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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Korean%20won
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North Korean won
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North Korean won
The Korean People's won, more commonly known as the North Korean won (Symbol: โฉ; Code: KPW; ) and sometimes known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea won, is the official currency of North Korea. It is subdivided into 100 chon. The currency is issued by the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, based in the North Korean capital city of Pyongyang.
Etymology
Won is a cognate of the Chinese yuan and Japanese yen. All three names derive from the Hanja , which means "round shape". The won is subdivided into 100 chon (McCune-Reischauer: chลn; Revised Romanization: jeon).
History
1947โ2009
After the division of Korea, North Korea continued using the Korean yen for two years, until the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established on 6 December 1947 and the first North Korean won was issued. In February 1959, the second North Korean won was introduced, equal to 100 old won.
From 1978 on, the North Korean government maintained an iconic rate of 2.16 won to the US dollar (which is said to have been based upon Kim Jong Il's birthday, 16 February).
Over the decades, however, rampant inflation eroded the currency's value, and from 2001 the government abandoned the rate in favor of those closer to the black market's. A report by defectors from North Korea claimed the black market rate was โฉ570 to the Chinese yuan (about โฉ4,000 per U.S. dollar) in June 2009.
2009 revaluation
The third North Korean won was introduced in a revaluation , the first in 50 years. North Koreans were given seven days to exchange a maximum of โฉ100,000 (worth approximately US$40 on the black market) in โฉ1,000 notes for โฉ10 notes, but after protests by some of the populace, the limit was raised to โฉ150,000 in cash and โฉ300,000 in bank savings. The official exchange rate at this time was around $740, but black market value of the โฉ150,000 was estimated to be near $30. The revaluation, seen as a move against private market activity, wiped out many North Koreans' savings. The Times speculated that the move may have been an attempt by the North Korean government to control price inflation and destroy the fortunes of local black market money traders. The announcement was made to foreign embassies but not in North Korean state media.
As part of the process, the old notes ceased to be legal tender on 30 November 2009, but notes valued in the new won were not distributed until 7 December 2009. North Koreans were thus unable to exchange any money for goods or services for a week, and most shops, restaurants and transport services were shut down. The only services that remained open were those catering to the political elite and foreigners who both continued to trade exclusively in foreign currency. The measure led to concerns amongst North Korean officials that the move would result in civil unrest. China's Xinhua news agency described North Korean citizens as being in a "collective panic"; army bases were put on alert and there were unconfirmed reports of public protests in the streets in a handful of North Korean cities and towns, forcing authorities to slightly increase the amount of currency people were allowed to exchange. Piles of old bills were also set on fire in separate locations across the country, old paper notes were dumped in a stream (against laws of the desecration of images of Kim Il Sung), and two black market traders were shot dead in the streets of Pyongsong by local police, according to international reports. Authorities threatened "merciless punishment" for any person violating the rules of the currency change.
Pictures of the new notes were published on 4 December 2009 in the Chosun Shinbo, a North Korean newspaper based in Japan. The paper claimed that the measure would weaken the free market and strengthen the country's socialist system. However, the won plummeted 96 percent against the U.S. dollar in the ensuing days after revaluation. Authorities eventually raised the limit to 500,000 won, Chosun reported, and promised no probes into savings of up to one million won, and unlimited withdrawals if savings of more than one million were properly accounted for.
In February 2010, some of the curbs on the free market were eased, and a senior party official was sacked after incidents of unrest. Pak Nam-gi, the director of the Planning and Finance Department of North Korea's ruling Workers' Party, was executed later in 2010. North Korea denied any serious crisis relating to the revaluation.
Coins
First Won
No coins were issued under the first won of 1947โ1959.
Second Won
The first North Korean coins for circulation were minted in 1959 in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 chon. These coins were often restruck with the original dates in later years; however, 1970 and 1974 dates also appear on the 1 and 5 chon. In 1978, 50 chon coins featuring the Chollima Statue and a rising sun were introduced into circulation during the 1979 currency reform to allow greater flexibility for vendors by eliminating the 50 chon banknote and large amounts of "small change" coinage carried. In 1987, 1 won coins featuring the Grand People's Study House were introduced, but did not fully replace the 1 won note which remained legal tender.
When the historic 2.16 peg to the dollar was abandoned in 2001 to allow for greater convertibility the coins began to lose value. After 2003, these coins were rarely seen in circulation but were still redeemable. Later, a new set of coins was introduced in 2005 in denominations of 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. These coins were less impressive compared to the older series, being very plain and generic in design. All circulation coins of the Second Won were struck in aluminum.
Following other socialist economies like Cuba and China, North Korea developed a special system of marking coins for two groups of foreign visitors. Issued in 1983, these coins were part of the "Pakkundon" convertible series. Coins with no "stars" were for general circulation in North Korea, coins marked with one star were for "socialist visitors", and coins marked with two stars were designated for "capitalist visitors". A fourth set, intended for collectors rather than circulation, was struck with the word "specimen" or "example" in Korean characters in the areas where the stars would be. The specimen/example set is the least common of the four. Besides the general circulating coins, there is an abundance of different commemorative coins minted in the name of the DPRK. Most, if not all of them, are sold to foreign numismatists. Some of these are official, state approved coins, others are not.
Third Won
Coins were issued in 10, 50 chon and 1 won denominations in 2002, and 1 and 5 chon denominations in 2008. All denominations are struck in aluminum. These coins feature the national coat of arms on the obverse and flowers, particularly the Kimjongilia and the Kimilsungia, on the reverse of the 10 and 50 chon coins. A magnolia adorns the 1 won coin.
Initially struck in 2002, the coins were intended for use shortly after the dollar peg was removed from the currency. The 50 chon and 1 won coins were smaller than the previous designs, while the new 10 chon coin was the same size as the old. Hyperinflation became a very sudden reality, however, and the new coins were never released as planned. In 2008, 1 and 5 chon coins were also struck when a plan for monetary revaluation began. The coins were finally released into circulation in December 2009, but due to the flawed nature of the revaluation, these coins again have very little value, the 1 and 5 chon coins in particular being virtually irrelevant.
Banknotes
The first banknotes of "North Korea" were issued in 1945 by the Soviet-backed provisional government above the 38th parallel. These were in denominations of 1, 5, 10, and 100 won. These were discontinued shortly after Soviet forces withdrew and recognized the newly independent state.
First Won
This currency was issued in all-banknote form, with the first banknotes of this issue in denominations of 15, 20, and 50 chon along with 1, 5, 10 and 100 won in 1947. The chon notes had stylized art designs, while the won denominations were fairly uniform in design, featuring a farmer and a worker standing together and holding the symbolic tools. This currency was later revalued in 1959 at a rate of one new won to 100 old won to curb the inflation that had occurred as a result of the Korean War.
Second Won
In 1959, the old won was replaced with the Second Won, with price and exchange rates fixed to the U.S. dollar. This banknote series was issued in denominations of 50 chon, and 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. These notes were much larger than the previous issue and depicted images representing various industries in the North Korean economy.
In 1979, the currency was again reformed, and a new banknote series was issued in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. There is ongoing speculation as to why this move was made. All 1959 banknotes were removed from circulation. Circulating coins, however, were not affected by this change. The designs for this issue were much more symbolic and charismatic than previous ones, with Kim Il Sung featuring for the first time on the 100 won note.
In 1992, another redesign was carried out for banknotes, again in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won. Older notes were once again withdrawn. These notes were smaller and crisper than the previous issue and depicted more modern themes. The 5 and 10 won banknotes were again issued in 1998, along with a 500 won banknote that same year but were stamped rather than engraved reflecting poorer production quality. In 2002, 1,000 and 5,000 won notes were introduced, followed by a 200 won note in 2005. The former two were identical in design to the 100 won though differing in colors and added security features, but the colored fields behind the text no longer extended all the way to the margins. In 2007, the 500 won had also been revised in this same manner along with being engraved for the first time to protect against counterfeiting. From 1998 onwards, all notes were dated using the Juche year (Juche year) along with the standard dating.
In 2005, the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea issued commemorative 200, 500, 1000 and 5000 won notes to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the foundation of North Korea. It consists of an overprint on its regular issue notes.
In 2007, a commemorative version of this banknote series was released, stamped "Great Leader Comrade Kim Il Sung's 95th Birthday" on all denominations.
Banknotes in circulation for the second won, up to December 2009, were as follows:
Third won
In 2009, was initiated to tackle hyperinflation and black market activities. Unlike previous reforms, the 2009 move sparked a nationwide panic when it was announced there would be a two-week waiting period between the withdrawal of the old currency and the introduction of the new currency, coupled with an exchange limit of only 500,000 old won for each person, effectively wiping out savings. The state eventually pulled back on most exchange limits; however, the revaluation proved to be a failure.
Like the coins for this series, some of the denominations were initially printed in 2002 but were never released into circulation, pointing to a planned monetary revaluation much earlier than 2009 that was never carried out.
The current series of banknotes of the third won are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 5,000 won. Kim Il Sung is depicted only on the obverse of the highest denomination, with the 100 won note featuring the Magnolia (National Flower) and other notes depicting North Koreans of different professions and various monuments in North Korea. The exchange rate was 100 second won to 1 third won.
Unlike all previous series, these notes were all uniform in dimensions rather than staggered in size from smallest to largest. There are rumors that the original designs for the 1,000 and 2,000 won notes depicted Kim Il Sung and had similar design features to the 5,000 won that were scrapped and destroyed due to counterfeiters or thieves breaking into a bank warehouse and stealing early notes or printing materials, resulting in a total redesign of the two denominations in question.
In 2012, another commemorative series of banknotes was released, this time in the 2002โ2009 series but similarly stamped "Great Leader Comrade Kim Il Sung's 100th Birthday". Once again this stamp appeared on all denominations.
In 2018, 1,000 and 2,000 won notes were released with an overprint referencing the 70th Anniversary of its independence.
On 25 July 2014, a new 5,000 won note dated 2013 was released into circulation. Instead of depicting the portrait of North Korea's founder Kim Il Sung, the note depicts an image of his birthplace in Mangyondae and on the back the International Friendship Exhibition in Myohyangsan that displays gifts he and his son Kim Jong Il received from foreign leaders. There has been ongoing speculation that this could indicate plans for higher denominations to be released later which would depict Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il, or possibly both. However the official reason behind the change was to combat counterfeiters.
Donpyo emergency currency
Lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic have caused shortages in ink and paper used to print regular KPW banknotes, resulting in the issuance in the second half of 2021 of an emergency currency printed with the word "donpyo" (๋ํ or "money coupon"). It is denominated 5,000 won and printed in red ink on white paper of poor quality.
Shortages in regular KPW banknotes after 2020 have also resulted in a premium in their exchange values in the black markets. The donpyo is discounted versus regular banknotes at only 3,800-4,000 KPW, and KPW banknotes have even appreciated versus the US dollar from 8,000 KPW to 5,200 KPW/USD.
Exchange rates
The North Korean won is not traded in the international markets. It is traded in the unofficial black markets at around US$1 = 8,000 KPW as of 2019 and around $1 = 5,000 KPW as of 2021.
Concurrent use with foreign currencies
Before 2009
North Korean won are intended exclusively for North Korean citizens, and the Bank of Trade (๋ฌด์ญ์ํ) issued a separate currency (or foreign exchange certificates) for visitors, like many other socialist states. However, North Korea made two varieties of foreign exchange certificates, one for visitors from "socialist countries" which were colored red and hence nicknamed "red won", and the other for visitors from "capitalist countries" which were colored blue/green and hence known as "blue won".
For the 1978 banknote series, foreign certificates, called "Pakkundon", meaning "exchangeable money" were implemented by an overstamp and serial number color. This was intended to protect the value of the national currency in North Korea's command economy. These were first released in 1983 in two forms, one for "socialist visitors" which had a red stamp, and one for "capitalist visitors" which had a green stamp. Another series was released in 1986 with either a blue or red Guillochรฉ style stamp. These were issued in all denominations, except for the โฉ100 note, presumably because it was assumed by the government that foreign visitors to North Korea would not show proper respect for its depiction of Kim Il Sung. These notes were discontinued in 1988 and replaced with a new series of Pakkundon in all banknote form that was more distinguishable and unmistakable from generic circulation currency.
In 1988, the Bank of Trade (๋ฌด์ญ์ํ) (as opposed to the Central Bank) issued two unique series of foreign certificates. They both included 1 chon, 5 chon, 10 chon, 50 chon, โฉ1, โฉ5, โฉ10, and โฉ50. The series for "capitalist visitors" was blue-green, while the series for "socialist visitors" was pink. The chon notes had a simple design of patterns and corresponding values, while the socialist won notes depict the International Friendship Exhibition, and the capitalist won notes depict the Chollima Statue.
FECs were used until 1999, then officially abolished in 2002, in favor of visitors paying directly with hard currencies.
Since 2009
After the 2009 revaluation, the BBC reported that in some department stores in Pyongyang, the North Korean won is not accepted; the stores only take Japanese yen and U.S. dollars. As of 2018 it has evolved to most North Korean stores accepting U.S. dollars, euros and Chinese yuan/renminbi, with change from transactions primarily returned in renminbi or U.S. dollars.
Foreign visitors (and privileged locals) can buy goods priced in 'tied' won using a local debit card, which is credited when exchanging foreign currency at the official bank rate of around 104 won/USD or 130 won/EUR (as of 2012). This card can be used for instance at the famous Pyongyang Department Store No. 1 or at the different stores at the international hotels, where the goods are priced at the tied won rate. This tied won does not exist in the form of bank notes, and is effectively a separate currency and accounting unit for sales involving foreign exchange.
In normal stores and markets goods are priced in what has been called the 'untied' won or free market rate which is represented by regular KPW banknotes. At for instance the Tongil Market and the Kwangbok Department Store (a.k.a. the Chinese Market) there are semi-official exchange agents who will give in regular banknotes around 8,000 KPW/USD or 10,000 KPW/EUR to locals and foreign visitors alike (as of 2012, or 77 times the tied or official rate). The untied KPW is used for prices in normal shops outside restricted state shops/tied won shops.
See also
Economy of North Korea
South Korean won
References
External links
Currencies of North Korea
Currencies introduced in 1947
1947 establishments in North Korea
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D
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แแฃแกแฃแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แ แฃแกแแแจแ, แแแจแแแ แแแจแ, แแแแแฃแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแจแแก แกแแคแกแแแญแแก. แ แแแแแฃแ แชแแแขแ แแแแแฃแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแแ 19 แแแแแแแขแ แจแ, แกแแคแกแแแญแแก แชแแแขแ แแกแแแแแแแจแแแแ 3 แแแแแแแขแ แจแ, แฎแแแ แฃแแฎแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแฃแ แแแแแฃแแแแแ 19 แแแแแแแขแ แจแ. 2010 แฌแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แกแแคแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ 183 แแแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แแแจแแแ แแแ แจแแแแแแแแ.
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Got to Be There (แกแแแฆแแ แ)
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Got to Be There (แกแแแฆแแ แ)
Got to Be There โ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแ แแแแแ แฏแแฅแกแแแแก แกแแแฆแแ แ. แจแแขแแแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแจแ Got to Be There. แแแแฆแแ แแแก แกแแแแแแฃแขแ แกแแแ-แกแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแ 1971 แฌแแแก แแแแแแชแ.
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9567053
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sretensky%20Bulvar
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Sretensky Bulvar
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Sretensky Bulvar is a Moscow Metro station in the Meshchansky District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow. It is located on the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line, between and stations.
Sretensky Bulvar opened on 29 December 2007 after more than 25 years since groundbreaking.
History
The construction, which began in the late 1980s, has frequently stalled as a result of continuous lack of funds. Only in 2004 did proper funding resume, which allowed finishing the construction.
The station opening had been long-awaited, as it is an interchange: Chistye Prudy of the Sokolnicheskaya Line and Turgenevskaya of the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line. The projected passenger dynamics for the station are 10,800 per hour on entry and 20,100 on exit, which allows for a dramatic occupancy decrease on the Koltsevaya Line, particularly on the Komsomolskaya โ Kurskaya path.
Design
The station, designed by architects N. Shumakov and G. Mun, features a standard Lyublinskaya pylon-trivault design with the base set as a monolith concrete plate. White fibreglass is used on the vaults of the central (9.5-metre (31.17 foot) diameter) and the platform halls as well as the escalator and transfer corridor ceilings, which also doubles the hydroisolation. Initially it was thought that the station's main decorative feature would include a set of bronze and rock sculptures in the niches of all 30 pylons. Made by leading Russian sculptors, they would stand on granite pedestals with luminescent lamps lighting down on top of them. However, recently it has emerged that this would be too costly, and hence the pylon design was altered to now include a set of metallic artworks on themes of the Boulevard Ring. White marble covers the floors, whilst flooring are done with granite.
There are two escalator tunnels leading from both ends of the station: one directly to Chistye Prudy station, and the other to a combined transfer to Turgenevskaya as well as a diversion to a second escalator tunnel to the surface. The combined vestibule will be located underground the Turgenevskaya Square at the beginning of Academician Sakharov Avenue and next to the Sretensky Boulevard for which the station is named. In an effort to conserve the spendings and time, the vestibule and the escalator tunnel to the surface will open later.
References
Moscow Metro stations
Railway stations in Russia opened in 2007
Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line
Railway stations located underground in Russia
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6890709
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dig%20It%20%28Klaus%20Schulze%20album%29
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Dig It (Klaus Schulze album)
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Dig It (Klaus Schulze album)
Dig It is the thirteenth album by Klaus Schulze. It was originally released in 1980, and in 2005 was the sixth Schulze album reissued by Revisited Records. It is Schulze's first fully digital recording. The 2005 reissue includes a bonus DVD with the video recording of the 1980 performance at Ars Electronica, which was previously released as audio on The Ultimate Edition (2000).
The opening track, "Death of an Analogue", would later find use as the main theme to the 1982 Australian horror film Next of Kin, starring Jacki Kerin and John Jarratt.
Track listing
All tracks composed by Klaus Schulze.
Disc 1 (CD)
Disc 2 (DVD)
Personnel
Klaus Schulze โ synthesizer, guitar, drums, keyboards, vocals, engineer, computers
Fred Severloh โ drums
References
External links
Dig It at the official site of Klaus Schulze
Klaus Schulze albums
1980 albums
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4-%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90-%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98
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แแแค-แงแแ แ-แแแแฉแ
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แแแค-แงแแ แ-แแแแฉแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแแแฅแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
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41538810
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates%20Motel%20%28season%201%29
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Bates Motel (season 1)
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Bates Motel (season 1)
The first season of Bates Motel aired from March 18-May 20, 2013. The season consisted of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 10 p.m. ET/PT on A&E. The series is described as a "contemporary prequel" to the 1960 film Psycho and follows the life of Norman Bates and his mother Norma prior to the events portrayed in the Hitchcock film. The series takes place in the fictional town of White Pine Bay, Oregon.
The season received positive reviews from television critics. In its premiere episode, the series broke rating records for an original drama series on A&E, drawing in a total of 3.04 million viewers. Bates Motel was renewed for a second season after three episodes of the first season had aired. Vera Farmiga received particular praise for her performance as Norma Louise Bates, she won the 2013 Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television, and was nominated for the 2013 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, the 2013 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series, and the 2013 TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama. The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 17, 2013.
Cast and characters
Main
Vera Farmiga as Norma Louise Bates
Freddie Highmore as Norman Bates
Max Thieriot as Dylan Massett
Olivia Cooke as Emma Decody
Nicola Peltz as Bradley Martin
Recurring
Nestor Carbonell as Sheriff Alex Romero
Mike Vogel as Deputy Zack Shelby
Keegan Connor Tracy as Miss Blair Watson
Brittney Wilson as Lissa
Jere Burns as Jake Abernathy
Diana Bang as Jiao
Vincent Gale as Gil Turner
Richard Harmon as Richard Sylmore
Ian Tracey as Remo Wallace
Terry Chen as Ethan Chang
Ian Hart as Will Decody
Hiro Kanagawa as Dr. Fumhiro Kurata
David Cubitt as Sam Bates
Keenan Tracey as Gunner
Aliyah O'Brien as Regina
Guest
W. Earl Brown as Keith Summers
Lara Gilchrist as Rebecca Craig
Ben Cotton as Danny
Production
Casting
A&E gave Bates Motel a straight-to-series order in July 2012. Vera Farmiga was the first to be cast, as protagonist Norma Louise Bates in August. Shortly after, Freddie Highmore was cast as Norman Bates in September. The same month, Max Thieriot was cast as Norman's half brother, Dylan Massett. Nicola Peltz was cast as Bradley Martin. Olivia Cooke was the final main cast member to join the series, portraying Emma Decody.
Filming
A replica of the original Bates Motel set from the film Psycho was built on location in Aldergrove, British Columbia on 272nd Street, where the series is filmed. Production also took place in Greater Vancouver, and Richmond, British Columbia. Principal photography for the first season began on October 1, 2012. Though filming for the first season was expected to wrap on January 24, 2013, production continued into early February.
Episodes
Reception
Critical response
The first season of Bates Motel received mostly positive reviews. It received 66 out of 100 from Metacritic, based on 34 critical responses, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rotten Tomatoes aggregated that 81% of 37 television critics gave the series a positive review. The site's consensus reads, "Bates Motel utilizes mind manipulation and suspenseful fear tactics, on top of consistently sharp character work and wonderfully uncomfortable familial relationships". A&E renewed the series for a second season following the positive reviews and good ratings after the first three episodes.
Ratings
On its premiere night, the series broke rating records for an original drama series on A&E. It drew in a strong 3.04 million viewers total, including 1.6 million viewers watching it in the 18-49 demographic. The season finale episode drew in a total of 2.70 million viewers, with a 1.2 ratings share in the 18โ49 demo. Overall, the first season averaged 2.70 million viewers, with 1.5 million tuning in from both the 18โ49 and 25โ54 demographics.
Awards and nominations
In its first season, Bates Motel was nominated for 24 awards, winning one.
References
External links
2013 American television seasons
Season 1
Murder in television
Patricide in fiction
Rape in television
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แแ แแขแ (แแแ แแแแ)
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แแ แแขแ (แแแ แแแแ)
แแ แแขแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแ แแแแแก แจแขแแขแจแ; แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 577 แแแขแ แแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแก. แจแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ -แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแ แแ แ-แแกแแแแแขแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 3 854 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 20.07 แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 192 011 แแยฒ-แแ.
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แแแ แแแแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แจแขแแขแแแ
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แแ แแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ, 2010 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแ แแแแแก แจแขแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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57132905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity%20Church%20in%20the%20Kremlin
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Nativity Church in the Kremlin
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Nativity Church in the Kremlin
The Church of the Nativity of the Theotokos "na Senyakh" is the oldest surviving building in the Moscow Kremlin and the city of Moscow. It has been part of the Grand Kremlin Palace since the mid-19th century. The church cannot be visited. Only the underground floor of the Annunciation Cathedral goes back to the same period of the Middle Ages as this church.
The church was built in 1393 or 1394 by Princess Eudoxia of Moscow, the widow of Dmitry Donskoy. It adjoined the hall (seni) of the royal palace, hence its name "at the hall" (na senyakh).
N.N. Voronin believed that the temple was laid in memory of the Battle of Kulikovo, as it is dedicated to the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which coincided with the date of the Battle of Kulikovo in the church calendar. However, S.V. Zagraevsky showed that there was a low probability of building a church on the 13th ("unhappy") anniversary of the battle.
The church took the place of the wooden church of the Resurrection of Lazarus and was located at the part of the princely palace reserved for women as a house church of the Grand Princess.
The church of 1393-1394 was preserved to half the height of the walls (before the choir ) with the main portal and part of the windows. It was a four-pillared three-pagan church built of white stone. Round in plan, the western pillars carry a vaulted overlapping chorus. The architecture of the church combines the features of Vladimir-Suzdal (round pillars, framing of the portal, scapula) and early Moscow (the keeled end of the portal and niches, windows-rosettes) of architectural schools. In 1395 the church was painted by Theophanes and Symeon Black with his disciples ..
In 1479, probably because of a fire, the top of the building collapsed, but soon the church was rebuilt. In 1514-1518 the architect Aloisio the New (Aleviz) rebuilt the church at the level of the residential tier of the palace in a new volume, which housed the main throne of the Nativity of the Virgin. The architect preserved the lower part of the ancient church as a podlet in which the chapel of Lazar was built, previously, apparently, located in the altar.
We can judge the appearance of the Aleviz church only from the blueprint "Kremlenagrad" of the early 1600s, where it is shown with three-headed, with three apses and two aisles (probably not before the second half of the 16th century).
Under Tsar Feodor Alekseevich in the years 1681-1684. the building was rebuilt and turned into a one-domed church with a rectangular altar and a refectory on the west side. The Saint Lazare chapel at the same time was abolished. In the XVIII century. The podlet turned into a storage room. At the beginning of the construction of the Great Kremlin Palace, the upper part was again rebuilt, and in the ancient podlet the special church of the Resurrection of Lazarus was again constructed.
Notes
Bibliography
ะะพัะพะฝะธะฝ ะ. ะ. ะะพะดัะตััะฒะพ ะกะตะฒะตัะพ-ะะพััะพัะฝะพะน ะ ััะธ XIIโXV ะฒะฒ. ะ., 1961โ1962. ะข. 2. ะก. 253โ262.
ะะฐะผััะฝะธะบะธ ะฐัั
ะธัะตะบัััั ะะพัะบะฒั. ะัะตะผะปั, ะะธัะฐะน-ะณะพัะพะด, ัะตะฝััะฐะปัะฝัะต ะฟะปะพัะฐะดะธ. ะ., 1982. ะก. 329โ330.
Churches completed in 1394
14th-century Eastern Orthodox church buildings
Churches in Moscow
Moscow Kremlin
14th-century churches in Russia
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Moscow
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แฎแแกแ แแแขแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แ แแแแ แ
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แฎแแกแ แแแขแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แ แแแแ แ (แ. 24 แแแ แแแ, 1903, แแแแ แแแ โ แ. 20 แแแแแแแ แ, 1936, แแแแแแแขแ) โ แแกแแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแก แคแแจแแกแขแฃแ แ แแแแแแก แแแแแ แ. แแกแแแแแแ แแแฅแขแแขแแ แแก แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แ แแแแ แแก แจแแแแ. แแกแแแแแแแก แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแก, 1936 แฌแแแก 6 แแแแแกแก แแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแแก แขแงแแแ แฉแแแแ แแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแ แฌแแแก 20 แแแแแแแ แก แกแแแแแแแแ แแแกแแฏแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฎแแกแ แแแขแแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แ แแแแ แ Find a Grave-แแ.
แแกแแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 24 แแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1903
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 20 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1936
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แงแแแแฃแ แ
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แงแแแแฃแ แ โ XIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 60-70-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแกแจแ แแแญแ แแแ แแแแฆแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแแแแขแ, แ แแแแแก แแ แ แแฎแแ แแก แงแแแแแก แขแแขแฃแแแ, แแแแ แแแ แแ แแกแแแแแก แกแแ แฌแแฃแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ, แแแญแ แแก แแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแฆแ. แแ แกแแฎแแก แคแฃแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแแญแ แแก 1261-1280 แฌแแแแจแ. แแแแ แชแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แกแแแฎแแแจแ แแ แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ, แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแแ แแแแช.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแแ
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154984
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D
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แแแแฎแ
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แแแแฎแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ, แแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แแ แแแฃแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แแแแขแแแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแฏแฃแ แแก (แแแ แแแแแแกแฌแงแแแก แจแแแแแแแ) แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแก. แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 1740 แ., แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแแแ แแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ 16 แแโแแ.
แแแแแแ แแคแแ
2014 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก 467 แแแแแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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266167
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แแแ-แแฃแกแ
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แแแ-แแฃแกแ โ แแฃแแแแแ แฉแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแจแ, แขแแแแกแขแแก แแแแแแแแแ. แกแแแแฆแแ 3415 แ. แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแแแแกแขแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแฐแแ แแก แฃแแแฆแแแก แฌแแ แขแแแก. แฐแแแแชแแแฃแ แ แแกแแแแกแแ. แแแกแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ XX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 70-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ. แแแ-แแฃแกแ แฌแแ แแแฅแแแแ แแฃแแแแแฃแ แแแกแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแแ 4600 แแยฒ-แก. แแแก แแฌแแแ แแแแก แฌแแ แแแฅแแแแก แแ แ แแ แแขแแ แ: แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแขแ แแ 12ั
15 แแ, แแแแ แ โ แจแแแแ แแแแ แแชแแ แแ แแ แแฅแแก แแแแแแ 2-3 แแ, แฎแแแ แกแแฆแ แแ 350 แ. แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แฌแแ แขแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแ แแ แแขแแ แแก แแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแ 1938 แฌแแแก.
แขแฃแแฃ แแแแแ โแแแโ แแแจแแแแก โแแแฆแแ แแแแกโ, แฎแแแ โแแฃแกแโ แจแแกแแซแแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแ-แแฃแกแ โ แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแชแแแแแแแแแ
แฉแแแแก แแฃแแแแแแแ
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แกแฃแแแแแ
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แกแฃแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแฅแแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแฅแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแ
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แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแ (แ. 21 แแแแแกแ, 1921 โ แ. 28 แแแแแ แแแแ, 2011) โ แแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ, แแแแฆแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแ. แชแแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แฐแแแแแฃแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แฌแแแงแแแแ แกแแฅแก-แกแแแแแแ 40-แแแ แแ 1950-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแฏแแจแ, แแแแแกแแขแ. แฎแฃแแ แจแแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แแกแแแงแ แแแแ-แแจแจ แแ แแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแ แแแแขแแแแแขแ- แ แแ แฃแแแแแ แ แแกแแแ, แแแแ - แฏแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแ-แงแแคแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ. แแแแแแแกแแก แแแแกแแแแ แแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแฏแแฎแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแ แแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแกแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅ แแฃแ แแแแแจแ. แแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแจแ, แแแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแฎแแแแแ, แกแฌแแแแแแแ แคแแ แขแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแก , แแกแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแก แแ แแแแขแฃแ แฌแ แแจแ.
แกแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แฏแแแแก แกแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแกแฌแแแแ, แแแแ แแ 1936 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแกแแก แแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแ แจแแชแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแฃแจแแแแ, แแแแแก แ แแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแฏแแฎแแก แจแแแแฎแแแจแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แฏแแ แแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแ, แ แแ แฅแแแแจแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแกแฃแแแงแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแแ แแแแฃแแฏแแแแกแแแแแ แกแแแกแแฎแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ. แจแแแแแ แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแ แแแ แแแแกแขแ แแ แแ แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแฃแ แกแแแแ แ แแแแกแแ แแแฅแก แ แแแแฐแแ แขแแแ. แแก แแกแแแ แกแฌแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแขแฃแ แกแแแแแจแ แแแ แแ แฃแกแแแแกแแแแแกแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช, 1940 แฌแแแก แจแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแขแ แแฅแขแ แแแแคแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แฐแแแแ แ แฐแแฃแแแแ.
แฐแแแแ แ แฐแแฃแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแ แ แแกแแแก แจแแแซแแ แกแแ แแแแฃแแแ แจแแฏแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฅแแก แแฆแแแ แแแฃแ แกแแฅแก แกแแแแแแแแแก - แ แแขแ แฐแแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแ แขแแ แแแ แก. แแก แแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ. แแแ แแแแ แแแกแขแแ แแ แฏแแแแแก แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ - "แแแแแแแแ แแจแ" , แ แแแแแแช แคแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแ1943 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ, แฌแแ แแแขแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแก แแแฐแงแแ แกแฎแแ แคแแแแแแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแแฃแแแแแ โแคแ แแแแฃแแ แฎแแแโ (1954).
แแแแกแแแแจแ, แแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแ 1985 แฌแแแก แแแขแแแแแแ แแคแแแจแ แฌแแ แแ, แฃแคแ แ แแแฎแแแฌแแ แ แแแแแแ แแชแแแแแแแ. แแแกแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแฎแกแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฃแจแแแแ แ แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แจแ แแงแ "แฏแแแขแแแแแแแก แแ แฉแแแแ แฅแแ แแแก" (1953), แกแแแแช แแแก แแแ แขแแแแ แแแแก แฃแฌแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฅแก แกแแแแแแ - แแแ แแแ แแแแ แ.
1970-แแแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แฌแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแแ แแแแแ แซแแแ แกแแแกแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแ แ แแแแขแ แแก แกแชแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแก แฆแแแฃแแแแแ แคแแแแแก แกแแฅแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแจแแแแแก แแแแแ แขแแแแแฃแแ แฌแแกแแ แจแแแแแ แแงแแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแฌแงแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแ
แแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แแกแแฎแแแแ แกแแแฏแแ แแงแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแฃแแ. แแแแแก แแแ แแแ แแแฃแฆแแแกแแแ, แแแแ แแแแ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแ, แแแ แฃแแขแแ แคแแแแแแ แแชแแแฎแฃแแ แฌแแแ แแชแฎแแแ แ. แฏแแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แแแจแแ แแแคแแฎแแซแแแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแแแจแแฃแแแแ แแงแแแแ. แแแแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ. แกแแฅแแ แแก แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแฎแแแแแ แแก แแซแฃแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแจแแ แแแแชแแแแแแแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ แจแแแแ แแฆแแ แจแแแซแแแ. แฌแงแแแแแ แกแแแ แแแแจแแ แแจแแแแ: แแ แ แแแญแ แแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ.
แ แแกแแแก แจแแแแแ แแงแแแแแก แแ แแก แแ แแแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแ แจแแแฅแแแ แแ 1955 แฌแแแก แแแแคแฃแซแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแฅแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแชแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแก แกแแขแฃแแชแแแแจแ แแงแแค แแแแแแแแแแก. แแแแ แ แแแฃแฆแแแกแแแ, แแกแแฎแแแ แ แแฏแแ แแแ แแขแแแ แแ แแแ แแฎแแแแ แแ แแ แฌแแแ แแชแฎแแแ แ. 1968 แฌแแแก แแแ แแขแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แแแกแแแ แฅแแแ แ แแแฎแแแแ แฃแซแ แแแ แฅแแแแแแก แแแแแขแ แฏแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแกแ, แฌแงแแแแแ 25 แฌแแแ แแชแฎแแแ แ แแ แแแ. 1999 แฌแแแก แฏแแ แแแแแแแ แแฃแแแก แฃแแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ.
แฏแแแ แ แแกแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แกแแแขแ แแแ แแแจแ (แกแแแขแ-แแแ แแแ แ) 89 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แกแฃแแแฅแแแก แฃแแแแ แแกแแแแ 2011 แฌแแแก 28 แแแแแ แแแแก.
แคแแแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแคแแ
Jane Russell (1985). Jane Russell: My Path and Detours. New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-0-517-67208-2.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ แฅแแแแแ
แแกแแฎแแแแแแ แฐแแแแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแก แฎแแแแแแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1921
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 21 แแแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 2011
XX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แฅแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 28 แแแแแ แแแแ
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445478
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แขแ แแแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ
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แขแ แแแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ
แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ โ แงแแคแแแ แแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ, แฅแแแแฅ แขแ แแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช 1461 แฌแแแก แขแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแแชแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแกแแแแแแแก แกแฃแแแแแแ แแแฐแแแ II-แ (แแแแ แ. 1444โ1481) แแแฉแแแแ (โแแฎแแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแก แแแฉแแแโ) แแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแก แแงแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแช แแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แแแแงแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแก แแแแแแ (แแแชแแ) แจแแแกแ แฃแแ. แฐแแ แแแฃแ แแก แแแกแแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแแ แคแฃแแฅแชแแแแแ แแแแก 1486 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแ แซแแแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแ แกแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแฃแแ, แแฃ แ แแแแก แแแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ. แแแแแ แฅแกแแคแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฃแแแกแแก แแขแแแชแแแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ แแ แแแแแกแขแแ แ แแ แกแแแแแแ IX แแ X แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแแช. แกแแแแแ แแแแแแกแ แแแ แแฃแแแแก, แ แแ แแฅ แแแแแกแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ 1021/22 แฌแแแก แแฆแแแแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช 1223 แฌแแแแแ แคแฃแแฅแชแแแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ 1222-23 แฌแแแก แขแ แแแแแแแแก แแแงแแก แฃแแแแจแแ แแแแ, แฅแแแแฅแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแกแฎแแแฃแแแ แกแแแฏแฃแแแ แกแแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแ แซแแแ, แ แ แแ แแกแแช แแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแ. แแฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แ แกแแแกแแแแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ. 1291 แฌแแแก แแก แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แฏแแ แฏ แคแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ 1850 แฌแแแก แแแแแแฎแฃแแ, แแชแฎแแแแแก แ แแ แแแแแกแแ 1340 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแแแฌแแ แแ แแก แขแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแแฅแกแ III-แ (แแแแ แ. 1349โ1390) แแฆแแแแแแ แแ แแแแคแแ แแแแ. XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแ แชแแแแแแ แแงแ แแ แ แแฎแแแแ แแแแขแแก แ แแแแแแจแ, แแ แแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแ แแกแขแแแแแจแ. XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แแแแแกแแ แแแแแแขแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแกแแแ II-แ (แแแแ แ. 976โ1025) แแแแแแชแ.
แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฌแงแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแแกแแแจแ แกแแแแแแกแแ แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ แขแแ แแแแแแ แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ แแ แฏแแ : 21 แแแแแแ แก โ แฌแแแแแ แแแฌแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ; แแ 24 แแแแแกแก โ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฆแแก แแฆแแแจแแแแก แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ. แฎแ แแกแแแแคแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแแก แแกแแแแกแแ, แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแแแก แแแแจแแช แขแแ แแแแแแ แคแแ แแแแฃแ แ แชแแ แแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แแชแแ แแแแแ แแขแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแชแแ แแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแ. แแฅแแ แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแฃแ แแฎแ แแแแฅแกแ III แแ แแก แแงแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแช แแก แแแแแแ แ แแแแขแแแฃแแแแแกแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ.
แแแแแกแแแก แกแแแแแซแฃแ แแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแฌแแ แ แแแแแ แฉแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแก แแแขแแแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแ แจแ แแแแฎแแแ.
แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแ แฏแแแ แฃแแแ. แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแงแ. แขแแซแ แแก แกแแแ แซแ 28 แแแขแ แ, แกแแแแแ 16 แแแขแ แ, แกแแแแฆแแ แแ 11 แแแขแ แแ.
แจแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแคแกแแแแแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ. แแแแ แแแแ แแคแกแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแแ แจแแแแ แแแแ แแแฌแ แ แแ แแแแแแแ. แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ แฎแฃแแฌแแฎแแแแแ, แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแฃแ แ. แขแแซแแ แก แฉแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแแ แแแญแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแกแแแจแ แแแแแแ แจแแกแแกแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แซแแแแ แแแคแแ แแแแฃแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแ, แแ แฌแแแแแแก แแ แแขแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแคแแแแ.
แแแฉแแแแ แฅแชแแแแก แจแแแแแ แจแแแแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแญแแกแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแ. แคแ แแกแแแแ แ แแแแแแช แแแแแกแแแก แแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแขแแแ แแ แแ แแฃแ แฅแฃแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแแแ แแแแคแแ แ. แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแฅแขแแแแแแ แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแ แแแ แแแแก แกแขแแแแก แแแฐแ แแแ แแ แฎแแก แแแฃแคแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแ-แกแแคแแแก แขแแซแแ แ (แขแ แแแแแแแ)
แแแแแ แแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
The Church of Saint Evgenios, Trabzon
St. Eugenius Church
แกแฅแแแแ
แฅแ แแกแขแแแแฃแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แขแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแ
แแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแแฉแแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98
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แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแขแ
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แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแขแ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแขแ แจแแแฅแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ-แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แชแแแขแ แ โแแแแขแโ-แจแ 2012 แฌแแแก. แแแกแ แกแแฏแแ แ แแ แแแแแขแแชแแ 2012 แฌแแแก 10 แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ แจแแแแ.
แแแแแแคแ แแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแแแแ แกแแจแฃแแแ แแแแซแแแแ แแแฅแแแแ แขแแฅแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแแแขแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแกแก. แแแกแ แแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแจแแฃแแแแแ แแ แซแแแแก แแแแแก แแแแแขแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแจแ, แแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแก แชแแชแฎแแแ แซแแแแก แแ แกแแแ แซแแแ แขแแฅแแแแแก แแฃแกแขแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแงแแแแแ แแกแแแ แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแแแจแแฃแแแแแแแช.
แแแแแงแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ
แกแแกแแแฆแแ แ แแแขแ แฃแแแ แแแ
แแแแแแ แแ/แแแแแแแแแ
แกแแฐแแแ แ แคแแขแแแแแแฆแแแ
แแแแแแ แแ แแแแคแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแ
แกแขแแฅแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแ แแแแ
แกแแแแแแ แ แแแชแแแก แฃแแ แฃแแแแแงแแคแ
แ แแแแแชแแแก แจแแแแฌแแแแ/แแแแขแ แแแ
แแฆแแก/แฆแแแแก แแแแแแ แแ
แแ แซแแแแก แแแแแก แแแแแแแงแฃแ แแแแ
แกแแแแแแแก แแฃแกแขแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแ
แ แแแแ แแ แ แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ แแ
แแ แซแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแกแฎแแแ แแแแก แจแแคแแกแแแ
แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแฎแแ แ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฃแแแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแขแแก แแแ แแฃแกแ แแแแแแแแชแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ, แแแกแ แกแขแแ แขแ แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแขแแแฃแแขแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแ แฎแแแแ, แ แแช แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก แแซแแแแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแก แแแจแแแแ แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแแแฅแแแแก แซแแ แแแแ แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแก. แแแฌแแแ แแแจแแแแแกแแก แแแ แแฃแกแแก แแ แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฌแงแแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแกแแแ แแแกแแชแแแแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแก แแฎแกแแแแ แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแจแฃแขแ แแ แกแแฐแแแ แ แแแแแจแ.
แแแแแแคแ แแแแแก แแฅแแก แคแ แแแแก แแ แ แ แแแแแ: แแแแแแ แ แแแแแจแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แกแ แฃแ แ แแแแแกแแฉแฃแแแฉแ แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แแ.
แแแแแแ แ แแแแแจแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแ แ แแแแแกแแฎแจแแ แแ แฎแแ แชแแแแแแแ, แแแกแ แฉแแฎแจแแแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แแ แคแ แแแ แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแจแ แแแขแแแแแแขแแ แแ แซแแแแแแ.
แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฌแงแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแก แฌแแแ แแแฌแแแจแแ แแแงแแแแแฃแแ, แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แแแ แแกแขแแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแแขแคแแ แแแแ แแฆแ แฆแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแก 2 แกแแแ แขแงแแจแ แแแซแ แแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแแฃแแ. แคแแขแแแแแแฆแแแแกแแแแก แแ แแแแแแคแ แแแแแ แแฆแญแฃแ แแแแแ แคแแขแแแแแ แแขแแ.
แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแก แซแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแ แก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก 3,5 แชแฎแแแแก แซแแแแก แแฅแแแ แจแแแแฌแแแก แซแ แแแ.
แแแแแแคแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแฅแขแจแ แจแแแแก แ แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแขแแแ, แแแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแจแแแแ แแแฅแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแก แแแแแแฃแขแแ แฃแแ แกแแกแขแแแ.
แขแแฅแขแแแฃแ -แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแชแแแแแ
แคแ แแแแก แฎแแแแ แซแแแแแแ โ 6-8 แกแแแแ
แคแ แแแแก แกแแแแฆแแ โ 100-3000 แแแขแ แ
แกแแฉแฅแแ แ โ 60-160 แแ/แกแ
แแแฅแแแแแแแก แ แแแแฃแกแ - 150 แแ.
แกแแฌแแแแแก แขแแแแแแแ - 3 แแแขแ แ
แชแแ แแแแ แแแกแ - 12 แแ
แคแ แแแจแแแแแแ - 3075 แแ
แกแแแ แซแ - 1960 แแ
แแแแแ แแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแขแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ แแขแ, แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ www.geo-army.ge;
แกแแแ แซแแแ แแแ แแฆแแแ
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29819799
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiz%20Mehdiyev
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Ramiz Mehdiyev
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Ramiz Mehdiyev
Ramiz Anvar oghlu Mehdiyev (born April 17, 1938) is an Azerbaijani politician and academician who served as the Head of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan from 1994 to 2019 and the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan between 2019 and 2022.
Early life
Mehdiyev was born in Baku. His father was born in the Sharur District of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. He attended Baku Maritime School (now Azerbaijan State Marine Academy) in his youth, until his graduation in 1957.
Career in the Soviet Union
In 1957 he was hired as a maritime engineer by the state-run oil company ("Caspian Sea Oil Fleet") at which time he became very active in his local Komsomol branch. In 1961 Mehdiyev enrolled in the history department (then called the S.M. Kirov department) at Azerbaijan State University (now Baku State University) in Baku. His activity in the Baku Komsomol branch earned him the attention of Azerbaijan Communist Party officials, and he was promoted to a position as a student adviser for the Azerbaijani branch of the Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization in 1965.
It was during this time that he'd be acquainted with Heydar Aliyev, a fellow Azerbaijani with Nakhchivan roots who at the time was a high-ranking official in the Azerbaijani KGB, headquartered down the street from the university. After his graduation from ASU , Mehdiyev was elected in 1967 to a secretary position of the Komsomol wing of the Nakhchivan Communist Party (regional branch of the Azerbaijan Communist Party in charge of the Nakhchivan ASSR). However, he was quickly admitted to Moscow State University (then known just as Lomonosov University) in 1968 as a PhD candidate in social philosophy.
During Mehdiyev's time in Moscow in 1969, Heydar Aliyev was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. Upon defense of his dissertation, titled V.I. Lenin on the Interactions of Nationalism and Opportunism, Mehdiyev was awarded his PhD in May 1972. Mehdiyev returned immediately to Baku having been granted a job as a professor in the Scientific Communism Department of Azerbaijan State University. Aliyev's ambitious plans for improving education, bolstering ideological rigor, and cracking down on corruption in the Azerbaijan SSR were aided by the return of Mehdiyev to Azerbaijan and the resumption of his party work, which still focused heavily on students and youth.
In 1974, Mehdiyev was appointed as a lecturer in the Ideology and Propaganda department as well as assistant director of the Science and Education committee of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. In 1978, he was appointed the first secretary of the 26 Baku Commissars Party Committee. In 1980 he was elected to the Party's Central Committee and became the director of Party Organization.
Later career
In 1988, Mehdiyev was made department director of the Institute of Political Research for the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences. In the 1980s and 1990s, he was a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR elected twice. In 1993, Heydar Aliyev was elected President of Azerbaijan (now an independent country) and Mehdiyev was subsequently elected to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan. On February 7, 1995, Aliyev appointed Mehdyiev to be the Head of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan. This move was thought to be partially influenced by Aliyev's desire to keep a close-knit group of Nakhchivan advisors to consolidate power in the region.
In 2007, Mehdiyev was selected to be a full member of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS). He is also Chairman of the Editorial Board of the "Philosophy and Social and Political Sciences" journal published by the Azerbaijan Philosophy and Social-Political Sciences Association (AFSEA).
According to the decree signed by the President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev on September 8, 2020 on amending the decree "On approval of the new composition of the Pardon Commission under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan", the chairman of the Pardon Commission under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ramiz Mehdiyev was dismissed. Head of the Presidential Administration of the Republic of Azerbaijan Samir Nuriyev was appointed the new chairman.
Academic works and writings
Mehdiyev is the author of over 250 scientific articles on social phenomena, economic development, and philosophy and dialectics, focusing on the post-Soviet development of Azerbaijan. He has also published over 20 books, 7 of which have been translated to different languages. These include: Interethnic relations at the end of the 20th century (his second doctoral thesis), Realities of Azerbaijani genocide, Dialectics of development of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan: historical heritage and philosophy of independence, Philosophy textbook, Azerbaijan: Calls for globalization, Parliament elections of 2005: preliminary analysis, Ideas, opening the paths to civil society, On the path of national ideology, statehood and independence in two volumes, On the path to democracy, and Determining the development strategy: modernization course.
Mehdiyev has been awarded with two Orders of the Red Banner of Labour, the Order of Glory (Shohrat Order) and was elected a member of New York Academy of Sciences in 2001.
See also
Cabinet of Azerbaijan
Politics of Azerbaijan
Notes
References
1938 births
Living people
Politicians from Baku
Academic staff of Baku State University
Baku State University alumni
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Azerbaijan Communist Party (1920) politicians
Members of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic
New Azerbaijan Party politicians
Recipients of the Heydar Aliyev Order
Recipients of the Istiglal Order
Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia)
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Recipients of the Sharaf Order
Recipients of the Shohrat Order
Social philosophers
Azerbaijani academicians
Azerbaijani philosophers
Azerbaijani professors
Soviet politicians
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334256
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98
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แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแ
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แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแ (แแฆแฅแแ, แแ แซแแแแ) โ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแแกแแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แแ แซแแแแ แแ แแฆแฅแแ แกแแแแ แจแแแแชแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แ แคแแ แแแ. แแก แแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แ แแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แ แแชแแแแแแแแแแกแแแ. แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แแ แแแชแแแแ: โแแ แแคแแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ แแกแแแ, แ แแช แแ แแ แกแแแแแก แแ แซแแแแแแจแโ. แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแงแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแฆแฅแแแกแ แแ แแ แซแแแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแช.
แฃแแแแแกแ แฌแแแ แจแแแขแแแแก แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแแก แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแแแแแแ แคแแแแกแแคแแกแแแแ: แแ แแขแแแแ แ โ แชแแแแแแ แซแแแแแแ แซแแแ แกแแคแแกแขแ แคแแแแกแแคแแกแ; แแแแแฃแ แ; แฏแแ แแแแ; แแขแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ.
แขแแ แแแแ แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแ แจแแแแแฆแ แแแฅแขแแ แแฃแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแก แแแจแ แแแจแ โHistoire gรฉnรฉrale de la philosophieโ แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแก แฃแแแ แแกแแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแ, แจแแกแแแแแแกแแ, แแ แขแแ แแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแก แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแแฆแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแ แแแแแแแแ. แแฃแแชแ แแก แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ แแ แจแแแแ แฉแฃแแแ. แแฆแแก แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแแแแจแ แฃแฌแแแแแแ แชแแแแแ แฎแแ แฎแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแแกแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแชแแแแก แแแแแกแแญแ แแแแ แแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแ แแแขแแแแฅแขแฃแแแแแแกแ แแ แ แแชแแแแแแแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแกแฃแแแแแแ โ แฃแชแฎแ แกแแขแงแแแแ แแแฅแกแแแแแ
แคแแแแกแแคแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแแ แแ แขแ แแแแชแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแ
แจแแแแชแแแแ
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160540
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%20%282002%29
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แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ (2002)
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แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ (2002)
แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ โ 2002 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแขแแจแ แแแแฎแแแ แ แซแแแแ แ แฌแงแแแแแแแแ. แงแแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แฉแแฎแแแ, แแแกแขแ แแ, แแแ แแแแแ, แกแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ, แฃแแแ แแแ, แ แฃแแแแแแ แแ แฎแแ แแแขแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ 2002 แฌแแแก แแแคแแฅแกแแ แแ แแแแ 100 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแ แแแแก แฃแซแแแแ แแกแ แฌแงแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแชแแชแฎแแ แแแกแฎแแแ แแแ. แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแ แฃแแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฌแแแ.
แซแแแแ แ แฌแแแแแแ 10 แแแแแกแขแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ แแ แ แแแแ แแก แแแแ แซแแแแ. แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แฃแซแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฅแชแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแช แฌแแแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ.
แแ แแฆแแจแ แแแแแแ แ แแแขแแแแก แแแแแ 7 แแแขแ แแ แแแฌแแ, แฎแแแ แแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแก แแแแ แแแแฅแแแก 10 แแแขแ แแ แแแแแแ แแ. แแแ แแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแแ แฃแแกแฎแแแแแกแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแแแ แแแขแแแ แ แแแกแขแ แแแก, แกแแแแแแแแแก, แฎแแ แแแขแแแก แแแแ แแแฌแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แแฃแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ แขแแกแแ แแแขแแแ แ แ แฃแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแแแ แแแแก แ แแแ แกแแคแแแแ.
แฌแงแแแ แแ แขแแแแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แคแแ แแแ แแแแ แชแแแแ แแ แกแแคแ แแฎแแก แฅแแแจ แแแแงแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฅแแแงแแแแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแ แแฃแแแแ แแแ แฆแแ แกแจแแกแแแแจแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แแแแชแแ: แฅแแแแฅแแแ, แกแแฎแแแแ, แฅแฃแฉแฅแแแ, แแแขแ แแแแแแขแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแ, แฎแแแแแ, แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแ แ.แจ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แฌแงแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ (2005)
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Flood Photographs of Prague
Photographs of flooded metro in Prague
แกแฅแแแแ
แฌแงแแแแแแแแ
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30009223
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Mata%20de%20Morella
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La Mata de Morella
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La Mata de Morella is a town in the province of Castellรณn, Valencian Community, Spain, pertaining to the region of the Ports of Morella. , it has 192 inhabitants.
Ports (comarca)
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19180547
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia
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Parthia
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Parthia (Parฮธava; Parฮธaw; Pahlaw) is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire after the 4th-century BC conquests of Alexander the Great. The region later served as the political and cultural base of the Eastern Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC โ 224 AD). The Sasanian Empire, the last state of pre-Islamic Iran, also held the region and maintained the seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy.
Name
The name "Parthia" is a continuation from Latin , from Old Persian , which was the Parthian language self-designator signifying "of the Parthians" who were an Iranian people. In context to its Hellenistic period, Parthia also appears as Parthyaea.
Parthia was known as Pahlaw in the Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period, and Pahla or Fahla by later Islamic authors, but mainly referred to the Parthian region in the West of Iran.
Geography
The original location of Parthia roughly corresponds to a region in northeastern Iran, but part is in southern Turkmenistan. It was bordered by the Kopet Dag mountain range in the north, and the Dasht-e-Kavir desert in the south. It bordered Media on the west, Hyrcania on the north west, Margiana on the northeast, and Aria on the east.
During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with Hyrcania as one administrative unit, and that region is therefore often (subject to context) considered a part of Parthia proper.
By the early Sasanian period, Parthia was located in the central part of the Iranian plateau, neighboring Pars to the south, Khuzistan to the south-west, Media to the north-west, the Alborz Mountains to the north, Abarshahr to the north-east, and Kirman to the east. In the late Sasanian era, Parthia came to embrace central and north-central Iran but also extended to the western parts of the plateau as well.
In the Islamic era, Parthia was believed to be located in central and western Iran. Ibn al-Muqaffa considered Parthia as encompassing the regions of Isfahan, Ray, Hamadan, Mah-i Nihawand and Azerbaijan. The same definition is found in the works of al-Khawazmi and Hamza al-Isfahani. Al-Dinawari, while not using the word Parthia, considered Jibal to be the realm of the last Parthian king, Artabanus IV.
History
Under the Achaemenids
As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the Medes, and 7th century BC Assyrian texts mention a country named Partakka or Partukka (though this "need not have coincided topographically with the later Parthia").
A year after Cyrus the Great's defeat of the Median Astyages, Parthia became one of the first provinces to acknowledge Cyrus as their ruler, "and this allegiance secured Cyrus' eastern flanks and enabled him to conduct the first of his imperial campaigns โ against Sardis." According to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by Darius I, the Parthians united with the Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. Hystaspes, the Achaemenid governor of the province (said to be father of Darius I), managed to suppress the revolt, which seems to have occurred around 522โ521 BC.
The first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the Behistun inscription of Darius I, where Parthia is listed (in the typical Iranian clockwise order) among the governorates in the vicinity of Drangiana. The inscription dates to c. 520 BC. The center of the administration "may have been at [what would later be known as] Hecatompylus". The Parthians also appear in Herodotus' list of peoples subject to the Achaemenids; the historiographer treats the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Areioi as peoples of a single satrapy (the 16th), whose annual tribute to the king he states to be only 300 talents of silver. This "has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars."
At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC between the forces of Darius III and those of Alexander the Great, one such Parthian unit was commanded by Phrataphernes, who was at the time Achaemenid governor of Parthia. Following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander.
Under the Seleucids
Following the death of Alexander, in the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC, Parthia became a Seleucid governorate under Nicanor. Phrataphernes, the former governor, became governor of Hyrcania. In 320 BC, at the Partition of Triparadisus, Parthia was reassigned to Philip, former governor of Sogdiana. A few years later, the province was invaded by Peithon, governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained a governorate in its own right.
In 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of Seleucus I Nicator and governor of Bactria (and, it seems, also of Aria and Margiana) was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province.
In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II, Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch, and "so left the future of the Seleucid dynasty for a moment in question." Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins.
Meanwhile, "a man called Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, [was] elected leader of the Parni", an eastern-Iranian peoples from the Tajen/Tajend River valley, south-east of the Caspian Sea. Following the secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his borders, and about 238 BC โ under the command of "Arsaces and his brother Tiridates" โ the Parni invaded Parthia and seized control of Astabene (Astawa), the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital of which was Kabuchan (Kuchan in the vulgate).
A short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Although an initial punitive expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II was not successful, the Seleucids under Antiochus III recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209 BC from Arsaces' (or Tiridates') successor, Arsaces II. Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status, and it was not until Arsaces II's grandson (or grand-nephew) Phraates I, that the Arsacids/Parni would again begin to assert their independence.
Under the Arsacids
From their base in Parthia, the Arsacid dynasts eventually extended their dominion to include most of Greater Iran. They also quickly established several eponymous branches on the thrones of Armenia, Iberia, and Caucasian Albania. Even though the Arsacids only sporadically had their capital in Parthia, their power base was there, among the Parthian feudal families, upon whose military and financial support the Arsacids depended. In exchange for this support, these families received large tracts of land among the earliest conquered territories adjacent to Parthia, which the Parthian nobility then ruled as provincial rulers. The largest of these city-states were Kuchan, Semnan, Gorgan, Merv, Zabol and Yazd.
From about 105 BC onwards, the power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a "contributory factor in the downfall" of the dynasty.
From about 130 BC onwards, Parthia suffered numerous incursions by various nomadic tribes, including the Sakas, the Yuezhi, and the Massagetae. Each time, the Arsacid dynasts responded personally, doing so even when there were more severe threats from Seleucids or Romans looming on the western borders of their empire (as was the case for Mithridates I). Defending the empire against the nomads cost Phraates II and Artabanus I their lives.
The Roman Crassus attempted to conquer Parthia in 52 BC but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar was planning another invasion when he was assassinated in 44 BC. A long series of Roman-Parthian wars followed.
Around 32 BC, civil war broke out when a certain Tiridates rebelled against Phraates IV, probably with the support of the nobility that Phraates had previously persecuted. The revolt was initially successful, but failed by 25 BC. In 9/8, the Parthian nobility succeeded in putting their preferred king on the throne, but Vonones proved to have too tight a budgetary control, so he was usurped in favor of Artabanus II, who seems to have been a non-Arsacid Parthian nobleman. But when Artabanus attempted to consolidate his position (at which he was successful in most instances), he failed to do so in the regions where the Parthian provincial rulers held sway.
By the 2nd century AD, the frequent wars with neighboring Rome and with the nomads, and the infighting among the Parthian nobility had weakened the Arsacids to a point where they could no longer defend their subjugated territories. The empire fractured as vassalaries increasingly claimed independence or were subjugated by others, and the Arsacids were themselves finally vanquished by the Persian Sassanids, a formerly minor vassal from southwestern Iran, in April 224.
Under the Sasanians
Parthia was likely the first region conquered by Ardashir I after his victory over Artabanus IV, showing the importance of the province to the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Some of the Parthian nobility continued to resist Sasanian dominion for some time, but most switched their allegiance to the Sasanians very early. Several families that claimed descent from the Parthian noble families became a Sasanian institution known as the "Seven houses", five of which are "in all probability" not Parthian, but contrived genealogies "in order to emphasize the antiquity of their families."
Parthia continued to hold importance throughout the 3rd century. In his Ka'be-ye Zardusht inscription Shapur I lists the province of Parthia in second place after Pars. The Abnun inscription describes the Roman invasion of 243/44 as an attack on Pars and Parthia. Considering the Romans never went further than Mesopotamia, "Pars and Parthia" may stand for the Sasanian Empire itself. Parthia was also the second province chosen for settlement by Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Edessa in 260.
Language and literature
The Parthians spoke Parthian, a northwestern Iranian language. No Parthian literature survives from before the Sassanid period in its original form, and they seem to have written down only very little. The Parthians did, however, have a thriving oral minstrel-poet culture, to the extent that their word for "minstrel" (gosan) survives to this day in many Iranian languages and especially in Armenian (gusan), on which it exercised heavy (especially lexical and vocabulary) influence. These professionals were evident in every facet of Parthian daily life, from cradle to grave, and they were entertainers of kings and commoners alike, proclaiming the worthiness of their patrons through association with mythical heroes and rulers. These Parthian heroic poems, "mainly known through Persian of the lost Middle Persian Xwaday-namag, and notably through Firdausi's Shahnameh, [were] doubtless not yet wholly lost in the Khurasan of [Firdausi's] day."
In Parthia itself, attested use of written Parthian is limited to the nearly three thousand ostraca found (in what seems to have been a wine storage) at Nisa, in present-day Turkmenistan. A handful of other evidence of written Parthian has been found outside Parthia, the most important of these being the part of a land-sale document found at Avroman (in the Kermanshah province of Iran), and more ostraca, graffiti and the fragment of a business letter found at Dura-Europos in present-day Syria.
The Parthian Arsacids do not seem to have used Parthian until relatively late, and the language first appears on Arsacid coinage during the reign of Vologases I (51โ58 AD). Evidence that use of Parthian was nonetheless widespread comes from early Sassanid times; the declarations of the early Persian kings wereโin addition to their native Middle Persianโalso inscribed in Parthian.
The old poems known as fahlaviyat mostly come from the areas which were considered part of Parthia in the Islamic period. These poems have the characteristics of oral literature and may have continued the oral traditions of Parthian minstrels.
Society
City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids." However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal. Communities with free peasants also existed.
By Arsacid times, Parthian society was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom.
Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with the establishment of the Silk road in 114 BC, when Hecatompylos became an important junction.
Parthian cities
Nisa (Nissa, Nusay) or Mithradฤtkert, located on a main trade route, was one of the earliest capitals of the Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC). The city is located in the northern foothills of the Kopetdag mountains, 11 miles west of present-day city of Ashgabat (the capital of Turkmenistan). Nisa had a "soaring two-story hall in the Hellenistic Greek style" and temple complexes used by early Arsaces dynasty. During the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (c. 171 BCโ138 BC) it was renamed Mithradatkirt ("fortress of Mithradates"). Merv (modern-day Mary) was another Parthian city.
Asaak
Hecatompylos
Gurgan
See also
Pahla
Parthians
List of Parthian kings
Khwarasan
Greater Khorasan
Adur Burzen-Mihr
Parthian shot
References
Bibliography
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Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1998), Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden der eurasischen Steppen, Munich.
Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016), "Manpower Resources and Army Organisation in the Arsakid Empire", Ancient Society, 46, pp. 291โ338 (DOI: 10.2143/AS.46.0.3167457).
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Verstandig Andre,(2001) Histoire de l'Empire Parthe. Brussels, Le Cri.
Wolski, Jรณzef (1993), LโEmpire des Arsacides (= Acta Iranica 32), Lovanii: Peeters
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Parthian Empire
Historical regions of Iran
Provinces of the Sasanian Empire
Achaemenid satrapies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyzyl-Adyr
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Kyzyl-Adyr
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Kyzyl-Adyr (formerly Kirovka) is a village in the Kara-Buura District of Talas Region of Kyrgyzstan. It is the seat of the Kara-Buura District. Its population was 13,612 in 2021. To the north is the Kirovskaya Reservoir. From the main eastโwest highway through Talas Region, one road goes north to Taraz in Kazakhstan and another goes south to Jalal-Abad Region over the Kara-Buura Pass to the Chatkal Valley (Jangy-Bazar and Kanysh-Kyya).
Population
References
Populated places in Talas Region
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20at%20the%201984%20Summer%20Olympics
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Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics
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Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Cyprus competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, United States. Ten competitors, all men, took part in nine events in four sports.
Athletics
Men's 10.000 metres
Marios Kassianidis
Qualifying Heat โ 29:06.08 (โ did not advance)
Men's Marathon
Marios Kassianidis โ 2:32:51 (โ 62nd place)
Filippos Filippou โ did not finish (โ no ranking)
Men's 3.000m Steeplechase:
Philippos Philippou
Semifinals โ 8:39.47 (โ did not advance)
Men's Long Jump
Dimitrios Araouzos
Qualification โ 5.67m (โ did not advance, 30th place)
Cycling
One cyclist represented Cyprus in 1984.
Individual road race
Spyros Agrotis โ did not finish (โ no ranking)
Judo
Men's under 78 kg:
Ioannis Kouyallis - Preliminary:Lost to Gueye-Eljdji from Senegal
Men's under 86 kg:
Costas Papacostas - Preliminary:Lost to Nose Seiki from Japan
Shooting
Men's trap:
Anastasios Lordos - 173 (47th position)
Demetrios Papachrysostomou - 176 (35th position)
Men's skeet:
Petros Kyritsis - 192 (13th position)
Michael Tymvios - 85 (abandon)
References
External links
Cyprus at the 1984 Summer Olympics by Cyprus Olympic Committee
Nations at the 1984 Summer Olympics
1984
Summer Olympics
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แแแแแ แกแแ (แงแแค. แกแแฎแฅแแซแแ แ) โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแแ แงแแ แแแแฆแแก แ แแแแแแจแ, แจแฃแจแแก แ แแแแแจแ, แกแแคแแ แกแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแ แแแแจแ.
1992 แฌแแแแแ แแแฃแแแ แแแฃแแแ แกแแแฎแแแแก แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแ แซแแแแแแก แแแแ .
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แกแแคแแแก แฌแแแ แกแแฎแแแ แแงแ แกแแฎแฅแแซแแ แ, 1999 แฌแแแก 5 แแฅแขแแแแ แแแแ แแฌแแแ แแแแแ แกแแ.
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%20%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแแแ แแฃแ แงแแแแ แแแแแ (แ. 1502, แงแแแแ แแแ โ แ. 1571, แงแแแแ แแแ) โ แฉแแ แฅแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แงแแแแ แแแก แแแแ แแแแแแ แ 1554-1571 แฌแแแแจแ. แ แฃแกแแแแก แชแแ แแแแแ IV-แแก แแแแ แ แชแแแแก, แแแ แแ แแแแ แแฃแแแแแแก แแแแ.
แแแแแแกแ แแแแแ แแ แแกแฎแแแแกแแแ
แแแแ แแฃแแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแจแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แชแแ แแแแแ IV-แกแแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแก แแแแ. แแก แฉแแ แฅแแแฃแ-แ แฃแกแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแ แแแชแแแแแแแกแขแแแแ แแฆแแฅแแแก, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแ แฅแแแ แแ แแกแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแก, แชแฎแแแแ, แแฅแแก แแแแแกแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แแแแก, แ แแ แแก แแแแแแกแ แจแแแแแแจแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแงแแแ, แ แแแแ แช โแฉแแ แฅแแแแแแก แแแแแงแแคแแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแแกโ แแฅแขแ, แ แแช แ แแแแแแแก แแงแ แแแแแแแฃแแ. แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ, แ แแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแ-แฉแแ แฅแแแแแแก แแแจแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแซแฃแแแแแ แแฅแแ แแแแฅแกแแ แแแฃแแ.
แกแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแ แแฃแแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแจแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ แแงแ. แแแ แกแฌแแ แแ แจแแแคแแกแ แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แงแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแแแก แแก แกแแคแ แแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฉแ แแแแแแแแแแกแแฃแ แฎแแแฎแแแก แฃแฅแแแแแ. แแแแก แแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแฆแแแแฉแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ, แ แแช แฉแแ แฅแแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก แแซแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแกแแแแ แแ แแก แแแกแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแ แแกแ แแแแแช แจแแแคแแ แฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแจแแ แ. แแ แกแแฅแแแจแ แแแแ แแฃแแแ แงแแแแแแ แแแ แ แแแแแแจแแ แแ แกแฌแแ แแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แชแแ แ แแแแแ IV แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แงแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แฌแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแฌแแแแแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แกแแกแแแฆแแ แ แกแแคแแแแก, แแขแแชแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแ แจแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แงแแแแแแ, แชแแ แก แแ แแแแก แแฆแแแแแ แกแฃแ แแ. แแแ แแแแ, แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แกแแแ แแ แแขแ แแก แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแ 1557 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแจแแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแ. แแแแแแแชแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแแก แซแแแแ: แกแฃแแแแ-แงแฃแแ แแ แแฃแแแ-แแแ แแช แจแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แชแแ แ แแแแ แแแขแแแแ แแแฎแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแ, แแแแแ แแ แแกแฎแแแ แแแแแแฎแแแ แงแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแแ แแแแแแ.
แฉแแ แฅแแแแแกแ แแ แ แฃแกแแแก แจแแ แแก แแแคแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แ, แฉแแ แฅแแแ แชแฎแแแแกแแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแ แซแแแแแ แแแแแแแ-แแแขแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ แแแแขแแแกแแแ แแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแกแแก. แแแแกแแแ, แแแแแแช แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แแแแ แแฃแแก แแแแแกแ แฉแแ แฅแแแฃแแ แกแแแคแแแแแแแแแแก แแแคแแ แแแแแแแจแ. แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แ แฃแกแ แแ แฉแแ แฅแแแ แฏแแ แแกแแแชแแแแก แแ แแแ แแแฌแแ แแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก แแซแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแ แแแกแชแ แแแแแงแ แ แงแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแแแก, แแกแแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแฃแจแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแฃแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แกแแแแคแ-แกแแแแแแ แแแแแช แแ แแแ.
1560 แฌแแแก แแแแแ IV-แแก แชแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแแกแขแแกแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแแ แแจแแแแแแแก แแแกแแแงแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแกแ แแแขแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แจแแกแแแแแแแก, แแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แฉแแแจแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแแ แจแแแแแแจแ แแแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแช แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแก แชแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแกแฃแแ, แแแ แแ แจแแกแแแแแแ. แชแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ, แแแแขแแแแช แแแ แกแแกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ 1561 แฌแแแก แชแแแแแแช แจแแแ แแ. แ แฃแกแแแจแ แงแแคแแแกแแก แแแแ แแฃแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแแ แซแแแแช แ แฃแกแ แฌแแ แฉแแแแแฃแแแก แแกแฃแแแ แแฅแแ แฌแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแกแแช แกแแแแคแ แฎแแแแแ แแแแ แ. แแแ แแแแ, แแแแ แแฃแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ แแแแแกแขแแฃแ แ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแแแแช แแแแแงแแ แ.
แแ แแแ แแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แ แแฎแแกแแแแแแก แแแแ แแฃแแก, แ แแแแ แช แขแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแฅแขแแ แแ แก, แ แแแแแแช แแฎแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแแแ. แแฃแแชแ, แแกแแแ แแ แกแแแแแก แฌแงแแ แแแแแช, แ แแแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแแแช แแแแ แแฃแแ แแฎแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แกแแคแ แแฎแแก แแกแแ แแแแแแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแกแแแแก แแแแแขแแแแก.
แแแ แแแชแแแแแแ
1570 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแแแ แแแฆแแก แแ แแแแแฌแแแก. แฃแแแ แแแฎแแแแกแแก, 1571 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แจแ แแแแ แแแ แฉแแ แฅแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแซแ แแแ. แแแแ แแฃแแแ, แแแกแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แกแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแ แแแแขแ แจแแขแแแ แฌแแแแแฌแงแ. แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแกแฌแแแ, แ แแ แแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแก แฏแแ แ 130,000 แแกแแแ, แงแแแแแแ, แงแแ แแแแ แแ แแกแขแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแ แก แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ, แ แแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแฎแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแจแ แแแ แขแ แแแ แแแฃแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ. แแแแแแชแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแฉแ แแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแ แขแ แจแแแ แซแแแแแ แแ แฉแแ, แ แ แแ แแกแแช แแแ แแแแแแก, แแแกแ แแ แ แแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแ แขแงแแแ แฉแแแแแแก.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1502
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1571
แฉแแ แฅแแแแแ
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18925944
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCl%C3%B6vl%C3%BCk
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Bรผlรถvlรผk
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Bรผlรถvlรผk is a village in the Lachin District of Azerbaijan.
History
The village was located in the Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh, coming under the control of ethnic Armenian forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in the early 1990s, subsequently becoming part of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh as part of its Kashatagh Province, referred to as Antaramej, being part of the Vazgenashen community. The village was returned to Azerbaijan as part of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement.
References
External links
Villages in Azerbaijan
Populated places in Lachin District
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512903
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
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แแแแแแแกแ
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แแแแแแแกแ โ แแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแกแขแ แแแแแฃแ แแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแกแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แขแแแ แ-แแ-แแแ แแกแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 40,5 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 671 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแฎแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแฎแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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18870775
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrk%C9%99k%C9%99ran
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Tรผrkษkษran
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Tรผrkษkษran (also, Tyurkyakeran) is a village and municipality in the Lankaran Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 1,170.
References
Populated places in Lankaran District
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26640229
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Nations%20Security%20Council%20Resolution%20901
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United Nations Security Council Resolution 901
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United Nations Security Council Resolution 901
United Nations Security Council resolution 901 was adopted unanimously on 4 March 1994. After reaffirming resolutions 849 (1993), 854 (1993), 858 (1993), 876 (1993), 881 (1993), 892 (1993) and 896 (1994), the council extended the mandate of the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) until 31 March 1994.
The council noted the negotiations to be held in New York City on 7 March 1994 following talks held in Geneva on 22โ24 February 1994, between the Georgian and Abkhaz sides, urging both to achieve progress as soon as possible so that the council could consider the establishment of a peace-keeping force in Abkhazia. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was requested to report back to the council by 21 March 1994 on developments in the negotiations and situation on the ground.
See also
AbkhazโGeorgian conflict
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 901 to 1000 (1994โ1995)
United Nations resolutions on Abkhazia
War in Abkhazia (1992โ1993)
References
External links
Text of the Resolution at undocs.org
0901
AbkhazโGeorgian conflict
1994 in Georgia (country)
1994 in Abkhazia
0901
March 1994 events
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534169
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
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แฉแแแแแแ แ
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แฉแแแแแแ แ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฃแแกแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแฎแ-แกแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 11,50 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 113 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แฃแแกแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฉแแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa - แฉแแแแแแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แฃแแกแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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169450
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
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แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ
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แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ (แแกแแแ แแแขแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ) โ แขแแฅแกแขแแก แแแ แแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแฃแขแแ แแก(แแ แแแ-แแก แแแจแแแแแแ). แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แจแแแแฎแแแแแก แแ แแก แแแแฅแแแ แแกแ แฃแแแแก แแ แแแฅแแแแแแแแก แ แแกแแช แแแแ แแแแแแ.
แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ แแแแชแแแก แกแแ แแขแแแก:
แกแแแแ แแแแ แขแแฅแกแแก แฌแแแแแฎแแ แแ แแแแแแแ
แขแแฅแกแขแแก แแแแแฅแแแ
แแแแ แ แแแแก แขแแฅแกแขแแก แกแแแแแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแ-แแก แแแแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แชแแ 1954 แฌแแแก แฉแแแขแแ แแก แฏแแ แฏแแแฃแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแจแ แ. แแแกแขแแ แขแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ(แแฎแแแแ แฏแแ แฏแแแฃแแแก แชแแ). แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แฏแแฃแคแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ 1957 แฌแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแแแแก, แแแขแแแแขแแแแกแ แแ แขแแแแแแฅแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แ. แแแแแจแแแแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ. แจแแแฅแแแ แ แฃแกแฃแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ. แแแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแจแ แแ แแก แแ แ แแกแแแฅแขแ: แแแแแงแแแแแแแ(แขแแฅแกแขแแแแก แแแ แแแแ, แกแแแแคแแ แแแชแแ แกแแฅแแแก แแแขแแแแขแแแแชแแ แแ แกแฎแแ) แแ แแแแ แแฃแแ(แแแแแแแแแ แแแขแงแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ, แแแแแแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แแฆแฌแแ แแแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแฃแจแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแแ
แฎแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแแฅแขแ
แฏแแ แฏแแแฃแแแก แชแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แฎแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแแฅแขแ
แแแแแแฃแขแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแชแแแแ แแแ
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13122539
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almod%C3%B3var%20del%20R%C3%ADo
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Almodรณvar del Rรญo
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Almodรณvar del Rรญo is a small historic city located in the province of Cรณrdoba, Spain.
References
External links
Almodรณvar del Rรญo - Sistema de Informaciรณn Multiterritorial de Andalucรญa
Municipalities in the Province of Cรณrdoba (Spain)
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45271333
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C5%A1lavs%20Egl%C4%ABtis
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Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis
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Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis (October 14, 1906 โ March 4, 1993) was a Latvian writer, journalist and painter who became a war refugee in 1944. He had a prolific career as a novelist, and his later work often examined aspects of exile life.
Biography
Anลกlavs Eglฤซtis was born in Riga, Latvia, the first of two children born to the writer Viktors Eglฤซtis and the teacher and translator Marija Eglฤซte, nรฉe Stalbova. His father was one of the most notable representatives of Decadence in Latvian literature. During the First World War, his family lived in other parts of the Russian Empire, but returned to Latvia in 1918. For a short time they settled in Alลซksne. After 1919, his family lived in Riga and Eglฤซtis started his studies in Riga City gymnasium No. 2. He also studied painting in the studio of a Latvian painter Voldemฤrs Tone at this time.
The family spent all their summer holidays in Inciems cottage, which he later described in his novel Pansija pilฤซ (1962). He caught tuberculosis in 1925. His mother, who suffered pulmonary disease, died in 1926, during his stay in Leysin sanatorium. In 1930, his father remarried the artist and writer Hilda Vฤซka, whose works and personality came to influence Anลกlavs' literature.
He continued his studies in the Art Academy of Latvia and graduated in 1935. After graduation, he worked as a teacher of drawing. In 1936 his first collection of novels, Maestro was published. In 1938 Eglฤซtis started to work as a journalist in the biggest Latvian newspaper Jaunฤkฤs ziลas. In 1940, he also collaborated on the magazine Atpลซta.
He left Riga for Courland in October 1944 and later fled to Germany, where he settled in Berlin. During the Battle of Berlin his flat was destroyed in an air raid, and Eglฤซtis moved to Switzerland. In 1950, he moved to California, US.
His father, writer Viktors Eglฤซtis, was arrested, tortured and killed in the Cheka building in Riga in 1945. His grave is unknown.
In his American exile, Eglฤซtis wrote more than 50 novels and short stories. Parallel to his literature career he became a theatre and film critic for the Latvian newspaper Laiks published in Brooklyn, New York, which also serialized a number of his novels. In 1957, his Neierasta Amerika began to be serialized in the Soviet Latvian magazine Zvaigzne, but it was immediately qualified as an 'import of bourgeois nationalism' and soon discontinued.
The success of his works resides in their avangardist flavour combined with loyalty to the popular taste. In post-Soviet Latvia, his Shameless Old Men, directed by Mihail Kublinskis, is one of the most successful productions of the National Theater.
He died of cancer in Los Angeles in 1993. In 2006, the Latvian Post issued a commemorative stamp in honor of Eglฤซtis. A monument to the writer was installed in 2008 in Inciems.
Sources
References
External links
Writers from Riga
People from Kreis Riga
20th-century Latvian writers
Latvian journalists
20th-century journalists
Latvian World War II refugees
Latvian emigrants to the United States
Deaths from cancer in California
1906 births
1993 deaths
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Bรถrek
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Bรถrek or burek is a family of pastries or pies found in the Balkans, Middle East and Central Asia. The pastry is made of a thin flaky dough such as filo with a variety of fillings, such as meat, cheese, spinach, or potatoes. Boreks are mainly associated with the Middle East, Armenia, and also with the former Ottoman Empire, including the Balkans and the South Caucasus, Eastern European and Central European countries, Northern Africa and Central Asia. A borek may be prepared in a large pan and cut into portions after baking, or as individual pastries. They are usually baked but some varieties can be fried. Borek is sometimes sprinkled with sesame or nigella seeds, and it can be served hot or cold.
It is a custom of Sephardic Jews to have bourekas for their Shabbat breakfast meal on Saturday mornings. In Bosnia and Herzegovina it has become commonplace to have borek as a breakfast food with coffee. It is commonly served with afternoon tea in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is commonly served with a yogurt drink in Serbia and North Macedonia.
Origin and names
The English name borek comes from Turkish (Turkish pronunciation: [bลหษพec]), while burek is the form used in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Other variants include byrek, in Albania; boureki in Greece; byurek in Bulgaria; bourek and brick Annabi in Algeria; brik in Tunisia.
According to Sevan Niลanyan, the Turkish word is ultimately originated from Turkic , from bรถฤรผr (meaning 'kidney'). Niลanyan noted that the word is also used in Siberian Turkic languages such as Saqa as bรถrรผรถk. According to another theory, it may have come from the Persian , the diminutive form of or or, meaning "stew", and refers to any dish made with yufka (filo). The Persian word bureh goes back to the Middle Persian *bลrak. This word ultimately goes back to the Proto-Indo-European root *bher- which meant "to carve, cut, split". The name of another pastry, shekarbura, is also borrowed from the same Persian word. Niลanyan noted the possibility of Turkic origin for the Persian word.
Borek may have its origins in Persian or Turkish cuisine and may be one of its most significant and, in fact, ancient elements of the Turkish cuisine, having been developed in Central Asia before some westward migration to Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, or by nomadic Turks of central Asia some time before the seventh century. Another popular theory posits that it may be a descendant of the pre-existing Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Anatolian dish en tyritas plakountas (Byzantine Greek: ฮตฮฝ ฯฯ
ฯฮฏฯฮฑฯ ฯฮปฮฑฮบฮฟฯฮฝฯฮฑฯ) "cheesy placenta", itself a descendant of placenta, the classical baked layered dough and cheese dish of Ancient Roman cuisine.
The dish was a popular element of Ottoman cuisine, and may have been invented at the Ottoman court, though there are also indications it was made among Central Asian Turks; other versions may date to the Classical era of the eastern Mediterranean.
One alternative etymological origin that has been suggested is that the word comes from the Turkic root bur- 'to twist', but the sound harmony for this proposal would dictate the suffix "-aq", and Turkic languages in Arabic orthography invariably write with an ู not an ู, which weighs against this origin.
Regional variants
Even though borek is very popular in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, especially in North Africa and throughout the Balkans, it originated in Anatolia. Borek is also part of Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish traditions. They have been enthusiastically adopted by the Ottoman Jewish communities, and have been describedโalong with boyos de pan and bulemasโas forming "the trio of preeminent Ottoman Jewish pastries".
Turkish variants
The word "bรถrek" in Turkish can be modified by a descriptive word referring to the shape, ingredients of the pastry, or a specific region where it is typically prepared, as in the above kol bรถreฤi, su bรถreฤi, talaล bรถreฤi or Sarฤฑyer bรถreฤi. There are many variations of bรถrek in Turkish cuisine:
Balkans
In the former Yugoslavia, burek, also known as pita in Bosnia and Herzegovina, is an extremely common dish, made with yufka. This kind of pastry is also popular in Croatia, where it was imported by Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albanians. In Serbia, Albania, Kosovo, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Slovenia, burek is made from layers of dough, alternating with layers of other fillings in a circular baking pan and then topped with a last layer of dough. Traditionally it may be baked with no filling (prazan, meaning empty), with stewed minced meat and onions, or with cheese. Modern bakeries offer cheese and spinach, meat, apple, sour cherries, potato, mushroom, and other fillings. It is often eaten along with a plain yoghurt drink.
Zeljanica is a spinach burek common in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Albania
In Albania, this dish is called . In Kosovo and few other regions byrek is also known as "pite". Byrek is traditionally made with several layers of dough that have been thinly rolled out by hand. The final form can be small, individual triangles, especially from street vendors called 'Byrektore' which sell byrek and other traditional pastries and drinks. It can also be made as one large byrek that is cut into smaller pieces. There are different regional variations of byrek. It can be served cold or hot.
The most common fillings include: cheese (especially gjizรซ, salted curd cheese), ground meat and onions (ragรน style filling), spinach and eggs, milk and eggs with pre-baked dough layers, but it can also be made with tomato and onions, peppers and beans, potato or a sweet filling of pumpkin, nettles (known as byrek me hithra), or kidney beans (popular in winter).
Lakror is an Albanian pie dish from southern Albania. The pie is sometimes called a type of byrek pastry. Lakror is generally filled with a variety of greens or meats. Another related dish is Fli, typical from the North of Albania and Kosovo. It is made up of layers of a flour and water batter, cream and butter. Traditionally, it is baked on embers like lakror.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
In 2012, Lonely Planet included the Bosnian burek in their "The World's Best Street Food" book. Eaten for any meal of the day, in Bosnia and Herzegovina the burek is a meat-filled pastry, traditionally rolled in a spiral and cut into sections for serving. The same spiral filled with cottage cheese is called sirnica, with spinach and cheese zeljanica, with potatoes krompiruลกa, and all of them are generically referred to as pita. Eggs are used as a binding agent when making sirnica and zeljanica.
Bulgaria
The Bulgarian version of the pastry, locally called byurek (Cyrillic: ), is typically regarded as a variation of banitsa, a similar Bulgarian dish. Bulgarian byurek is a type of banitsa with sirene cheese, the difference being that byurek also has eggs added.
In Bulgarian, byurek has also come to be applied to other dishes similarly prepared with cheese and eggs, such as chushka byurek, a peeled and roasted pepper filled with cheese, and tikvichka byurek, blanched or uncooked bits of squash with eggs filling.
Greece
In Greece, boureki or bourekaki, and Cyprus poureki (in the Greek dialects of the island) are small pastries made with phyllo dough or with pastry crust. Pastries in the bรถrek family are also called pita (pie): tiropita, spanakopita, and so on. Galaktoboureko is a syrupy phyllo pastry filled with custard, common throughout Greece and Cyprus. In the Epirus, ฯฮบฮตฯ-ฮผฯฮฟฯ
ฯฮญฮบ (derives from the Turkish ลeker-bรถrek, "sugar-borek") is a small rosewater-flavoured marzipan sweet. Bougatsa (Greek is a Greek variation of a borek which consists of either semolina custard, cheese, or minced meat filling between layers of phyllo, and is said to originate in the city of Serres, an art of pastry brought with the immigrants from Constantinople and is most popular in Thessaloniki, in the Central Macedonia region of Northern Greece. Serres achieved the record for the largest puff pastry on 1 June 2008. It weighed 182.2 kg, was 20 metres long, and was made by more than 40 bakers. In Venetian Corfu, boureki was also called burriche, and filled with meat and leafy greens. The Pontian Greek piroski (ฯฮนฯฮฟฯฮบฮฏ) derives its name from borek too. It is almost identical in name and form to pirozhki (Russian: ะฟะธัะพะถะบะธ), which is of Slavic origin, and popular in Russia and further east.
Serbia
The recipe for "round" burek was developed in the Serbian town of Niลก. In 1498, it was introduced by a famous Turkish baker, Mehmed Oฤlu from Istanbul. Eventually burek spread from the southeast (southern Serbia, Kosovo and North Macedonia) to the rest of Yugoslavia. Niลก hosts an annual burek competition and festival called Buregdลพijada. In 2005, a 100 kg (220 lbs) burek was made, with a diameter of 2 metres (โ6 ft) and it is considered to have been the world biggest burek ever made.
Slovenia
In Slovenia, burek is one of the most popular fast-food dishes, but at least one researcher found that it is viewed negatively by Slovenes due to their prejudices towards immigrants, especially those from other countries of former Yugoslavia. A publication of a diploma thesis on this at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana in 2010 stirred controversy regarding the appropriateness of the topic. The mentor of the student that had written the thesis described the topic as legitimate and burek as denoting primitive behaviour in Slovenia in spite of it being by his account "sophisticated food". He explained the controversy as a good example of the conclusions of the student. In 2008, an employee of the Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SRC SASA) had attained his PhD degree with a thesis on meta-burek at the University of Nova Gorica.
Other countries
Algeria
In Algeria, this dish is called bourek, a delicious roll of pastry sheet stuffed with meat, onions, and spice, is one of the main appetizers of Algerian cuisine.
It is a starter served when receiving guests and especially during Ramadan evenings during the round meal of the holy month, usually accompanied by Algerian Chorba or Harira. Other forms include bourek packed with chicken and onions, shrimp and bรฉchamel sauce, or a vegetarian alternative usually made of mashed potatoes and spinach.
Another Algerian variant of Bourek is called Brik or Brika, a speciality of Algeria's east, notably Annaba. It is a savory entree made from brik leaf, stuffed with mashed potatoes and a mixture of minced meat, onions, cheese and parsley. The whole is topped with a seasoned raw egg which cooks once the sheet of brik has been folded and soaked in boiling oil.
Armenia
In Armenia, byorek (ีขีตีธึีฅีฏ) or borek (ีขีธึีฅีฏ) consists of dough, or filo dough, folded into triangles and stuffed with spinach, onions and feta cheese or ground beef.
Israel
Burekas have long been part of Sephardic cuisine were introduced to Israel by Sephardic Jews who settled there. Burekas can be filled with various fillings, although meat is less common in Israel because of the Jewish dietary restrictions. Most burekas in Israel are made with margarine-based doughs rather than butter-based doughs so that (at least the non-cheeseโfilled varieties) can be eaten along with either milk meals or meat meals in accordance with the kosher prohibition against mixing milk and meat at the same meal. The most popular fillings are salty cheese, spinach, eggplant, and mashed potato, with other fillings including mushrooms, sweet potato, chickpeas, olives, mallows, swiss chard, and pizza flavor.
Other related pastries traditionally consumed by Sephardic Jews include bulemas and boyoz, which are also popular in the Turkish city of Izmir.
Libya
Known in Libya as brik, it is also a popular dish in Libya.
Moldova and Romania
The regional cuisine of the Moldavian West bank of the Pruth still yields a type of dumpling-like food called burechiuลe (sometimes called burechiลฃe) which is described as dough in the shape of a ravioli-like square which is filled with mushrooms such as Boletus edulis, and sealed around its edges and then tossed and subsequently boiled in borscht like soups or chorbas. They are traditionally eaten in the last day of fasting at the time of the Christmas Eve. It is not clear if the burechiuลe derive their name from the Turco-Greek bรถrek (which is a distinct possibility given the fact that Moldavia was ruled for many decades by dynasties of Greek Phanariotes and that encouraged Greek colonists to settle in the area), so at the receiving end of cultural and culinary influences coming from them, or it takes its name from that of the mushroom Boletus (burete in its Romanian language rhotacised version, and it meant "mushroom" as well as "sponge") by the pattern of the ravioli, which were named after the Italian name of the turnip with which they were once filled.
In Romania, the plฤcintฤ is considered a variation of the phyllo-wrapped pie, with the dough traditionally stuffed with cheese. In Dobruja, an eastern territory that used to be a Turkish province, one can find both the Turkish influenceโplฤcintฤ dobrogeanฤ either filled with cheese or with minced meat and served with sheep yoghurt or the Tatar street food Suberekโa deep-fried half-moon cheese-filled dough.
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, Burฤk, is usually made in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, it mostly resembles the Bosnian rolled burek but can also come in other variants, and it is stuffed with minced meat or with salty cheese and dill. It's usually served during the month of Ramadan, same goes to samosas.
Tunisia
In Tunisia, there is a variant known as the brik that consists of thin crepe-like pastry around a filling and is commonly deep fried. The best-known is the egg brik, a whole egg in a triangular pastry pocket with chopped onion, tuna, harissa and parsley. The Tunisian brik is also very popular in Israel, due to the large Tunisian Jewish population there. It is often filled with a raw egg and herbs or tuna, harissa, and olives, and it is sometimes served in a pita. This is also known as a boreeka.
See also
List of ancient dishes and foods
List of pastries
Zelnik
Banitsa
Bierock
Bourekas
Boyoz
Gibanica
Pastel
Pirog
Pirozhki
Samosa
Mongolian Khuushuur
References
Albanian cuisine
Algerian cuisine
Ancient dishes
Armenian cuisine
Assyrian cuisine
Austrian cuisine
Balkan cuisine
Belarusian cuisine
Bulgarian cuisine
Central Asian cuisine
Croatian cuisine
Cypriot cuisine
Czech cuisine
Egyptian cuisine
Estonian cuisine
German cuisine
Greek pastries
Hungarian cuisine
Iraqi cuisine
Israeli cuisine
Jewish cuisine
Jordanian cuisine
Kosovan cuisine
Latvian cuisine
Lebanese cuisine
Libyan cuisine
Macedonian cuisine
Maltese cuisine
Mediterranean cuisine
Montenegrin cuisine
Moroccan cuisine
Ottoman cuisine
Palestinian cuisine
Polish cuisine
Romanian cuisine
Russian cuisine
Savoury pies
Serbian cuisine
Slovak cuisine
Slovenian cuisine
Stuffed dishes
Syrian cuisine
Tunisian cuisine
Turkish tea culture
Ukrainian cuisine
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9F%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94
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แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ
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แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ โ แแขแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแก แแแแฃแแแแขแ แแแแแชแแแจแ (XIV โ XV แกแแฃแแแแแแแ). แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแ แกแแแก แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แ แแงแ แคแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ. แแจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ 1309-1424 แฌแแแแจแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแแชแแแก แแก แแแแแแ แ แจแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแ. แกแแกแแฎแแแจแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แกแแแญแแก แแ แกแแแแขแแก แกแฎแแแแแแ, แแฃแจแแแแแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แกแแกแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแก แกแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแฌแแแแ แกแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแชแแ. แแแ แแแ แกแแ แแฃแแแ แแงแ แแฃแ แแกแขแแ แแแแขแแ แ, แแแแชแแแแ แแ, แชแแแแแ แแก แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแ แแ แกแแแฆแแแ แฃแฌแงแแแ. แแแแแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ แขแ แแแฃแแแ, แกแแแแแแแช แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แฎแแแแฎแก. แฅแแแแฅแแก แกแขแฃแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแชแแขแแก แแฎแ แแแแ แฏแแแแ แก แฅแแแแแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแกแแแ, แแ แคแแ แแแ, แฎแแแแแแแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแก แคแแฎแแแแแ.
แแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ, แฌแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแกแแแ, แกแแ-แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แจแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แฅแแแแฅแก แแแแแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแ แแแกแแแแแก.
IX แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแแแแชแแแแแแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแก, แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแ แแฆแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแขแแก แฎแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแแก แฏแแฃแคแแ แแแแแแขแแแแ. แแฅ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแก แแกแแแแกแ, แแ แฎแแแแ แจแแแแกแแแขแฃแแ แฎแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ. แแแกแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแ XIV แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แฅแแแก แฃแคแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแจแแแแแแแแแช 1340 แฌแแแก แฌแแแแแฌแงแแก. แแแ แแแแแ แแแฉแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแ แคแ แแ แแแแ แแแฃ โแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแ แแแแแโ. แแฃแแชแ แกแแแแแแ แกแแฎแ แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฆแ. แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแคแแ แแแแแ แแ แแฅแชแ แกแแแแแงแ แจแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แซแแแแแแแกแแแ แกแแแฆแแแ-แกแแแแญแ แ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แกแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแก แกแแ แแฃแแ แแงแ แแแแแ แแแฆแแ แแ แแแฎแแแแแฃแแฎแแแ แแแฆแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแ แขแงแแแก แแแก. แแแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแฃแ แฃแแ แกแแแขแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแ แ แกแแ แแฃแแแก แแแฏแแแแจแ แแแแ แ แแขแแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแฎแแแฌแแแ แแ แแแแแแกแฌแ แแคแฃแแแ: แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแก แกแแ แแฃแแแก แแแแ แแแฆแก แจแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแชแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแแก แกแขแแแจแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ แแ แ แฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแแ แแแฏแแ. แแกแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแก แแแแกแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแขแแ โ แ.แฌ. แขแแขแ แแแแกแแแแ, แ แแช แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแก แกแแ แแฃแแแก แแแฆแแแก แแ แแแแ แชแแแแกแ แแ แกแขแ แฃแฅแขแฃแ แแก แฃแแแ แฉแฃแแแแก. แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแฏแแแแ แแ แแ แแก แแแแแฌแแฃแแ, แแ แแแแแ แแแแแชแแฃแ แ แจแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แชแฎแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแแแแแ แแ แแแ, แคแแกแแแแก แแ แแแแ แกแแแ แขแงแแก แฅแแแแก. แแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแ แแฆแแฅแแแแ แแแฎแฃแ แฃแแแ, แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แแฎแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แคแแแฏแแ แ แแแแฌแแแ แแแก แแ แแแแขแแ แแฅแแแแแ แแแแขแ แแกแขแ แฅแแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแ แแก โแแแฎแฃแ แฃแแแแโ แแแแฎแแแแก แแ แแ แแฃแแแแก, แแแ แแแ แแแแก แแ แแแแแแขแแแ แแ แกแแฎแฃแ แแแแก แจแแแแฃแแแแ แกแขแแขแแแฃแ แแแแก แจแแแ แซแแแแแก แแแแฅแแแก แแฅแ แแแก. แแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแแก แแก แแแแแ แแแกแคแ แ-แแแแ แ แฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแ แแจแฃแแแก แแแแแแจแแแแ แแแแแก แฐแแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแแแแก โแแชแแแโ.
แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแฃแแฎแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแแขแแกแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแ - โแกแแแแแแแแก แกแแแกแฏแแแ แโ, โแแแแก แแ แแแโ แแ โแจแแชแแแแแโ 1400 แฌแแแก แแแฉแแแ.
แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ แแงแ แแ แ แแแ แขแ แแแแแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแ, แแ แแแแ แแแแแชแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก, แแแกแ แแแขแแแแแแกแ แแ แซแแแแแแแกแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแกแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแ แแงแ แแ แ แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ, แแ แแแแ แแฃแแแแแแ แกแแแงแแคแแแ แ แแแแแแแชแแแช โ แแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแขแแแแแแก แฃแคแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแชแแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แฐแฅแแแแแ. แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแแ แฃแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ แแ แแแขแแ แแแ แ แกแ แฃแแแ แแแกแฃแฎแแแแ แคแฃแแฅแชแแแก โ แงแแคแแแแงแ แแงแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแชแแแก แซแแแแฃแคแแแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ.
แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แคแแกแแแแก แแแฆแแแ, แแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก โแฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแก แกแแแแแ แแกแโ แฃแแแแแ แแกแ แแแแแขแแแ, แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแ. โแแแแ แกแแแญแแก แแแ แแแแ (แกแแแ แซแ 54 แ แแ แกแแแแแ 25 แ) แแแแฉแแแแ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แกแแงแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แแจแ. แแแกแ แแแแแแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแชแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแ แกแฃแ แแแแแแ. แแฅ แแแ แแแแแแแ แฏแแ 480, แจแแแแแ แแ 1700 แแแแแชแแแแ แแแขแ แแชแแฃแกแ, แแแแช แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแก แฌแงแแแขแแ. แแแ แแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแจแ 1340 แฌแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ 1577 แฌแแแก แฎแแแซแ แแก แจแแแแแ แแแแฌแแ แแ แแแกแ แจแแแ แแแฌแแแ แจแแกแแชแแแแแ แแแฎแแ. แขแแแขแแ แแขแแก แแแแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแ แญแแ แแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แกแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแ แแแแแชแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแก แแแแแกแฎแแแแก แขแแขแก แฃแฌแแแแก. แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแ โแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแจแโ แแ แแ แ แแแ แขแ แแแแแชแแแก แงแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แคแแแแ แแกแแฎแฃแแ, แแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแจแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แ. แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแก แแแแแ แแกแแแ แขแแแขแแ แแขแแก แขแแแ แฐแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแแแแ, แแ แแแแแแแ โแกแแฃแแแแแกแ แคแแ แฌแแ แฃแ แแแแฃแจแแแ แแโ, แกแแแแแแแ แแ, โแงแแแแแแ แแแแแโ แแแแแแแ: 7X22 แแแขแ แ.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ โแแแแ แกแแแญแแก แแแ แแแแแแแโ แแแแ แแแแแแ, แแฅ แแฌแงแแแแแ แแฃแแแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แกแแกแแแแ แแแแแแแช. แกแแแญแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแแก, แแ แฉแแแแแแแกแ แแ แฃแแแแแแกแ แแแกแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ, แขแ แแแฃแแแแ แแฏแแ แแ แแฅ แแแแแฐแฅแแแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแ. แกแแแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแ แกแแกแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแชแแ แแ โแแแแ แกแแแญแแก แแแ แแแแจแโ แแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแก, แกแแแแช แแฎแแแแแแแ แฏแแจแฃแจแแแแกแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฆแแแแขแแก แกแแฅแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แฃแคแ แ โแฌแแ แแแโ แแแแแจแแฃแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแ, แซแแแแแแแ.
แแฎแแ แแก แฎแแแ
แแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแก แแแแ แแแ, แฃแจแฃแแแแ แแ แฎแแก แแแแแฆแแ, แแแแแแ แแแแก แชแแแแแแ แชแแฎแ แขแงแแแแก แกแแแแแแแ. แแ แแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแชแ แ แแแฎแฃแ แฃแแ แฎแแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแฉแแแแก แแแแแขแแแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแขแแแ แแแ แแ แฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แชแแฎแแจแ แแแแแฐแงแแแแแ. แแแฎแฃแ แฃแแ แฎแแแแก แคแแแฏแ แแแแแแ แแกแฏแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแแก แจแแแซแแแ, แฃแแแแแกแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแกแแแแก แแ แ แแฆแ แแฅแแ แฃแแแ, แกแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ แแฌแแ แแ แแฎแ แแแแแแ - แฎแแแก แกแแฎแแแ แกแฌแแ แแ แแแแก แแแแ แแฌแแแ.
แแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแแ แแก แฎแแแแก แกแแฎแแแ แกแฎแแ, แฃแคแ แ แ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแก แแแฃแแแแจแแ แแ โ แแฃ แจแแงแแแ แแแฃแแแแ แฎแแแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก, แแแแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแแแฎแแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแแ. แแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แฎแแแ แฃแแแ โแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแกโ แฎแแแแ แฃแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แ แแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแซแ, โแแแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแโ, แแฃแ แแแแ โแแกแขแแ แแแแโ, 2013 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แ, #1/25
แแแแแชแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแแแ
แแแแแชแแแก แฆแแ แกแจแแกแแแแจแแแแแแแ
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6616073
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Ballestero
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El Ballestero
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El Ballestero is a municipality in Albacete, CastillaโLa Mancha, Spain. It is 68 km west of Albacete, a small town in La Mancha. The municipality was likely founded after the meeting between Alfonso X (the wise) and his son-in-law, Jaime I of Aragรณn. The goal of the meeting was to settle the ownership of the recently captured territory. Local legend has it that this fertile, well-watered area was settled by crossbowmen ("ballestero" in Spanish) now redundant following the cessation of hostilities. The town was established around a crossroads on the main road between Munera and Robledo.
Like many of the small towns in La Mancha, El Ballestero lost a significant share of its population in the mid-20th century. In the 1949 census, El Ballestero had 1,858 inhabitants, but the population shrank over the following decades; in the peak emigration year, 1964, over 500 left. The emigrants largely moved to large cities and the coast, where employment opportunities had increased in the growing tourist industry. In recent years, many abandoned homes have been purchased by people from Madrid, Valencia and other large cities who have refurbished them as second homes. Over the last 10 years, the number of abandoned houses still in ruins has reduced substantially.
Facilities
The town hosts an 18th-century church built in the Renaissance style, two bars serving food, a supermarket, a pharmacy, a bread shop, a hairdresser, a public library, a bank, a school and an Olympic-sized swimming pool which is open to the public in July and August. On weekends, a music bar opens its doors. There is a small market held on Thursdays. There are also various guest houses (casas rurales) and a small hotel.
Economy
The main industry is farming (largely lamb, wheat and barley), but there is also a large factory producing embutidos and hams.
El Ballestero has many wind turbines. In June, crops are harvested and the countryside looks like a prairie. La Mancha has the slow-growing Juniperus sabina, now fully protected and beginning to rebound..
Tourism
The town is on the Ruta de Don Quijote, and nearby attractions include Libisosa, the remains of a Roman town near Lezuza; Alcaraz, a medieval town; Las Lagunas de Ruidera; and the Sierra de Alcaraz, a home to wildlife. El Santuario de Nuestra Seรฑora de Cortes is also nearby.
In addition to the fictional hero Don Quixote, Hannibal, the Carthaginian general who almost conquered Rome in the 3rd century BCE also passed close to the town along a prehistoric track that crosses the Iberian Peninsula; this ancient road was rebuilt by the Romans, and some 800 metres remain in good condition north of town. The Caรฑada Real de Los Serranos, which forms part of the medieval network of cattle tracks across Spain between Cordoba and Teruel is slightly further north.
Climate
In summer, the temperature during the day is significantly hotter than in coastal towns such as Benidorm. However, because of its elevation of 3,000 feet (1045 metres) above sea level, the nights stay cool even in midsummer , and the town fills with people from the coast and Madrid in July and August, many with secondary homes here.
In autumn, the town is popular with those who hunt the abundant hares, rabbits and partridges.
In winter, the temperature can fall well below zero and it snows several times a year, although it tends to melt after a few days.
The main local fiestas are San Lorenzo (10 August) and San Miguel (29 September).
Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn
A local tradition that takes place on Whitsunday and the Feast of St Michael is Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn, celebrating events that took place 400 years ago. According to tradition, in the 17th century, a severe plague outbreak occurred in Villalgordal, a small village 14 km south of El Ballestero. This epidemic killed most of the population; this was possibly the Great Plague of Seville of 1646 to 1652. Once it was over, the survivors decided to burn down the village on health grounds and moved to the surrounding towns. The majority came to El Ballestero and brought with them their "Virgen de la Encarnaciรณn", a statue of the Virgin Mary slightly smaller than life size, to place in the local church. Each Whitsunday, the villagers come together and carry her over the old track to the site of Villalgordal which is now merely a stony field with a small refurbished chapel in the middle of it overlooking a river. Once they get to Villalgordal, the Virgin is returned to her original home in the chapel and a mass is celebrated. The town then provides a meal for all the participants and spectators. Once this is over, the chapel is locked up and the townsfolk return home.
On 29 September, during the Fiesta de San Miguel, there is another Mass at Villalgordal and, after another meal, she is carried back to El Ballestero being met at the entrance to the town by floats depicting local life. She is escorted back to the church whilst bonfires are lit in celebration of her return. This is followed by a firework display.
The statue spends the winter in the church and is returned to its summer chapel the following year. This has been done for around 400 years.
References
External links
Mayorship site
Community website
Municipalities of the Province of Albacete
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13247763
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevl%C3%A2na%20Museum
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Mevlรขna Museum
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Mevlรขna Museum
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|name = Mevlana Museum
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|image = Maulana Jelaledin Muhammad Rumi in konya.jpg
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|caption = Mevlana Museum
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|religious_affiliation = Islam
|location = Konya, Turkey
|established = Islamic era
|administration = Turkish government
|leadership = Imam(s):
|architecture_type = Mosque
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The Mevlรขna Museum, in Konya, Turkey, started life as the dervish lodge (Tekke) of the Mevlevi order, better known as the whirling dervishes. It houses the mausoleum of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (Turkish: Celaleddin-i Rumi), a Persian Sufi mystic.
History
Sultan 'Ala' al-Din Kayqubad, the Seljuk sultan who had invited Mevlรขna to Konya, gave his rose garden as a burial place for Rumi's father, Baha' ud-Din Walad (also written as Bahaeddin Veled), who died on 12 January 1231. When Mevlรขna died on 17 December 1273 he was buried next to his father.
Mevlรขna's successor Hรผsamettin รelebi decided to build a mausoleum (Kubbe-i-Hadra) over the grave of his master. The Seljuk construction, under architect Badr al-Din Tabrizi, was completed in 1274. The construction costs were met by Gurju Khatun, the wife of the Seljuk Emir Suleiman Pervรขne, and Emir Alameddin Kayser. The cylindrical drum of the dome originally rested on four pillars. The dome is covered with turquoise tiles.
Additional sections were added to the original complex until 1854. Selimoฤlu Abdรผlvahit decorated the interior and carved the wood for the catafalques.
A decree issued by Atatรผrk on 6 April 1926 ruled that the mausoleum and the dervish lodge (dergah) must be turned into a museum which duly opened on 2 March 1927. In 1954 it was officially renamed the Mevlรขna Museum.
Description
The main gate (Devisan Kapฤฑsฤฑ) of the museum leads into a marble-paved courtyard. The dervishes' kitchen (matbah) and the tomb of Hurrem Pasha, built during the reign of Sรผleyman the Magnificent, stand on the right side. On the left are 17 cells for dervishes, built during the reign of Murad III, each of them covered with a small dome. The kitchen was also used for educating the dervishes and teaching them to perform the sema, the famous whirling ritual. The แนฃadirvan (ablutions fountain) in the middle of the courtyard was built in the reign of Yavuz Sultan Selim.
Ritual Hall
The Ritual Hall (Semahane) was built during the reign of Sultan Sรผleyman the Magnificent at the same time as the adjoining small mosque. In this hall the dervishes used to perform the Sema, the ritual whirling dance, performed to the rhythm of musical instruments such as the kemence (a small violin with three strings), the kemane (a larger violin), the halile (a small cymbal), the daire (a kind of tambourine), the kudรผm (a drum), the rebab (a guitar) and the ney (flute), once played by Mevlรขna himself. Examples of these instruments are on display in this room, together with an 18th-century Kirลehir prayer rug, dervish clothing (including Mevlรขna's) and four crystal-glass mosque lamps (16th century, Egyptian Mameluk period). In this room there is also a rare Divan-i-Kebir (collection of lyric poetry) from 1366 and two fine specimens of Masnavis (books of poetry written by Mevlรขna) from 1278 and 1371.
Sacrophagi
Mevlana's sarcophagus is placed under the turquoise dome (Kibab'ulaktab) that is a symbol of the city, with the actual burial chamber beneath it. It is covered with brocade embroidered in gold with verses from the Koran. This, and all other covers, were a gift of sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1894. Next to Mevlรขna's sarcophagus are several others, including those of his father Bahaeddin Veled and his son Sultan Veled. The wooden sarcophagus of Mevlรขna, dating from the 12th century, is a masterpiece of Seljuk woodcarving. The silver lattice, separating the sarcophagi from the main chamber, was built by Ilyas in 1579.
Mausoleum
The Tomb gate (Tรผrbe Kapisi) leads into the mausoleum and the small mosque. Its two doors are decorated with Seljuk motifs and a Persian text from the Mollah Abdurrahman Cami dating from 1492. It leads into the small Tilavet (Chanting) Room (Tilavet Odasฤฑ) which is decorated with rare Ottoman calligraphy in the sรผlรผs, nesih, and talik styles. In this room the Koran used to be recited and chanted continuously before the mausoleum was turned into a museum.
A silver door leads from the Tilavet Room into the mausoleum. According to an inscription on the door, this was made by the son of Mehmed III in 1599. On the left side six coffins are lined up in rows of three; they belonged to the dervishes (Horasan erler) who came to Konya with Mevlรขna and his family from Belkh. Opposite them on a raised platform beneath two domes stand cenotaphs belonging to descendants of the Mevlรขna family (his wife and children) and some high-ranking members of the Mevlevi order.
Mosque
The adjoining small mosque (masjid) is now used to exhibit a collection of old illuminated Korans and valuable prayer rugs. A box (decorated with nacre is believed to contain the Holy Beard of Muhammad (Sakal-i แนขerif'') .
Tourism and culture
The mausoleum was depicted on the reverse of the 5000 lira Turkish banknotes used between 1981 and 1994. It received 3.4 million visitors in 2019, making it Turkey's most visited museum that year.
Gallery
See also
Rumi
References
External links
Virtual Tour of Mevlรขna Museum Turkish and English
Museums established in 1927
1927 establishments in Turkey
Biographical museums in Turkey
Religious museums in Turkey
Museums in Konya
Mevlevi Order
Rumi
20th-century religious buildings and structures in Turkey
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Sal Khan
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Sal Khan
Salman "Sal" Amin Khan (born October 11, 1976) is an American educator and the founder of Khan Academy, a free online non-profit educational platform with which he has produced over 6,500 video lessons teaching a wide spectrum of academic subjects, originally focusing on mathematics and science. He is also the founder of Khan Lab School, a private brick-and-mortar school in Mountain View, California.
, the Khan Academy channel on YouTube has 7.94 million subscribers, and its videos have been viewed more than two billion times. In 2012, Khan was named in the annual publication of Time 100. In the same year, he was featured on the cover of Forbes, with the tagline "The $1 Trillion Opportunity."
Early life and family
Khan was born in Metairie, Louisiana, on October 11, 1976, into a Bengali Muslim family. His father Fakhrul Amin Khan (d. 1990) was a physician, originally hailing from the village of Rahmatpur in Babuganj Upazila, Bangladesh. His mother Masuda Khan is from Murshidabad in West Bengal, India. He grew up poor, recalling that his mother made $16,000 in 1993โhe knew this because he had to do her taxes to get financial aid. They are descendants of Rahmat Khan, a 16th-century Pashtun chieftain who was killed in battle with Kandarpanarayan Rai, the erstwhile Raja of Chandradwip. Khan's grandfather Abdul Wahab Khan was a prominent Pakistani politician who served as the country's second official Speaker of the National Assembly.
Education
He attended Grace King High School, where, as he recalls, "a few classmates were fresh out of jail and others were bound for top universities." He was a cartoonist for the high school's newspaper. Khan took upper-level mathematics courses at the University of New Orleans while he was in high school and graduated as valedictorian in 1994.
He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), graduating in 1998 with Bachelor's and Master of Science degrees in electrical engineering and computer science, and another bachelor's degree in mathematics. In his final year, Khan was the president of the "Senior Gift Committee," a philanthropy program of the graduating class.
Khan also holds a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School.
Career
In 2002, Khan was a summertime intern at PARC. From 2003 to late 2009, he worked as a hedge fund analyst at Connective Capital Management.
Khan Academy
In 2004, Khan began tutoring his cousin, Nadia, in mathematics over the internet using Yahoo!'s Doodle notepad. When other relatives and friends sought his tutoring, he moved his tutorials to YouTube, where he created an account on November 16, 2006.
The popularity of his educational videos on the video-sharing website prompted Khan to quit his job as a financial analyst in late 2009. He moved his focus to developing his YouTube channel, Khan Academy, full-time with the aid of close friend Josh Gefner. Khan subsequently received sponsorship from Ann Doerr, the wife of John Doerr.
His videos received worldwide interest from both students and non-students, with more than 458 million views in the first number of years.
Khan outlined his mission as to "accelerate learning for students of all ages. With this in mind, we want to share our content with whoever may find it useful." Khan plans to extend the "free school" to cover topics such as English literature.
Khan published a book about Khan Academy and education goals titled The One World Schoolhouse: Education Reimagined.
Khan Academy, initially a tool for students, added the Coach feature in 2012, promoting the connection of teachers with students through videos and monitor tools. In 2012, Khan received the American Academy of Achievementโs Gold Medal. In 2014, Khan received the 19th Annual Heinz Award in the Human Condition category.
In 2015, Khan announced that Khan Academy was partnering with the College Board to create free practice resources for the SAT test.
Khan believes that supplementing traditional classroom education with the technology being developed by his Academy can improve the effectiveness of teachers by freeing them from traditional lectures and giving them more time for instruction specific to individual students' needs.
Stanford AI researcher Andrew Ng has named Khan as a huge inspiration for the founding of Coursera, one of the first massive open online course (MOOC) platforms.
Khan Lab School
Khan's pedagogical idea is that students learn better when they can manage the process of acquiring knowledge independently and at their own pace. They should then work in teams to apply the knowledge they have learned. This concept is known as flipped classroom. His approach to learning incorporates elements of Benjamin Bloom's Mastery Learning. This Personalized Learning method is tested at his Khan Lab School, founded in 2014.
Schoolhouse.world
In early 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, Khan launched Schoolhouse: a free non-profit initiative to provide small-group tutoring for students worldwide through Zoom meetings.
Schoolhouse certifications, developed in partnership with the University of Chicago, test studentsโ mastery of subjects and certify their knowledge. MIT, Caltech, and Case Western Reserve University have since signed on.
Awards
In 2016, Khan received the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, the Padma Shri, from the President of India.
On May 27, 2021, Khan received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard University.
Personal life
Khan is married to a Pakistani physician, Umaima Marvi. The couple live with their children in Mountain View, California.
Khan has said about his beliefs:
"If you believe in trying to make the best of the finite number of years we have on this planet (while not making it any worse for anyone else), think that pride and self-righteousness are the cause of most conflict and negativity, and are humbled by the vastness and mystery of the Universe, then I'm the same religion as you."
References
External links
1976 births
American chief executives of education-related organizations
Mathematics popularizers
American financial analysts
American hedge fund managers
American nonprofit businesspeople
American people of Bangladeshi descent
Bangladeshi people of Afghan descent
American technology chief executives
American technology company founders
Businesspeople from New Orleans
Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area
Grace King High School alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
Living people
MIT School of Engineering alumni
People from Mountain View, California
People from Metairie, Louisiana
American YouTubers
Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education
Asia Game Changer Award winners
Educators from Louisiana
People from Barisal District
21st-century American businesspeople
20th-century Bengalis
21st-century Bengalis
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แฅแแแแ แฏแแแแฆแแก แแแแ แ แแแจแแ
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แฅแแแแ แฏแแแแฆแแก แแแแ แ แแแจแแ โ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแก แซแแแแ, แกแแคแแ แขแแคแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแแ แฏแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแ แฅแแแแ แฏแแแแฆแแจแ. แแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ.
แคแแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแแจแแแ แแแจแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแขแก แฃแแฎแแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแ, แแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแแ 2,5-3 แ-แแก แกแแแแฆแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แกแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแกแแแฃแแแ แฅแแแแ แแ แแแฌแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแ, แฏแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ, แข. III, แแ., 2004
แฏแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแแจแแแแ
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แแแแฐแแแ แแแแแแฃ
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แแแแฐแแแ แแแแแแฃ (แ. 22 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1897, แกแขแแแแแแ, แแกแแแแแแ โ แ. 29 แแแแแ แแแแ, 1992, แแแแแ แ, แแฃแ แฅแแแ) โ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแ 1938-1950 แฌแแแแจแ แ แแแแ แช แแ แแแแแแแข แแกแแแ แแแแแแฃแก แแแฃแฆแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแฐแแแ แแแแแแแ 1897 แฌแแแก 22 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แกแขแแแแแแจแ, แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแจแ. แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แกแแแ แฌแแแก แแงแ, แแแแแแแกแ แขแฃแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แกแฃแ แแแแ, แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแฃแแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแแจแแแแแช. แแแแก แแแแ, แแแแฐแแแแก แแแแ แฅแแแแจแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแแก แกแแฎแแจแ แแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแ แแแกแแแแแก แชแแ แแแแ แแงแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแฅ แแฆแแแแ แแ แแแแฐแแแ. แแแ แกแขแแแแแแจแ แแแแฆแ แฏแแ แกแแจแฃแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแแแแแแ.
1916 แฌแแแก 13 แแแ แแแก แแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแก แแแแแแแ แแฃแกแขแแคแ แแกแแแแแ. แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ 21 แแฆแแจแ, แแแกแแ แฅแแแ แแ แแแ แแแขแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแจแ แแฎแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแ แ แคแ แแแขแแก แฎแแแแ. แแแ แฃแแแ แแฎแแแแ 1918 แฌแแแก, แแแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ.
แแแกแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแแแ แแ แ แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ, 1919 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแ. 1920 แฌแแแก แแฃแกแขแแคแ แแกแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแ แแฃแ แแแจแ แฉแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแแแแจแ แฌแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแฃแ-แแแแแแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแชแแแจแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแฐแแแ แแฃแกแขแแคแแก แแจแแแแแฃแ แฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแ, แกแแแแช 1921 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ.
1922 แฌแแแแแ แฌแงแแแแ แแแแแ แจแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแ, แแแแแแแก แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแฐแแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแ แก แแแ แแฎแแแ แจแแแแชแแ แแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแฃแ แแแแแแแชแแแก. 1924 แฌแแแก แแแแฐแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแ แ แแแแ, แแแแ แ แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช แฌแงแแแแ แแแแแ แแจแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแ. 1926 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแ, แแ แแแแ, แ แแกแแช 1930 แฌแแแก แแแฐแงแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แฅแแแแจแแแแแก, แแแแแแแก แแแฉแแแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแฐแแแแก แแแแจแแ แแฆแแ แแแฃแฉแแแแ แแ แแแแแก แฅแแแ แก แแแ แแฎแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแขแแแแกแแก แแแแแจแ, แ แแแกแ แแ แแแกแแแแจแ.
1934 แฌแแแก, แแแแ แแแแก แ แแคแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแ, แแฃแกแขแแคแ แแกแแแแกแ แแ แแแก แแแแแกแแแแแก, แแแแแแฃแก แแ แซแแแแจแ แแแแแฉแแแแแ แกแแแแแแชแแกแแแแแก แแแแ แแ แแแแแแฃ แแแแแแญแแ. แแแแฐแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแกแแ แแแฃแฆแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแฃ แแแแฆแ.
1938 แฌแแแก 10 แแแแแแแ แก, แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแข แแฃแกแขแแคแ แฅแแแแ แแแแแฃแ แฅแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ, แแแแ แ แแฆแแก, 11 แแแแแแแ แก, แแกแแแ แแแแแแฃ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแ แฉแแแก, แ แแแแช แแแแฐแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแ แแแฎแแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ แฌแงแแแแ แฉแแแฅแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช 1950 แฌแแแแแ, แแแฃ แแ แแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแก แแแแฌแฃแ แแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแ.
แแแฆแแ แฌแ แแแแจแ แแแแฐแแแ แชแแแแแแ แแงแ แ แแแแ แช แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแฃแ แ แฅแแแ. 1949 แฌแแแก แแแ แแฃแ แฅแ แฅแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแกแแชแแแชแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแฎแแ.
1973 แฌแแแก 25 แแแแแแแแ แก แแแแฐแแแแ แแแแแกแ แกแแงแแแ แแแ แแแฃแฆแแ, แแกแแแ แแแแแแฃ แแแแแ แแ. แแแฅแแ แแแแแแ แซแแแแ แจแแแ แงแแ แแแกแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแกแแช แแกแแแแก แแแขแแแแช แแแแ แแ. 1991 แฌแแแก แแแกแ แฐแแกแแแขแแแแแแชแแ แแแฎแแ แกแแญแแ แ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแแแแ แแก แกแแแแแแแงแแคแแจแ แแแแขแแ แ แแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแ แแ แ แแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1992 แฌแแแก 29 แแแแแ แแแแก, 94 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Temur, ลahika (2009-11-09). "An elegant journey with the Republic's second lady". Hรผrriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
"ฤฐnรถnรผ Vakfฤฑ" (in Turkish). ฤฐsmet ฤฐnรถnรผ. Archived from the original on 2008-12-31. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
Mevhibe ฤฐnรถnรผ: รถrnek bir Cumhuriyet kadฤฑnฤฑ. T.C. Kรผltรผr Bakanlฤฑวงฤฑ. 1996.
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 22 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1897
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 29 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1992
แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แฅแแแแแขแแแแแ
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แแแแ แฃ III
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แแแแ แฃ III (แ. 5 แแแแแกแ, 1717, แแแกแแแแแ, แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ โ แ. 25 แแแแกแ, 1786, แกแแแขแ แ, แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ) โ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก, แแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแคแ แแ แแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแขแแแแแ 1777โ1786 แฌแแแแจแ. แแแคแ แแฃแแ V-แแกแ แแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแก แจแแแแ. 1760 แฌแแแก แชแแแแ แจแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แซแแแก แแฃแแ I-แแก แจแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแ I. แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแแแ แแฃแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแก แแแแ แ แแแแแ แแฃแแ I-แก แแ แฐแงแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แกแฅแแกแแก แแแแแแแแ แ. แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แฉแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃ III แแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแก แแแแแกแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแ แ แแฅแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแแฐแงแแแแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแแแก แแฃแแแ แแชแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Sousa, Antรณnio Caetano de. Histรณria genealรณgica da Casa Real portuguesa (in Portuguese). VIII. Lisbon: Silviana.
แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 5 แแแแแกแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1717
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 25 แแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1786
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แฏแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแแกแแ แแ แแแกแแคแแแ แ
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แฏแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแแกแแ แแ แแแกแแคแแแ แ โ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแ-แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแคแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแแแ, 500 แแแขแ แแก แแแจแแ แแแแ, แคแแ แแแแแ, แฎแแแแก แฌแงแแแก แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแฎแแ แแก. แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแ.
แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแแกแแ
แแแแแกแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแแ, แแแแแแแ แฅแแแจแแฅแแแแ แแ แแแ แแก แฎแกแแแ แแ. แแแแแแแแแฃแแแ: แฉแแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แกแแฎแฃแ แแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแแแ. แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแแแแแ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแฃแ แแคแกแแแจแ แแ แแ แกแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแ แแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแ แแแฆแแแแแ แแแจแแ.
แคแแกแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแ แแแแแก แ แแแฃแแแ แฃแแแ แแแฌแงแแแ แฅแแแจแแฅแแแ. แแแ แแก แแ แฅแแขแ แแแแก แฅแแแแ แฌแ แแจแ แฉแแกแแฃแแ แฏแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแกแแแก แฌแ แแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแแกแแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแฅแแก. แกแแแฎแ แแแแแแ แแแแขแแ แ แงแแคแแแ แแแจแแแแแฃแแ.
แแแกแแคแแแ แ
แแแแแกแแ แแแแก แคแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแกแแคแแแ แแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแ แขแงแแแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแ. แแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแ แแก แจแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแชแฎแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แขแแซแ แแแ
แแชแฎแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแแแ
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517908
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แแแแแแแแแ
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แแแแแแแแแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแแกแขแแแแ-แแ-แแแแฉแแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแ-แแแแแแแ-แแ-แแแแแแกแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 60 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 1955 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แขแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แขแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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215292
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D
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แแแ แแแขแแแ
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แแแ แแแขแแแ โ แแ แแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแ แกแฃแแแแแกแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ. แจแแแฅแแแ 2000 แฌแแแก, แแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแช แแแแแแงแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แกแฃแแแแแกแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก. แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แแฅแแแ แแแ แแแขแแแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 1 038 590 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแ-แแแแ แแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแแ
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496064
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A8%20%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%20%281282-1305%29
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แแแแแจ แคแ แแแแ (1282-1305)
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แแแแแจ แคแ แแแแ (1282-1305)
แแแแแจ แคแ แแแแ (แ. 1282, แแแ แแแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแ โ แ. 1 แแแ แขแ, 1305, แแแแ, แแแกแขแ แแ) โ แแแแแขแแแแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแ III-แแกแ แแ แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแก แแกแฃแแ. แแแกแขแ แแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แ แฃแแแแค III-แแก แชแแแ 1300-1305 แฌแแแแจแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแ แแฃแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ 1282 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแจแ. แแแ แแงแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแ III-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแ แ แชแแแแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแ แแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแ. แแแกแ แฆแแแซแแ แแ-แซแแแแ แแงแแแแ แแแ แแก แฐแแ แชแแแ แแฃแ แแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแแแคแแแ แแแ แแแ แแขแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแก แแฎแ แแแแ แแแก แแกแแแ แฐแงแแแแ แแ แ แแแฎแแแแ -แซแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแ IV-แแกแ แแ แแแแฃแแก แแ แแค แจแแ แแแก แกแแฎแแ.
แแแจแแแแแแ
แแแแฎแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแชแแกแ แแแแแจแ แแแฎแฏแแ แแงแ แแแแแจแแฃแแ. แแแ แแแแแ แแแ 1290 แฌแแแก แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แแแแแจแแแก แแแแฃแ แแก แฐแแ แชแแ แแแ I-แแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแ, 1291 แฌแแแก 31 แแแแแกแก แแแ แแแแแแจแแ แฃแแแกแแก แแ แแแช แแแฃแแ แ แแแแแขแแแแแแขแแ (แจแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ แแแฃแแ แ II), แแฃแแชแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแจแแก แซแแแกแฌแฃแ แแแแแแแแแ แแฅแแ แฌแแแ.
แแแกแ แแแกแแแ แแแจแแแแ 1293 แฌแแแก แจแแแแ. แแแฏแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแ แ แกแแฅแแ แแก, แแ แแแชแ แแแฃแแ แแแก แแแแแแ, แแแแแแกแแก แแแคแ แแแฃแแ แ I-แแ แแแแแจแแแก, แ แแแแแก แชแแแ, แแแแแคแแแ แแแแแแ แแแกแขแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แกแแแ แฌแแแ แแแ แ แแแแฆแฃแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแกแแก. แแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแฎแแ แแก แฎแแแก แแซแแแแแ, แ แแแแแฃ แแ แฅแแแงแแแแก แจแแ แแก แแจแแแแแแ แแแแงแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแจแแก แซแแ, แแแคแ แคแแแแ IV แแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แแฆแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแก.
แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแแ แ I-แแกแ แแ แแแแแจแแก แแแจแแแแ แฉแแแจแแแ. แแแแแแกแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแชแฎแแแแก, แ แแ แแแ แแฅแแแแ แฃแแแ แแงแ แกแฎแแแแ แแแแแจแแฃแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแแก-แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแจแแ แแก แจแแกแแแแ แฉแฃแแแแแแ แคแแแแ IV-แ แแแคแ แแแฃแแ แแก แชแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแ แ แแ, แแแ แแแ แแขแ แจแแ แแ. แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแแ, 1296 แฌแแแก แแแ แ แแแแ แแแแแฎแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแ แแแช แแแฐแแแแ, แฐแแแแแแแแก แแ แแค แแแฐแแ II-แแก แซแแแ.
แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแ
แแแแแจแแกแ แแ แฐแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแก แแแจแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแฃแ แแ, 1295 แฌแแแก แแแแแขแแแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแคแ แแแแ แแฎแข I-แแ แแแคแ แคแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ. แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แคแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฃแฅแแแก แแแแแจแแกแ แแ แฐแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแก แแแจแแแแ แแ 1300 แฌแแแก 25 แแแแกแก แแแ แแแแ แแฎแขแแก แฃแคแ แแก แซแแแ, แแแกแขแ แแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แ แฃแแแแค III-แแ แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแก. แแแ แแแกแขแ แแแจแ แฅแแแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแ. แแแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแแ แ แแแแฎแแแแ แคแ แแแแ แแ แแแชแแกแแก โแแแญแแแ แแแแโ, แแฃแแชแ แแกแแแ แแฆแจแคแแแแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแกแ แแ แคแฃแคแฃแแแแแกแแแแ แแแแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแก แแแแ. แฐแแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแแจแ แแแฃแฆแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แจแขแแ แแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แฃแญแแ แแ แแฎแแ แก แฐแแแกแแฃแ แแแ แแ แแขแแแแแแก แแ แแฎแแ แแแ.
1304 แฌแแแก แแแแแจแแ แ แฃแแแแคแแกแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแกแแช แแแแแแ แแแฐแงแแ แแแแแก แแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแแแช 1306 แฌแแแก, แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ, แแแฌแแแแแก. แแแแแ แแแแแจแ 1305 แฌแแแก 1 แแแ แขแก แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแฃแชแแแก แแแจแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแแแแแแแ แแแแแจแ, 22 แแ 23 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ.
แแแกแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแกแแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแคแ แแแแ แแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแกแ แแแแแแแแขแ แ แแฉแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แจแแแแแแ แแ แฐแงแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Morrison, Elizabeth; Hedeman, Anne Dawson, eds. (2010). Imagining the Past in France: History in Manuscript Painting, 1250-1500. J. Paul Getty Museum.
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1282
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1 แแแ แขแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1305
แแแแแขแแแแแแ
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแชแแกแแแ
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18004094
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpjuhorn
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Alpjuhorn
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Alpjuhorn
The Alpjuhorn is a mountain of the Bernese Alps, located north of Mund in Valais. It is situated on the ridge separating the Baltschiedertal and the Gredetschtal.
References
External links
Alpjuhorn on Hikr
Mountains of the Alps
Alpine three-thousanders
Mountains of Switzerland
Mountains of Valais
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341903
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแ
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แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแ (แ. 1633 โ แ. 1659) โ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแ แแแชแแกแ. แแแแแแแกแ แแงแ แแกแแแแแแแก แกแฃแแแแแ แแฃแ แแ IV, แฎแแแ แแแแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแ แแแกแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แฎแแแฃแแ. 1644 แฌแแแก แฅแแแ แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแก แแแแแฅ แแฐแแแ-แคแแจแแแ แแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ, 26 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ. แชแแแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แก, แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแก, แแแแแก แฌแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแฅแแก แแแซแฆแแแแแ แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ, แคแแฎแแซแแแแแแแแ แแแก แกแแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแฃแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แฅแแแ แแแแแแแ แแฃแ แแ IV-แก (แชแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแฅแขแแขแแ แ แแ แกแแกแขแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ) แแฏแแฎแจแ. แกแฃแแแแแก แแกแฃแแแแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แฃแแแขแแกแฌแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแงแ แแ แแ แช แฅแแแ แงแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแแแกแ. 13 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแแ แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแก แแแแแฅ แแฐแแแ-แคแแจแแแ, แแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแ. แแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แฌแแแ 1644 แกแแฎแแแแแแ. แฅแแแ แแแแแก แฅแแแ แก แแขแ แแแแ, แแแแแแชแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแแ แฅแแ แฌแแแแก แฆแแแแก แฅแแแ แ แแแฎแแแแแ แแแญแ แ.
แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแฃแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แฅแแแแ แแแแแขแแแชแ, แ แแ แซแแแแ แ แกแฃแแแแแ แแงแ, แแแ แแแฃแฆแแแก แกแขแ แแขแแแแฃแแแ แแ แฎแจแแ แแ แคแแแแแกแฃแ แแแแช แแฎแแแ แแแแแ. แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแ แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แกแแซแแแแ แแก แแ แ-แแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแกแแฎแแแ. แแแ แแกแแแ แแฆแแแจแแ, แ แแ แแ แชแแ แ แแกแแแแ-แแ แแแชแแกแแก แแ แแแฃแฆแฌแแแแ แแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแแกแแแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แฅแแแแ แแ แแแแแฅแแ แจแแซแแแก. แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแ แแแคแแ แแแชแแแ, แฅแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแฅแ แแแก แแฃแแแจแ แฉแแฌแแ แแ แจแแฃแฉแแ แแแแแ แขแแ แแแ.
แฅแแแแก แกแแแแ แแแ
แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แฌแแแแจแ แแแฎแกแแแแแ, แ แแ แฅแแแ แฃแชแแแฃแ แกแแแแ แแแก แฎแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแฅแก แจแแกแแแแแแ แแแแ แแฎแกแแ. แฅแแแแ แแฅแแ, แ แแ แแ แกแแแแ แแแจแ แฎแแแแแแ แแแแฅแแก แแแฆแจแ แกแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแแฃแแกแแแ แแ แแแ, แกแแแแ แแก แแแกแแกแ แฃแแก แแ แฅแแแแก, แแแแฃแ แฎแแแก แกแแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแชแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แฎแแแ แแแจแแแแ แกแแกแฎแแแ แแคแแ แแแแแ, แฅแแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแแก แฎแแแก แแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแ แแ แแแกแแช แกแแกแฎแแแ แแคแแ แแแแ. แฅแแแ แจแแจแแแแแฃแแ แแฆแแแซแแแแ. แแแแแฅ แแฐแแแ-แคแแจแแ แจแแกแแแแแแ, แ แแ 1000 แแฅแ แแก แแแแแขแ แฆแแ แแแแแแกแแแแก แกแแแแฌแงแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ, 2000 แแแกแ แแฆแแแแกแแแแก, แแกแแแ 300 แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแกแแแแก แแ 100-แช แแแแแแแก แแแกแแแแก. แฅแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแกแ แแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแฅแก แแฃแฎแกแแแก, แ แแ แฅแแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแกแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ .
แแ แ แแแ แขแ แแก แกแแแแ แแแ, แแ แแแแ แกแฎแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แฃแชแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแ แ แฐแฅแแแแ แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแก. แแ แ-แแ แแแ แแแแแฅแ แจแแแชแแแ แกแฃแแแแแกแแแแก แกแขแ แแกแ แจแแแแกแฃแแฃแฅแแแแแ แแ แฃแแฎแ แ แ แแ แแก แกแแแแแ แ แแ แแคแแ แก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แฅแแแ แกแแฎแแก แแแแแแแขแงแแแแแแแแ แแขแงแแแแ, แ แแ แชแ แฃแแแแ. แแแแจแแแแแแแก แแแชแแแแ แฅแแแ แแฆแแแแแฆแ แฆแแแแกแแแกแแแ แฎแแแแแแ, แแฆแแแจแแฃแแแ แแกแแช, แ แแ แแแ แแแฅแ แแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแฏแแ แแแแแแชแ .
แกแแแแแแแ
แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแฌแแแ, แแแแแฅแแ แฃแฎแแแ แแแกแชแ แแแแฎแ แแแฌแงแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแ, แแแแ แแ แฃแจแแแแแแ. แฅแแแแก แแจแแแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแก, แแแแจแแแก แแแแชแแแขแ แกแแจแแแแแกแแแก แงแแแจแ แแแแฉแฎแแ แ แแ โแแฃแแจแ แจแแแกแโ. แแ แฆแแแแ แแแคแฅแแคแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแก แงแแแแ แแแแแแฅแแแ แฅแแแแก แกแแจแแแแแกแแแแแ แแแแชแแแขแแก แแแแแฆแแแแก แชแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแซแแแก. 3 แแฆแ-แฆแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แฅแแแ แแ แขแแแฏแแแก แฃแซแแแแแ. แแแแแฎแ แแฆแแก แฅแแแ แกแฃแแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Celebi, Evliya. 1991 [1659]. โKaya Sultan (1659).โ In The Intimate Life of an Ottoman Statesman: Melek Ahmed Pasha (1588โ1662) As Portrayed in Evliya รelebi's Book of Travels (Seyahat-Name). Ed. Robert Dankoff. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 221โ36.
Peirce, Leslie. "The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire". New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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แแ-แแแ แแฎแ โ แฅแแแแฅแ แแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแแแแกแแแก แแแขแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแกแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแ แแแกแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 54,52 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 1810 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
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แแ-แแแ แแฎแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
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Plagiolepis montivaga โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Plagiolepis-แก แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Formicinae-แก แฅแแแแฏแแฎแก..
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๐ฅ โ แแแ แแฃแแ แแแแฌแแ แแแแแก แแกแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Graphemica (๐ฅ)
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แแแแแ-แแแกแขแแก แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแ โ แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแ แแ แแแแขแแแแจแ, แแแ แแแแขแแกแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ.
แแ แแแแขแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, 2001 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 35 350 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ. แคแแ แแแแ 1 695 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แแ แฅแแแแฅแ แแแแแ-แแแกแขแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแ แแแแขแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 2001 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
Provincia de Corrientes. Viviendas, poblaciรณn por sexo e รญndice de masculinidad, segรบn departamento. Aรฑo 2010
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แแฆแแกแแฃแ แ
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แแฆแแกแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแฆแแกแงแฃแ แ โ แแแแแแ แ แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แแ. แแฃแแแกแฌแงแแแก แจแแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแก แแฆแแแก แกแแแแคแแแแก แแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแแก แฅแแแแฅ แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แฉแ แแแแ-แแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแก, แแแแแก โแแแขแแฅแแ แฎแแแกโ แแแกแแฎแแแแแจแ (แฃแแแขแแกแแ แฎแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแขแจแ), แจแแแแแ แกแแค. แคแแ แชแฎแแแแงแแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแแก แแ. แแฃแแแกแฌแงแแแก แกแแค. แแแฌแแฌแแแแแแแ, แฅแฃแแแแกแแแแ 3-4 แแ-แจแ. แกแแแ แซแ 22 แแ. แกแแแ แแแแแก แแขแแแกแคแแ แฃแแ แแแแแฅแแแแแ แแ แแ แฃแแขแแก แฌแงแแแแแ. แฃแฎแแ แแแแแฅแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แแฎแแกแแแแแแก แฌแงแแแแแแแ แแแ, แ แแช แฅแแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแญแแแ แแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แฃแแแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแแแแก แแแขแแแ แแแก แกแแจแแจแ แแแแแก. แฅแแแแฅแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแขแ แซแแแแ แแแแแแซแฃแ แแแฃแแแ แกแแงแแคแแชแฎแแแ แแแ, แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แกแแฎแแก แแแ แฉแแแแแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แ แฃแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแชแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแซแฃแ แแแแก แฌแงแแ แแแแ / แแแ แแแซแ แ., แแแ แแแแแแแ แช. แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแคแแ แแแชแแ โแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแโ, แจแ แแแแแ, ISSN 1512-1976, แข. 6, แฅแฃแแแแกแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ, 21-22 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 2018, แแ. 242-243.
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แแกแชแแแแแแ (Ascidiae) โ แแฆแแแก แชแฎแแแแแแแแก แแแแกแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแก แฅแแแขแแแแกแ. แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแ แกแฃแแกแขแ แแขแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฃแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแแชแฃแ แแแก. แแแฎแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แชแแแแแ, แแกแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแแ. แแกแชแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแกแแแ แ แกแฎแแฃแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแแ แกแฅแแแ แแแ แกแแ - แขแฃแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแงแแคแก. แกแฎแแฃแแแก แแแแ แแแแฉแแ แแแแแแ แแแฃแแแ แกแฃแแกแขแ แแขแแ, แแแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแ แ แฎแแ แแแแ - แแแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแแแกแ. แแกแชแแแแแแ แจแแคแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแฏแแกแคแ แแ, แแแกแคแ แแ, แแแฌแแแแแแ แแ แแแงแแแแกแคแ แแ, แแฃแแชแ แแฆแแแก แฆแ แแ แคแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แ แคแแ แแแแก แคแแ แ แแแแแ แแฃแแ แแฅแแก. แแแแฏแแ แขแฃแแแแ แแแแญแแแ แแแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแฉแแแก. แแแแแแแแ (แแแกแแฃแ แแ) แแชแแ แ แแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แกแฅแแกแแแ แแแแ, แแกแ แฃแกแแกแฅแแ (แแแแแแ แขแแแ). แแแ แแแก แแฅแแก แฅแแ แแ, แ แแช แแ แแแกแ แฃแแก แแฆแแ แแแแฉแแแ. แแ แแแจแแแ แ. แแแแแแแแกแแแ แแกแชแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแแแก แแแแแฃแแแแ. แชแแแแแแแ แแกแชแแแแแแแก 150-แแแ แกแแฎแแแแ. แชแแแแแ แแกแชแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แคแแแฃแแแ (Phallusia mammilata), แชแแแแ (Ciona intestinalis) แแ แกแฎแแ. แแชแฃแ แแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแแแแแ แกแแงแฃแ แแแฆแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแจแแแจแ แกแแแแแแแก แแกแฎแแแแแก. แแกแชแแแแแแ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแ 5000 แ แกแแฆแ แแแแแ แแกแแคแแแแก แงแแแแ แแฆแแแจแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แฅแกแ, แข. 1, แแ. 663, แแ., 1975
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Ascidiacea.com
The Dutch Ascidians Homepage
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Giorgi Botkoveli
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Giorgi Botkoveli (Georgian: แแแแ แแ แแแขแแแแแแ; born 2 June 1979) is a Georgian politician who has served as a Member of Parliament from the United National Movement since 2020. A former official during the presidency of Mikheil Saakashvili, he joined the public service following the Rose Revolution of 2003, serving several national and local public agencies until 2004.
A vocal critique of the Georgian Dream-led government, he currently serves as deputy chairman of the SIU Faction in Parliament.
Personal life and education
Giorgi Botkoveli was born on June 2, 1979, in Tbilisi, at the time the capital of Soviet Georgia. He first started working in the private sector in 2002, managing a limited company until 2004. In 2005, he received a degree in Applied Mathematics from the Sukhumi State University.
He is married to Tamuna Galdava and has four children. On January 1, 2013, he was awarded the Order of Honor by President Mikheil Saakashvili.
Early career
Giorgi Botkoveli entered public service shortly after the Rose Revolution that brought to power the pro-Western President Saakashvili to power. In 2004, he was appointed as head of the Tax Service of Gldani-Nadzaladevi district of Tbilisi. In 2006, he became head of the Samtskhe-Javakheti Bureau of the Environmental Protection Inspection at the Ministry of Environmental Protection, before joining politics by being included in 71st position in the electoral list of the United National Movement during the 2008 parliamentary elections, falling short of receiving a seat.
In 2008, he was appointed as head of the Administrative Department of the Chamber of Control, which was at the time chaired by Levan Bezhashvili. He kept the position until 2012, when he was appointed First Deputy Governor of Kakheti, a post he held until 2013. One year later, he briefly served as an adviser to the prefect of the Gldani-Nadzaladevi district, before UNM lost the local elections that same year. During those elections, he was the party's nominee for Mayor of Telavi, running against Georgian Dream's Alexandre Shatirishvili, to whom he lost with 29.1% of the vote.
A vocal member critique of the Georgian Dream-led government since its rise to power in 2012, he was the UNM's nominee for the parliamentary district of Telavi in the 2016 legislative elections, running against ten candidates including GD's Irakli Sesiashvili. Moving to the runoff, he lost with 30.5% of the vote.
On January 20, 2017, Giorgi Botkoveli was elected to the new 60-member Political Council of UNM, after the party underwent reorganization following the split by a faction that created the European Georgia party. As an activist, he led protest rallies in Telavi against the inauguration of President Salome Zourabichvili, refusing to move the protests' location as was requested by local authorities. Elected as Regional Secretary of the party in 2022, he came to the defense of UNM activist Artur Mkoyan, who was arrested by police officers for resisting arrest in August 2022, accusing authorities of persecuting the man.
In Parliament
Giorgi Botkoveli was selected as UNM's nominee for the parliamentary majoritarian district of Telavi-Akhmeta-Kvareli-Lagodekhi during the 2020 legislative elections, running against several well-known candidates, including former Tbilisi Mayor Zurab Tchiaberashvili (EG), Irakli Kadagishvili (GD), and far-right activist Alexandre Palavandishvili, and 13 other candidates. In the first round, he won 40.4% of the vote, securing a place in the runoffs, which he boycotted due to allegations of massive voter fraud. Refusing to run a campaign, he won only 11.2%.
Placed 27th on the electoral list of UNM, he nonetheless won a seat in Parliament, which he refused to take at first, claiming that the elected legislature was illegitimate. Botkoveli nonetheless took his seat in May 2021 after a short-lived EU-facilitated agreement between the opposition and the government. On June 7, he was selected as deputy chairman of the UNM - United Opposition 'Strength is in Unity' parliamentary faction, the largest opposition formation in the legislature, along with Levan Bezhashvili. In Parliament, he is a member of the Agrarian Issues Committee.
During the 2021 local elections, he was UNM's nominee for Mayor of Telavi once again, running against GD's Levan Andriashvili, to whom he lost in a runoff with 43.1%.
He has been one of the most vocal opponents of the Georgian government, supporting the idea of repeat parliamentary elections. In response to the arrest of former President Mikheil Saakashvili upon the latter's return to Georgia in 2021, Botkoveli was one of 300 activists to launch a mass hunger strike, calling for his immediate release. He has visited Saakashvili in jail several times. In July 2022, he was involved in a verbal clash in Telavi after local GD-affiliated city council members confronted him as he handed out pro-European Union flyers. He has stated his belief that former State Security Service deputy head Soso Gogashvili had been arrested under the orders of Russia-affiliated businessman Bidzina Ivanishvili.
References
1979 births
Living people
21st-century politicians from Georgia (country)
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7936340
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th%20Golden%20Globe%20Awards
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39th Golden Globe Awards
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39th Golden Globe Awards
The 39th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television for 1981, were held on January 30, 1982.
Winners and nominees
Film
The following films received multiple nominations:
The following films received multiple wins:
Television
The following programs received multiple nominations:
The following programs received multiple wins:
Ceremony
Miss Golden Globe
Laura Dern (daughter of Bruce Dern & Diane Ladd)
See also
54th Academy Awards
2nd Golden Raspberry Awards
33rd Primetime Emmy Awards
34th Primetime Emmy Awards
35th British Academy Film Awards
36th Tony Awards
1981 in film
1981 in American television
References
IMdb 1982 Golden Globe Awards
039
1981 film awards
1981 television awards
January 1982 events in the United States
1981 awards in the United States
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
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แแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแ (Yรคityop'ya ortodoks tรคwahedo bรฉtรคkrestyan) โ แแแขแแแแคแแแฃแ แ, แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแ แแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแแแก แแแแแกแแ แแแฌแแแ แแงแ แแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแแกแ 1959 แฌแแแแแ, แแแแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแขแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแ, แแแแฅแกแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แกแ แฃแแแแ แแคแ แแแแก แแแขแ แแแ แฅแแ แแแ แแแ VI-แ แแแขแแแแคแแแแ แแ แแแแแแญแ. แแแ แแ แฃแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแกแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แฅแแแแแแแแฃแ แแ.
แแแแแกแแแก 1992 - 2012 แฌแแแแจแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแ. แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแก แกแ แฃแแ แฌแแแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแฌแแแแแแกแแแ แแแขแ แแแ แฅแ แแแแกแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแกแ แกแ แฃแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Listen and Watch Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Songs, Begena and Preaching
Ethiopian Orthodox Timket Ceremony in Gondar
Divine Liturgy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Directory
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Directory
Ethiopian Review's Directory of Ethiopian churches
Ethiopian Religions - Christianity, Islam, Judaism & Paganism
Bilingual Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church site - English version
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Info
EOTC INFO Provides Basic Information and more for members born outside of Ethiopia
List of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church websites
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Tewahedo Songs & Records
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Phoenix
Ethiopian Orthodox Archdiocese of the Caribbean & Latin America
CNEWA article: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Historical Evolution of Ethiopian Anaphoras
Abbink, J. A Bibliography on Christianity in Ethiopia. Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2003
Biblical Canon
AN INTRODUCTION TO Ethiopic Christian Literature BY J. M. HARDEN, D.D., LL.D. Canon of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1926
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church faith and Order -in Amharic
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church faith and Order
Ethiopian Icons Through The Centuries - Images from the Church
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church outside of Ethiopia - includes music and preaching
Ethiopian Crucifixes Gallery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation%20of%20Independent%20Football%20Associations
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Confederation of Independent Football Associations
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Confederation of Independent Football Associations
The Confederation of Independent Football Associations (CONIFA) is the international governing body for association football teams that are not affiliated with FIFA.
Competitions
Women's football
All members of CONIFA are encouraged to invest in women's football in their communities, and to create female national selections to play and compete against other CONIFA members.
CONIFA's first ever official women's football match took place on 10 November 2018 in Northern Cyprus, with Sรกpmi ladies beating their Northern Cypriot hosts 4โ0 in the Women's Friendship Cup. CONIFA announced their first Women's World Football Cup on 31 January 2021, to be hosted by Szรฉkely Land between 23 and 30 June 2021 and involve 6 teams.
Men's
CONIFA World Football Cup
CONIFA European Football Cup
CONIFA Africa Football Cup
CONIFA South America Football Cup
CONIFA No Limits European Championship
CONIFA Asian Football Cup
Women's
CONIFA Women's World Football Cup
Futsal
CONIFA No Limits Mediterranean Futsal Cup
National leagues sanctioned by CONIFA
Liga de Balompiรฉ Mexicano
Current title holders
Members
Types of members
CONIFA expressly uses the term "members" rather than "countries" or "states". A football association may be eligible to apply for membership of CONIFA if it, or the entity (ethnic and/or linguistic minority, indigenous group, cultural organization, territory) it represents, is not a member of FIFA and satisfies one or more of the following criteria:
The football association is a member of one of the six continental confederations of FIFA, which are: AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC, UEFA.
The entity represented by the football association is a member of the International Olympic Committee.
The entity represented by the football association is a member of one of the member federations of Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF).
The entity represented by the football association is in possession of an ISO 3166-1 country code.
The entity represented by the football association is a de facto independent territory. A territory is considered de facto independent if it meets all of the following criteria: (a) a well-defined territory; (b) a permanent population; (c) an autonomous government, and (d) diplomatic recognition by at least one of the member states of the United Nations.
The entity represented by the football association is included on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories.
The entity represented by the football association is included in the directory of countries and territories of the Travelers' Century Club.
The entity represented by the football association is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) and/or the Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN).
The entity represented by the football association is a minority included in the World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, maintained and published by Minority Rights Group International.
The entity represented by the football association is a linguistic minority, the language of which is included on the List of ISO 639-2 codes.
List of members
As of
Important personalities
Presidency
Vice-Presidents of ConIFA
General Secretaries
Africa President
Asian President
European President
Latin America President
North American and Caribbean President
Oceanian President
Directors of Womenโs Football
See also
Non-FIFA international football
New Football Federations-Board
World Unity Football Alliance โ Several CONIFA members also hold membership of the WUFA.
CONIFA World Football Cup
CONIFA European Football Cup
References
External links
Association football governing bodies
Sports organizations established in 2013
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
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แแ แฎแแ-แแแแกแแแก แซแแแแแ แแแ
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แแ แฎแแ-แแแแกแแแก แซแแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแฃแแ แแแ โ แแแแแแ แ แแ แฎแแแแกแ แแ แแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ, แกแขแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแคแแแแแก แฅแแแแแ VI-VIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแแแก แแแ. แจแแแชแแแแ แงแแแแ แซแแ แแแแ แฎแแแแแแก e-แก แแแ แแ. แแแแแแแฃแแแ แกแแกแขแแแ แฏแแ แแ แงแแคแแแ แแแแคแแแ แแแแแ แฉแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแแแ, แแ แช แแแแจแแ แแแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแฃแแ, แแ แกแแแแแก แแฎแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแแแแแ (แกแแแขแแฅแกแฃแ แแ แแ แช แฅแแแฌแงแแแแ แแ แแ แช แแแแฌแงแแแ).
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
L. Johanson, A History of Turkic, in: The Turkic Languages, eds. L. Johanson & E.A. Csato, Routledge, London (1998), ISBN 0-415-08200-5
M. Erdal, Old Turkic, in: The Turkic Languages, eds. L. Johanson & E.A. Csato, Routledge, London (1998),ISBN 978-99929-944-0-5
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Old Turkic inscriptions (with translations into English), reading lessons and tutorials
Turkic Inscriptions of Orkhon Valley (with translations into Turkish)
VATEC
แแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฌแแ แแแแแแ
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5697654
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onno%20Tun%C3%A7
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Onno Tunรง
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Onno Tunรง
Ohannes Tunรงboyacฤฑ, better known as Onno Tunรง (20 December 1948 โ 14 January 1996), was a leading Armenian musician from Turkey, working mainly as a composer, arranger and a music producer. Tunรง also played bass guitar and occasionally double bass, contributing to the albums of several musicians. He was one of the prominent names of Turkish pop music in the 1980s and 1990s with his arrangements. He was the elder brother of musician Arto Tunรงboyacฤฑyan.
Early years
Of Armenian descent, Onno Tunรง was born in 1948 in Istanbul. His music experience started with the church choir of Harur Mangaz (Hundred students). In his first year of middle school, he had to drop out to go to work to support his family.
Born in a financially limited family, he could not afford a musical instrument although they fascinated him, until Anush ("Sweet" in Armenian), the mother of his friend Arman bought her son a guitar, and one for Onno too. Onno, a fast-learning autodidact, started a music band and soon repaid Anush.
Career
He started music by singing in church choirs. He founded a music group called "Black Stones" during his high school years. In 1965, he started his professional music career as a bass guitarist with the "รstรผn Poyraz Set Orchestra". He started jazz music with Emin Fฤฑndฤฑkoฤlu's orchestra in 1967. In the following years, he increased his musical experience by working with the orchestras of Durul Gence and Sรผheyl Denizci. He made a name for himself with his arrangement in the 1970s. At that time, he contributed to the albums of many names including รzdemir Erdoฤan, Nilรผfer, Bรผlent Ortaรงgil, Gรผlden Karabรถcek, Ajda Pekkan, Nรผkhet Duru and Gรถkben. In 1973 he released his record "The Bracelet / Melissa". Sรถz Sevgilim Sรถz, one of Tunรง's first compositions, whose lyrics was written by รiฤdem Talu, was voiced by Cรถmert Baykent. Many times he competed as a composer and arranger in the Eurovision Song Contest Turkey Finals. In 1978 and 1981, he represented Turkey in this contest as arranger and conductor.
Turkish pop icon Sezen Aksu met Onno Tunรง and started taking lessons from Tunรง after listening Nรผkhet Duru's song called "Seninle", which was composed by Tunรง in 1981. Later, they started working together during Aksu's show at ลan Theater. After being the music director of Nilรผfer'84 album, he worked only with Sezen Aksu and her orchestra for many years. The composition and arrangement of many songs written by Sezen Aksu and Aysel Gรผrel from the album Sen Aฤlama in 1984 to the album Gรผlรผmse in 1991 was directed by Onno Tunรง. The album, Sen Aฤlama, triggered the rise of Turkish pop music and led to the emergence of pop music as a strong rival to Turkish Arabesque music that was monopolized in the period.
In the 90's, he was the music director of the albums by Aลkฤฑn Nur Yengi, Bรผlent Ortaรงgil, Harun Kolรงak, Nilรผfer, Zerrin รzer, Zuhal Olcay and Ayลegรผl Aldinรง. The songs composed or arranged by Tunรง also took place in the albums of Asya, Yeลim Salkฤฑm, Bendeniz, Emel Mรผftรผoฤlu and Rรผya Ersavcฤฑ. Before his death, he contributed to the albums of Sezen Aksu's Dรผล Bahรงeleri and the last songs of Levent Yรผksel.
He also composed the soundtracks for films such as โAh Belindaโ, โRumuz Goncagรผlโ etc. Besides his pop music compositions, he has a piece called "Su" for solo saxophone and orchestra. He played bass guitar in Bรผlent Ortaรงgil's Will You Play With Me ?, Okay Temiz's Zikir, gNรผkhet Ruacan's Ruacan albums, MFร's Yalnฤฑzlฤฑk Omur Boyu and Mustafa Sandal's Beni Aglatma.
He composed 175 songs and represented Turkey in many European music contests. A very close friend of Turkish singer Sezen Aksu, he co-wrote and composed many of the songs she performed throughout her career, as well as arranging all of her albums. It was widely known that his death tipped Sezen Aksu into depression. She dedicated her album Dรผล Bahรงeleri to Onno (and numerous songs on virtually all of her albums since).
His symphony Su was performed by the Istanbul Symphony Orchestra.
He collaborated with Hulki Aktunรง and Daฤhan Baydur on the Turkish entry Sevince at the Eurovision Song Contest 1978, which was performed by Nilรผfer and Nazar.
In the 80's, he had a relationship with singer-songwriter Sezen Aksu that was both romantic and professional. As a couple they put their signatures to works that broke new ground in Turkish pop music, such as Sen Aฤlama (Don't Cry), Git (Go), Sezen Aksu'88 and Sezen Aksu Sรถylรผyor (Sezen Aksu Sings). Sezen's music matured in the 90's, when she co-produced her best selling album to-date Gรผlรผmse (Smile) with Onno. The A-1 track from the album called Hadi Bakalฤฑm (Come On Now) was a hit in Turkey and Europe, and was published as a single in Germany. It was to be later rediscovered in Europop by singer Loona as Rhythm of the Night. She also began to produce albums for her vocalists, notably producing Aลkฤฑn Nur Yengi's debut album Sevgiliye (To a Lover) again with Tunรง. She was to repeat her success with artists Erener and Yรผksel also.
Onno's younger brother Arto Tunรงboyacฤฑyan worked with him musically for 25 years. Arto is highly inspired by his brother, having dedicated numerous songs to him (and the mountain that caused Onno's accident) and an album "Onno" (1996), together with Ara Dinkjian. On performances, you can often read the letters O N N O on Arto's clothing.
Death
Onno Tunรง died on 14 January 1996, when his private plane he was piloting crashed in bad weather on a mountain at Tazdaฤ near Selimiye village of Armutlu, Yalova on his journey from Bursa to Istanbul. Hasan Kanฤฑk, his friend aboard also died in the accident. Two amateur Turkish mountaineers who came from Istanbul to search for him were also found dead 6 days later because of hypothermia. Onno Tunรง is buried in ลiลli Armenian Catholic Cemetery in ฤฐstanbul. He was survived by two daughters Selin and Ayda from his first wife, Canan Ateล who was the first Turkish female athlete to swim a marathon.
In 2002, a monument was erected in his memory at the crash site and in the city center of Yalova. The monument to the composer of Armenian origin was subjected to numerous vandalism over the course of the years. In 2012 Yalova City Hall completely disassembled the monument as the city council decided that the old monument was not aesthetic enough for such a valued composer, particularly in its vandalized state. A more artistic bronze (Tunรง in Turkish) monument in the abstract shape of a G-clef was constructed as replacement.
Onno Tunรง tribute
In 1996 his former lover and partner in music Sezen Aksu released a compilation album called โDรผล Bahรงeleriโ as a tribute to honor his contributions to the Turkish music industry.
In 2007, several renowned Turkish singers and pop groups came together and released a compilation album Onno Tunรง ลarkฤฑlarฤฑ ("Onno Tunรง Songs").
Some of His Songs
Ah Mazi
Alev Alev (Ayลegรผl Aldinรง-Alev Alev-1994)
Ayrฤฑlฤฑk (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
Ayrฤฑlฤฑklar Bitmez (Sezen Aksu - Firuze) - 1982
Bana Ellerini Ver (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990)
Ben Yoldan Gรถnรผllรผ รฤฑktฤฑm (Yeลim Salkฤฑm-Hiรง Keyfim Yok-1994)
Beni Bฤฑrakฤฑn (Levent Yรผksel-Med Cezir-1993)
Beni Unutma
Bir Baลka Aลk
Bir รocuk Sevdim
Bu Gece
Deฤer mi
Deli Gรถnlรผm
Demek ki รyle (lyrics: รlkรผ Aker, Ayลe Mine - 1978 )
Dokun Bana (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992)
Dรผet (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
Dรผnden Sonra Yarฤฑndan รnce (Zuhal Olcay)
Eฤrisi Doฤrusu (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
Geรงer (lyrics:Sezen Aksu-1988)
Geri Dรถn
Gir Kanฤฑma (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990)
Git
Gรถzlerin Bulutlu (Nรผkhet Duru -1981)
Gรผzel ลeyler Sรถyle (Aลkฤฑn Nur Yengi&Harun Kolรงak-Eurovision Turkey Finals 1987)
Hadi Bakalฤฑm
Haydi Gel Benimle Ol
Hep Bana (Zerrin รzer-Olay Olay-1992)
Hoลgรถrรผ
ฤฐyisin (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
Kapฤฑnda Gรผllerim (Bendeniz II - 1995)
Kavaklar
Kฤฑล Masalฤฑ
Kฤฑzmayฤฑn Bana (Neco, lyrics: Mehmet Teoman - 1975)
Kolay Deฤil
Mรผptelayฤฑm Sana (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990)
Ne Masal Ne Rรผya (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
Ne Kavgam Bitti Ne Sevdam (Sezen Aksu-Gรผlรผmse-1991)
Olay Olay (Zerrin รzer-Olay Olay-1992)
Oldu mu?
Oldu Olanlar (Serpil Barlas, lyrics: Zeren , 1976)
Olsun Varsฤฑn (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
Oyuncu (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
รyle Bakma (Fatih Erkoรง-Eurovision Turkey Finals 1989) (Aลkฤฑn Nur Yengi-Sevgiliye-1990)
Papatya Falฤฑ (Nรผkhet Duru - 1981)
Ruhun Duymaz (Emel-Ruhun Duymaz-1995)
Sen Aฤlama
Seni ฤฐstiyorum
Seninle (Nรผkhet Duru - Nรผkhet Duru 81 )
Son Bakฤฑล
Sonbahar
Sultan Sรผleyman
ลinanay
ลiribim ลiribom (Gรถkben - ลiribim ลiribom/Ve Birgรผn Sen 45'lik(1976) ve ลiribim ลiribom (1977)
ลov Yapma (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992)
Tam Bana Gรถresin (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
Tango (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
Tenna
Uรงurtma Bayramlarฤฑ (Levent Yรผksel-Med Cezir-1993)
Uykun Olsam (Zuhal Olcay-Oyuncu-1993)
รnzile
Vurulmuลum Sana (Asya-Asya-1994)
Yeni Aลk (Zerrin รzer-Olay Olay-1992) (Yeลim Salkฤฑm-Hiรง Keyfim Yok-1994)
Yeniden Sev (Nilรผfer-Yine Yeni Yeniden-1992)
Yฤฑllar (Harun Kolรงak-Beni Affet-1990)
Yoksun (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
Zorba (Nilรผfer-Ne Masal Ne Rรผya-1994)
1945
Collabrations to albums
Arrangements
Bir Gรผn Mutlaka (Music:Mustafa Sandal) for the album (Zerrin รzer-Olay Olay-1992)
Kรผรงรผk Bir Aลk Masalฤฑ (Music:Ali Kocatepe)
Vazgeรงtim (Music: Ara Dinkjian)
Dokunma Keyfine Yalan Dรผnyanฤฑn (Music: Aลฤฑk Mahzuni ลerif) (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Dokunma Keyfine Yalan Dรผnyanฤฑn - 1976)
Kฤฑr รiรงekleri (Music: Ferdi Tayfur) (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Kฤฑr รiรงekleri - 1976)
Dur Bฤฑrakma Beni "NonCe N'est Pas Fini" (Gรผlden Karabรถcek - Dur Bฤฑrakma Beni - Vokal: Nilรผfer, Fรผsun รnal - 1974 )
Bambaลka Biri, Haykฤฑracak Nefesim, Dile Kolay, Ya Sonra by Ajda Pekkan
Melankoli, Cambaz, Benimsin Diyemediฤim, รakฤฑr by Nรผkhet Duru
References
1948 births
1996 deaths
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Turkey
Musicians from Istanbul
Turkish people of Armenian descent
Armenian composers
Turkish composers
Armenian musicians
20th-century composers
Burials at ลiลli Armenian Cemetery
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1996
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo%20TV%3A%20Live%20from%20Sydney
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Zoo TV: Live from Sydney
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Zoo TV: Live from Sydney โ แแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แ แแ-แฏแแฃแค U2-แก แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแฎแแแก 1993 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแชแแ แขแก.
แแกแขแแ แแ
Zoo TV แแงแ แกแแแแแแจแ แฉแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แ แแแแชแแ แขแแแแ แ แแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแกแแแ. แฌแแแ แกแแฆแแแแก แแแฌแงแแแแแ แจแแฃ แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแ แแงแ แ แแแแขแแชแแแกแแแแแก. แกแแแฃแแแกแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แแแแแขแแแ แแ แแแแชแแ แขแก แแ แแกแฌแ แแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแฉแแแ แแแแ แ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แ แแแแแแแแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแฎแแแ แแก แจแแฃ แแฃแ แแแแจแ แ แแแแแ แกแขแแฃแแ. แแแกแ แแฅแแแ, แแแแแขแแแก แแแ แแแ แแกแแแแ, แ แแ แแก แจแแแซแแแแแแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แจแแฃ แงแแคแแแแงแ.
แแ แแ แแแกแแแแแก แแก แแงแ แแแฎแแฃแแแก แงแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแกแแแแ แ แแ-แแแแชแแ แขแกแ แแ แแแแขแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แจแแฃแก แแแแแแแขแแแก, แแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแ แ แขแแแ-แฉแแ แแแแแแ แแกแแคแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฌแแ แขแแแแแแแแ.
แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แกแแ
Show Opening
Zoo Station
The Fly
Even Better Than the Real Thing
Mysterious Ways
One
Unchained Melody
Until the End of the World
New Year's Day
Numb
Angel of Harlem
Stay (Faraway, So Close!)
Satellite of Love
Dirty Day
Bullet the Blue Sky
Running to Stand Still
Where the Streets Have No Name
Pride (In the Name of Love)
Daddy's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car
Lemon
With or Without You
Love Is Blindness
Can't Help Falling in Love
แแแแแขแแแแแ แแแกแแแ
Tryin' to Throw Your Arms Around the World แแ Desire โ แแแแแฆแแแฃแแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแจแ, 1992 แฌแแแก 29 แแ 30 แแแแแกแขแแก
The Fly แแ Even Better than the Real Thing โ แแแแแฆแแแฃแแ แแแแชแแ แขแแ แจแแแฉแแ แแ แกแแแแคแแแแ, แแแแฉแแกแขแแ แ, 1992 แฌแแแก 19 แแแแแกแ
แแแแฃแแแแขแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
A Fistful of ZooTV
ZooTV โ The Inside Story
Trabantland
แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแฆแแแ แแแ
Numb - แแแ แแแแ แแแฅแกแ
แคแฃแแฅแชแแแแ แแแแแแฃแขแแ แแกแแแแแก
แแแแแแฃแแ แกแแฅแชแแแแ
แแ แกแแฆแแแแก แแแแ แฃแแ แงแแแแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แจแแขแแแแแแ แแ แคแแแแจแ, แแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแแฃแแแ Tryin' to Throw Your Arms Around the World, แ แแแแแแช แจแแกแ แฃแแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแก Numb แแ Angel of Harlem แจแแ แแก. แแแแ แ แแแแแก, แ แแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแก แแแแ แกแชแแแแแ แแ แแกแ แฃแแฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แจแแแแแแแฃแ แแก แญแแฅแ, แแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแ แฏแแฃแคแ แฃแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแงแแคแแแ แแงแ แแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแ.
แแ แแแแแแแแ
แ แแแแกแแช แแแแแแแแจแ แแก แแแแชแแ แขแ แแแ แแแแแ แแฉแแแแแก, แแแงแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แฃแแแแงแแคแแแ แแแ แฉแ, แ แแแแแแแช แกแแแฆแแ แแก The Fly แแ แแก แแแ แแแแแแ, แฃแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แคแกแแแแ-แแแแฃแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแฅแแก แแแแแฉแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแก แแ แแงแ แแแ แแแแแ แ แแแฌแแแแแ, แแ แแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแจแฃแแแแแแแแก แกแแขแแ แฃแแ แแแ แแแแขแแก แแแฌแแแก. 2007 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแขแแจแ แจแแฃแก แแแแแแแแ แแ, แฃแแแ แฃแแแแแแกแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแก แแ แแแ แแก แแแฃแแแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแแก แแแแ แแแฎแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแกแแแ แคแ แแแ แแ แงแแคแแแ แจแแแแฎแแแแแแ แคแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแฃแแจแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
U2-แก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
1994 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
U2-แก แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแ
1994 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแ
Island Records-แแก แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแ
Island Records-แแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
PolyGram-แแก แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแ
PolyGram-แแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A8%29
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แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ (แแจแจ)
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แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ (แแจแจ)
แแจแจ-แก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ (Republicans, Grand Old Party, GOP) โ แแจแจ-แก แแ แ-แแ แแ แซแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ. แแแ แขแแแก แแ แแแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแแแ โ แกแแแแ, โแแแ แขแแแก แคแแ แโ โ แฌแแแแแ. แแแคแฃแซแแแ 1854 แฌ. 22 แแแแแ แแแแก แฃแแกแแแแกแแแแก แจแขแแขแแก แฅ. แ แแแแแจแ. แแแ แขแแแก แแแแขแคแแ แแ แแคแฃแซแแแแ แแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแแแก แแ แฃแแแแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแ-แชแแแขแ แแกแขแฃแแ แแแแแชแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแ-แชแแแขแ แแกแขแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแ แขแแแกแแแ.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แแแแ แกแแ 1854 แฌแแแก แแแแแแกแ-แแแแ แแกแแแก แแฅแขแแก แแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแแ . แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แแฅแขแ แฃแคแแแแแก แแซแแแแแ, แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแงแ แแแแแแ แแจแจ-แก แแแ แแแแฃแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแแ. แแแ แขแแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แแแแกแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแก, แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแ แชแแแแแแก แแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแคแแ แแแก. แแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแงแ แแแ แแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแ. แแแกแ แแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแกแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฅแแแจ แแแแ แซแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแแแฃแ แจแขแแขแแแจแ 1865 แฌแแแก. 1912 แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแ แแแแแแฎแแ แ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแแแแกแแแ.
XXI แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแขแแแแกแ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แฆแแ แแแฃแแแแแแก. แแแ แขแแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแก, แแแแแกแฃแคแแ แแแญแ แแแแก, แแแแแขแแแแแแก, แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแ แแแแ แขแก แแ แแแฎแ แแแ แแแ แแแฃแแแชแแแแก. แฃแแแแแแกแ แกแแกแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ 1973 แฌแแแก แแแฆแแแฃแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แขแแ แแจแแแ แแ แแแฃแแแ แแกแแแ แแ แแแแ แขแก แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแแก แแ แแแแจแ. แแกแแแ, แแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แแงแ แฉแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแขแแฅแชแแแแแแแกแ แแ แขแแ แแคแแแแก แกแแแแแฎแแแจแ. แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแแญแ แแแแก แแฎแแ แแแญแแ แแ แแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแ แแแแฎแ แ แแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแก แฉแแแแแแ 19 แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
XIX แกแแฃแแฃแแ
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แแแแ แกแแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แจแขแแขแแแแก แแแแ 1854 แฌแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแ แชแแแแแแกแแแ แจแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแ. แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแ แแแชแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแชแแฃแ แ แแแซแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแขแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแ แ. แแแ แกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแแกแ-แแแแ แแกแแแก แแฅแขแแ, แ แแแแช แแแแแแฌแแแ แแแกแฃแ แแก แแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแแฃแฅแแแแ แแ แแแแแแกแแก แแ แแแแ แแกแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแกแแ. แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแชแแ. แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก, แ แแแแ แช แแแ แแขแแแแก, แแแคแแ แแแแแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแ แแแแแฎแแแแแแ แแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ แจแขแแขแแแจแ.
1856 แฌแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแชแแแ แแแ แขแแแ แจแแฅแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแขแคแแ แแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แฎแแแแแกแแแ แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแคแแ แแแแแแก แแจแจ-แก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแ 1860 แฌแแแก แฉแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแฎแแ แงแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ.
XX แกแแฃแแฃแแ
1896 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแแกแแฎแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแ แแแแแแกแแก แแแ แขแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแชแแ แ แแแแแแกแแก แแฎแแ แแแญแแ แ. 1901-1909 แฌแแแแจแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแจแจ-แก แแ แแแแแแแขแแก แแแแแชแแแก, แฎแแแ แแแก แฉแแแแแชแแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแ แฃแแแแแ แฐแแแแ แ แขแแคแขแ 1908 แฌแแแก, แแแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแก แจแฃแแแ แแแงแแคแแก แจแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแขแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแ. แขแแคแขแแ 1912 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแแแแแ แชแฎแ แ แฃแแแแแขแ แแ แ แฃแแแแแขแ แแแแฅแชแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก, แแ แแแ แแกแฃแแ แแแ แขแแแก แฉแแแแกแแงแแแแแแแแแ. แแแกแ แแแฌแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แ แแคแแ แแแแก, แ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ 1930-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแฎแแ แแแแฎแแแแแก แกแแแแแ. แแก แแแแแ แชแฎแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแฎแ แแแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แแแ แขแแแจแ, แ แแแแแ แแกแแแ แแ แแแแแฎแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแก, แ แแแแช แแแแแแฌแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแแแแแกแแแ. XX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแ แ แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แฉแแแแแแจแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแแก แแแแฆแฌแแแก แแฃแแแข แแแแแแฐแแฃแแ แแ, แ แแฉแแ แ แแแฅแกแแแแ, แฏแแ แแแ แคแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแ แแ แฏแแ แฏ แฐแแ แแแ แข แฃแแแแ แแฃแจแแ. 1952 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแแแแแฐแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแ แชแฎแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแฃแแ แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแ แ แกแแแแขแแ แ แ แแแแ แข แขแแคแขแ, แแแแ แแ แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แแก แคแแฅแขแ, แ แแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแฐแแฃแแ แแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแแก แจแแแ แแแแแขแแแแจแ. แแแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แแแแแแฐแแฃแแ แ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแ แแแกแฌแแแ, แแแแ แ แแแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ. 1976 แฌแแแแแ, แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแแ แแแฅแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแแแ, แแแ แแ แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แ แแแแแแแแ แฐแแแแแแแแกแ.
1989 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแฉแแแแแ แแแกแแแแซ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแแขแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแชแฎแแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแก แจแแฎแแแฃแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแแ แแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแแก, แ แแ แ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แจแแกแแคแแ แแกแ แแแแ แซแแแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ.
XXI แกแแฃแแฃแแ
แฌแแ แแแขแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ แฏแแ แฏ แฃแแแแ แแฃแจแแกแ แแ แแแ แฉแแแแแก แแ แซแแแ 2000 แแ 2004 แฌแแแก แแ แฉแแแแแแจแ. แแฃแจแแก แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแแฃแแฃแ แแชแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแ แขแแแ แจแแแแแ แฉแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แขแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแชแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแแก แกแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแ. แแฃแจแแก แแ แ แแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแ แแ แ-แกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแฃแแแแแ: แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แ แแแฃแแแชแแแแก แ แแแแ แช แแแแแแแแแแก, แแกแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แ. แแแกแ แฅแแแแแแแแ แคแแกแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแขแแ แแแแชแแแแแแแ.
2016 แฌแแแก แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แฉแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฏแแแแช แจแแคแแกแแ แแแแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แแ. แแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ แแงแ แกแแแ แจแขแแขแแก แจแแแแแแแแ - แแแฉแแแแแ, แแแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แฃแแกแแแแกแแแ - แกแแแแช แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแแ แฎแแแก แแซแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแ แขแแแก. NBC-แแก แกแแแแคแแ แแแชแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ:
แแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแญแแกแงแ แแก 2020 แฌแแแก แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแกแแแแก. แแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ,แ แแ แแแชแ-แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแแ แแแแกแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแแ แแแ แแแ แซแแแแแก.
แกแแฎแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแ
แแแ แขแแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แฌแแแ แแแแ 1850-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแ แขแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ, แแจแจ-แก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแชแแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแฉแแแ แแแ แขแแแก แฌแแแงแแแ แแฃแแแแชแแกแขแก แแ แ แแแแฅแขแแ แก - แฐแแ แแกแ แแ แแแกแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แแกแแแ แแแ แขแแแ แกแแฎแแแแก แแ แฉแแแ แฃแ แฉแแ แแแ แขแแแก แฌแแแ แแแก แ แแแแ แแช แแงแ โแ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแโ, แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แขแแ แแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแฃแฌแแแแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แแ แกแแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแ.
แขแแ แแแแ โแแแแ แซแแแแ แแแ แขแแโ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแ แแแแชแแฃแ แแแขแกแแฎแแแก แแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แแแ แขแแแก แฎแจแแ แแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแขแฃแ แแ GOP (Grand Old Party). แแก แแแ แแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแก 1884 แฌแแแก.
แแแ แขแแแก แขแ แแแแชแแฃแ แแแแแกแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแก แแแกแขแแ แแแแแแฅแแแงแแ แแ แ-แแ แ แแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแขแฃแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ, 1874 แฌแแแก 7 แแแแแแแ แก. แแแ แขแแแก แแแขแแ แแแขแแฃแ แกแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แฌแแแ แแกแแ แจแขแแขแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แแแแชแแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแ, แแฐแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ. แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแแ, แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แแแ แขแแแก แแ แแแแฉแแแ แแแกแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแแแแ แคแแ แ. แแฃแแชแ 2000 แฌแแแก แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแแ แแกแแชแแ แแแแ แฌแแแแ แคแแ แแแ.
แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแชแแแแ
แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแขแแแ
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแฌแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแฆแแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แคแแฅแขแแ แแแ. แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแแฎแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแแแแก แแ แแก แคแแกแแแแฃแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแแแก.
แแแแแแแแ แแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแก, แ แแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแกแแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแแก. แแแแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแ แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแกแฃแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแก. แแแแ แแแ แแ, แแก แฃแกแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ, แแแแช แฅแแแแก แกแแแฃแจแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแก. แแแ แซแ แฎแแ แฏแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแคแแฅแขแฃแ แแ, แแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแก แฎแแ แฏแแแ.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แซแ แกแแฅแขแแ แ แฃแคแ แ แแคแแฅแขแฃแ แแ แกแแฅแแแแแแฅแแแแ แฆแแแแกแซแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแฎแจแ แฆแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแ แแแแแ, แแแแ แ แกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแฆแแแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแ แแ แ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแฎแแแ แแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แแฌแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแฃแแแแแก.
แแแ แแแแก แแแชแแแก แแแแแขแแแ
แแกแขแแ แแฃแแแ, แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแ แแแ แแกแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแชแแแก. แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแขแ แแงแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแกแแ แแแขแแ แ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแขแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแ แแแก แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแก แจแแฅแแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแ แ แแฉแแ แ แแแฅแกแแแ แแ แแงแ แแแแแแแ, แแแ แฎแแแ แแแแฌแแ แ แแแ แแแแก แแแชแแแก แกแแแแแแขแแก แจแแฅแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแแก 1970 แฌแแแก แแ แฐแฅแแแแ แงแแแแแกแแแแชแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแ. แแแแกแแแ, แแก แแแแแชแแ แจแแแชแแแแ 1980-แแแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแข แ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแฃแแแชแแแแก แแงแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแก. แแแก แจแแแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแชแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแแแชแแแแ แ แแแฃแแแ แแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ, แแแแแแ แแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแ แฃแแ แงแ แแแแแแขแแก แชแแแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแกแแแกแฃแกแ.
แแแแแ แแชแแ
1850โ1870 แฌแแแแจแ, แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแ แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแก, แแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแขแแแ, แแแฌแแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแ, แ แแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แแงแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแก แแแขแ-แแแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแขแแแแแแ แแชแแฃแ แแแ แขแแแแก. แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแแฌแแแฃแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแ แฎแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแก, แ แแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแจแ (แ แแแแแแแช แกแฃแ แแแ แแแแแขแแแแแ แแฃแจแแฎแแแ), แฎแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแแ แขแแ แแแแแฎแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แจแ แแแแก แแแ แขแแ (แ แแแแแกแแช แกแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแฃแ แแแชแแ แแฃแจแแฎแแแก แจแแ แแก). 1970-แแแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแแงแแแแแฃแแ, แแแ แขแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแชแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแ แแแฎแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแก, แแแแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแงแแคแแแ แแ แแแ แแ แแแฌแแแแ: แแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแก, แแแแ แแแ แแ แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแแชแแแก แแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแขแแแแก แแแแแ แขแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแ (แแแแฃแแแกแขแแแแก แแฎแแ แแแญแแ แแ). 2016 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แ แแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแชแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ, แฌแแแงแแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแแกแฌแแ แแ แแแแแแก แแจแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแแแแแแแ แจแแกแแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก.
แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแแ
2020 แฌแแแกแแแแแก แแจแจ-แก แแกแขแแ แแแจแ แแ แแก 19 แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
American National Biography (20 volumes, 1999) covers all politicians no longer alive; online at many academic libraries.
Aistrup, Joseph A. The Southern Strategy Revisited: Republican Top-Down Advancement in the South (1996).
Barone, Michael. The Almanac of American Politics 2014: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (2013); revised every two years since 1975.
Critchlow, Donald T. The Conservative Ascendancy: How the Republican Right Rose to Power in Modern America (2nd ed. 2011).
Ehrman, John, The Eighties: America in the Age of Reagan (2005).
Fauntroy, Michael K. Republicans and the Black vote (2007).
Frank, Thomas. What's the Matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won the Heart of America (2005).
Frum, David. What's Right: The New Conservative Majority and the Remaking of America (1996).
Kurian, George Thomas ed. The Encyclopedia of the Republican Party (4 vol., 2002).
Lamis, Alexander P. ed. Southern Politics in the 1990s (1999).
Levendusky, Matthew. The Partisan Sort: How Liberals Became Democrats and Conservatives Became Republicans (2009). Chicago Studies in American Politics.
Mason, Robert. The Republican Party and American Politics from Hoover to Reagan (2011).
Reinhard, David W. The Republican Right since 1945 (1983).
Rutland, Robert Allen. The Republicans: From Lincoln to Bush (1996).
Sabato, Larry J. Divided States of America: The Slash and Burn Politics of the 2004 Presidential Election (2005).
Sabato, Larry J. and Bruce Larson. The Party's Just Begun: Shaping Political Parties for America's Future (2001), textbook.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Republican National Committee
Senate Republican Conference
House Republican Conference
National Republican Senatorial Committee
National Republican Congressional Committee
Republican Governors Association
Republican State Leadership Committee
National Black Republican Association
Young Republican National Federation
Asian American Republicans
College Republican National Committee
2016 National Platform
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แแจแจ-แแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ
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แชแแกแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แ
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แชแแกแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แ โ แแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแ-แขแแ แแขแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแฃแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แฅแแแงแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แแแซแแแแก แ แแแแแแจแ. แแฎแแ แ แแแแชแแแก แชแแกแแแแแแก แแแแกแ แแ แฅแแแแฅ แชแแกแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแ แชแแแขแ แก.
แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแฃแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแแแ.
แแฎแแ แ แแแแ แกแแ 2009 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแกแก, แแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแ-แขแแ แแขแแ แแฃแแ แ แแคแแ แแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแก แแแฌแแแแ.
แแแกแแฎแแแแแ
แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 2010 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแ แแกแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก 3 114 แแแชแก. แแฎแแ แแก แคแแ แแแแแ 190,5 แแยฒ.
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แแแ แแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแฃแจแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 210 แแแขแ แแ. 2004 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 65 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 2004 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
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Lake Orta
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Lake Orta (Lombard and ) or Cusio (Lombard and ) is a lake in northern Italy, west of Lake Maggiore.
It has been so named since the 16th century, but was previously called Lago di San Giulio, after Saint Julius (4th century), the patron saint of the region. Its southern end is about by rail to the northwest of the city of Novara (located on the main Turin-Milan line), while its northern end is about by rail south of the Gravellona-Toce railway station, itself located halfway between Ornavasso and Omegna.
Its scenery is characteristically Italian, while San Giulio island has some picturesque buildings, and takes its name from the local saint, who lived in the 4th century. The island was fortified between the 5th and 6th centuries.
Located around the lake are Orta San Giulio, built on a peninsula projecting from the east shore of the lake, Omegna at its northern extremity, Pettenasco to the east, and Pella to the west.
It is supposed that the lake is the remnant of a much larger sheet of water by which originally the waters of the Toce flowed south towards Novara. As the glaciers retreated the waters flowing from them diminished, and were gradually diverted into Lake Maggiore.
The inaugural European Rowing Championships were held on Lake Orta in 1893.
Frequent ferry service connects towns and villages around the lake.
Gallery
See also
Italian Lakes
List of lakes of Italy
References
CNR - ISE: Laghi
LIMNO Banca dati dei laghi italiani: Orta
External links
Lake Orta at World Lake database
Orta.net Pictures, history and curiosities about lake of Orta
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แแแแแ แแแแ แแ (แ. 5 แแแแแ แแแแ, 1974, แแแแแแกแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแฉแ แแแ แแแแแแจแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแ แแ 1974 แฌแแแก 5 แแแแแ แแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ. 1996 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, 1998-1999 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแฆแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แ-แแฃแแฃแกแขแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ, แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แจแแคแแกแแแแ. 2002 แฌแแแก แแแแแแญแ แแแแ แ-แแฃแแฃแกแขแฃแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแฅแขแแ แแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ, แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แจแแคแแกแแแแ.
1992-1995 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแงแ แแ. แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แกแขแฃแแแแขแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แกแแแญแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแฃแ แ แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแก แแแกแฌแแแแแแแแ (1995-1998). 1999-2002 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแก แฅแแแแฅ แแแขแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแแซแฆแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแ แแฅแขแแ แแก แแแแแจแแแฌแแ แแฃแจแแแแแ.
แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแ แแ 2002 แฌแแแแแ แแงแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แ. แฌแแ แแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แฃแคแ แแกแ แแแชแแแแ -แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ. แฎแแแ 2002-2005 แฌแแแแจแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แแ. แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแฃแ แ แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแก แแแชแแแขแแ.
2006-2007 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแแแแ, แแ แแคแแกแแ แ (2006-2007) แแ แแแชแแแแ -แแแแแแแแ แ, แแแ แแแแ แแ แแคแแกแแ แ แจแแแแแ แแก แแแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแฏแแ แ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ (แฐแฃแแแแแขแแก แคแแแแแก แกแขแแแแแแแแขแ; 2007-2009). แแแแแ แแ แแก แแงแ แฅแแ แแฃแ-แแแแ แแแฃแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแกแ (2009-2011) แแ แแแแแแกแแแก แกแแแแ แแแแก แกแแแแแก แแกแแชแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแคแแกแแ แ (2009-2010). 2010-2011 แฌแแแแจแ แแแชแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แฐแแแแแแแแ แแแก แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแแแก แฅแแแงแแแแแก แกแแฏแแ แ แกแแแแ แแแแกแ แแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแแแแ แแแแก แแแฅแก-แแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แแแงแแคแแแแแ. 2011-2014 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แแ แแแแ แ แแแแฅแแซแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แจแกแก-แก แแแแแแแแแก (2014-2016) แกแ แฃแแ แแ แแคแแกแแ แ.
แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแ แ
2003 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแก แ แแคแแ แแแ แแแแแ, แแ แแก แแแแแชแแแก แกแขแ แแขแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแชแแคแชแแแก แแแขแแ แ.
แแแแแ แแแแ แแ 2004-2006 แฌแแแแจแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แจแกแก-แก แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แ แแฅแขแแ แแ. แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแแก แกแแฎแแแก แฃแแแแจแแ แแแแ แแแขแ แฃแแแก แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแก แ แแคแแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ. แแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ 2006 แฌแแแก แแแขแแแ.
แแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแฅแแแแแแแ 2009 แฌแแแแแ, แแแแแแชแแแก แ แแแแแจแ แแแแฌแงแ. แแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแฃแแแก, โแแแแแกแฃแคแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแกโ แจแแฃแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แ แแแฎแแ. แแแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ แจแกแก-แก แ แแแ แแแแแแแชแแแกแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแแขแแแแชแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแ แ แแ แแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแ แแแฅแขแแก แแแขแแ แ แแงแ. แแแ แจแแ แแก แแ แแก แแ แแแฅแขแ โแแแชแฃแแ แแแฅแแแแฅแ โ แแแชแฃแแ แแแแแชแแแแโ.
2011 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแ โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแแกโ แแแแแแชแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แแแแแ แก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแก แแแแแแชแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแก แแแแแขแฃแ แ แฏแแฃแคแแก แแแ แแแฌแแกแ แแแแกแ แแ แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแก แฅแแแฏแแฃแคแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ.
โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแแกโ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแจแ แแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แ. แแแแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแแแแแแชแแ แกแขแ แฃแฅแขแฃแ แแแจแ แแแแแแ แซแ. 2012 แฌแแแก 30 แแฅแขแแแแ แแแแ โ 2015 แฌแแแก 3 แแแแแกแขแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแก แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแ, 2015 แฌแแแก 3 แแแแแกแขแแแแ โ 2016 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแกแขแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแก แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแก แฃแคแ แแกแแก แแแแแแแแแ แแฃแจแแแแแ.
2016 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแกแขแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแจแแ. 2019 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแกแขแแก แแแแ แแแแก แจแแแ แแแแฃแแ แจแขแแขแแแแก แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแฃแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแชแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแจแ แกแแแฌแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแฃแแ แแฃแจแแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แฌแแ แแแขแแแแก แกแแ แขแแคแแแแขแ แแแแแกแชแ.
2019 แฌแแแก 11 แกแแฅแขแแแแแก แแแแแแจแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแก แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแก แฃแคแ แแกแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก 13 แแแแแแแ แก แแแแแแจแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แแแแแแแ.
2020 แฌแแแก 1 แแแ แขแก แแแแแแจแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแแ แแ แกแ แฃแแฃแคแแแแแแ แแแฉแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แคแแแแ แแชแแฃแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแจแ.
แแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แฐแงแแแก แแแฃแฆแแ แแ แกแแแ แจแแแแ.
แคแแแแก แแแแแแกแฃแ , แแแ แแแแฃแ แแ แ แฃแกแฃแ แแแแแก.
แแแแแแแแ แแคแแ
โEigentumsschutz von Grund und Boden, insbesondere im Naturschutzrechtโ. Cuvillier Verlag, Gรถttingen โ 2002
โTransformation der Verwaltung Georgiens in eine klassisch-europรคische Verwaltungโ. In: DรถV, Stuttgart โ 2008
โVerfassungsentwicklung in Georgienโ. In: JรถR, Tรผbingen โ 2010
"Freiheit โ Ein Prozess fรผr Gerechtigkeit". Mitteldeutscher Verlag โ 2022
โแแแแแแ แแขแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ. Development of Democracy in Georgiaโ. แแแแแแชแแแแแแ โแแแแ แแแฃแแโ โ 2005
โแกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแแก แแแแแแขแแ แแแ. แแแแแแแแแก แซแแ แแแแแ แฃแคแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแแโ (แแแแแแแขแแ แ). 2005
โแแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแโ. แแแแแแชแแแแแแ โแกแแแกแขแโ โ 2009
โแกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแแก แแแแแแขแแ แแแโ (แแแแแแแขแแ แ). 2013
โแแแแแกแฃแคแแแแ โ แแ แแชแแกแ แกแแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแแแกโ. แแแแฃแ แกแฃแแแแแฃแ แแก แแแแแแชแแแแแแ โ 2021
แฏแแแแแแแ
2020 โ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แกแแแแขแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแ โ แ แแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ.
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แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแ แแแแ แแ โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแชแแแก แกแแแแแแกแขแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 5 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1974
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแกแขแ แแแ
แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
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แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แฃแกแแคแ แแฎแแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แแแแแแแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20I%20of%20Great%20Britain
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George I of Great Britain
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George I of Great Britain
George I (George Louis; ; 28 May 1660 โ 11 June 1727) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 and ruler of the Electorate of Hanover within the Holy Roman Empire from 23 January 1698 until his death in 1727. He was the first British monarch of the House of Hanover.
Born in Hanover to Ernest Augustus and Sophia of Hanover, George inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lรผneburg from his father and uncles. In 1682, he married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle, with whom he had two children; he also had three daughters with his mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg. George and Sophia Dorothea divorced in 1694. A succession of European wars expanded George's German domains during his lifetime; he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover in 1708. As the senior Protestant descendant of James VI and I, his great-grandfather, George inherited the British throne following the deaths in 1714 of his mother, Sophia, and his second cousin Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Jacobites attempted, but failed, to depose George and replace him with James Francis Edward Stuart, Anne's Catholic half-brother.
During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished, and Britain began a transition to the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual political power was held by Robert Walpole, now recognised as Britain's first de facto prime minister. George died of a stroke on a trip to his native Hanover, where he was buried. He is the most recent British monarch to be buried outside the United Kingdom.
Early life
George was born on 28 May 1660 in the city of Hanover in the Duchy of Brunswick-Lรผneburg in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, and his wife, Sophia of the Palatinate. Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother, Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia.
For the first year of his life George was the only heir to the German territories of his father and three childless uncles. George's brother, Frederick Augustus, was born in 1661, and the two boys (known respectively by the family as "Gรถrgen" and "Gustchen") were brought up together. Their mother was absent for almost a year (1664โ1665) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy but corresponded regularly with her sons' governess and took a great interest in their upbringing, even more so upon her return. Sophia bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters.
By 1675 George's eldest uncle had died without issue, but his remaining two uncles had married, putting George's inheritance in jeopardy, for his uncles' estates might pass to their own sons, were they to have any, instead of to George. George's father took him hunting and riding and introduced him to military matters; mindful of his uncertain future, Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle.
In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons, and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Gรถttingen, with his capital at Hanover. George's surviving uncle, George William of Celle, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, the succession of George and his brothers to the territories of their father and uncle now seemed secure. In 1682 the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers.
Marriage
In the same year, George married Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the daughter of his uncle George William, thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws. This marriage of state was arranged primarily to ensure a healthy annual income, and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother at first opposed the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea's mother, Eleonore (who came from lower nobility), and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea's legitimated status. She was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage.
In 1683, George and his brother Frederick Augustus served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture, meaning he would no longer receive part of his father's territory as he had expected. This led to a breach between Frederick Augustus and his father, and between the brothers, that lasted until his death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians' continuing contributions to the Empire's wars, Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692. George's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father's electorate and his uncle's duchy.
Sophia Dorothea had a second child, a daughter named after her, in 1687, but there were no other pregnancies. The couple became estrangedโGeorge preferred the company of his mistress, Melusine von der Schulenburg, and Sophia Dorothea had her own romance with the Swedish Count Philip Christoph von Kรถnigsmarck. Threatened with the scandal of an elopement, the Hanoverian court, including George's brothers and mother, urged the lovers to desist, but to no avail. According to diplomatic sources from Hanover's enemies, in July 1694, the Swedish count was killed, possibly with George's connivance, and his body thrown into the river Leine weighted with stones. The murder was claimed to have been committed by four of Ernest Augustus's courtiers, one of whom, Don Nicolรฒ Montalbano, was paid the enormous sum of 150,000 thalers, about one hundred times the annual salary of the highest-paid minister. Later rumours supposed that Kรถnigsmarck was hacked to pieces and buried beneath the Hanover palace floorboards. However, sources in Hanover itself, including Sophia, denied any knowledge of Kรถnigsmarck's whereabouts.
George's marriage to Sophia Dorothea was dissolved, not on the grounds that either of them had committed adultery, but on the grounds that Sophia Dorothea had abandoned her husband. With her father's agreement, George had Sophia Dorothea imprisoned in Ahlden House in her native Celle, where she stayed until she died more than thirty years later. She was denied access to her children and father, forbidden to remarry and only allowed to walk unaccompanied within the mansion courtyard. She was, however, endowed with an income, establishment, and servants, and allowed to ride in a carriage outside her castle under supervision. Melusine von der Schulenburg acted as George's hostess openly from 1698 until his death, and they had three daughters together, born in 1692, 1693 and 1701.
Electoral reign
Ernest Augustus died on 23 January 1698, leaving all of his territories to George with the exception of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrรผck, an office he had held since 1661. George thus became Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg (also known as Hanover, after its capital) as well as Archbannerbearer and a Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. His court in Hanover was graced by many cultural icons such as the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and the composers George Frideric Hรคndel and Agostino Steffani.
Shortly after George's accession to his paternal duchy, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was second-in-line to the English and Scottish thrones, died. By the terms of the English Act of Settlement 1701, George's mother, Sophia, was designated as the heir to the English throne if the then reigning monarch, William III, and his sister-in-law, Anne, died without surviving issue. The succession was so designed because Sophia was the closest Protestant relative of the British royal family. Fifty-six Catholics with superior hereditary claims were bypassed. The likelihood of any of them converting to Protestantism for the sake of the succession was remote; some had already refused.
In August 1701, George was invested with the Order of the Garter and, within six weeks, the nearest Catholic claimant to the thrones, the former king James II, died. William III died the following March and was succeeded by Anne. Sophia became heiress presumptive to the new Queen of England. Sophia was in her seventy-first year, thirty-five years older than Anne, but she was very fit and healthy and invested time and energy in securing the succession either for herself or for her son. However, it was George who understood the complexities of English politics and constitutional law, which required further acts in 1705 to naturalise Sophia and her heirs as English subjects, and to detail arrangements for the transfer of power through a Regency Council. In the same year, George's surviving uncle died and he inherited further German dominions: the Principality of Lรผneburg-Grubenhagen, centred at Celle.
Shortly after George's accession in Hanover, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out. At issue was the right of Philip, the grandson of King Louis XIV of France, to succeed to the Spanish throne under the terms of King Charles II of Spain's will. The Holy Roman Empire, the United Dutch Provinces, England, Hanover and many other German states opposed Philip's right to succeed because they feared that the French House of Bourbon would become too powerful if it also controlled Spain. As part of the war effort, George invaded his neighbouring state, Brunswick-Wolfenbรผttel, which was pro-French, writing out some of the battle orders himself. The invasion succeeded with few lives lost. As a reward, the prior Hanoverian annexation of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg by George's uncle was recognised by the British and Dutch.
In 1706, the Elector of Bavaria was deprived of his offices and titles for siding with Louis against the Empire. The following year, George was invested as an Imperial Field Marshal with command of the imperial army stationed along the Rhine. His tenure was not altogether successful, partly because he was deceived by his ally, the Duke of Marlborough, into a diversionary attack, and partly because Emperor Joseph I appropriated the funds necessary for George's campaign for his own use. Despite this, the German princes thought he had acquitted himself well. In 1708, they formally confirmed George's position as a Prince-Elector in recognition of, or because of, his service. George did not hold Marlborough's actions against him; he understood they were part of a plan to lure French forces away from the main attack.
In 1709, George resigned as field marshal, never to go on active service again. In 1710, he was granted the dignity of Arch-Treasurer of the Empire, an office formerly held by the Elector Palatine; the absence of the Elector of Bavaria allowed a reshuffling of offices. The emperor's death in 1711 threatened to destroy the balance of power in the opposite direction, so the war ended in 1713 with the ratification of the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip was allowed to succeed to the Spanish throne but removed from the French line of succession, and the Elector of Bavaria was restored.
Accession in Great Britain and Ireland
Though both England and Scotland recognised Anne as their queen, only the Parliament of England had settled on Sophia, Electress of Hanover, as the heir presumptive. The Parliament of Scotland (the Estates) had not formally settled the succession question for the Scottish throne. In 1703, the Estates passed a bill declaring that their selection for Queen Anne's successor would not be the same individual as the successor to the English throne, unless England granted full freedom of trade to Scottish merchants in England and its colonies. At first Royal Assent was withheld, but the following year Anne capitulated to the wishes of the Estates and assent was granted to the bill, which became the Act of Security 1704. In response the English Parliament passed the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to restrict Anglo-Scottish trade and cripple the Scottish economy if the Estates did not agree to the Hanoverian succession. Eventually, in 1707, both Parliaments agreed on a Treaty of Union, which united England and Scotland into a single political entity, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and established the rules of succession as laid down by the Act of Settlement 1701. The union created the largest free trade area in 18th-century Europe.
Whig politicians believed Parliament had the right to determine the succession, and to bestow it on the nearest Protestant relative of the Queen, while many Tories were more inclined to believe in the hereditary right of the Catholic Stuarts, who were nearer relations. In 1710, George announced that he would succeed in Britain by hereditary right, as the right had been removed from the Stuarts, and he retained it. "This declaration was meant to scotch any Whig interpretation that parliament had given him the kingdom [and] ... convince the Tories that he was no usurper."
George's mother, the Electress Sophia, died on 28 May 1714 at the age of 83. She had collapsed in the gardens at Herrenhausen after rushing to shelter from a shower of rain. George was now Queen Anne's heir presumptive. He swiftly revised the membership of the Regency Council that would take power after Anne's death, as it was known that Anne's health was failing and politicians in Britain were jostling for power. She suffered a stroke, which left her unable to speak, and died on 1 August 1714. The list of regents was opened, the members sworn in, and George was proclaimed King of Great Britain and King of Ireland. Partly due to contrary winds, which kept him in The Hague awaiting passage, he did not arrive in Britain until 18 September. George was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 20 October. His coronation was accompanied by rioting in over twenty towns in England.
George mainly lived in Great Britain after 1714, though he visited his home in Hanover in 1716, 1719, 1720, 1723 and 1725. In total, George spent about one fifth of his reign as king in Germany. A clause in the Act of Settlement that forbade the British monarch from leaving the country without Parliament's permission was unanimously repealed in 1716. During all but the first of the King's absences, power was vested in a Regency Council rather than in his son, George Augustus, Prince of Wales.
Wars and rebellions
Within a year of George's accession the Whigs won an overwhelming victory in the general election of 1715. Several members of the defeated Tory Party sympathised with the Jacobites, who sought to replace George with Anne's Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart (called "James III and VIII" by his supporters and "the Pretender" by his opponents). Some disgruntled Tories sided with a Jacobite rebellion, which became known as "The Fifteen". James's supporters, led by Lord Mar, an embittered Scottish nobleman who had previously served as a secretary of state, instigated rebellion in Scotland where support for Jacobitism was stronger than in England. "The Fifteen", however, was a dismal failure; Lord Mar's battle plans were poor, and James arrived late with too little money and too few arms. By the end of the year the rebellion had all but collapsed. In February 1716, facing defeat, James and Lord Mar fled to France. After the rebellion was defeated, although there were some executions and forfeitures, George acted to moderate the Government's response, showed leniency, and spent the income from the forfeited estates on schools for Scotland and paying off part of the national debt.
George's distrust of the Tories aided the passing of power to the Whigs. Whig dominance grew to be so great under George that the Tories did not return to power for another half-century. After the election, the Whig-dominated Parliament passed the Septennial Act 1715, which extended the maximum duration of Parliament to seven years (although it could be dissolved earlier by the Sovereign). Thus Whigs already in power could remain in such a position for a greater period of time.
After his accession in Great Britain, George's relationship with his son (which had always been poor) worsened. George Augustus, Prince of Wales, encouraged opposition to his father's policies, including measures designed to increase religious freedom in Britain and expand Hanover's German territories at Sweden's expense. In 1717, the birth of a grandson led to a major quarrel between George and the Prince of Wales. The King, supposedly following custom, appointed the Lord Chamberlain (Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle) as one of the baptismal sponsors of the child. The King was angered when the Prince of Wales, disliking Newcastle, verbally insulted the Duke at the christening, which the Duke misunderstood as a challenge to a duel. The Prince was told to leave the royal residence, St. James's Palace. The Prince's new home, Leicester House, became a meeting place for the King's political opponents. The King and his son were later reconciled at the insistence of Robert Walpole and the desire of the Princess of Wales, who had moved out with her husband but missed her children, who had been left in the King's care. Nevertheless, father and son were never again on cordial terms.
George was active in directing British foreign policy during his early reign. In 1717, he contributed to the creation of the Triple Alliance, an anti-Spanish league composed of Great Britain, France and the Dutch Republic. In 1718, the Holy Roman Empire was added to the body, which became known as the Quadruple Alliance. The subsequent War of the Quadruple Alliance involved the same issue as the War of the Spanish Succession. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht had recognised the grandson of Louis XIV of France, Philip V, as king of Spain on the condition that he gave up his rights to succeed to the French throne. But upon Louis XIV's 1715 death, Philip sought to overturn the treaty.
Spain supported a Jacobite-led invasion of Scotland in 1719, but stormy seas allowed only about three hundred Spanish troops to reach Scotland. A base was established at Eilean Donan Castle on the west Scottish coast in April, only to be destroyed by British ships a month later. Jacobite attempts to recruit Scottish clansmen yielded a fighting force of only about a thousand men. The Jacobites were poorly equipped and were easily defeated by British artillery at the Battle of Glen Shiel. The clansmen dispersed into the Highlands, and the Spaniards surrendered. The invasion never posed any serious threat to George's government. With the French now fighting against him, Philip's armies fared poorly. As a result, the Spanish and French thrones remained separate. Simultaneously, Hanover gained from the resolution of the Great Northern War, which had been caused by rivalry between Sweden and Russia for control of the Baltic. The Swedish territories of Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover in 1719, with Hanover paying Sweden monetary compensation for the loss of territory.
Ministries
In Hanover, the King was an absolute monarch. All government expenditure above 50 thalers (between 12 and 13 British pounds), and the appointment of all army officers, all ministers, and even government officials above the level of copyist, was in his personal control. By contrast in Great Britain, George had to govern through Parliament.
In 1715 when the Whigs came to power, George's chief ministers included Robert Walpole, Lord Townshend (Walpole's brother-in-law), Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland. In 1717 Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole resigned from the Cabinet over disagreements with their colleagues; Stanhope became supreme in foreign affairs, and Sunderland the same in domestic matters.
Lord Sunderland's power began to wane in 1719. He introduced a Peerage Bill that attempted to limit the size of the House of Lords by restricting new creations. The measure would have solidified Sunderland's control of the House by preventing the creation of opposition peers, but it was defeated after Walpole led the opposition to the bill by delivering what was considered "the most brilliant speech of his career". Walpole and Townshend were reappointed as ministers the following year and a new, supposedly unified, Whig government formed.
Greater problems arose over financial speculation and the management of the national debt. Certain government bonds could not be redeemed without the consent of the bondholder and had been issued when interest rates were high; consequently each bond represented a long-term drain on public finances, as bonds were hardly ever redeemed. In 1719, the South Sea Company proposed to take over ยฃ31 million (three fifths) of the British national debt by exchanging government securities for stock in the company. The Company bribed Lord Sunderland, George's mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg, and Lord Stanhope's cousin, Secretary of the Treasury Charles Stanhope, to support their plan. The Company enticed bondholders to convert their high-interest, irredeemable bonds to low-interest, easily tradeable stocks by offering apparently preferential financial gains. Company prices rose rapidly; the shares had cost ยฃ128 on 1 January 1720, but were valued at ยฃ500 when the conversion scheme opened in May. On 24 June the price reached a peak of ยฃ1,050. The company's success led to the speculative flotation of other companies, some of a bogus nature, and the Government, in an attempt to suppress these schemes and with the support of the Company, passed the Bubble Act. With the rise in the market now halted, uncontrolled selling began in August, which caused the stock to plummet to ยฃ150 by the end of September. Many individualsโincluding aristocratsโlost vast sums and some were completely ruined. George, who had been in Hanover since June, returned to London in Novemberโsooner than he wanted or was usualโat the request of the ministry.
The economic crisis, known as the South Sea Bubble, made George and his ministers extremely unpopular. In 1721, Lord Stanhope, though personally innocent, collapsed and died after a stressful debate in the House of Lords, and Lord Sunderland resigned from public office.
Sunderland, however, retained a degree of personal influence with George until his sudden death in 1722 allowed the rise of Robert Walpole. Walpole became de facto Prime Minister, although the title was not formally applied to him (officially, he was First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer). His management of the South Sea crisis, by rescheduling the debts and arranging some compensation, helped the return to financial stability. Through Walpole's skilful management of Parliament, George managed to avoid direct implication in the Company's fraudulent actions. Claims that George had received free stock as a bribe are not supported by evidence; indeed receipts in the Royal Archives show that he paid for his subscriptions and that he lost money in the crash.
Later years
As requested by Walpole, George revived the Order of the Bath in 1725, which enabled Walpole to reward or gain political supporters by offering them the honour. Walpole became extremely powerful and was largely able to appoint ministers of his own choosing. Unlike his predecessor, Queen Anne, George rarely attended meetings of the cabinet; most of his communications were in private, and he only exercised substantial influence with respect to British foreign policy. With the aid of Lord Townshend, he arranged for the ratification by Great Britain, France and Prussia of the Treaty of Hanover, which was designed to counterbalance the Austro-Spanish Treaty of Vienna and protect British trade.
George, although increasingly reliant on Walpole, could still have replaced his ministers at will. Walpole was actually afraid of being removed from office towards the end of George I's reign, but such fears were put to an end when George died during his sixth trip to his native Hanover since his accession as king. He suffered a stroke on the road between Delden and Nordhorn on 9 June 1727, and was taken by carriage about 55 miles to the east, to the palace of his younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Prince-Bishop of Osnabrรผck, where he died two days after arrival in the early hours before dawn on 11 June 1727. George I was buried in the chapel of Leine Palace in Hanover, but his remains were moved to the chapel at Herrenhausen Gardens after World War II. Leine Palace was entirely burnt out as a result of Allied air raids and the King's remains, along with his parents', were moved to the 19th-century mausoleum of King Ernest Augustus in the Berggarten.
George was succeeded by his son, George Augustus, who took the throne as George II. It was widely assumed, even by Walpole for a time, that George II planned to remove Walpole from office but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, Caroline of Ansbach. However, Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability.
Legacy
George was ridiculed by his British subjects; some of his contemporaries, such as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, thought him unintelligent on the grounds that he was wooden in public. Though he was unpopular in Great Britain due to his supposed inability to speak English, such an inability may not have existed later in his reign as documents from that time show that he understood, spoke and wrote English. He certainly spoke fluent German and French, good Latin, and some Italian and Dutch. His treatment of his wife, Sophia Dorothea, became something of a scandal. His Lutheran faith, his overseeing both the Lutheran churches in Hanover and the Church of England, and the presence of Lutheran preachers in his court caused some consternation among his Anglican subjects.
The British perceived George as too German, and in the opinion of historian Ragnhild Hatton, wrongly assumed that he had a succession of German mistresses. However, in mainland Europe, he was seen as a progressive ruler supportive of the Enlightenment who permitted his critics to publish without risk of severe censorship, and provided sanctuary to Voltaire when the philosopher was exiled from Paris in 1726. European and British sources agree that George was reserved, temperate and financially prudent; he disliked being in the public light at social events, avoided the royal box at the opera and often travelled incognito to the homes of friends to play cards. Despite some unpopularity, the Protestant George I was seen by most of his subjects as a better alternative to the Roman Catholic pretender James. William Makepeace Thackeray indicates such ambivalent feelings as he wrote:
Writers of the nineteenth century, such as Thackeray, Walter Scott and Lord Mahon, were reliant on biased first-hand accounts published in the previous century such as Lord Hervey's memoirs, and looked back on the Jacobite cause with romantic, even sympathetic, eyes. They in turn, influenced British authors of the first half of the twentieth century such as G. K. Chesterton, who introduced further anti-German and anti-Protestant bias into the interpretation of George's reign. However, in the wake of World War II continental European archives were opened to historians of the later twentieth century and nationalistic anti-German feeling subsided. George's life and reign were re-explored by scholars such as Beattie and Hatton, and his character, abilities and motives re-assessed in a more generous light. John H. Plumb noted that:
Yet the character of George I remains elusive; he was in turn genial and affectionate in private letters to his daughter, and then dull and awkward in public. Perhaps his own mother summed him up when "explaining to those who regarded him as cold and overserious that he could be jolly, that he took things to heart, that he felt deeply and sincerely and was more sensitive than he cared to show." Whatever his true character, he ascended a precarious throne, and either by political wisdom and guile, or through accident and indifference, he left it secure in the hands of the Hanoverians and of Parliament.
Arms
As King his arms were: Quarterly, I, Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England) impaling Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France); III, Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); IV, tierced per pale and per chevron (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lรผneburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent (for Westphalia), overall an escutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or (for the dignity of Archtreasurer of the Holy Roman Empire).
Issue and mistresses
Issue
Mistresses
In addition to Melusine von der Schulenburg, three other women were said to be George's mistresses:
Leonora von Meyseburg-Zรผschen, widow of a Chamberlain at the court of Hanover, and secondly married to Lieutenant-General de Weyhe. Leonore was the sister of Clara Elisabeth von Meyseburg-Zรผschen, Countess von Platen, who had been the mistress of George I's father, Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover.
Sophia Charlotte von Platen, later Countess of Darlington (1673 โ 20 April 1725), shown by Ragnhild Hatton in 1978 to have been George's half-sister and not his mistress.
Baroness Sophie Caroline Eva Antoinette von Offeln (2 November 1669 โ 23 January 1726), known as the "Young Countess von Platen", she married Count Ernst August von Platen, the brother of Sophia Charlotte, in 1697.
Family tree
Ancestry
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
George I at the official website of the British monarchy
George I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
George I at BBC History
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1660 births
1727 deaths
17th-century German people
18th-century German people
18th-century British people
18th-century Irish monarchs
Prince-electors of Hanover
Heirs to the British throne
Monarchs of Great Britain
Electoral Princes of Hanover
Dukes of Bremen and Verden
Dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg
Princes of Calenberg
Princes of Lรผneburg
English pretenders to the French throne
House of Hanover
Garter Knights appointed by William III
Nobility from Hanover
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Burials at Berggarten Mausoleum, Herrenhausen (Hanover)
Burials at the Leineschloss
Osnabrรผck
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German army commanders in the War of the Spanish Succession
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แฅแแฅแแกแแซแ
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แฅแแฅแแกแแซแ
แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแ แฅแแฅแแกแแซแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแก:
แแแแแ แฅแแฅแแกแแซแ โ แแแแแแแ -แแจแแแแแแแ
แแแแ แฅแแฅแแกแแซแ โ แกแแแ แขแกแแแแ (แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแ)
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แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ
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แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ - แแแขแแกแแขแ แแแกแแแ แขแ แกแแจแฃแแแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแขแแ แแแแก แงแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแฎแแแ แแแแแก แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแขแแแแแ แขแแแแก แกแแ แแแกแก แกแแแแแแแแก. แแแแแแแแแก แแแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแ แฅแแแงแแแก 26 แฌแแ แขแแแจแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ. แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ แแแฆแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแฃแ แแ แแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแ.
แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แขแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแแแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแกแแคแแแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ โApplus+โ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแคแแแแก 70 แฅแแแงแแแแจแ แแแแ แแ แแแก. โApplus+โ-แแก แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแชแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แแแ แแแฃแแ แกแขแแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฅแแแ แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ.
แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแขแแแแแ แขแแก แฃแแ แฃแแแแแกแแงแแคแแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแแคแแแแจแ แชแแแแแ แแแขแแขแแฅแแแกแแแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแฆแญแฃแ แแแแแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ Actia -แกแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแก. แขแแฅแแแกแแแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแ แแชแแกแจแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ โactia-แกโ แขแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแงแแแแแก.
แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ 350 แแแแแแแแแ แแแกแแฅแแแแฃแแ. แแแกแแฅแแแแฃแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแก. แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแคแแแแชแแแก แแกแแแแฆแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแก, แ แแแแ แช แฅแแแงแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แแแก แคแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แแแแแแ.
แกแแแแแแแแฃแแ แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแแ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแก แแแแจแแ แก แจแแ แแก แแกแแชแแ แแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แจแแแแแฎแแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแ แแแฆแ แแแแแแแฃแแแแ, แแแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแฅแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแแแแแ แแแแก แ แแคแแ แแ. 2018 แฌแแแก 1 แแฅแขแแแแ แแแแ แแแขแแแแแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแฅแขแแ แแแ แฃแแแ แกแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแ 3.0 แแ แแแขแ แซแ แแแแก แแฅแแแ แแแแฅแแแแแแกแแแแก, 2019 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแ แแแแ แแ - แงแแแแ แกแฎแแ แกแแขแ แแแกแแแ แขแ แกแแจแฃแแแแแแแแกแแแแก.
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แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแ
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แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแ โ แฉแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแแแกแขแแ (1368-1644 แฌแฌ.). แแแแแ แกแ แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแแ แแแแฆแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแฃแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแก แจแแแแแ. XV แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแฅแกแแแแกแแแแแกแขแฃแ แกแแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแก. 1407 แฌแแแก แฉแแแแแแก แฏแแ แแแแ แแแแขแแชแแก แแแแขแแแแ. แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแจแ แคแแฎแแก แแแแแแแแแก, แแแแก แแแแ แแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แฃ-แซแฃแแแ 1521 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแก แแฃแแ แซแแแ แฉแแแแแจแ แจแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแฃแฎแฃแ แ แงแแแแ แแแแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแก (แแแแแ) แแแ แแ. 1644 แฌแแแก แแแแฎแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแ แซแแฉแแแ แแแแแฃแ แแแแ, แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแ แแแแแฎแ. แฉแแแแแ แคแแแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แแแแแฎแ แ แแแแฏแฃแ แแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแแญแ แแแ แฉแแแแแจแ, แฉแแแฎแจแแก แแแแฎแแ แแแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแ แแก แแแแฏแฃแ แแฃแแ แแแแแกแขแแ แชแแแ.
แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แโแแ แ แงแแแแแแ แซแแแแ แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแจแ. แแแก แซแแแแฃแคแแแแแก แแ แแแ แแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แคแแฅแขแ แฃแกแแแแก แฎแแแก, แแฃแแแแช แแแแก แแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแกแแ แ แแคแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแ 1363 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แกแแแก แแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแก, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแแแแแแแฅแขแแแก แฉแแแแแ แแแแคแฃแชแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแกแแแแ, แแแแช แฃแแแแงแแคแแแแ แแแแฆแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ. 1368 แฌแแแก, แแแจแแ แ แแชแ แแก แแฆแแแก แแแแฆแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแก. แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแฎแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแฆแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฉแแแแแจแ แแฏแแ แแซแฃแแแแฃแแ แฎแแแแ แแแแฅแชแแก แฉแ แแแแแแแแ (แฉแแแแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแกแฎแแแแ) แแ แแแฃแแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแก. แแแแแกแ แแแแแ แแแก แฅแแแแฃแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแชแฎแแแ แแแซแฆแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแขแแ แแกแ แแ แฎแแแฎแแก แฐแแ แแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ (ๆฐๆฌ), แ แแช แแฃแแแกแฎแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแ แแขแแ แ แแฃแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แฎแแแฎแแก แแแขแแ แแกแแแก แแแแแกแแแแ แ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแจแ, แแฃแแชแ แฎแแแฎแแก แแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแ แแแแแช แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแก แฅแแแแแแแก.
แแแกแ แจแแแแแก, แแฃแแ แแแก (ๆฐธๆจ) แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแก (1403โ1424 แฌแแแแ) แฉแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแแแแก แฎแแแแ แซแแแแ แแงแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แ แแคแแ แแแก แจแแแแแ แแงแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฎแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ, แ แแช แแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแแงแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแขแฃแแ แแแแฎแแแแ, แแแ แแแ แ แแแจแ, แแแแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแแแ แแแแคแแแแแกแ.
แฉแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแชแแแ แแแแแขแแแแแ แแแแฆแแแแแแก แจแแขแแแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแก แแฎแ แแ, แ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแชแแแแก, แกแแแแแแแช แแฎแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแแก แแ แ แแแ แขแ แฉแแแแแแก แแจแแแแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแแ, แแ แแแแ แแฅ แแแแแแแ แแแญแ แแแแแช.
แฎแแแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แขแแฅแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแ-แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแฌแงแแแ แกแแแแญแ แ แแแแขแแฅแขแแแแก แแแแงแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแกแแแ. แญแฃ แแฃแแแญแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ XV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแ แแแฃแแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แกแคแแ แแก แแแคแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแแก แฉแแแแแ, แฉแแแฃแ แ โแแกแแคแแแ แฌแแกแ แแแแกโ แจแแกแแแแแแกแแ, แกแแแฆแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแฎแแแแก แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฃแแแ แแขแแกแ แซแแแแกแ แแ แชแแแแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแก แแ แฉแแแฃแแแแ แแ แแแแแฎแแแก แกแฎแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแแก แแแแ แแแก แแแขแแแแกแชแแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแกแขแแแแ
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12822
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แแจแฎแแแ
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แแจแฎแแแ โ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแแแแแกแขแ แ แชแแแขแ แ, แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแ แแแแก แซแแแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แขแแแจแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแแแกแแกแฌแงแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแ (แแแแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแแ). แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแแ (แแแแแก แขแแแแก แฌแ แแฃแ แแแ แกแจแแแแกแแแแแแจแ แแแฅแชแแฃแแ แขแแขแ แแแแแฅแ) VII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแแกแแแแแกแแ แแแ แกแแกแแ แแแจแแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแแ แแฃแจแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแข แกแแแแฎแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแก, VII แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ. แแแ แแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแแขแแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแ แจแแแแกแแแแก แแ แแก. แแแแ แแ แแแ แฉแฃแแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแก โแแ แแแแ แฎแแแซแแแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแโ:
แแ แแแแแแก แจแแแแกแแแแก แแ แแก แแแแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแขแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแกแแ IX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก I แแแแฃแ แฌแแแแจแ แแ แแแแ แฎแแแซแแแแแก แแแฌแแคแแ แกแแแ แแจแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแฎแแ. X แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแแ แแแแแ แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแแแ แแฆแแแแแแแก, แแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แกแแฎแ แขแแซแแ แแ 1032 แแแแ แแข IV-แแก แแแคแแแแก แแ แแก, แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแกแซแแก แฎแแแจแ แแแแฆแ. แแจแฎแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแ, แแแ แกแแกแแกแแฃแแ, แขแแซแ แแกแแแแ แแแแแ แฉแ แแฎแแแแ แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแ แฌแ แแฃแแ แแคแกแแแ แกแแแขแแแแ แแแฆแแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแ. แซแแแแ แแคแกแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแคแแ แฃแแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ. 2011 แฌ. แฅแแ แแฃแแแ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แฃแชแแแแ แแกแแแแแแ แฃแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แ, แ แแแแแจแแช แแแฎแกแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ โแแ แแแขแแก แซแโ, แจแแกแแซแแแ แขแแซแ แแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแแ แ.
แฌแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แขแแซแแ แ แแแแแแงแแแแแแแ แแแฉแแแแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแก แจแแแแแฎแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ, แแจแฎแแแกแ แแ แแจแแแก แ แแกแขแแแ แแชแแ แแแแฌแงแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแ .
แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แ
แแฎแแแแแแแ แขแแซแแ แ แแแแแกแแฉแแแแ แฌแแแ แซแแแแแฃแแ แฏแแแ แแแแ-แแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แฏแแแ แแกแแแ แ แแแฎแแแฃแแแแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแฎแแขแแแ แแแ แแแแแแช แแแฌแแก แแแแแแ. แแแกแแแแแแแก, แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแ. แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แแคแกแแแแก แแ แแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแชแแ แ แแคแกแแแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ แกแแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแ. แแแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แแแ แแแแก, แ แแแแแก แแ แซแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแฌแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแขแแแแ. แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแแก แแ แซแแแ, แฃแแคแกแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแ แแก. แแฃแแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแ 4 แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแแแแ แแแซแก, แ แแแแแแแช แซแแแแ แแ แแคแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแแ แจแแแแฃแแ แแแแแกแแแ แแ แกแแแขแแกแแแแแแ แแฅแแก. แแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแแก แงแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แฌแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแฎแแแแแแ แแแงแ แแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแแแแ แจแแแแฃแแ.
แแจแฎแแแก แขแแซแแ แ แแ แแแแแแขแแก แแ แแแแแคแแ แแแแแแแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแกแ แฃแแแแจแแแแแแแแแแกแ แซแแแแแ. แขแแซแ แแก แจแแแแแ แซแแแแ, XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก I แแแฎแแแ แแก, แแฎแแขแแ แแแแก แคแ แแแแแแขแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแ แแแ แฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแแ แจแแแแฃแแ แแแขแแ แ แกแแแแแชแแแแแ (1066). แฉแแแแแแแ แแแฆแฌแแฃแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแฃแกแฎแแก แแแแแฌแแ แ แแแแแแแฎแ แแแก แแจแฎแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแ แแฌแแแแแแ แฃแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแ แแจแฎแแแแแก (X-XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ) แแแแแแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแฌแแ แแแ แแกแแแขแฃแ แแฎแแฃแแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแ (A-35) แแ แแแกแขแแแก แกแแฎแแ แแแ (1033) แแแแแ แแ แแจแฎแแแแแก (XVI แก.) แแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแฃแแฎแแแแแแ 1233-แแ แแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแ แฎแแแแแฌแแ แ (A-85).
แแแแแ แแ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแจแฎแแแก แกแแฅแขแแขแแ แ แ แแแแแคแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแ แแซแ แ., แซแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแ แแแ, แแ., 1974
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แขแแซแ แแแแก แ แแกแขแแแ แแชแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แแแฎแ แแแฉแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแก แกแแแชแแแแแกแขแแแ แแคแแกแแแแ
แแจแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ
แแฃแแแแ แ., แแจแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ โ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแฎแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแแก แคแแแแ, แขแแ-แแแแ แฏแแแ, แแแฎแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแ, แแ., 2014
แแฃแแแแ แ., แแ แ แแฎแแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แ แแจแฎแแแก แขแแซแ แแแแ, II แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแแแแแแแฃแแ "แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฎแแแแแฌแแ แ", แแแฎแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแ, แแ., 2013
แกแฅแแแแ
แแจแฎแแแก แกแแแแแกแแแแแกแ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แซแแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแ
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418842
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแ
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แแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแ (แ. 23 แแแ แขแ, 1984, แแแแแแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแญแแแ แแแ. 2003 แฌแแแ แแแฎแแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแกแขแแขแ แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก, แฎแแแ 2004 แฌแแแก แแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแกแขแแขแ แแแแแ แจแแ แแก. 2008 แฌแแแก แกแแญแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแ แแ 2010 แฌแแแก แแ แแ แแแฏแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ. 18-แฌแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแกแแคแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแกแแแ (1999 แฌแแแ) แแ 20-แฌแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแ แแแแแ แ (2001 แฌแแแ). แแแ แแแแก แกแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แกแแแแแแก แฉแแแแแแแ 2003-2004-2005 แฌแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแแก แแแกแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ 2002-2009 แฌแแแก. 2006 แฌแแแก แแแฎแแ แแแ แแแแก แกแแแแฃแแ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แแแแ แ แแ แแแแแ แ, 2011 แฌแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแแก แแแกแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ.
แกแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ
แแแแ แ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2017, แแ แแขแ, แกแแแแ แซแแแแ;
แแแกแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2017, แฎแแแขแ-แแแแกแแแกแแ, แ แฃแกแแแ;
แแแกแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2011, แแแ แขแ-แแแ แแกแ, แกแแแแ แซแแแแ;
แแแแ แ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2009, แแแแ แกแแแ, แกแแ แแแแ;
แแแกแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแแ แแแแก แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2015, แ แแแแแแแแแ, แแกแแแแแแ;
แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2015, แฉแแแแฃ, แฉแแแแแ;
แแแกแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแกแแคแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แ แฉแแแแแแแแขแ 2011, แแแ แแแแ, แแฃแ แฅแแแ;
แแแกแแแ แแแแแแ - แฅแแแแ XXIV แกแแญแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ 2010, แฎแแแขแ-แแแแกแแแกแแ, แ แฃแกแแแ;
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แกแแแ แขแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 23 แแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1984
แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแญแแแ แแแแแแ
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320316
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%28%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3-%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3-%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%29
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แแแ แแแแแ (แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแ)
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แแแ แแแแแ (แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแ)
แแแ แแแแแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแแก แจแขแแขแจแ; แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 212 แแแขแ แแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแแก แจแขแแขแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแก. แจแแแแก แแแแแแแแแฃแ -แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 5 398 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 1.83 แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 2 950 แแยฒ-แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แจแขแแขแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ
แแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแขแฃ-แแ แแกแฃ-แแฃ-แกแฃแแแก แจแขแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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2117625
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barira
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Barira
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Barira, officially the Municipality of Barira (Maguindanaon: Ingud nu Barira; Iranun and Mรซranaw: Inged a Barira), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Maguindanao del Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 36,143 people.
Barira was established on August 29, 1977, through Presidential Decree No. 1188 signed by then President Ferdinand Marcos from the municipality of Buldon.
The town was part of the province of Shariff Kabunsuan from October 2006 until its nullification by the Supreme Court in July 2008.
Geography
Barangays
Barira is politically subdivided into 14 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks while some have sitios.
Barira (Poblacion)
Bualan
Gadung
Korosoyan
Lamin
Liong
Lipa
Lipawan
Marang
Nabalawag
Panggao
Rominimbang
Togaig
Minabay
Climate
Demographics
Economy
Gross Domestic Product
The Gross Domestic Product of the Municipality (2022) is 11,074,500,000(PHP).
References
External links
Barira Profile at the DTI Cities and Municipalities Competitive Index
[ Philippine Standard Geographic Code]
Philippine Census Information
Local Governance Performance Management System
Municipalities of Maguindanao del Norte
Establishments by Philippine presidential decree
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182205
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
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แแแแแแจแแแแแแ
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แแแแแแจแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแกแฎแแแจแ แแชแฎแแแ แแแแ. XVI แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ, 1512 แฌแแแก, แแแแแ X-แ แแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแจแแแแ แแ แแแกแ แจแแแแแแ แ แแกแขแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แจแแแแแก แซแ แกแแแแฆแแจแแแแก แแแกแแกแฎแแแ แฃแฌแงแแแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแ แแ แแแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แแแฅแกแแแแแ, แข. I, แแ. 585, แแ. 1993
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2634784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Llanos%20de%20Aridane
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Los Llanos de Aridane
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Los Llanos de Aridane is a municipality of the Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. It is located in the west of the island of La Palma, in the Aridane Valley. With 20,930 inhabitants (2013) it is the most populous municipality of La Palma.
History
In August 1812, the town of Los Llanos was established. At that time it also included the towns El Paso, Tazacorte and Argual. In 1837, El Paso was separated from Los Llanos. In 1925 Tazacorte, which was then the most populous and most economically developed town of the municipality, was separated from Los Llanos.
Geography
The municipality covers an area of . Its altitude is above sea level and has a coastal length of . Its main neighborhoods are: Los Llanos, Argual, Montaรฑa Tenisca, El Roque, Los Barros, La Laguna, Todoque, Las Manchas de Abajo, Puerto Naos, Triana, Retamar Jedey and El Remo. The municipality is one of the economic engines of the island with an economy based on bananas and tourism.
Sites of interest
City Hall: Was initially located in a traditional house located in the place now occupied by the modern House of Culture. The present building of the City Hall marking regionalist style by the architect Tomas Machado, was begun in 1945. The faรงade projecting balconies overhanging open and covered by tiles and on the latter, a mullioned window with lattice Mudejar. The hall saves seven oil paintings by Antonio Palma Suarez Gonzalez, which reproduces historical events and scenes.
Plaza de Espaรฑa: Spain Square and its surroundings are the administrative center of life, recreational, historic place must be visited and a meeting place and rest for all citizens and visitors, where they are most representative buildings of this city. The Plaza is located in the heart of the town, and the recent renewal of pavement (year 2,000) and pedestrianization of surrounding streets has prompted the dynamism of the same in the lives of its people. In its vicinity are 11 stunning Indian laurels (Ficus microcarpa) which together with royal palm trees were brought from Cuba by migrants in the mid-nineteenth century to beautify the ride of your hometown. These laurels have become a symbol of the city and inspiration of poets and travelers, being undoubtedly the most long-lived on the island.
Llano de Argual: A place where economic history of Aridane Valley began and it speaks of the splendor of an era, thanks to the use of the waters of La Caldera, to irrigate the cane fields before, and now the banana zones. They are in El Llano four old mansions of the seventeenth and eighteenth century: Ontanilla Velez home, Massieu Van Dalle house (property of Cabildo Isular and converted into an exhibition center, showroom and tourist information office), Poggio Maldonado home and the house of Sotomayor (the oldest preserved).
Plaza de Los Cuatro Caminos: This Plaza or mirador designed by the versatile islander artist Luis Morera, was made between 1993 and 1996, and noted for its beautiful mosaic work in which banks have built pergolas with ceramic tiled chips, a stage made of lava stones and battering rams towns of plants belonging to the Canarian flora.
Puerto Naos beach: It is situated in the best area to the west of the island, with mild temperatures throughout the year, which enabled it to obtain the Blue Flag award thanks to its services and crystalline waters. It has a boulevard that runs along the entire natural beach of black sand, where people can stroll or sit in some bar-terrace to watch the sea, the beach or a beautiful sunset to sunset.
Charco Verde beach: A black sand cove south of Puerto Naos, and where there is an ancient hot spring which once was used for medicinal purposes. It won the Blue Flag award for the first time in 2009.
Education
The municipality has an extensive educational system, both primary and secondary school and university. The public network of childhood education centers and primary and secondary schools depends on the Ministry of Education, Universities, Culture and Sports of the Canary Government. Among the primary schools are: CEIP El Roque, C.E.I.P. Mayantigo, C.E.I.P. Puerto Naos, C.E.I.P. Tajuya, C.E.I.P. Todoque, C.E.I.P. 25 Years of Peace, C.E.I.P. Las Manchas and C.E.I.P. Los Campitos.
In addition to two secondary schools, IES Eusebio Barreto Lorenzo and I.E.S. Jose Maria Perez Pulido are the Agricultural Training School in Los Llanos, the College of Special Education Acerina Princess and Official Language School of Los Llanos. The university presence in Los Llanos is composed of the National University of Distance Education (UNED)
There is only one private center in the municipality, the Holy Family of Nazareth School offers childhood, primary and secondary education.
Libraries
Los Llanos and has 2 libraries, the main one in the House of Culture of the municipality and the other in the Cultural Center of Argual. They share resources, effort, knowledge and experience in order to improve the educational and cultural city.
Historical population
See also
List of municipalities in Santa Cruz de Tenerife
References
Municipalities in La Palma
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509174
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20Shit%3A%20Binge%20%26%20Purge
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Live Shit: Binge & Purge
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Live Shit: Binge & Purge is the first live album by the American heavy metal band Metallica, released in a box set format on November 23, 1993. The initial first pressings contained three CDs or cassette tapes, with songs from concerts in Mexico City on the Nowhere Else to Roam tour, as well as three VHS tapes while a newer version contains two DVDs from concerts in San Diego on the Wherever We May Roam Tour and Seattle on the Damaged Justice Tour. It was originally released as a cardboard box depicting the style of a typical tour equipment transport box. Besides the audio and video media, the box featured additional bonus material (booklet showing photos, typical tour correspondence as sent and received by the band and their management, and internal documents and handwritten notes; a recreated copy of an access pass to the "Snakepit" part of the tour stage; a cardboard drawing/airbrush stencil for the "Scary Guy" logo) and a black "Metalli'Fukin'ca" T-shirt. Live Shit: Binge & Purge has been certified 15ร platinum by the RIAA as a long-form video format.
When the set was reissued in 3-CD / 2-DVD format, the box was abandoned in favor of a jewel case format. The booklet that was released in the initial set was made available as DVD-ROM content.
Track listing
Audio CDs
Recorded at the Palacio de los Deportes, Mexico City, Mexico, on February 25, 26, 27, and March 1 and 2, 1993.
VHS/DVD
San Diego
Recorded at the San Diego Sports Arena, San Diego, California, on January 13 and 14, 1992.
VHS one/DVD one
VHS two/DVD one
Seattle
Recorded at the Seattle Coliseum, Seattle, Washington on August 29 and 30, 1989.
VHS three/DVD two
Personnel
Metallica
James Hetfield โ lead vocals, rhythm guitar
Kirk Hammett โ lead guitar, backing vocals
Jason Newsted โ bass, backing vocals, occasional lead vocals
Lars Ulrich โ drums
Production
James Hetfield; Lars Ulrich โ producers
Guy Charbonneau; Mick Hughes โ engineers
James "Jimbo" Barton; Kent Matcke; Mike Fraser โ mixing
Scott Humphrey โ digital editing
Chart positions
Video certifications
References
Metallica video albums
1993 live albums
1993 compilation albums
1993 video albums
Live video albums
Metallica live albums
Elektra Records live albums
Elektra Records video albums
Elektra Records compilation albums
Vertigo Records compilation albums
Vertigo Records live albums
Vertigo Records video albums
Live thrash metal albums
Albums recorded at the Palacio de los Deportes
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50999219
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino%20Hamzi%C4%87
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Dino Hamziฤ
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Dino Hamziฤ (born 22 January 1988) is a Bosnian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Georgian side Torpedo Kutaisi.
International career
In 2009, he played for the Bosnia and Herzegovina under-21 national team.
Honours
Olimpik
Bosnian Cup: 2014โ15
Chikhura Sachkhere
Georgian Cup: 2017
Torpedo Kutaisi
Georgian Cup: 2022
References
External links
1988 births
Living people
Footballers from Sarajevo
Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Men's association football goalkeepers
Bosnia and Herzegovina men's footballers
Bosnia and Herzegovina men's under-21 international footballers
FK Sarajevo players
FK Olimpik players
Widzew ลรณdลบ players
FC Chikhura Sachkhere players
FC Torpedo Kutaisi players
Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina players
I liga players
Erovnuli Liga players
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Poland
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Poland
Expatriate men's footballers in Georgia (country)
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Georgia (country)
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25566784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landri%20Sales
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Landri Sales
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Landri Sales is a municipality in the state of Piauรญ in the Northeast region of Brazil.
See also
List of municipalities in Piauรญ
References
Municipalities in Piauรญ
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573
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
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Alchemy
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Alchemy (from Arabic: al-kฤซmiyฤ; from Ancient Greek: ฯฯ
ฮผฮตฮฏฮฑ, khumeรญa) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries AD.
Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus ("Great Work"). The concept of creating the philosophers' stone was variously connected with all of these projects.
Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the 12th-century translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy. This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine).
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as Eric J. Holmyard and Marie-Louise von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts.
Etymology
The word alchemy comes from old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself adopted from the Arabic word . The Arabic in turn was a borrowing of the Late Greek term khฤmeรญa, also spelled khumeia and khฤmรญa, with al- being the Arabic definite article 'the'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rdโ4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the Khemeu. Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from ฯฯฮผฮฑ, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.
Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name (hieroglyphic ๐๐
๐๐ ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word สพ actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic). This Coptic word derives from Demotic , itself from ancient Egyptian . The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "black Land", by contrast with the "red Land", the surrounding desert).
History
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
Hellenistic Egypt
The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD), can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as Mary the Jewess, Pseudo-Democritus, and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD.
Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the Final Abstinence (also known as the "Final Count"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "the guardians of places" and those who offered them sacrifices "priests", it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples.
Mythology โ Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.
The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.
Technology โ The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 250โ300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.
Philosophy โ Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.
Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.
Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Byzantium
Greek alchemy was preserved in medieval Byzantine manuscripts after the fall of Egypt, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.
India
The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century AD text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/nitre, perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim.
The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abลซ Rayhฤn Bฤซrลซnฤซ, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they
The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit jฤซvan-mukti). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god ลiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devฤซ.
Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyฤแนakฤrakam of Ugrฤditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.
Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha and Nityanฤtha Siddha. Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanฤtha Siddha wrote Rasaratnฤkara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Nฤgฤrjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.
Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.
A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.
The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasaลฤstra and ratnaลฤstra (or Various works on alchemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.
A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.
Islamic world
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kฤซmiyฤ (ุงูููู
ูุงุก). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.
In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to Jฤbir ibn Hayyฤn (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy. Paul Kraus, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows:
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.
From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Abลซ al-Rayhฤn al-Bฤซrลซnฤซ, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.
From the 14th century onwards, many materials and practices originally belonging to Indian alchemy (Rasayana) were assimilated in the Persian texts written by Muslim scholars.
East Asia
Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of Abลซ Mลซsฤ Jฤbir ibn แธคayyฤn at some point over the proceeding several hundred years. Other commonalities shared between the two alchemical schools of thought include discrete naming for ingredients and heavy influence from the natural elements. The silk road provided a clear path for the exchange of goods, ideas, ingredients, religion, and many other aspects of life with which alchemy is intertwined.
Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.
As early as 317 AD, Ge Hong documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents, titled Scripture of Great Clarity, Scripture of the Nine Elixirs, and Scripture of the Golden Liquor, as texts containing fundamental alchemical information. He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend. In his work Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature (317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide. In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese Daoists was reduced. In 499 AD, Tao Hongjing refuted Hong's statement that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as Shangqing meditation. While Hongjing did not deny the power of alchemical elixirs to grant immortality or provide divine protection, he ultimately found the Scripture of the Nine Elixirs to be ambiguous and spiritually unfulfilling, aiming to implement more accessible practicing techniques.
In the early 700s, Neidan (also known as internal alchemy) was adopted by Daoists as a new form of alchemy. Neidan emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practicing alchemy with compounds found in the body, rather than the mixing of natural resources that was emphasized in early Dao alchemy. For example, saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce. The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person, but rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body part or region. Although those who practiced Neidan prioritized meditation over external alchemical strategies, many of the same elixirs and constituents from previous Daoist alchemical schools of thought continued to be utilized in tandem with meditation. Eternal life remained a consideration for Neidan alchemists, as it was believed that one would become immortal if an inner god were to be immortalized within them through spiritual fulfillment.
Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion. In the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.) Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West by Obed Simon Johnson.
Medieval Europe
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attributed to Khalid ibn Yazid. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.
Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.
Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions.
Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non-exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. Roman Catholic Inquisitor General Nicholas Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture. This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.
Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist to the point where he had many pseudepigraphic imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.
A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "Homeric chain of wise men that link[ed] heaven and earth" that included ancient pagan philosophers and other important historical figures.
Renaissance and early modern Europe
During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.
In the late 15th century, Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486โ1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.
Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493โ1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.
John Dee (13 July 1527 โ December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.
Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lรผneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus.
Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrรผger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.
The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546โ1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (Michaล Sฤdziwรณj, 1566โ1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.
Later modern period
The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and moreโplus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."
Robert Boyle (1627โ1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of Lavoisier and John Dalton.
Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.
During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.
In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.
In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvรฉ, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.
Women
Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also played roles in early alchemical texts.
The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess. Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in alchemical literature.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance, due to the emergence of print, women were able to access the alchemical knowledge from texts of the preceding centuries. Caterina Sforza, the Countess of Forlรฌ and Lady of Imola, is one of the few confirmed female alchemists after Mary the Jewess. As she owned an apothecary, she would practice science and conduct experiments in her botanic gardens and laboratories. Being knowledgeable in alchemy and pharmacology, she recorded all of her alchemical ventures in a manuscript named ('Experiments'). The manuscript contained more than four hundred recipes covering alchemy as well as cosmetics and medicine. One of these recipes was for the water of talc. Talc, which makes up talcum powder, is a mineral which, when combined with water and distilled, was said to produce a solution which yielded many benefits. These supposed benefits included turning silver to gold and rejuvenation. When combined with white wine, its powder form could be ingested to counteract poison. Furthermore, if that powder was mixed and drunk with white wine, it was said to be a source of protection from any poison, sickness, or plague. Other recipes were for making hair dyes, lotions, lip colors. There was also information on how to treat a variety of ailments from fevers and coughs to epilepsy and cancer. In addition, there were instructions on producing the quintessence (or aether), an elixir which was believed to be able to heal all sicknesses, defend against diseases, and perpetuate youthfulness. She also wrote about creating the illustrious philosophers' stone.
Due to the proliferation in alchemical literature of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. As the sixteenth century went on, scientific culture flourished and people began collecting "secrets". During this period "secrets" referred to experiments, and the most coveted ones were not those which were bizarre, but the ones which had been proven to yield the desired outcome. Some women known for their interest in alchemy were Catherine de' Medici, the Queen of France, and Marie de' Medici, the following Queen of France, who carried out experiments in her personal laboratory. Also, Isabella d'Este, the Marchioness of Mantua, made perfumes herself to serve as gifts. In this period, the only book of secrets ascribed to a woman was ('The Secrets of Signora Isabella Cortese'). This book contained information on how to turn base metals into gold, medicine, and cosmetics. However, it is rumored that a man, Girolamo Ruscelli, was the real author and only used a female voice to attract female readers. This contributed to a bigger problem in which male authors would credit prominent noblewomen for beauty products with the purpose of appealing to a female audience. For example, in ("Gallant Recipe-Book"), the distillation of lemons and roses was attributed to Elisabetta Gonzaga, the duchess of Urbino. In the same book, Isabella d'Aragona, the daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, is accredited for recipes involving alum and mercury. Ippolita Maria Sforza is even referred to in an anonymous manuscript about a hand lotion created with rose powder and crushed bones.
Mary Anne Atwood's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marks the return of women during the nineteenth-century occult revival.
Modern historical research
The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam.
Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society.
Core concepts
Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.
Magnum opus
The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.
nigredo, a blackening or melanosis
albedo, a whitening or leucosis
citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis
rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis
Modernity
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Cฤlian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.
New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.
Esoteric interpretations of historical texts
In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.
According to this view, early alchemists such as Zosimos of Panopolis highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.
In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Thรฉodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic:
Psychology
Alchemical symbolism has been important in analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text translated by his friend Richard Wilhelm, he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called "individuation." Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of gold or Lapis as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation." Together with his alchemical mystica soror (mystical sister) Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting old alchemical texts, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references, and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos, or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general psychology, but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that comprise all psychic life.
Both von Franz and Jung have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Coniunctionis.
Literature
Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett.
Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.
Science
One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941.
See also
Alchemical symbol
Corentin Louis Kervran ยง Biological transmutation
Cupellation
Historicism
History of chemistry
List of alchemists
List of alchemical substances
Chemistry
Nuclear transmutation
Outline of alchemy
Porta Alchemica
Renaissance magic
Spagyric
Superseded theories in science
Synthesis of precious metals
Western esotericism
Notes
References
Citations
Sources used
Bibliography
Introductions and textbooks
(focus on technical aspects)
(focus on technical aspects)
(general overview)
(Greek and Byzantine alchemy)
(focus on technical aspects)
(Greek and Byzantine alchemy)
(the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are not relevant for alchemy)
(general overview, focus on esoteric aspects)
(general overview, written in a highly accessible style)
Greco-Egyptian alchemy
Texts
Marcellin Berthelot and Charles-รmile Ruelle (eds.), Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887โ1888, Vol 1: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923, Vol 2: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s.
Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, La Rรฉvรฉlation d'Hermรจs Trismรฉgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 (OCLC 897235256).
Robert Halleux and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (eds.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 1 : Papyrus de Leyde โ Papyrus de Stockholm โ Recettes, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981.
Otto Lagercrantz (ed), Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, Uppsala, A.B. Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1913, Papyrus graecus holmiensis (P. holm.); Recepte fรผr Silber, Steine und Purpur, bearb. von Otto Lagercrantz. Hrsg. mit Unterstรผtzung des Vilh. Ekman'schen Universitรคtsfonds.
Michรจle Mertens and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 4.1 : Zosime de Panopolis. Mรฉmoires authentiques, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995.
Andrรฉe Collinet and Henri-Dominique Saffrey (ed.), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacrรฉ and divin de la chrysopรฉe par un anonyme, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.
Andrรฉe Collinet (ed), Les alchimistes grecs, t. 11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) โ Cosmas le Hiรฉromoine โ Chrysopรฉe, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000.
Matteo Martelli (ed), The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, Maney Publishing, 2014.
Studies
Dylan M. Burns, " ฮผฮฏฮพฮตฯฯ ฯฮนฮฝฮน ฯฮญฯฮฝแฟ ฮบฯฮตฮฏฯฯฮฟฮฝฮน : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79โ106.
Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73โ98.
Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di etร imperiale ", Annali di storia dell'esegesi 19 (2002), p. 59โ99.
Rรฉgine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3), Le Musรฉon 114 (2001), p. 41-50.
Rรฉgine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", Vigiliae Christinae 59 (2005), p. 438-456.
Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfรจvres ร Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'รgypte, vol. 65, no 130, 1990, p. 219โ242.
Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016), p. 251โ274.
Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity.
Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.), Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 59โ69.
Andrรฉ-Jean Festugiรจre, La Rรฉvรฉlation d'Hermรจs Trismรฉgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 , .
Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ", Aries 4.2 (2004), p. 125โ147.
Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ", Dionysius 25 (2007), p. 33โ54.
Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721โ742. 2018. .
Shannon Grimes, Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt, Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018,
Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ", American Journal of Numismatics 7โ8 (1995โ1996), p. 209โ234.
Paul Keyser, " The Longue Durรฉe of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409โ430.
Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, Alchimie: art, histoire et mythes, SEHA-Archรจ, 1995, p. 11โ93.
Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt. Barnes & Noble, 1970.
Paul Magdalino and Maria Mavroudi (eds.), The Occult Sciences in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006.
Matteo Martelli, " The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition " in Sven Duprรฉ (ed.), Laboratories of Art, Springer, 2014, .
Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ", Religion in the Roman Empire 3.2 (2017), p. 202โ220.
Gerasimos Merianos, " Alchemy ", In A. Kaldellis & N. Siniossoglou (eds.), The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium (pp. 234โ251). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, .
Efthymios Nikolaรฏdis (ed.), Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity, Brepols, 2019, .
Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ", Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences 49 (1999), p. 3โ31.
Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943โ964.
C. Vlachou and al., " Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage ", Material Research Society Symposium Proceedings 712 (2002), p. II9.2.1-II9.2.9, .
Early modern
Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press, 2002.
External links
SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry
ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism
Association for the Study of Esotericism
Esotericism
Hermeticism
Natural philosophy
History of science
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แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแ
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แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแ โ แแแแแชแแ (แกแแแแ), แ แแแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแคแแกแแแก แแแแฆแแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแแแแแก.
แกแแแแแแแก, แแแแ แแก, แกแแแแแก แกแแแแแแก, แกแแแซแแแแก, แขแแแแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแ แกแฎแแ แแแแกแแแแแแก แจแแคแแกแแแแก แแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แแงแแแแแก แแแ แแแแฃแ แกแแแแแก, โแแแกแจแขแแแกโ, แ แแฆแแช โแกแแจแฃแแแโ แกแแแแแแก แแแแฆแแแแแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแแช แแแ แแฃ แแ แแแแฆแแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแชแแแก แ แแแแ แช แซแแแแ แ. แกแแจแฃแแแ แแ แกแฃแกแขแ แแแขแแแกแแแแแแก แแฅแแแแก. แแแแแแแแแ, แขแแแแแ แแขแฃแ แ แจแแแซแแแแ แแแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แชแฎแแแ, แแแแแ, แแ แแแ, แชแแแ แแ แ. แจ.; แแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแแก แแก โแกแแจแฃแแแโ แกแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแขแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแก.
แชแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแ แแฎแแกแแแแแแก. แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแฎแแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แจแแกแแคแแกแแแแแ แกแขแแแฃแแแก แแ แแ แกแขแแแฃแแแก แแแขแแแกแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแจแแช แแแแแแชแแแ แจแแกแแคแแกแแแแ แกแขแแแฃแแก. แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแก แชแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแกแแ แแแแแกแแแฃแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แแชแแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแแ, แแแแแขแแฃแ แแแ แแ แกแฎแ. แแแแขแแ แแแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแ แจแแกแแซแแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แคแกแแฅแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแกแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแกแแแแแแ.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian%20wine
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Georgian wine
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Georgian wine
Georgia is the oldest wine producing region in the world. The fertile valleys and protective slopes of the South Caucasus were home to grapevine cultivation and neolithic wine production (ษฃvino) for at least 8000 years. Due to millennia of winemaking and the prominent economic role it retains in Georgia to the present day, wine and viticulture are entwined with Georgia's national identity.
In 2013, UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using the Kvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The best-known Georgian wine regions are in the country's east, such as Kakheti (further divided into the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli) and Kartli, but also in Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, and coastal areas like Adjara and Abkhazia.
History
The roots of Georgian viticulture have been traced back by archeology to when people of the South Caucasus discovered that wild grape juice turned into wine when it was left buried through the winter in a shallow pit. This knowledge was nourished by experience, and from 6000 BC inhabitants of the current Georgia were cultivating grapes and burying clay vessels, kvevris, in which to store their wine ready for serving at ground temperature. When filled with the fermented juice of the harvest, the kvevris are topped with a wooden lid and then covered and sealed with earth. Some may remain entombed for up to 50 years. Due to its diverse and unique microclimate, there are about 500 grape varieties in modern Georgia.
Wine vessels of every shape, size and design have been the crucial part of pottery in Georgia for millennia. Ancient artifacts attest to the high skill of local craftsmen. Among vessels, the most ubiquitous and unique to Georgian wine-making culture are probably the Kvevris, very large earthenware vessels with an inside coat of beeswax. Not only kvevris were used to ferment grape juice and to store up wine, but also chapi and satskhao; others yet were used for drinking, such as khelada, doki, sura, chinchila, deda-khelada, dzhami and marani.
The continuous importance of winemaking and drinking in Georgian culture is also visible in various antique works of art. Many of the unearthed silver, gold and bronze artifacts of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC bear chased imprints of the vine, grape clusters and leaves. The State Museum of Georgia has on display a cup of high-carat gold set with gems, an ornamented silver pitcher and some other artifacts dated to the 2nd millennium BC. From classical Antiquity, Georgian museums display a cameo depicting Bacchus, and numerous sarcophagi with wine pitchers and ornamented wine cups found in ancient tombs.
From the 4th century AD, wine has gained further importance in Georgian culture due to the Christianisation of the country. According to tradition, Saint Nino, who preached Christianity in Kartli, bore a cross made from vine wood. For centuries, Georgians drank, and in some areas still drink, their wine from horns (called kantsi in Georgian) and skins from their herd animals. The horns were cleaned, boiled and polished, creating a unique and durable drinking vessel.
During Soviet times wines produced in Georgia were very popular. In comparison with other Soviet wines from Moldavia and Crimea that were available on the Soviet market Georgian wines had been preferable for Soviets. In 1950, vineyards in Georgia occupied 143,000 acres, but by 1985 this had reached 316,000 acres due to an increase in demand. In 1985 wine production was 881,000 tons. During Mikhail Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign, many old Georgian vineyards were cut off.
As of 2016, Georgia exported 64% of its wine to Russia. Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in the country's recent relationship with Russia. Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006 Russian embargo of Georgian wine, with Russia claiming that Georgia produced counterfeit wine. This was the "official" reason given, but the instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, and Russia uses their economic power for political purposes. Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified โGeorgian Wineโ labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced. Some winemakers in Georgia have also been known to import grapes and produce โfalsifiedโ Georgian Wine, leading then defense minister Irakli Okruashvili to note in 2006 that โ[He thought] several wineries that are still producing fake wine in Gori should be closedโ. The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channeled through Russian managed customs checkpoints in the Russian occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs.
Georgia is optimistic that its recent Association Agreement with the European Union will expand its export markets and reduce the risk presented by any future unilateral embargoes by Russia.
Viticulture in Georgia today
Georgia ranks 2nd (in terms of volume) in grape production in the former Soviet Union behind Moldova. Its wines had a high reputation in the Soviet Union. Currently, the wine is produced by thousands of small farmers (using primarily traditional techniques of wine-making), as well as certain monasteries and modern wineries.
According to the Minister of Agriculture of Georgia, wine production has increased from 13.8 million 750ml bottles in 2009 to 15.8 million bottles in 2010. In 2009, Georgia exported 10.968 million bottles of wine to 45 countries. In 2010, Georgia exported wines to Ukraine (about 7.5 million bottles), Kazakhstan (about 2 million bottles), Belarus (about 1.2 million bottles), Poland (about 870,000 bottles) and Latvia (590,000 bottles).
By 2019 exports and productions had increased significantly, with the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Agriculture's annual report declaring total export as "94 million bottles (0.75 liter)" to 53 countries, including increases in exports to Russia of 9% (58,384,540 bottles), to China of 2% (7,089,259 bottles), and to the United States of 48% (678,148 bottles).
Growing conditions
Georgia's territorial and climate conditions are optimal for wine-making. Extremes of weather are unusual: summers tend to be sunny and warm, and winters mild and frost-free. Natural springs abound, and the Caucasian Mountain streams drain mineral-rich water into the valleys. Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by the Black Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivating. The soil in vineyards is so intensively cultivated that the grapevines grow up the trunks of fruit trees eventually hanging down along the fruit when they ripen. This method of cultivation is called maglari.
Georgian grape varieties
Traditional Georgian grape varieties are little known outside of the Black Sea region. Now that the wines of Eastern and Central Europe are coming to greater international awareness, grapes from this region are becoming better known. Although there are nearly 400 to choose from, only 38 varieties are officially grown for commercial viticulture in Georgia:
Red grapes
White grapes
Georgian wine styles
Traditionally, Georgian wines carry the appellation name of the source region, district, or village, much like French regional wines such as Bordeaux or Burgundy. As with these French wines, Georgian wines are usually a blend of two or more grapes. Georgian wines are classified as sweet, semi-sweet, semi-dry, dry, fortified and sparkling.
White
Pirosmani is a semi-sweet white wine made from a 40% Tsolikauri, 60% Tsitska blend. It has won 3 gold medals and one silver medal at international competitions.
Tsinandali is a blend of Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grapes from the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli in the Kakheti region.
Tvishi is a natural semi-sweet white wine made from Tsolikauri in the Lechkhumi region. It has won one gold medal, two silver medals and one bronze medal in international competitions.
Mtsvane is a dry white wine made from Mtsvani.
Alaznis Veli is white semi-sweet wine made from the Rkatsiteii, Tetra, Tsolikauri and other industrial grape varieties cultivated in Western and Eastern Georgia. The wine of straw color has a characteristic aroma, a fine, fresh and a harmonious taste. It contains 9-11% alcohol and has 6-7% titrated acidity.
Anakopia is a white semi-dry table wine made from the Tsolikauri grape variety grown in the Sukhumi and Gudauta districts in Abkhazia. The color range is from light to dark-straw. It has a specific aroma and a subtle fresh taste. The alcohol content in the ready wine is 9-11%, sugar content 1-2 g/100 mL, titrated acidity 5-8 g/L. The wine has been produced since 1978.
Tbilisuri is pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Saperavi, Cabernet and Rkatsiteli grape varieties grown in East Georgia. The wine has a rich fruity taste. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L.
Khikhvi is a vintage white dessert wine made from the Khikhvi grape variety grown in Kardanakhi. It has a pleasant amber color, a characteristic aroma and a delicate taste. Its strength is 15 vol.%, sugar content 18-20%, titrated acidity 4-8 g/1. The wine has been produced since 1924. At international competitions, it received 4 gold medals.
Saamo is a vintage dessert white sweet wine is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in the Kardanakhi vineyards of the Gurjaani district in Kakheti. It takes the wine three years to mature. The golden-color wine has an original fine bouquet, a pleasant taste with a harmonious honey fragrance. When ready for use, the wine contains 17% alcohol, 13% sugar and has 4-6 g/1 titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1980. At international exhibitions, Saamo was awarded 4 gold and 1 silver medal.
Gelati is a white dry ordinary wine made of the Tsolikauri, Tsitska and Krakhuna grape varieties cultivated in Western Georgia. The wine of straw color has a characteristic savor with a fruity flavor and fresh harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 5-8%.
Kakheti is a white table wine made of the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in Kakheti. The amber-color wine has a fruity aroma with a vanillic flavor. It is characterized by an energetic, velvety and harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.5-13.0 vol.% and titrated acidity 4-6%. At international wine competitions, the Kakheti wine was awarded one silver and one bronze medal. It has been produced since 1948.
Bodbe is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety in the village of Bodbe in the Magaro micro-district, one of the most beautiful places of Kakheti. The wine has a light-straw color, a fine aroma of wildflowers and a pleasing tender taste which give the wine piquancy highly estimated by connoisseurs. The ready wine contains 10.5-11.5% alcohol and has 5-7% titrated acidity.
Dimi is an Imeretian-type white ordinary wine. It is made from the Tsolikauri and Krakhuna grape varieties grown on small areas in Imereti (Western Georgia) by the old local technique consisting in fermenting the grapes pulp to which some quantity of grapes husks is added. The dark-straw color has a pleasant specific bouquet with a fruity flavor, a fresh harmonious taste and savory astringency. Its strength is 10.5-13.0 vol.% and titrated acidity 6.5-8.0%. The wine has been produced since 1977.
Gareji is a white dry ordinary wine made of the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in Kakheti. The wine has a color ranging from pale-straw to amber, a pleasing bouquet and a full harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 4-7%.
Ereti is a white dry ordinary wine made from the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties. It has a straw color, a fine fruity bouquet and a full fresh and harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol.% and titrated acidity 5-8%.
Shuamta is a dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties according to the Kakhetian recipe. The wine is of amber or dark-amber color and has a moderately astringent harmonious taste with a fruity aroma. The alcohol content is 10-12%, titrated acidity 4-6 g/L, extractability over 25 g/L.
Alazani (white), named after Alazani river, is a mid-straw colored semi-sweet wine made from 100% Rkatsiteli. The climate of the Alazani Valley is slightly warmer than that of other wine-growing Georgian regions, making the local grapes sweeter than the rest. It has won one silver and one gold metal in international competitions.
See also list of Georgian wine appellations.
Red
Akhasheni is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in the Akhasheni vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district in Kakheti. The wine has a dark-pomegranate color and a harmonious velvety taste with a chocolate flavor. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1958. At international exhibitions, it has been awarded 6 gold and 5 silver medals.
Khvanchkara is a high-end, naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Alexandrouli & Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in the Khvanchkara vineyards in Racha, Western Georgia. The wine has a strong, distinctive bouquet and a well-balanced tannin profile with flavors of raspberry. It has a dark ruby color. Khvanchkara wine is one of the most popular Georgian semi-sweet wines. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5.0-7.0% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1907. It has been awarded 2 gold and 4 silver medals at various international exhibitions. This wine was Stalin's favorite.
Kindzmarauli is a high quality naturally semi-sweet wine of dark-red color. It is made from the Saperavi grape variety cultivated on the slopes of the Caucasian mountains in the Kvareli district of Kakheti. It has a strong characteristic bouquet and aroma, a gentle harmonious and velvety taste. Its taste and curative properties have won Kindzmarauli wide recognition. The wine contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5.0-7.0% titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1942. Kindzmarauli has won 3 gold, 4 silver & 1 bronze medal at international wine competitions.
Mukuzani is a dry red wine made from 100% Saperavi in Mukuzani, Kakheti. The wine is sourced from the best wines of the vintage that have been fermented at controlled temperatures and with selected yeast strains. The wines are then matured for 3 years in oak to give the wine-added complexity and flavor. Mukuzani is considered to be the best of the Georgian Dry Red wines made from Saperavi. It has won 9 gold medals, 2 silver medals and 3 bronze medals in international competitions.
Napareuli
Ojaleshi is a red semi-sweet wine made from the grape variety of the same name cultivated on the mountain slopes overhanging the banks of the Tskhenis-Tskali river, particularly in the Orbeli village and Samegrelo district (Western Georgia). Odzhaleshi has dark-ruby color, a gentle bouquet and aroma, a harmonious rich taste with a fruity flavor. It contains 10-12% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has a titrated acidity of 5-6%.
Pirosmani is a naturally semi-sweet red wine. It is made from the Saperavi grape variety cultivated in the Akhoebi vineyards of the Kardanakhi village in the Alazani Valley. The wine is fermented in clay jars buried in the ground, an ancient Kakhetian wine-making technique. When ready for use, the wine contains 10.5-12% alcohol, 1.5-2.5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity.
Saperavi is a red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in some areas of Kakheti. It is an extractive wine with a characteristic bouquet, a harmonious taste and pleasant astringency. Its strength is 10.5-12.5% and titrated acidity 5-7%. It has been produced since 1886.
Usakhelauri is a naturally semi-sweet wine. It is produced from the Usakhelauri grape variety cultivated mostly in the Zubi-Okureshi district in Western Georgia. Vineyards are arranged on the mountain slopes. The wine has an attractive ruby color, harmonious sweetness with a wild strawberry flavor. It is noted for a pleasant velvety taste, a delicate bouquet and inimitable piquancy. The wine contains up to 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1943. The word "Usakhelauri" means "nameless" in Georgia. The wine was considered so fine that it was hard for winemakers to find an adequate name for it. At international exhibitions, Usakhelauri has been awarded 2 gold and 3 silver medals.
Apsny is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made of red grape varieties cultivated in Abkhazia. The wine of pomegranate color has a pleasant aroma, a full and harmonious taste with gentle sweetness. When ready for use, the wine contains 9-10% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. At an international exhibition, the wine has received one silver medal.
Lykhny is a naturally semi-sweet pink wine made of the Izabela grape variety cultivated in Abkhazia. The wine has pink color, a specific aroma and a fresh harmonious taste. When ready for use, the wine contains 8-9% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. At international exhibitions, Lykhny has been awarded one silver and one bronze medal.
Mtatsminda is a pink table semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is prepared using traditional technology from the Saperavi, Tavkveri, Asuretuli, Rkatsiteli and other grape varieties grown in Tetritskaro, Kaspi, Gori and Khashuri districts. The wine is characterized by a harmonious taste with a fruity aroma. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L.
Aguna is a pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made from the Saperavi, Cabernet and Rkatsiteli grape varieties grown in East Georgia. The wine has a rich fruity taste. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L.
Sachino is a pink semi-dry wine produced since 1984. It is made using traditional methods from the Aleksandreuli, Aladasturi, Odzhaleshi, Tsitska, Tsolikauri and other grape varieties cultivated in West Georgia. The wine is notable for a mild taste, a moderate extractability, a pure aroma and a beautiful color. The alcohol content is 9-11.5%, sugar content 1-2%, titrated acidity 5-7 g/L.
Barakoni is a naturally semi-dry red wine made from the unique Aleksandrouli and Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in Western Georgia on the steep slopes of the Rioni gorge in the Caucasian mountains. This top quality wine, of light-ruby color, has a fragrance of violets, natural pleasant sweetness and a tender harmonious taste. When ready for use, Barakoni contains 10-12% alcohol, 1.5-2.5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been manufactured since 1981.
Salkhino is a liqueur-type of dessert wine made from the Izabella grape variety with an addition of the Dzvelshava, Tsolikauri and other grape varieties cultivated in the Mayakovski district (Western Georgia). It has characteristic ruby or pomegranate color. The alcohol content is 15%, sugar content 30%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/L. At international competitions the wine has received 6 gold medals. It has been produced since 1928.
Alaverdi (White and Red)
Alazani (Red) is a light red, semi-sweet wine made from a 60% Saperavi, 40% Rkatsiteli blend. It has won 3 gold medals and 3 silver medals at international competitions. The name comes from one of the major river systems of Georgia that borders Georgia with Azerbaijan. The climate is slightly warmer than the rest of the Georgian Wine growing regions and gives rise to much sweeter grapes than those found elsewhere.
Rkatsiteli Mtsvani
Saperavi Dzelshavi
See also list of Georgian wine appellations.
Fortified
Kardanakhi is a fortified vintage white wine of the type. It is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in the Kardanakhi vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district. The wine matures in oak barrels for three years. The amber color wine has a pleasant specific bouquet with a typical port wine flavor and a fine honey fragrance. It contains 18% alcohol, 10% sugar and has 4-6% titrated acidity. It was awarded 8 gold and one silver international medals.
Anaga is a madeira-type top-quality strong wine made from the Rkatsiteli, Khikhvi and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in the Gurjaani, Sighnaghi and Dedoplistskaro districts. The wine has light-golden to dark-amber color, a strong peculiar bouquet, an extractive harmonious taste with a clearly pronounced Madeira touch. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 4 g/mL, titrated acidity 3 - 7 g/L. The Anaga wine was awarded 1 international silver medal.
Sighnaghi is an ordinary strong wine of the port type made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety grown in the Sighnaghi district in Kakheti. The amber-color wine has an extractive harmonious taste with a clearly pronounced fruity touch. The alcohol content 3 g/100 mL, titrated acidity 5 g/L.
Veria is a fortified vintage white port made from the Rkatsiteli, Mtsvane, Chinuri and other commercial grape varieties grown in Eastern Georgia. The amber-color wine has a peculiar aroma and harmonious taste. Its strength is 18 vol.%, sugar content 7%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/1. At an international wine competition it received 1 gold medal. The wine has been produced since 1977.
Lelo is a port-type wine made from the Tsitska and Tsolikauri grape varieties grown in Zestaphoni, Terjola, Baghdati and Vani districts. The wine has a rich harmonious taste with a fruity aroma and a beautiful golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L.
Marabda is a port-type wine made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety grown in Marneuli and Bolnisi districts. It has a full harmonious taste with a fruity aroma & light-golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L.
Kolkheti is a fortified vintage white port is made from Tsolikauri, Tsitska and other commercial white grape varieties grown in Western Georgia. The amber-color wine has a specific bouquet and harmonious taste. Its strength is 18 vol.%, sugar content 7%, titrated acidity 3-7 g/L. At an international competition the wine received one silver medal. It has been produced since 1977.
Taribana is a port-type wine made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in Kakheti. The wine has a mild oily taste, a low sugar content and a beautiful color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 5 g/L.
Wine styles
Lelo is a port-type wine made from the Tsitska and Tsolikauri grape varieties grown in Zestaponi, Terjola, Baghdati and Vani districts. The wine has a rich harmonious taste with a fruity aroma and a beautiful golden color. The alcohol content is 19%, sugar content 5%, titrated acidity 6 g/L.
Akhasheni is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in the Akhasheni vineyards of the Gurdzhaani district in Kakheti, a province of Georgia. The wine of dark-pomegranate color has a harmonious velvety taste with a chocolate flavor. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been manufactured since 1958.
Khvanchkara is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Alexandrouli & Mudzhuretuli grape varieties cultivated in the Khvanchkara vineyards, near the town of Ambrolauri in the Racha region of western Georgia. It is one of the most popular Georgian semi-sweet wines. Along with Kindzmarauli, it was the favourite wine of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. It is of dark-ruby color. It contains 10.5 - 12.0% alcohol, 3 - 5% sugar and has 5.0 - 7.0% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1907.
Wine-producing regions of Georgia
There are five main regions of viniculture, the principal region being Kakheti, which produces seventy percent of Georgia's grapes. Traditionally, Georgian wines carry the name of the source region, district, or village, much like French regional wines such as Bordeaux or Burgundy. As with these French wines, Georgian wines are usually a blend of two or more grapes. For instance, one of the best-known white wines, Tsinandali, is a blend of Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grapes from the micro regions of Telavi and Kvareli in the Kakheti region.
Kakheti, containing the micro-regions Telavi and Kvareli
Kartli
Imereti
Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti
Adjara
See also
Old World wine
Amber wine, a winemaking style believed to have originated in Georgia
Rtveli, a traditional vintage and rural harvest holiday in Georgia
Sweetness of wine
List of Georgian wine appellations
Winemaking
Agriculture in Georgia
References
External links
Georgian National Wine Agency
Stalin's million-dollar wine cellar; BBC World Service; Outlook
Wine tours for travel groups
Georgia Wine Tours
Wine tours for individuals
Georgian drinks
Wine by country
Agriculture in Georgia (country)
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แแแแ แแ โ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ แซแ. แฌ. III โ แแฎ. แฌ. VI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแ แแคแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แฅแแฃแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ, แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแชแฎแแแ (แแ แแแคแแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ, แแกแแแ แแ แแแแ). แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแ แชแแแแแ, แกแแแแคแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ แคแแ แแแแแ I, แคแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแแแ.
แแแกแแแแแแแก แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช โแแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแโ แแ โแแแแแแกแแแก แแแแ แแโ, แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแก แแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแกแแแ แแแแกแแกแฎแแแแแแแแ.
แแขแแแแแแแแ
แขแแ แแแแ โแแแแ แแโ แแแฉแแแ แฃแชแฎแแแแแแแ (แแแ แซแแฃแโแ แแแแฃแ) แแแ แแแแจแ, แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แฎแแแแจแ. แกแแแแขแแ แแกแแ แแก แคแแฅแขแ, แ แแ แ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแขแฃแ แ, แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแก แแงแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ. แแ แกแแแแแก แแแกแแแ แแแ, แ แแ แแก แกแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แฅแแแงแแแแแก แแฆแแแแจแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแก แฅแแ แแฃแ โแแแแ แกโ (แแฅแแแ แแฎแแ แ) แฃแแแแจแแ แแแก แแ แแแแฉแแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแฎแกแแฅแแแ แแ แแแกแฎแแแแก แแแแแกแแฅแแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แจแแฅแแแแ แขแแ แแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แฃแแแแจแแ แแแก แซแ. แฌ. V แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแ แซแแ แแแขแแ แแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแฃแ แกแแกแแแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแแก (แแแแ แกแแฎแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแ แกแแแ แแก แแแฅแก).
แแแแแฃแ แแ แแแขแแแแจแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ โแแแแ แแโ แแแแ แแ แแแคแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แแ แจแแกแแแแแแกแแ แแแฎแฃแจแขแแกแแฃแ แฐแแแแแแแแก แแฅแแ แฌแงแแแแก. แแแกแ แแแกแแแ แแแแ:
แแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก (แแฎ. แฌ. IV-XV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ) แแแ แซแแฃแแจแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ แ (ฮฒ-แแแขแ) แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแฅแแแจแ แแแ แแแแแกแแแแกแ แ-แก (แฅแแ แแฃแ แแแแก). แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ แกแแแกแขแแ แแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แแแ แซแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแ โ โแแแแ แแโ.
แแแแแขแ แ แแแฅแ แแซแแก แแแ แแ:
แแแแแฃแ แแ แแแขแแแแจแแแแก แแแฐแงแแแก แแแขแแแฅแแแก แแแขแ แแแ แฅแ แแแแแแขแแก แกแแขแงแแแแ:
แแกแขแแ แแ
แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแ
แแแแ แแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แแงแ แฃแซแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแแก แแแแ , แ แแแแแแแช แซแแแแ แแแขแแ แแแ แแแแแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แแแแ แแแก (แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก) แฃแฌแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฅแแแงแแแแก แฅแแ แแแก แฃแฌแแแแแแแแ, แแแแฃแ แ แฌแแแแแแ แ โแฅแแ แแแแกแแกโ แแแฎแแแแแ.
แแแกแฎแแแก (แแแกแฎแแแก), แ แแแแแแแช แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแแกแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแก, แแ แกแแกแแแ แแแก (แฐแแ แแแแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ) แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแแฃแซแฆแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแก แแแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแแชแแแจแ. แแแกแฎแแแแก แแแ แแฃแแ แขแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแก แแแ-แแแแ แแแแฌแแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแฆแแแกแแแแแแแกแแแ, แกแแแแช แกแแแแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแฌแงแแแ แแแแแแขแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแงแแแแแแก. แแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแงแ แแชแฎแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแแฎแแ. แจแฃแแกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แฅแแ แแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแจแ โแแแฅแชแแแแฒ แฅแแ แแแแกแแฒโ แแกแแแ แแแฎแกแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแกแ แฎแแแฎแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแ แแแ-แฅแแ แแแแแแ แแแกแฃแแแ - แแ แแขแ-แแแแ แแแแแแแก แกแแแจแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฅแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฅแแแจ แแแงแแคแแแแแ แกแแแ แกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแแชแแแแแแ, แแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแกแแฎแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแแแ แแชแฎแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแแ แ แฅแแ แแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแจแ โแฅแแ แแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแโ, แแแ แแแฎแกแแแแแแฃแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แแแแแก แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แ แฎแแแ, แกแแแแ แซแ. แฌ. IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ แแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแฃแ แ แคแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แชแฎแแแแ.
แแแ แแฃแแ แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแฃแแแ แแ แ แแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแ แแแฃแแก (แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก) แแฆแแแจแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แชแแ แแแฌแ-แฌแงแแแก แแแแชแแแแ. แแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แฃแแแขแแกแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแฃแ -แฅแแ แแฃแแ แขแแแแแ (แฅแแ แแแแ-แแแแ แแแ) แกแแฎแแแแแแแ. แฌแแแแแแแแแกแขแฃแ แฎแแแแจแ, แแฅ แแ แแแแแ แกแแขแแแแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ (แขแแแแ แแแแจแแ แ) แแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแกแแแ แแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแฅแแแ แแงแ. แแ แแ แแก แแฅแแฃแ แ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แ แแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแกแฎแแแแก แฅแแ แแแแ แขแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แ แฎแแแฃแ แ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแแก แกแคแแ แแจแ แจแแแแแแแแ แแ แแชแแ แ แแแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแแแ. แแฅแแแแแแแฃแ แฎแแแแจแ แแ แ แแแแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ-แฅแแ แแแแก (โแแ แแแแก แฅแแ แแแแกโ) แกแแฎแแแแ แแ แกแแแ แกแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ แฃแจแฃแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแฃแ -แฅแแ แแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแฃแแแกแฎแแแแก.
แซแ. แฌ. IVโIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แแแฏแแแแ แแแ แจแแซแแ แแแแแกแ แซแแแแฃแคแแแแแก แแแแ แชแแแแแ แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแช. แจแแแฅแแแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แชแแแขแ แ แแชแฎแแแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ. แแแแ แแชแฎแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแช แแแกแฎแแ แขแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแ แฃแแแ แแงแแก แแแฌแแ แแแแแ. แแชแแ แแแแแแ แแแกแฎแแแก แฃแแแ แแแแขแแแแ แแฅ แแแแแแ แแ แฎแแแฃแ แ แฆแแแแแแแก แแฃแแขแ (แแ แแแแแก, แแแแแแแก), แ แแแแแแแช แฃแแแแแแก แฆแแแ แแแแแ แแฅแชแแแ. แแแ แกแแฎแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแก แแ แ แแแแ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แ โ แแ แแแแชแแฎแ แแ แแแแแแชแแฎแ.
แซแแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแ
แซแ. แฌ. III แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แฅแแ แแแจแ (แแแแ แแแจแ) แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แฎแแแจแ แฉแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแก แแแ แแ (โแแชแฎแแแแก แแแแแกแแฎแแแกแแแแกโ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแแก แฌแแแ แแ) แคแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแ แแแก แแแคแแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก โ แคแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแก แคแฃแซแแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ. แคแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแ แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแก (แซแ. แฌ. III แก.) แแแแ แแแ แแแ แซแแแแ แแแแก แแแแฆแฌแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แแ แชแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแฎแแ. แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก, แแแฎแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแฎแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแกแจแ แจแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ (แแ แแแแแ, แแญแแ แ). แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แแแฅแแแ โ แแแแแ แแแ, แฎแแ แซแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแก แแแแก แแแแแแแ (แแกแแแ, แกแขแ แแแแแแก แชแแแแแ, แแฎแแแแ แซแ. แฌ. IIโI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแแญแ แแก แกแแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแคแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก). แแแแ แแแก แกแแแแคแแก แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แแ แชแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแก แ แแแแแแแแแช (แแแ แแกแ).
แแแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ
แซแ. แฌ. II แกแแฃแแฃแแแกแ แแ I แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แแแแ แแ แแแกแฃแกแขแแ แแ แแแซแแแแ แแแฃแ แกแแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแคแแแแแแ แแ แซแแแแจแ แแแแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแ แแแแแ แแ. แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแกแแแ แแแ แฌแแแแคแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแงแ. แแแขแแ แแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแแแ แซแแ แแแแ แแแกแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแแแแแแแ โ แแแฌแแกแแแฅแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแ. แแแแแ แฉแแแแแฃแ แกแแแแฌแแแแแฅแแแแ แแแแแแก แซแแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแ แฃแฌแแแแ แแฅแกแแแฃแแขแแชแแแก. แแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แคแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ-แกแแแแฎแแแแ แแ แแกแขแแแขแแ แแ แแ แฅแฃแ แฃแแแแ. แกแแแแคแ แแแ แแ แฏแแ แแ แแงแ แแขแแแชแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแฃแแ แขแแฎแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แฌแแกแ. แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแฐแงแแแแแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแ แแแคแแก แฃแแฎแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแแแแ แงแแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แ. แแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแ แฉแแชแแ-แแแฎแฃแ แแแก แฌแแกแแแ แแ แแแ-แฉแแแฃแแแแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแกแแแแ. แแแ แแ แแ แแก แฏแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแงแแคแแ-แแแแฃแ แ แฌแงแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแ แแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แกแแกแขแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแ แแแฌแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แซแ. แฌ. 65 แฌแแแก แแแแ แแ แแแแแจแฅแ แ แ แแแแแแแ แกแแ แแแแแ แแแแแฃแแกแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฃแแ แฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแกแ, แแแแ แแแก แแแคแ แแ แขแแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแ แฉแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแก.
แ แแแแแ แแแแจแแ แ
แแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแฃแแแแแกแแแแ. แ แแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแก แจแแ แแก แแแแงแแ แแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ. แแฎแแแ แฌแแแแแแฆแ แแชแฎแแแ I-II แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแซแแแแ แแ แแ แฎแจแแ แแ แ แแแแก แแแขแแฅแแแแช แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแกแ แแ แแฎแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแจแ. แแแแ แแแก แแแซแแแแ แแแแก แฎแแแ แจแแฃแฌแงแ แแแแขแ แแแแก แแแฌแแกแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแแแกแแกแแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแ แแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แ แขแแแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแ แแแแฎแแ แฎแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแแแแแ แแแ แ แกแแแฎแแแแก แแแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแฌแแแ แแ I แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-50-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ (แแแคแ แคแแ แกแแแ I-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแแกแขแแก แแ แแก) แแชแแ แ แฎแแแ แแแแ แกแแแฎแแแกแแช แแแแฃแคแแ.
I แกแแฃแแฃแแแก II แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แแแแ แแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แจแแแแแ แฉแฃแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แฃแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ. แฎแแแ II แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-50-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ, แคแแ แกแแแ II-แแก แแ แแก, แ แแแแกแแช แแแแ แแ แแแแแกแ แซแแแแ แแแแก แแฌแแแ แแแแแ แแงแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแแซแแแฃแแแแแ แแฉแแแ แแแแ. แแแแ แแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแ แจแแ แแฆแแแก แแแแฆแฌแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแ แกแแแคแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แจแแแแ แแ. แคแแ แกแแแ II-แ แแ แแแแแแแแก แจแแฃแแแแแ แฃแแ แ แแแแแ แแขแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแฌแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแแแแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแแ แแก โ แแแขแแแแแฃแก แแแฃแกแแก แแ แแก แแแแแแฎแฃแแ แ แแแ แแแฃแฆแแแ, แแแแแจแแแแแ แแ แฌแแ แฉแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ. แ แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแฎแแแแแแก แแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแ แฏแแจแก. แแแแแ แแขแแ แก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแจแ แแแฃแแแแแก แชแฎแแแแ แคแแ แกแแแแแก แฅแแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแ โแแแฃแคแแ แแแแแแ แคแแ แกแแแแแก แกแแแแคแโ, แ. แ. แฃแชแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แคแแ แแแ แแแฌแแฃแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแ.
แกแแแ แกแแแแก แแแแแแแ
แแ แแ แแก แแแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแแ แแแ แซแแแ แแแ แแแแกแแช, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แจแแแชแแแแ III แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแแก แฎแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ. แกแแกแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแ แฃแคแ แ แซแแแแ แ แแ แชแแแขแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแงแ, แแแแ แ แแ แจแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแ. แแแคแ แจแแแฃแ I-แก (242-272) แแ แแก แแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแจแ แจแแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแก แชแแแแแ โแฅแแแแแ แแแ แแแจแขแแกโ (โKaโba-i Zardoลกtโ) แขแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแฃแ I แแ แฅแแแงแแแแกแ แแ แฎแแแฎแแแก แจแแ แแก, แ แแแแแแแช แแแก แฎแแ แแก แฃแฎแแแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแก: แแแ แกแแแแก, แแแ แแแแก, แฎแฃแแแกแขแแแก, แแแจแแแก, แแกแฃแ แแแก, แแแแแแแแแก, แแ แแแแแก, แแขแ แฃแแแขแแแแก, แแ แแแแแแก, แแแแ แแแก (แฌแแ แฌแแ แแก แคแแแแฃแ แขแแฅแกแขแจแ: โVyrลกnโ, แแแ แซแแฃแแจแ โ โฮฮฒฮตฯฮนฮฑโ), แแแฎแแแแแแแก, แแแแแแแแก (แแแ แแฃแ-แคแแแแฃแ แ: Ardan, แกแแกแแแฃแ -แคแแแแฃแ แ, แจแแแซแแแแ, Arrฤn), แแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ (แ. แ. แแแแแแกแแแแแแแ) แแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ (แแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแกแแแแแ) แแ แกแฎแ.
แแแแ แแแก แแแคแ แแแแแแกแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแแแฃแแแ. แฌแแ แฌแแ แแจแ แกแแแแคแ แแแแแแฃแแแแ แกแแ แแแขแแแแ แแแแ แแแงแแคแแแ: 1. แแกแแแ, แแแแช แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แแแแฆแ แกแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แคแฃแซแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแจแแ I-แแก แแแแแก โ แแแแแแแก แแ แแก, 2. แแแแช แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แแแแฆแ แแ แแแจแแ I-แแก แแ แแก แแ 3. แแกแแแ แแแแช แซแแแแฃแคแแแแ แแแแฆแ แจแแแฃแ I-แแก แแ แแก. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แฃแแแแแกแแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแฎแกแแแแแแ โแแแแแแกแแ, แแแคแ แแแแ แแแกแโ (แแแ แแฃแ-แคแแแแฃแ แขแแฅแกแขแจแ: Xmzasp Vyrลกn (แกแขแ . 28); แกแแกแแแฃแ -แคแแแแฃแ แจแ: amฤspy vl rvcan (แกแขแ . 30-31); แแแ แซแแฃแแจแ (แกแขแ . 60): ฮฮผฮฑฯฮฑฯฯฮฟฯ
ฯoฯ ฮฒฮฑฯฮฏฮปฮตฯฯ ฯoฯ ฮฮฒฮตฯฮนฮฑฯ). แแแแกแแแ แแแคแ แแแแแแกแแก แแกแแฎแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแ, แแแแแแแแแก แแแคแแก แแ แแแจแแ แแก, แแแ แแแแแก แแแคแแก แแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแคแแ แแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ. แงแแแแแคแแ แ แแก, แแแแแ แแแฃแแแแแแก, แ แแ แแแแแแกแแแก แกแแฎแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแฅแแก แแ แ แแแ แแฆแแก แซแแแแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ, แแ แแแแ แแ แแแแก แแแ แซแแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แงแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแกแแแ.
แแแกแแแ แแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแแแขแแชแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แซแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแแแช แแแกแขแฃแ แแแแ. โแฅแแ แแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแกโ แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแแแกแแแ โแจแแแงแแแ แ แกแแแ แกแแแแแโ (แฅแช., I, 57). แแแคแแแแก แแแกแแกแ แฃแแก, แแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแแแแกแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแกแแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแ แกแแแ แกแแแแ แแแจแฅแ แแ แแแ แซแแแก แแแ แซแแแแก (แ แแแแแแแแก), แ แแแแแแแช แแฎแแ แก แฃแญแแ แแ แกแแแฎแแแ, แแแแ แแแ (แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ) แแ แแกแแแ. แแแขแแแแแก แชแแแแแ, แแแแแแกแแก แแแแฃแแแแแ แแ แแขแ แฃแ แแแฏแแฃแคแแแแก แแแแแฎแ แแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแกแแแแ: แแแ แแกแแก แแ แ แแ แแกแแแแ, แแแ แแแแ แแซแ แฎแแก, แแแแ แฏแแแแกแ แแ แฌแฃแแแแก แแ แแกแแแแแแ. แแแแฎแแแ แแ แซแแแแจแ โแกแแแ แกแแแแแ แแ แฅแแ แแแแแแแโ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแกแแแช แแแแฆแฃแแ.
แกแแแ แกแแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แแแแก แจแแแแแแ, III แก. แแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแฆแ แ แแแแ แช แฅแแ แแแแ, แแกแ แกแแแฎแแแแ. 283 แฌแแแก แแแแแแฃแแ แกแแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ, แกแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแแขแ แแแ แกแแแฎแแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแ แแแฌแแแแ. 287 แฌแแแก แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแก แแแแแแแขแแแแแก แแแฎแแแ แแแแ แกแแแฎแแแจแ แแแแแคแแ แขแแ แแแแข III (287-330). 298 แฌแแแก แ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แฌแแ แฃแแแขแแแแแ แจแแขแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แกแแแ แกแแแแแ แแซแฃแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแ 40 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแกแแแแแจแ (แแแกแแแแขแแแแ) แแแแแแ แกแแแแแ แฎแแแจแแแ แฃแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแช แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแกแชแแก แแแกแแแแขแแแแ แแ แแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแฅแ, แแแแกแแแแแแ แแฆแแแ แแก แ แแแแก แแ แแขแแฅแขแแ แแขแ แกแแแฎแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแ.
III แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแแช, แแแ แซแแ, แแแแแแกแแแก แแ แแก, แฅแแ แแแ แคแแฅแขแแแ แแแแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแ แแ แซแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แซแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแคแแแ แจแแแแแแแฎแ แฅแแ แแฃแแแ แกแแแกแขแแ แแ แขแ แแแแชแแแ. โแฅแแ แแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแโ แแ แชแแแแแ แแแแฎแ แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแ แซแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแจแ แจแแแแญแ แแ แแกแแแแแ. แแแแแฅแแแแฅ แแชแฎแแแแก แแแกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแ แแแแ แฏแแแแก แแแแแ, แกแแแแแแก แฅแแ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแก แแกแแแจแ แแ แแ แแแแก แแแก (แฅแช., I, 55-57). III แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แชแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแช แแแฎแจแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแกแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแจแ. แจแแแซแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแ แแกแแแ แจแแแแกแแแ แแแฃแแแกแฎแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแก แแ แแแแฎแ แแแแจแ แแแคแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแ แซแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแจแ แจแแแแญแ แแ แแกแแแแแ.
แจแแแแแแจแ, แฃแแแ IV แก. แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ, แฅแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแกแแ. แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แชแแแขแ แแก แแแแแแแชแแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแฌแแแแก แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแชแแแแแก แแแซแแแแ แแแแก แแ แแฎแแ แแจแ, แแแ แแ แแแแกแ, แแแแแแ แแฅแแก แกแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแ แจแแแแขแแแแก, แแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแซแแแแ แแ แจแแแฃแ II-แแก (310-379) แแ แแก. แแแกแฃแกแขแแแฃแ แฅแแ แแแ แแซแฃแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแ แแ แฉแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แแ แแ แแฎแ แแ, แซแแแแ แแ แแแกแ แแ, แแแแ แ แแฎแ แแ, แแแซแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแ แแก. แฅแแ แแแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแแแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แกแแคแ แแฎแแก แแ แแ แแก แกแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แจแแแแแแ, IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แแแแ แแ แ แแแแก แแ แแแแขแแชแแแก แแแแแแ, แ แแช แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แ แแแแแแแ แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแแก แแแแแชแฎแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแฎแแขแ.
V แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ, แแแฎแขแแแ แแแ แแแกแแแแก แแแคแแแแจแ, แฅแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฅแชแ แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ. 482 แแแแ แแฏแแแงแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ แแแ แชแฎแแ แแแแแแแ แแ. 523 แฌแแแก, แแฃแ แแแ แแแคแแก แแฏแแแงแแแแก แแแแแ แชแฎแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแแแแ I-แแ แฅแแ แแแจแ แแแคแแแ แแแแฃแฅแแ, แแแแ แแ แคแแฅแขแแแ แแแแ VI แก. 40-แแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ แแ แแแ แซแแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแแช แแฎแกแแแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แแแคแแแแ.
แแ แแแแก แแแคแ แฎแแกแ แ I-แก (531-579) แแ แแก แแ แแแ แแแแงแ 18 แฅแฃแกแขแแแแ (แแแฅแแ). แฅแฃแกแขแแแแก แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแ แแงแ แแแแแกแแแแ, แฎแแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ - แกแแแกแแแขแ. แฅแฃแกแขแแแแแ แแงแแคแแแ แจแแฐแ แแแแ, แแแกแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแงแ แแแ แแแแแ. แฅแแ แแแ, แกแแแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แฅแฃแกแขแแแจแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ. แฅแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแ แแแแแแกแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ.
แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แคแแ แแแชแแ
แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ
แแฃแแแแ แแ-แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแฆแแแกแแแแแแ, แแกแ แแแกแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแก แฅแแแงแแแแแ แแงแแคแ. แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแกแแแ แแกแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แ, แแฃแแแแ แแแแ, แแแชแแแแแแ แแแ แแแกแ แแ แฎแแแกแแงแ แแแ แแงแ. แแแ แ, แฉแแแฃแแแแ แแ, แแแแแฎ-แฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แแงแ, แฎแแแ แแแ แแ, แแแ แแฅแแ. แฐแแ แแ-แแแฎแแแจแ แแฃแแแแแ แฃแฎแแแ แแแฏแแแแแแแแฃแ แแฎแแ แแ แซแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแก แแแงแแคแแแ แ แฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แฅแแ แแแจแ แแ แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แกแแ แฌแงแแแแ แฅแชแแฃแแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแ.
แแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแกแแแแแก, แแแ แซแแ, IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแ แกแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ แแแแ แชแแแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแจแแแแ. แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แกแแฌแแ แแแ แซแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแ แแ แแ, แ แแแแช แงแแแแแแ แซแแแแ แแแฌแแแแแฅแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแคแแแแชแแแจแ แแฉแแแ แแแแ. แแแแ แแแจแ แกแแแชแแคแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ แแ-แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ, แแแขแแแกแแฃแ แ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แ, แฃแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแ แฌแงแแแก แแแงแแ แแแแแ. แฃแซแแแแแกแ แแ แฎแแก แแแงแแแแแก แแแแ แแแจแ แขแ แแแแชแแ แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแแฌแแ แก: โแแแกแแชแ แแแแแดแ แแ แ แฃแฒ แแแแแแฆแ แฅแกแแแโ. แแแแ แแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แฃแแแ แกแแแกแแแแ แ แแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แ แชแแแแ, แ แแ IV แก. แแแแแก แแแคแ แแ แแแขแแ โแ แฃแกแแแแแกแ แ แฃแฒ แแแแแแฆแโ. แแ แฌแงแแ แแก แชแแแแแ, VI แก. แแแฃแขแแแแแ แฌแแแแแแก แ แฃ. แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ, แ แแ V-VI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแ แแแ แแฆแแแแ แแแฎแแแฃแ แแก, แแแฉแแแแแก, แแฃแฎแ แแแแก, แ แฃแแก-แฃแ แแแแกแแก แแ แแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแแ แแ แแชแแ แ แแ แฎแแแแช.
แฃแคแ แ แกแ แฃแแงแแคแแแ แแแฎแแ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แขแแฅแแแแ. แแแฃแแฏแแแแกแแ แซแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแฌแแแแแฅแแแแ แแแ แแฆแ โ แแ แฅแแแแ. แชแฎแแแแ, แแแฃแแฏแแแแกแแแฃแแ แแ แฅแแแแ แแแก แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แซแแแ แ แแ แซแแแแแ แกแแจแแแแ แ แแงแ, แแแแ แแ แแแชแแแแแแ แแฃแแฏแแแแกแแแแ แแแฌแแก แแแแฃแจแแแแแแก, แแ แแแแ แจแ แแแแก แแแงแแคแแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแกแแแแแแแแแแก. แแแแก แแแ แแแแแจแ แแแขแ แแแแแงแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแ แขแแแกแ แแ แแกแฃแแฃแฅ แชแแแฃแฆแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแแก . แแ แแ แแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แแกแ แแแ แแแแแ: แแแแแแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแฎแแแแ, แแแแแฆแแแแ-แแแแแกแขแแแแแ, แแแกแแฅแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแกแขแแแแจแ แฌแแแงแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแแแแก แแญแแ แ. แฎแแ แแแแฃแแแก แงแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแ แแ แฃแซแแแแแกแ แฏแแจแแแ แแคแฅแแ แแ แแแแ แแงแ. แกแแแ แแแ, แกแแแชแแแแแกแขแแแ แฎแแ แแแแฃแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแแแก แแ แ-แแ แ แกแแแจแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแฉแแแแแ. แแแงแแแแแ แแกแแแ แฅแแ แ แแ แคแแขแแ.
แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแฎแแแแ-แแแฆแแแแแแแแก แ แแแแช แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแกแ แแงแ. แแฆแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแ แแ แแก แแแแแฎแ แฃแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแแแแ แแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแก. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แฃแแแขแแกแแ แแแฆแแแ แ แแแแแฎแ แฃแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ แแแแแขแแแแแฃแแ. แงแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แชแแแแแฃแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแกแแแแ แแแ แแแ แจแแแฃแแแฃแแ แแแแแก แฏแแจแแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แฏแแฃแคแแแ. แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแฃแแ IVโV แกแก. แฅแแแแ แแแ แแแฆแแแแแแแแก, แแแ แซแแ, แฆแแแแแก แแแงแแแแแแก แฌแแกแแก แแแฆแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแฉแแแแแแแแแ.
แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ
I-III แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแแแ แแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แฅแแแแแ แแแ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแคแแ แแแชแแ. แแแแแกแฃแคแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแฌแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแ แแ แแแฅแแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แแแก ("แแแแฎแแแก") แจแแแ แฌแงแ, แแแแ "แขแแซแ แแฃแแแ" (แกแแแแคแ แแแฌแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแคแแแแแแแแแจแ แแฅแแแ แแแฌแแกแแแฅแแแแแ) แคแแแ แจแแฅแแแ. แแแแ แ แแแฌแแแ แแ แแฆแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ-แกแแแแฎแแแแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ "แแ แแกแแแแ" แแแแแงแแคแแ "แแแแแฃแ แแ" แฌแ แ แแแแแแแแแแฅแขแ. แฃแแแ แแแแแ แแแแจแขแแแแฃแแ แกแแแแคแ แกแแแแแ แแฃแแ แกแแคแแฌแฃแแแ แฃแแแฆแแแก แคแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแ แแก แแแแฃแงแแคแแแ แแแขแแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแก แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แฌแแกแ. แแกแฎแแแแ แแแฌแแแแคแแแแแแแแ แแงแแแแ แขแแซแ แแแแช, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแแแแแ, IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ, แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแ.
แแแแ แแแก แแแคแแแ แกแแ
แแแแ แแแก แแแคแแแ แกแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแกแขแแแฃแแ แแ แแ แแก. แแแแ แ แแกแขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ (แแแฎแฃแจแขแ แแแขแแแแจแแแแ, แแแแแฃแ แแ แแแขแแแแจแแแแ, แกแแ แแ แแแ แแแซแ, แแแแแ แแแแแ แแงแแ, แแแแแ แกแแแแแแซแ แแ แแฃแแแ แกแแแแแแซแ) แแ แแแแแฎแแแแ โแฅแแ แแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแกโ (XII แกแแฃแแฃแแ) แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแก แแ แกแแแฃแแแ แแแ แกแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก. แแกแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแ แกแแ แแแแแแฅแแแงแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแฃแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแแ แแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแก แฃแชแฎแแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแแแก (แแแ แซแแฃแแ, แแแแแแฃแ แ, แแ แแแฃแแ แแ แกแแแฎแฃแ แ).
แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แแแฌแงแแแ
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แขแ แแแแชแแ แกแแแ แแกแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแฅแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแแแก แ แแคแแ แแแแก แฃแแแแจแแ แแแก, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแแคแ แคแแ แแแแแ I-แแ แกแแแแคแ 8 แกแแแ แแกแแแแแ แแ แแ แ แกแแกแแแกแแแขแแ แแแงแ:
แแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แแแฎแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แฎแฃแแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แกแแแจแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แฌแฃแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แแซแ แฎแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แแแแ แฏแแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แแแ แแกแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแ
แชแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแก แฅแแแแแ แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแช แกแแแกแแแขแแก แกแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแ แขแ แแแแชแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ แคแแ แแแแแแแก แกแฃแแแ แแแแขแแขแก แแแ แแกแแช แแฆแแแ แแแแ. V แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ, แกแแแ แแกแแแแแแ แกแแแก แแแแขแแแ แฐแแ แแแ. แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแ แแกแแแแแก แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแ แแแฎแขแแแ I แแแ แแแกแแแก แแแคแแแแก แฃแแแแจแแ แแแแ.
แซแแ แแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแแ
แแแแ แแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แแชแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแฎแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แแฃแแฅแขแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ. แแฅ แแงแ แแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแฎแแแแแแ, แแแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแคแแแแ, แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแ. แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแแขแ แแแแแขแ-แกแแแแญแ แ แแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแแก แจแแแแแฆแแแกแแแ แ แฅแแแแฅแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแขแแแ แแก แฎแแแแแจแ แแชแฎแแแแก แแแ แแ แแงแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แชแแแขแ แแแ - แฃแคแแแกแชแแฎแ, แฌแฃแแแ, แแซแ แฎแ แแ แกแฎแแ. แกแขแ แแแแแแก แชแแแแแ แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแญแแแ แแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแ แแแขแฌแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแแก, แกแแแแช แแงแ แแ แแแแขแแกแกแแฎแฃแ แแแแแแ แแ แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแ แแแแก แฌแแกแแ แแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ, แแแแ แแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แกแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแก แฅแแแแฅแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแแแญแ แ แกแแฎแแแแกแแ แฃแแแแแ, แฎแจแแ แแ แฃแชแฎแ แขแแแแก แฎแแแฎแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ. แแแ., แซแ. แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฅแ แแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แซแ. แฌ. 169 แแชแฎแแแแจแ แแแแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแจแ แญแ แแแแแ แแแแฅแกแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแแก แแฅแ แแก แแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแแแซแแแก, แ แแช แแกแแคแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแก แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ. แแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแแ แฃแชแฎแ แฅแแแงแแแแแก แแแญแ แแแ แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแแแขแแแแช. แแแแ แแแก แกแแแแคแแจแ แแแฌแแแแฃแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ แกแแแจแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ. แแแแ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแแแ: แแ แแแแชแแฎแ - แกแแแแคแ แ แแแแแแแชแแ, แแแแแแชแแฎแ - แกแแแกแแแแ แ, แแแฎแแแจแ - แแแแ แแกแ, แแจแแแแ แแชแฎแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ, แแฆแแแแ แแ แฃแแแแแแก แฆแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ (แแ แแแแแก, แแแแแแแก, แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแกแ) แแ แกแฎแแ.
แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ
แแแขแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแแแ แแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แจแแกแแกแฌแแแแแ แซแแแ แคแแกแ แแแกแแแ แแแแแชแ แแชแฎแแแแจแ แแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแแแจแ, แฃแคแแแกแชแแฎแแจแ แแ แกแฎแแ แฉแแขแแ แแแฃแแแ แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแฎแ แแแแ. แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแฅแ แแแญแแแแแแแก แแ แแฎแแขแแ แฃแแ แฎแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแ แ แจแแกแแแแจแแแแ แซแแแแ, แแแแซแแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแขแแ แ, แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแฃแแแขแฃแ แแก แแแแฃแจแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแ แซแแฃแแ แแ แ แแแแฃแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแแ, แแฆแแแฉแแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแก แซแแแแแแ - แกแแกแแฎแแแแแแกแ แแ แขแแซแ แแแแก, แแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแฌแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแจแแแแ, แแแแซแแแ แแฃแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแกแแแ. แแแแ แแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แ แฃแชแฎแ (แแแ แซแแฃแ-แ แแแแฃแแ, แแ แแแฃแแ แแ แกแฎแแ) แแแแแแแขแแแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแแชแแแก แแซแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแก.
แแแแแ แแ
แฌแงแแ แแแแ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแ แแแก แแแคแแแ แกแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแคแแฅแแซแ แ., แฅแแแแฅแแแ แแ แกแแฅแแแแฅแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ แซแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แฌแแ. 1, แแ., 1963;
แแแแแแแแซแ แ., แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแแแแ แแฎ. แฌ. II แกแแฃแแฃแแแกแ, แแ., 1957;
แแแ แแฅแแคแแแแซแ แ., แแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแแงแแ แ แแ แฅแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ (แแแแ แแ), แแ., 1968;
แแชแฎแแแ, แข. 1 - แแ แแแแแกแฎแแแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแแแ 1937-1946 แฌแฌ. แแแแแแฎแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแ., 1955;
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแ, แแ., 1959;
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ, แข. 1, แแ., 1970;
แฌแแ แแแแแ แ., แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ, ยซแแแแแแแก แแแแแแยป, 1942, แข. 13;
แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแ แแ., แฅแแ แแแแแ แแ แแก แแกแขแแ แแ, แฌแแ. 1, แแ., 1965;
แฏแแแแจแแ แก., แจแ แแแแแ, แข. 1-2, แแ., 1943-1952;
แแแแแฅแแจแแแแ แ., แฅแกแ, แข. 5, แแ.67-68, แแ., 1980
แแฃแแ แแจแแแแ แฐ., แแแแ แแ แแฃ แแแแ แแ?, แแแแแแ โแ แแแแแแแกแโ. #003, 2007 แฌแแแก 11 แแแแแแ แ"
แแแ แแแแซแ แ ., แคแแ แแแแแแแแ แซแแแแ แฐแงแ แฅแแแงแแแ แแแแกแ, แแ., 1992
แแแแแขแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Roger Rosen, Jeffrey Jay Foxx. Georgia: A sovereign country of the Caucasus
Thomson, Robert W. Rewriting Caucasian History (1996)
Braund, David. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994)
Lang, David Marshall. The Georgians (London: Thames & Hudson, 1966)
Toumanoff, Cyril. Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1963
Edward Gibbon, Volume II, Chapter XLII, discusses Iberia as one of the areas in the "Barbaric world"
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแ แแก แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแฎ. แฌ. III แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ IVโV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ
แแแกแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแกแแแแแก
แแแขแ แแแแแแขแ แแแแแแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแ แกแแแแแแกแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแ แคแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแขแแแ แแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแฅแแจแ แแ แแแกแ แแ แแกแฌแแ แ แแกแแฎแแ โะัะฐะฒะพัะปะฐะฒะฝะฐั ะญะฝัะธะบะปะพะฟะตะดะธัโ-แก แขแแแแฃแแแแจแ
แแแแแ แแแแกแฃแ แแซแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ แฃแซแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ 20 แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ (แแแฌแแแ I, แซแ. แฌ. XII-แแฎ. แฌ. V แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ)
Iberia โ ANCIENT KINGDOM, GEORGIA, Encyclopรฆdia Britannica
CYRIL TOUMANOFF "Chronology of the Early Kings of Iberia"
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแ แแแก แกแแแแคแ
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481833
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasioglossum%20gilesi
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Lasioglossum gilesi
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Lasioglossum gilesi โ แแฌแแ แ แฐแแแแฅแขแแแแแแก แแฏแแฎแแกแ. แจแแแแก แแกแแคแแแแจแ แงแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแ โ Lasioglossum-แแก แแแแ แจแ. แแฆแฌแแ แแแแ 1905 แฌแแแก.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
Lasioglossum-แแก แกแแฎแแแแแแแก แกแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
gilesi
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435738
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
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แแฎแแแแแแ แ
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แแฎแแแแแแ แ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแฃแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแฃแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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518826
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%20%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%98
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แแแ แแ แแแจแแแกแแ
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แแแ แแ แแแจแแแกแแ
แแแ แแ แกแขแแแแกแแแ แแแจแแแกแแ, (แ. 29 แแแแแแ แ, 1846, แแ แแแแจแฃแแ โ แ. 24 แแแ แขแ, 1919, แแ แแแแแ) โ แแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแกแ แแ แฅแแแแแแกแ, แแ แแแแแแก แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แ (1888).
แแแแแ แแคแแ
1872 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แฐแแแแแแแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ. 1876 แฌแแแแแ แแงแ แแ แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแ แแคแแกแแ แ. 1883 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแฆแ แกแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแก แแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แฎแแแ 1895 แฌแแแก แแฎแแแแแ แแ แแแแ. 1896-1905 แฌแแแแจแ แชแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแแ แฐแแแแฃแแแก แแแฆแแแแก. แกแฌแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแ แแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแก แคแแแแแฃแ แแแแกแแแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1846
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 29 แแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1919
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 24 แแแ แขแ
แแแแแแแแ แฅแแแแแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแกแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแฃแแคแฃแแแ แแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แฅแแแแแฏแแ -แแแฉแแแแก แ แแแแแแจแ, แฅแแแแแฏแแ แแก แ แแแแแจแ. 1993-2020 แฌแแแแจแ แแ-แคแแฅแขแแ แแแแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแ แแขแแกแขแฃแแ แแแแแแ แงแแ แแแแฆแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแแ .
แกแฅแแแแ
แฅแแแแแฏแแ แแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrientes
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Corrientes
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Corrientes (Guaranรญ: Taragรผรญ, literally: "Currents") is the capital city of the province of Corrientes, Argentina, located on the eastern shore of the Paranรก River, about from Buenos Aires and from Posadas, on National Route 12. It has a population of 346,334 according to the 2010 Census. It lies opposite its twin city, Resistencia, Chaco.
Corrientes has a mix of colonial and modern architecture, several churches and a number of lapacho, ceibo, jacaranda and orange trees. It is also home to one of the biggest carnival and chamamรฉ celebrations in the country.
The annual average temperature is . The annual rainfall is around .
Transportation
Located in the Argentine Littoral, near the ArgentinaโParaguay border, the General Belgrano Bridge crosses the Paranรก River which serves as the natural border with the neighbouring Chaco Province. On the other side of the bridge is Resistencia, capital of Chaco. To the west and up the Paranรก, between Paraguay and Argentina, lies the Yaciretรก dam, one of the largest hydroelectric power generators in the world.
The Doctor Fernando Piragine Niveyro International Airport at coordinates , away from the city, serves the city.
The Ferrocarril Econรณmico Correntino narrow gauge railway line to Mburucuyรก operated from 1912 until 1927.
History
Sebastian Cabot established in 1527 the Sancti Spiritu fort upstream of the Paranรก River, and in 1536 Pedro de Mendoza reached further north into the basin of the river, searching for the Sierras of Silver.
Juan Torres de Vera y Aragรณn founded the city on April 3, 1588, and named it as San Juan de Vera de las Siete Corrientes ("Saint John of Vera of the Seven Currents"), which was later shortened to Corrientes. The "seven currents" refer to the seven peninsulas on the shore of the river at this place, that produced wild currents that made difficult the navigation of the river through this part.
Nevertheless, its position between Asunciรณn - in present Paraguay - and Buenos Aires made it an important middle point, especially because of its 55-metre-high lands that prevent flooding when the water level rises.
In 1615 Jesuits settled near the Uruguay River. In 1807 the city resisted the British invasions. During the Argentine War of Independence it was in permanent conflict with the centralist government of Buenos Aires, but the Paraguayan War united them after the city was attacked by Paraguayan forces in 1865.
Climate
The annual average temperature is . The annual rainfall is around . The Kรถppen climate classification subtype for this climate is Cfa (humid subtropical climate). Frosts are rare; with the dates of the first and last frost being July 5 and July 12 respectively, indicating that most of the year is frost-free. The highest temperature recorded was on September 30, 2020, and the next day, the all-time record was broken again with . The lowest temperature ever recorded was on June 15, 1979.
Education
National University of the Northeast
University of Cuenca del Plata
Sister cities
Corrientes is twinned with:
Encarnaciรณn, Paraguay
Estepa, Spain
In fiction
The Graham Greene spy novel The Honorary Consul (1973) takes place in Corrientes.
Gallery
Sports
The city's main football teams are the: Huracรกn Corrientes, Boca Unidos, and Deportivo Mandiyรบ.
Notable people
Josรฉ Andrรฉs Bilibio, Born in Argentina, he represented the Armenia national football team at international level.
See also
Barrio Esperanza
References
External links
MCC
Sights (English)
Map
Populated places established in 1588
Populated places in Corrientes Province
Capitals of Argentine provinces
Paranรก River
Cities in Argentina
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/XIV%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90
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XIV แแแแแ แแแแ
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XIV แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแกแ แฃแฌแแแแแแกแแแ แฏแแชแฃแ แฏแแแคแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแ แแแจแ แขแแแแแ แแแแชแ (แแแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแ แแฐแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแ) (แขแแ.เฝเฝฆเพเฝเผเฝ เฝเฝฒเฝเผเฝขเพเพฑเผเฝเฝเฝผเผ แแแแแ: bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho แขแแแซแแ แแฒแแชแ) แแแแแแแ 6 แแแแแกแก 1935 แฌแแแก แขแแแแขแแก แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแแจแ. แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แแฃแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ แกแฃแแแแ แ แแแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแกแแช แกแฌแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแ แแก แแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แฌแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแขแแจแแแ แแก, แแแแแแ แซแแแแแก แแแแฐแแกแแขแขแแแกแก, แ แแแแแแ แแแชแแ, แ แแแ แแแกแแฎแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแฌแแแ แงแแแแ แชแแชแฎแแ แแ แกแแแแก แแ แจแแแแ แแแฃแขแแแแก แแแ.
แแแแแ แแแแแก แแฆแแแ แแแฃแแ 1937 แฌแแแก, 1950 แฌแแแก แแแฎแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแ แแแแแ. 1959 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก แแแแแแแจแ, แฅแแแแฅ แแฐแแ แแแกแแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแฃแ แแแก แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแก. 1989 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแฃแ แแแขแ แแจแแแแแแแก แกแคแแ แแจแ.
แแแแแแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแ แแแชแแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ
แแฐแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแก แแฏแแฎแจแ, แแแแแจแ, แกแแคแแ แขแแแชแแ แจแ. แแแ 9 แจแแแแแแแ แแฏแแฎแแก แแแฎแฃแแ แจแแแแ แแงแ. แแแกแ แแจแแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช แกแแคแแแก แกแฎแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แฅแแ แแก, แฎแแ แแแแก แแ แแแ แขแแคแแแแก แแแงแแแแแ แแงแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแ. แแฐแแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแ แซแแ, แขแฃแคแขแแ แฏแแ แแแ แแแ แแฃ 8 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแฆแแแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ แ แแแแ แช แแแแ แแแแ แขแแแชแแ แ แแแแแฉแแก แ แแแแแแ แแแชแแ. แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แก แแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแ แแคแแแจแ "แฉแแแ แแแฌแ - แฉแแแ แฎแแแฎแ":
"แแ แ แแ แแแแแแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแฃแ แแฏแแฎแจแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแแงแแแ, แแแจแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแ แฃแฆแแ แแแแกแ แขแแแแขแแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแแแแแก แแ แแ แซแแแแแแก. แแแแ แแ แฉแแแ แฃแแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแก แฌแงแแแแแแ, แแ แจแแแแซแแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแ, แฌแแแแกแฌแแ แแแแ แซแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแ, แแแแขแแแแช แแกแ แแแแแแฃแแ แซแแแ แแแ แแ แงแแแแแคแแ แก แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแก แจแแกแแแกแฃแแฃแฅแแแแแ."
1909 แฌแแแก XIII แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแแแฎแฃแแ แกแแคแแแ แขแแแชแแ แ. แแแ แแแก แซแแแแแ แแแแฌแแแ แแ แแแแกแฃแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแแ. 1935 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแฌแงแแก แแแกแ แแฎแแแ แแแ แแแกแแฎแแแก แซแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแแ แแกแแแ แขแแแชแแ แจแ 1937 แฌแแแก. แแแขแแ แ แแฐแแแแ แฃแแแแแ แแแแแงแ แ แแแ แแแแก แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแ. แแแ แแแแแ แ แจแแกแแแแแแกแ แแแแแชแแแแ แแ แแฆแแแ แแแฃแ แแฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแก แแฎแแ แแแ แแแกแแฎแแแ. แกแแคแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แแฃแ แแกแแแฅแชแแแจแ แจแแแแแแ แแ แแแแจแแแก แแ แแแกแ แแฏแแฎแแก แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅ แแฐแแกแแจแ แแแแแกแแงแแแแแ, แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ แกแญแแ แแแแแแแ. แ แ แแฅแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแฎแแแแก, แแฃ แ แ แแแแแแ แแแงแแแแแ แแฏแแฎแ แแฐแแกแแจแ, แแแ แแแฅแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแ 1939 แฌแแแก แฌแแแงแแแแแก แแฏแแฎแ แแฐแแกแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแขแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแ แแแขแแแแจแ แแแแกแแฎแแแก.
แแแแจแแแแ แแฎแแแแแแ แแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แจแแแแญแ แแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแแก แแฃแ แแฎแแแ แแแฎแแ 1940 แฌแแแก 22 แแแแแ แแแแก แแฐแแกแแจแ. 6 แฌแแแก แแกแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแฃแแ แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แกแแกแขแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแช แแแ แกแฌแแแแแแแ แฎแฃแ แแแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแก: แแแแแแ, แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แฎแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แ, แกแแแกแแ แแขแ, แแแแแชแแแ แแ แแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แคแแแกแแคแแ แแ แฎแฃแ แแชแแ แ แแแชแแแแ แแแแก: แแแแแแ, แแฃแกแแแ แแ แแ แแแแขแฃแแ แฎแแแแแแแแ, แแกแขแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแขแงแแแแ แแแ. แแแกแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแงแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแฉแ แแ แขแ แแฏแแแ แ แแแแแฉแ. 25 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แคแแแแกแแคแแแก แแแฅแขแแ แแก - แแแจแ แแฐแแ แแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแฆแ.
แแแแแ แแแแ 14 แฌแแแก แแงแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แแแ แแแแแ แจแแฎแแแ แแ แจแแแแแ แแแฃแแฎแแแแแ แขแแแแขแจแ แแชแฎแแแ แแ แแแกแขแ แแแ แแแแแแแกแขแก แฐแแแแ แแฎ แฐแแ แแ แก, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแฌแแ แ แแแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แแแแแก แฌแแแแจแ "แจแแแแ แฌแแแ แขแแแแขแจแ".
แฉแแแแแแก แจแแแแญแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ
1912 แฌแแแแแ แขแแแแขแ แแ แคแแฅแขแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแงแ. แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแ แแก แฉแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ, แขแแแแขแแ แแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแชแแ แแแแแแแ. แฉแแแแแจแ แแ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแจแ แแแกแฃแแ แแแแฃแแแกแขแแแ, แแแ แซแแแฃแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแแแ แขแแแแขแก แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแฌแแแแ แแแแฉแแแแแแแ. แขแแแแขแ แแแแชแ แแแแแแชแแฃแ แแแแแขแแแแก แแขแแ แแแแ แแ แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแแ แแ แชแแ แ แฅแแแงแแแแกแแแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแ แช แแแแ แแจแ แแงแ แแแฌแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ, แ แแแแช แฉแแแแแก แแแฃแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ.
1949 แฌแแแก แแแฌแฃแ แฃแแก แขแแแแขแแกแแแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแฎแแ แฉแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แกแแคแ แแฎแ. แฉแแแแ แฉแแแแ แขแแแแขแก แฉแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแกแแแก แจแแฉแแ แแแแก แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแแ แแ แแแแแ แ แจแแแกแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแ. 1950 แฌแแแก แฉแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแแแแญแ แ แขแแแแขแจแ แแ แแแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแแ. แแ แคแแฅแขแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฃแแแแงแแคแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแ แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแฅแแ. แแ แแ แแก แแแแแ แแแแ แฏแแ แแ แแงแ แกแ แฃแแฌแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแแก แแแก แแแชแแแแ แ แแแแแขแ แแแ แแแแแ. แขแแแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แซแแแแฃแคแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แแแแแชแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแ, แฎแแแฎแ แแแก, แ แแแแ แช แฃแแแแแกแแแแ แแแแแก แแฆแแฅแแแแแ. 17 แแแแแแแ แก 16 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแฎแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแฃแ แ, แแแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแก แจแแฉแแ แแแ แฃแแแ แจแแฃแซแแแแแแ แแงแ.
1954 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแ แซแแแฃแแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แกแฎแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแแแแก. 1956 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแจแ แฉแแแแแ แแฃแแแก 2500 แฌแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ -แแแแแกแขแ แก แฏแแแแฎแแ แแแ แแแ แฃแก แจแแฎแแแ.
1959 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แจแ, แแแชแแแก แคแแกแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแฐแแกแแก แแแแแแ แขแแซแแ แจแ แแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแแแแชแแ แฉแแขแแ แแ 20 000 แแแ แแก แแแแแแกแฌแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแช แแแ แแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แคแแแแกแแคแแแก แแแฅแขแแ แแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ แแแแฆแ.
แแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแแแชแแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแฃแ แแฅแแ แแแแแแแก แฎแแกแขแ แแแแแขแแแแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แขแแแแขแจแ, แ แแแแช แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแฃแแแแ แแ แแแขแ แฉแแแฃแ แ แแฏแแแงแแแแแ แแแแแแฌแแแ แขแแแแขแจแ. 1959 แฌแแแก 10 แแแ แขแก แแฐแแกแแจแ แแแแฌแงแ แฃแแ แแชแแแแแขแ แแแกแจแขแแแแก แแฏแแแงแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฌแแแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแก แขแแแแขแแแแ แฌแแกแแแแก แแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแก. แแฏแแแงแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แกแแกแขแแแแ แฉแแแฎแจแ. แแแแแ แแแแ แแซแฃแแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแขแแแแแแแ แขแแแแขแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแก แจแแแคแแ แ, แกแแแแช แแแ แแ แแแแแ 80 000 แขแแแแขแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแฃแกแ แแแแฆแแก. แแแก แจแแแแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แฅแแแแฅ แแฐแแ แแกแแแแจแ แแแแแแแกแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แขแแแแขแแแแแ แแแขแแ แ แแฐแแกแแก แฃแฌแแแแแแ.
แแแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
แแแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแ แแฎแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแก แแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ -แแแแแกแขแ แก แฏแแแแฎแแ แแแ แแแ แฃแก แซแแแแกแฎแแแแ แแแแแแฉแแแแ แขแแแแขแแก แกแแแแแฎแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแ. แจแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแฆแ 3 แ แแแแแฃแชแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแฃแฌแแแ แฉแแแแแก แแแแชแแ แขแแแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแแ แฃแคแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแฉแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแก แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แแฃแแขแฃแ แ, แแแแขแแ แจแแแฅแแแ แขแแแแขแแแ แแขแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแฅแขแฃแ แ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแ แซแแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแช แกแแกแแคแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแ. แแแแ แกแแจแฃแแแแแ แแแกแชแแ แขแแแแขแแแแแก แกแแแฃแแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแจแ แแฆแแแแ แแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแ. 1959 แฌแแแก แจแแแฅแแแ แขแแแแขแฃแ แ แแ แแแแขแฃแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ (TIPA) แแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แขแแแแขแแแแแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ. แแแแก แแแ แแ แแจแแแแ 200 แแแแแกแขแแ แ.
1963 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฆแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแคแฃแซแแแแ แแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แแ แแแชแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแแแ แฃแคแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแแ แแชแแแก, แ แแแแ แช แแแแแแแแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแ. แแแฎแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แแ แฉแแแแช.
1987 แฌแแแก แแจแจแก แแแแแ แแกแแก แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ 5 แแฃแแฅแขแแแแ แกแแแจแแแแแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแช แขแแแแขแจแ แฃแแแ แแแชแฃแแแงแ แแแแแแแแแก แฃแคแแแแแแ, แแแแงแแ แแแฃแแแงแ แแแแแแ แแขแแ, แฃแแแ แจแแฌแงแแแขแแแแงแ แฉแแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฃแ แ แแแแแแกแแฎแแแแ, แแแ แแแฃแแ แแแ แแฆแแก แฌแแ แแแแแ แแ แ แแแแแแฅแขแแฃแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแแก แแแแแ แฎแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแฌแงแแแฃแแแงแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแแแ แกแแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแฃแแแ แ. แจแแแแแ 1988 แฌแแแก แกแขแ แแกแแฃแ แแจแ แแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแคแแ แแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ, แแแแแแขแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แแฃแแชแ แฉแแแแแแก แแฌแแแแ แแ แแขแแแแก แแแแ, แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแ แงแ แแก แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแ 1991 แฌแแแก.
แแแแแ 1991 แฌแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแฅแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแฎแฃแแแแแก แกแฃแ แแแแ, แกแแขแฃแแชแแแก แจแแกแแคแแกแแแแแ. 2001 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แแแจแแแแแแ แแ แฉแแฃแ แแฅแแ แขแแแแขแแก แแแแแ แขแ แแแ (แแ แแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แ). แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แฃแแแ แแแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แขแแแแขแแก แกแแแแแฎแแก แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแก แจแแแแแ แแฆแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแแแขแแแแจแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแก, แฎแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแก แแฃ แแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ แแแกแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแก แขแแแแขแแแแ แแแแแกแแฌแงแแแขแแ.
แฏแแแแแแแ
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แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแ แแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แขแแแแขแแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแแแ
แกแแกแฃแแแแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแฃแ แแแขแแแ แแจแแแแแแแก แแแแแขแแแชแแแแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1935
1989 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแฃแ แแแขแ แแจแแแแแแแก แแแแแขแแแชแแแแก แแแ แแจแ
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339787
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW%20M4
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BMW M4
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BMW M4 โ แแแขแแแแแฅแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แจแแแฃแจแแแแแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแแแขแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ BMW-แก แแแแ . BMW-แ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แแแแแแ 2013 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแขแแจแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แแ แแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแแ. BMW M4 แแฆแญแฃแ แแแแ แแ แแก 3.0 แแแขแ แแก แแแชแฃแแแแแก 6 แชแแแแแแ แแแแ แซแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฏแแแจแ 425 แชแฎแแแแก แซแแแแกแ แแ 550 แแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแ แแแแแแขแก แแแแแแแฃแจแแแแแก, แ แแช แแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก แแซแแแแก 100 แแ/แกแ แกแแฉแฅแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแก 4.1 แฌแ-แจแ. แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แแแแแแแก แแแฅแกแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแฉแฅแแ แ แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแแแ แแแแแขแแ แแแฃแแแ 250 แแ/แกแ-แแแ.
BMW M4 GTS แฌแแ แแแแแแแ แแฅแแ 2015 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแขแแจแ. BMW M4-แแกแแแ แแแแกแฎแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแก แแแฃแแฏแแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฎแแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฉแแแ แ แแช แแแแแแฎแแขแแแ 493 แชแฎแแแแก แซแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแ แกแแแซแแแแแจแ แ แแช แแ แแแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก แแซแแแแก 100 แแ/แกแ-แแแ แแฉแฅแแ แแแก 3.8 แฌแ-แจแ. แแแ แแแแ แแก แแแแแแ แฌแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แจแแแแ แแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแกแฃแแฃแฅแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแกแ 1510 แแ-แก แจแแแแแแแก. แแแฅแกแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแฉแฅแแ แ แแ 305 แแ/แกแ-แแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแก แแแฃแแแแแก แแแฃแ แแฃแ แแแแแแ แฃแกแฌแ แแคแแกแ แฌแ แ, แ แแแแแแช 7 แฌแฃแแกแ แแ 28 แฌแแแจแ แแแคแแ แ, แ แแช Ferrari 458-แก แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ.
BMW M4 GTS-แก แแฎแแแแ 500 แแแแแแแแแ แ แจแแแฅแแแ แแ แงแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแงแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
BMW M4
BMW-แก แแแขแแแแแแแแแ
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5678643
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutesheim
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Rutesheim
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Rutesheim is a town located in the district of Bรถblingen, Baden-Wรผrttemberg, Germany.
Location
Rutesheim is situated directly to the Highway 8 (Bundesautobahn 8), from the town Leonberg, from the city Stuttgart and just from Stuttgart Airport and from the new exhibition center, way west from the town Heimsheim.
History
Rutesheim was first mentioned in the year 767 in a deed from the convent of Lorsch.
The council of ministers decided on 22 January 2008, to award Rutesheim the designation town on 1 July 2008. Prime Minister Oettinger assigned the deed to the town in a ceremonial act on 26 June 2008.
Population development
The sources are census results (ยน) or the data of the statistical office Baden-Wรผrttemberg.
Politics
Mayor
Since 2018 Susanne Dornes (nรฉe Widmaier) has been the mayor of the city.
City council
The current legislative period lasts until 2014. Distribution of seats after the election of June 2009:
Partnerships
Scheibbs (Niederรถsterreich), since 1972
Saalburg-Ebersdorf (Thรผringen), since 1989
Perosa Argentina (Italien), friendship treaty since October 2008
Religions
There are three Evangelical churches, two New-Apostolic churches, one Evangelical Methodist church and one Roman Catholic church in Rutesheim.
The town has a history with the Waldensians (Perouse).
Sport
The most well-known sports club from Rutesheim is SKV Rutesheim. Its first football team is playing in the seven-rated Landesliga Wรผrttemberg.
References
Bรถblingen (district)
Wรผrttemberg
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488066
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
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แแแ แแแแแแแแ
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แแแ แแแแแแแแ (แ. 23 แแแแแแแ แ, 1979, แแแ แแแฃแแ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แแกแขแ, แแแแแขแแแแกแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแ 1979 แฌแแแก 23 แแแแแแแ แก. แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แฅแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแก แคแแแแแแ, แกแแแแ แแแแแชแแแแแแแแก แกแแแชแแแแแแแ. 2012-2016 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ-8 แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แ แแแ แขแแฃแแ แกแแแ, แกแแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแแ: โแแแซแแแ แแแแแแจแแแแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแโ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 23 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1979
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก VIII แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
แแแแแแกแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
แแแ แแแฃแแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
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133492
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%20V%20%28%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%29
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แแ แแแแ V (แแแแ)
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แแ แแแแ V (แแแแ)
แแ แแแแ V (แแ แแกแแแชแแแแจแ แแ แฃแแ แแแ แแแขแแแแ ; แ. 970 โ แ. 18 แแแแแ แแแแ 999) โ แแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแก แแแแ 996โ999 แฌแแแแจแ.
แฌแแ แแแจแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ, แกแแฅแกแแแแแแ. แแขแ III-แแก แจแแแแแแจแแแแ. แแแกแ แฌแงแแแแแแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแแก แขแแฎแขแแ. แแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแ แแแ แแแแแ XV-แแก แจแแแชแแแแแ 26 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแชแแแแแแแแแ โแแ แแขแแแแแโ
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แกแแ
แ แแแแก แแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 970
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 18 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 999
แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแ
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28557579
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20Day%20of%20Ukraine
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Independence Day of Ukraine
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Independence Day of Ukraine is a state holiday in modern Ukraine, celebrated on 24 August in commemoration of the Declaration of Independence of 1991.
History
When Ukraine was still a Soviet republic, the Ukrainian diaspora traditionally recognized 22 January (the Declaration of Independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918) as Ukrainian Independence day.
The current form of the holiday was first celebrated on 16 July 1991, as the first anniversary of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine passed by the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's parliament) in 1990. Since the Declaration of Independence was issued on 24 August 1991, and confirmed by the referendum of 1 December 1991, the date of the holiday was changed.
Traditions
National Flag Day
Beginning in 2004, 23 August is celebrated as National Flag Day.
Parade
Generally (but not every year) independence day is celebrated with a military parade held in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. In 2021, a military parade was held on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of Ukraine's Independence. Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, no military parade has taken place. However, to mark the 2023 Independence Day, destroyed Russian tanks and military vehicles were lined up in central Kyiv.
Recent and historical celebrations
1997
The Chayka Aviation Parade was a large-scale aviation show dedicated to Independence Day that took place at Kyiv Chaika Airfield in 1997. It featured flypasts by personnel of the Ukrainian Air Force. The parade was attended by President of Ukraine Leonid Kuchma and Minister of Defense Oleksandr Kuzmuk.
2016
After the annual military parade in Kyiv the "March of the Unconquered" was held by active members of Ukraine's volunteer battalions, relatives of those killed during the fighting in the Russo-Ukrainian War and family members of those killed during the Euromaidan uprising โ known in Ukraine as the "Heavenly Hundred". According to the Ukrainian army the volume of artillery fire set off by the separatist forces of the war in Donbas during the 24-hour period of 24 August 2016 was the highest since the February 2015 Battle of Debaltseve.
Several Ukrainian cities held marches of people dressed in vyshyvanky (shirts with traditional Ukrainian embroidery).
2019
On 10 July 2019, President Volodymyr Zelenskyy announced on Facebook that the 2019 Ukrainian Independence Day celebrations will not include a military parade (for the first time since the parade's cancellation from 2010 to 2014) stating the following: "We have decided to allocate 300 mln hryvnias [nearly $12 mln] as bonus payments to our servicemen, i.e. fixed-term soldiers, cadets, sergeants, officers.โ Zelenskyy also mentioned that the government would take steps to "honor heroes" on Independence Day by highlighting the fact that the "format will be new". On 30 July, Zelenskyy's Head of the Presidential Administration Andriy Bohdan announced that a March of Dignity (ะะฐัั ะณัะดะฝะพััั) will take place in replacement of the annual parade. A separate march, known as the March of Defenders (ะะฐัั ะทะฐั
ะธัะฝะธะบัะฒ) was also planned to be held by Ukrainian war veterans. The ceremony went on as planned and even incorporated elements of the annual parade such as the flag raising ceremony and the awarding of veterans. During his speech, Zelenskyy called for unity, saying "Ukrainian-speaking and Russian-speaking, regardless of age, gender, religion โ we must be one people".
2020
On Independence Day in 2020, President Zelenskyy during his speech proclaimed that there would never be military equipment on parade in Kyiv as long as the war in Donbas is ongoing, during which he said that it is "Where it is needed now." Zelensky stated that military parades would be held in the future "a parade of Ukrainian victory, when we will return all our people and all our territories." The ceremony, as well as the concert that followed, was held in Mykhailivska Square in front of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, the current seat of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and thus also honored the Ukrainian medical workers and professionals who had contributed their efforts during the current COVID-19 pandemic in all of Ukraine.
The joint concert of Ukrainian stars following the ceremony was marked by scandal because various artists performing in it had continued to perform and/or accept awards in Russia, despite the Ukrainian Autonomous Republic of Crimea being annexed by Russia in 2014 and the alleged support of Russia for the separatist forces of the war in Donbas. It was also condemned that this concert took place during the March of Defenders (ะะฐัั ะทะฐั
ะธัะฝะธะบัะฒ) commemorating the victims of the war in Donbas.
In an English language Independence Day address, Zelenskyy launched an information campaign to restart the Ukraine NOW brand. The 2020 events served as a national kick-off to the celebrations in 2021 marking the pearl jubilee year of independence.
2021
In 2021, Ukraine celebrated the 30th anniversary of its independence with three days of events. A company from Lviv developed a special 30th Anniversary logo and a new award known as the "National Legend" was announced, to be presented in a ceremony on August 22. It was also announced that the first Summit of the Crimean Platform would take place on August 23. A number of foreign leaders were invited to the 30th anniversary celebrations, including US president Joe Biden, Greek president Katerina Sakellaropoulou, Lithuanian president Gitanas Nausฤda and Moldovan president Maia Sandu.
On 24 August a large military parade made its way through Kyiv past Maidan Nezalezhnosti, featuring Ukrainian Ground Forces, Special Operations Forces, and visiting units from several foreign armed forces. The parade included more than 5000 troops and 400 tanks and armoured vehicles. The event also included a fly-by of Ukrainian Air Force units over Kyiv. Simultaneously, Ukrainian Navy units were shown carrying out exercises at Odesa. Visiting troops from Slovenia, Moldova, Poland, the United States of America and Canada marched with Ukrainian forces, and two British Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoons took part in the fly-by alongside four F-16 Fighting Falcons.
Delegates from 46 countries attended, including Polish President Andrzej Duda, Lithuanian President Gitanas Nauseda and French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian, and Eastern Orthodox Church patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople.
Immediately prior to the parade, President Zelenskyy addressed the crowd, calling for closer relationships with other ex-Soviet countries, European nations, and NATO.
2022
Independence Day in 2022 marked the sixth month since the invasion of Ukraine by Russia began. Celebration of the holiday was restricted within war-torn Ukraine under martial law, but large scale celebration of Ukraine's Independence was held internationally in support of the country.
In Ukraine
Ukraine's Culture Ministry confirmed there would not be any public celebration to mark the holiday. Officials warned civilians against gathering in major cities, with President Zelenskyy stating "Russia may try to do something particularly nasty, something particularly cruel." Russia would attack on the day of anniversary, shelling a civilian train in Chaplyne, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, killing 25. The Russian defense ministry claimed it had targeted a military train using a single Iskander missile, and that the attack had successfully killed 200 Ukrainian soldiers.
In Kyiv, the Kyiv Independence Day Parade was cancelled for its tenth time as resources were directed to the war effort. Kyiv City Hall stated online "This year Ukraine celebrates the anniversary of independence in terms of martial law and under the threat of possible shelling. Mass events are prohibited, because the enemy is unpredictable, so we have to be prepared for any scenario.โ In place of a parade, numerous Russian military vehicles and artilleries destroyed by Ukrainian troops were displayed along Khreshchatyk, where Zelenskyy issued a speech commemorating the anniversary and advocating for Ukrainian victory. Several civilians further defaced the remains with graffiti condemning Russia (namely Vladimir Putin) and calling for justice for devastated cities such as the Russian-occupied Mariupol. A drone carrying a large Flag of Ukraine was also flown around the Motherland Monument.
International
From , President Alexander Lukashenko (an ardent supporter of Russia) acknowledged Ukraine's independence, stating "[he] wishes Ukrainians peaceful skies, tolerance, courage, strength and success in restoring a decent life." President Zelenskyy's top advisor Mykhailo Podolyak rejected the congratulatory message, calling it cynical and disingenuous given Belarus' heavy involvement in the attacks of Ukraine, and that "this blood-soaked clowning is recorded and will have consequences."
In , supporters and refugees of Ukraine gathered in the capital of Brussels, host to around 30% of the country's estimated 78,000 Ukrainian refugees. At the Grand-Place, the Manneken Pis was dressed in "traditional Kozak costume" and a large Flag of Ukraine was unfurled. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen attended wearing Ukrainian colors.
In the , hundreds of people gathered in Prague at the Wenceslas Square (New Town), and Old Town Square (Old Town). In addition to support of Ukraine and its Azov Regiment, the demonstration saw extensive anti-Russian sentiment, with signings being made for a petition calling on the parliament of the Czech Republic to declare Russia a terrorist state. Similar demonstrations were also held in Brno's Moravian and Jakubske Squares.
In , a parade was held in Athens. The Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement to reaffirm Greece's solidarity with Ukraine, whose sovereignty and independence is recognized.
In , a parade was held in Berlin, where a candlelight vigil was set up in front of the Brandenburg Gate. Chancellor Olaf Scholz assured support, stating that Germany "stands firmly by the side of the threatened Ukraine today and for as long as Ukraine needs our support," and rebuked the Kremlin for its "backward imperialism."
In , a protest of 3,000 people against Putin and Russian violence was held in Dublin, marching 5 km from the General Post Office to the Ukrainian embassy. Ukrainian ambassador to Ireland was in attendance. Other events were held across the country.
In , Rome's Ukrainian community participated in a "march for freedom" through the city center that passed the Colosseum. Prime Minister Mario Draghi gave congratulations and continued offers of support to Ukraine.
In , demonstrations were held in Valletta and Floriana. Prime Minister Robert Abela tweeted that "[Malta's] will to stay united and restore peace in Ukraine remains strong."
In , thousands of Polish citizens and Ukrainian refugees gathered in the city centers of Warsaw and Krakรณw in celebration and support. The Palace of Culture and Science was illuminated in Ukrainian blue and yellow. Warsaw's mayor Rafaล Trzaskowski assured that "Poland is with [Ukraine], Warsaw is with [Ukraine]!" President Andrzej Duda also gave his support to Ukraine, recalling Poland as the first country in the world to have recognized Ukraine's independence.
In , a ceremony was held in Lisbon celebrating Ukraine's Independence Day, set around the city's statue of Taras Shevchenko. Portuguese Minister of Foreign Affairs Joรฃo Gomes Cravinho visited the Ukrainian Minister of Foreign Affairs Dmytro Kuleba in Kyiv to further show Portugal's support.
In , a demonstration in Istanbul was held with performance of the State Anthem of Ukraine. Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu congratulated the country over Twitter on its independence from the Soviet Union. Turkish National Defense Minister Hulusi Akar promised Tรผrkiye's continued support to Ukrainian Defence Minister Oleksii Reznikov and Infrastructure Minister Oleksandr Kubrakov.
Within the , Independence Day saw a significant celebration from the estimated 100,000 Ukrainian refugees in the kingdom, and parades in support of Ukraine and protests condemning Russia were both held. In , a dedicated service was held at the York Minster in York. In London, a demonstration against the Russian invasion was held outside Downing Street. Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office Larry was pictured in front of 10 Downing Street decorated with blue and yellow flowers (including sunflowers, one of Ukraine's floral emblems). In , hundreds in Edinburgh took part in a march on Calton Hill from the Volodomyr Velacky monument to the Holodomor plaque. Ukrainian Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Vadym Prystaiko, and his wife, Inna Prystaiko, were among the participants. According to the British Embassy Kyiv, Queen Elizabeth II congratulated Ukrainians, stating "I hope that today will be a time for the Ukrainian people, both in Ukraine and around the world, to celebrate their culture, history, and identity." Prime Minister Boris Johnson also expressed that "[Ukraine] will win" and has the United Kingdom's support. The Ministry of Defence tweeted a video of the Band of the Scots Guards performing "Stefania".
In the , a massive Flag of Ukraine (reportedly the world's largest) was unfurled in New York City, held by hundreds of supporters in Central Park's Sheep Meadow. President Joe Biden called the 31st anniversary's coincidence with the half-year mark of the war "bittersweet", and pledged approximately $2.98 billion USD in military aid to Ukraine's forces. Congratulations were issued by other U.S. politicians including Secretary of State Antony Blinken, NYC Mayor Eric Adams, and Massachusetts Representative Paul Tucker. Preceding Independence Day, the U.S. Embassy in Ukraine issued warnings from the United States Department of State that Russia would most likely increase attacks on civilians and infrastructure.
Notes
References
External links
About Independence Day in Ukraine
August observances
Culture of Ukraine
Ukraine
1992 establishments in Ukraine
Public holidays in Ukraine
Ukrainian independence movement
Summer events in Ukraine
Recurring events established in 1992
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59733291
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makriali%20Church
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Makriali Church
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Makriali Church
The Makriali Church was an Orthodox Church located in Kemalpaลa, Hopa, Artvin Province of Turkey, on the border with Georgia. A royal wedding took place in the church in June 1367 between King Bagrat V of Georgia and Anna of Trebizond. Baedeker's Russia for 1914 mentions the interesting ruins of the old church of Makriali and a traveler of 1969 mentions "a deserted church on the open and low-lying ground to the left of the road... a little way to the north of and 4km from the present Soviet-Turkish border at Sarp..."
References
Georgian Orthodox churches in Turkey
Buildings and structures in Artvin Province
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117706
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9F%E1%83%94
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แแแแ แแแฃแแ
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แแแแ แแแฃแแ (แ. 16 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1620, แแแ แกแแแ โ แ. 2 แแแแแแแแ แ, 1694, แแแ แกแแแ) โ แคแ แแแแ แแแฅแแแแแแ, แคแแ แแฌแแ แ แแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แ, แแแ แแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แฅแแแแแแแแแก แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแฃแคแแแแแแ แฎแแก แคแฃแแฃแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแกแขแแขแแแ. 1640-43 แฌแแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแแแจแ, แซแแ แแแแแแ แแแชแแแแแแแแแ แคแแ แฌแแ แแจแ แแแแขแ แ แแ แแแ แขแแแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ. แแแฃแแแก แฅแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแขแแแแ แซแแแแ แคแแแแแฃแ แซแแแแก, แแแซแแแฃแแแแแก แแ แแซแแคแ แแ แแแแขแแแแก (แขแฃแแแแแก แ แแขแฃแจแแก แแแแแแแแก แแขแแแแขแแแ, โแแแแแแแ แฐแแ แแฃแแแกแโ, 1660-61). แแแฃแแแก แคแแ แฌแแ แ แแฎแแแกแแ แแขแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแกแแแ (แแแแ แฉแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ), แแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแ แแขแแ (โแฅแ แแกแขแ, แกแแแงแแ แแก แแฎแกแแแแโ, 1665, แแแแจแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแแ, แแแ แกแแแ). แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแแฃแจแแแแ แแ แแแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแขแ (1660-แแแแ แฌแแแแ, แแ แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแฃแแ).
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แคแ แแแแ แแแฅแแแแแแแแแ
แคแ แแแแ แแฎแแขแแ แแแ
แคแ แแแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1620
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1694
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255286
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98
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แฏแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ
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แฏแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ
แฏแฃแแแ แแแแแแกแ (แ. 23 แแแ แแแ, 1955) โ แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแแแขแ แแก แแกแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแ แแแ แ 40 แฌแแแแ แแแขแก แแแแชแแแก. แ แแแแกแแ แ แแฃแแ แแแแแ แแฎแแกแแแแแแก แแแก แ แแแแ แช โแแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแ แแกแแคแแแแจแโ. แแแฆแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก AACTA-แก แ แแ, แแฅแ แแก แแแแแฃแกแแก แแ BAFTA-แก แแ แ, แแแแก แกแแแ แฏแแแแ แแ แแกแแแ แแก แแ แ แแแแแแแชแแ.
แฏแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแจแ, แแแกแแแแแแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แแฏแแฎแจแ. แแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแแแขแฃแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ 1977 แฌแแแก. แแแกแ แแแแแฃแขแ แแแแแจแ แแแแแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแ แคแแแแแ โHigh Rollingโ. 1979 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแกแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แกแแแฅแขแแแแจแ โแ แแแแ แแ แฏแฃแแแแขแโ.
แแฆแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แคแแแแแ โแฉแแแ แแ แฌแงแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แโ (1979), แ แแกแแแแก แแแแแแชแ BAFTA-แก แแ แ แฏแแแแ. แแแกแ แชแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแแ: โแฉแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แโ (1981), โแฐแฃแแแแแแโ (1984), โแแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแแแจแโ (1984) แแ โแฅแแ แแแ แแ แชแแแแแโ (1992). แแแกแ แกแฎแแ แ แแแแแแ: โWho Dares Winsโ (1982), โแแแแแแแฅแแแโ (1983), โแแแฆแแแ แขแแแฆแโ (1987), โแฏแแ แฏแแโ (1988), โแแแแกแโ (1990), โแแฅแกแแ แแแขแโ (1991), โแแแ แขแแ แคแแแแโ (1991), โแแฃแฅแ แกแแกแฎแแโ (1993), โแแแกแแแฃแขแฃแ แ แซแแแแฃแคแแแแโ (1997), โแแแแแแฎแแแแ แฐแแ แโ (1997), โแกแแฎแแแแแแแฅแแฃแแโ, โแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฆแแแ แแก แฃแฉแแแแโ (2001), โแแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฃแแแโ (2006), โแแแ แ แแแขแฃแแแแขแโ (2006), โแจแขแแ แแแก แแแแแโ (2011), โแกแแงแแแ แฃแแแ แ แแแจแโ (2012), โแข.แก. แกแแแแแขแ โ แแฎแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแกแโ (2013) แแ โแแแแ แแแ แฅแแแโ (2015).
แแแแแแกแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แขแแแแกแแ แแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแกแแชแแ โแแงแฃแฉแ แแ แแแกแแฎแฃแ แ: แแแ แแแ แแข แแแแแ แแแแแ แแก แแกแขแแ แแโ, โแชแฎแแแ แแแ แฏแฃแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแ: แแ แแ แฉแแแ แฉแ แแแแโ, โแแแแแแ แ แฎแแแแก แฅแแแจโ, โแฅแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแโ, โแ แแแแแแแแโ, โแกแแแแฎแกแแแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แแแโ, โแกแแแแฃแแแ แแแโ, โแแขแ แแแ: แแแขแ แแ แฏแแแแโ แแ แกแฎแแ.
แคแแแแแแ แแคแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฏแฃแแ แแแแแแกแ โ โThe Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in the Twentieth Centuryโ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1955
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 23 แแแ แแแ
แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแแแแแกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แฅแแแ แขแแแแแกแแฎแแแแแแ
XX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแแ
XXI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แฅแแแ แแกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แแแแขแ แแก แแกแแฎแแแแ แฅแแแแแ
แแแกแขแ แแแแแแ แแแแขแ แแก แ แแแแกแแ แแแ
BAFTA-แก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฃแแแแ (แแแ แแแแแแแแ)
แแฅแ แแก แแแแแฃแกแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฃแแแแ
แแแแแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แฏแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแแแ
แแ แแแแขแแแแแก แแแแก แฏแแแแแก แแคแแแแแแแแ
AACTA Award-แแก แแคแแแแแแแแ
แแ แแแแขแฃแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
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2448994
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutuzovskaya%20%28Filyovskaya%20line%29
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Kutuzovskaya (Filyovskaya line)
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Kutuzovskaya (Filyovskaya line)
Kutuzovskaya is a Moscow Metro station. It was completed in 1958 as the first westward extension of the newly created Filyovskaya line, which also included the reopening of four older stations which had been closed since 1953. Kutuzovskaya was the first permanent grade-level Metro station, part of a cost-cutting experiment which was ultimately doomed by Moscow's harsh climate. Kutuzovskaya's side platforms and curving layout are both unusual features. A large percentage of both platforms is covered by Kutuzovskiy Prospekt, an avenue which crosses over the station midway along its length. Entrance vestibules on either side of the overpass allow passengers to change platforms.
Kutuzovskaya was designed by Yuriy Zenkevich and Robert Pogrebnoi.
External links
metro.ru
mymetro.ru
KartaMetro.info โ Station location and exits on Moscow map (English/Russian)
Moscow Metro stations
Railway stations in Russia opened in 1958
Filyovskaya Line
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555190
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ
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แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ
แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแ แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ แจแแแซแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแก แฉแแแแแแแแแแแแแ:
แแแแ แแ แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ โ แกแแแ แขแกแแแแ (แซแแฃแแ)
แแแแแ แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ โ แกแแแ แขแกแแแแ (แซแแฃแแ)
แแแแฃแ แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ โ แแแแฆแแ แแแ, แแแขแแแ แ
แแแแแ แฅแแแฎแแจแแแแ โ แกแแแ แขแกแแแแ (แแแแแแญแแแ)
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแ แแแ
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