (but not every year) independence day is celebrated with a military parade held in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. In 2021, a military parade was held on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of Ukraine's Independence. Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, no military parade has taken place. However, to mark the 2023 Independence Day, destroyed Russian tanks and military vehicles were lined up in central Kyiv. Recent and historical celebrations 1997 The Chayka Aviation Parade was a large-scale aviation show dedicated to Independence Day that took place at Kyiv Chaika Airfield in 1997. It featured flypasts by personnel of the Ukrainian Air Force. The parade was attended by President of Ukraine Leonid Kuchma and Minister of Defense Oleksandr Kuzmuk. 2016 After the annual military parade in Kyiv the "March of the Unconquered" was held by active members of Ukraine's volunteer battalions, relatives of those killed during the fighting in the Russo-Ukrainian War and family members of those killed during the Euromaidan uprising โ€“ known in Ukraine as the "Heavenly Hundred". According to the Ukrainian army the volume of artillery fire set off by the separatist forces of the war in Donbas during the 24-hour period of 24 August 2016 was the highest since the February 2015 Battle of Debaltseve. Several Ukrainian cities held marches of people dressed in vyshyvanky (shirts with traditional Ukrainian embroidery). 2019 On 10 July 2019, President Volodymyr Zelenskyy announced on Facebook that the 2019 Ukrainian Independence Day celebrations will not include a military parade (for the first time since the parade's cancellation from 2010 to 2014) stating the following: "We have decided to allocate 300 mln hryvnias [nearly $12 mln] as bonus payments to our servicemen, i.e. fixed-term soldiers, cadets, sergeants, officers.โ€ Zelenskyy also mentioned that the government would take steps to "honor heroes" on Independence Day by highlighting the fact that the "format will be new". On 30 July, Zelenskyy's Head of the Presidential Administration Andriy Bohdan announced that a March of Dignity (ะœะฐั€ัˆ ะณั–ะดะฝะพัั‚ั–) will take place in replacement of the annual parade. A separate march, known as the March of Defenders (ะœะฐั€ัˆ ะทะฐั…ะธัะฝะธะบั–ะฒ) was also planned to be held by Ukrainian war veterans. The ceremony went on as planned and even incorporated elements of the annual parade such as the flag raising ceremony and the awarding of veterans. During his speech, Zelenskyy called for unity, saying "Ukrainian-speaking and Russian-speaking, regardless of age, gender, religion โ€“ we must be one people". 2020 On Independence Day in 2020, President Zelenskyy during his speech proclaimed that there would never be military equipment on parade in Kyiv as long as the war in Donbas is ongoing, during which he said that it is "Where it is needed now." Zelensky stated that military parades would be held in the future "a parade of Ukrainian victory, when we will return all our people and all our territories." The ceremony, as well as the concert that followed, was held in Mykhailivska Square in front of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, the current seat of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and thus also honored the Ukrainian medical workers and professionals who had contributed their efforts during the current COVID-19 pandemic in all of Ukraine. The joint concert of Ukrainian stars following the ceremony was marked by scandal because various artists performing in it had continued to perform and/or accept awards in Russia, despite the Ukrainian Autonomous Republic of Crimea being annexed by Russia in 2014 and the alleged support of Russia for the separatist forces of the war in Donbas. It was also condemned that this concert took place during the March of Defenders (ะœะฐั€ัˆ ะทะฐั…ะธัะฝะธะบั–ะฒ) commemorating the victims of the war in Donbas. In an English language Independence Day address, Zelenskyy launched an information campaign to restart the Ukraine NOW brand. The 2020 events served as a national kick-off to the celebrations in 2021 marking the pearl jubilee year of independence. 2021 In 2021, Ukraine celebrated the 30th anniversary of its independence with three days of events. A company from Lviv developed a special 30th Anniversary logo and a new award known as the "National Legend" was announced, to be presented in a ceremony on August 22. It was also announced that the first Summit of the Crimean Platform would take place on August 23. A number of foreign leaders were invited to the 30th anniversary celebrations, including US president Joe Biden, Greek president Katerina Sakellaropoulou, Lithuanian president Gitanas Nausฤ—da and Moldovan president Maia Sandu. On 24 August a large military parade made its way through Kyiv past Maidan Nezalezhnosti, featuring Ukrainian Ground Forces, Special Operations Forces, and visiting units from several foreign armed forces. The parade included more than 5000 troops and 400 tanks and armoured vehicles. The event also included a fly-by of Ukrainian Air Force units over Kyiv. Simultaneously, Ukrainian Navy units were shown carrying out exercises at Odesa. Visiting troops from Slovenia, Moldova, Poland, the United States of America and Canada marched with Ukrainian forces, and two British Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoons took part in the fly-by alongside four F-16 Fighting Falcons. Delegates from 46 countries attended, including Polish President Andrzej Duda, Lithuanian President Gitanas Nauseda and French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian, and Eastern Orthodox Church patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople. Immediately prior to the parade, President Zelenskyy addressed the crowd, calling for closer relationships with other ex-Soviet countries, European nations, and NATO. 2022 Independence Day in 2022 marked the sixth month since the invasion of Ukraine by Russia began. Celebration of the holiday was restricted within war-torn Ukraine under martial law, but large scale celebration of Ukraine's Independence was held internationally in support of the country. In Ukraine Ukraine's Culture Ministry confirmed there would not be any public celebration to mark the holiday. Officials warned civilians against gathering in major cities, with President Zelenskyy stating "Russia may try to do something particularly nasty, something particularly cruel." Russia would attack on the day of anniversary, shelling a civilian train in Chaplyne, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, killing 25. The Russian defense ministry claimed it had targeted a military train using a single Iskander missile, and that the attack had successfully killed 200 Ukrainian soldiers. In Kyiv, the Kyiv Independence Day Parade was cancelled for its tenth time as resources were directed to the war effort. Kyiv City Hall stated online "This year Ukraine celebrates the anniversary of independence in terms of martial law and under the threat of possible shelling. Mass events are prohibited, because the enemy is unpredictable, so we have to be prepared for any scenario.โ€ In place of a parade, numerous Russian military vehicles and artilleries destroyed by Ukrainian troops were displayed along Khreshchatyk, where Zelenskyy issued a speech commemorating the anniversary and advocating for Ukrainian victory. Several civilians further defaced the remains with graffiti condemning Russia (namely Vladimir Putin) and calling for justice for devastated cities such as the Russian-occupied Mariupol. A drone carrying a large Flag of Ukraine was also flown around the Motherland Monument. International From , President Alexander Lukashenko (an ardent supporter of Russia) acknowledged Ukraine's independence, stating "[he] wishes Ukrainians peaceful skies, tolerance, courage, strength and success in restoring a decent life." President Zelenskyy's top advisor Mykhailo Podolyak rejected the congratulatory message, calling it cynical and disingenuous given Belarus' heavy involvement in the attacks of Ukraine, and that "this blood-soaked clowning is recorded and will have consequences." In , supporters and refugees of Ukraine gathered in the capital of Brussels, host to around 30% of the country's estimated 78,000 Ukrainian refugees. At the Grand-Place, the Manneken Pis was dressed in "traditional Kozak costume" and a large Flag of Ukraine was unfurled. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen attended wearing Ukrainian colors. In the , hundreds of people gathered in Prague at the Wenceslas Square (New Town), and Old Town Square (Old Town). In addition to support of Ukraine and its Azov Regiment, the demonstration saw extensive anti-Russian sentiment, with signings being made for a petition calling on the parliament of the Czech Republic to declare Russia a terrorist state. Similar demonstrations were also held in Brno's Moravian and Jakubske Squares. In , a parade was held in Athens. The Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement to reaffirm Greece's solidarity with Ukraine, whose sovereignty and independence is recognized. In , a parade was held in Berlin, where a candlelight vigil was set up in front of the Brandenburg Gate. Chancellor Olaf Scholz assured support, stating that Germany "stands firmly by the side of the threatened Ukraine today and for as long as Ukraine needs our support," and rebuked the Kremlin for its "backward imperialism." In , a protest of 3,000 people against Putin and Russian violence was held in Dublin, marching 5 km from the General Post Office to the Ukrainian embassy. Ukrainian ambassador to Ireland was in attendance. Other events were held across the country. In , Rome's Ukrainian community participated in a "march for freedom" through the city center that passed the Colosseum. Prime Minister Mario Draghi gave congratulations and continued offers of support to Ukraine. In , demonstrations were held in Valletta and Floriana. Prime Minister Robert Abela tweeted that "[Malta's] will to stay united and restore peace in Ukraine remains strong." In , thousands of Polish citizens and Ukrainian refugees gathered in the city centers of Warsaw and Krakรณw in celebration and support. The Palace of Culture and Science was illuminated in Ukrainian blue and yellow. Warsaw's mayor Rafaล‚ Trzaskowski assured that "Poland is with [Ukraine], Warsaw is with [Ukraine]!" President Andrzej Duda also gave his support to Ukraine, recalling Poland as the first country in the world to have recognized Ukraine's independence. In , a ceremony was held in Lisbon celebrating Ukraine's Independence Day, set around the city's statue of Taras Shevchenko. Portuguese Minister of Foreign Affairs Joรฃo Gomes Cravinho visited the Ukrainian Minister of Foreign Affairs Dmytro Kuleba in Kyiv to further show Portugal's support. In , a demonstration in Istanbul was held with performance of the State Anthem of Ukraine. Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu congratulated the country over Twitter on its independence from the Soviet Union. Turkish National Defense Minister Hulusi Akar promised Tรผrkiye's continued support to Ukrainian Defence Minister Oleksii Reznikov and Infrastructure Minister Oleksandr Kubrakov. Within the , Independence Day saw a significant celebration from the estimated 100,000 Ukrainian refugees in the kingdom, and parades in support of Ukraine and protests condemning Russia were both held. In , a dedicated service was held at the York Minster in York. In London, a demonstration against the Russian invasion was held outside Downing Street. Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office Larry was pictured in front of 10 Downing Street decorated with blue and yellow flowers (including sunflowers, one of Ukraine's floral emblems). In , hundreds in Edinburgh took part in a march on Calton Hill from the Volodomyr Velacky monument to the Holodomor plaque. Ukrainian Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Vadym Prystaiko, and his wife, Inna Prystaiko, were among the participants. According to the British Embassy Kyiv, Queen Elizabeth II congratulated Ukrainians, stating "I hope that today will be a time for the Ukrainian people, both in Ukraine and around the world, to celebrate their culture, history, and identity." Prime Minister Boris Johnson also expressed that "[Ukraine] will win" and has the United Kingdom's support. The Ministry of Defence tweeted a video of the Band of the Scots Guards performing "Stefania". In the , a massive Flag of Ukraine (reportedly the world's largest) was unfurled in New York City, held by hundreds of supporters in Central Park's Sheep Meadow. President Joe Biden called the 31st anniversary's coincidence with the half-year mark of the war "bittersweet", and pledged approximately $2.98 billion USD in military aid to Ukraine's forces. Congratulations were issued by other U.S. politicians including Secretary of State Antony Blinken, NYC Mayor Eric Adams, and Massachusetts Representative Paul Tucker. Preceding Independence Day, the U.S. Embassy in Ukraine issued warnings from the United States Department of State that Russia would most likely increase attacks on civilians and infrastructure. Notes References External links About Independence Day in Ukraine August observances Culture of Ukraine Ukraine 1992 establishments in Ukraine Public holidays in Ukraine Ukrainian independence movement Summer events in Ukraine Recurring events established in 1992
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Makriali Church
Makriali Church The Makriali Church was an Orthodox Church located in KemalpaลŸa, Hopa, Artvin Province of Turkey, on the border with Georgia. A royal wedding took place in the church in June 1367 between King Bagrat V of Georgia and Anna of Trebizond. Baedeker's Russia for 1914 mentions the interesting ruins of the old church of Makriali and a traveler of 1969 mentions "a deserted church on the open and low-lying ground to the left of the road... a little way to the north of and 4km from the present Soviet-Turkish border at Sarp..." References Georgian Orthodox churches in Turkey Buildings and structures in Artvin Province
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แƒžแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒŸแƒ”
แƒžแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒŸแƒ” (แƒ“. 16 แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1620, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ โ€“ แƒ’. 2 แƒ“แƒ”แƒ™แƒ”แƒ›แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, 1694, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜) โ€” แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”, แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜. แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒฃแƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ—แƒšแƒ”แƒš แƒแƒกแƒขแƒแƒขแƒ—แƒแƒœ. 1640-43 แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒซแƒ˜แƒ แƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ”แƒชแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ”แƒขแƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒœแƒแƒก แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ›แƒซแƒฆแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒŸแƒ”แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒแƒขแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒœ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ  แƒคแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒก, แƒ“แƒแƒซแƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒซแƒแƒคแƒ  แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒ›แƒก (แƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ˜แƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒขแƒšแƒแƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, โ€žแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฐแƒ”แƒ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜โ€œ, 1660-61). แƒžแƒ˜แƒฃแƒŸแƒ”แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒฌแƒ”แƒ แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ  แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒแƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ (แƒ’แƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒœแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ), แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒ˜แƒ— (โ€žแƒฅแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ”, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒงแƒแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜โ€œ, 1665, แƒšแƒแƒœแƒจแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฃแƒ–แƒ”แƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜). แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒฃแƒจแƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒ˜ (1660-แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ” แƒฌแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ). แƒšแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ™แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒขแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒฅแƒ˜แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1620 แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ“แƒแƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ 1694
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แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜
แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ (แƒ“. 23 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, 1955) โ€” แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ 40 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒชแƒแƒ•แƒก. แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ•แƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช โ€žแƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜โ€œ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก AACTA-แƒก แƒ แƒ•แƒ, แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ BAFTA-แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒกแƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒชแƒ˜แƒ. แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒ  แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ“แƒแƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ 1977 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒฃแƒขแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒ•แƒ” แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ’แƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— โ€žHigh Rollingโ€œ. 1979 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒš แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ โ€žแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒขแƒโ€œ. แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒžแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— โ€žแƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ‘แƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒœแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒโ€œ (1979), แƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒชแƒ BAFTA-แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ: โ€žแƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜โ€œ (1981), โ€žแƒฐแƒฃแƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒ˜โ€œ (1984), โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜โ€œ (1984) แƒ“แƒ โ€žแƒฅแƒ›แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ (1992). แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ: โ€žWho Dares Winsโ€œ (1982), โ€žแƒžแƒแƒžแƒแƒœแƒแƒฅแƒ”แƒ‘แƒโ€œ (1983), โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒแƒšแƒฆแƒโ€œ (1987), โ€žแƒฏแƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒโ€œ (1988), โ€žแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜โ€œ (1990), โ€žแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒขแƒ˜โ€œ (1991), โ€žแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒœ แƒคแƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒ˜โ€œ (1991), โ€žแƒ›แƒฃแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒกแƒ˜แƒกแƒฎแƒšแƒ˜โ€œ (1993), โ€žแƒแƒ‘แƒกแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒแƒฃแƒคแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒโ€œ (1997), โ€žแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ— แƒฐแƒแƒ แƒ˜โ€œ (1997), โ€žแƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜โ€œ, โ€žแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฆแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒก แƒฃแƒฉแƒ˜แƒแƒ“แƒโ€œ (2001), โ€žแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒฌแƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ“โ€œ (2006), โ€žแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒœแƒขแƒฃแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒ˜โ€œ (2006), โ€žแƒจแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ—แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ˜โ€œ (2011), โ€žแƒกแƒ˜แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ— แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜โ€œ (2012), โ€žแƒข.แƒก. แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ โ€” แƒแƒฎแƒแƒšแƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒกแƒ˜โ€œ (2013) แƒ“แƒ โ€žแƒ›แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜โ€œ (2015). แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒแƒฌแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ—แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒชแƒแƒ โ€žแƒ˜แƒงแƒฃแƒฉแƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ”: แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒข แƒ™แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒโ€œ, โ€žแƒชแƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒšแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“: แƒ›แƒ” แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜โ€œ, โ€žแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ” แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒจโ€œ, โ€žแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ“แƒโ€œ, โ€žแƒ แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜โ€œ, โ€žแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ–แƒแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒโ€œ, โ€žแƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒ“แƒฃแƒ›แƒšแƒ แƒ’แƒ–แƒโ€œ, โ€žแƒ›แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ: แƒ‘แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒแƒœแƒ˜โ€œ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ. แƒคแƒ˜แƒšแƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒ แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒ”แƒขแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒฃแƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ”แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ โ€” โ€žThe Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in the Twentieth Centuryโ€œ แƒกแƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 1955 แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ 23 แƒแƒžแƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ XXI แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ”แƒแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒ”แƒŸแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ BAFTA-แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒก แƒ’แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒฃแƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒ‘แƒ—แƒ แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ˜แƒ›แƒขแƒแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ AACTA Award-แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒคแƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒœแƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒขแƒฃแƒขแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ แƒกแƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutuzovskaya%20%28Filyovskaya%20line%29
Kutuzovskaya (Filyovskaya line)
Kutuzovskaya (Filyovskaya line) Kutuzovskaya is a Moscow Metro station. It was completed in 1958 as the first westward extension of the newly created Filyovskaya line, which also included the reopening of four older stations which had been closed since 1953. Kutuzovskaya was the first permanent grade-level Metro station, part of a cost-cutting experiment which was ultimately doomed by Moscow's harsh climate. Kutuzovskaya's side platforms and curving layout are both unusual features. A large percentage of both platforms is covered by Kutuzovskiy Prospekt, an avenue which crosses over the station midway along its length. Entrance vestibules on either side of the overpass allow passengers to change platforms. Kutuzovskaya was designed by Yuriy Zenkevich and Robert Pogrebnoi. External links metro.ru mymetro.ru KartaMetro.info โ€” Station location and exits on Moscow map (English/Russian) Moscow Metro stations Railway stations in Russia opened in 1958 Filyovskaya Line
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜
แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒก แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ—แƒแƒ’แƒแƒœ: แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ (แƒซแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ“แƒ) แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ (แƒซแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ“แƒ) แƒ—แƒ”แƒ›แƒฃแƒ  แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฆแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒ˜, แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒœแƒแƒ“แƒแƒ  แƒฅแƒ”แƒ•แƒฎแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ โ€” แƒกแƒžแƒแƒ แƒขแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ (แƒ›แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒ•แƒญแƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜) แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜