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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vipera%20dinniki
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Vipera dinniki
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Vipera dinniki
Common names: Dinnik's viper, Caucasus subalpine viper.
Vipera dinniki is a viper species native to the Caucasus Mountains region, part of Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. Like all other vipers, it is venomous. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Etymology
The specific name, dinniki, is in honor of Russian herpetologist Nikolai Yakovlevich Dinnik.
Description
Of the 49 Russian specimens of V. dinniki examined by Orlov and Tuniyev (1990), 29 were males, and the largest male measured in total length (including tail). Of the 20 females, the largest was in total length.
Geographic range
Vipera dinniki is found from Russia (Great Caucasus) and Georgia (high mountain basin of the Inguri River), eastward to Azerbaijan.
According to Nikolsky (1916), the type locality is "upper reaches of the Malaya Laba 8000 feet [2438 m] above sea level ... and Svanetia, 7000 feet [2134 m] above sea level." According to Nilson et al. (1995), Vedmederja et al. (1986) restricted the type locality to "Malaya Laba" through lectotype selection. Orlov and Tuniyev (1990) give the lectotype locality as "Upper reaches of the Mala (Small) Laba River, Northern Caucasus".
Habitat
The preferred natural habitats of V. dinniki are forest, shrubland, grassland, and rocky areas, at altitudes of .
Reproduction
V. dinniki is viviparous. Mating occurs in April and May, and young are born in August and September. Litter size is 3โ7 newborns.
Conservation status
This species, V. dinikki, is classified as vulnerable according to the IUCN with the following criteria: B1ab(iii,v) (v3.1, 2009). This indicates, that the population occupies a severely fragmented area over a range of less than 20,000 km2 (7,772 mi 2). A continued decline in habitat size or quality and in population is expected.
References
Further reading
Nilson G, Tuniyev BS, Orlov NL, Hรถggren M, Andrรฉn C (1995). "Systematics of the vipers of the Caucasus: Polymorphism or sibling species?" Asiatic Herpetological Research 6: 1-26.
Nikolsky AM (1913). Reptiles and Amphibians of the Caucasus (Herpetologia caucasia). Tiflis: The Caucasus Museum Publishing. 272 pp. (Vipera berus dinniki, new subspecies). (in Russian).
Orlov NL, Tuniyev BS (1990). "Three species in the Vipera kaznakowi complex (Eurosiberian Group) in the Caucasus: Their present distribution, possible genesis, and phylogeny". Asiatic Herpetological Research 3: 1-36.
External links
dinniki
Reptiles of West Asia
Reptiles described in 1913
Taxa named by Alexander Nikolsky
Reptiles of Russia
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%29
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แแแแกแแ (แแ แแแแแ แ)
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แแแแกแแ (แแ แแแแแ แ)
แแแแกแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แกแแแฎแแแจแ, แแ แแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 890 แแแขแ แแ. 2008 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 1 205 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 301 แแแแแแแแ แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 4 แแยฒ-แแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแฎแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 2001 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแ แแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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63572044
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burchevskaya
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Burchevskaya
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Burchevskaya is a rural locality (a village) in Razinskoye Rural Settlement, Kharovsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 18 as of 2002.
Geography
Burchevskaya is located 43 km north of Kharovsk (the district's administrative centre) by road. Larionikha is the nearest rural locality.
References
Rural localities in Kharovsky District
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962540
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrym
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Ambrym
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Ambrym is a volcanic island in Malampa Province in the archipelago of Vanuatu. Volcanic activity on the island includes lava lakes in two craters near the summit.
Etymology
Ambrym (also known as Ambrin, "ham rim" in the Ranon language) was allegedly named by Captain Cook, who is said to have anchored off there in 1774. In fact, his expedition never touched Ambrym.
Geography
Located near the center of the Vanuatuan archipelago, Ambrym is roughly triangular in shape, about wide. With of surface area, it is the fifth largest island in the country. The summit at the centre of the island is dominated by a desert-like caldera, which covers an area of . With the exception of human settlements, the rest of the island is covered by a dense jungle.
Important Bird Area
The western part of the island, comprising 17,605 ha of forest, together with gardens around habitation, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of Vanuatu megapodes, Tanna fruit doves, red-bellied fruit doves, grey-eared honeyeaters, cardinal myzomelas, fan-tailed gerygones, long-tailed trillers, streaked fantails, Melanesian flycatchers, buff-bellied monarchs and Vanuatu white-eyes.
Volcanology
Ambrym is a large basaltic volcano with a 12-km-wide caldera, and is one of the most active volcanoes of the New Hebrides volcanic arc. The caldera is the result of a huge Plinian eruption, which took place around AD 50. Its explosive force is rated 6, the third highest in the Smithsonian Institution's Volcanic Explosivity Index ranks of the largest volcanic explosions in recent geological history.
While at higher elevations cinder cones predominate, the western tip of the island is characterized by a series of basaltic tuff rings, of which the largest is about in diameter. These were produced by phreatic eruptions when magma contacted the water table and water-saturated sediments along the coast. The massive, 1900-year-old, ร caldera is the site of two active volcanic cones, Benbow and Marum (also spelled Maroum). Mount Benbow was named after English Admiral John Benbow (1653โ1702) by Captain Cook.
Several times a century, Ambrym volcano has destructive eruptions. Mount Benbow last erupted explosively in 1913, destroying the mission hospital at Dip Point. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.
In March 2017, Google added Marum crater with its lava lakes to Google Streetview. Since the last fissure eruption on 16 Dec 2018, the lava lake has disappeared.
Demographics
With the neighbouring island of Malakula and a few smaller islands, Ambrym forms Malampa Province. The population of 7,275 inhabitants lives mainly off coconut plantations in the three corners of the island.
Languages
Like many islands in Vanuatu, Ambrym has its own Austronesian languages.
In the north:
Fanbyak
North Ambrym language
In the southeast:
Vatlongos
In the southwest:
Daakie
Daakaka
Dalkalaen
Lonwolwol
Raljago
Towns and villages
Southwest
Fali, Craig Cove, Baiap, Sesivi, Port Vato, Bwele, Lalinda, Tow, Yaotilie, Sanesup, Emiotungan, Maranata and Pelibetakever
Southeast
Maat, Paamal, Toak, Ulรฉi, Utas, Tavรฉak, Asรฉ, Pawรฉ, Samรฉo, Endu, Pahakol and Benebo
North
Ranuetlam, Ranon, Olal, Fanla, Linboul, Wilit, Lonwara, Fona, Nebul and Megham
Tourism
Tourists are attracted by Ambrym's active volcanoes, tropical vegetation, and the customs of the local villagers. They stay in traditional bungalows, as there are no hotels on the island.
Transportation
The island is served by two airports, Ulei Airport in the southeast and Craig Cove Airport in the southwest.
Popular culture
Ambrym is featured in the 2016 Werner Herzog documentary, Into the Inferno.
References
External links
Islands of Vanuatu
Malampa Province
Shield volcanoes of Vanuatu
Mountains of Vanuatu
Subduction volcanoes
Active volcanoes
VEI-6 volcanoes
Calderas of Oceania
Pyroclastic shields
Lava lakes
Important Bird Areas of Vanuatu
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302262
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94
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แแแแแก แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แ
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แแแแแก แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แ โ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แฃแกแแก แฅแแแแฅ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแฃแแแ XIV แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 30-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแ แแแขแแฎแ แฅแแแแ แแ แแแฃแ แแ, แแฅแแก แแ แแกแฌแแ แ แแแ แแแฃแแฎแแแแก แคแแ แแ. แงแแแแแแ แแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ, แแแกแ แกแแแ แซแแ 93,5 แแแขแ แ. แงแแแแแแ แแชแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแแแแแ, แแแกแ แกแแแ แซแแ 80 แ. แแแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แซแแ แจแแกแแแแแแกแแ 84 แแ 83,5 แแแขแ แ.
1384 แฌแแแก แแแฆแแก แฏแแแ แแกแแแแแ. 1392 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแแขแแ แแแฆแ. 1891 แฌแแแก แแแแฌแแ แฅแแแแฅแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแกแ แชแแแขแ แ.
1953 แฌแแแแแ แแชแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ. แงแแแแแฌแแแฃแ แแ แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแจแ แแแแ แแแแ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแก แคแแกแขแแแแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแ แฃแกแแก แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
ะขัััะฐั ะ. ะ. ะกัะฐัะฐะดะฐัะฝัั
ะผััะพั ะฐะดัะฐะดะถัะฝะฝะต: ะัะฝัะปะฐะต ั ัััะฐัะฝะฐััั ะัะดัะบะฐะณะฐ ะทะฐะผะบะฐ / ะท ัะตััั ยซะะพะผะฝัะบั ะะตะปะฐัััะบะฐะณะฐ ะดะพะนะปัะดััะฒะฐยป. โ : ะะพะปัะผั, 1990.
ะขัััะพะฒ ะ. ะัะตะฒะฝะธั
ััะตะฝ ะฒะพะทัะฐะถะดะตะฝะธะต. ะัะพัะปะพะต ะธ ะฝะฐััะพััะตะต ะะธะดัะบะพะณะพ ะทะฐะผะบะฐ
แแแแแ แฃแกแแก แชแแฎแแกแแแแแ แแแแ
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74689681
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality%20of%20Belyov
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Principality of Belyov
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Principality of Belyov was one of the Upper Oka Principalities from the 1430s to 1562. Town Belyov was centre of the principality.
History
In the 1420s, Belyovsky and Vorotynsky udels arose from Novosilsky-Odoyevsky principality. Since 1427, Princes of Belyov were underlings of Lithuania.
After 1432, Belyovsky udel became principality of Belyov. In 1437, a fighting happened near Belyov. Later the principality was underling of Moscow, but in the middle of the 15th yearhundred it came back to Lithuania. In 1492, Principality of Belyov became a land of Moscow forever. The last prince of Belyov was Dmytro Ivanovych Vyshnevetsky, who lost his right to the principality in 1562.
References
See also
Belyov
1430s establishments in Europe
15th-century establishments in Russia
History of Tula Oblast
Rus' principalities
Subdivisions of Kievan Rus'
1562 disestablishments in Europe
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295541
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แแฃแแแแแแ
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แแฃแแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แกแแแฎแแแจแ, แแแขแแแฅแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 1 820 แแแขแ แแ. 2008 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 1 667 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 42 แแแแแแแแ แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 39.66 แแยฒ-แแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแฎแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 2001 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแแ
แแแขแแแฅแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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529781
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแแแแ แแแขแ แแแจแแแแ
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แแแแแ แแแขแ แแแจแแแแ (แ. 24 แแแแแกแขแ, 1917 โ แ. 1977) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ, แแแชแแแแ แ, แแแแแแแแ, แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแ, แแ แแคแแกแแ แ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
1941 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแฅแแแแแแชแแแก แคแแแฃแแขแแขแ. แกแฌแแแแแก แแแกแแแ แซแแแแแแแ แแแขแแแแแฃแ แแฅแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แแแขแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แขแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแฃแจแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แแแแแแ แแกแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแ แแกแแแ แแแขแฃแ แแจแ, แแแแ แแ แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแฌแงแแแแก แแแแ, แฏแแ แจแ แแแแฌแแแแก. 1941-1945 แฌแแแแจแ แแแงแแคแแแแแ แคแ แแแขแแ.
แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแฌแแแก แซแ แแแแแก. แแแฆแแแฃแแ แจแแแแแแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแ แแแ 1948 แฌแแแก แแแแชแแ แกแแแแแแแแแขแ แแแกแแ แขแแชแแ แแ แแแแแแญแ แขแแฅแแแแฃแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แกแแแฃแจแแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแขแแแแแแแแแแก, แขแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแขแแกแแขแ แแแกแแแ แขแ แซแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ, แแแกแ แจแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแแ แแงแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ. 1948-1950 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแแขแแแแแแแแแแก, แขแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแ แแแขแแกแแขแ แแแกแแแ แขแ แซแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแก แแกแแกแขแแแขแ: 1950-1970 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแก แแแชแแแขแ. 1961-1967 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แแแฅแแแแแ-แแแแฅแแแแแแจแแแแแแแแแก แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ. 1967-1971 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแก แแแแแแ. 1971 แฌแแแก แแแกแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แแแขแแแแฅแแแแแฃแ แ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แกแแชแแชแฎแแแก แแแแแแแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ. แแแแฎแฃแแแแแ แแแฅแชแแแแแก แแฃแ แกแก โ โแซแ แแแแก แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแก แแ แแแแ แแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแแโ, โแกแแแแขแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแขแ แแแกแแแ แขแ แซแ แแแแแแก แแแแแโ, โแกแแแแขแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแขแ แแฅแขแแ แ แซแ แแแแแแก แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแ แแ แแแแแ แแจแโ, โแแแขแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แขแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแแฌแงแแแแแแแโ. แแแกแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แจแแแฅแแแ แกแแแแขแแแแแแแ แซแ แแแแแแก, แแแแ แกแแกแขแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแขแแแแก แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแ. แแแขแแ แแ แฅแแ แแฃแ แแแแแ แแแฌแแ แแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แซแแ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแแกแ. แแงแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแจแ แแแแก แแแขแแ แ. แแแกแ แแแชแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก, แแ แแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแ แจแ แแแแก, แแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแแแ แฆแแแฌแแ แแแฃแซแฆแแแก แแชแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแ แขแ แแฅแขแแ โแ แแแแแกโ แซแ แแแแก แแฎแแแ แแแ แแแแขแแก แจแแฅแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแ แคแแ แแ แแฆแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แกแแกแแแแฆแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแก แซแ แแแแก แแฃแจแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ แกแแแซแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแกแแ แแแแก แแแแแก. แแฃแจแแแแแ แซแ แแแแก แแแ แขแแ แแก แแแแขแแแแชแแแก แกแแกแขแแแแก แแฎแแแ แกแฅแแแแก แจแแฅแแแแแ. แแแกแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ แจแแแฅแแแ แแ แ แซแแแแ แ แแแ แ โ โแจแแแแฌแแแก แซแ แแแแแแกโ แแแแแแ แ แแ แแแขแแแแฅแแแแแฃแ แ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแ, แกแแแแแแแช แกแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แ แแ แแแชแแแแ แฃแ แแแแแ แแฃแแแแแก.
แแแแแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแขแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แขแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแแฌแงแแแแแแแ: แแแแฎแ. แกแแฎแแแแซแฆแ. แกแแฅ. แแแแแขแแฅแ. แแ-แขแแก แกแขแฃแแแแขแแแแกแแแแ, แแ., แชแแแแ, 1964, แแ. 105
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแแฉแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแชแแแแ แแแ: แแ แแแฃแแ, แแแขแ แแแแแแขแ แแแแแแ แฏแแคแแ แแซแ, แแ., 2012, แแ. 118-120
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
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แแแฅแขแแ แ
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แแแฅแขแแ แ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแ แแกแฎแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแขแงแแ Doctor-แแแแ. แกแแขแงแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแขแงแแ docฤre-แแแ, แ แแช แกแฌแแแแแแแก แแแจแแแแก. แแแ แแแแจแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แฎแแ แแกแฎแ XII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแช แแแฅแขแแ แแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ แแแกแชแแก, แแงแ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ แแแฅแขแแ แแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ แแแแญแแแแ แแแฅแขแแ แแแขแฃแ แแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแ (แแแ. แคแแแแกแแคแแแก แแแฅแขแแ แ).
แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ, แแแฅแขแแ แ แแ แแก แแคแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแกแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แก แแแฅแขแแ แแแขแฃแ แแก แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแกแฌแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแขแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแแ แขแแชแแแก แแแชแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแแแญแแแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแฅแขแแ แ (แแ แแแแแแแแจแแแแแแแแแ)
แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฅแขแแ แ
แคแแแแกแแคแแแก แแแฅแขแแ แ
แกแฅแแแแ
แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแแ
แแแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแ
แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแแแแแแ
แขแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแก แกแคแแ แแจแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan%2C%20Thailand
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Nan, Thailand
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Nan, Thailand
Nan is a town in northern Thailand. It is north of Bangkok. It is in the centre of Nan province which bears its name, and of which it is the former administrative capital. It covers tambon Nai Wiang and parts of tambon Pha Sing of Mueang Nan district, an area of divided into 30 chumchon. In 2010 it had a population of 21,333 spread along the Nan River's right bank. Nan is a small city, primarily devoted to commercial, administrative, educational, and hospital activities. The old heart of the city, where Wat Phumin, the national museum and other tourist attractions are found, is being restored.
History
Nan for centuries was a separate, autonomous kingdom with few relationships with the outside world. There is evidence of prehistoric habitation, but it wasn't until several small mueang united to form Nanthaburi on the Nan River in the mid-14th century, contemporaneously with the creation of Luang Prabang and the Lan Xang (Million Elephants) kingdom in Laos, that the city became notable. Associated with the Sukhothai Kingdom, the mueang took the title Wara Nakhon and played a significant part in the development of early Thai nationalism.
By the end of the 14th century Nan was one of the nine northern Thai-Lao principalities that formed Lanna. The city-state flourished throughout the 15th century under the name Chiang Klang ('middle city'), a reference to its position roughly midway between Chiang Mai ('new city') and Chiang Thong ('golden city'), today's Luang Prabang).
The Burmese took control of the kingdom in 1558 and deported many of the inhabitants to Burma as slaves; the city was deserted until northern Thailand was retaken from the Burmese in 1786. The local dynasty then regained local sovereignty and it remained semi-autonomous until 1931 when Nan finally accepted full Bangkok dominion. Part of its territory had been annexed to Laos by the French in the late-19th century.
Parts of the old city wall and several early wats dating from the Lanna period can be seen in contemporary Nan. The city's wats are distinctive; some temple structures show Lanna influence, while others belong to the Thai Lue legacy brought from Xishuangbanna in China, where the Thai Lue people originated.
Climate
Culture
Wat Phumin is the city's most well-known wat. It is located near the Nan National Museum. The fifteenth century Wat Phra That Khao Noi overlooks the city and the golden Phra Buddha Maha Udom Mongkhon Nanthaburi, Sri Nan is enshrined there. The city has a lak muang (city pillar), Wat Ming Mueang, at the center of the city.
Gallery
References
Further reading
External links
Tourism Authority of Thailand: Nan
Oriental Architecture profile - photos of 12 sites in Nan with GPS calibrated map
Populated places in Nan province
Cities and towns in Thailand
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แแแแแแแแก แแแแ แ แฎแแแ
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แแแแแแแแก แแแแ แ แฎแแแ โ แฎแแแ แกแแแฅแข-แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแจแ แแแแแแ แ แจแฃแ แแแแแแแ. แแ แแก แ แแฃแฎแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแ. แแแแแจแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแกแขแแแกแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแแก. แฎแแแแก แกแแแ แซแแ - 141,9 แแแขแ แ, แกแแแแแ - 14,5 แ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแ แแแแ แฎแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแก 1821 แฌแแแก แแ แแแฎแแ แแแชแฎแ แ แฎแแแ แกแแแฅแข-แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแจแ. 1828 แฌแแแก แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แจแฃแแแ แขแแก แแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแฅ แแแแแก แแแแจแแแฃแขแแแแ แฎแแแ. 1852 แฌแแแก แแแแแก แแแ แแแแขแแแแแแแ แฎแแก แฎแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแฎแกแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแ แแแแ. 1948-1950 แฌแแแแจแ แฎแแแแก แฎแแก แแแญแแแ แจแแแชแแแแ แแแขแแแแก แแแญแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแกแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแงแ แแแแแแ แจแแแชแแแแ แแฎแแแ แกแแงแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ. แ. แแแแแแแแฉแแก แแ แแแฅแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ. แแ แงแแแแแคแ แแก แจแแแแแแ แฎแแแ แแแฎแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ. 1990 แฌแแแแแ แฎแแแ แแแฎแแ แกแแคแแฎแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแ แฎแแก แกแแงแ แแแแแแ แจแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแ-แแแขแแแแ, แแฆแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแกแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแงแ แแแแแแแก แจแแแแคแแชแแ แ. แ แแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ. แ. แแแกแแแแแแก แแ แแแฅแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ.
2007 แฌแแแก 18 แแแ แแแก แกแแแฅแข-แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแฆแ 2015 แฌแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แแแ แแแขแแฃแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแชแแคแชแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแแแช แแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แฎแแแแก แ แแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแ แฃแแแ แแแแฎแแแ แแงแ. 2017 แฌแแแก 21 แแแแแแแ แก แฎแแแ แแแแฎแฃแ แ แกแแ แแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแ. แ แแแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแก แจแแแแแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแฆแแแแแแแก: แแแแแก แแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแแขแแแแก แคแฃแแแแแแแขแแก แกแแงแ แแแแ, แฎแแแแก แงแแแแ แฎแแก แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแ แจแแชแแแแแก แ แแแแแก แแแแกแขแ แฃแฅแชแแแแแ. 2018 แฌแแแก 1 แแแแแกแก แแฆแแแแแแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแฎแกแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
ะะพัะฑะฐัะตะฒะธั ะ. ะก., ะฅะฐะฑะปะพ ะ. ะ. ะะพัะตะผั ัะฐะบ ะฝะฐะทะฒะฐะฝั? ะ ะฟัะพะธัั
ะพะถะดะตะฝะธะธ ะฝะฐะทะฒะฐะฝะธะน ัะปะธั, ะฟะปะพัะฐะดะตะน, ะพัััะพะฒะพะฒ, ัะตะบ ะธ ะผะพััะพะฒ ะะตะฝะธะฝะณัะฐะดะฐ. โ 3-ะต ะธะทะด., ะธัะฟั. ะธ ะดะพะฟ. โ ะ.: ะะตะฝะธะทะดะฐั, 1985. โ ะก. 437. โ 511 ั.
ะะพัะฑะฐัะตะฒะธั ะ. ะก., ะฅะฐะฑะปะพ ะ. ะ. ะะพัะตะผั ัะฐะบ ะฝะฐะทะฒะฐะฝั? ะ ะฟัะพะธัั
ะพะถะดะตะฝะธะธ ะฝะฐะทะฒะฐะฝะธะน ัะปะธั, ะฟะปะพัะฐะดะตะน, ะพัััะพะฒะพะฒ, ัะตะบ ะธ ะผะพััะพะฒ ะกะฐะฝะบั-ะะตัะตัะฑััะณะฐ. โ 4-ะต ะธะทะด., ะฟะตัะตัะฐะฑ. โ ะกะะฑ.: ะะพัะธะฝั, 1996. โ ะก. 301. โ 359 ั. โ ISBN 5-7711-0002-1.
ะะพัะพะดัะบะธะต ะธะผะตะฝะฐ ัะตะณะพะดะฝั ะธ ะฒัะตัะฐ: ะะตัะตัะฑััะณัะบะฐั ัะพะฟะพะฝะธะผะธะบะฐ / ัะพัั. ะก. ะ. ะะปะตะบัะตะตะฒะฐ, ะ. ะ. ะะปะฐะดะธะผะธัะพะฒะธั, ะ. ะ. ะัะพัะตะตะฒ ะธ ะดั. โ 2-ะต ะธะทะด., ะฟะตัะตัะฐะฑ. ะธ ะดะพะฟ. โ ะกะะฑ.: ะะธะบ, 1997. โ ะก. 45. โ 288 ั. โ (ะขัะธ ะฒะตะบะฐ ะกะตะฒะตัะฝะพะน ะะฐะปัะผะธัั). โ ISBN 5-86038-023-2.
ะะฝัะพะฝะพะฒ ะ. ะ. ะะพััั ะกะฐะฝะบั-ะะตัะตัะฑััะณะฐ. โ ะกะะฑ.: ะะปะฐะณะพะป ะ ะพััะธะธ, 2002. โ ะก. 61โ62. โ 192 ั. โ ISBN 5-89622-019-5.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Google Maps: ะัะพัะพะน ะะปะฐะณะธะฝ ะผะพัั ัะพ ัะฟััะฝะธะบะฐ.
2-ะน ะะปะฐะณะธะฝ ะผะพัั // ะกะะฑ ะะะฃ ยซะะพััะพััะตััยป
แกแฅแแแแ
แกแแแฅแข-แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แคแแแแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแฅแขแแแ
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แฉแแแแแ แ (แกแแคแแแก แแแฅแ)
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แฉแแแแแ แ (แกแแคแแแก แแแฅแ)
แฉแแแแแ แ โ แกแแคแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแจแ. 2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแก 1313 แแแชแก.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20with%20Cypress%20and%20Star
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Road with Cypress and Star
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Road with Cypress and Star, also known as Country Road in Provence by Night, is an 1890 oil-on-canvas painting by Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh. It is the last painting he made in Saint-Rรฉmy-de-Provence, France.
The painting is part of the large van Gogh collection of the Krรถller-Mรผller Museum, located in the Hoge Veluwe National Park at Otterlo in the Netherlands.
Production and influences
Road with Cypress and Star was painted in May 1890. In an earlier letter to his brother Theo, van Gogh wrote that cypresses were "always occupying [his] thoughts" and that he found them "beautiful of line" and proportioned like an Egyptian obelisk. He had also intended on painting a nighttime view of the trees since his stay in Arles in 1888.
Erickson suggests that the painting is influenced by the Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress, visible in the prominent road and cypress tree. The painting is one of several in which van Gogh uses cypresses prominently, and โ as in Road with Cypress and Star โ many of the paintings depict trees that extend beyond the top of the canvas. After finishing the work, in June 1890 while at Auvers-sur-Oise, van Gogh wrote to his friend and fellow artist Paul Gauguin that the painting's themes are similar to those of Gauguin's work Christ in the Garden of Olives.
The orientation of the night sky objects may have been influenced by a conjunction of heavenly bodies on 20 April 1890, when Mercury and Venus were at 3 degrees of separation and together had luminescence comparable to Sirius.
Analysis
According to Kathleen Powers Erickson, Road with Cypress and Star more strongly reflects van Gogh's belief that he would soon die than the earlier painting The Starry Night. She supports this by comparing the evening star on the left of the painting, which is barely visible, to the emerging crescent moon on the right side; the cypress tree in the middle, which divides these symbols of the old and the new, is described as an "obelisk of death". She finds the pair of travellers an indication of van Gogh's need for companionship.
Naomi Maurer also writes that Road with Cypress and Star reflects the painter's feeling that he would soon die. She views the painting as depicting human life as being "in the context of infinity and eternity", with the two travellers and their journey dominated by the cypress in the centre. The evening star and crescent moon on either side of the tree she describes as adding "cosmic perspective to the earthly scene" and suggesting a "sentient universe filled with love".
See also
List of works by Vincent van Gogh
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Van Gogh, paintings and drawings: a special loan exhibition, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on this painting (see index)
1890 paintings
Paintings by Vincent van Gogh
Horses in art
Moon in art
Collections of the Krรถller-Mรผller Museum
Paintings of Venus (planet)
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27d%20Wait%20for%20Life
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I'd Wait for Life
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I'd Wait for Life โ แฏแแฃแค Take That-แแก แกแแแฆแแ แ แแ แกแแแแแ. แแแ แจแแขแแแแแแ แแแก 2006 แฌแแแก แกแขแฃแแแฃแ แแแแแแจแ Beautiful World.
แแก แกแแแฆแแ แ แแ แแก แฏแแฃแคแแก แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแ แแขแแแแแแก แกแแฃแแแแแกแ 10-แแฃแแจแ - 1992 แฌแแแก แแแ แ, แ แแแแกแแช แกแแแฆแแ แแก I Found Heaven แแกแแแแกแ แแแแ แแฌแแ.
แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแฃแกแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแฆแ แ แแแแกแแ แแ แจแแ แแ แกแแแ แแแแแ. แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแ Channel 4-แแ (แแ แแขแแแแแ), 2007 แฌแแแก 16 แแแแกแก. แกแแฃแแแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แฏแแฃแคแแก แฌแแแ แแแ แแซแแ แแแแแ แฌแงแแแจแ, แแฃแแชแ แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแแกแแแแจแ.
แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แกแแ
แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แกแแแแแ (1736401)
I'd Wait For Life (แกแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแ) - 4:11
We All Fall Down - 3:47
แฐแแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแ
I'd Wait For Life (แกแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแ) - 4:11
We All Fall Down - 3:47
Shine (BBC Radio 2 'Live & Exclusive') - 3:36
Back For Good (BBC Radio 2 'Live & Exclusive') - 4:11
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Take That-แแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
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แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแ
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แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแ
แ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแ (แ. 27 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1935, แแแแแแแ (แกแฎแแ แฌแงแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ โ แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแฅแ) โ แ. 15 แแแแแแแ แ, 1987 , แแแกแแแแ) โ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแแแ. แแกแแคแแแแจแ แชแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ 1960-แแแแ แฌแแแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ. แแแแ แแแแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แแแจแ, แกแแแแช แฃแฌแแแแก "แแ แแแแแก แงแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแฆแ", แแแแแแแแแแแ "แกแแแญแแแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแ" แจแแแ แฅแแแก.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแจแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแ แ แแแ แกแแ แแ แกแแแแแก. แแกแแแ, แแแแช แ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแชแแแแแแแ, แแแขแแแชแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแกแ แแแแ, แแแ แแ แขแแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแแ แแฅแแแแ แแฃแจแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแ แแแแแแขแแแแแฉ แแแแแกแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแ แ แแคแแชแแ แ แแงแ. แกแฎแแ แแแ แกแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแ แแก แแแแแกแขแฃแ แแแฃแแ แกแแ แแแแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแงแ แแฃแแแกแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแจแ; แแจแแแแแแ แชแแ แแแก แขแแแแแแแ แฏแแจแแแแ แแงแแแแ แแ แ แแแแกแแช แแแแ แฅแแแแจแแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แซแแแแแ แแแขแแ แ แแงแ, แชแแ แแแก แแฃแแแแแแก แฅแแแจ แแแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แแ แแก แกแแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแขแ แแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช แแแแแแ แแแแจแแแ แกแแฎแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ.
1953 แฌแแแก แฉแแแแแแขแ แฌแแแก แ แแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแแกแแแแจแ แแ แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แก.แ. แแแ แแกแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแ แฃแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแแแแขแแแ แแคแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแจแ (ะะะะ) แแแแแแแแแแก แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแ. แกแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แ แแแแแ แฎแจแแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแ "แแแฐแแแฃแ " แฌแแแฃแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแ แ แแฆแแก แจแแแแจแแ แแแจแแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แ แแ แแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แจแแฎแแแแ แแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แ แแแแแแก แกแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แ. แแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแแก แกแแแฃแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แแกแแคแแแแก แแฉแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แจแแช แแ แกแแแแแแ. แคแ แแแแฃแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแ Paris Match-แแ แแแก แฃแฌแแแ "แแ แแแแแก แงแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแฆแ". แ แแแแกแแช แแแแฉแแกแแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก โแแแแแกโ แแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ, แแแกแแแ แจแแฅแแแ "แแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแก" แแแแฏแ, แ แแแแแ แแแกแแแแฃแ แแ แแกแแจแ "แกแแแญแแแ แกแแคแ แแแ แแแแ" แแแแแแแแก.
1958 แฌแแแก แ แแแแแแ แแขแแแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแก โ แกแแแแแแแก แ แแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แคแแแแจแ โแแแแฆแแแฃแ แ แแแแแขแแแแโ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ. (แคแแแแแก แขแแขแ แแแจแ แฌแแ แแ, แ แแแแ แช แ . แแแแแกแแแแแแ).
แแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ
แ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแ แฅแแแ แ แแงแ แแแกแแแแแแ แแฎแแขแแแ แ แคแแแแฅแก-แแแ แแแแ แกแแ, แแแชแแแแ แแแ แแก แแแแ แกแแแก แแแแ. แแกแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแ 1960-แแแแ แฌแแแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ. 1967 แฌแแแก แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแฃแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แกแแแก แแ แกแฃแ แแ แจแแแแแแ, แแแแก แแแแ แแแ แแแแแฌแงแแแขแ แแแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แ แแก แจแแแแแแแช แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแจแแฃแแแก แแ แซแแแแแก แฉแแฎแจแแแแก แแแขแแแแแ แแกแแแขแแแแ. แแ แแ แแก แคแแแแฅแก-แแแ แแแแ แกแแ แแแขแแชแแแฃแแ แแงแ แแกแแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแ แขแแแกแแแแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแ แฌแแแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแแแกแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแช 1970 แฌแแแก แแแแ แจแแแซแแแ.
แแ แแแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแซแแแ แแแแ แแกแแแก แแแจแแแแแ แคแกแแฅแแแขแ แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแงแแคแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ.
แกแแแญแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแขแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแขแแ แแแฃแจแ แแแขแแแชแแแแ, แ แแ แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแก แแแแแจแ, แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแช, แแ แแแ แแแแจแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแก แฏแแ แแแแแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแฃแแ แแงแ, แแแแ แแ แแฆแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แฅแแแ แแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แฐแฅแแแแ แ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแชแแแแแแ (แคแ แฉแฎแแแแก แแแแ แแขแแแ แแแแงแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ). แกแฃแแชแแแแก แแชแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แแแแกแแฎแแแ แงแแแแแแ แซแแแแ แ แกแขแ แแกแ แแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแช แแแแแแ-แก แแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแชแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แจแแแขแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแ แแแขแแแแ แแฃแแแ แฃแแ แงแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแฅแแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแแ แแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ, แ แแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แฃแจแแจแ แแแแแก แแแแแขแแขแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแก แกแแญแแ แ แแแคแแ แแแชแแแก แแแแแแแแแจแ.
แกแแแแแแแงแแคแแแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแแแ แกแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแก แแแ แแฅแขแแ แแก แแแแแแแแแก, แแแแแ แกแขแแแแแแแแ- แแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแฃแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ. แแแกแ แจแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแฎแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแแกแแแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แ แแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแฃแแแ แแแแกแแแแก แแแแแแงแแแ. แแแแ แแแกแ แแแขแแ แแแแ แแแแแแชแ แฌแแแแ แแแ แแแแฃแ แแแแแ "แแกแ แฆแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแกแแแ", แกแแแแช แแแแแแ แแงแ แแฆแฌแแ แแแ แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แกแชแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แแแคแแ แแแชแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแจแแ แแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแขแแขแแก แฌแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแขแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแแชแแแแแแ
แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแ แกแแแฏแแ แกแชแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแแ แแชแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ โแแแแแแ แกแแซแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแแฃแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1987 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแ 52 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ.
แแกแแแ แแ แกแแแแแก แแแ แกแแ, แ แแ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แกแแฎแแจแ แแ แแ แ แกแแแแแแแงแแคแแจแ. แแ แแแ แกแแแ, แแก แแแแแจแ แขแแแแคแแแแก แงแฃแ แแแแแ แฎแแแจแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแ แแแแแแก. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแ แแแก แแแแ แซแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ, แชแฎแแแแ แ แแ แแแแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ. แแแกแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแแฃแแแแ แแแ แฉแ, แฎแแแ แแแแ แซแแแแแก แแแแแแ แฃแชแแแแแ. แแ แแ แแแ แกแแแ, แแแ แแแแ แซแแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแ.
แแแแฉแแกแแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแแขแแ แแแฃแจแ แแฃแ แแแ โแแแแแแแโ-แแแ แแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ:
"แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแ แแ แ แแฎแแแแ แแแแกแแชแแแคแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแแ, แแ แแแแ แญแแแแแแแช แแงแ. แแแก แขแ แแแแแฃแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแแแ แแ แแ แแแก แงแแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแ แแแแแ. แแแแแงแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแฎแแจแ, แ แแแแ แช โแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแฃแ แโ โ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฏแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแช แแฃแจแแแแแ. แแ แแแก แงแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแญแแ แแ แแฎแแ แก แแแแแแแ."
แฎแกแแแแ
แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแฎแ แแแแแแ แแแแแชแแแแแแก แชแแแแแก "แแแแแซแแแแแก แแขแแ แแแแแแ ..." 305 แแแแแจแแแแแจแ;
แแแฅ-แจแแฃแก "แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ" แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแแจแแแแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแแซแฆแแแ;
แแแแแชแแแ โแกแแแแแแแ แกแแแญแแฃแ แแ. แแแแแแแก แแแแ โ แขแแแแแ แฎแแ โแแกแขแแ แแโ แแแแซแฆแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก;
2015 แฌแแแ โ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ FILM.UA-แ แแ Shpil-แแ แแแแแแฆแแก แแแ แแแขแกแแ แแแแ แคแกแแแแแแแแแ แแคแแฃแแ แแฎแแขแแ แฃแแ แคแแแแ โแฌแแแแแ แแแแแคแแแโ แ แแแแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแแแ แแคแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ (แฅแกแแแแ แแฃแแแแแฉแแแแแ แแกแ แฃแแแแก แแแก แ แแแก). แกแแ แแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แ แจแแแแ 2015 แฌแแแก 5 แแฅแขแแแแแ แก แฃแแ แแแแแจแ แขแแแแแ แฎ โแแแขแแ แแโ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1935
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 27 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 15 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1987
แแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ
แกแแแญแแแ แคแแขแแแแแแแแแ
แกแแแญแแแ แแแแแแแแ
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252943
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แแแแแจแแแ
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แแแแแจแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ, แแ แแแฐแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแ แแฎแแ แ แแแแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแขแแแ แแก แแแ แฏแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแ.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แกแแคแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแแแแกแแแแแกแ แแแแแแ แ. แฅแแแขแแแ แแก แแแแแแ แจแแแแแฆแฃแแฃแ แแแ แแแแ แแฆแแแ แแฃแแ แแงแ แแแฌแแแแแ แแแแแ แฅแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแแแจแแแแก แแแแแกแแ. 1843 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแแ แแงแ. แแแกแ แฅแแแแแ แกแแคแแแจแ แฏแแแ แแฃแจแแแแแแแ. 1907 แฌแแแก แแแแแจแแแ แแแแแแฎแฃแแ แแ แแแกแ แกแแซแแแแแแแ แจแแแกแฌแแแแ แแฅแแแแแ แแแงแแแจแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแฉแแแแก แ แแ แแแแแกแแ แแจแแแแแฃแแแ IX-X แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ, แแ แแ แแก, แ แแแแกแแช แแแแ แแขแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แแ แขแแแฃแฏแ แแงแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแจแแแแก แกแแแแแกแแแแแกแ
แแแแแจแแแแก แแแแแกแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแ แฃแแแแ, แข. I, แแ., 1991
แ. แแแงแแแจแแแแ, โแแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแฅแกแแแแแชแแ แแแแ-แแแแแกแจแ แแ แฉแแแแแจแ 1907 แฌแแแกโ, แแแ แแแ, 1938, แแ. 10-12
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แกแแคแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ
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183201
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
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แฅแฃแแฃแแ
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แฅแฃแแฃแแ โ แแชแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแกแขแแกแแแ แแ แแฏแแฎแแกแ. แแ แ-, แแ -, แแ แแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแ แแแแแฎแแแแ. แแแแฏแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแจแแกแแแ แแ แคแแจแแ แแแ แแแแก แฅแแแแแ. แแแขแแ แ แแแแ แ แแ แงแแแแแแ, แแขแแแแแกแแแ แงแแแแแแแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแแ แงแแแแแแแแ แแฅแแ. แแแงแแคแ แญแแขแแแแ.
แแแแ แจแ 300-แแแ แกแแฎแแแแแ. แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแฎแแแแ แกแคแแ แแก แแแแแแ แแ แชแแ แกแแ แขแงแแแจแ. แแแแแแกแแแจแ 20-แแแ แกแแฎแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ โ 16. แฅแฃแแฃแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแกแ แแ แฉแแแแแแแแแแแแแ, แฅแแแแ แคแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แฅแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแก แจแฃแ แกแแ แขแงแแแแแ แแแแฃแ แกแแ แขแงแแแแแ. แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแแแแ 4 แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแ (. แฎแแแ 4 แแแแแแกแแแกแ ). แแแแแแ แแ แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแแ แแขแแฃแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแแฎแแแแแแ
แแแแ แจแ 300-แแแ แกแแฎแแแแแ, แแฅแแแแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแแแ:
Draba albertina
Draba aretioides
Draba asterophora
Draba aureola
Draba bhutanica
Draba breweri
Draba cacuminum
Draba californica
Draba carnosula
Draba corrugata
Draba cruciata
Draba cuneifo
Draba densifa
Draba ecuadoriana
Draba extensa
Draba hookeri
Draba howellii
Draba incrassata
Draba lactea
Draba monoensis
Draba muralis
Draba nemorosa
Draba obovata
Draba pterosperma
Draba sharsmithii
Draba sibirica
Draba sierrae
Draba splendens
Draba spruceana
Draba steyermarkii
Draba stylosa
Draba subumbellata
Draba verna
Draba violacea
แแแแแแกแขแแกแแแ แแ
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486487
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แฅแแแแแแแแแ
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แฅแแแแแแแแแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฎแแแฎแฃแ แ แแแแแแกแแแแก แแแแ แแก แแฎแแฃแแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแ แฅแแ-แแแแแก แกแแแแฏแแฃแ แ แฎแแกแแแแแก แแแแฎแแ-แแแกแฃแฎแแ. แชแแแแแแแ โแฅแแแแแแแแแแกโ แคแจแแฃแ แ, แแญแแ แฃแแ, แแฃแ แฃแแ, แแแกแฎแฃแ -แฏแแแแฎแฃแ แ แแ แแแแ แฃแแ แแแ แแแแขแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แฃแแแแแจแแแแ, แ., โแฎแแแฎแฃแ แ แกแแขแงแแแแ แแแโ, แข. 2, แแแแแแกแ, 1964
แจแแแแซแ, แแ., โแแแฃแ แ แฅแแแแแแแแแโ, โแแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแแ แซแแแแแแโ, แข. 11 1958
โแฅแแ-แแแแแก แกแแแแฏแแฃแ แ แแแฌแแ -แแแฌแแ แ, แขแคแแแแกแ, 1895
แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
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413408
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D
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แแแ แแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแ แกแแแแคแ
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แแแ แแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแ แกแแแแคแแก (892โ936) แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแแแแแ แกแแแ, แฐแฃแแแฅแฉแ (แแแแแแ แแแฅแฉแ), แขแฎแแแแแ (แแแแแแ แแแแฃแ แแ). แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แแ แ, แแแ แแแก แกแแแ แกแแแแคแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แแงแ แกแแแแจแ. แแแ แแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแก แแแ แแแแ แจแแแ แแ แแฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแคแแ แฉแแแกแแแแก แแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ.
แขแฎแแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแฎแแ แแฃแ แ, แแแแงแ แแแแ แแฅแแ แขแฎแแฏแแก แแแแ , แ แแแแแแแช แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแแ แฐแฃแแแฅแฉแ แแ แกแแแ. 936 แฌแแแก แขแฎแแฏแแ แแฎแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก, แแแ แแแก แคแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ. แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแแ แแแก แกแแแแ แกแแแแคแแ แแ แกแแแแแ แจแแฌแงแแแขแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแ แแ แแ แกแแแ แกแแแแคแแก แแแ แแแแ
แแแ แแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
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227053
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism
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Superorganism
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Superorganism
A superorganism or supraorganism is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species. A community of synergetically interacting organisms of different species is called a holobiont.
Concept
The term superorganism is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals, where division of labour is highly specialised and where individuals are not able to survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism. A superorganism can be defined as "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective", phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food and avoiding predators, or bees choosing a new nest site. In challenging environments, micro organisms collaborate and evolve together to process unlikely sources of nutrients such as methane. This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours.
The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "father of geology", to refer to Earth in the context of geophysiology. The Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock, and Lynn Margulis as well as the work of Hutton, Vladimir Vernadsky and Guy Murchie, have suggested that the biosphere itself can be considered a superorganism, although this has been disputed. This view relates to systems theory and the dynamics of a complex system.
The concept of a superorganism raises the question of what is to be considered an individual. Toby Tyrrell's critique of the Gaia hypothesis argues that Earth's climate system does not resemble an animal's physiological system. Planetary biospheres are not tightly regulated in the same way that animal bodies are: "planets, unlike animals, are not products of evolution. Therefore we are entitled to be highly skeptical (or even outright dismissive) about whether to expect something akin to a 'superorganism'". He concludes that "the superorganism analogy is unwarranted".
Some scientists have suggested that individual human beings can be thought of as "superorganisms"; as a typical human digestive system contains 1013 to 1014 microorganisms whose collective genome, the microbiome studied by the Human Microbiome Project, contains at least 100 times as many genes as the human genome itself. Salvucci wrote that superorganism is another level of integration that is observed in nature. These levels include the genomic, the organismal and the ecological levels. The genomic structure of organisms reveals the fundamental role of integration and gene shuffling along evolution.
In social theory
The nineteenth century thinker Herbert Spencer coined the term super-organic to focus on social organization (the first chapter of his Principles of Sociology is entitled "Super-organic Evolution"), though this was apparently a distinction between the organic and the social, not an identity: Spencer explored the holistic nature of society as a social organism while distinguishing the ways in which society did not behave like an organism. For Spencer, the super-organic was an emergent property of interacting organisms, that is, human beings. And, as has been argued by D. C. Phillips, there is a "difference between emergence and reductionism".
The economist Carl Menger expanded upon the evolutionary nature of much social growth, but without ever abandoning methodological individualism. Many social institutions arose, Menger argued, not as "the result of socially teleological causes, but the unintended result of innumerable efforts of economic subjects pursuing 'individual' interests".
Spencer and Menger both argued that because it is individuals who choose and act, any social whole should be considered less than an organism, though Menger emphasized this more strongly. Spencer used the idea to engage in extended analysis of social structure, conceding that it was primarily an analogy. So, for Spencer, the idea of the super-organic best designated a distinct level of social reality above that of biology and psychology, and not a one-to-one identity with an organism. Nevertheless, Spencer maintained that "every organism of appreciable size is a society", which has suggested to some that the issue may be terminological.
The term superorganic was adopted by the anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber in 1917. Social aspects of the superorganism concept are analysed by Alan Marshall in his 2002 book "The Unity of Nature". Finally, recent work in social psychology has offered the superorganism metaphor as a unifying framework to understand diverse aspects of human sociality, such as religion, conformity, and social identity processes.
In cybernetics
Superorganisms are important in cybernetics, particularly biocybernetics. They are capable of the so-called "distributed intelligence", which is a system composed of individual agents that have limited intelligence and information. These are able to pool resources so that they are able to complete goals that are beyond reach of the individuals on their own. Existence of such behavior in organisms has many implications for military and management applications, and is being actively researched.
Superorganisms are also considered dependent upon cybernetic governance and processes. This is based on the idea that a biological system โ in order to be effective โ needs a sub-system of cybernetic communications and control. This is demonstrated in the way a mole rat colony uses functional synergy and cybernetic processes together.
Joel de Rosnay also introduced a concept called "cybionte" to describe cybernetic superorganism. This notion associates superorganism with chaos theory, multimedia technology, and other new developments.
See also
Collective intelligence
Group mind (science fiction)
Holobiont
Organismic computing
Quorum sensing, collective behaviour of bacteria
Stigmergy
Siphonophorae
Gaia Hypothesis
References
Literature
Jรผrgen Tautz, Helga R. Heilmann: The Buzz about Bees โ Biology of a Superorganism, Springer-Verlag 2008.
Bert Hรถlldobler, E. O. Wilson: "The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies", W.W. Norton, 2008.
External links
People Are Human-Bacteria Hybrid, Wired Magazine, October 11, 2004
First Bees and Ants, and Now People: This Evolutionary Transition Might Be Coming for Humanity, Haaretz Magazine, November 19, 2022
Biocybernetics
Collective intelligence
Cybernetics
Holism
Biological classification
Emergence
Management cybernetics
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แแแแ แญแแแแซแ
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แแแแ แญแแแแซแ
แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแก แซแ แญแแแแซแ (แ. 15 แแแแแแแแ แ, 1931, แแแฎแแฃแ แ, แแแฃแ แแแแแก แ แแแแแ โ แ. 5 แแแแแกแ, 2012) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แคแแแแแแแ, แคแแแแแแ แแกแขแ, แแแชแแแแ แ, แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแ, แแฌแแ แแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
1939-1950 แฌแแแแจแ, แกแฌแแแแแแแ แแฅแแแแแ แแแงแแแจแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแฎแแฃแ แแก แกแแจแฃแแแ แกแแแแแจแ. 1950 แฌแแแก แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แจแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแฃแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ แ 1955 แฌแแแก แฌแแ แฉแแแแแแ. แแฃแจแแแแแ 1956-1958 แฌแแแแจแ, แแแแฃแแแก แ แแแแแฃแ แแแแแ โแแแแแแฃแ แแแก แแแแกโ แ แแแแฅแชแแแจแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ, 1958-1965 แฌแแแแจแ โ แแแฎแแ แแซแแก (แแแแแแแแแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแก) แ แแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแก โแแแแแแแก แแ แแจแแกโ (แแแแแแแแแแแ โแแแแแแแกโ) แ แแแแฅแชแแแจแ แแแ แแฅแขแแ แแ, แจแแแแแแแจแ แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก แแแแแแ. 1964 แฌแแแก แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แฉแแแ แแชแฎแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แจแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แคแแแแแแ แแก แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก แแกแแแ แแแขแแ, แแแกแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแ แแ แแคแแกแแ แ แแแฎแแแ แฉแแฅแแแแแ แแงแ, แแแแแแแแ แ 1967 แฌแแแก. 1969 แฌแแแก 25 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแแแชแแ แคแแแแแแแแแก แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแ แแแแแแ โแแแฎแแแ แฏแแแแฎแแจแแแแแก แจแแแแฅแแแแแแแก แคแแแแแแ แฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแโ. 1994 แฌแแแก 8 แแแ แขแก แแแแชแแ แกแแแแฅแขแแ แ แแแกแแ แขแแชแแ โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แฎแแแฎแฃแ แ แแ แแแโ.
แแแกแขแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก 40 แแแจแ แแแ. แแแแ แญแแแแซแแก แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแจแ แแแ แแแแแฅแแแงแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแ แกแขแฃแแแแขแแแแกแแก 1954 แฌแแแก, โแแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแแก แแแฃแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฎแ แแแแแโ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แญแแแแซแ แ., แแแ แ แแ แกแแขแงแแ แแแแ-แแแ แแแแ-แแแแแก แกแแแ แซแแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแแ, แแ., 2010.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แคแแแแแแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แคแแแแแแ แแกแขแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 15 แแแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1931
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 5 แแแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 2012
แแแฃแ แแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
แแแแฃแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
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แแแคแแ แกแขแ แแแแกแแ
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แแแคแแ แกแขแ แแแแกแแ (แฅแแแแจแแแแแแแก แแแแ แ: แแฃแแแแกแแ; แ. 13 แแแแกแ, 1891, แแ แแแแแ โ แ. 28 แแแแแ แแแแ, 1976, แแแแแแ) โ แแแแแแแแ แแฎแแขแแแ แ, แแ แแคแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แ, แแแฃแกแขแ แแขแแ แ แแ แกแชแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แแ แข-แแแแแก แแแแ แจแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแแ. แแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแชแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแคแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แงแแแแแแ แชแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฎแแขแแ แแแก แจแแ แแก แแงแ. 1930-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแก แแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฅแ แแก แแแคแแแก แฏแแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแ แแ แแแแ แฃแแ แ แแแแแชแฎแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แกแขแ แแแแกแแ แคแ แแแชแแจแแ แแฃแแแแกแแแก แแฅแแก แจแแแแก แจแแ แแก แงแแแแแแ แฃแคแ แแกแ แแงแ. แแแแจแแแแแจแ แแก แฎแจแแ แแ แฎแแขแแแแ. แแแ แฏแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแแ แแแกแฌแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแจแ แแ 1909 แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แกแขแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแแ แซแ แกแแแฎแแขแแ แ แกแแแแแจแ แกแฌแแแแแแแ. 1909 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแฌแงแ แคแแ แฌแแ แแก แจแแกแฌแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแซแแแแแกแแแก แฅแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช 1911 แฌแแแก แฌแแ แฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แคแแ แฌแแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแงแแแแแแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแแฎแ แแ. 1910 แฌแแแก แแก แแแแแแแกแก แจแแฃแแ แแแ แแแกแขแ แแ-แฃแแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแ แแขแแแแแจแ แแแแแแฃแ แแแแจแ, แ แแแแแก แแ แแกแแช แแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแฃแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแชแแแกแ แแ แแแแแจแ. แแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแจแ แแก แแกแแแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แแแแชแแ: โแ แแแโ (Role) แแ โแฎแแแฎแแก แฎแแโ (Voice of the People).
1911 แฌแแแก 1 แแฅแขแแแแแ แก แกแขแ แแแแกแแ แแแฃแแฎแแแแก แกแแแฎแแขแแ แ แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฆแแก. แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแกแ แซแแแก, แแแแแฃแจ แแแแแแแ แแฃแแแแกแแแก แกแแฎแแแ แแแแแแงแแแ แแ แกแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแแแชแแแแ แแชแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแ แแ แแก แฅแแแแแ แกแแกแฌแแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแกแ แขแงแฃแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแคแแ แแ แแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแ. แแ แแแแแจแ แแก แคแแ แฌแแ แแกแ แแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแแฎแ แแ แแฃแจแแแแแ. แแฎแแขแแ แแแแจแ แแแกแ แแแ แแแแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแ 1912 แฌแแแก แจแแแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแ แฎแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแคแแแแแ แฌแงแแแก แกแแฆแแแแแแแแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ แกแแคแแแก 18 แแแฎแแขแ แจแแแขแแแ.
1916 แฌแแแก 4 แแแแแแแ แก แแแคแแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แแแ แแ แกแขแ แแแแกแแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ. แแแ แกแแแ แจแแแแ, แฅแแแแจแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แขแงแฃแแแแ, แแแชแแแ แแ แแแแ แแงแแแแ. 1921-1927 แฌแแแแจแ แแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแกแ แแแฃแฆแแ แฎแแก แกแแแ แแฌแแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแ แแฅแขแแ แแ แแฃแจแแแแแ. แแ แแแก แฃแแแแแก แแแฌแแแก แแแคแแ แฎแแขแแแก แฃแแแแแแ. แแแแก แแแแ, แฌแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แแแ แแแขแแ แแแจแแ แแ แแแ แแแก, แ แแแแช แกแแแแแแแ แฆแแ แแแแคแแแฅแขแ แแ 1927 แฌแแแก แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแแแฌแแแ. แแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1932 แฌแแแก.
แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แจแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ, แกแแแแช 1929 แฌแแแก แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแกแแฎแแแ แแ แขแฃแ แแแแแแแก แกแแฉแแแ. แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแ แขแฃแ แก แกแแคแแแแกแ แแฆแแแแฉแแแ. 1930-แแแแ แฌแแแแแก แแแแแก แแก แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแจแ แแงแ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแแ แแฎแแแแก แแ แแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแฃแ แแ แแฌแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แคแแแแ แแแแแ..
1930-แแแแ แฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแ แจแ แแแก แ แแฃแแ แแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ. แแแคแแแก แแกแแแ แซแแแแแ แกแญแแ แแแแแแ แคแฃแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แแก แแแฎแแขแแแก แงแแแแ. แแแ แแฎแแแแ 1938 แฌแแแก แแแแฆแ แ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแ แแ แกแแฅแแแแ แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแกแแแ, แ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แแงแ แแแฎแแขแ แฎแแแแฉแแแ (แแแแแแแ) แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แฐแแ แแฐแแขแแกแแแแก. 1930 แฌแแแก แแแก แแแแแแญแ แแแแแแแแแก แฎแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแก แแคแแชแ แแก แฏแแ แแก แแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฎแแแแแ, 1936 แฌแแแก 7 แแแแแแแ แก แแก แแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ แแฅแ แแก แแแคแแแก แฏแแแแแแ โแแแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแ แฎแแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแแ แฌแแแแแแก แจแแขแแแแกแแแแกโ..
แแก แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แแ แแแแแจแ แแแงแแคแแแแแ. แกแขแ แแแแกแแแ 1943 แฌแแแก แแฆแแแแฉแแแ, แ แแ แแแก แกแแคแแแแกแ แฐแฅแแแแ, แ แแแแช แแฎแแขแแแ แก แแฎแแแแแแแแแก แซแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แจแแฃแฅแแแ. 1945 แฌแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ, แ แแแแกแแช แฅแแแแฅแจแ แ แฃแกแแแ แจแแแแแแแ แกแขแ แแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแแแแแก แแแแแฌแงแแแขแแแแแ แแแแฆแ. แแก แแแแแแแจแ แแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแ. แแฎแแขแแแ แ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1976 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแ แซแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ แฉแแแ-แแฃแ แแแก แกแแกแแคแแแแแ.
แจแแแแฅแแแแแแ
1942 แฌแแแก แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแแแฃแ แ แขแแซแ แแก, แแแขแแแแแแก แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฃแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ โแกแแแแฃแ แ แแแแกแ แแแแก แกแแแแแแแฃแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแกโ, แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแฃแ แ แกแฃแแแแ แ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแ แซแแแแแแก แแแแแแ. แขแแซแ แแก แแแขแแ แแแ แ แฐแแแแก แ แแแแ แช แแแแขแ แก, แแกแแแ แแแแแกแแแก, แ แแแแแจแแช แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแ แกแแแแฃแ แ แฆแแแแแแแก แกแขแแแแแแแฃแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแชแแแแแฃแแ..
แแแแแก แแแแ แแแแฃแจแแแแ แจแ แแแคแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แฌแแแแฅแ แแกแขแแแแฃแแ แกแแแแฃแ แ แฆแแแ แแแแ, แ แแแแแแกแแช แแแงแแแแก แกแชแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแกแแแ, แแแแแ แแฎแแขแแแ แ แงแแแแแแแแก แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแกแ แแแขแแชแแแ แซแแแแ แกแแแแแแแก แ แฌแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแฎแแขแแ แฃแ แแแขแแ แแกแแ แฃแแแ แฉแแแแแแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแแ แจแแแแฅแแแแแแ
แกแขแ แแแแกแแแก แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแแ แจแแแแฅแแแแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแ แแ แแแฅแกแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแ. แแก แแ แแคแแกแแ แ แฐแแแแ แแก แคแกแแแแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแ. 1995 แฌแแแก แแแแแแชแ แแแกแ แแแแฃแแ แแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแ: โแแฃแ แ แแแแฅแแแก แงแแแแ แแฆแแกโ..
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1891
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1976
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 13 แแแแกแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 28 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแฎแแขแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแ แแคแแแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแแฃแกแขแ แแขแแ แแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D
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แกแแแแแ
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แกแแแแแ (แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แกแแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ;) โ แแแแแฎแ แแแแกแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแขแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ, แคแแแแแแแแแจแ. 2020 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแ, แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 13 116 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก. แแแแชแแแก 15 แแแ แแแแแแก.
แแแแแแขแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Silago Profile at PhilAtlas.com
Philippine Census Information
Local Governance Performance Management System
แกแฅแแแแ
แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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6220
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแ แแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ
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แแ แแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ
แแ แแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ (แ. 21 แแแ แขแ, 1909, แแแแแแกแ โ แ. 30 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1977, แแแแ แแแ) โแฅแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแ, แแแแ แแขแแแแแ แแฃแฎแ แแแแแขแแแแแแก แจแขแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแ, แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแชแแแก แแแแแกแแฉแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแขแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แกแแฎแแแก แแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแจแ.
แแแแจแแแแแฃแ แ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก (1918โ1921) แแแฃแแแชแแแแกแแแแแแ, 1921 แฌแแแก, แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ แแจแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแ แแชแแแจแ แฌแแแแแ. แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแ แแแ แแแแแแจแ. 1930-แแแแ แฌแแแแแก แจแฃแ แฎแแแแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแแแจแ. 1940 แฌแแแก แ แแแจแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแขแแแแแแ แแ แแคแแก แฐแฃแแ แแแกแแฃแแแแก แแกแฃแแแ โ แแแ แแ แแแขแฃแแแแขแแ, แ แแแแแกแแแแแช 1944 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแก แจแแแซแแแ แจแแแแ แแแแ แแ (แฎแแ แฎแ), แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแ แแขแแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แกแแฎแแแก แงแแคแแแ แแแแแฃแ แ (แ. 2008). แแแฃแฆแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ, 1944 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแก, แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแกแแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช 1946 แฌแแแก แแกแแแแแแแก แแฃแ แแแแแ แกแแแแคแ แกแแฎแแแก แฌแแแ แ โ แแแคแแแขแ แแแ แแ-แแแ แกแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แจแแแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแแก แแแคแแแกแ XIII-แแก แแแก โ แแแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแ แแงแ. แแแ แแงแแแแ แฅแแ-แแแแ โ แแแ แแแแ (แ. 1947) แแ แแแแ แแขแ (แ. 1949). แแแคแแแขแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ (1961) แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแกแแฃแแแแ.
แแ แแแแ แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแกแแฉแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแ. 1939 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แกแ แแฆแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แคแแ แแแ แชแแแแแแ แ แแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแ โแแแชแฎแแแ แแก แแแแ แแแก แแ แแแแโ, แ แแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแขแแขแ (Grand Master) แแแแแ แแงแ (แจแแแแแแ แแ แแแแก แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแ (แฎแแ แฎแ) แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ). แแแแกแแแ, แแแ แแงแ โแแแ แฃแกแแแแแแก แฌแ. แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแกโ แ แแแแแ.
1942 แฌแแแก แ. แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแ แกแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแขแ แแแขแฃแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแแชแแ โแฅแแ แแแแ แขแ แแแแชแแแแแแแกแขแแ แแแแจแแ แโ, แ แแแแแก แฃแแแแแแกแ แแแแแแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแฎแกแแ แกแแแญแแแ แแแแแ แแแก แแแ แฌแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แฅแแแก แจแแแแฆแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแ แแขแแแ-แแฃแฎแ แแแแแ, แแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 21 แแแ แขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1909
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 30 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1977
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแแแ
แแฃแฎแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แ แจแขแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman%20II%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire
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Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire
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Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire
Suleiman II (Sรผleymฤn-i sฤnฤซ; 15 April 1642 โ 22 June 1691) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1687 to 1691. After being brought to the throne by an armed mutiny, Suleiman and his grand vizier Fazฤฑl Mustafa Pasha were successfully able to turn the tide of the War of the Holy League, reconquering Belgrade in 1690, as well as carrying out significant fiscal and military reforms.
Early life
Suleiman II was born on 15 April 1642 at Topkapฤฑ Palace in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Saliha Dilaลub Sultan, a Serb woman originally named Katarina. Suleiman was only 3 months younger than his half-brother Mehmed IV, who was born on 2 January 1642. After the deposition and execution of his father in 1648, Suleiman's half-brother Mehmed came to the throne. On 21 October 1649, Suleiman along with his brothers Mehmed and Ahmed were circumcised.
In 1651, Suleiman was confined in the Kafes, a luxurious prison for royal princes within Topkapฤฑ Palace. This was done to avoid a rebellion. He stayed there for 36 years until he took the throne in 1687.
Reign
Shortly before he assumed the throne, the Ottomans suffered a major defeat at the second Battle of Mohรกcs in 1687. In 1688, Suleiman II urgently requested the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for assistance against the rapidly advancing Austrians, during the OttomanโHabsburg War, but most Mughal forces were engaged in the Deccan Wars and Aurangzeb ignored Suleiman's request to commit to any formal assistance to their desperate Ottoman allies.
The previous ban on alcohol (which was publicly flouted in Istanbul and Galata) was energized under Suleiman, where he managed to demolish several alcohol shops, but this just led to owners bringing in more alcohol.
Suleiman II appointed Kรถprรผlรผ Fazฤฑl Mustafa Pasha as his Grand Vizier in 1689, leading to the reconquest of Belgrade in 1690. Later, the threat from the Russian Empire was renewed when they joined in an alliance with other European powers, while the Ottomans had lost the support of their Crimean vassals, who were forced to defend themselves from several Russian invasions. Under Kรถprรผlรผ's leadership, the Ottomans halted an Austrian advance into Serbia and crushed an uprising in Macedonia and Bulgaria until Kรถprรผlรผ was killed in the Battle of Slankamen by Austrian forces.
Family
Suleiman II elevated six known concubines to the rank of consort, with the title of Kadin, used for the first time as a title rather than a rank.
He gave them various jewels and precious objects that belonged to Muazzez Sultan, one of her father's Haseki Sultan. These gifts were requisitioned when Ahmed II, son of Muazzez, succeeded Suleiman II on the throne.
The known consorts of Suleiman II were:
Hatice Kadฤฑn. BaลKadin (first consort).
Behzad Kadฤฑn. She received a brooch and a diamond ring that belonged to Muazzez Sultan.
Sรผฤlรผn Kadฤฑn. She received a pair of pearl earrings, a pair of diamonds and a pendant set with 83 pearls.
ลehsuvar Kadฤฑn. She received a pearl-encrusted ablution bowl and a pair of earrings.
Zeyneb Kadฤฑn. She received jewelry as a gift in 1691.
ฤฐvaz Kadฤฑn. She received jewelry as a gift in 1691.
Despite his six consorts, Suleiman II remained childless. It is not known whether this was due to his sterility, lack of sexual interest, or his precarious health conditions, which forced him to be bedridden for the final half of his short reign.
Death
Suleiman II had fallen into a coma and was later brought to Edirne on 8 June 1691. He died on 22 June 1691 and his body was buried in Suleiman the Magnificent's tomb at Sรผleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. His brother Ahmed succeeded him as Sultan.
Gallery
Sources
Bibliography
External links
[aged 49]
1642 births
1691 deaths
Royalty from Istanbul
Ottoman people of the Great Turkish War
17th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks from the Ottoman Empire
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98
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แแแขแแ แแ แฃแแแ แ
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แแแขแแ แแ แฃแแแ แ
แแแขแแ แคแแ แแแแแแ แแ แฃแแแ แ (แ. 19 แแแแแแแ แ, 1909 โ แ. 11 แแแแแแแ แ, 2005) โ แแแกแขแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แแแชแแแแ แ, แแแแแแแแกแขแ, แแแแแแแแ แแฃแแแแชแแกแขแ, แแแแแฏแแแแขแแก แแฎแแแ แกแแแแแก แแแแคแฃแซแแแแแแ, แแแแแฏแแแแขแแก แแแแแ แฌแแแแแฃแแ.
แแแก แแแจแ แแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแแช แฅแแแงแแแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแแแแจแ โThe Wall Street Journalโ แแ โHarvard Business Reviewโ, แแแแแแแแแแแฃแแแ แแก, แแฃ แ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแฅแขแแ แแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แกแคแแ แแจแ โ แแแแแแกแจแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แจแ แแ แแ แแกแแแแแแ แแแ (แแ แแแแแแแแแแ) แกแแฅแขแแ แจแ.. แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแ แแก แแงแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแ แแแแ แแแแขแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แกแแชแแแแฃแ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแฏแแแแขแแก แแ แแคแแกแแ แ. แแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ แแฌแแแแกแฌแแ แแแขแงแแแแ แแแแแฏแแแแขแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแก, แแ-20 แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแ แจแแ แแก แแ แแแแขแแแแชแแ แแ แแแชแแแขแ แแแแแแชแแ; แแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแซแแแแ แแแ; แแแ แแแขแแแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแฌแงแแแขแ แ แแแ; แแแคแแ แแแชแแฃแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แแฃแชแแแแแแแ แแแแฎแแแแ แฃแฌแงแแแขแ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แ; 1959 แฌแแแก แแ แฃแแแ แแ แจแแแแแขแแแ โแแแคแแ แแแ แแแฃแแ (แแแชแแแแแแ แแแฃแแ) แแฃแจแแแแกโ แชแแแแ . แฉแแแแแงแแแแแ โแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแกโ แแแแ แแ. 1940-แแแแ แฌแแแแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแ แงแแแแ แแกแฎแแแแ แแแแชแแ แแ แคแฃแแฅแชแแแแแ แแแก โแแ แฃแแแ แแก แแ แแแชแแแแแแโ. แแ แฃแแแ แก แฏแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแ แแกแแกแ แแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แฐแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแก. แแ แแคแแกแแฃแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแแก แแแ 95 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแแช, แกแแชแแชแฎแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแแแ.
แแแฆแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแแ แฏแแแแ. แกแแชแแชแฎแแแก แแแแแก แแแ แกแแแแแฃแแแ แแฆแแแจแแแแแ, แ แแ โแแแ แแแ แแชแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแแแแแแแแแ แ แแแแ แช แแแ แแแแแแแ, แแฎแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแกแแแแกแแแแแแแ ...โ
แแแแแแแแ แแคแแ
1939: The End of Economic Man (New York: The John Day Company)
1942: The Future of Industrial Man (New York: The John Day Company)
1946: Concept of the Corporation (New York: The John Day Company)
1950: The New Society (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1954: The Practice of Management (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1957: America's Next Twenty Years (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1959: The Landmarks of Tomorrow (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1964: Managing for Results (New York: Harper & Row)
1967: The Effective Executive (New York: Harper & Row)
1969: The Age of Discontinuity (New York: Harper & Row)
1970: Technology, Management and Society (New York: Harper & Row)
1971: The New Markets and Other Essays (London: William Heinemann Ltd.)
1971: Men, Ideas and Politics (New York: Harper & Row)
1971: Drucker on Management (London: Management Publications Limited)
1973: Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices''' (New York: Harper & Row)
1976: The Unseen Revolution: How Pension Fund Socialism Came to America (New York: Harper & Row)
1977: People and Performance: The Best of Peter Drucker on Management (New York: Harper's College Press)
1978: Adventures of a Bystander (New York: Harper & Row)
1980: Managing in Turbulent Times (New York: Harper & Row)
1981: Toward the Next Economics and Other Essays (New York: Harper & Row)
1982: The Changing World of Executive (New York: Harper & Row)
1982: The Last of All Possible Worlds (New York: Harper & Row)
1984: The Temptation to Do Good (London: William Heinemann Ltd.)
1985: Innovation and Entrepreneurship (New York: Harper & Row)
1986: The Frontiers of Management: Where Tomorrow's Decisions are Being Shaped Today (New York: Truman Talley Books/E.D. Dutton)
1989: The New Realities: in Government and Politics, in Economics and Business, in Society and World View (New York: Harper & Row)
1990: Managing the Nonprofit Organization: Practices and Principles (New York: Harper Collins)
1992: Managing for the Future (New York: Harper Collins)
1993: The Ecological Vision (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers)
1993: Post-Capitalist Society (New York: HarperCollins)
1995: Managing in a Time of Great Change (New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton)
1997: Drucker on Asia: A Dialogue between Peter Drucker and Isao Nakauchi (Tokyo: Diamond Inc.)
1998: Peter Drucker on the Profession of Management (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing)
1999: Management Challenges for 21st Century (New York: Harper Business)
1999: Managing Oneself (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing) [published 2008 from article in Harvard Business Review]
2001: The Essential Drucker (New York: Harper Business)
2002: Managing in the Next Society (New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press)
2002: A Functioning Society (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers)
2004: The Daily Drucker (New York: Harper Business)
2008 (แกแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ): The Five Most Important Questions'' (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass)
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
The Drucker Institute
Drucker Archives โ แแแแ แแแแขแแก แแแแแฏแแก แชแแคแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแแแ
The Window โ แแแแ แแแแขแแก แแแแแฏแแก แชแแคแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแแแ
Sell the Mailroom โ แแ แฃแแแ แแก 1989 แฌแแแก แกแขแแขแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแ
แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแขแแแ
แแแแแฏแแแแขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 19 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1909
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 11 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 2005
แคแ แแแแคแฃแ แขแแก แแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ
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3802168
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zacharia%20Paliashvili
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Zacharia Paliashvili
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Zacharia Paliashvili
Zacharia Petres dze Paliashvili (Zakaria Paliaลvili), also known as Zachary Petrovich Paliashvili (Zacharij Petroviฤ Paliaลกvili; August 16, 1871 โ October 6, 1933), was a Georgian composer. Regarded as one of the founders of the Georgian classical music, his work is known for its eclectic fusion of folk songs and stories with 19th-century Romantic classical themes. He was the founder of the Georgian Philharmonic Society and later, the head of the Tbilisi State Conservatoire. The Georgian National Opera and Ballet Theater of Tbilisi was named in his honor in 1937. Notably, Paliashvili's music serves as the basis of the National Anthem of Georgia.
Although Paliashvili has composed works for symphony orchestra (e.g., Georgian Suite on Folk Themes), he is probably best known for his vocal music, which includes operas Abesalom da Eteri (based on a folk tale "Eteriani"), Daisi (Twilight), and Latavra.
Biography
Family and youth
Paliashvili was born on 16 August 1871 in Kutaisi in the family of Petre Ivanes dze Paliashvili (1838โ1913), an elder at the Kutaisi Georgian Catholic Church, who was said to be a model father and husband. Zacharia's mother was Maria Pavles asuli Mesarkishvili (1851โ1916). Zacharia was the third child in a family of eighteen children (thirteen sons and five daughters). Seven children died in infancy. Although Zacharia's parents were not professional musicians, their children remembered their mother's singing.
In his autobiographical notes Zacharia Paliashvili writes: "...in our big family, my beloved brothers and sisters displayed a natural gift of music even in their early age. To my mind the explanation of this should be sought in the fact that we, being catholics attended the church where the sweet sounds of organ music are not only enjoyable but help develop a good ear... we spend much time in the church and gradually developed a good ear.."
The first to display considerable musical abilities was the eldest son Ivane (Vano) Paliashvili (1868โ1934) who subsequently became an outstanding conductor. When Vano was eleven years old he was made assistant to the church organist, and the eight-year-old Zacharia was admitted as a chorister to the church choir. With the help of the dean, Father I. Antonishvili, little Zacharia studied "Lullaby for Jesus" and sang it with great success on Christmas night.
The Kutaisi period, however, left a deep impression on the life of the future composer. It was the place of his first contact with music, and the basis of his professional attitude to his life's dedication โ music โ had developed there, too. All his life Zacharia had retained his youthful love for the relics of Georgia's magnificence, the ruins of the Church of Bagrat (built by Georgia's King Bagrat III in 1003, ruined and plundered by the Turks in 1631), Gelati (1106โ1125), one of the most important centres of education, philosophy and literature in medieval Georgia and the extraordinary beauty of his home town. Subsequently, Paliashvili recalled Kutaisi many times, permeated, he said, with a "truly Georgian spirit".
Upon leaving the two-year parish school, brothers Ivan and Zacharia began to play the piano under tutorship of Felix Mizandari, an organist and pianist. Mizandari did not charge the family for the lessons for he was aware that Paliashvili family was of very modest means. Shortly afterwards, people in the town learned of the two talented and exceptionally persevering young musicians.
The news reached father Alfonso Khitarishvili, dean of Tbilisi Georgian Catholic Church of the assumption. With the parents' consent Khitarishvili took Ivan and Zacharia Paliashvili to Tbilisi. This was in the spring of 1887. The elder brother was appointed to the post of the organist and Zacharia was made his brother's assistant and a choirboy. A short time after, the entire family of Petre Paliashvili moved to Tbilisi.
Move to Tiflis and period in Moscow
The work at the Catholic Church in Tbilisi, besides providing a small but badly needed salary also gave Zacharia Paliashvili the opportunity to broaden his musical knowledge by getting acquainted with the composers of Palestrina, Lassus, Bach, Handel, Mozart and other great composers of the past.
The first performance of a Georgian Ethnographic choir, established of the initiative and with the material support of Lado Agniashvili, a well-known public personality, took place in Tbilisi in 1886.
Later the concerts of this choir were conducted by Joseph Ratil (Navratil), who though Czech by birth had forever associated his life with Georgia. The concerts of Agniashvili's choir evoked favourable comments from the patriotically minded Georgian public. Vano and Paliashvili sang in this choir in 1887โ1889 and this fact was of importance for the future composer.
In 1889 Vano left for Russia where he was engaged as an opera conductor. His post of church organist was taken over by Zacharia who now had to support the entire family; as a result, he had no opportunity to continue his musical education.
in 1874 on the initiative of singer Kharlamphy Savaneli, pianists Aloizy Mizandari and Konstantin Alikhanov, the first musical school in Georgia was founded in Tbilisi. The Tbilisi Musical School was reorganised into the Tbilisi Branch of the Russian Royal Musical Society with the statue of a musical college. This was carried out with the active assistance of Mikhail Mikhailovich Ippolitov-Ivanov, a well-known Russian composer, conductor and educationalist who worked in Tbilisi in (1882โ1893).
Paliashvili's cherished dream came true only in 1891 when he was admitted to the french horn class under F.F. Parizek. A year later, when Parizek left the school, Paliashvili continued to study under A.I. Mosko. He graduated from the French horn class in 1895 and in the same year was admitted to the musical theory class which was conducted by Nikolai Semenovich Klenovsky, a Russian conductor, composer and teacher. Paliashvili also studied with Ippolitov-Ivanov and music critic Vasili Davidovich Korganov. While studying in Klenovsky's class, Paliashvili wrote several pieces and this aroused in him a desire for further composition.
Paliashvili graduated from the school with honours in the spring of 1899. During his school years he had founded a mixed choir of factory and office workers who performed Georgian and Russian folk songs for workers. In 1898 Paliashvili conducted his choir in Gyandja and had tremendous success.
Following an exchange of letters with Sergei Ivanovich Taneyev (1856โ1915), a Russian composer and teacher, Paliashvili went to Moscow towards the end of August 1900. After taking his entry examinations he became a pupil in the class of counterpoint at the Moscow Conservatorie. Three years of study with Professor Taneyev, an expert in polyphony, enriched Paliashvili with fundamental knowledge and facilitated his maturing into a professional composer.
Return to Georgia
Towards the end of June 1903 Paliashvili completed his studies under Taneyev. With his young wife Julia Mikhailovna Utkina, he returned to Georgia to put into practice the knowledge he had gained in Russia. In autumn of 1903, Paliashvili began teaching at the Tbilisi High School for the nobility, where he had a singing class and also conducted the choir and orchestra, founded by him. Paliashvili was a strict and uncompromising teacher. He demanded full accuracy of intonation and precision of rhythm for every pupil-member of his choir or orchestra. He made such big progress in this field, that the school choir and orchestra soon began giving public concerts. The press called this "a triumph of the gifted maestro" and said, that the "choir and orchestra were brought to an evinous standard even for a musical school". A number of personalities who later on distinguished themselves in the Georgian Soviet musical culture (Composers: I. Tuskia, G Kiladze, S. Taktakishvili, V. Gokiely, A. Andriashvili; music critics: S. Aslanishvili, G. Chkhikvadze; Violinist L. Yashvili and others) had their first inspiring contact with music in this school, attending Z. Paliashvili's class. Violinist Andrei Karashvili and composer Zacharia Chkhikvadze worked at the same high school, where they conducted musical classes.
In 1904 Paliashvili was invited to head the teaching of theoretical subjects at the Tbilisi Musical College. Besides instructing classes in solfeggio, harmony and orchestration, he conducted the pupils' choir and orchestra, the public performances of which were invariably successful. In 1906, using a piano piece by A. Karashvili ("Sazandary") as a point of departure, Paliashvili composed a profoundly patriotic song, "Samshoblo", which became popular throughout Georgia.
Progressive Georgians before the revolution had regarded collecting, recording and elaboration of folklore material as an essential element, contributing to the spiritual life of the nation. Apart from the practical application โ the use of folklore material as the basis of literary fand musical work โ a large scale propaganda of remarkable folk poetry and songs formed a major instrument for stimulating the Georgian people's patriotic sentiments. Many contemporaries of Paliashvili were engaged in folklorist work, including Meliton Balanchivadze (father of well-known Soviet composer Andria Balanchivadze and of George Balanchine, an American choreographer), Dimitri Arakishvili, Filimon Koridze, Zacharia Chkhikvadze, Kote Potskhverashvili.
In the summer of 1903, Paliashvili and A.S. Khakhashvili (Khakhanov), professor at the University of Moscow and specialist in the history of Georgian literature, made a tour of Svanetia (a high-altitude area in western Georgia), where they recorded some rare old Georgian folk songs. Paliashvili described the trip to his favourite teacher, S.I. Taneyev. In 1903โ1908 with the same goal in view Paliashvili toured such districts as Racha, where he recorded local folk singers, and in particular a mestvire (Bag-piper); Guria (Ozurgeti), Imereti, Kartli and Kakheti. Some of the songs recorded by Paliashvili were published in Moscow as a collection in 1910, financed by the Georgian Philharmonic Society. These are Forty Georgian Folk Songs recorded by Z. Paliashvili and Eight Folk songs rendered for choir and orchestra. Paliashvili, however, did not rest content. Whenever he had the least opportunity, he included folk songs elaborated by him in the concert programme of his choirs. Kliment Kvitka, Ukrainian musicologist and ethnographer, and the husband of Lesya Ukrainka, a distinguished Ukrainian poet, sang in one of these choirs. Paliashvili was a good friend of this talented daughter of the Ukrainian people and of her husband till Lesya Ukraininka's death.
In 1908, on his initiative, a music school was opened under the Philharmonic Society. As the Society was short of funds, Paliashvili headed the school for several years without receiving any payment. Theoretical subjects were taught by Giorgi Natadze, one of Paliashvili's closest friends and a graduate of Moscow Conservatorie. Ilya (Ia) Kargareteli, a prominent musician, singer and composer, initiated an association of staging operas in Georgian, which soon began to work under the patronage of the Georgian Philharmonic Society. The efforts of Kargareteli, Paliashvili and Niko Kartvelishvili led to the first ever Georgian-language performances of Gounod's Faust, Anton Rubinstein's Demon, Rossini's The Barber of Seville, Verdi's Aida and Bizet's Carmen in the Tbilisi opera house. The conductors were Z. Paliashvili and N. Kartvelishvili.
In May 1917, the Tbilisi Musical College was reorganised into the Tbilisi Conservatory. The post of director was offered to pianist and teacher N. Nikolayev, and that of inspector to Z. Paliashvili. In 1918, when Nikolayev left Georgia, Paliashvili became the director of the Conservatorie. in 1919 he was awarded a professor's degree. Paliashvili continued to conduct classes in theoretical subjects at the Conservatorie.
At the turn of the century, Paliashvili commenced working on his first opera "Abesalom da Etery". He was inspired in this by a folk legend, "Eteriany", which had been published in the Paskunji magazine (the fire bird, 1908) and rendered in the form of an opera libretto by Petre Mirianashvili, a teacher, writer and public personality of the time. The plot of the opera is based on a story of a prince who falls in love with a beautiful village girl. Believing in the sincerity of Absalom's feelings Etery marries him. At the same time, Murman, the closest friend of the prince and his visier also falls in love with Etery. Through malicious intrigues Murman destroys the happiness of the young couple. Parted from Etery Absalom falls ill and dies. Etery does not wish to live without Absalom and stabs herself to death. The opening night of this opera took place on February 21, 1919. It was produced by A. Tsutsunava and conducted by the author. The leading parts were performed by B. Zapliski (Absalom), who was soon substituted by Vano Sarajishvili; O. Bakutashvili-Shulgina (Etery) and Sandro Inashvili (Murman).
The rousing success of his first opera had inspired Paliashvili to compose another โ the lyrical-drama Daisi ("Twilight" or "Sunset") founded on the libretto by Valerian Gunia, a stage art personality, actor and playwright. The drama of love and jealousy in Daisi is shown against the background of national genre scenes. Maro, a beautiful young girl, is betrothed by the will of her parents to Kiazo, who is brave and ambitious. The girl, however, loves her childhood friend Malkhaz, a young warrior. Tsangal, the village jester, tells Kiazo about this, and the latter challenges Malkhaz. At this time the country is attacked by enemies. The people are alarmed, but the adversaries, forgetting their duty to their Motherland, continue duelling and Malkhaz is mortally wounded. The people sternly censure the man who failed to restrain his passions on the day of trial to the country. Maro grieves over the death of her sweetheart. Thus, twilight falls prematurely on the life of the three young people. Paliashvili dedicated this work to his only son Irakly, whose untimely death he had suffered deeply.
The first showing of Daisi was held on December 19, 1923. It was produced and directed by Kote Marjanishvili, the sets were designed by Valerian Sidamon-Eristavi, the conductor was Ivane Paliashvili. The leading parts were performed by V. Sarajishvili (Malkhaz), E. Popova (Maro) and Krzhizhanovsky (Kiazko). When Sarajishvili died in November 1924 the part of Malkhaz was performed by a number of remarkable singers: N. Kumsiashvili, D. Andguladze, D. Badridze and M. Kvarelashvili.
Paliashvili's third opera, Latavra, after the libretto by Sandro Shanshiashvili, appeared five years later (the first showing was on March 16, 1928). Subsequent revisions (in 1950, particularly) noticeably improved the shortcomings of this opera which were mainly of an ideological character. "Daisi" and Latavra", a romance "who do I love?" to words by Ilia Chavchavadze and "lullaby" to the words of Mikhail Lermontov and several chamber pieces were dedicated to Nadejda Ivanovna Buzogly (Abashidze), a close friend of the composer, a merited artist of the Georgian Republic, professor of the Chair of Solo Singing of the Tbilisi Conservatorie, and candidate of sciences (arts). The "Collection of Ten Georgian and Russian folk songs" was dedicated by Paliashvili to Buzogly's sons Mikhail and Alexy. Paliashvili always enjoyed real friendship and respect of his talent in the family of the well-known civil engineer Mikhail Buzogly and his wife.
Soviet period
Early in 1929 Paliashvili was invited to the Ukraine to conduct two concerts of Georgian music in Kharkov, then the capital of Ukrainian Soviet Republic. The concerts were held on January 28 and 29 and were very successful. The Ukrainian musical world warmly greeted the great Georgian composer. The reception in honor of Paliashvili was attended by distinguished representatives of Ukrainian culture and also by Henri Barbusse, a French writer who was on a visit to the Soviet Union at that time. He warmly thanked Zakharia Paliashvili for the aesthetic pleasure and for the discovery he had made "of a new world of musical Georgia". It was there that the idea came to produce in Kharkov Absalom and Eteri and in Tbilisi Taras Bulba, a Ukrainian classical opera by Nikolay Lysenko. Both were produced as suggested, the former in Kharkov on October 18, 1931 (Director โ A. Pagava, dรฉcor โ S. Nadareishvili), and the latter in Tbilisi in the winter of 1933. Absalom and Eteri was produced in Ukrainian by Konstantin Tsagareli, a gifted lawyer and close friend of the composer, jointly with O. Varava.
In the summer of 1929, Paliashvili made his second visit to Azerbaijan. Two symphonic concerts were given in Baku, the capital of the republic, on July 23 and 24. The program was made up of Paliashvili's works and the author conducted the orchestra.
Sickness and death
Since the beginning of the 1930s, Paliashvili was frequently unwell. Having been diagnosed with sarcoma of the adrenal gland, the composer was taken to Leningrad to their friend Yustin Janelidze, a famous Soviet-Georgian surgeon. Janelidze operated on Paliashvili, but when he saw that surgical interference would do no good, he stopped the operation and sewed up the wound. He estimated that Paliashvili had only several months to live. Paliashvili was bedridden during the summer months of 1933 and his condition continually deteriorated, all the while a new season had begun at the Tbilisi Opera House. Several days before his death, Paliashvili reportedly wished to hear his opera Abesalom da Eteri for the last time. The radio was switched on and Paliashvili strained to listen, happy at first but soon contorted with severe pain. At 5 p.m. on October 6, 1933, he died.
Paliashvili was buried on October 10 in the garden of the opera house next to the grave of his friend Ivane "Vano" Sarajishvili, known as the "Georgian nightingale". By a decree of the Soviet Georgian Government, the Tbilisi Second Musical School, the Tbilisi Ten-Year Musical School, the Batumi Musical School and a street in Tbilisi were named after the late composer. Later, a street in Moscow was also named after him.
In 1959, the entire second floor of 10 Barnov Street, where Paliashvili lived from 1915 to 1933, was set aside as his Home-Museum, which contains valuable materials relating to the life and work of the composer. On October 8, 1962, a special ceremony marked the opening of a permanent exhibition at this museum. Another permanent exhibition dedicated mainly to the childhood and youth of the composer was opened in Kutaisi, in the house where he was born. There are special exhibits on Paliashvili's life and work at the M. I. Glinka All-Union Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow.
Works
Operas
all premiered in Tbilisi
Abesalom da Eteri (Absalom and Eteri)โ4 acts, libretto by P. Mirianashvili, after Eteriani (1909โ18; premiered 1919)
Daisi (Twilight)โ3 acts, libretto by V. Gunia, after poems by Shota Rustaveli, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Akvsenti Tsereteli and Vazha-Pshavela (1923, premiered 1923)
Latavra โ 4 acts, libretto after a play by S. Shanshiashvili (1927, premiered 1928)
Choral works
"Mravalzhamieri" Many Years of Life (P. Mirianashvili), for tenor, chorus, and orchestra (1908)
Kartuli liturgia Georgian Liturgy (1911) โ adaptation of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, in Georgian and in Russian Church Slavonic], for a capella chorus
Sazejmo kantata Solemn Cantata on the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution, for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra (1927)
"Iavnana" Lullaby (Tsereteli), for a capella chorus
Tavisupleba (Georgian National Anthem)
Orchestral
Kartuli suita Georgian Suite, 1928
Songs
(solo voice and piano, all from 1908)
"Akhalagnago sulo" In love with youthful spirit (D. Tumanishvili)
"Miqvarda (I loved)" (I. Grishashvili)
"Nana shvilo" (Lullaby) (Ilia Chavchavadze)
"Nu tvaltmaktsob" (Don't tempt me) (Grishashvili)
"Ristvis miqvarkhar" (Why do I love you) (Chavchavadze)
Other works
Collection of Georgian Folk Songs โ 40 songs out of about 300 collected (1910)
arrangements of traditional songs
incidental music
conservatory student works (sonatas, preludes)
Principal publishers
Tbilisi
Muzfond Gruzii
Moscow/Leningrad
Muzgiz
Muzyka
Sovetskij kompozitor
References
Citations
Sources
Dzigua, V. (14 October 1971) Zacharia Paliashvili โ 100th Anniversary, Kutaisi
External links
Biography of Zakaria Paliashvili
Listen Online to Zakaria Paliashvili's operas
Romelni Kerubimta (from Liturgy) in Choral Wiki
1871 births
1933 deaths
19th-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Burials in Georgia (country)
Classical composers from Georgia (country)
Male classical composers
Moscow Conservatory alumni
National anthem writers
Opera composers from Georgia (country)
People from Kutaisi
Roman Catholics from Georgia (country)
Academic staff of Tbilisi State Conservatory
Musicians from the Russian Empire
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%9F%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%93%E1%83%90-%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%90
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2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 4 656 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 4.67 แแยฒ-แแ. แคแแ แแแแ 998 015 แแยฒ-แแ.
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prionomyrmex%20longiceps
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Prionomyrmex longiceps
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Prionomyrmex longiceps โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Prionomyrmex-แก แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Prionomyrmecinae-แก แฅแแแแฏแแฎแก..
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20Pomba
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Rio Pomba
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Rio Pomba is a municipality in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais founded on 25 December 1767. The population is 17,959 (2020 est.) in an area of 252 km2. The municipality is located at a mean elevation of 441 m.
History
In the 1700s, the region of the Pomba River valley was inhabited by the Coroados and Coropรณs indigenous peoples. As they came into contact with the colonizers, initially the residents of Guarapiranga (Piranga), they experienced oppression and domination, leading to violent clashes. In 1776, Governor Luรญs Diogo Lobo da Silva sought a religious solution to the conflict from the Diocese of Mariana. Father Manuel de Jesus Maria offered himself for a "civilizing" mission.
On October 13, 1831, an imperial resolution elevated the settlement of Sรฃo Manuel do Pomba to a village, which came to encompass the parishes of numerous other localities such as Mercรชs, Sรฃo Joรฃo Nepomuceno do Rio Novo, Santa Rita da Meia Pataca, Bonfim, among others. The current name was adopted in 1948.
Notable people
Alisson Football player
See also
List of municipalities in Minas Gerais
References
1767 establishments in Brazil
Municipalities in Minas Gerais
Populated places established in 1767
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona%20Dream
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Arizona Dream
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Arizona Dream is a 1993
indie surrealist comedy drama film co-written and directed by Emir Kusturica and starring Johnny Depp, Jerry Lewis, Faye Dunaway, Lili Taylor and Vincent Gallo.
Plot
Axel has a dream about an Eskimo who catches a rare halibut and brings it back to his family in an igloo. Axel's cousin Paul coaxes Axel from his job tagging fish in New York City to Arizona to attend his uncle Leo's trophy wedding to a much younger woman. His uncle tries to persuade him to stay permanently and take over the family business of selling Cadillacs. Axel resists at first, but he decides to give it a try.
Axel encounters two strange women: Elaine, a woman who always had a dream of building a flying machine, and her stepdaughter Grace, who is jealous of Elaine and dreams of killing herself and being reincarnated as a turtle. Axel starts lusting after Elaine and decides to help make her dreams come true. As he and Elaine build the machine day by day, Grace starts destroying the contraption. Axel then rebuilds. Leo and Paul arrive at Elaine and Grace's house to encourage Axel to come back as Elaine threatens them with a shotgun. Axel and Elaine complete the machine and test it, but it crashes into a tree.
Axel then decides to put both Elaine and Grace out of their misery, but cannot go through with it. Grace has the idea to play Russian Roulette with him. Axel is scared at first, but at his second turn he pulls the trigger multiple times. The gun does not fire. Axel, Elaine, and Grace come to Paul's talent show. He decides to play Cary Grant's role from North by Northwest with the famous crop duster scene. Paul receives the score of 1. Leo's fiancรฉe then approaches them to say that there is something wrong with Leo. Axel realizes that Leo is dying and calls an ambulance.
The day before Elaine's birthday a few months later, Axel and Paul finally come back to Elaine and Grace's house. Elaine is mad at Axel for not contacting her but forgives him. The next day on Elaine's birthday, Elaine is given an airplane as a present. The four celebrate Elaine's birthday by beating a piรฑata, but are interrupted by a storm. As the others dry off inside, Grace remains outside to free her turtles, telling them to "Go play," Axel goes upstairs with Grace to wrap the presents where she gives Axel a globe, telling him that she wants him to have the world. Axel tells Grace that Elaine has changed and that he is not in love with her any more. He makes a promise to Grace to go to Alaska.
Axel, Elaine, Grace, and Paul talk about the manners in which they want to die. Grace says that she is going to sleep and walks upstairs, dressing herself in a white shift and a hat with a veil. As she walks outside, Axel and Elaine see her through the window and run outside in an attempt to stop her. Grace shoots herself, and a lightning bolt destroys Elaine's airplane. Sometime after Grace's death Axel breaks into Uncle Leo's abandoned Cadillac store at night and goes to sleep on top of a Cadillac with a cat that has just had her litter. The film ends with Axel and Uncle Leo as Eskimos in Axel's dream. They catch the halibut and discuss it. It flies from their hands into the sunrise.
Cast
Johnny Depp as Axel Blackmar
Jerry Lewis as Leo Sweetie
Faye Dunaway as Elaine Stalker
Lili Taylor as Grace Stalker
Vincent Gallo as Paul Leger
Paulina Porizkova as Millie
Michael J. Pollard as Fabian
Candyce Mason as Blanche
Alexia Rane as Angie
Polly Noonan as Betty
Ann Schulman as Carla
James R. Wilson as Lawyer
Kim Keo as The Mechanical Singing Doll
Production
Original edit as "American Dreams" was 4 hours but trimmed down to 2 hours 22 minutes for theatrical release as "Arizona Dream". Some of the cut scenes are included as bonus material on the Universal Pictures France worldwide Blu-ray.
Many of the Arizona scenes were filmed in Douglas, Arizona, and Patagonia, Arizona
Filming took a year due to the director suffering a Nervous Breakdown. Johnny Depp's hair length keeps changing because of this.
The music video for the 1991 Tom Petty song, "Into the Great Wide Open," was shot during the filming of the movie.
Reception
Critical response
Arizona Dream received a generally positive response from critics, garnering an 87% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 15 reviews with an average score of 6.82/10.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times liked the film, praising it as "enjoyably adrift, a wildly off-the-wall reverie" and opining that its best feature is "its lunacy, which is so liberating".
Referring to Arizona Dream as "the quintessential Nuart movie", Los Angeles Times Kevin Thomas sees it as "a dazzling, daring slice of cockamamie tragicomic Americana envisioned with magic realism by a major, distinctive European filmmaker".<ref>Dazzling 'Arizona Dream' of Tragicomedy;Los Angeles Times, 11 July 1995</ref>
In his affirmative review Chicago Sun-Times' Roger Ebert called Arizona Dream "goofier than hell" while adding that "you can't stop watching it because nobody in the audience, and possibly nobody on the screen, has any idea what's going to happen next" and referring to Kusturica as "a filmmaker who has his own peculiar vision of the world that does not correspond to the weary write-by-numbers formulas of standard screenplays".
Year-end lists
Dishonorable mention โ William Arnold, Seattle Post-IntelligencerBox office
Although filmed in 1991 and released throughout Europe in 1993, Arizona Dream was not theatrically released in the U.S. until September 9, 1994. Warner Brothers initially reduced it to two hours and tried to market it for the middle-of-the-road audience; when these attempts failed, they released the full version. As a result its total U.S. gross, in three theaters, was only $112,547.
Awards
The film won the Silver Bear - Special Jury Prize at the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival.
Alternate versions
Although shown theatrically in the U.S. at its full length, the TV prints and home release versions run 119 minutes.
Home media
Warner Archives released the film on a bare bones (no extras) made to order DVD in the United States on March 16, 2010. In Europe, Studio Canal with Universal Pictures France released the film on DVD, HD DVD and a worldwide compatible Blu-ray. The Blu-ray features an interview with Johnny Depp and deleted scenes.
Soundtrack
Soundtrack was by Goran Bregoviฤ featuring the vocals and lyrics of Iggy Pop on tracks 1, 4 & 6 and the lyrics of Emir Kusturica as well as the vocals of Iggy Pop on track 10. In the film, apart from the music on soundtrack, there are also three songs of Django Reinhardt.
In popular culture
Foo Fighters front man Dave Grohl has revealed that the song "Enough Space" off of their album The Colour and the Shape is based on Arizona Dream''.
References
External links
1993 films
1990s adventure comedy-drama films
Films directed by Emir Kusturica
Films scored by Goran Bregoviฤ
American adventure comedy-drama films
Films shot in Arizona
Films shot in Colorado
Films shot in Alaska
StudioCanal films
Magic realism films
English-language French films
French comedy-drama films
Warner Bros. films
Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize winners
1990s American films
1990s French films
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แแฃแแแแแ (แแแขแ)
แแฃแแแแแ โ แฅแแแแฅแ แแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแแแฃแแแแแจแ, แแแขแแก แแแแแ แขแแแแแขแจแ.
2005 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 8.933 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ. แคแแ แแแแ 785 แแยฒ-แแ.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech%20Republic%20at%20the%202008%20Summer%20Olympics
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Czech Republic at the 2008 Summer Olympics
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Czech Republic at the 2008 Summer Olympics
The Czech Republic participated in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. The Czech delegation consisted of around 130 athletes.
Medalists
Archery
Athletics
Men
Track & road events
Field events
Combined events โ Decathlon
Women
Track & road events
Field events
Combined events โ Heptathlon
Badminton
Basketball
Women's tournament
Roster
Group play
Quarterfinals
Canoeing
Slalom
Sprint
Qualification Legend: QS = Qualify to semi-final; QF = Qualify directly to final
Cycling
Road
Track
Sprint
Pursuit
Keirin
Omnium
Mountain biking
BMX
Equestrian
Eventing
Gymnastics
Artistic
Men
Women
Trampoline
Judo
Modern pentathlon
* Did not finish
Rowing
Men
Women
Qualification Legend: FA=Final A (medal); FB=Final B (non-medal); FC=Final C (non-medal); FD=Final D (non-medal); FE=Final E (non-medal); FF=Final F (non-medal); SA/B=Semifinals A/B; SC/D=Semifinals C/D; SE/F=Semifinals E/F; QF=Quarterfinals; R=Repechage
* Jitka Antoลกovรก fell ill during the course of the competition and was replaced by Miroslava Knapkovรก at the final.
Sailing
Men
Women
Open
M = Medal race; EL = Eliminated โ did not advance into the medal race; CAN = Race cancelled
Shooting
Men
Women
Swimming
Men
Women
Synchronized swimming
Table tennis
Tennis
Men
Women
Triathlon
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Men's Greco-Roman
Marek ล vec originally finished fifth, but in November 2016, he was promoted to bronze due to disqualification of Asset Mambetov.
References
Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics
2008
Olympics
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แกแฅแแแแ
Anochetus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner%20Bros.%20Television%20Studios
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Warner Bros. Television Studios
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Warner Bros. Television Studios (operating under the name Warner Bros. Television (abbreviated as WBTV); formerly known as Warner Bros. Television Division) is an American television production and distribution studio of the Warner Bros. Television Group division of Warner Bros. (both ultimately owned by Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD)). Since 2006, it is one of the two companies that serve as television production arms of The CW (in which WBD has a 12.5% ownership stake), alongside Paramount Global's subsidiary CBS Studios; it also serves as a television production arm of DC Comics and distribution arm of HBO, Cartoon Network and Adult Swim. Warner Bros. Television Studios also produces shows for other networks such as Blindspot on NBC, Person of Interest on CBS, The Middle on ABC, and The Cleaning Lady on Fox. It has also produced series for streaming services, including The Sandman on Netflix, Ted Lasso on Apple TV+, The Peripheral on Amazon Prime Video and Mrs. Davis on Peacock.
As of 2015, it is one of the world's two largest television production companies measured by revenue and library (along with Sony Pictures Television).
History
Beginning and saturation
The division was started on March 21, 1955, with its first head being Jack L. Warner's son-in-law William T. Orr. ABC had approached Warner Bros. initially with the idea of purchasing the studio's film library (WB eventually sold the rights to the negatives of pre-1950 films and pre-1948 cartoons and shorts to Associated Artists Productions, or a.a.p., in 1956). WB formally entered television production with the premiere of its self-titled anthology series Warner Bros. Presents on ABC. The one-hour weekly show featured rotating episodes of television series based on the WB films Casablanca and Kings Row, as well as an original series titled Cheyenne with Clint Walker. The first one-hour television western, Cheyenne became a big hit for the network and the studio with the added advantage of featuring promotions for upcoming Warner Bros. cinema releases in the show's last ten minutes. One such segment for Rebel Without a Cause featured Gig Young notably talking about road safety with James Dean.
With only Cheyenne being a success, WB ended the ten-minute promotions of new films and replaced Warner Bros. Presents with an anthology series titled Conflict. It was felt that "Conflict" was what the previous series lacked. Conflict showed the pilots for Maverick and 77 Sunset Strip.
The success of Cheyenne led WBTV to produce many series for ABC such as Westerns (Maverick, Lawman, Colt .45, Bronco, a spin off of Cheyenne, Sugarfoot, and The Alaskans), crime dramas (77 Sunset Strip, Hawaiian Eye, Bourbon Street Beat, and Surfside 6), and other shows such as The Gallant Men and The Roaring Twenties using stock footage from WB war films and gangster films respectively. The company also produced Jack Webb's Red Nightmare starring Jack Kelly for the U.S. Department of Defense that was later shown on American television on Jack Webb's General Electric True.
All shows were made in the manner of WB's B pictures in the 1930s and 1940s; fast-paced, much stock footage from other films, stock music from the Warners music library and contracted stars working long hours for comparatively small salaries with restrictions on their career.
During the 1960 Writers Guild of America strike, WB reused many plots from its films and other television shows under the nom de plume of "W. Hermanos". This was another example of imitating Warner Bros.' B Pictures who would remake an "A" film and switch the setting.
Two of the most popular stars, James Garner and Clint Walker, quit over their conditions. Garner never returned to the Warners fold during this period, instead moving forward into a major theatrical film career. Successful Warners television stars found themselves in leading roles of many of the studio's theatrical films with no increase in salary. Efrem Zimbalist Jr. was simultaneously the lead of 77 Sunset Strip briefly overlapping with a recurring role as "Dandy Jim Buckley" on Maverick, and also headlined several films until exhaustion forced the studio to give him a rest. Many other actors under contract to Warners at the time, who despite their work conditions, did see their stars rise over time, albeit for most only briefly, included Jack Kelly, Will Hutchins, Peter Brown, Ty Hardin, Wayde Preston, John Russell, Donald May, Rex Reason, Richard Long, Van Williams, Roger Smith, Mike Road, Anthony Eisley, Robert Conrad, Robert McQueeney, Dorothy Provine, Diane McBain and Connie Stevens. Edd Byrnes and Troy Donahue would become teen heartthrobs. Another contract player, Englishman Roger Moore (Maverick and The Alaskans), was growing displeased with Warner as his contract was expiring and would relocate to Europe from Hollywood, becoming an international star on television, and eventually, in theatrical films, playing James Bond among other roles. Warners also contracted established stars such as Ray Danton, Peter Breck, Jeanne Cooper and Grant Williams. These stars often appeared as guest stars, sometimes reprising their series role in another TV series.
The stars appeared in WB cinema releases with no additional salary, with some such as Zimbalist, Walker, Garner (replacing Charlton Heston in Darby's Rangers), and Danton (replacing Robert Evans in The Rise and Fall of Legs Diamond) playing the lead roles; many of the stars appeared in ensemble casts in such films as The Chapman Report and Merill's Marauders. Some stars such as Connie Stevens, Edd Byrnes, Robert Conrad and Roger Smith made albums for Warner Bros. Records. One particular recording, a novelty tune titled Kookie, Kookie (Lend Me Your Comb) became a big hit for Edd Byrnes and Connie Stevens (1959). The following year, Connie Stevens had her own hit, with Sixteen Reasons.
It was during this period that series, particularly Westerns like Cheyenne and Maverick, and the crime dramas like 77 Sunset Strip, Hawaiian Eye and Surfside 6 featured catchy theme songs that became just as much a part of the American pop culture landscape as the shows themselves. Depending on the particular series (in this case, the Westerns), William Lava or David Buttolph would compose the music, with lyrics by Stan Jones or Paul Francis Webster, among others. For the crime shows, it was up to the songwriting team of Jerry Livingston and Mack David, who also scored the themes for the sitcom Room for One More, and The Bugs Bunny Show.
In 1960, WBTV turned its attentions to younger audiences as they brought Bugs Bunny and the other WB cartoon characters to prime time, with The Bugs Bunny Show, which featured cartoons released after July 31, 1948 (which had not been sold to Associated Artists Productions), combined with newly animated introductory material. Also, that year saw the debut of The Roaring Twenties, which was thought to be a more benign alternative to Desilu's The Untouchables. Whether or not that was actually the case, it was, in fact, much less successful.
WBTV expanded on its existing genre of Westerns and crime dramas, and in January 1962, produced its first sitcom, Room For One More. Based on the memoirs of Anna Rose, which in 1952 WB made into a movie starring Cary Grant and his then-wife Betsy Drake (the only movie that they worked together in) about a married couple with two children of their own who went on to adopt at least two more. The TV series starred Andrew Duggan and Peggy McCay as George and Anna Rose. Acting legend Mickey Rooney's son Tim, and Ahna Capri, who would continue to do episodic TV roles and feature films (arguably, her best-known movie was Enter the Dragon starring Bruce Lee) were cast as the Rose's natural children. The show only lasted for half a season. In the fall of that year, a WWII drama The Gallant Men debuted, but lasted for only one season.
WBTV exclusively produced shows for the ABC network until 1962, when GE True premiered on CBS.
In 1964, WBTV once again tried to turn a classic film comedy of its own into a sitcom, with No Time for Sergeants. Both the sitcom and the 1958 movie were based on the 1955 Broadway play, which starred Andy Griffith (TV's The United States Steel Hour also adapted the stage play for TV in 1956). The sitcom starred Sammy Jackson as Will Stockdale, a naive Georgia farm boy drafted into the military. 1965 saw the debut of F Troop, a Western spoof taking place at a U.S. Army post after the Civil War. Despite lasting only two seasons, it is still considered a classic of its type. Forrest Tucker, Larry Storch, and Ken Berry led an ensemble cast featuring military misfits, and an Indian tribe, who, among other things, forgot how to do a rain dance.
The streak of identifiable series subsided in 1963 with a halt of using stock company contract players and Jack Webb taking over WBTV and not being particularly successful. However, many series were still filmed at Warner Bros. such as F Troop and The F.B.I.
Later years
For four years, from 1967 to 1971, the company's lone output was the existing television series The F.B.I., by 1970, several of the former talent from 20th Century-Fox Television as well as former agent writers was defected to Warner Bros., such as Paul Monash, Rod Amateau, Bill Idelson and Harvey Miller, Saul Turteltaub and Bernie Orenstein, Jerry Gardner and Dee Caruso, Hal Kanter and A.J. Carothers. By 1971, the company returned to prime-time shows after producing one show for four years. One of the first shows upon returning were the NBC shows Nichols and The Jimmy Stewart Show and the CBS show The Chicago Teddy Bears. Also that year, animation studio Filmation and Warner Bros. entered a deal to produce cartoons for film and television, with its television subsidiary having global distribution rights.
In 1975, the stars of Lynda Carter, Warner Bros. and DC Comics produced the television series Wonder Woman.
In 1976, the company acquired The Wolper Organization, producer of Chico and the Man and Welcome Back, Kotter. In 1978, Stan Margulies, who produced Roots, signed a three-year exclusive contract with the studio. The following week, Warner had acquired contracts with big names like James Komack, Danny Arnold, the trio of Don Nicholl, Michael Ross and Bernie West (NRW) and the duo of Alan Blye and Bob Einstein to distribute programs worldwide.
In 1979, Warner Bros. Television produced the television series The Dukes of Hazzard.
In 1980, Phillip Saltzman and his Woodruff Productions company signed a deal with the studio.
In 1982, Aaron Spelling and his production company had struck a deal with the studio to distribute the shows. The pact would continue until 1988. On June 1, 1986, Alan Shayne has left as president of the studio after 10 years, to start out a new production company, Alan Shayne Productions, which will be affiliated in association with the studio, in order to develop four made-for-TV movies and miniseries projects, which was developed for the 1987โ88 season. In 1988, it acquired Lorimar-Telepictures. Telepictures later became a television production company.
In 1992, Witt/Thomas Productions signed a television contract with Warner Bros. after the previous contract with Disney was not renewed. In 1993, two Time Warner-affiliated production companies Quincy Jones Entertainment and David Salzman Entertainment had merged their companies to form Quincy Jones-David Salzman Entertainment, which was affiliated with Warner Bros. and Time Warner. Not too long after that, Lorimar Television was folded into WBTV, taking some key members with them. In 1993, Tom Arnold and Roseanne Barr via Wapello County Productions struck a deal with the studio.
In 1994, writers-producers of Friends, Kevin Bright, Martha Kauffman and David Crane, and associated with the studio since 1992 had struck its exclusive deal with the studio. In 1996, Warner Bros. Television collaborated with Universal Television to develop the series Spy Game for ABC, with Universal alumnus Sam Raimi and Robert Tapert of Renaissance Pictures, and Warner alumnus John McNamara producing the series, but it did not last long, as it only lasted one season on the air.
In 2001, Warner Bros. Television fully took over distribution of H-B related properties produced by Warner Bros. Animation such as Scooby-Doo, producing a steady stream of Scooby-Doo direct-to-video films and two new series, What's New, Scooby-Doo? (2002โ2006) and Shaggy & Scooby-Doo Get a Clue! (2006โ2008). In 2006, WBTV made some of its vast library of programs available for free viewing on the Internet (through sister company AOL's IN2TV service), with Welcome Back, Kotter as its marquee offering. Some of these programs have not been seen publicly since their last syndicated release in the 1980s.
On June 11, 2012, WBTV acquired Alloy Entertainment. On June 2, 2014, Warner Bros. Television Group purchased all of Eyeworks' companies outside of the United States, rebranding as Warner Bros. International Television Production. Eyeworks USA however, will remain independent.
In 2020, Warner Bros. Television was renamed Warner Bros. Television Studios as part of WarnerMedia's restructuring of its television divisions. The Warner Bros. Television name continues to be used on-screen, as well as the company's trade name.
On November 30, 2022, WBTV head Channing Dungey announced that they were in talks with Amazon to make animated DC content for its streaming service Amazon Prime Video.
Divisions
In addition to the main Warner Bros. Television Studios label, the company also owns and operates the following production companies in the United States:
Current
Warner Horizon Unscripted Television
Warner Horizon Unscripted Television is Warner Bros. Television Studios' alternative television, cable and streaming production unit; founded in 2006, it originally operated as a singular label encompassing both scripted and unscripted productions. Notable series and films produced by the Warner Horizon units include The Bachelor dating show franchise, The Voice, Pretty Little Liars (and spin-offs Ravenswood and Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists), Ellen's Game of Games, Fuller House, The Masked Dancer, Whose Line Is It Anyway?, You and the first season of Pennyworth.
On August 10, 2020, Warner Bros. Television Group separated the Warner Horizon label into two standalone companies maintaining individualized production focuses:
Warner Horizon Scripted Televisionโwhich combined its operations with those of Warner Bros. Television through the Warner Horizon split-upโfocuses on production of scripted comedic and dramatic programs for cable networks and subscription-based streaming platforms.
Warner Horizon Unscripted Televisionโwhich was folded into Warner Bros. Unscripted & Alternative Television under the realignmentโfocuses on production of reality television programs, documentaries and other alternative programming formats for broadcast and cable networks, and subscription-based streaming platforms.
All3Media
All3Media Limited (50% owned with Liberty Global) is a British worldwide independent television, film and digital production and distribution company. The All3Media group comprises 40 production and distribution companies from across the United Kingdom and all other parts of Europe (IDTV in the Netherlands and All3Media Deutschland in Germany), New Zealand (South Pacific Pictures) and the United States.
Alloy Entertainment
Alloy Entertainment is a book packaging and production company under Warner Bros. Television Studios. Notable series and films produced by Alloy include The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants, Gossip Girl, The Vampire Diaries, Pretty Little Liars, The 100, The Sun is Also a Star, Everything, Everything and You.
Blue Ribbon Content
Formed in 2014, Blue Ribbon Content (BRC) is Warner Bros. Television Studios' digital series production unit. The company takes its name from the "Blue Ribbonโ reissues of Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes animation shorts.
Live-action BRC productions include series such as the horror-comedy Critters: A New Binge for Shudder, comedy Play It Again, Dick and horror-comedy The Pledge for CW Seed, as well as the following original films: The Banana Splits Movie and Critters Attack! for Warner Bros. Home Entertainment and Syfy, plus Good Girls Get High for AT&T's DirectTV Cinema. BRC also produces the upcoming mixed-media series BizarroTV for DC Universe, plus the animated series Deathstroke: Knights & Dragons for CW Seed.
Telepictures
Telepictures is an American production company. It was bought by Warner Communications in 1989 and remains a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Television Studios to this day. Programs produced by Telepictures include The Ellen DeGeneres Show, as well as Extra, Judge Mathis, The People's Court, The Real, in addition to the NBC primetime series Ellen's Game of Games and Ellen's Greatest Night of Giveaways (both produced in association with Warner Horizon Unscripted Television). Telepictures is also producing the upcoming Elizabeth Smart-led series Smart Justice for Lifetime and the new HBO Max competition series Ellen's Next Great Designer. Telepictures also formerly produced TMZ on TV, which it sold to Fox Entertainment in 2021.
Cartoon Network Studios
Cartoon Network Studios is an American production company and the main animation studio for Cartoon Network and its associated channels. It started operating in 1994 as a division of Hanna-Barbera until 2001 when the latter absorbed into Warner Bros. Animation. Located in Burbank, California, the studio primarily produces and develops animated programs and shorts for Cartoon Network, Adult Swim, Cartoonito and HBO Max. The company has only produced one theatrically released film, The Powerpuff Girls Movie, distributed by its sister company, Warner Bros. Pictures; its commercial failure prompted the company to stop theatrical releases of its films, though Regular Show: The Movie was released to theaters at a limited capacity. The studio also produces live-action series for Adult Swim and formerly Cartoon Network under various pseudonyms.
Warner Bros. Animation
Warner Bros. Animation Inc. is an American animation studio closely associated with the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies characters, among others. The studio is the successor to Warner Bros. Cartoons, the studio which produced Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoon shorts from 1933 to 1963, and from 1967 to 1969. Warner reestablished its animation division in 1980 to produce Looney Tunesโrelated works, and Turner Broadcasting System (who bought MGM/UA which owned pre-1950 Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies shorts) merged with Time Warner (later called WarnerMedia) in 1996. It replaces Warner Bros. Cartoons and Warner Bros. Feature Animation; since March 2001, it also replaces Hanna-Barbera as well.
In recent years, Warner Bros. Animation has focused primarily on producing television and direct-to-video animation featuring characters Looney Tunes, Scooby-Doo, The Flintstones, Tom and Jerry, Hanna-Barbera library, Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman and Teen Titans created by other properties owned by Warner Bros., including DC Comics, the MGM cartoon studio (via Turner Entertainment Co.) and Hanna-Barbera Productions.
Williams Street
Williams Street Productions, LLC, d/b/a Williams Street and formerly known as Ghost Planet Industries, is an American animation and live action television production studio. It is an in-house production arm of adult animated television series for Cartoon Network until 2001 and currently operates its late-night programming blocks Adult Swim and Toonami. Former Cartoon Network executives Mike Lazzo and Keith Crofford oversaw operations for the building for most of its existence. It has produced two theatrical films, the first being Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters, which was not distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures due to the failure of The Powerpuff Girls Movie; the second being Mister America, which they helped fund due to their working relationship with Abso Lutely Productions; they helped produce a majority of the companyโs television shows and distributed their web series through Adult Swim Streams until the branch was dismantled by Warner Bros. Discovery. In December 2019, co-founder Lazzo retired from the company, with business partner and co-founder Crofford retiring the following year. Michael Ouweleen was named president in 2020.
Former
Warner Bros. Kids, Young Adults and Classics
Warner Bros. Kids, Young Adults and Classics (KYAC; often known as Warner Bros. Global Kids, Young Adults and Classics), formerly known as Warner Bros. Global Kids and Young Adults, was a division of Warner Bros. Entertainment. It was established on March 4, 2019, as part of a major reorganization of Warner Bros.' now-defunct parent company, WarnerMedia.
On March 4, 2019, AT&T announced a major reorganization of WarnerMedia to effectively dissolve the Turner Broadcasting System division, which involved Cartoon Network, Boomerang, Adult Swim, Turner Classic Movies, and digital media company Otter Media being transferred to Warner Bros. Entertainment. Aside from TCM and Otter โ which was transferred over to WarnerMedia Entertainment on May 31, 2019, to oversee development on an upcoming over-the-top streaming service from WarnerMedia โ the newly transferred properties came under a newly formed Global Kids & Young Adults division.
The division was responsible for overseeing the parent company's family, kids, animation, and young adult properties, its properties include the former Turner Broadcasting System cable television networks Cartoon Network (including the programming blocks Adult Swim, Toonami, Cartoonito, and ACME Night), Boomerang, and Turner Classic Movies; and the animation studios Warner Bros. Animation, Cartoon Network Studios and Williams Street.
On April 7, 2020, Tom Ascheim was named president of the division, now renamed Warner Bros. Global Kids, Young Adults and Classics, overseeing Cartoon Network, Boomerang and Adult Swim, and adding Turner Classic Movies to his oversight.
On May 11, 2022, Tom Ascheim exited as President of KYAC due to Warner Bros. Discovery's leadership restructuring the organization and eliminating his role. The studios were moved under Warner Bros. Television while Kathleen Finch's U.S. Networks Group assumed oversight over the linear networks, effectively dissolving the unit.
Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution
Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution (formerly Warner Bros. Television Distribution) is the television distribution and broadcast syndication arm of Warner Bros. Television Studios.
Established on January 10, 1972, the arm was originally known as Warner Bros. Television Distribution before taking on its current name in 1989 following the acquisition of Lorimar-Telepictures. In 1991, Keith Samples, who was employee of the studio left Warner Bros., of which the employment staff inherited from Lorimar, who had joined it in 1986, to start out a TV syndication company Rysher Entertainment.
In 1999, it reached a deal with NBC Enterprises to pick up the off-net syndication rights to the sitcom Will & Grace.
International operations
Australia
Warner Bros. International Television Production Australia (WBITPA) was founded in 2004 as Eyeworks Australia before being rebranded in 2014.
As Eyeworks Australia, shows produced include Celebrity Splash, Being Lara Bingle, Gangs of Oz and Territory Cops. Following the rebrand, WBITPA began producing The Bachelor Australia from its fourth season, spin-offs The Bachelorette Australia from its second season & Bachelor in Paradise, as well as First Dates, the eighth season of Who Do You Think You Are?, the sixteenth season of Dancing with the Stars and The Masked Singer Australia.
New Zealand
WBITVP New Zealand produces some of New Zealand's most successful entertainment shows including RuPaul's Drag Race Down Under, The Bachelor NZ, The Bachelorette NZ, The Block NZ, Celebrity Treasure Island, Glow Up, House of Drag and The Great Kiwi Bake Off.
Spain
The Spanish subsidiary was acquired as part of the Eyeworks takeover in 2014. Eyeworks Espaรฑa was renamed Warner Bros. International Television Production Espaรฑa in December 2015.
Shows produced by WBITVP Espaรฑa include , based on Ellen's Game of Games; , based on the British show of the same name; , based on Ramsay's Kitchen Nightmares; , based on the British Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?; and , based on the British Come Dine with Me. Along with Mediaset Espaรฑa and Netflix, the company also co-produced Brigada Costa del Sol.
United Kingdom
Warner Bros. Television Productions UK
Established as Shed Productions in 1998, the company was acquired by Time Warner in 2010, before being rebranded as Warner Bros. Television Productions UK in 2015.
Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe
On April 7, 2021, it was announced that Cartoon Network Studios Europe had re-branded as Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe, The Hanna-Barbera name had previously been revived on some Warner Bros. Animation series and films based on the classic franchises, including Scooby-Doo media, like The Jetsons & WWE: Robo-WrestleMania!, the 2017 reboot of Wacky Races, and Yabba-Dabba Dinosaurs. Future plans for the studio have yet to be announced, however. The first projects to be greenlit under the new name were a new series and a movie relating to The Amazing World of Gumball.
Productions
Notable shows produced and distributed by Warner Bros. Television include Wonder Woman, The Dukes of Hazzard, The Big Bang Theory, Friends, ER, Full House, Supernatural, Two and a Half Men, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Young Sheldon, Abbott Elementary, and many others.
References
External links
Television
American companies established in 1955
Television production companies of the United States
Entertainment companies based in California
Companies based in Burbank, California
Entertainment companies established in 1955
Mass media companies established in 1955
1955 establishments in California
Television syndication distributors
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แแแแแแข-แฐแแแแ
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แแแแแแข-แฐแแแแ (แคแแ: Pรคijรคt-Hรคme; แจแแแ: Pรคijรคnne Tavastland) โ แ แแแแแแ แคแแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แแแแแแแแก แขแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแแแ. แแแแแแ แฉแแแ แกแขแแแแแแก แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แกแฎแแ แ แแแแแแแแ - แฃแฃแกแแแแ, แแแแขแ-แฐแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแแ, แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแ, แกแแแฎแ แแแ แกแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแกแแ แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแแ แฃแฃแกแแแแ. แแแกแ แคแแ แแแแ 6 256.66 แแยฒ-แแ แแ แแ แแฎแ แแ แกแฎแแ แ แแแแแแแแก แจแแ แแก แแ-18 แแแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 199 700 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก (2009).
แ แแแแแแ แจแแแแแแ 11 แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแกแแแแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แกแแแก แฅแแแแฅแแก แกแขแแขแฃแกแ แแฅแแก. แแแแแแแกแขแแ แชแแฃแแ แชแแแขแ แแ แแแฐแขแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แคแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแ-แแแแ แแ
แคแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ
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489137
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
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แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแ
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แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแ (แขแแ: Lalawigan ng Iloilo) โ แคแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแ แแแแแชแแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแกแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแกแแก แ แแแแแแจแ. แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแแแ แแแกแแแแกแแก แแฃแแซแฃแ แแแแแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแก แแแขแแแ แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ, แฉแ แแแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแกแ, แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แฏแแแขแแขแแแแก แแ แฎแ, แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แแฃแแแแ แแกแแก แกแ แฃแขแ, แฎแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแแก แกแ แฃแขแ แแ แแแแแแก แงแฃแ แ.
แฌแแ แกแฃแแจแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แแฃแแซแฃแแ-แแ แแแแแชแแ แแฃแแแแ แแกแแช แจแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแก แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแ. แแแแแแแก แงแฃแ แแกแ แแ แแฃแแแแ แแกแแก แกแ แฃแขแแก แแแฆแแ แแแกแแแแแ แแแแ แแกแ แแแแแแ แแแแก, แ แแแแแแช แแฃแแซแฃแ แแแแ แแกแแก แฉแ แแแแ-แแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแก แแแแแแแก. แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแ, แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแคแแฃแแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแแ แแแฅแชแแฃแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแฃแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแแแก แแแแ แฉแฃแแแแก. 2015 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแ, แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ (แแ แแแแแชแแฃแแ แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ) 1 936 423 แแแแแแแแก, แฎแแแ แฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแ 2 361 042 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก.
แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แฌแแแแแกแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแก แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแ. แแฎแแแแ แแชแแ แ แ แแแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฎแ แแฅแแฃแแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแ. แแแแแ แฉแแฃแแ แแแแกแแแ แคแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแก, แคแแแแแ แฏแแแแแแก แแฅแแก แจแแแ แแแแแ.
แแแแแแแจแ แฌแแแแแกแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแแแก แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฃแจแแแ แแ แแ แแก แแฆแแแฉแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแขแแ แ แแแแขแแแแแ แแก แแแแ 1907 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแฃแ แแแจแ แแแจแ แแแ แแแขแแกแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแฎแฃแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแช แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแกแแฎแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแ แแกแแแแแแแแแก แฉแแกแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ. แฌแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแ แแแงแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแฅแแแแแ, แแฃแแช แแแแขแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแฎแ แแแแกแ แแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แคแแฅแขแแแแก แจแแกแแแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแขแแแชแแแฃแแ แแ แแ แแก.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแ แแแแแชแแแก แคแแ แแแแ 5 000.83 แแยฒ-แแ. แแก แแแแแแก แแฃแแซแฃแแแก แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแ แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแแแก แแแแชแแแก. แแ แแแแแชแแ แแแกแแแแแ แแแกแแแแกแแก แ แแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแแแก. แแ แแแแแชแแฃแแ แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แคแแ แแแแ 5 079.17 แแยฒ-แแ. แแแแแแแก แแแกแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแแแ แแกแแแฆแแ แแแ, แฉแ แแแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแกแ, แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แฏแแแขแแขแแแแก แแ แฎแ, แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แแฃแแแแ แแกแแก แกแ แฃแขแ, แฎแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแ-แแแกแแแแแแแแแ โ แแแแแแแก แกแ แฃแขแ แแ แแแแแแก แงแฃแ แ.
แแ แแแแแชแแ แแ แแแแแ แแคแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแงแแคแ: แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแก, แฎแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แคแแ แแ แแแฌแแแก แแแแชแแแก. แแแแแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแแขแแ -แแแขแแ แ แแฃแแซแฃแแแแ: แแแ-แแ-แแแฃแแแ แ, แกแแแแแแ แ แแ แ.แจ. แแ แแแแแชแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ แจแแแแก. แแแแแแแก แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแฌแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแแก แแแแแแแ 1 958 แแแขแ แแก แกแแแแฆแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแก แแแแแแแก, แแแแแกแแกแ แแ แแแขแแแแก แกแแแฆแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแแแก. แแ แแแแแชแแแก แกแฎแแ แฃแแแฆแแแกแ แแฌแแแ แแแแแแแ: แแแแ แแแขแแก แแแ (1 344 แ), แกแแแกแแแแแแก แแแ (1 286 แ), แแแแฃแแแแแก แแแ (1 248 แ) แแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแ (1 136 แ).
แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแ 41 แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแกแ แแ แแ แฅแแแแฅแก (แแ แแ แจแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแช แแแฆแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ) แแแแชแแแก.
แแแแแแ แแคแแ
2015 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแ 1 936 423 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแแก แแแฉแแแแแแแแ 390 แแแแแแแแแ 1 แแ. แแ-แแ. แแแฆแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก, แแแแแแแก แฉแแแแแแก แจแแแแฎแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 2 361 042 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแก, แฎแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 465 แแแแแแแแแ 1 แแ. แแ-แแ.
แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแก แฃแฌแแแแแแ. แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแจแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แแฅแแก: แแแแแแแก แแแ, แแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแกแแแแ. แฐแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแก แแแแแแฅแขแแแแ แแแแแฅแแแแฅ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแแแ แ แกแฎแแ แฅแแแแฅแจแ, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แฉแ แแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แกแแฃแแ แแแแ. แขแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแกแฃแ แ แแแ แคแแ แแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแแชแฃแ, แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แชแแฃแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแจแ.
แ แแแแแแ
แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก 87% แ แแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แกแฎแแ แแ แแขแแกแขแแแขแฃแแ แกแแฅแขแแก แแแแแแแแ แแ: แแ แแกแแแขแแ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ, แแแแขแแกแขแแแ, แแแขแแแแกแขแแแ, แแแจแแแแ แแฆแแก แแแแแแขแแกแขแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแกแขแ แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแชแแ แแกแแแแก แฅแ แแกแขแแก แแแแแกแแแก, แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แแฆแแก แแแกแ แฅแ แแกแขแแก แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแฐแแแแก แแแฌแแแแแ, แแฃแแแกแขแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแกแขแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ.
แแฃแแขแฃแ แ
แแแแแแแก แกแแฅแแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแแแ แจแแแแฉแแแแ. แแแขแแแฃแ แฎแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแขแแแแแแแแ แแแญแ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ, แแ แแแแแ, แฉแแแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แฌแ แแแแแ แฃแชแฎแแแ แแแญแ แแแก แแแแแแแกแแแ แแแญแ แแแแก แฃแคแแแแ แแแ แแแก, แแฃแแชแ แแ แแแแแชแแแจแ แฃแชแฎแแแแแแก แแแฌแแก แคแแแแแก แฃแคแแแแ แแ แฐแฅแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แงแแแแแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแ แกแแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแ แคแแกแขแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแแฅแแแก แงแแแแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแก แกแแแฃแแแ แ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแฆแแกแแกแฌแแฃแแ แแฅแแก, แ แแแแแกแแช แงแแแแแฌแแแฃแฃแ แแ แแฆแแแจแแแแแ. แแแแแแแจแ แคแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แ แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแแ แฃแแชแแ แแกแแแ: แกแฃแแแ-แแฃแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแขแแก แขแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Iloilo Travel Website
แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแ
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแ
แคแแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแชแแแแ
1556 แฌแแแก แแแแ แกแแแฃแแ แฅแแแงแแแแ แแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ
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472440
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%20%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98
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แแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแแแ
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แแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแแแ (แ. 11 แแแแแแแ แ, 1939) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแ.
แแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแก แแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ -แแแขแแ แแแแ แฃแแ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ. 1963-1970 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แกแแฌแแ แแแ แกแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแขแ แฃแฅแขแแ -แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แ, แแแแขแแฅแแแแแกแ, แฃแคแ แแกแ แแแแขแแฅแแแแแกแ, แแแแแแ แ แแแแขแแฅแแแแแกแ. 1970-1987 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แ แแแแขแแฅแแแแแกแ, แกแแแแแ แแแแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแแก แแแแแแแแ, แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แกแแฌแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแแก แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แ แแแแแฃแแ แแแแแขแแขแแก แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก แแแแแ, แแ แ แแแแแแก แแแ แแกแแแ แแฌแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แ, 1987 แฌแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแฎแแแฅแแแแฅแแก แ แแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ. 1990-1991 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแฌแแแแแก แฃแแแแแแกแ แกแแแญแแก แฌแแแ แ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแแแ โ โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 11 แแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1939
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก I แแแฌแแแแแก แฃแแแแแแกแ แกแแแญแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D
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แคแกแแแจแฎแ
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แคแกแแแจแฎแ โ แแแแก แแแกแแแ แ แฃแกแแแจแ, แแ แแกแแแแแ แแก แแฎแแ แแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแ. แกแแแแฆแแ 3256 แ. แแแแ แแ แแกแแแแ-แแแแแแแแแแ 20 แแ-แจแ. แแแฅแชแแฃแแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแแแ แซแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ. แแแกแแแแแแแแแ แจแแแแแฆแฃแแฃแแแ แขแ แแแฃแแ แฎแแแแแ. แแ แแก แแงแแแแแ แแแ. แกแแแฎแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแก แคแกแแแจแฎแแก แฃแฆแแแขแแฎแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แคแกแแแจแฎแแก แแแกแแแ
แแ แแกแแแแแ แแก แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแ
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140640
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%20I%20%28%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%29
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แแฃแแจ I (แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ)
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แแฃแแจ I (แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ)
แแฃแแจ I (แ. 31 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1838, แแแกแแแแแ, แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ โ แ. 19 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1889, แแแจแแแแจแ, แแแ แขแฃแแแแแ) โ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแ 1861โ1889 แฌแแแแจแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แกแแฅแกแแ-แแแแฃแ แ-แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแแก, แแแแ แแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแกแแก แแแแแกแขแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแแแคแแแก แแแ แแ II-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แกแแฅแกแแ-แแแแฃแ แ-แแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแแแแ แแแกแ แแแฃแฆแแแก แคแแ แแแแแฃ II-แแก แแแแ แ แแแแ.
แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแแแแ แซแแแก แแแแ แฃ V-แแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแชแแแแแแแแแ โแแ แแขแแแแแโ
แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 31 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1838
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 19 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1889
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%20%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94
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แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ
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แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ
แแ แฉแแ แแแแกแขแแแขแแแแก แซแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ (แ. 10 แแแแแแ แ, 1872, แแแแแแกแ โ แ. 21 แแแ แขแ, 1913, แแแแฃแแ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแ, แกแแชแแแแแกแข-แคแแแแ แแแแกแขแแ แแแ แขแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแ แแก แแฏแแฎแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แฉแแแแแช แแฅ แแแแกแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแจแ แแแแฌแงแ แกแฌแแแแ, แฎแแแ 1892 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแแฃแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแ, แจแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แจแแแแจแ, แแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแจแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแแแแกแแแขแงแแแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแแ แแแแแแ แซแ แกแฌแแแแ. แชแแขแ แฎแแแจแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แ, แกแแแแช แแแฅแชแแแแก แแกแแแแแ แแแ แแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแแจแ. แแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแแ แกแแชแแแแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแกแแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแแ แขแแแกแขแแแก แแแซแฆแแ แแแแ แแแแขแแชแ. แแ แแฎแแแก แแแแแแกแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แขแแแกแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ, แแกแแฅแกแแก แกแแแ แแคแแก แกแแคแแ แแแ แแแแแแกแจแ. 1897 แฌแแแก แ. แฏแแ แฏแแซแแ แขแแแกแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแ โแกแแแแ แแ แแแกแขแแแแจแโ แแแแแแฅแแแงแแ แฌแแ แแแ: โแแแแแแ แแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแชแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแโ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แขแแแกแขแแแก แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแ แแแแแงแ แ.
1901 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแก แฆแ แแแ แแแแกแฌแแแแฃแแ แแแขแแแแแแแขแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แฉแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแ แแแแฃแ-แแแแแขแแแฃแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ. แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแ โแชแแแแแก แคแฃแ แชแแแกโ แ แแแแฅแชแแแจแ. 1901โ1902 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแฅแแแฃแแแแฃแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แกแแ แแแจแ แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแแ แฉแแแแแงแแแแแ แ.แฌ. แกแแแ แแ แแแฅแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแก แแแแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแ-แแแแแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแแ แซแแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแแชแแแก แแแแ แแฃแ แแแกแแแฃแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ. 1903 แฌแแแก แแแแ แฃแแแ แแแ แแแจแ, แกแแแแช แแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแจแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแ แแแจแ แแแแแกแชแ แแแ แแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ-แ แแแแแฃแชแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ โแกแแฅแแ แแแแแโ, แ แแแแแแแช แฌแแแแแงแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแ-แขแแ แแขแแ แแฃแแ แแแขแแแแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแ.
1904 แฌแแแก แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ แแงแ แแแฌแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แช แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แคแ แแฅแชแแแแแก แแแแคแแ แแแชแแแก แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแแฅแแแ โแกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแชแแแแแกแข-แคแแแแ แแแแกแขแแ แกแแ แแแแแฃแชแแ แแแ แขแแโ โ แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ. แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ แแงแ แคแแแแ แแแแกแขแแ แแแ แขแแแก แแฆแแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ. แแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ แแฎแแแ แแแซแฆแแ แแแแก โ แกแแชแแแแแแ-แคแแแแ แแแแแแแก แฉแแแแงแแแแแแแ.
แแแแ แซแแแฃแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแ แแแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ. แแแแแแกแจแ แแ แกแแแแแก แแแกแ แกแแฎแแแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ. แแแแฃแแแจแแแแ, แ. แแแแแซแ, โแแแแฃแแแจแแแแแ แกแแแแแโ, แแ. 431, แแ., 1994
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแฎแแฃแแแแแแ แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแแกแ. แฌแแแแ แแแฎแฃแแ โ แแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแแ
แแ แฉแแ แฏแแ แฏแแซแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแจแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แแแแแฎแแแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแแแกแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 10 แแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1872
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 21 แแแ แขแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1913
แแแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ แแแแ แซแแแฃแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแชแแแแแแแกแขแแแ
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84658
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton%2C%20New%20Jersey
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Princeton, New Jersey
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Princeton, New Jersey
Princeton is a municipality with a borough form of government in Mercer County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It was established on January 1, 2013, through the consolidation of the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township, both of which are now defunct. As of the 2020 United States census, the borough's population was 30,681, an increase of 2,109 (+7.4%) from the 2010 census combined count of 28,572. In the 2000 census, the two communities had a total population of 30,230, with 14,203 residents in the borough and 16,027 in the township.
Princeton was founded before the American Revolutionary War. The borough is the home of Princeton University, which bears its name and moved to the community in 1756 from the educational institution's previous location in Newark. Although its association with the university is primarily what makes Princeton a college town, other important institutions in the area include the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton Theological Seminary, Opinion Research Corporation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Siemens Corporate Research, SRI International, FMC Corporation, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Amrep, Church and Dwight, Berlitz International, and Dow Jones & Company.
Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to many major highways that serve both cities (e.g., Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1), and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jersey's capital city, New Brunswick and Edison.
The New Jersey governor's official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in what was then Princeton Borough became the first governor's mansion. In 1982, it was replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a colonial mansion located in the former township, but not all have actually lived in these houses. Morven became a museum property of the New Jersey Historical Society.
Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live In by Money magazine in 2005.
Throughout much of its history, the community was composed of two separate municipalities: a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township. The borough seceded from the township in 1894 in a dispute over school taxes; the two municipalities later formed the Princeton Public Schools, and some other public services were conducted together before they were reunited into a single Princeton in January 2013. Princeton Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the university campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The borough and township had roughly equal populations.
History
Early history
The Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area.
Europeans settled into the area in the late part of the 17th century, arriving from Delaware to settle West Jersey, and from New York to settle East Jersey, with the site destined to become Princeton being amid the wilderness between these two boroughs. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the future municipality was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, where representatives of West and East Jersey met to set the boundaries between the two provinces. Greenland's son-in-law Daniel Brimson inhabited the area by 1690, and left property in a will dated 1696.
Then, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook. Nathaniel Fitz Randolph, a native of the town, attested in his private journal on December 28, 1758, that Princeton was named in 1724 upon the making/construction of the first house in the area by James Leonard, who first referred to the community as Princetown when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The community was later known by a variety of names, including: Princetown, Prince's Town and finally Princeton. The name Princeton was first used in 1724 and became common within the subsequent decade. Although there is no official documentary backing, the municipality is said to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, the son-in-law of a well-known English merchant, but no evidence backs this contention. A royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had names for royalty: Kingston, Queenstown (in the vicinity of the intersection of Nassau and Harrison Streets) and Princessville (Lawrence Township).
Princeton was described by William Edward Schenck in 1850 as having attained "no very considerable size" until the establishment of the College of New Jersey in the town. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property and the population. Based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of Princeton comprised 3,209 persons (not including students). Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century. According to the 2010 census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. The numbers have become stagnant; since the arrival of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, in 1756, the town's population spikes every year during the fall and winter and drops significantly over the course of the summer.
Revolution
In the pivotal Battle of Princeton in January 1777, George Washington forced the British to evacuate southern New Jersey. After the victory, Princeton hosted the first Legislature under the State Constitution to decide the State's seal, governor and organization of its government. In addition, two of the original signers of the Declaration of IndependenceโRichard Stockton and John Witherspoonโlived in Princeton. Princetonians honored their citizens' legacy by naming two streets in the downtown area after them.
On January 10, 1938, Henry Ewing Hale called for a group of citizens to establish a "Historical Society of Princeton." Later the Bainbridge House, constructed in 1766 by Job Stockton, would be dedicated for this purpose. Previously the house was used once for a meeting of Continental Congress in 1783, a general office, and as the Princeton Public Library. The House is owned by Princeton University and is leased to the Princeton Historical Society for one dollar per year. The house has kept its original staircase, flooring and paneled walls. Around 70% of the house has been unaltered. Aside from safety features such as wheelchair access and electrical work, the house has been restored to its original look.
Government history
During the most stirring events in its history, Princeton was a wide spot in the road; the boundary between Somerset County and Middlesex County ran right through Princeton, along the high road between New York and Philadelphia, now Nassau Street. When Mercer County was formed in 1838, part of West Windsor Township was added to the portion of Montgomery Township which was included in the new county, and made into Princeton Township; the area between the southern boundary of the former Borough and the Delaware and Raritan Canal was added to Princeton Township in 1853. Princeton Borough became a separate municipality in 1894.
In the early nineteenth century, New Jersey boroughs had been quasi-independent subdivisions chartered within existing townships that did not have full autonomy. Princeton Borough received such a charter in 1813, as part of Montgomery and West Windsor Townships; it continued to be part of Princeton Township until the Borough Act of 1894, which required each township to form a single school district; rather than do so, Princeton Borough petitioned to be separated. (The two Princetons combined their public school systems in the decades before municipal consolidation.) Two minor boundary changes united the then site of the Princeton Hospital and of the Princeton Regional High School inside the Borough, in 1928 and 1951 respectively.
Geography
Princeton is located just south of a long, curving ridge known as Princeton Ridge. As Princeton is in a low-lying area, there have been issues with cell phone signals.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Princeton had a total area of 18.41 square miles (47.69 km2), including 17.95 square miles (46.48 km2) of land and 0.47 square miles (1.21 km2) of water (2.53%).
Cedar Grove, Port Mercer, Princeton Basin, and Jugtown are unincorporated communities that have been absorbed into Greater Princeton over the years, but still maintain their own community identity.
Princeton borders the municipalities of Hopewell Township, Lawrence and West Windsor Townships in Mercer County; Plainsboro Township and South Brunswick Township in Middlesex County; and Franklin Township and Montgomery Township in Somerset County.
United States Postal ZIP codes for Princeton include 08540, 08541 (Educational Testing Service), 08542 (largely the old Borough), 08543 (PO boxes), and 08544 (the University).
Demographics
2010 census
As of the 2010 United States census, the borough and township had a combined population of 28,572.
According to the website Data USA, Princeton has a population of 30,168 people, of which 85% are US citizens. The ethnic composition of the population is 20,393 White residents (67.6%), 4,636 Asian residents (15.4%), 2,533 Hispanic residents (8.4%), 1,819 Black residents (6.03%), and 618 Two+ residents (2.05%). The most common foreign languages are Chinese (1,800 speakers), Spanish (1,429 speakers), and French (618 speakers), but compared to other places, Princeton has a relatively high number of speakers of Scandinavian languages (425 speakers), Italian (465 speakers), and German (1,000 speakers).
Government and politics
Local government
Princeton is governed under the borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 municipalities (of the 564) statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of the mayor and the borough council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. The mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The borough council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The borough form of government used by Princeton is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council.
The mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office, serves as Princeton's chief executive officer and nominates appointees to various boards and commissions subject to approval of the council. The mayor presides at council meetings and votes in the case of a tie or a few other specific cases. The council consists of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The council has administrative powers and is the policy-making body for Princeton. The council approves appointments made by the mayor. Council members serve on various boards and committees and act as liaisons to certain departments, committees or boards.
, the mayor of Princeton is Democrat Mark Freda, who is serving a four-year term expiring on December 31, 2023. Members of the Princeton Council are Council President Mia Sacks (D, 2025), David F. Cohen (D, 2023), Leticia Fraga (D, 2023), Michelle Pirone Lambros (D, 2025), Leighton Newlin (D, 2024) and Eve Niedergang (D, 2024).
In 2018, Princeton had an average property tax bill of $19,388, the highest in the county, compared to an average bill of $8,767 statewide.
Merger of borough and township
People in the township tried unsuccessfully to merge borough and township in a struggle that lasted nearly fifty years. The first failed attempt to consolidate borough and township was made in 1953, with 63% of township voters in favor of a merger and 57% of borough voters opposed. Subsequent attempts were voted down by borough residents, in large part due to different zoning needs of the densely populated borough versus the more widely-spaced properties of the township (surrounding the borough). An attempt to consolidate in 1979 passed with 70% support in the township but failed in the borough by 33 votes, a result that was upheld after a recount. Although township voters again supported a 1996 merger referendum by an almost 3-1 margin, about 57% of borough voters rejected the consolidation proposal, marking the sixth such failure.
The residents of both the Borough of Princeton and the Township of Princeton voted on November 8, 2011, to merge the two municipalities into one. This was the first referendum when university student voters were encouraged and allowed to register to vote locally, and that likely contributed strongly to the measure passing, as the students were not home owners concerned with zoning matters, and they all counted as part of the borough and not the township. In Princeton Borough, 1,385 voted for and 902 voted against, while in Princeton Township 3,542 voted for and 604 voted against. Proponents of the merger asserted that when the merger is completed the new municipality of Princeton would save $3.2 million as a result of some scaled down services including layoffs of 15 government workers including 9 police officers (however the measure itself does not mandate such layoffs). Opponents of the measure challenged the findings of a report citing a cost savings as unsubstantiated, expressed concerns about differing zoning needs between borough and township, and noted that voter representation would be reduced in a smaller government structure. The merger was the first in the state since 1997, when Pahaquarry Township voted to consolidate with Hardwick Township The consolidation took effect on January 1, 2013.
Federal, state and county representation
Princeton is located in the 12th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 16th state legislative district.
Politics
As of March 2011, there were a total of 18,049 registered voters in Princeton (a sum of the former borough and township's voters), of which 9,184 (50.9%) were registered as Democrats, 2,140 (11.9%) were registered as Republicans and 6,703 (37.1%) were registered as unaffiliated. There were 22 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens.
In both the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, the Democratic nommiee received over 80% of the vote. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 75.4% of the vote (9,461 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 23.0% (2,882 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (205 votes), among the 14,752 ballots cast by the municipality's 20,328 registered voters (2,204 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 72.6%.
In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 58.8% of the vote (4,172 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 39.2% (2,780 votes), and other candidates with 2.0% (145 votes), among the 7,279 ballots cast by the municipality's 18,374 registered voters (182 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 39.6%.
Education
Colleges and universities
Princeton University, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is a dominant feature of the community. Established in 1746 as the College of New Jersey and relocated to Princeton ten years later, Princeton University's main campus has its historic center on Nassau Street and stretches south from there. Its James Forrestal satellite campus is located in Plainsboro Township, and some playing fields lie within adjacent West Windsor Township. Princeton University is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2019 list of U.S. News & World Report.
Princeton Theological Seminary, the first and oldest seminary in America of the Presbyterian Church (USA), has its main academic campus in Princeton, with residential housing located just outside of Princeton in West Windsor Township.
The Institute for Advanced Study maintains extensive land holdings (the "Institute Woods") there covering .
Mercer County Community College in West Windsor is a two-year public college serving Princeton residents and all those from Mercer County.
Westminster Choir College, a school of music owned by Rider University since 1992, was established in Princeton in 1932. Before relocating to Princeton, the school resided in Dayton, Ohio, and then briefly in Ithaca, New York. In 2019, Rider (which is located in Lawrence Township) attempted to sell the Princeton choir college campus to a Chinese company, resulting in a public outcry and the prevention of that sale. In 2020, Rider moved all activities of Westminster Choir College from Princeton to its Lawrenceville campus. Westminster Choir College's Princeton campus is now largely unused while legal wrangling continues about the future of its Princeton campus and academic program. As of 2023, Princeton is paying Rider $1000 per month to lease overflow parking at the Choir College; the town then sells the parking rights for $30 per month to businesses, residents and non-residents. The Choir College parking is a few blocks' walk from downtown.
Primary and secondary schools
Public schools
The Princeton Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. Students from Cranbury Township attend the district's high school as part of a sending/receiving relationship. As of the 2020โ21 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 3,740 students and 341.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a studentโteacher ratio of 11.0:1. Schools in the district (with 2020โ21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are
Community Park School with 332 students in grades K-5,
Johnson Park School with 329 students in grades PreK-5,
Littlebrook School with 342 students in grades K-5,
Riverside School with 289 students in grades PreK-5,
Princeton Middle School with 803 students in grades 6-8 and
Princeton High School with 1,555 students in grades 9-12.
New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Princeton High School as the 20th best high school in New Jersey in its 2018 rankings of the "Top Public High Schools" in New Jersey. The school was also ranked as the 10th best school in New Jersey by U.S. News & World Report. Niche ranked Princeton High School as the 47th best public high school in America in its "2021 Best Public High Schools in America" rankings.
In the early 1990s, redistricting occurred between the Community Park and Johnson Park School districts, as the population within both districts had increased due to residential development. Concerns were also raised about the largely white, wealthy student population attending Johnson Park (JP) and the more racially and economically diverse population at Community Park (CP). As a result of the redistricting, portions of the affluent Western Section neighborhood were redistricted to CP, and portions of the racially and economically diverse John Witherspoon neighborhood were redistricted to JP.
The Princeton Charter School (grades Kโ8) operates under a charter granted by the commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Education. The school is a public school that operates independently of the Princeton Regional Schools, and is funded on a per student basis by locally raised tax revenues.
Eighth grade students from all of Mercer County are eligible to apply to attend the high school programs offered by the Mercer County Technical Schools, a county-wide vocational school district that offers full-time career and technical education at its Health Sciences Academy, STEM Academy and Academy of Culinary Arts, with no tuition charged to students for attendance.
Private schools
Private schools located in Princeton include The Lewis School of Princeton, Princeton Day School, Princeton Friends School, Hun School of Princeton, and Princeton International School of Mathematics and Science (PRISMS).
St. Paul's Catholic School (pre-school to 8th grade) founded in 1878, is the oldest and only coeducational Catholic school, joining Princeton Academy of the Sacred Heart (Kโ8, all male) and Stuart Country Day School of the Sacred Heart (coed for Pre-K, and all-female Kโ12), which operate under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton.
Schools that are outside of Princeton but have Princeton addresses include the Wilberforce School, Chapin School in Lawrence Township, Princeton Junior School in Lawrence Township, the French-American School of Princeton, the Laurel School of Princeton, the Waldorf School of Princeton, YingHua International School, Princeton Latin Academy in Hopewell, Princeton Montessori School in Montgomery Township, Eden Institute in West Windsor Township, and the now-defunct American Boychoir School in Plainsboro Township.
Public libraries
The Princeton Public Library's current facility on Witherspoon Street was opened in April 2004 as part of the ongoing downtown redevelopment project and replaced a building dating from 1966. The library itself was founded in 1909.
Miscellaneous education
The Princeton Community Japanese Language School teaches weekend Japanese classes for Japanese citizen children abroad to the standard of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and it also has classes for people with Japanese as a second language. The main office of the school is in Princeton although the office used on Sundays is in Memorial Hall at Rider University in Lawrence Township in Mercer County. Courses are taught at Memorial Hall at Rider University.
The Princeton Learning Cooperative provides support for student-directed learning as "a hybrid of homeschooling and school" for teens.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Roads and highways
, the borough had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Mercer County, and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation.
Several major roads pass through Princeton. U.S. Route 206 and Route 27 pass through, along with County Routes 583, 526/571 (commonly known as Washington Road) and 533.
Other major roads that are accessible outside the municipality include U.S. Route 1 (in Lawrence Township, West Windsor and South Brunswick), Interstate 287 (in Franklin Township), Interstate 295 (in Lawrence Township), and the New Jersey Turnpike/Interstate 95 (in South Brunswick). The closest Turnpike exits are Interchange 8A in Monroe Township, Interchange 8 in East Windsor, and Interchange 7A in Robbinsville Township.
A number of proposed highways around Princeton have been canceled. The Somerset Freeway (I-95) was to pass just outside the municipality before ending in Hopewell (to the south) and Franklin (to the north). This project was canceled in 1980. Route 92 was supposed to remedy the lack of limited-access highways to the greater Princeton area. The road would have started at Route 1 near Ridge Road in South Brunswick and ended at Exit 8A of the Turnpike. However, that project was cancelled in 2006.
Public transportation
Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. Since the 19th century, it has been connected by rail to both of these cities by the Princeton Branch rail line to the nearby Princeton Junction station on Amtrak's Northeast Corridor. The Princeton train station was moved from under Blair Hall to a more southerly location on University Place in 1918, and was moved further southeast in 2013. Commuting to New York from Princeton became commonplace after the Second World War. While the Amtrak ride time is similar to New York and to Philadelphia, the commuter-train ride to New Yorkโvia NJ Transit's Northeast Corridor Lineโis generally much faster than the equivalent train ride to Philadelphia, which involves a transfer to SEPTA trains in Trenton. NJ Transit provides shuttle service between the Princeton and Princeton Junction stations; the train is locally called the "Dinky", and has also been known as the "PJ&B" (for "Princeton Junction and Back"). Two train cars, or sometimes just one, are used.
NJ Transit provides bus service to Trenton on the 606 route and local service on route 605.
Coach USA Suburban Transit operates frequent daily service to midtown NYC on the 100 route, and weekday rush-hour service to downtown NYC on the 600 route.
Princeton and Princeton University provide the FreeB and Tiger Transit local bus services.
Air
Princeton Airport is a public airport located north of Downtown Princeton in Montgomery Township. The private Forrestal Airport was located on Princeton University property, east of the main campus, from the early 1950s through the early 1990s.
The closest commercial airport is Trenton-Mercer Airport in Ewing Township, about from the center of Princeton, which is served by Frontier Airlines nonstop to and from 17 cities. Other nearby major airports are Newark Liberty International Airport and Philadelphia International Airport, located and away, respectively.
Healthcare
Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center (commonly abbreviated as "PMC") is a regional hospital and healthcare network located in neighboring Plainsboro Township. The hospital services the greater Princeton region in central New Jersey. It is currently owned by the Penn Medicine Health System and is the only hospital of such in the state of New Jersey. PMC is a 355-bed non-profit, tertiary, and academic medical center. It is a major university hospital of the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School of Rutgers University and has a helipad to handle transport critical patients from and to other hospitals via PennStar. The hospital was previously located in Princeton proper on Witherspoon Street until May 22, 2012, when the new location opened off of U.S.1 in Plainsboro. The new hospital was designed by a joint venture between HOK and RMJM Hiller.
Other nearby regional hospitals and healthcare networks that are accessible to Princeton include the Hamilton Township division and the New Brunswick division of Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital (RWJUH), along with Saint Peter's University Hospital, also in New Brunswick. Princeton University's Frist Campus Center was used for the aerial views of the fictional PrincetonโPlainsboro Teaching Hospital, as seen in the television series House.
Sister cities
Colmar, France
Pettoranello del Molise, Italy
Climate
Under the Kรถppen climate classification, Princeton falls within either a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa) if the isotherm is used or a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) if the isotherm is used. During the summer months, episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values at or above . On average, the wettest month of the year is July which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values below . The plant hardiness zone at the Princeton Municipal Court is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The average seasonal (NovemberโApril) snowfall total is and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.
Ecology
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Princeton, New Jersey, would have an Appalachian Oak (104) vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Forest (25) vegetation form.
Notable people
People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Princeton include:
Note: this list does not include people whose only time in Princeton was as a student. Only selected faculty are shown, whose notability extends beyond their field into popular culture. See Faculty and Alumni lists above.
Matthew Abelson, hammered dulcimer player
Robert Adrain (1775โ1843), Irish-born mathematician known for his formulation of the method of least squares
George Akerlof (born 1940), economist who shared the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Archibald Alexander (1772โ1851), Presbyterian theologian and first professor at the Princeton Theological Seminary
James Waddel Alexander (1804โ1859), Presbyterian minister and theologian
Joseph Addison Alexander (1809โ1860), biblical scholar
William Cowper Alexander (1806โ1874), lawyer, politician and insurance executive, who served as President of the New Jersey Senate and as President of the Equitable Life Assurance Society
Svetlana Alliluyeva (1926โ2011), daughter of Joseph Stalin, defected to United States and lived in Princeton
Lylah M. Alphonse (born 1972), journalist
Saul Amarel (1928โ2002), professor of computer science at Rutgers University, best known for his pioneering work in artificial intelligence
Trey Anastasio (born 1964), of the band Phish, lived in Princeton with his family and attended Princeton Day School
William H. Angoff (โ1993), research scientist who worked for the Educational Testing Service, where he helped improve the SAT
James Isbell Armstrong (1919โ2013), academic who was President of Middlebury College from 1963 to 1975
Milton Babbitt (1916โ2011), composer and Princeton University professor
William Bainbridge (1774โ1833), Commodore in the United States Navy
Molly Bang (born 1943), children's book illustrator
George Barna (born 1954), founder of The Barna Group, a market research firm specializing in studying the religious beliefs and behavior of Americans
Chris Barron (born 1968), lead singer of the Spin Doctors
Charles Clinton Beatty (1800โ1880), Presbyterian minister, seminary founder and academic philanthropist
Saul Bellow (1915โ2005), author and Princeton University professor
Paul Benacerraf (born 1931), philosopher and Princeton University professor
Peter Benchley (1940โ2006), author and screenwriter, Jaws, The Island, lived and died in Princeton
Wendy Benchley (born 1941), marine and environmental conservation advocate and former Princeton Borough councilwoman who was the wife of author Peter Benchley
Ed Berger (1949โ2017), librarian, discographer, author, editor, historian, photographer, educator, jazz producer and record label owner
Stanley S. Bergen Jr. (1929โ2019), physician, university president, and professor, who was President of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey from 1971 to 1998
Laurie Berkner (born 1969), musician best known for her work as a children's musical artist
Geoffrey Berman (born 1959), lawyer currently serving as the Interim United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York
Garrett Birkhoff (1911โ1996), mathematician best known for his work in lattice theory
Cyril Edwin Black (1915โ1989), professor of history and international affairs, specializing in the modern history of Eastern Europe and, in particular, Russian history since 1700
Michael Bradley (born 1987), soccer player
Avery Brooks (born 1948), actor, singer and educator
George Harold Brown (1908โ1987), research engineer at RCA, lived in Princeton
Aaron Burr (1756โ1836), third Vice President of the United States (under Thomas Jefferson); killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, grew up in Princeton and is buried there
Aaron Burr Sr. (1715โ1757), co-founder of Princeton University and its second president
Lesley Bush (born 1947), diver who represented the United States at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, where she received a gold medal in the 10 meter platform
Sim Cain (born 1963), drummer for Rollins Band, grew up in Princeton
Marsha Campbell (born 1946), politician who served in the Missouri House of Representatives
Melisa Can (born 1984 as Michelle Marie Campbell), professional basketball player at the power forward position who plays for Adana ASKฤฐ
Mary Chapin Carpenter (born 1958), country/folk singer, born and grew up in Princeton
William Ashburner Cattell (1863โ1920), civil engineer and railroad company president; born in Princeton
Damien Chazelle (born 1985), film director, producer, and writer. Youngest winner of the Academy Award for Best Director
Blair Clark (1917โ2000), journalist and political activist who was general manager / vice president of CBS News and Senator Eugene McCarthy's national campaign manager for the 1968 presidential nomination
Patrick Clark (1955โ1998), chef
Frances Folsom Cleveland (1864โ1947), First Lady, died in and is buried in Princeton
Grover Cleveland (1837โ1908), 22nd and 24th President of the United States, retired to, died in, and buried in Princeton
Ruth Cleveland (1891โ1904), daughter of Grover and Frances Cleveland born between Cleveland's two terms in office, died at age 12 and is buried at Princeton Cemetery
Chris Conley (born 1980), lead singer of Saves the Day, born and grew up in Princeton
Archibald Crossley (1896โ1985), pollster, statistician and pioneer in public opinion research
John Crowley (born 1967), biotechnology executive and entrepreneur and the chairman and CEO of Amicus Therapeutics
Whitney Darrow Jr. (1909โ1999), cartoonist at The New Yorker
Jon Drezner, architect and designer
Howard Duffield (1854โ1941), Presbyterian minister
Freeman Dyson (1923โ2020), theoretical physicist and fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study
Jonathan Edwards (1703โ1758), Congregationalist Church theologian, Princeton University's third president
Albert Einstein (1879โ1955), physicist, fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study
Maria (Maja) Einstein (1881โ1951), German Romanist and the younger sister of Albert Einstein
T. S. Eliot (1888โ1965), author
Elmer William Engstrom (1901โ1984), President and CEO of RCA
Daniel Errico, children's book author and children's media content creator who is the creator and executive producer of Hulu's kids TV series The Bravest Knight
Katherine Ettl (โ1993), sculptor best known for her monumental bronzes
Charles Evered (born 1964), playwright, screenwriter and director, resident of Princeton
Henry B. Eyring (born 1933), Second Counselor in the First Presidency of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and president of Ricks College, born in Princeton
Robert Fagles (1933โ2008), professor, poet, and academic, best known for his many translations of ancient Greek and Roman classics, especially his translations of the epic poems of Homer
Mervin Field (1921โ2015), public opinion pollster whose career in polling began with a poll of Princeton High School students in a class election
Abner S. Flagg (1851โ1923), businessman and politicians, served in the Wisconsin State Assembly and as Mayor of Edgerton, Wisconsin
Richard Ford (born 1944), writer, taught at Princeton University, wrote several books set in a fictionalized Haddam, New Jersey, based in part on Princeton
Colette Fu, photographer, book artist and paper engineer
N. Howell Furman (1892โ1965), professor of analytical chemistry who helped develop the electrochemical uranium separation process as part of the Manhattan Project
George Gallup (1901โ1984), statistician and creator of the Gallup poll, lived and is buried in Princeton
George Gallup Jr. (1930โ2011), pollster and author
Evan Gershkovich (born 1991), journalist for The Wall Street Journal who was detained by Russia as a spy
Donald Gips (born 1960), Chief Domestic Policy Advisor to Vice President Al Gore and appointed United States Ambassador to South Africa by Barack Obama
Kurt Gรถdel (1906โ1978), Austrian-American logician, mathematician and philosopher, fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study
Caroline Gordon (1895โ1981), novelist, lived in Princeton from 1956 to 1975
Michael Graves (1934โ2015), architect, lived and worked in Princeton
Fred Greenstein (1930โ2018), political scientist
Ariela Gross (born 1965), historian who is the John B. and Alice R. Sharp Professor of Law and History at the University of Southern California Gould School of Law
Hallett Johnson (1888โ1968), career diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Costa Rica
Chris Harford, self-taught singer, songwriter, guitarist and painter
Ethan Hawke (born 1970), actor
Sarah Hay (born 1987), actress and ballet dancer with the Semperoper in Dresden
Joseph Hewes (1730โ1779), signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, born in Princeton
Charles Hodge (1797โ1878), theologian and Principal of Princeton Theological Seminary
Herbert Huffman (1905โ1968), musician and choir director, founder of the American Boychoir School
Harold L. Humes (1926โ1992), novelist who was the originator of The Paris Review literary magazine
Guy Hutchinson (born 1974), author, broadcaster, theme park historian and comedian
Micky James (born 1993), singer, songwriter and musician
Barbara Piasecka Johnson (1937โ2013), Polish-born American humanitarian, philanthropist, art connoisseur and collector
Robert Wood Johnson II (1893โ1968), Chairman of Johnson & Johnson, and his wife Margaret, lived in Morven
John Katzenbach (born 1950), author of popular fiction
George F. Kennan (1904โ2005), diplomat, historian, fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study
Gina Kolata (born 1948), reporter for The New York Times
Barbara Krauthamer (born 1967), historian and author
Paul Krugman (born 1953), Nobel Prize winner, economist, professor of economics and international affairs at Princeton University
Matt Lalli (born 1986), professional lacrosse player for the Boston Cannons of Major League Lacrosse
Chang-Rae Lee (born 1965), writer, Princeton University professor
Arthur Lithgow (1915โ2004), actor, director, educator, and managing director of Princeton's McCarter Theatre
John Lithgow (born 1945), actor, lived in Princeton in his late teens
Emily Mann (born 1952), artistic director of Princeton's McCarter Theatre
Thomas Mann (1875โ1955), author
Henry Martin (1925 2020), cartoonist at The New Yorker, lived and worked in Princeton
Alpheus T. Mason (1899โ1989), legal scholar and biographer
John McPhee (born 1931), writer, lives in Princeton
Rachel Lambert Mellon (1910โ2014), horticulturalist, gardener, philanthropist and art collector
Lyle and Erik Menรฉndez (born 1968 and born 1970), two brothers convicted of murdering their parents in 1989
Steve "Buddy" Miller (born 1952), Nashville session musician, grew up in Princeton and attended Princeton High School
E. Spencer Miller (1817โ1879), Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School
Jeannette Mirsky (1903โ1987), author who was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1947 for her biographical writings on the history of exploration
Toni Morrison (1931โ2019), author, Nobel Laureate, Princeton University professor<ref>Abel, David. "Romney apologizes for use of expression; To some, 'tar baby' is racial pejorative", The Boston Globe, July 31, 2006. Accessed November 30, 2013. "In 1981, author Toni Morrison published a novel titled Tar Baby," and she has compared the expression to other racial epithets.... Reached at her home near Princeton University, where she teaches, Morrison called the expression 'antiquated' and one that's 'attractive to some people, when they begin to search for hints of racism.'"</ref>
Paul Muldoon (born 1951), Irish poet
Jeanette Mundt (born 1982), painter, best known for her works in the 2019 Whitney Biennial
John Forbes Nash Jr. (1928โ2015), mathematician, Nobel Prize winner, subject of A Beautiful Mind, Princeton University professor
Charles Neider (1915โ2001), author, Twain scholar; resided on Southern Way
John von Neumann (1903โ1957), Hungarian-American mathematician at Princeton University and Institute for Advanced Study
Bebe Neuwirth (born 1958), actress, grew up in Princeton
Joyce Carol Oates (born 1938), writer, Princeton University professor
John O'Hara (1905โ1970), author, lived in and is buried in Princeton
Charles Smith Olden (1799โ1876), Governor of New Jersey during the American Civil War
A. Dayton Oliphant (1887โ1963), Associate Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court from 1945 to 1946, and from 1948 to 1957
Gregory Olsen (born 1945), entrepreneur, engineer and scientist who, in October 2005, became the third private citizen to make a self-funded trip to the International Space Station
J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904โ1967), theoretical physicist, director of the Institute for Advanced Study
Alicia Ostriker (born 1937), poet and scholar who writes Jewish feminist poetry
Jeremiah P. Ostriker (born 1937), astronomer
Unity Phelan (born 1994 or 1995), ballet dancer who joined the New York City Ballet in 2013 and was promoted to soloist in 2017
John Popper (born 1967), lead singer of the band Blues Traveler
Andy Potts (born 1976), triathlete who represented the United States in triathlon at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Pete Raymond (born 1947), former rower who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics and in the 1972 Summer Olympics
Christopher Reeve (1952โ2004), actor, grew up in Princeton, attended Princeton Day School
Paul Robeson (1898โ1976), singer, actor, athlete, civil rights activist, born and raised in Princeton
Arnold Roth (born 1929), cartoonist, longtime Princeton resident
William E. Schluter (1927โ2018), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly and the New Jersey Senate
Ralph Schoenstein (1933โ2006), writer, lived in Princeton up to his death
John Schneider (born 1980), professional baseball coach for the Toronto Blue Jays
Bill Schroeder (born 1958), Major League Baseball player for the Milwaukee Brewers and California Angels, Brewers commentator for Fox Sports Wisconsin
Roger Sessions (1896โ1985), composer, Princeton University professor
Tsutomu Shimomura (born 1964), Japanese-American scientist and computer security expert
Andrew Shue (born 1967), actor and professional soccer player, grew up in northern New Jersey with sister, actress Elisabeth Shue, lives in Princeton
Michael Showalter (born 1970), comedian, actor, writer, and director, born in Princeton, attended Princeton High School
Barbara Boggs Sigmund (1939โ1990), mayor of Princeton
Peter Singer (born 1946), moral philosopher, bioethicist and Princeton University professor
Shelley Smith (born 1952), actress
Tom Snow (born 1947), musician
Gennady Spirin (born 1948), artist
Betsey Stockton (โ1865), educator and missionary, manumitted from slavery and later retired to and died in Princeton
John P. Stockton (1826โ1900), U.S. senator from New Jersey, lived in Princeton
Richard Stockton (1730โ1781), signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, lived in and is buried in Princeton
Richard Stockton (1764โ1828), U.S. senator from New Jersey, lived in Princeton
Robert F. Stockton (1795โ1866), United States Navy commodore, U.S. Military Governor of California, lived in Princeton
Janet Sorg Stoltzfus, (1931โ2004), educator, who established the Ta'iz Cooperative School, the first non-religious school in north Yemen.
Robert Stone (born 1958, class of 1976), director and documentary filmmaker
Jon Tenney (born 1961), actor, born and raised in Princeton
Paul Tulane (1801โ1887), benefactor and namesake of Tulane University
Immanuel Velikovsky (1895โ1979), controversial theorist and acquaintance of Albert Einstein
Brandon Wagner (born 1995), professional baseball player
Susie Ione Brown Waxwood (1902โ2006), clubwoman and YWCA official in Princeton
Andrew Wiles (born 1953), mathematician who proved Fermat's Last Theorem, Princeton University professor
Woodrow Wilson (1856โ1924), 28th President of the United States, 13th president of Princeton University, Governor of New Jersey
John Witherspoon (1723โ1794), signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, president of Princeton University
Edward Witten (born 1951), mathematician and physicist, fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study
Richard L. Wright (born 1943), political leader who held a number of positions at both the state and national level
Sarah Zelenka (born 1987), rower at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Vladimir K. Zworykin (1888โ1982), Russian-American engineer, inventor and television pioneer
Princeton in popular culture
Film
Princeton was the setting of the Academy Award-winning A Beautiful Mind about the schizophrenic mathematician John Nash. It was largely filmed in central New Jersey, including some Princeton locations. However, many scenes of "Princeton" were actually filmed at Fordham University's Rose Hill campus in the Bronx.
The 1994 film I.Q., featuring Meg Ryan, Tim Robbins, and Walter Matthau as Albert Einstein, was also set in Princeton and was filmed in the area. It includes some geographic stretches, including Matthau looking through a telescope from the roof of "Princeton Hospital" to see Ryan and Robbins' characters kissing on the Princeton Battlefield.
Historical films which used Princeton as a setting but were not filmed there include Wilson, a 1944 biographical film about Woodrow Wilson.
In his 1989 independent feature film Stage Fright, independent filmmaker Brad Mays shot a drama class scene in the Princeton High School auditorium, using PHS students as extras. On October 18, 2013, Mays' feature documentary I Grew Up in Princeton had its premiere showing at Princeton High School. The film, described in one Princeton newspaper as a "deeply personal 'coming-of-age story' that yields perspective on the role of perception in a town that was split racially, economically and sociologically", is a portrayal of life in the venerable university town during the tumultuous period of the late sixties through the early seventies.
Scenes from the beginning of Across the Universe (2007) were filmed on the Princeton University campus.
Parts of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen were filmed in Princeton. Megan Fox and Shia LaBeouf were filming on Princeton University campus for two days during the summer of 2008.
Scenes from the 2008 movie The Happening were filmed in Princeton.
TV and radio
The 1938 Orson Welles radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds, is set partly in nearby Grover's Mill, and includes a fictional professor from Princeton University as a main character, but the action never moves directly into Princeton.
The 1980 television miniseries Oppenheimer is partly set in Princeton.
George Lucas's Young Indiana Jones has Princeton shown in three episodes as the hometown of Indiana Jones. Most notably in Spring Break Adventure and Winds of Change where Princeton features prominently.
The TV show House was set in Princeton, at the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Teaching Hospital, and establishing shots for the hospital display the Frist Campus Center of Princeton University. The actual University Medical Center of Princeton at Plainsboro opened on May 22, 2012, exactly one day after the finale of House aired.
Literature
F. Scott Fitzgerald's literary debut, This Side of Paradise, is a loosely autobiographical story of his years at Princeton University.
Princeton University's Creative Writing program includes several nationally and internationally prominent writers, making the community a hub of contemporary literature.
Many of Richard Ford's novels are set in Haddam, New Jersey, a fictionalized Princeton.
Joyce Carol Oates' 2004 novel Take Me, Take Me With You (written pseudonymously as Lauren Kelly) is set in Princeton.
New Jersey author Judy Blume set her novel Superfudge in Princeton.
Music
All of the members of Blues Traveler, as well as Chris Barron, lead singer of the Spin Doctors, are from Princeton and were high school friends.
Points of interest
Churches
Nassau Christian Center
Nassau Presbyterian Church
Princeton United Methodist Church
Princeton University Chapel
St Paul's Roman Catholic Church
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Educational institutions
Institute for Advanced Study and Institute Woods
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Morven
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Historic sites
Albert Einstein House, located at 112 Mercer Street, was the home of Albert Einstein from 1936 until his death in 1955.
Drumthwacket, the official residence of the governor of New Jersey, is one of only four official governor's residences in the country that is not located within its state capital.
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Parks
The Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park including the Turning Basin Park and miles of level biking/hiking trails along its towpath
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Restaurants
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USS Princeton, 6 ships
References
Sources
Clark, Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times. .
Gambee, Robert (1987). Princeton''. .
External links
Princeton Regional Convention and Visitors Bureau
2013 establishments in New Jersey
Borough form of New Jersey government
Boroughs in Mercer County, New Jersey
Former capitals of the United States
New Jersey
Populated places established in 2013
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130223
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camponotus%20grandidieri%20comorensis
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Camponotus grandidieri comorensis
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Camponotus grandidieri comorensis โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Camponotus-แก แแแแ แแแแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
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502350
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%20%28%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%29
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แแ แกแแแแแแ (แแฃแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
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แแ แกแแแแแแ (แแฃแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
แแ แกแแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แคแแแแ แแชแแแจแ, แแแจแแแ แแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแฃแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
2002 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก 502 แแแแแแแแ. แ แแแแแฃแ แชแแแขแ แแฃแแแแแแแแแ แแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ 23 แแแแแแแขแ แแ. แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแฃแ แแ แแฃแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ 23 แแ-แแ.
2002 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แแแแ แแแ แจแแแแแแแแ (99 %).
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
ะกะพะฒะตั ะผัะฝะธัะธะฟะฐะปัะฝัั
ะพะฑัะฐะทะพะฒะฐะฝะธะน ะ ะตัะฟัะฑะปะธะบะธ ะะฐัะบะพััะพััะฐะฝ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแฃแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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60096
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98
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แแแฃแจแ
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แแแฃแจแ โ แแแซแ แแแ แชแแแแแแ แฃแแ แแแฌแแแ.
แแแฃแจแแก แแแแแจแแฃแแแแแ แแแแฆแแก แแแ แแแแก แฌแแแก แจแแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแฅแแแแแ แแแฃแ แ แแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแชแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแ แแแแแกแชแแก แแฃแฎแแ แแแแแก. แแแฃแจแ แแกแแแ แแแกแแฎแฃแ แแแ แแแแฎแแแ แ แขแแฅแขแแแก: แจแแจแแแแ, แจแแแฃแแจแแ, แแฃแจแ แกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแก แแแจแแแแ.
แแแฃแจแแก แแฃแจแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแฅแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแฃแ แ แแแขแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแแ แแ แแก แแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แ แกแแฉแฅแแ แแ. แชแแแแแแ แแก แจแฃแ แแแฌแแแจแ แกแแฉแฅแแ แ แแฆแฌแแแก แแแฅแกแแแฃแแก, แฎแแแ แแแแแแ แฌแแ แขแแแแแจแ แแแ แแฃแแแก แขแแแแ. แแฆแแแจแแแฃแแ แแ แแชแแกแ แแฌแแแแก แแแแ แชแแแก. แแฃแแแแแ แฎแแฎแฃแแ แแแฃแจแแกแ แแ แชแแแแแแ แแแก แจแแ แแก แแฌแแแแก แแแฅแแแแแฃแ แชแแแแแก. แแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแฃแแแก แแแแ แแแฃแจแแก แแแกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแ แแแกแแแแก แฃแแแ แฐแฅแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแแ:แแแฆแแแ แแแฅแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแแแชแ, แแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แขแแแแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแ แ แแแแแแ, แแแฆแแแ แแแขแแคแ แแชแแฃแแ แแแแกแแแ,แกแแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแแขแแ แแแแ, แกแฌแแ แฎแแแแแแแ แแแคแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแคแแชแแแขแ แแ แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแ.
แกแแแแขแแแแแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแแฃแจแแก แแแกแแแแแแแแแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแงแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแก, แแจแแแแแแ แแฃแฏแก.
แแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแฃแจแแแแ แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแแกแแแ แแแฃแจแแแแก แแแกแแแแ แแแ.แแแฃแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแฃแแ แ แฌแแแแก แแแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแฃแจแแแก แแแแ แชแแฃแแ แแแขแแแ แแแ แจแแแชแแ แแแฃแแ แแฅแแ.
แกแแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแแก แจแแแแแแ แจแแแชแแ แแแฃแแแ แแแฃแ แ แแแซแแแฃแแแแ. แแแแแแ แฎแแฎแฃแแแก แแแแคแแชแแแขแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแฃแจแแแก แแฅแแ แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ:แแแฃแ แ แแแคแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแคแแชแแแขแ,แแ แแกแแแแแ แแกแ แชแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แจแแแแ แแแแ แแแฆแแแ แฆแแ แแแฃแแแแ.
แแฃแฏแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแฃแจแแแก แแฅแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแฆแแแ แกแแกแแแ, แชแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฎแฃแ แแแแแขแแแชแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แแฃแแแ แฎแแฎแแแแแ แแแคแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแ แ แแแแคแแชแแแขแ แแแกแ แแแแแ. แแฆแแแจแแฃแแ แคแแฅแขแแ แ แแซแแแแ แฆแ แแฉแแก แจแแแชแแ แแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแก. แแฃแฏแแก แซแแ แแแแแ แฃแแ แงแแคแแแ แแฎแแ แแแแแ: แจแแแแ แแแแ แแแฆแแแ แแฃแแ แ แฌแแแ, แ แแช แแ แแแก แแแแ แชแแแก แซแแแแแก. แแแแขแแ แจแแฃแซแแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแ แกแฌแ แแคแกแแแแแ แซแ แแแแแจแ.
แแแฃแจแก แแฅแแก แจแแแแแญแแแ แแแแแแ แแแฌแแแ (แแแแ) แซแ แ แแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฌแแแ (แแแแแ) แจแแแแแญแแแ แแแแแ แแแฌแแแก แแฅแแก แแ แฎแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแกแแ แแ แแแแฉแแแแแฌแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแกแแแแแก. แแแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแฃแจแก แแฅแแก แแแ แซแ.
แแแฃแจแ แแฃแจแแแแแกแแก แชแฎแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ. แแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแ แแแฎแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแ แแแคแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแกแแ แแแ, แแแฃแจแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแกแฃแ แก แแ แแแแแฃแ แก. แแแ แซแแแแก แฆแแ แซแแ แแแแแแขแ แ แแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแแฃแแแ แฃแแแ. แแก แแแแแฌแแแฃแแแ แแแแก แแแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แแแขแแแแก แแแกแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแแกแแฃแ แแ แคแแ แแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแแฃแจแแก แแแแ แแแฌแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแขแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ. แแแแขแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแขแ แ แฃแคแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแกแ. แกแแแขแแแชแแก แแแแ แแแก แแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแกแขแแก แฌแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แแแแฃแแฌแแแแ แฎแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแ แแแฃแจแแก แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แขแแแแแ แแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแชแแแแก. แแแแกแแแแแก, แ แแ แกแฌแแ แแ แแแฎแแแก แแแฃแจแแก แชแแแแแแ แจแ แฉแแกแแ แแแก แฃแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแจแ แญแแแก. แแกแแแ แญแแ แแแแแแแ แแแฃแจแแก แแ แแแ แแแชแแก แกแฌแแ แแ แจแแแ แแแแแกแแแแแก.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแฃแจแแก แแแแ
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33576107
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford%20D.%20Simak
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Clifford D. Simak
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Clifford D. Simak
Clifford Donald Simak (August 3, 1904 โ April 25, 1988) was an American science fiction writer. He won three Hugo Awards and one Nebula Award. The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its third SFWA Grand Master, and the Horror Writers Association made him one of three inaugural winners of the Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement. He is associated with the pastoral science fiction subgenre.
Biography
Early life, education, and journalism career
Simak was born in Millville, Wisconsin in 1904, son of John Lewis and Margaret (Wiseman) Simak. Simak attended the University of WisconsinโMadison and then taught in the public schools until 1929. He later worked at various newspapers in the Midwest. He began a lifelong association with the Minneapolis Star and Tribune (in Minneapolis, Minnesota) in 1939, which continued until his retirement in 1976. He became Minneapolis Stars news editor in 1949 and coordinator of Minneapolis Tribunes Science Reading Series in 1961.
Personal life
He married Agnes Kuchenberg on April 13, 1929, and they had two children, Richard "Dick" Scott (1947โ2012) and Shelley Ellen. In a blurb in Time and Again he wrote, "I have been happily married to the same woman for thirty three years and have two children. My favorite recreation is fishing (the lazy way, lying in a boat and letting them come to me). Hobbies: Chess, stamp collecting, growing roses." He dedicated the book to his wife Kay, "without whom I'd never have written a line". He was well liked by many of his science fiction-writing friends, especially Isaac Asimov.
Death
He died in Minneapolis on April 25, 1988.
Writing career
Simak became interested in science fiction after reading the works of H. G. Wells as a child. His first contribution to the literature was "The World of the Red Sun", published by Hugo Gernsback in the December 1931 issue of Wonder Stories with one opening illustration by Frank R. Paul. Within a year, he placed three more stories in Gernsback's pulp magazines and one in Astounding Stories, then edited by Harry Bates. But his only science fiction publication between 1932 and 1938 was "The Creator" (Marvel Tales #4, MarchโApril 1935), a story with religious implications, which was then rare in the genre.
Once John W. Campbell, at the helm of Astounding from October 1937, began redefining the field, Simak returned and was a regular contributor to Astounding Science Fiction (as it was renamed in 1938) throughout the Golden Age of Science Fiction (1938โ1950). At first, as in the 1939 serial novel Cosmic Engineers, he wrote in the tradition of the earlier "super science" subgenre that E. E. "Doc" Smith perfected, but he soon developed his own style, which is usually described as gentle and pastoral. During this period, Simak also published a number of war and western stories in pulp magazines. His best-known book may be City, a fix-up novel based on short stories with a common theme of mankind's eventual exodus from Earth.
Simak continued to produce award-nominated novels throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Aided by a friend, he continued writing and publishing science fiction and, later, fantasy, into his 80s. He believed that science fiction not rooted in scientific fact was responsible for the failure of the genre to be taken seriously, and stated his aim was to make the genre a part of what he called "realistic fiction."
Themes
Simak's stories often have a rural setting, which led to his style being described as "pastoral" or "pastoral science fiction". Crusty individualistic backwoodsman characters often appear - for example, Hiram Taine, the protagonist of "The Big Front Yard". Hiram's dog "Towser" (sometimes "Bowser") is common to many of Simak's works. The rural setting is not always idyllic; for instance, in Ring Around the Sun, it is largely dominated by intolerance and isolationism.
Many of his aliens have a dry, otherworldly sense of humor, and others are unintentionally amusing, in their speech, behavior or appearance. His robots are full of personality, as are his dogs. By contrast, his "heroes" are ciphers. His protagonists are often boring men, never described and never reappearing. One of Simak's editors objected to his stories because his heroes were "losers". Simak replied, "I like losers."
Many of Simak's story lines involve a quest, or a mission. Characters set out, alone, and acquire companions, often unlikely matches, along the way. On the journey, some fall by the wayside, and of these, some are reunited with the group, whilst others never heard from again.
Simak's stories often say that there is no past time for a time traveler to go to. Our world moves along in a stream of time, and to move to a different place in time is to move to another world. Thus in City our Earth is overrun by ants, but the intelligent dogs and the remaining humans escape to other worlds in the time stream. In Ring Around the Sun, the persecuted paranormals escape to other Earths which, if they could all be seen at once, would be at different stages of their orbit around the sun, hence the title. In Time Is the Simplest Thing a paranormal escapes a mob by moving back in time, only to find that the past is a place where there are no living things and inanimate objects are barely substantial.
Time travel also plays an important role in Time and Again. A long-lost space traveler returns with a message which is SF-slanted, yet religious in tone. Having crashed on a planet, he is then nurtured by ethereal duplicates that seem to accompany every sentient being throughout life. His befuddled observations are seized upon by religious factions, and a schism then threatens to erupt into war on Earth.
Intelligence, loyalty and friendship, the existence of God and souls, the unexpected benefits and harm of invention, tools as extensions of humanity, and more questions are often explored by Simak's robots, whom he uses as "surrogate humans". They begin as likable mechanical persons, but change in surprising ways. Having achieved intelligence, robots move on to common themes such as, "Why are we here?" and "Do robots have souls"? Examples are the faithful butler Jenkins in City, the religious robot Hezekiel in A Choice of Gods, the frontier robots in Special Deliverance and A Heritage of Stars, and the monk-like robots in Project Pope who seek heaven.
In All the Traps of Earth, a 600 year-old robot, a family retainer who earned the name Richard Daniel, is considered chattel to be reprogrammed and lose all its memories. The robot runs away, hitches onto a spaceship, and passes through hyperspace unprotected. Daniel gains the ability to see and fix problems in anything โ a ship, a robot, a human โ telekinetically, but is still drifting and hunted as chattel. He stumbles on a frontier planet and finds a purpose, helping the pioneers as a doctor, a servant, a colonist, and a friend. And here Daniel achieves an epiphany: Human beings are more clever than they know. Human-created robots, set loose, can become agents with para-human abilities that benefit humanity. Thus do robots, and humankind, escape "all the traps of earth".
The religious theme is often present in Simak's work, but the protagonists who have searched for God in a traditional sense tend to find something more abstract and inhuman. Hezekiel in A Choice of Gods cannot accept this: "God must be, forever, a kindly old (human) gentleman with a long, white, flowing beard."
Simak's short stories and longer novellas range from the contemplative and thoughtfully idyllic to pure terror, although the punch line is often characteristically understated, as in Good Night, Mr. James and Skirmish. There is also a group of humorous stories, including "The Big Front Yard". And Way Station is in the midst of all of the science fiction paraphernalia a psychological study of a lonely man who has to make peace with his past and finally manages to do so, but not without personal loss. The contemplative nature of the Simak character is a recurring trait of the author's style.
One finds other traditional SF themes in Simak's work. The importance of knowledge and compassion in "Immigrant" and "Kindergarten". Identity play, as in "Good Night, Mr. James" (filmed as The Outer Limits: The Duplicate Man in 1964). Fictions come to life in "Shadow Show" and elsewhere, such as the novel Out of Their Minds. There is a revolt of the machines in "Skirmish", and a meeting with an alien world in Beachhead, also known as "You'll Never Go Home Again". (Many of these are in his collection Strangers in the Universe.)
Simak sometimes wrote stories close to his profession as a writer. For example, in the novelette So Bright the Vision (1968), he portrayed artificial intelligence (AI) writing software similar to ChatGPT, but focusing on socio-psychological issues.
Finally, Simak throws in many science-fictional fillips that remain unexplained. Simak's characters encounter alien creatures and concepts they simply cannot understand, and never will. For example, in Special Deliverance, the humans are stalked by The Wailer, which turns out to be a huge wolf-like creature that bellows an infinitely sad howl. They never learn what the creature is, why it seems sad, or how it got there.
Simak sums up his life's work in the foreword to his collection Skirmish. After explaining what themes he avoids โ no large-scale alien invasions, no space wars, no empire sagas โ he states
"Overall, I have written in a quiet manner; there is little violence in my work. My focus has been on people, not on events. More often than not I have struck a hopeful note ... I have, on occasions, tried to speak out for decency and compassion, for understanding, not only in the human, but in the cosmic sense. I have tried at times to place humans in perspective against the vastness of universal time and space. I have been concerned where we, as a race, may be going, and what may be our purpose in the universal scheme โ if we have a purpose. In general, I believe we do, and perhaps an important one."
Works
From 1950 to 1986 Clifford Simak wrote more than 30 novels and four non-fiction works, with Way Station winning the 1964 Hugo Award. More than 100 of his short stories were published from 1931 to 1981 in the science fiction, western, and war genres, with "The Big Front Yard" winning the 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novelette and "Grotto of the Dancing Deer" winning the Hugo and Nebula Awards for Best Short Story in 1981. One more short story, "I Had No Head and My Eyes Were Floating Way Up in the Air", had been written in 1973 for publication in Harlan Ellison's never-published anthology The Last Dangerous Visions and was first published posthumously in 2015.
One of his short stories, "Good Night, Mr. James", was adapted as "The Duplicate Man" on The Outer Limits in 1964. Simak notes this is a "vicious storyโso vicious that it is the only one of my stories adapted to television."
Awards and honors
The Science Fiction Writers of America made Simak its third SFWA Grand Master in 1977, after Robert Heinlein and Jack Williamson. In 1987 the Horror Writers Association named him one of three inaugural winners of the Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement, with Fritz Leiber and Frank Belknap Long. Asteroid 228883 Cliffsimak, discovered by French amateur astronomer Bernard Christophe in 2003, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on March 30, 2010.
Other lifetime awards
Minnesota Academy of Science Award for distinguished service to science 1967
First Fandom Hall of Fame award 1973
Best-of-year literary awards
Retro Hugo for best novelette, โRule 18โ (Astounding Science-Fiction, July 1938)
Retro Hugo for best novelette, "City" (Astounding Science-Fiction, May 1944)
International Fantasy Award for best fiction book (1953) for City
Hugo Award for best novelette (1959) for "The Big Front Yard"
Hugo Award for best novel (1964) for Way Station
Jupiter Award for best novel (1978) for A Heritage of Stars
Hugo Award for best short story (1981) for "Grotto of the Dancing Deer"
Nebula Award for best short story (1981) for "Grotto of the Dancing Deer"
Locus Award for best short story (1981) for "Grotto of the Dancing Deer"
Analytical Laboratory award for best short story (1981) for "Grotto of the Dancing Deer"
Citations
General sources
Contemporary Authors. New Revision Series. Detroit, Gale Research Co.
Sam Moskowitz Seekers of Tomorrow (1967) (one chapter covers Simak)
"Obituaries: Clifford D. Simak." The Herald (Melbourne), April 29, 1988.
Weatherby, W. J. "Obituary of Clifford Simak, realist of SF". Guardian Newspapers Limited/The Guardian (London), April 29, 1988.
Further reading
Muriel R. Becker, Clifford D. Simak, a Primary and Secondary Bibliography (1980).
Hardy Kettlitz, Clifford D. Simak: pastorale Harmonien, Shayol Verlag, 2012. (German).
Mark Owings, The Electric Bibliograph 1: Clifford D. Simak.
Phil Stephensen-Payne, Clifford D. Simak: A Working Bibliography (1991)
External links
Clifford Donald Simak Papers
Eldonejo โMistera Sturnoโ An authorized translation of Way Station into Esperanto as a free ebook.
The Science Fiction Short Stories of Clifford D. Simak
"An Interview with Clifford D. Simak" from Tangent, May 1975
"City Slickers, Country Bumpkins, Ants, Robots and Mutants" (Part One and Part 2) at The Grantville Gazette
Clifford D. Simak โ The International Bibliography
1904 births
1988 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
American male non-fiction writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American newspaper editors
American people of Czech descent
American science fiction writers
Hugo Award-winning writers
Nebula Award winners
Novelists from Minnesota
Novelists from Wisconsin
People from Grant County, Wisconsin
SFWA Grand Masters
University of WisconsinโMadison alumni
Writers from Minneapolis
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แแ แแแแแ แขแ
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แแ แแแแแ แขแ (ฤryฤvarta, เคเคฐเฅเคฏเคพเคตเคฐเฅเคค, โแแ แแแแแ แกแแแงแแคแแแโ) โ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ แแแแกแแแฃแ แกแแแกแแ แแขแฃแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แแจแ. โแแแแโแกแแ แแขแโ แแแแแแแแก แแแแฃแกแขแแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แฅแแแจ โ โแแแฌแ แฐแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแฐแแแก, แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แแฆแแแแก แจแแ แแกโ (2.22). โแแแกแแจแขแฐแโแแฐแแ แแแแกแฃแขแ แแกโ แแแแแฎแแแ (I.8-9 ะธ 12-13), แแ แแแแแ แขแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแแ แ แกแแ แแกแแแขแ แแแแ แแแแ แฃแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแแแแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแ, แแแขแแแขแ แแก แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแฐแแแแแ แฉแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แฐแแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแ.
แแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแฃแกแขแแแก แแแแแ แแคแแฃแ แแแแแแก, แแแ แซแแ, แแแแแจแแแแฃแแแ, แ แแ แแ แแแแแ แขแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแกแ แแ แฏแแแฃแแแก แจแฃแแแแแแแ แแแจแ. แแแแแแ แ แแฐแแ แแแกแฃแขแ แแจแ แแฆแฌแแ แแแแ แแแแแกแงแแแแแก แ แแขแฃแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แฃแแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แขแแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแแกแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแ, แแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแ: แแฐแแ แแแกแฃแขแ แแก แแกแขแแ แแ: (แซแแแแ แแ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แกแแแแ แแแแ) แแแแแแ แแแ แแก แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแชแแแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ, แ แแแแ (1962โ1975)
แจแขแแแแ, แ; 2010: แแแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ (2 แฌแแแแแ), ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ, แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแ แ แแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแแแชแแ
แแแแฃแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแแฃแแกแขแฃแ แ แแแแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแคแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidencia%20Roque%20S%C3%A1enz%20Pe%C3%B1a
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Presidencia Roque Sรกenz Peรฑa
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Presidencia Roque Sรกenz Peรฑa (normally known as Sรกenz Peรฑa) is a city in the . It is the second largest in the province. It is located west-northwest of the provincial capital Resistencia, on the main rail and road route across northern Argentina to Salta. The city has a population of 76,377 for the urban area (localidad) and 88,164 for the whole municipality.
Sรกenz Peรฑa was founded in 1912 and has developed as a commercial and industrial centre serving the surrounding agricultural region of the Gran Chaco plains.
Climate
See also
National University of the Chaco Austral
References
Populated places in Chaco Province
Cities in Argentina
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แแแแแแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแกแ แแ แกแแแฎแแแก แจแแ แแก แแแฎแแ แกแแแแแแกแแ แแแแฎแแแฅแแแแแ.
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แแแ แแฆแ แฃแชแแแแแ
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12 แแแแแแแ แ: แแแแแคแแชแแฃแก III โ แ แแแแก แแแแ (แ. แฃแชแแแแแ)
แแแแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแฆแ แฃแชแแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linepithema%20angulatum
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Linepithema angulatum
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Linepithema angulatum โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Linepithema-แก แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Dolichoderinae-แก แฅแแแแฏแแฎแก..
แกแฅแแแแ
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แแแ แ แแแแแแแ แขแ
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แแแ แ แแแแแแแ แขแ (แ. 2 แแแแแกแ, 1882, แกแแ-แแแแแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแ โ แ. 21 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1962, แกแแ-แขแ แแแ, แกแแคแ แแแแแแ) โ แแแแแแแ แขแแแแก แแแแแกแขแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแแแแแแแ I-แแก แซแแแก, แแฃแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แขแแก แจแแแแแแจแแแแ. แกแแแแ แซแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแช แแแแ แแแแก แแแ แซแแแแก แแแฃแฆแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแ แ แแแแแแแ 1882 แฌแแแก 2 แแแแแกแก แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ, แกแแ-แแแแแแก แกแแกแแฎแแแจแ. แแแ แแงแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แแแแแแแแ I-แแก แซแแแก, แแฃแกแแแ แแแแแแแ แขแแก แจแแแแแจแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แขแแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแฃแฆแแแก, แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแก แแกแฃแ แแแ แ-แคแแแแฅแก แแแแแแแก แฅแแแแจแแแแ. แแแแแแแกแ แแแกแ แแแฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแฆแฃแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแฃแแ แแแ แแฃแแแแแแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แแแแแ แแแ แคแฃแคแฃแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแจแ แแฆแแแ แแ, แ แแแ แฃแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แซแแ. 1907 แฌแแแก 21 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแแแแแแกแแ แแแ แกแแแแ แซแแแแแก แแแคแ แแแแ แแแแก I-แแก แจแฃแแแแแ แแแแแ, แแ แแแช แแแแ แแแแกแแ แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแ.
แจแฃแ แฎแแแก แแกแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแ แแก แกแแจแแแแแ แคแกแแฅแแแฃแ แ แแจแแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แกแแแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแฃแแ แคแ แแแแก แแแฃแแแแจแแ แแ, แ แแแแแแแแแช แจแแแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแ แฉแแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ. 1926 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแแฏแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แฅแแแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแ แแแจแ แแแแ แฃแแแ, แกแแแแช แฌแแแแ แแแฌแแ แ แคแ แแแแแกแแฃแ แคแกแแฅแแแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแ แแแก แแแแฌแแ แแแ แคแ แแแแแก แแแจแ แแแแแแก แคแ แแแแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแ. แแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแแจแ แแแแแ แแ แแคแขแแก แแแแ แแแกแ แแ แฅแแแแก แกแแฅแกแฃแแแแแแแ. 1950-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแ แซแแแแ แแฌแแแแแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แแแแ แแแแก.
แแแ แ แแกแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แคแกแแฅแแแแแแแขแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแ-แแ แแ แแขแแแ, แ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแช 1946 แฌแแแก แแแกแขแแ แแแแจแ แกแแขแงแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ.
1957 แฌแแแก แแแ แ แแแแแแแ แขแ แแแฅแแ แแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแ แแ แแฆแแ แแแแฎแแแแแ. 1962 แฌแแแก 14 แแแแกแก แแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแแแจแแแแแก, แแ แแแชแแกแ แกแแคแแ แแแ แซแแแแกแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแแคแ แฎแฃแแ แแแ แแแก I-แแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แแแแกแฌแ แ, แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแจแ, 21 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 80 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ. แแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แซแแแแก แแแแแจแ, แขแแขแแแก แแแแแแแแฃแแจแ, แฅแแ แแก แแแแ แแแ.
แจแแแแแแ
แแแขแ แแกแ (1908-1980), แชแแแแ แจแแแ แแ แแ แแแ แแแแฅแกแแแแ แแแแ แแแฉแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แจแแแแแแ แแ แฐแงแแแแ;
แแแแแแแ (1910-1989), แแแ แแแแแ แแฅแแ แฌแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แ แแซแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแแช แจแแแซแแแ แแ แ แจแแแแ, แแแกแแแ แแแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแ แชแแแแ แแแฐแงแแ แแขแแแแแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแข แ แแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแก, แแแกแขแแ-แแฃแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแแก, แ แแแแแแแแแช แแ แแ แแแแ แจแแแซแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแกแแช แแแแงแแ แ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Bertin, Celia, Marie Bonaparte: A Life, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982. ISBN 0-15-157252-6
Loewenstein, Rudolf, Drives, Affects and Behavior: Essays in Honor of Marie Bonaparte, 1952
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 2 แแแแแกแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1882
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แแแแ-แจแแแฃแแฃ โ แแกแฃแ แแแแก แแแคแ แแ แจแแแแ แฃแแฃแ แแแขแแ แแแแ แแ แ-แแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแคแแแแ แซแแแแ แแกแฃแ แฃแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแ แแก. แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ แแแแ-แจแแแฃแแฃ แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแแแ-แแจแขแแ แแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแ, แแแกแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแฌแแ แ แแแคแแ แแแชแแแก แแแแ แฃแชแแแแแ, แแฃ แ แแแแก แแแแฌแงแ แแ แแแกแ แฃแแแ แแแกแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแแแ-แจแแแฃแแฃแก แจแแแแแ แแกแฃแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแ แจแแแแแแแ แฃแแแแแกแแแแแ แฃแแฃแ แแแขแแ แ แแแแกแ แแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
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แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ (แ. 22 แแแแแกแ, 1869 โ แ. 2 แแแแแแ แ, 1960) โ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแ, แฅแแแแแแฅแแแแ, แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแแคแฃแซแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแก แแแแแแ แกแแแแแ. แฅแแ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แฌแแ แ-แแแแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แ. แฅแฃแแแแกแแก โแกแแแแแแแชแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแแแแกโ แแแแแแ แกแแแแแ. แแแฏแแแแแแแฃแแแ แกแแแแขแแ แแแจแแแก แแ แแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแ แแแแแก แซแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแแแ 1869 แฌแแแก, แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแแแ แแก แกแแคแแ แญแแแแแจแ (แแแแแแแแแแแ แฌแงแแแขแฃแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ) แแแแแฃแ แแก แแฏแแฎแจแ. 14 แฌแแแก แแงแ, แ แแชแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แฉแแแแแงแแแแแก แแ แแฃแจแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแขแ แ (แแแแแ) แแแแแฉแแจแแแแแกแ แแ แชแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแก แแคแแแแฅแจแ. แชแแแแ แแแ แแแก แซแ แแแแแแแกแแ แฌแแ แแแจแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแงแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแกแแฎแแแก. แแคแแแแฅแแก แแแ แแ, แชแแแแ แแแแแแแกแแแก แแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแช แฐแฅแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแ แจแแแกแฌแแแแ แฎแแแแฃแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ. 1887 แฌแแแแแ, แแแแแแแกแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแแแ แฉแแฃแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแแแจแ. 1900 แฌแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แจแแฅแแแ แฎแแแแฃแแแก แกแแกแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแแแ. แแแ แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแแก แแฅแชแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแก แฎแแ แแกแฎแก, แกแแกแแแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแแแแแแก แแแชแแแก แแ แแแ แแแกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแฃแ แแแฃแ แ แฌแแแแแแแก แแแแแงแแแแแแก. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแฎแกแแ แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแ.
1902 แฌแแแก แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ. แแแ แแแจแ แแแ แฎแแแแฃแแแก แฌแงแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแ แขแแฅแแแแแแแ แจแแแกแฌแแแแ, แ แแช แจแแแแแ แแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแ แแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แแแแชแแแขแแแแ, แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแ แแ แแจแแแแ แแแแฅแขแ แแกแแแแฃแ แ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แแแแแ แแแกแชแ แฅแฃแแแแกแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแแแแแแแ. แแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แคแแฅแขแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแฆแคแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแ แฉแ. แแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ 1904 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ โแแแแ แแโ แฌแแ แแ:
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแฆแ แแแชแแแแ -แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฎแแแแแแฃแ แ แงแแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฆแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแขแแแ แแแแฅแขแ แแกแแแแฃแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแแญแแ แแแแแกแแแแแก. แแก แแงแ แแแแ แกแแแซแแแแ แแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแจแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแฃแฅแชแแแ, แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแแ แแ, แแแแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ แคแแแแก แแแแกแแแแฃแ แแก แกแแแแชแแแ แ แแแฃแ แแแแแแกแแช.
แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แ แแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แฃแแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแแฅแแฃแ โแแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแกโ, แ แแแแแแช แแงแแแแแแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แชแแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแ แแฎแแแก.
แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แแแ แแแแ, แ แแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแ แแแแแ แงแแแฃแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแแ แฅแแ แฎแแแแจแ, แแแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แกแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแก แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แกแแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแ แคแแ แแฃแแแแจแ. แแฅ แแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแ แฎแก แแ แแคแแ แแแแแแ แญแแแแคแแแก. แแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแ แซแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแก แแ แแชแแกแก.
แแแ แแแแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแ แซแแแแแ แคแแ แแแ แแแแแแงแแแ แฎแแแแฃแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแก แแแกแแงแแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แฎแแ-แแแแแ แแก แแแแแแฃแแ. แจแแแแฃแจแแแ แฎแแแแก แกแแ แแคแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแแก แแกแแแชแแแแแก แ แแชแแแขแฃแ แ แแ แแแฆแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแแแ. แแแแกแแแ แแก แแแแแแฌแแแแแ แคแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แฎแแแแก แแแแแแฃแแแก แจแแ แฉแแแแก แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแก แกแแ แแคแก แแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแ แฏแแแแก แฎแแแแแจแ, แฃแแแแแ แแกแแ แแ แแแแฃแ แแแแจแ แแแแ แชแแแแแฃแ แฎแแ-แแแแแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช แซแแแแแ แกแฃแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแ แแงแ, แแฃแแชแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแแแ แจแแแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแคแ แฏแแแแแแ.
1906 แฌแแแก แแแฌแฃแ แฃแแก, แแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแก แ แฉแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแแก แแแฎแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแกแจแ แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแ แกแ, แแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแก (แแฎแแแแแแแ แจแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแแแแก) แแ แแกแแแฅแขแแ แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแก แแแฆแแแแ แแแฎแกแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแ แแแแช แ แฃแกแฃแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแก แฅแแแจ แแงแ. แแ แคแแฅแขแแก แแแแ, แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแขแแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแแ แแฎแกแแ.
1910 แฌแแแกแแแแก แแแแแแกแจแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แฎแแแแก แฌแงแแแแแก 3 แฅแแ แฎแแแ: แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก, แ. แแแแแแแก แแ แ. แแแแฃแแแแแก. แแแ แจแแ แแก แงแแแแแแ แฃแแแแแกแ แฎแแ แแกแฎแแก แแแแแแแแก แฃแจแแแแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ. 1913 แฌแแแก แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแกแ แแ แแแแแจแ แกแแกแแแแแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แแแแแคแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแแ แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแ แแฅแ แแกแ แแ แแแ แชแฎแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแฏแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแแ 1916 แฌแแแก แขแคแแแแกแจแ, แแ แแแแแแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแแแ แกแแฎแแ แแงแแแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แแฆแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก แแแฆแแซแแแแแก แแฏแแฎแ. 1921 แฌแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแฌแแ แแ แแแขแ แแคแแแแ แกแแ แแคแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ-แฉแแแแกแฎแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแก แกแแ แแแคแจแ แแแแแแ แซแ. 1922 แฌแแแก แแแฌแแ แแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แคแแ แแแก แแแงแแคแ แแแกแแฎแแแแก แแ แแแก แกแแ แแแคแจแ แฎแแแฎแ แจแแแกแแฎแแแก.
1926 แฌแแแก แแแขแ แแคแแแแ แแแฆแแแแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแแแแกแชแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแกแขแแก แกแแแแกแฃแฎแแ 1927 แฌแแแก แแ แแแจแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แชแแขแแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแแแ (แแฆแแแแแแแแ แฌแแแแแซแฆแแ แแจแแแแแก แฅแฃแฉแ) แแแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแฐแแแ แกแแกแแแแแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแกแชแแก แกแแแแ แแแแแ. แแ แแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแแ แฅแแ แฎแแแ แแแ แแแ แแงแ แแฆแญแฃแ แแแแ, แแแฌแแแแแ แขแแฅแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแงแแแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแฅ แแแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแแแ 1934 แฌแแแก แแแฎแจแแ แแ แแแแแแก แแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแชแแแขแแแแ แแฅแแ แแจแแแแ แแแฎแจแแ แแแแแ แแแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแแช. 1930 แฌแแแก แกแแฎแฃแแจแ แแจแแแแ แฎแแแแฃแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแ. แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแ แ แแแฎแแแ แแแแกแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแงแแแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแ แแแฃแฅแขแแแแก แกแแแแแแแขแ แ แแแฌแแ แแแก, แฆแแแแแก, แซแแ แแก, แแแฅแแแ แแแแก, แแแกแแแแก, แแแงแแแแก แแ แกแฎแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแแ แแกแ แแแกแฌแแแแแ, แ แแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแแแช แแแฐแฅแแแแแ. แแแแแแกแจแ แแงแแคแ แแ แแแแแ แแแญแ แแแ แแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแ แกแแฉแฃแฅแแ แก, แแ แแแแก แแแแแแฃแแแแกแ แแ แฌแแ แฉแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแก แคแแจแฅแแจแแ แฃแแแแแแแแแแ.
1934 แฌแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแก แกแกแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแจแ แแแแฌแแแ. แกแแแญแแแ แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแฌแแแแก แแแกแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแก แฅแแ แฎแแแแจแ, แกแกแ แ แแแแแแก แแ แแฌแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแจแ แแแแกแฃแแขแแแขแแ. แแ แแแ แแฎแแ แแแแแแขแแแแก แแ แแแจแ, แแแแแแขแแกแ แแ แกแฎแแ แฅแแแงแแแแจแ, แ แแแ แแฅ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แฌแแ แแแแแ แแแแฎแกแแ. แจแแแแแ แแแ แฎแแแแฃแแแก แฌแงแแแแแก แกแแคแแ แแ แแแฆแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแกแแแแแ แแแแฌแแแแก แ แฃแกแแแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แฅแแแแฅแจแ, แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแแขแแจแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แแแแ แแจแ แแแแ แจแ แแแแกแแแงแแแ แ แแ แแแแญแ แแแฎแ แแฃแแแแแก แแฅแแแ แแแฃแฆแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแก แแกแฃแแ แแแฎแแแแ. แแแ แกแฌแแแแแแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแแแก แกแแกแฌแแแแแแแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แฌแแ แฉแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแ แแ แแแแแ แจแแแแแก แแแแ แแงแ, แแแ แแแฎแแแ แแแแก แฃแฌแแแแ แแแฃแฆแแแก แแแก แแแแ แฌแแแแฌแงแแแฃแ แกแแฅแแแก แแแซแฆแแแแจแ. แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแ แฎแแแแฃแแ แฌแงแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแแแแจแ, แฐแฅแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ, แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแแแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแแก แแแฌแงแแแฃแ แแ แแแแ แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแก, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแจแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแ แกแแแฆแแแ แแแ แแ แแแงแแคแแแแแ. 1906 แฌแแแก แ แแชแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแแขแแแ แ แแฃแแแ แแแขแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแแ-แแแแ แกแแแ แแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแฃแแ แฌแแกแแ แชแแแแแ แจแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแ แแแฃแแแ แ, แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแก แแแแจแฃแ แ, แแแ แแแแ แแแฎแ แแแแ แญแแญแแแแซแ แแ แกแแฎแแแ แแแกแ แฅแแแ แ แ แแแแ แแ แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแฎแกแแ, แฎแแแ แแฃ แแแแก แแแ แแแแฎแแฎแแแแ แชแแแแแ แจแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแช แแแชแแแแแแแ. แแแแ แญแแแญแแแแซแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแแขแแแก แกแชแแแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก, แ แแแแ แช แแฅแแ, แแแแฎแแ แฎแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแแฌแแแ แแ แฎแแแจแแแฌแงแแแ แแงแ. แแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแแแ แกแ แกแแแแแแแชแแแแ แแแฎแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแกแชแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแ แแ แแแฃแแแแก แแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแก แฌแแแแแแก. แแแกแ แฎแแแจแแฌแงแแแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแขแแขแ. แแฎแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แแแแแกแแฉแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแงแ แฌแแ แ-แแแแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแแขแฃแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แ, แแแขแแ แแแแฃแ แแ แแฎแแแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแกแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแก, แแงแ แแแแ แ แแ แแแแฃแแ แกแแฅแแแก แฎแแแจแแแฌแงแแแ แแ แแแแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแแแแ. แแฎแแ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แแแแแกแแแ, แแแแแแกแแแ, แขแแชแแแ แขแแแแซแแกแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ แกแแฎแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแ 1898 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแชแ แแแแแก โแแฉแ แแแแโ, แแแแแแก โแแแแแแแแแแแก แฉแแแแแแโ, แแแฎแขแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแก โแแแแแโ แแ แกแฎแแ. 1908 แฌแแแก แแแแแแก แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแแก 50 แฌแแแกแแแแแกแแแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ แแแแแญแแ แกแแแฃแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแ, แ แแแแแก แงแแแแ แแฌแแ แแ: โแแแแแ แแ แแแแแชแแแแก แจแแแแกแแแแแก แแแจแแแ แฆแ แแ แแแขแแแแกแชแแแแกแ แแฃแซแฆแแแ แแฃแแแแแ แก แแแแแแก 50 แฌแแแก แแแฆแแแฌแแแแแก แกแแฎแกแแแ แแโ.แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแแแแช แแแญแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแก โแแแแ แแแจแโ, โแแแแแจแโ, โแกแแฎแแแฎแ แแแแแแจแโ, โแแ แแแแแจแโ แแ แกแฎแแแแแ.
แแ แโแแ แแ แแแ แกแแแ, 1952 แฌแแแก แฐแแ แ แขแ แฃแแแแแ แกแขแแแแแก แกแแฉแฃแฅแ แแ แแแแกแ แแแแแ โแแแแ-แแแแโ แแแฃแแแแแแ. แกแขแแแแแแ แแ แแแแจแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแแแแ แ แแ แกแแแฅแกแแแ แขแ แแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แขแ แฃแแแแก แแแฃแแแแแแ. แชแแขแ แฎแแแจแ แแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแแแ แฌแแ แแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แแแแแแแแแก แแฅแกแแแ แขแก แแแฎแแแแแแ. แกแขแแแแแแก แแ แซแแแแแแ, แแแฆแแซแ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแแแก แแ แแฌแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแกแขแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแแกแฃแแขแแแขแแ แแแแแแจแแ.
แแแฆแแซแแก แแแแแแแแแ แแ แ แแฎแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแขแแแ, แฃแชแฎแแแแแแแช แแฎแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแก แแแฅแกแแแ แแแฃแซแฆแแแแก แแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ, แกแแ แแแ แแกแแแแแแ, แแแแแแ แแแขแฃแจแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแแ. แแแแแกแ แแ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแจแ แแแฆแแซแแก แฌแงแแแแ แแฅแ แแก แแแแแแ แแแฏแแแแแแแ.
แแ แแแแแแฎแ แแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแ แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1960 แฌแแแก 2 แแแแแแ แก. แแแแ แซแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแกแจแ, แกแแแฃแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแจแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแขแ แแคแแแ แแแฆแแซแแก แแแแแ แแคแแ โ nateba.net
แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแฌแแ แแแแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 2 แแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1869
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 2 แแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1960
แกแแแแขแแ แแแจแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ
แฅแแ แแแแแแ แจแแ แแก แฌแแ แ-แแแแฎแแแก แแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
แฌแงแแแขแฃแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
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477579
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%20%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98
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แฏแแฐแแแแแ แแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแ
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แฏแแฐแแแแแ แแแ แฅแแแแแแแแแแ (แ. 15 แแแ แขแ, 1894 โ แ. 17 แแแแแแ แ, 1955) โ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแก แแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแฏแแก แแฏแแแงแแแแก (1920) แแ แ-แแ แแ แฎแแแแซแฆแแแแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแ 1894 แฌแแแก (แกแฎแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ 1885) 15 แแแ แขแก แแแแฏแแจแ. แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแจแแแแแฃแ แฅแแแแฅแจแ. 1902 แฌแแแก แกแแแฎแแแ แ แกแแแกแแฎแฃแ แ แแแแฌแงแ. แกแแแ แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแฆแ แแแ แแแแ แฉแแแ โ แฎแแ แฃแแแ. แแ แแก แแแ แแแแ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแแแฌแแแ. แแแคแแก แแ แแแแจแ แแแแแกแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแ แแแ แ 1917 แฌแแแก แแแแกแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแก แฉแแแแ.
1919 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แจแ แจแแแแแ แแแ -แแก แแ แแแแจแ. แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแกแขแ แแก แแ แขแแแแ แแแก แแแแแ แแ แแแฐแแแแแแ แแแแก 14 แแแแแ แแก แแ แซแแแแแแ, แแแแแแจแแ 1-แแ แฅแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ-3 แฅแแแแแ แแแแฏแแก แแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแก แแแแแแ แฃแแแแแแแจแ. แกแแแฎแแแ แ แฃแฌแงแแแแก 3 แแแแแกแแก โ 276 แแ แซแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแ-3 แฅแแแแแ แแแแฏแแก แแแแแแก แแแแแฃแ แแ.
แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก 1920 แฌแแแก 24 แแแ แขแแก โ 167 แแ แซแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแ แฏแแฐแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแก แฉแแแจแ แแฅแแ แแแแแงแแแแแแ.
แแ แแก แแแแฏแแก แแฏแแแงแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แกแแแญแแแ แฎแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ แแงแ แแแแแ แแฃแแ. แแแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแช แแฏแแแงแแแฃแแแแแ แฅแแแแฅแแ แแแแขแ แแแ แแแฆแแก, แฅแแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแแฏแแก แแแ แแแแแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแแ. แแฏแแแงแแแแก แฉแแฎแจแแแแก แจแแแแแ, แแชแแ แแแ แ แแแแแ แแแแฎแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ. แแฅแแแแ แแก แแแแแ แแชแแแจแ แฌแแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ. 1923 แฌแแแก แฉแแแแแ แแแแแแแแจแ แแ แแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแฎแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแ แแแแก แแคแแชแแ -แแแแขแ แแฅแขแแ แ. แแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแแก แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแ แซแแแแแแก แแกแแแแแแแ แแฃแ แกแ, แแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแก.
แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แฌแแแแจแ แแก แแแฎแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแฃแแ แแแแแ แแแขแฃแแ แแแซแ แแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแแฌแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแ แแแก แแแแแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแ แแแแฎแกแแ 1943 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ แแแแแ แแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแแแ แแ แแแแฃแแ แงแ แแแแแ.
แแแแ แ แแกแแคแแแ แแแแก แแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แ แแฆแแช แแแ แแแแ แแขแแแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ, แจแแแแแ แแฃแ แฅแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแ. แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1955 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแแจแ, แกแแแแฃแแแแแแแ แแแชแฃแ แแแ แแแแแแแจแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 15 แแแ แขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1885
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1955
แแแแ แแแแฏแแแฃแแ แแ แแกแขแแแ แแขแแ
แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแฆแแแฌแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3-%E1%83%93%E1%83%98-%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
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แแแแ แแแแแขแฃ-แแ-แแแกแ-แกแแแแแ แ
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แแแแ แแแแแขแฃ-แแ-แแแกแ-แกแแแแแ แ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแ แแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแก แจแขแแขแจแ, แแ แแแแแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ-แแฆแแแกแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแจแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ แแแแแก แจแขแแขแแก แกแแแฎแ แแ-แชแแแขแ แแแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแก.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ, แแแกแแฎแแแแแ 42 705 แแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแ. แคแแ แแแแ 2 267.021 แแยฒ-แแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ 18.84 แแยฒ-แแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography
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Oceanography
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, sea science and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and seabed geology; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers utilize to glean further knowledge of the world ocean, including astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past. An oceanographer is a person who studies many matters concerned with oceans, including marine geology, physics, chemistry, and biology.
History
Early history
Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo in 384โ322 BC. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken.
The Portuguese campaign of Atlantic navigation is the earliest example of a systematic scientific large project, sustained over many decades, studying the currents and winds of the Atlantic.
The work of Pedro Nunes (1502โ1578) is remembered in the navigation context for the determination of the loxodromic curve: the shortest course between two points on the surface of a sphere represented onto a two-dimensional map. When he published his "Treatise of the Sphere" (1537), mostly a commentated translation of earlier work by others, he included a treatise on geometrical and astronomic methods of navigation. There he states clearly that Portuguese navigations were not an adventurous endeavour:
"nam se fezeram indo a acertar: mas partiam os nossos mareantes muy ensinados e prouidos de estromentos e regras de astrologia e geometria que sam as cousas que os cosmographos ham dadar apercebidas (...) e leuaua cartas muy particularmente rumadas e na ja as de que os antigos vsauam" (were not done by chance: but our seafarers departed well taught and provided with instruments and rules of astrology (astronomy) and geometry which were matters the cosmographers would provide (...) and they took charts with exact routes and no longer those used by the ancient).
His credibility rests on being personally involved in the instruction of pilots and senior seafarers from 1527 onwards by Royal appointment, along with his recognized competence as mathematician and astronomer.
The main problem in navigating back from the south of the Canary Islands (or south of Boujdour) by sail alone, is due to the change in the regime of winds and currents: the North Atlantic gyre and the Equatorial counter current will push south along the northwest bulge of Africa, while the uncertain winds where the Northeast trades meet the Southeast trades (the doldrums) leave a sailing ship to the mercy of the currents. Together, prevalent current and wind make northwards progress very difficult or impossible. It was to overcome this problem and clear the passage to India around Africa as a viable maritime trade route, that a systematic plan of exploration was devised by the Portuguese. The return route from regions south of the Canaries became the 'volta do largo' or 'volta do mar'. The 'rediscovery' of the Azores islands in 1427 is merely a reflection of the heightened strategic importance of the islands, now sitting on the return route from the western coast of Africa (sequentially called 'volta de Guinรฉ' and 'volta da Mina'); and the references to the Sargasso Sea (also called at the time 'Mar da Baga'), to the west of the Azores, in 1436, reveals the western extent of the return route. This is necessary, under sail, to make use of the southeasterly and northeasterly winds away from the western coast of Africa, up to the northern latitudes where the westerly winds will bring the seafarers towards the western coasts of Europe.
The secrecy involving the Portuguese navigations, with the death penalty for the leaking of maps and routes, concentrated all sensitive records in the Royal Archives, completely destroyed by the Lisbon earthquake of 1775. However, the systematic nature of the Portuguese campaign, mapping the currents and winds of the Atlantic, is demonstrated by the understanding of the seasonal variations, with expeditions setting sail at different times of the year taking different routes to take account of seasonal predominate winds. This happens from as early as late 15th century and early 16th: Bartolomeu Dias followed the African coast on his way south in August 1487, while Vasco da Gama would take an open sea route from the latitude of Sierra Leone, spending 3 months in the open sea of the South Atlantic to profit from the southwards deflection of the southwesterly on the Brazilian side (and the Brazilian current going southward) - Gama departed in July 1497); and Pedro Alvares Cabral, departing March 1500) took an even larger arch to the west, from the latitude of Cape Verde, thus avoiding the summer monsoon (which would have blocked the route taken by Gama at the time he set sail). Furthermore, there were systematic expeditions pushing into the western Northern Atlantic (Teive, 1454; Vogado, 1462; Teles, 1474; Ulmo, 1486). The documents relating to the supplying of ships, and the ordering of sun declination tables for the southern Atlantic for as early as 1493โ1496, all suggest a well-planned and systematic activity happening during the decade long period between Bartolomeu Dias finding the southern tip of Africa, and Gama's departure; additionally, there are indications of further travels by Bartolomeu Dias in the area. The most significant consequence of this systematic knowledge was the negotiation of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, moving the line of demarcation 270 leagues to the west (from 100 to 370 leagues west of the Azores), bringing what is now Brazil into the Portuguese area of domination. The knowledge gathered from open sea exploration allowed for the well-documented extended periods of sail without sight of land, not by accident but as pre-determined planned route; for example, 30 days for Bartolomeu Dias culminating on Mossel Bay, the 3 months Gama spent in the South Atlantic to use the Brazil current (southward), or the 29 days Cabral took from Cape Verde up to landing in Monte Pascoal, Brazil.
The Danish expedition to Arabia 1761โ67 can be said to be the world's first oceanographic expedition, as the ship Grรธnland had on board a group of scientists, including naturalist Peter Forsskรฅl, who was assigned an explicit task by the king, Frederik V, to study and describe the marine life in the open sea, including finding the cause of mareel, or milky seas. For this purpose, the expedition was equipped with nets and scrapers, specifically designed to collect samples from the open waters and the bottom at great depth.
Although Juan Ponce de Leรณn in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, and the current was well known to mariners, Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769โ1770.
Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped "the banks and currents at the Lagullas". He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now known as Rennell's Current).
Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result of the second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831โ1836. Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of Beagles three voyages. In 1841โ1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology.
The first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory (1842โ1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide.
Modern oceanography
Knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The British Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep, although little more was known. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans.
The seminal event in the founding of the modern science of oceanography was the 1872โ1876 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, the British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct appropriate scientific investigation. Charles Wyville Thomson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. , leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work and equipped with separate laboratories for natural history and chemistry. Under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe, 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken. Around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873โ76. Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". He went on to found the academic discipline of oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, which remained the centre for oceanographic research well into the 20th century. Murray was the first to study marine trenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and map the sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried to map out the world's ocean currents based on salinity and temperature observations, and was the first to correctly understand the nature of coral reef development.
In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The first purpose-built oceanographic ship, Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansen allowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in the Arctic ice. This enabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological and astronomical data at a stationary spot over an extended period.
In 1881 the geographer John Francon Williams published a seminal book, Geography of the Oceans. Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krรผmmel published the Handbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influential in awakening public interest in oceanography. The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever mounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.
The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
In 1934, Easter Ellen Cupp, the first woman to have earned a PhD (at Scripps) in the United States, completed a major work on diatoms that remained the standard taxonomy in the field until well after her death in 1999. In 1940, Cupp was let go from her position at Scripps. Sverdrup specifically commended Cupp as a conscientious and industrious worker and commented that his decision was no reflection on her ability as a scientist. Sverdrup used the instructor billet vacated by Cupp to employ Marston Sargent,a biologist studying marine algae, which was not a new research program at Scripps. Financial pressures did not prevent Sverdrup from retaining the services of two other young post-doctoral students, Walter Munk and Roger Revelle. Cupp's partner, Dorothy Rosenbury, found her a position teaching high school, where she remained for the rest of her career. (Russell, 2000)
Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceans in 1942, which was a major landmark. The Sea (in three volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962, while Rhodes Fairbridge's Encyclopedia of Oceanography was published in 1966.
The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in 1953 and mapped by Heezen and Marie Tharp using bathymetric data; in 1954 a mountain range under the Arctic Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of the USSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean Drilling Program started in 1966. Deep-sea vents were discovered in 1977 by Jack Corliss and Robert Ballard in the submersible .
In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscaphe and used the bathyscaphe to investigate the ocean's depths. The United States nuclear submarine made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962 the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a spar buoy, was first deployed.
In 1968, Tanya Atwater led the first all-woman oceanographic expedition. Until that time, gender policies restricted women oceanographers from participating in voyages to a significant extent.
From the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. Early techniques included analog computers (such as the Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer) generally now replaced by numerical methods (e.g. SLOSH.) An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of El Niรฑo events.
1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995.
Study of the oceans is critical to understanding shifts in Earth's energy balance along with related global and regional changes in climate, the biosphere and biogeochemistry. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Recent studies have advanced knowledge on ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, sea level rise, the oceanic carbon cycle, the water cycle, Arctic sea ice decline, coral bleaching, marine heatwaves, extreme weather, coastal erosion and many other phenomena in regards to ongoing climate change and climate feedbacks.
In general, understanding the world ocean through further scientific study enables better stewardship and sustainable utilization of Earth's resources. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission reports that 1.7% of the total national research expenditure of its members is focused on ocean science.
Branches
The study of oceanography is divided into these five branches:
Biological oceanography
Biological oceanography investigates the ecology and biology of marine organisms in the context of the physical, chemical and geological characteristics of their ocean environment.
Chemical oceanography
Chemical oceanography is the study of the chemistry of the ocean. Whereas chemical oceanography is primarily occupied with the study and understanding of seawater properties and its changes, ocean chemistry focuses primarily on the geochemical cycles. The following is a central topic investigated by chemical oceanography.
Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Seawater is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30โ40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1) through ocean acidification. The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.
An important element for the skeletons of marine animals is calcium, but calcium carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dissolve below the carbonate compensation depth. Calcium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification is likely to affect marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins and corals, and the carbonate compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonic organisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids and foraminifera, all important in the food chain. In tropical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as they become less able to build their calcium carbonate skeletons, in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.
The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to be unprecedented in Earth's geological history, making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to the shifting conditions of the near future. Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected additional stressors of higher ocean temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.
Geological oceanography
Geological oceanography is the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics and paleoceanography.
Physical oceanography
Physical oceanography studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, surface waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents. The following are central topics investigated by physical oceanography.
Seismic Oceanography
Ocean currents
Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a major interest was the study of ocean currents and temperature measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity, and temperature are the main factors determining ocean currents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) (thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content) connects the ocean basins and is primarily dependent on the density of sea water. It is becoming more common to refer to this system as the 'meridional overturning circulation' because it more accurately accounts for other driving factors beyond temperature and salinity.
Examples of sustained currents are the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio Current which are wind-driven western boundary currents.
Ocean heat content
Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the extra heat stored in the ocean from changes in Earth's energy balance. The increase in the ocean heat play an important role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion. Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumulation associated with global warming since 1971.
Paleoceanography
Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation, chemistry, biology, geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity. Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the reconstruction of past climate at various intervals. Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to palaeoclimatology.
Oceanographic institutions
The earliest international organizations of oceanography were founded at the turn of the 20th century, starting with the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea created in 1902, followed in 1919 by the Mediterranean Science Commission. Marine research institutes were already in existence, starting with the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn in Naples, Italy (1872), the Biological Station of Roscoff, France (1876), the Arago Laboratory in Banyuls-sur-mer, France (1882), the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association in Plymouth, UK (1884), the Norwegian Institute for Marine Research in Bergen, Norway (1900), the Laboratory fรผr internationale Meeresforschung, Kiel, Germany (1902). On the other side of the Atlantic, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded in 1903, followed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, the LamontโDoherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University in 1949, and later the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Australia, the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), established in 1972 soon became a key player in marine tropical research.
In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau, called since 1970 the International Hydrographic Organization, was established to develop hydrographic and nautical charting standards
Related disciplines
See also
List of seas
Ocean optics
Ocean color
Ocean chemistry
References
Sources and further reading
Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-Dimensional Dynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, 2014, World Scientific Publishing, . Sample Chapter
Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005) Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science. University of Washington Press.
Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rรผtzler, eds. Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine Science Symposium. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009)
Roorda, Eric Paul, ed. The Ocean Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Duke University Press, 2020) 523 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58118 online review[
Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.)
Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography, McGraw-Hill,
Russell, Joellen Louise. , 2000, Regents of the University of California.
External links
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory โ Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC). A data centre responsible for archiving and distributing data about the physical state of the ocean.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography. One of the world's oldest, largest, and most important centres for ocean and Earth science research, education, and public service.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). One of the world's largest private, non-profit ocean research, engineering and education organizations.
British Oceanographic Data Centre. A source of oceanographic data and information.
NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator. Plot and download ocean data.
Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/Open University.
Atlas of Spanish Oceanography by InvestigAdHoc.
Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines by Steven K. Baum, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University
Barcelona-Ocean.com . Inspiring Education in Marine Sciences
CFOO: Sea Atlas. A source of oceanographic live data (buoy monitoring) and education for South African coasts.
Memorial website for USNS Bowditch, USNS Dutton, USNS Michelson and USNS H. H. Hess
Applied and interdisciplinary physics
Earth sciences
Hydrology
Physical geography
Articles containing video clips
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Puss Gets the Boot
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Puss Gets the Boot is a 1940 American animated short film and is the first short in what would become the Tom and Jerry cartoon series, though neither were yet referred to by these names. It was directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, and produced by Rudolf Ising. It was based on the Aesop's Fable, The Cat and the Mice. As was the practice of MGM shorts at the time, only Rudolf Ising is credited. It was released to theaters on February 10, 1940, by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
In this first short, the cat is named Jasper, and appears to be a mangy, battle-hardened street cat, more malicious than the character that Tom would develop into over time. The unnamed mouse was similar to who would become the Jerry character, albeit slightly thinner. The basic premise was the one that would become familiar to audiences; in The Art of Hanna-Barbera, Ted Sennett sums it up as "cat stalks and chases mouse in a frenzy of mayhem and slapstick violence". Though the studio executives were unimpressed, audiences loved the film and it was nominated for an Academy Award.
Synopsis
A cat named Jasper takes great pleasure in tormenting a nameless mouse, who is trying to run away while he keeps grabbing the tail to keep him from running anywhere. Eventually, the mouse breaks free but goes into Jasper's mouth, narrowly escaping. Jasper then draws a hole on the wall to trick the mouse into entering it. The mouse bangs against the wall so hard that it knocks him out. Jasper revives him using water from the fish tank and picks him up. Having slowly realized the situation, the mouse punches Jasper in the eye, causing him to yelp and screech in pain. The angry cat chases the mouse and accidentally bumps into a Greek pillar, where it breaks upon falling onto him along with the flowerpot that was standing on it. The maid enters the room and scolds Jasper for his unacceptable behavior, issuing him an ultimatum that if she catches him making one more mess, he will get kicked out of the house. Jasper sulks off, the mouse chuckles at him and this causes Jasper to chase him, but when the mouse holds a glass over the edge of the table, Jasper backs off after seeing the maid furiously walking away with the remains of the broken flowerpot, fearing that he will get himself into trouble again.
After the mouse puts the glass down, Jasper sees his chance and rushes at him, but the mouse holds back Jasper by threatening to drop the glass again. Then the mouse drops the glass and Jasper rushes to catch it. The mouse throws more cups, making it very hard for Jasper to catch them all. As the mouse walks away with the last cup, feeling confident that he has the advantage, Jasper drops a bunch of pillows on the ground. When the mouse tries to expel Jasper by dropping the glass, it stays intact when it lands on the soft surface of one of the pillows. The mouse tries to escape but Jasper catches him by the tail. Jasper inadvertently throws the mouse onto a shelf, where he escapes and begins pelting him with several dishes, making sure that Jasper will "get the boot." Jasper begins to feel tired of holding all the dishes, and can only watch as the mouse drops one last dish on the ground, breaking it, and thus alerting the maid into thinking Jasper violated her ultimatum.
The maid once again enters the room in frustration just as the mouse swims in Jasper's milk bowl, uses his tail as a towel and finally kicks Jasper, causing him to drop all of the dishes, creating a huge mess and framing him for making it. The mouse flees the scene and dives into his hole just as the maid hits Jasper with a broom, throws him out of the house and slams the door shut. As Jasper is dragged away, the mouse waves to him, sticks his tongue out, puts a HOME SWEET HOME sign (seen earlier in the hole on the wall trick) in front of his hole, and enters it.
Production and release
In June 1937, animator and storyman Joseph Barbera began to work for the Ising animation unit at MGM, then the largest studio in Hollywood. He learned that co-owner Louis B. Mayer wished to boost the animation department by encouraging the artists to develop some new cartoon characters, following the lack of success with its earlier cartoon series based on The Captain and the Kids comic strip. Barbera then teamed with fellow Ising unit animator and director William Hanna and pitched new ideas, among them was the concept of two "equal characters who were always in conflict with each other". An early thought involved a fox and a dog before they settled on a cat and mouse. The pair discussed their ideas with producer Fred Quimby, then the head of the short film department who, despite a lack of interest in it, gave them the green-light to produce one cartoon short.
The short, Puss Gets the Boot, featured a cat named Jasper and an unnamed mouse, and an African American housemaid. Leonard Maltin described it as "very new and special [...] that was to change the course of MGM cartoon production" and established the successful Tom and Jerry formula of comical cat and mouse chases with slapstick gags. It was released onto the theatre circuit on February 10, 1940, and the pair, having been advised by management not to produce any more, focused on other cartoons including Gallopin' Gals (1940) and Officer Pooch (1941). Matters changed, however, when Texas businesswoman Bessa Short sent a letter to MGM asking whether more cat and mouse shorts would be produced, which helped convince management to commission a series. A studio contest held to rename both characters was won by animator John Carr, who suggested Tom the cat and Jerry the mouse after the popular Christmastime cocktail, itself derived from the names of two characters in an 1821 stage play by William Moncrieff, an adaptation of 1821 Pierce Egan's book titled Life in London where the names originated, which was based on George Cruikshank's, Isaac Robert Cruikshank's, and Egan's own careers. Carr was awarded a first place prize of $50. Puss Gets the Boot was a critical success, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Short Subject: Cartoons in 1941 despite the credits listing Ising and omitting Hanna and Barbera.
After MGM gave the green-light for Hanna and Barbera to continue, the studio entered production on The Midnight Snack (1941). The pair would continue to work on Tom and Jerry cartoons for the next fifteen years of their career.
Reception
Motion Picture Exhibitor reviewed the short on March 6, 1940: "Puss teases the mouse but when the latter learns that breakage in the house will lead to Puss being thrown out, the fun begins. Windup has the crockery crashing, the mouse victorious, Puss getting the boot."
Voice cast
Harry E. Lang as Jasper
William Hanna as the unnamed mouse
Lillian Randolph as the maid (original)
June Foray and Thea Vidale as the maid (re-edited)
Availability
Blu-ray
Tom and Jerry Golden Collection, Volume 1, Disc 1
DVD
Tom and Jerry Spotlight Collection: Double Feature, Disc 1
Warner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Award-Nominated Animation: Cinema Favorites
Tom and Jerry Golden Collection, Volume 1, Disc 1
Tom and Jerry: The Deluxe Anniversary Collection, Disc 1
Warner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection, Disc 2
Tom and Jerry Spotlight Collection, Volume 2, Disc 1
VHS
Tom & Jerry's 50th Birthday Classics
Laserdisc
The Art of Tom and Jerry Volume 1, Disc 1, Side 1
Tom & Jerry Classics
iTunes
Tom and Jerry, Volume 2
References
External links
1940s English-language films
1940 animated films
1940 short films
1940s American animated films
1940s animated short films
Short films directed by William Hanna
Short films directed by Joseph Barbera
American comedy short films
1940 comedy films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer animated short films
Films scored by Scott Bradley
Tom and Jerry short films
Films directed by Rudolf Ising
Animated films about cats
Animated films about mice
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer short films
Films produced by Fred Quimby
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio short films
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แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแกแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฃแแ (1): 2015-16
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแฃแแแ แแแกแแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแฃแแ (1): 2015-16
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแฃแแแ แแแกแแก แคแแแแแแกแขแ: 2011-12
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แแแแแแแแฃแแ 12 แแแแแ แแแแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1991
แฅแแ แแแแแ แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แกแแฉแฎแแ แแก แฉแแฎแฃแ แแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แแแแ แแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แแแ แขแแแแแก แแแ แแแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แกแแแขแ แแแแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แแแแแแกแแก แแแแแแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แแแ แแก แแแแแก แคแแฎแแฃแ แแแแแแ
แกแแฉแฎแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
แ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87a%C4%9Flay%C4%B1k%2C%20Ardahan
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รaฤlayฤฑk, Ardahan
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รaฤlayฤฑk, Ardahan
รaฤlayฤฑk is a village in the Ardahan District, Ardahan Province, Turkey. The village is populated by Kurds and had a population of 294 in 2021.
References
Villages in Ardahan District
Kurdish settlements in Ardahan Province
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98
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แแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ
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แแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ (แ. 11 แแแ แขแ, 1591, แขแฃแ แแแ, แกแแแแแแก แกแแฐแแ แชแแแ, แแขแแแแ โ แ. 28 แแแแแกแขแ, 1626, แแแแแแ, แแแแแแแก แกแแฐแแ แชแแแ, แแขแแแแ) โ แกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแฃแแแ I-แแกแ แแ แแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แแกแฃแแ. แแแแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แแแคแแแกแ III-แแก แแแฃแฆแแ แแ แฐแแ แชแแ แคแ แแแฉแแกแแ I-แแก แแแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ 1591 แฌแแแก 11 แแแ แขแก แขแฃแ แแแจแ. แแแ แแงแ แกแแแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแฃแแแ I-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแฃแฆแแแก, แแแขแแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแแแก แจแฃแแแแแ แแกแฃแแ. แแแแแก แแฎแ แแแแ แแแ แแงแ แแกแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แขแฃแแแแแแก แแแคแ แคแแแแแ II-แแกแ แแ แแแกแ แแแกแแแ แชแแแแก, แแแแแคแแ แแแแแแแแข แแ แแแแฃแแก แจแแแแแจแแแแ, แแแก แแแขแแแกแแชแแแแแแช แแแแ แฅแแ แกแแฎแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแขแก แแกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแก แฃแฌแแแแแแแแ.
1597 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแกแ แแแแแกแ แแแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแก แแกแแแแกแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแฐแงแแ. 1608 แฌแแแก 22 แแแแแ แแแแก แขแฃแ แแแจแ แจแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแก แแ แแแช แแแคแแแกแแก แฅแแ แฌแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแก แแฎแ แแ แแแแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แฉแแแแ แแกแ แแ แแแ แฏแแแแ แแแแแฉแแก แแแแ แแงแ. แชแแแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแคแแแกแแก แแแฃแฆแแ แแแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ แฃแงแแแ แแ แแ แงแแแแแแแแก แแแกแ แแ แแแฃแแ แแงแ. แฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแแ แแ แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แฐแแ แชแแแ แแแแฉแแแ, แ แแแแช แแแแแแแจแ แแแกแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แฃแคแ แ แแแแงแแ แแ.
แแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแ 1626 แฌแแแก 28 แแแแแกแขแแก, 35 แฌแแแก แแกแแแจแ แแแแแฐแงแแ แแแแแแฎแแแขแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแก. แแ แแแแแแแ แแ แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ แแแกแ แฅแแแ แ แแแแแแแกแ แแ แ แแฏแแแก แฐแแ แชแแแ แแแฎแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแ แแแแ แแ แแฆแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแ แแแแชแแแแ 1644 แฌแแแก.
แจแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแคแแแกแแก แแแแฎแแแขแ แจแแแแ แฐแงแแแแแ:
แฉแแแแ แ (1609-1613), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ;
แคแ แแแฉแแกแแ I (1610-1658), แแแแแแแกแ แแ แ แแฏแแแก แฐแแ แชแแแ. แแแ แแแแแ แแแฅแแ แฌแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแแ แคแแ แแแแแแ, แแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแขแแ แแ แคแแ แแแแแแ, แแแกแ แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแ แแชแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแ. แกแแแแแ แชแแแแแ แจแแแซแแแ แจแแแแแแ;
แแแแชแ (1611-1644), แแแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแกแ;
แแแขแแ แแแ (1613-1628), แแแแแแแแ;
แฉแแแแ แ (1614-1677), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแแฃแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแ;
แแแแกแแแแ แ (1615), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แฉแแแแ;
แแแ แแ (1616-1679), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแแฃแฅแแ แฌแแแแแแแ;
แ แแแแแแ (1618-1672), แแแ แแแแแแ;
แแแ แแแ แแขแ (1619-1692), แชแแแแ แแแฐแงแแ แแฃแแกแขแแแแก แฐแแ แชแแ แคแแ แแแขแ III แแแแซแแแแก;
แแแแขแ แแฉแ (1620), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แฉแแแแ;
แคแแแแแแ แขแ (1622-1623), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แแชแแ แแฌแแแแแแ;
แแแแแคแแชแแ (1624), แแแ แแแแชแแแแ แฉแแแแ;
แแแ (1626-1690), แชแแแแ แแแฐแงแแ แแแแกแแแแ แ II แแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแแแแแแก, แแแแแแแ แแแกแแ แแจแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแฐแงแแ.
แฌแแแแแ แแแ
แแแแแแแ แกแแแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
Chiusole, An. La genealogia delle case piu illustri di tutto il mondo : โ Venezia : J. B. Recurti, 1743. โ P. 552. โ 671 p.
Osborne, T. Dynasty and Diplomacy in the Court of Savoy: Political Culture and the Thirty Years' War : โ Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2007. โ P. 44. โ 320 p. โ (Cambridge Studies in Italian History and Culture). โ ISBN 978-0-52-103791-4.
Sanger, Al.E. Art, Gender and Religious Devotion in Grand Ducal Tuscany : Farnham : Ashgate Publishing, 2014. โ P. 44. โ 180 p. โ (Women and Gender in the Early Modern World). โ ISBN 978-1-40-940079-0.
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 11 แแแ แขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1591
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 28 แแแแแกแขแ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1626
แกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแ
แแจแแแแแ แแแแก แแ แแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแ
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แแแกแแแแแ
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แแแกแแแแแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแ แแแแ แแฃแแ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแฃแ แแแแ. แแแแแแแแแ 1909โ1917 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแกแจแ. แแแแญแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแก แงแแแแ แแแ แแแก แแแกแแแแแ. แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแจแแแแ, แ. แกแแ แแฏแแจแแแแ, แ. แฏแแแแจแแแแ, แ. แแแงแแแจแแแแ, แจ. แแแแแแ แแจแแแแ, แ. แฌแแแแแซแฆแแ แแจแแแแ, แ. แแแแแจแแซแ, แ. แแแแฃแแแจแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแ. แแฃแ แแแแก แกแชแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแขแแ แ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแแแแแแ. แกแฃแ แแแแแแแแ 133 แแแแแ แ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแฃแ แแแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98
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แกแขแ แแแแแชแ
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แกแขแ แแแแแชแ โ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแก แแแฅแจแ, แจแแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแก 45 แแแแแแแแก.
แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แกแแขแฃแแชแแ
แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแแขแแจแ, แ แแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแแช แจแแแแก แกแขแ แแแแแชแ, แแแแขแแก (แฃแฎแฃแชแแกแแก) แแแแแแแแแแแแก แแกแ แฃแแแแก แแกแแแแ แแแฐแแแแแแ แแแฐแแแแ (แแแซแ แแแแ แฃแคแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแแแกแแแแก) แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ.
แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแแแขแ (แแแ แ) โ แฐแแกแแ แแแแกแ (แแแซแ แแแแ แฃแคแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแแแแแกแแแแก) แแ แฉแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ.
แ แฃแแแแ
แแแแแแแ แแแแ bgmaps.com-แแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแ
แแแแแแแ แแแแ emaps.bg-แแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแ
แแแแแแแ แแแแ Google-แแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแ
แแแ แฏแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vombisidris%20nahet
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Vombisidris nahet
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Vombisidris nahet โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Vombisidris-แก แแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฃแแแแแแ Ponerinae-แก แฅแแแแฏแแฎแก..
แกแฅแแแแ
แญแแแแญแแแแแแ
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13346720
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haidar%20Abdel-Shafi
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Haidar Abdel-Shafi
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Haidar Abdel-Shafi (Heidar Abdul-Shafi) (June 10, 1919 โ September 25, 2007), was a Palestinian physician, community leader and political leader who was the head of the Palestinian delegation to the Madrid Conference of 1991.
Background
Abdel-Shafi was born in Gaza, one of six children of Sheikh Muheiddin Abdel-Shafi, head of the Higher Islamic Council Waqf and custodian of the holy places in Gaza and Hebron (from 1925โ27). He attended primary school in Gaza; secondary education as a boarder at the Arab College in Jerusalem and graduated in 1936. He graduated in 1943 from the American University of Beirut College of Medicine in Beirut. At the University he joined George Habash's Arab Nationalist Movement dedicated to Arab nationalism and the "liberation of Palestine".
Political and community service career
Pre-1948
Abdel-Shafi worked at the British Mandate of Palestine's Municipal Hospital in Jaffa. In 1944-1945 he joined the Desert Army of the British Jordanian Army, then part of a new British Ninth Army intended to open a second front - which never materialized - in the Balkans. Spent the war instead in various locations in Palestine: Al-Azraq, Ashona, Jericho, Gaza, and resigned his commission at the war's end. He returned to Gaza and entered private medical practice. He then co-founded a branch of the Palestine Medical Society in 1945, and participated in the first Palestine Medical Congress in 1946.
In 1947 and during the Arab-Israeli clashes following the UN partition plan, he provided medical support for the Palestinian fighters. During the 1948 Arab Israeli war, he ran a clinic in Gaza to serve the refugees who flooded into Gaza in large numbers. During this period he worked closely with the Quakers , who provided humanitarian relief for the refugees until UNRWA was established in 1951.
1948โ1967
In 1951 he began his studying medicine at Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton, Ohio. He returned to Gaza in 1954, by which time it was under Egyptian rule. He worked as a surgeon at the Tal Zahur Hospital. In 1956, as the Gaza strip came under the control of Israel, a municipal council with Abdel-Shafi as one of its ten (10) members was installed.
In 1957 Dr. Abdel-Shafi married Hoda Khalidi, from a prominent Jerusalemite family. 1948. Dr. Abdel-Shafi was appointed as Head of medical services in the Gaza Strip from 1957 until 1960. During this period, he became a strong admirer and personal friend of Gamal Abdel Nasser. In 1960, he returned to his private medical practice.
He held a two-year term as chairman of the first Palestinian Legislative Council in Gaza beginning in 1962. He was also a delegate to the first all-Palestinian conference (Palestinian National Council) which convened in Jerusalem in 1964 and helped establish the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He served as a member of the first PLO-Executive Committee (1964-1965). By 1966 he was a leading PLO figure in the Gaza Strip.
1967โ1991
In June 1967, Israel controlled Gaza after the Six-Day War. During and shortly after the war, Dr. Abdel-Shafi volunteered at al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza. He was later temporarily detained by Israel, suspected of support for the military activities of George Habash's new guerilla faction, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), an offshoot of the Arab Nationalist Movement. Abdel-Shafi denied membership, but expressed his sympathy for the group's goals.
Upon his release, he refused all co-operation with Israel's plans to tie Gaza to Israel through the development of a common infrastructure. Moshe Dayan expelled him for three months to the isolated Sinai village of Nekhl in 1969. Deported again on September 12, 1970, this time to Lebanon for two months, along with five other prominent members of the Gazan leadership, in retaliation for a PFLP hijacking.
He was the founder and director of the Palestinian Red Crescent Society in the Gaza Strip in 1972, his own rallying organisation for Palestinian improvement. He was attacked by Islamists, who, in 1981 burned down his clinic.
During the First Intifada in May 1988 he was one of three Palestinians (the others were Saeb Erekat and Hanan Ashrawi) to participate in Nightline's Town Hall meeting from Jerusalem. It was the first time that Palestinians and high ranking PLO members had directly addressed Israeli and Western audiences.
The Madrid Conference and after
In 1991, he led the Palestinian delegation to the Madrid Peace Conference and subsequently led the Palestinian negotiation team for 22 months in the Washington talks (1992โ93). He broke with the Palestinian negotiating team over the Oslo peace agreement over the question of the Israeli settlements. He was one of the first to predict that the Oslo process would collapse because it failed to tackle the issue of settlements.
In 1996, he was elected to the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) with the highest number of votes as member for Gaza. He took up leadership of the PLC's political committee. He resigned as a deputy in the PLC in late 1997 to protest what he described at the time as the failure to deal with corruption in the Palestinian Authority. Two years later he initiated unity talks for all factions in Gaza. Following the outbreak of the second Intifada, he urged the Palestinian Authority (PA) to organize the Intifada rather than distance itself from it, and to widen its democratic base by forming a government of national unity.
He co-founded the Palestinian National Initiative in 2002 along with Edward Said, Mustafa Barghouti and Ibrahim Dakkak as a national platform for combining the struggle for national liberation and the return of refugees with the values of national unity, democracy and social justice.
On April 8, 2007 he was presented with the Palestinian Star of Honor by President Mahmoud Abbas largely for his role as founding member and President of the Palestinian National Initiative.
He died from cancer in Gaza aged 88. His funeral rally was attended by various political factions in Gaza in a rare show of unity. He is survived by his wife, four children (Hind, Khaled, Tareq, Salah) and seven grandchildren.
Sources
Dr. Haider Abd esh-Shafi, a prominent Palestinian leader dies in Gaza
The Wet-Clay Protest 1992 Time article
References
External links
Obituary in The Times, 27 September 2007
Haidar Abdel-Shafi Dies at 88. New York Times
The Independent (UK), obituary for Dr. Haidar Abdel-Shafi
Haidar Abdel-Shafi's obituary, UK Times Online
Address by Dr. Haidar Abdel-Shafi at the Madrid Conference
1919 births
2007 deaths
American University of Beirut alumni
Palestinian activists
Palestine Liberation Organization members
People from Gaza City
Palestinian surgeons
Deaths from cancer in the Palestinian territories
Members of the 1996 Palestinian Legislative Council
20th-century Palestinian politicians
Members of the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization
Palestinian expatriates in Lebanon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Portuguese%20Republic
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First Portuguese Republic
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First Portuguese Republic
The First Portuguese Republic (officially: Repรบblica Portuguesa, Portuguese Republic) spans a complex 16-year period in the history of Portugal, between the end of the period of constitutional monarchy marked by the 5 October 1910 revolution and the 28 May 1926 coup d'รฉtat. The latter movement instituted a military dictatorship known as Ditadura Nacional (national dictatorship) that would be followed by the corporatist Estado Novo (new state) regime of Antรณnio de Oliveira Salazar.
The sixteen years of the First Republic saw nine presidents and 44 ministries, and were altogether more of a transition between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Estado Novo than they were a coherent period of governance.
Religion
The First Republic was intensely anti-clerical. Historian Stanley Payne points out, "The majority of Republicans took the position that Catholicism was the number one enemy of individualist middle-class radicalism and must be completely broken as a source of influence in Portugal." Under the leadership of Afonso Costa, the Minister of Justice, the revolution immediately targeted the Catholic Church; the provisional government began devoting its entire attention to an anti-religious policy, in spite of the disastrous economic situation. On 8th October the religious orders in Portugal were expelled, and their property was confiscated. On 10 October โ five days after the inauguration of the Republic โ the new government decreed that all convents, monasteries and religious orders were to be suppressed. All residents of religious institutions were expelled and their goods were confiscated. The Jesuits were forced to forfeit their Portuguese citizenship. A series of anti-Catholic laws and decrees followed each other in rapid succession. On 3 November, a law legalizing divorce was passed and then there were laws to recognize the legitimacy of children born outside wedlock, authorize cremation, secularize cemeteries, suppress religious teaching in the schools and prohibit the wearing of the cassock. In addition, the ringing of church bells to signal times of worship was subjected to certain restraints, and the public celebration of religious feasts was suppressed. The government also interfered in the running of seminaries, reserving the right to appoint professors and determine curricula. This whole series of laws authored by Afonso Costa culminated in the law of Separation of Church and State, which was passed on 20 April 1911.
The republicans were anticlerical and had a "hostile" approach to the issue of church and state separation, like that of the French Revolution, and the future Mexican Constitution of 1917 and the Spanish Constitution of 1931. On 24 May 1911, Pope Pius X issued the encyclical Iamdudum which condemned the anticlericalism of the new republic for its deprivation of religious civil liberties and the "incredible series of excesses and crimes which has been enacted in Portugal for the oppression of the Church."
The Republic repelled a royalist attack on Chaves in 1912.
Heads of state and government
The First Portuguese Republic was an unstable period in the History of Portugal. In a period of 16 years (1910โ1926) Portugal had 8 Presidents of the Republic, 1 Provisional Government, 38 Prime Ministers and 1 Constitutional Junta:
Evaluation of the republican experiment and legacy
Most historians have emphasized the failure and collapse of the republican dream by the 1920s. Josรฉ Miguel Sardica in 2011 summarized the consensus of historians:
Sardica, however, also points up the lasting effects of the republican experiment:
References
Further reading
Leal, Ernesto Castro. "Parties and political identity: the construction of the party system of the Portuguese Republic (1910โ1926)." E-journal of Portuguese History 7#1 (2009): 37โ44. Online
Meneses, Filipe Ribeiro De. Afonso Costa (London: Haus Publishing, 2010); 227 pp. excerpt
Sardica, Josรฉ Miguel. "The Memory of the Portuguese First Republic throughout the Twentieth Century," E-Journal of Portuguese History (Summer 2011) 9#1: 1โ27. online
Wheeler, Douglas L. "The Portuguese revolution of 1910." Journal of Modern History (1972): 172โ194. in JSTOR
Wheeler, Douglas L. Republican Portugal: a political history, 1910โ1926 (U of Wisconsin Press, 1999)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix%20the%20Cat
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Felix the Cat
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Felix the Cat is a cartoon character created in 1919 by Pat Sullivan and Otto Messmer during the silent film era. An anthropomorphic young black cat with white eyes, a black body, and a giant grin, he is often considered one of the most recognized cartoon characters in film history. Felix was the first fully realized animal character in the history of American film animation.
Felix originated from the studio of Australian cartoonist-film entrepreneur Pat Sullivan. Either Sullivan himself or his lead animator, American Otto Messmer, created the character. What is certain is that Felix emerged from Sullivan's studio, and cartoons featuring the character became well known in popular culture. Aside from the animated shorts, Felix starred in a comic strip (drawn by Sullivan, Messmer and later Joe Oriolo) beginning in 1923, and his image soon adorned merchandise such as ceramics, toys and postcards. Several manufacturers made stuffed Felix toys. Jazz bands such as Paul Whiteman's played songs about him (1923's "Felix Kept on Walking" and others). In 1926, Felix became the first high school mascot for the Logansport, Indiana, Berries.
By the late 1920s, with the arrival of sound cartoons, Felix's success was fading. The new Disney shorts of Mickey Mouse made the silent offerings of Sullivan and Messmer, who were then unwilling to move to sound production, seem outdated. In 1929, Sullivan decided to make the transition and began distributing Felix sound cartoons through Copley Pictures. The sound Felix shorts proved to be a failure and the operation ended in 1932. Felix saw a brief three-cartoon resurrection in 1936 by the Van Beuren Studios.
Felix cartoons began airing on American television in 1953. Joe Oriolo introduced a redesigned, "long-legged" Felix, with longer legs, a much smaller body, and a larger, rounder head with no whiskers and no teeth. Oriolo also added new characters and gave Felix a "Magic Bag of Tricks" that could assume an infinite variety of shapes at Felix's behest. The cat has since starred in other television programs and in two feature films. As of the 2010s, Felix is featured on a variety of merchandise from clothing to toys. Joe's son Don Oriolo later assumed creative control of Felix.
In 2002, TV Guide ranked Felix the Cat number 28 on its "50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time" list.
In 2014, Don Oriolo sold the rights to the character to DreamWorks Animation via DreamWorks Classics, which is now part of Comcast's NBCUniversal division via Universal Pictures.
Creation
On 9 November 1919, Master Tom, a prototype of Felix, debuted in a Paramount Pictures short titled Feline Follies. Produced by the New York City-based animation studio owned by Pat Sullivan, the cartoon was directed by cartoonist and animator Otto Messmer. It was a success, and the Sullivan studio quickly set to work on producing another film featuring Master Tom, in Musical Mews (released 16 November 1919). It too proved to be successful with audiences. Messmer claimed that John King of Paramount Magazine suggested the name "Felix", as in โfelineโ, and for contrast of the felicity traditionally associated with a black cat. The name was first used for the third film starring the character, The Adventures of Felix (released on 14 December 1919). Sullivan claimed he named Felix after Australia Felix from Australian history and literature. In 1924, animator Bill Nolan redesigned the character, making him both rounder and cuter. Felix's new looks, coupled with Messmer's character animation, brought Felix to a higher profile.
Authorship
The question of who created Felix remains a matter of dispute. Sullivan stated in numerous newspaper interviews that he created Felix and did the key drawings for the character. On a visit to Australia in 1925, Sullivan told The Argus newspaper that "[t]he idea was given to me by the sight of a cat which my wife brought to the studio one day". On other occasions, he claimed that Felix had been inspired by Rudyard Kipling's "The Cat that Walked by Himself" or by his wife's love for strays. Members of the Australian Cartoonist Association have claimed that lettering used in Feline Follies matches Sullivan's handwriting and that Sullivan lettered within his drawings. In addition, at roughly the 4:00 mark in Feline Follies, the words 'Lo Mum' are used in a speech bubble by one of the kittens; this was a term for one's mother not used by Americans, but certainly by Australians. Yet Messmer claimed to have single-handedly drawn Feline Follies from home, raising questions as to why an American would use the term 'Mum' in a cartoon he solely drew himself. Sullivan's supporters also say the case is supported by his 18 March 1917 release of a cartoon short titled The Tail of Thomas Kat more than two years prior to Feline Follies. Both an Australian ABC-TV documentary screened in 2004 and the curators of an exhibition at the State Library of New South Wales in 2005 suggested that Thomas Kat was a prototype or precursor of Felix. However, few details of Thomas have survived. His fur color has not been definitively established, and the surviving copyright synopsis for the short suggests significant differences between Thomas and the later Felix. For example, whereas the later Felix magically transforms his tail into tools and other objects, Thomas is a non-anthropomorphized cat who loses his tail in a fight with a rooster, never to recover it.
Sullivan was the studio proprietor andโas is the case with almost all film entrepreneursโhe owned the copyright to any creative work by his employees. In common with many animators at the time, Messmer was not credited. After Sullivan's death in 1933, his estate in Australia took ownership of the character, although Messmer told Harry Kopp that Sullivan promised him the rights to Felix in his will, no such will existed by the time he died. Kopp and the estate got the rights in 1934 from King Features Syndicate after numerous conferences with him.
It was not until after Sullivan's death that Sullivan staffers such as Hal Walker, Al Eugster, Gerry Geronimi, Rudy Zamora, George Cannata, and Sullivan's own lawyer, Harry Kopp, credited Messmer with Felix's creation. They claimed that Felix was based on an animated Charlie Chaplin that Messmer had animated for Sullivan's studio earlier on. The down-and-out personality and movements of the cat in Feline Follies reflect key attributes of Chaplin's, and, although blockier than the later Felix, the familiar black body is already there (Messmer found solid shapes easier to animate). Messmer himself recalled his version of the cat's creation in an interview with animation historian John Canemaker:
Further, Messmer told Canemaker that both he and Sullivan drew Felix based on models from the minstrel show tradition and the pickaninny caricature:
The tropes of minstrelsy were useful for creating a cartoon animal because they cued the audience to expect a lively, amusing and rebellious character.
Animation historians back Messmer's claims. Among them are Michael Barrier, Jerry Beck, Colin and Timothy Cowles, Donald Crafton, David Gerstein, Milt Gray, Mark Kausler, Leonard Maltin, and Charles Solomon. No animation historians outside of Australia have argued on behalf of Sullivan.
Sullivan marketed the cat relentlessly while Messmer continued to produce a prodigious volume of Felix cartoons. Messmer did the animation on white paper with inkers tracing the drawings directly. The animators drew backgrounds onto pieces of celluloid, which were then laid atop the drawings to be photographed. Any perspective work had to be animated by hand, as the studio cameras were unable to perform pans or trucks.
Popularity and distribution
Paramount Pictures distributed the earliest films from 1919 to 1921. Margaret J. Winkler distributed the shorts from 1922 to 1925, the year when Educational Pictures took over the distribution of the shorts. Sullivan promised them one new Felix short every two weeks. The combination of solid animation, skillful promotion, and widespread distribution brought Felix's popularity to new heights.
References to alcoholism and Prohibition were also commonplace in many of the Felix shorts, particularly Felix Finds Out (1924), Whys and Other Whys (1927), and Felix Woos Whoopee (1930), to name a few. In Felix Dopes It Out (1924), Felix tries to help his hobo friend who is plagued with a red nose. By the end of the short, the cat finds the cure for the condition: "Keep drinking, and it'll turn blue".
Felix's great success also spawned a host of imitators. The appearances and personalities of other 1920s feline stars such as Julius of Walt Disney's Alice Comedies, Waffles of Paul Terry's Aesop's Film Fables, and especially Bill Nolan's 1925 adaptation of Krazy Kat (distributed by the eschewed Winkler) all seem to have been directly patterned after Felix. This influence also extended outside the United States, serving as inspiration for Suihล Tagawa in the creation of his character Norakuro, a dog with black fur.
Felix's cartoons were also popular among critics. They have been cited as imaginative examples of surrealism in filmmaking. Felix has been said to represent a child's sense of wonder, creating the fantastic when it is not there, and taking it in stride when it is. His famous paceโhands behind his back, head down, deep in thoughtโbecame a trademark that has been analyzed by critics around the world. Felix's expressive tail, which could be a shovel one moment, an exclamation mark or pencil the next, serves to emphasize that anything can happen in his world. Aldous Huxley wrote that the Felix shorts proved that "[w]hat the cinema can do better than literature or the spoken drama is to be fantastic".
By 1923, the character was at the peak of his film career. Felix in Hollywood, a short released during that year, plays upon Felix's popularity, as he becomes acquainted with such fellow celebrities as Douglas Fairbanks, Cecil B. DeMille, Charlie Chaplin, Ben Turpin, and even censor Will H. Hays. His image could be seen on clocks (not to be confused with the Kit-Cat Klock) and Christmas ornaments. Felix also became the subject of several popular songs of the day, such as "Felix Kept Walking" by Paul Whiteman. Sullivan made an estimated $100,000 a year from toy licensing alone. With the character's success also emerged a handful of new costars. These included Felix's master Willie Jones, a mouse named Skiddoo, Felix's nephews Inky, Dinky, and Winky, and his girlfriend Kitty. Felix the Cat sheet music, with music by Pete Wendling and Max Kortlander and featuring lyrics by Alfred Bryan, was published in 1928 by Sam Fox Publishing Company. The cover art of Felix playing a banjo was done by Otto Messmer.
Most of the early Felix cartoons mirrored American attitudes of the "Roaring Twenties". Ethnic stereotypes appeared in such shorts as Felix Goes Hungry (1924). Recent events such as the Russian Civil War were depicted in shorts like Felix All Puzzled (1924). Flappers were caricatured in Felix Strikes It Rich (1923). He also became involved in union organizing with Felix Revolts (also 1923). In some shorts, Felix even performed a rendition of the Charleston.
In 1928, Educational ceased releasing the Felix cartoons, and several were reissued by First National Pictures. Copley Pictures distributed them from 1929 to 1930. There was a brief three-cartoon resurrection in 1936 by the Van Beuren Studios (The Goose That Laid the Golden Egg, Neptune Nonsense, and Bold King Cole), which are all directed by Disney alumni Burt Gillett, who was suffering from bipolar disorder at the time. Sullivan did most of the marketing for the character in the 1920s. In these Van Beuren shorts, Felix spoke and sang in a high-pitched, childlike voice provided by then-21-year-old Walter Tetley, who was a popular radio actor in the 1930s, 1940s and even 1950s (Julius on The Phil Harris-Alice Faye Show, and Leroy on The Great Gildersleeve), but later best known in the 1960s as the voice of Sherman on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Shows Mister Peabody segments.
Felix as mascot and pop culture icon
Given the character's unprecedented popularity and the fact that his name was partially derived from the Latin word for "happy", some rather notable individuals and organizations adopted Felix as a mascot. The first of these was a Los Angeles Chevrolet dealer and friend of Pat Sullivan named Winslow B. Felix, who first opened his showroom in 1921. The three-sided neon sign of Felix Chevrolet, with its giant, smiling images of the character, is today one of LA's better-known landmarks, standing watch over both Figueroa Street and the Harbor Freeway. Others who adopted Felix included the 1922 New York Yankees and pilot and actress Ruth Elder, who took a Felix doll with her in an attempt to become the first woman to duplicate Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic crossing to Paris.
This popularity persisted. In the late 1920s, the U.S. Navy's Bombing Squadron Two (VB-2B) adopted a unit insignia consisting of Felix happily carrying a bomb with a burning fuse. They retained the insignia through the 1930s, when they became a fighter squadron under the designations VF-6B and, later, VF-3, whose members Edward O'Hare and John Thach became famous naval aviators in World War II. After the war, a U.S. Navy fighter squadron currently designated VFA-31 replaced its winged meat-cleaver logo with the same insignia after the original Felix squadron had been disbanded. The carrier-based night-fighter squadron, nicknamed the "Tomcatters," remained active under various designations continuing to the present day, and Felix still appears on both the squadron's cloth jacket patches and aircraft, carrying his bomb with its fuse burning.
Felix is also the oldest high school mascot in the state of Indiana, chosen in 1926 after a Logansport High School player brought his plush Felix to a basketball game. When the team came from behind and won that night, Felix became the mascot of all the Logansport High School sports teams.
When television was in the experimental stages in 1928, the very first image to ever be seen was a toy Felix the Cat mounted to a revolving phonograph turntable. It remained on screen for hours while engineers used it as a test pattern.
Over a century after his debut on screen in 1919, he still makes occasional appearances in pop culture. The pop punk band The Queers also use Felix as a mascot, often drawn to reflect punk sensibilities and attributes such as scowling, smoking, or playing the guitar. Felix adorns the covers of both the Surf Goddess EP and the Move Back Home album. Felix also appears in the music video for the single "Don't Back Down". Besides appearing on the covers and liner notes of various albums, the iconic cat also appears in merchandise such as T-shirts and buttons. (In an interview with bassist B-Face, he asserts that Lookout! Records is responsible for the use of Felix as a mascot.) Felix was originally going to make a cameo in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit but the rights for him were not obtained. However he does appear on the tragedy and comedy keystone entrance to ToonTown. He also appeared as a giant puppet at the 2015 Treefort Music Fest. For Felix the Cat's 100th anniversary, Universal Pictures dubbed 9 November "Felix the Cat Day" and released new merchandise, including a Pop! figure, Skechers brand shoes, clocks, a PEZ dispenser, shirts, bags, pillows, and pomade. Also for the anniversary, the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia (NFSA) released an article detailing Felix the Cat's history with frames and clips from early animations.
Comics
Pat Sullivan began a syndicated comic strip on 19 August 1923 distributed by King Features Syndicate. In 1927 Messmer took over drawing duties of the strip. (The first The Felix Annual from 1924 issued in Great Britain shows the last two stories are not the usual Otto Messmer style, so a difference in Pat Sullivan-drawn cartoons can be noted.)
Messmer himself pursued the Sunday Felix comic strips until their discontinuance in 1943, when he began eleven years of writing and drawing Felix comic books for Dell Comics that were released every other month. Jack Mendelsohn was the ghostwriter of the Felix strip from 1948 to 1952. In 1954, Messmer retired from the Felix daily newspaper strips, and his assistant Joe Oriolo (the creator of Casper the Friendly Ghost) took over. The strip concluded in 1966.
Felix co-starred with Betty Boop in the Betty Boop and Felix comic strip (1984โ1987).
After 35 years of not being in any comics, Source Point Press announced that Felix the Cat would get a new comic book series, with the permission by Dreamworks Animation to use the character, following a decade of owning the character and using him as a fashion brand. The comic is written by Mark Federali, illustrated by Trace Yardley, and was due to be released sometime in 2022. Yardley later said in February 2022 that production has been delayed and Source Point Press is no longer publishing the books. However, in September, Yardley said that the comic was not cancelled, and that it will be published by Rocketship Entertainment. A month later, Rocketship announced that artists and writers, inciuding Mike Federali, would be attending New York Comic Con. Federali signed copies of the comic. On November 15, Rocketship announced through its new imprint Bottlerocket, that the comic would release in the spring of 2023, but the release dated switched to Fall of 2023.
From silent to sound
With the advent of synchronized sound in The Jazz Singer in 1927, Educational Pictures, who distributed the Felix shorts at the time, urged Pat Sullivan to make the leap to "talkie" cartoons, but Sullivan refused. Further disputes led to a break between Educational and Sullivan. Only after competing studios released the first synchronized-sound animated films, such as Fleischer's My Old Kentucky Home, Van Beuren's Dinner Time and Disney's Steamboat Willie, did Sullivan see the possibilities of sound. He managed to secure a contract with First National Pictures in 1928. However, for reasons unknown, this did not last, so Sullivan sought out Jacques Kopfstein and Copley Pictures to distribute his new sound Felix cartoons. On 16 October 1929, an advertisement appeared in Film Daily with Felix announcing, Jolson-like, "You ain't heard nothin' yet!"
Felix's transition to sound was not a smooth one. Sullivan did not carefully prepare for Felix's transition to sound and added sound effects into the sound cartoons as a post-animation process. The results were disastrous. More than ever, it seemed as though Disney's mouse was drawing audiences away from Sullivan's silent star. Not even entries such as the Fleischer-style off-beat Woos Whoopee or the Silly Symphony-esque April Maze (both 1930) could regain the franchise's audience. Kopfstein finally canceled Sullivan's contract. Subsequently, he announced plans to start a new studio in California, but such ideas never materialized. Things went from bad to worse when Sullivan's wife, Marjorie, died in March 1932. After this, Sullivan completely fell apart. He slumped into an alcoholic depression, his health rapidly declined, and his memory began to fade. He could not even cash checks to Messmer because his signature was reduced to a mere scribble. He died in 1933. Messmer recalled, "He left everything a mess, no books, no nothing. So when he died the place had to close down, at the height of popularity, when everybody, RKO and all of them, for years they tried to get hold of Felix... I didn't have that permission [to continue the character] 'cause I didn't have legal ownership of it".
In 1935, Amadee J. Van Beuren of the Van Beuren Studios called Messmer and asked him if he could return Felix to the screen. Van Beuren even stated that Messmer would be provided with a full staff and all of the necessary utilities. However, Messmer declined his offer and instead recommended Burt Gillett, a former Sullivan staffer who was now heading the Van Beuren staff. So, in 1936, Van Beuren obtained approval from Sullivan's brother to license Felix to his studio with the intention of producing new shorts both in color and with sound. With Gillett at the helm, now with a heavy Disney influence, he did away with Felix's established personality, rendering him a stock talking animal character of the type popular in the day. The new shorts were unsuccessful, and after only three outings Van Beuren discontinued the series, leaving a fourth in the storyboard stages.
Revival
In 1953, Official Films purchased the SullivanโMessmer shorts, added soundtracks to them, and distributed them to the home movie and television markets.
Otto Messmer's assistant Joe Oriolo, who had taken over the Felix comic strip, struck a deal with Felix's new owner, Pat Sullivan's nephew, to begin a new series of Felix cartoons on television. Oriolo went on to star Felix in 260 television cartoons produced by Famous Studios which was renamed to Paramount Cartoon Studios, and distributed by Trans-Lux beginning in 1958. Like the Van Beuren studio before, Oriolo gave Felix a more domesticated and pedestrian personality geared more toward children and introduced now-familiar elements such as Felix's Magic Bag of Tricks, a satchel that could assume the shape and characteristics of anything Felix wanted. The show did away with Felix's previous supporting cast and introduced many new characters, all of which were performed by voice actor Jack Mercer.
Oriolo's plots revolve around the unsuccessful attempts of the antagonists to steal Felix's Magic Bag, though in an unusual twist, these antagonists are occasionally depicted as Felix's friends as well. The cartoons proved popular, but critics have dismissed them as paling in comparison to the earlier SullivanโMessmer works, especially since Oriolo aimed the cartoons at children. Limited animation (required due to budgetary restraints) and simplistic storylines did nothing to diminish the series' popularity.
In 1970, Oriolo gained complete control of the Felix character and Don Oriolo continues to promote the character to this day, even though the rights are now owned by Dreamworks.
In 1975 until 1977, Oriolo presented a live-action series called Felix the Cat Live.
In the late 1980s, after his father's death, Don Oriolo teamed up with European animators to work on the character's first feature film, Felix the Cat: The Movie. In the film, Felix visits an alternate reality along with the Professor and Poindexter. New World Pictures planned a 1987 Thanksgiving release for U.S. theaters, which did not happen; the movie went direct-to-video in August 1991, which was widely panned upon its release before being completely abandoned in the US during the 21st century. In 1994, Felix appeared on television again, to replace the popular Fido Dido bumpers on CBS, and then one year later in the series The Twisted Tales of Felix the Cat. Baby Felix followed in 2000 for the Japanese market, and also the direct-to-video Felix the Cat Saves Christmas released in 2004. Oriolo also brought about a new wave of Felix merchandising, including Wendy's Kids Meal toys and a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Felix was voted in 2004 among the 100 Greatest Cartoons in a poll conducted by the British television channel Channel 4, ranking at No. 89.
According to Don Oriolo's Felix the Cat blog, as of September 2008 there were plans in development for a new television series. Oriolo's biography page also mentions a 52-episode cartoon series then in the works titled The Felix the Cat Show, which was slated to use computer graphics. Oriolo has not produced or directed any cartoons or feature films featuring Felix the Cat since the mid-2000s.
Home video
DVD releases include Presenting Felix the Cat from Bosko Video; Felix! from Lumivision; Felix the Cat: The Collector's Edition from Delta Entertainment; and Before Walt from Inkwell Images Ink. Some of the TV series cartoons (from 1958 to 1959) were released on DVD by Classic Media. Some of the 1990s series has also been released.
Filmography
See also
Animation in the United States during the silent era
Baby Felix
Golden Age of American animation
Kit-Cat Klock
Winsor McCay
Notes
References
Further reading
Patricia Vettel Tom (1996): Felix the Cat as Modern Trickster. American Art, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring, 1996), pp. 64โ87
External links
Felix the Cat at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on 15 July 2016.
Pat Sulivan at the Internet Archive.
The Classic Felix the Cat Page at Golden Age Cartoons
Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2004, Rewind "Felix the Cat" (Concerns the dispute over who created the character.)
. Exhibition guide, including many pictures.
Film characters introduced in 1919
Film series introduced in 1919
1923 comics debuts
History of animation
Animated characters
American comics characters
Comedy film characters
Comedy television characters
Humor comics
Adventure comics
Anthropomorphic cats
DreamWorks Classics
Animated film series
Male characters in animation
Male characters in comics
Male characters in advertising
Fictional characters from New York City
Cat mascots
Corporate mascots
Automobile advertising characters
Articles containing video clips
Short film series
Van Beuren Studios
Universal Pictures cartoons and characters
Fictional pranksters
Animated characters introduced in 1919
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upolu
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Upolu
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Upolu is an island in Samoa, formed by a massive basaltic shield volcano which rises from the seafloor of the western Pacific Ocean. The island is long and in area, making it the second largest of the Samoan Islands by area. With approximately 145,000 inhabitants, it is by far the most populous of the Samoan Islands. Upolu is situated to the southeast of Savai'i, the "big island". Apia, the capital, is in the middle of the north coast, and Faleolo International Airport is at the western end of the island. The island has not had any historically recorded eruptions, although there is evidence of three lava flows, dating back only to between a few hundred and a few thousand years ago.
In the Samoan branch of Polynesian mythology, Upolu was the first woman on the island.
James Michener based his character Bloody Mary in Tales of the South Pacific (later a major character in the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, South Pacific) on the owner of Aggie Grey's Hotel on the south end of the island. She was still running the hotel in 1960. A branch was later opened in Apia overlooking the harbor.
History
In 1841, the island was the site of the Bombardment of Upolu, an incident during the United States Exploring Expedition.
In the late 19th century, the Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson owned a estate in the village of Vailima in Upolu. He died there in 1894 and is buried at the top of Mount Vaea overlooking his former estate. The Vailima estate was purchased in 1900 to serve as the official residence for the German governor of German Samoa. When the British/Dominion took over governance of the islands, they confiscated the estate and put it to the same use. It later served as the residence for the New Zealand administrator and, after independence, for the Samoan head of state. During World War II the US Navy built Naval Base Upolu on the island.
2009 Samoa tsunami
The island of Upolu was hit by a tsunami at 06:48:11 local time on 29 September 2009 (17:48:11 UTC). Twenty villages on Upolu's south side were reportedly destroyed, including Lepฤ, the home of Samoa's Prime Minister, Tuila'epa Sa'ilele Malielegaoi. In Lepฤ, only the church and the village's welcome sign remained standing after the disaster.
Wildlife
An extremely small species of spider lives on Upolu. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the spider is the size of a period on a printed page.
Depictions in popular culture
Upolu was the filming location for the 1953 South Seas film Return to Paradise, starring Gary Cooper.
The island was also the filming location for several seasons of several editions of the competition reality television series, Survivor. This included:
Four seasons of the American version of Survivor, Survivor: Samoa (19th season); Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains (20th season); Survivor: South Pacific (23rd season); and Survivor: One World (24th season).
Three seasons of Australian Survivor: the 3rd season in 2016 and the 4th season in 2017, and the Australian Survivor: Heroes vs Villains in 2023 (10th season) and;
One season of Survivor South Africa: Survivor South Africa: Island of Secrets (7th season) in 2019.
Gallery
See also
1889 Apia cyclone
Archaeology of Samoa
Samoa Tourism Authority
Notes
References
External links
Samoa Tourism Authority
Islands of Samoa
Mountains of Samoa
Samoan mythology
Polygenetic shield volcanoes
Volcanoes of Samoa
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%20%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98
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แแฃ แแแแซแแแ โ แแแฎแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแ, แแแแ แแแแแแ แคแฃแแ แแฃแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแช แกแแแกแแ แกแแแแแขแแ แแก แแแฎแแแ แแแแ แจแแแกแฌแแแแแก แแฆแแแกแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแ แซแแแแแ. แกแแฃแแแขแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแกแแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแฃ-แแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแแชแแแจแ แแ แแแ แซแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแ แแแแแแแกแ แแฃ แฃแชแฎแ แแแแแงแ แแแแแก.
แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแแแฉแแแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแแแก แกแแ แแแจแ, แจแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแชแแแแก แแแแแแชแแฃแ แกแแ แแแแแแจแ, แฌแแแแแแจแ, แแแแแ แแแแแจแแแจแ, แคแแแแแแกแ แแ แกแฎแแ แแ แแแฃแฅแชแแแจแ..
แแ แแแฅแขแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแ แแแแแ แแฃ แแแแซแแแ แแแแแฉแแแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแก แคแฃแ แชแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช 1984 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแชแ แแแแแแแแแ Mirage Studios. แแฃ แแแแซแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ, แแแแแ แแกแขแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแแ แแแ. แแกแแแ แแ แแแ แฎแแขแแแแแแ แกแแกแแชแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแแก แแ, แกแแแแแแแ, แแกแขแแแแแก แแแซแแกแแแ แแแกแแกแฎแแแ แคแฃแแแ, แแแแแ แแแแแกแชแแก แแแแแฅแกแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แฃแแแ แงแแคแแแแงแ แ แแแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแก แแแ แแแแ.
แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แฌแแ แแแขแแแ แฃแแ แฃแแแแแงแ แแแชแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแขแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแกแแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แก แแแ แกแแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแแฃแฅแชแแแก แแแแแจแแแแ. 1988 แฌแแแก แแแแแแ แจแ แแแงแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ แกแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแแแจแแแแ. แแแแแฏแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแฃแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ.
แแแแแแแ แแฃ แแแแซแแแแ แแแแแขแแ แแกแแแ แแแแแ แแฅแขแฃแแแฃแ แแ, แ แแกแแช แฎแแแ แจแแฃแฌแงแ แแฎแแแแ แขแแแแกแแ แแแแแ, แคแแแฃแ แแแแก แแฎแแแแ แกแแ แแแ, แแแแแแฃแขแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแจแแ แแ 2007 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแฃแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแขแ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแชแแฃแ แแ แคแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแ.
แแแแแแ แ แแแ แกแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแ แแ โ แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แแ แแคแแ แแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แ, แแแแแชแ แแ แแ แแแฃแแ แแ แกแแแ. แแขแแ แแแก แแฃแ แฏ แแแฆแแแก แแ แคแแแแก แฎแแแแก.
แ แแคแแแแ โ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแแจแ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแ แแงแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแ แแญแแแแแ แแแแซแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแ แแแกแฌแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ. แจแแแแแแแจแ แแแกแ แฎแแกแแแแ แจแแแชแแแแ แแ แแแ แคแแแแกแแคแแกแแ แแ แแฃแแแ แแก แแฅแแแ แแ แกแแแแ แแฅแชแ. แแขแแ แแแก แฌแแแแ แแแฆแแแก, แแแ แแฆแแ แแ แแงแแแแแก แแ แแแขแแ แ แฎแแแแก.
แแแฅแแแแแฏแแแ โ แแฎแแแ แฃแแ แแ แฃแฆแแแฆแแแ แแ แกแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แฃแงแแแ แก แแแแแฅแกแแแ, แแแชแ, แกแแแแขแแแ แแ. แกแแงแแแ แแแ แคแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ!. แแขแแ แแแก แแแ แแแฏแแกแคแแ แแแฆแแแก แแ แคแแแแก แแฃแแฉแแแแแก.
แแแแแขแแแ โ แแแงแแแ แฃแแ แแแชแแแแ แ, แแแแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแแแแ แ แแ แแแแแ แแแแ. แงแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแกแแฃแแ แแฃ, แ แแแแแแช แแขแแ แแแก แแแกแแแแแกแคแแ แแแฆแแแก แแ แคแแแแก แญแแแแ แแ แซแแแแก.
แกแแแแแขแแ แ โ แกแแแกแแ, แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แแแกแฌแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแแแ แแ แแ แแแฌแแ แแแ แแกแแแ. แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแ แกแแแแจแ แแแก แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแแ แแฅแแก: แแแ แแ แแก แ แแแแ แช แฐแแแแขแ แแแจแแก แแแ แแฎแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฅแชแ แแฃแขแแแขแแ, แแกแแแ แแแแแ แฐแแแแขแ แแแจแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแกแแแแแ แแฅแชแ แแฃแขแแแขแแ.
แแแแ แแ แ'แแแแ โ แแแแฅแแกแ แแ แฎแแก แแฃแ แแแแแกแขแ, แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแ. แฃแแแแแกแแแแ แกแแ แแแแจแ แแแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แแแฅแกแขแแ แกแขแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แแฅแแ แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แแแแ .
แแแแกแ แฏแแแกแ โ แแแ แขแแฎแแแ แแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แแฃ แแแแซแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแ. แแ แซแแแแกแแก แแงแแแแแก แกแแแ แขแฃแ แแแ แแฆแแแก. แแขแแ แแแก แฐแแแแแกแขแ แแแแแ แแก แแแฆแแแก แแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแก.
แจแ แแแแ แ โ แแแ แแขแ แแกแขแแขแ-แแแแซแ, แแฃ แแแแซแแแแกแ แแ แกแแแแแขแแ แแก แแขแแ แ. แแแแแฅแกแแแกแ แแ แคแแแแแก แแแ แแแ แกแแ แแแจแ แแแ แแ แแก แฐแแแแขแ แแแจแแก แแแแแแแ, แแฃแแขแกแแ แแแแจแ แแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแแแชแแแจแ แจแแชแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแฃแขแแแแแแก แแแแ แแฃ แแแแซแแแ แแ แกแแแแแขแแ แ แแฅแชแแแแแ แแฃแขแแแขแแแแ. 2003 แฌแแแก แแแแแแชแแฃแ แกแแ แแแแจแ แแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแก แแแ แแขแ.
แแแ แแ โ แขแแ แคแแก แแแแแแก แฅแแแ-แฌแแแ แ, แ แแแแแแช แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแฅแกแแก, แแแแแแชแแฃแ แ แแ แแฎแแขแแ แฃแแ แคแแแแแก, แแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแจแแก แแแ แกแแแแแแ. แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแแ แกแแแจแ แแแ แแ แแก แจแ แแแแ แแก แแงแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แจแแแแแจแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแ แแแก แแแแ แแแขแแฅแแ แแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แฎแแแแ แ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แฎแแกแแแแกแแช แแขแแ แแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แคแแ แฃแแ แกแแแขแแ TheTechnodrome.com
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แแแแแแชแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแแแแแแ
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แงแแแแฅแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแจแ, แแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
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แแแแแ แแแแแฉแแ
แแแแแ แแแแแแก แซแ แแแแแฉแแ (แ. 10 แแแแแแแแ แ, 1881, แฅแฃแแแแกแ โ แ. 1 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ, 1937) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แแกแขแ แแ แแแแแขแแแแกแ. แแแกแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแฉแแแแแก แซแแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแแแ แแแแแฉแแ แแแแแแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ, 1881 แฌแแแก 10 แแแแแแแแ แก. แแแแแแแแ แ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แฃแแแแแ แกแแขแแขแแก แแฃแ แแแฃแแ แคแแแฃแแขแแขแ
1902 แฌแแแก แจแแแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แกแแชแแแแแกแข-แ แแแแแฃแชแแแแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแจแ, แแแฅแแแแแแแ แแฃแจแแแ แแ แแแแแแแชแแแแจแ; 1904 แฌแแแแแ 1909 แฌแแแแแ แ แแแแแแฏแแ แแ แแงแ แแแแแขแแแ แแแฃแแ แแ แแแกแแฎแแแแฃแแ. 1910 แฌแแแก แแแแ แฃแแแ แกแแแจแแแแแจแ แแ แฉแแแฌแแ แ แแแคแแชแ แแแฅแแแแก แแแแแจแแแฌแแ แฅแฃแแแแกแจแ. 1917 แฌแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แฅแแแแฅแแก แกแแแญแแ แแแ แฉแแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแขแแ แแฃแ แแแก แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแ แแแแแแ แแ แแแกแแกแฌแ แแแแ. 1917 แฌแแแก แฅแฃแแแแกแแก แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแ แฉแแ แแแแแแกแแแก แแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแ แ แงแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแขแแ. 1921 แฌแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแฃแแแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแ แฉแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแ แแแ แขแแแก แกแฎแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแ แชแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแกแแก แแแฆแฌแแแแก แกแแแแฃแแแชแแ แ แแแแแแแ. 1922 แฌแแแก 10 แแแแกแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ แกแแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแแแ (แฉแแแ) แกแแชแแแแกแข-แ แแแแแฃแชแแแแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแก แกแฎแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แฌแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแขแแแ แ แแแแขแ แ แแแแแฃแชแแแก แแ แแแแแแแ. แแฃแแชแ, แ แแแแ แช โแแ แแแฅแขแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแขแโ, 1922 แฌแแแก 20 แแแแแกแก แแแขแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแกแฃแคแแแก. แจแแแแแแ แฌแแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแ แแฃแจแแแแแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแแแแกแจแ; แแงแ แแแแชแแแแแ (แแแแแแแขแแ) แแแแแแแแก แฌแแแ แ. 1930-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แแแแแแกแแก แกแแแญแแก แคแแแแแกแฃแ แ แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก แแฃแ แแกแแแแกแฃแแขแ. 1937 แฌแแแก 17 แแแแแกแก, แแแแ แกแแแญแแแ แขแแ แแ แแก แแ แแก แแแแแแขแแแ แแก แแกแแ แแ แแแขแแกแแแญแแแ แแแแขแ แ แแแแแฃแชแแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแแชแแแก แฌแแแ แแแแก แแ แแแแแแแ. แกแกแ แ แฃแแแแแแกแ แกแแกแแแแ แแแ แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแแแแแแก แแแแกแแแแแแ แกแแกแแแ แแแฎแแ แแขแแก แแแแแฉแแแ แแแแแฃแขแแแ 1937 แฌแแแก 30 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก. แแแฎแแ แแขแแก 1-แแ แแฅแขแแแแ แแก แฆแแแแก.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 10 แแแแแแแแ แ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1881
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1 แแฅแขแแแแแ แ
แแแ แแแชแแแแแ 1937
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แแแแแ
แกแแแญแแแ แแแแจแแ แแก แ แแแ แแกแแแแแก แแกแฎแแแ แแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ
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โแแ แแแโ โ 2012 แฌแแแก แแแฅแแแแแแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แคแแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแ, แ แแแแแก แ แแแแกแแ แแ แแแข แขแ แแแแกแ, แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแ แแฃ แแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แ แแแฎแ แแ แแแแฅแก แแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแแแ แคแแแแแก แกแชแแแแ แแกแขแแ. แแฃแกแแแ แแแฃแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแ แ-แแแ แแแแก. แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แแแ แ แฃแ แแแแ, แแแแแแ แแแ แแแ, แแฃแ แฐแแ แแกแ, แแแแ แฐแแแ แแ แกแฎแแแแ.
แคแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแแ แฏแแ แแแแแแ แแกแ แแ แแแ แแแก แแกแแแ แแก แแแแแฅแกแแ โแแกแแฏแฃแแ แแ แแแโ. แแแฅแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแแขแแฃแขแแแแฃแ แแแแแแแแแกแจแ แกแแฎแแแแ แแแแ-แกแแขแ แแ แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแกแขแแแแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แฃแแแแแแจแ. แกแแฃแแแขแแก แชแแแขแ แจแแ แแกแแฏแฃแแ แแ แแแ โ แกแแแแ แแแแแแแชแแแ, แ แแแแแกแแช แแแแแญแแแฃแแ แแฅแแก แแแกแแแแ แแแแก, แแแคแแชแ แแกแแฏแฃแแแกแ แแ แแ แแแฃแ แแ แแก แฃแคแแแแแแแกแแแแแ. แแ แแแก แแ แแแก แแฎแแแแแแ แแแ แขแแแแ แก, แแกแแฏแฃแ แแแแแ แกแแแก, แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแฅแแ แฅแแแแฅแจแ แแ แกแแแฃแ 200-แกแแ แแฃแแแแ แกแแชแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแ แแฃแกแจแ แฌแแกแ แแแแก แแแแงแแ แแแ แแ แแแก แแแชแฎแแแ แแแแ, โแแแแแกโ แแแแแแขแกแแฎแแแแ แชแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ.
แแแ แแแแแ แกแชแแแแ แแ แแฃแจแแแแแก แฏแแ แแแแแ 2006 แฌแแแก แจแแฃแแแ. แคแแแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแขแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแแ DNA Films-แแ Reliance Entertainment แแ IM Global-แแแ แแแ แขแแแแ แแแแ. แแแแแฆแแแแแ แแแแฌแงแ 2008 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแ แแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแขแแฃแแกแ แแ แแแฐแแแแกแแฃแ แแจแ. 2012 แฌแแแก แแฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแขแฃแ แแก, แ แแ แคแแแแ แแฅแแแแแแ โแแกแแฏแฃแแ แแ แแแแกโ แแแแแฅแกแแก แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแแขแแชแแ แแ แแ แ 1995 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแขแแชแแแก, โแแกแแฏแฃแแ แแ แแแแก แ แแแแแแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แกแแแแแกแขแแ แกแขแแแแแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแก.
แคแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แกแแแแคแแจแ แแแกแขแ แแแฃแชแแ แแแฃแฌแแ Entertainment Film Distributors-แแ, แแจแจ-แจแ โ Lionsgate-แแ. แแ แแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแ 2013 แฌแแแก 11 แแแแแกแก San Diego Comic-Con-แแ, แแจแจ-แจแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก 6 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก แแแ แแแ แแแแ แแแฉแแแแแแ แแฅแแ Toronto International Film Festival-แแ. แแแแแแแแขแ แแแจแ แแแ แแแแแ แแฉแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแ แกแแแแคแแจแ 7 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก, แแกแแคแแแแก แแแกแจแขแแแแ โ 21 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก, แฎแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแ แแคแ แแแแจแ โ 28 แกแแฅแขแแแแแ แก.
โแแ แแแกโ แฌแแแแ แฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ แจแแคแแกแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแขแแแแกแแแแกแแแแ, แแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แจแแแฅแแก แแแแฃแแแฃแ แ แแคแแฅแขแแแ แแ แแกแแฎแแแแแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแ แแ แแก, แแแแแ แแขแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแแขแแแขแแแฃแแ แซแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แกแแขแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแขแแแแก แแ แฅแแแแก แแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แญแแ แแแแ แแกแแฎแฃแแ แแแแแฅแกแจแ. แกแแแ แแ แแแแฎแแแแแแแก แกแแแข Rotten Tomatoes-แแ, แแแกแ แแแแแแแ แ แแแขแแแแแ 79 % (161 แแแแแฎแแแแแแ แแแงแ แแแแแแ). แแแแแแแแ แจแแคแแกแแแแแแก แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ, แแแกแแ แจแแแแกแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแ แแฎแแแแ 41.5 แแแแแแ แแจแจ แแแแแ แ แจแแแแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แคแแแแแกแฃแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแแแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแแแ. แแแก แจแแแแแ โแแ แแแโ แแแฉแแแฃแแแ แกแแแฃแแขแ แคแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแขแ แแแจแ แแแแชแแแแ แแแแแ แชแแฃแแ แแ แแฎแแก แจแแแแแ, โแแ แแแแกโ แแแแ แ แแแฌแแแแก แแแแแฆแแแ แแญแฅแแแจ แแแแแ, แแฃแแชแ แแแแแแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแฆแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแฃแแจแแแแขแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแ แแฎแแแแแ แแแแคแแฅแ แ แแฌแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แซแแแแแแก แจแแฅแแแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
(แแแแ แฅแแแแแฃแแ)
แกแฅแแแแ
2012 แฌแแแก แคแแแแแแ
แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แคแแแแแแ
แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แแแฅแแแแแแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แคแแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
แแแขแแฃแขแแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
แแแแแ แแแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
แแ แแขแแแฃแ แแแแแฅแกแแแแ แแแคแฃแซแแแแฃแแ แคแแแแแแ
แแ แแขแแแฃแแ 3D แคแแแแแแ
แกแแแฎแ แแ แแคแ แแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแฅแแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแแ
แกแแแฎแ แแ แแคแ แแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แคแแแแแแ
2012 แฌแแแก 3D แคแแแแแแ
2012 แฌแแแก แแแฅแแแแแแแแ แกแแแแชแแแแ แ แคแแแขแแกแขแแแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแ
แแแข แขแ แแแแกแแก แคแแแแแแ
DNA Films-แแก แคแแแแแแ
IM Global-แแก แคแแแแแแ
Lions Gate Entertainment-แแก แคแแแแแแ
Reliance Entertainment-แแก แคแแแแแแ
แแกแแฏแฃแแ แแ แแแ
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แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฎแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ
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แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแฎแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ โ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแจแ 1946โ1958 แฌแแแแจแ. แแแกแ แแกแขแแ แแ 1946 แฌแแแก 13 แแฅแขแแแแแ แก, แแแแคแฃแซแแแแแแ แแ แแแแก แแแแ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแแก แแแฆแแแแ แแฌแงแแแ. แแแแแฎแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ แคแแจแแกแขแฃแ แแแฃแแแชแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแก แแชแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ. แแ แแแแจแ แกแแแแ แแแแแแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ, แกแฃแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแขแฃแ แ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแ แแงแ.
แแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแกแแแแแแ
แแแแแฎแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแ แแก แแแแแแแแแ แกแฌแ แแคแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแฆแแแ แแแแก แแ แแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแฃแแ แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแแ แแ แแแแฃแกแขแ แแฃแแ แกแแฅแขแแ แ, แแแฎแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แแแฃแ แกแขแ แฃแฅแขแฃแ แแแจแ แแแขแแแ แแชแแ, แแแแฌแงแ แแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแแแชแแแก แแ แแชแแกแ, 1945โ1954 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแแขแแแแแแ. แจแแแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ แแ แแกแขแแแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแซแแแฃแแ แแงแ, แฎแจแแ แแ แแชแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ, แฌแแแแฌแแแจแ 2โ3 แแ แแแแแ โแแแแแกแขแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แแแแฃแแแ แแแแ แกแแ แแแแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแแแกแขแแแ (แแแแแ แชแฎแแแแแแ), แจแแแแแ แฃแแแ, แแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแกแแก แแ แแก แแแแแ แฏแแแแแแแ.
1958 แฌแแแก แแ แแแแแ โแแแแแกแขแ แ แแแฎแแ แจแแ แ แแ แแแแ, แแแ แแฎแแ แ แแแฃแญแแ แ แกแแแ แแแแแแแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแก แแ แแแก แแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแกแขแแขแฃแชแแแก แแฎแแแ แแ แแแฅแขแ แแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ แ แแคแแ แแแแฃแแแ แแแแฆแแก, แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแขแแ แแแก แฎแแแ แแแแฌแแ แ แแ แจแแแฅแแแ แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแฎแฃแแ แ แแกแแฃแแแแแ. แแแแแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แจแ แจแแ แ แแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแแขแแ แแแ แฉแแแก.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแ
แกแแคแ แแแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ
แแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแ
แชแแแ แแแแก แแแ แแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caustic%20%28optics%29
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Caustic (optics)
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Caustic (optics)
In optics, a caustic or caustic network is the envelope of light rays which have been reflected or refracted by a curved surface or object, or the projection of that envelope of rays on another surface. The caustic is a curve or surface to which each of the light rays is tangent, defining a boundary of an envelope of rays as a curve of concentrated light. Therefore, in the photo to the right, caustics can be seen as patches of light or their bright edges. These shapes often have cusp singularities.
Explanation
Concentration of light, especially sunlight, can burn. The word caustic, in fact, comes from the Greek ฮบฮฑฯ
ฯฯฯฯ, burnt, via the Latin causticus, burning.
A common situation where caustics are visible is when light shines on a drinking glass. The glass casts a shadow, but also produces a curved region of bright light. In ideal circumstances (including perfectly parallel rays, as if from a point source at infinity), a nephroid-shaped patch of light can be produced. Rippling caustics are commonly formed when light shines through waves on a body of water.
Another familiar caustic is the rainbow. Scattering of light by raindrops causes different wavelengths of light to be refracted into arcs of differing radius, producing the bow.
Computer graphics
In computer graphics, most modern rendering systems support caustics. Some of them even support volumetric caustics. This is accomplished by raytracing the possible paths of a light beam, accounting for the refraction and reflection. Photon mapping is one implementation of this. Volumetric caustics can also be achieved by volumetric path tracing. Some computer graphic systems work by "forward ray tracing" wherein photons are modeled as coming from a light source and bouncing around the environment according to rules. Caustics are formed in the regions where sufficient photons strike a surface causing it to be brighter than the average area in the scene. โBackward ray tracingโ works in the reverse manner beginning at the surface and determining if there is a direct path to the light source. Some examples of 3D ray-traced caustics can be found here.
The focus of most computer graphics systems is aesthetics rather than physical accuracy. This is especially true when it comes to real-time graphics in computer games where generic pre-calculated textures are mostly used instead of physically correct calculations.
Caustic engineering
Caustic engineering describes the process of solving the inverse problem to computer graphics. That is, given a specific image, to determine a surface whose refracted or reflected light forms this image.
In the discrete version of this problem, the surface is divided into several micro-surfaces which are assumed smooth, i.e. the light reflected/refracted by each micro-surface forms a Gaussian caustic. Gaussian caustic means that each micro-surface obey gaussian distribution. The position and orientation of each of the micro-surfaces is then obtained using a combination of Poisson integration and simulated annealing.
There have been many different approaches to address the continuous problem. One approach uses an idea from transportation theory called optimal transport to find a mapping between incoming light rays and the target surface. After obtaining such a mapping, the surface is optimized by adapting it iteratively using Snell's law of refraction.
Optimal-transport-based caustic pattern design
Basic principle
Controlling caustic pattern is rather a challenging problem as very minor changes of the surface will significantly affect the quality of the pattern since light ray directions might be interfered by other light rays as they intersect with and refract through the material. This will lead to a scattered, discontinuous pattern. To tackle this problem, optimal-transport-based is one of the existing proposed methods to control caustic pattern by redirecting light's directions as it propagates through the surface of a certain transparent material. This is done by solving an inverse optimization problem based on optimal transport. Given a reference image of an object/pattern, the target is to formulate the mathematical description of the material surface through which light refracts and converges to the similar pattern of the reference image. This is done by rearranging/recomputing the initial light intensity until the minimum of the optimization problem is reached.
Design pipeline
Here considering only refractive caustic, the objective can be determined as follows (similar principle for reflective caustic with different output):
Input: image of pattern to be obtained after propagating lights through the material, given the light source position.
Output: caustic geometry on the receiver (flat solid surface, e.g.: floor, wall, etc...)
In order to achieve the target pattern, the surface where light refracts through and exits to the outer environment must be manufactured into certain shape to achieve desired pattern on the other side of the material.
As mentioned, given an input image, this process will produce the similar caustic pattern as the output. In principle, there are two core stages with each includes two sub-stages:
Solving Optimal Transport Problem
Compute Target Light Distribution
Compute Mapping from Initial Distribution to Target Distribution
Optimizing Target Surface
Compute Normal Representation of Surface
Surface Refinement
Solving optimal transport problem
As the case refraction occurs through a transparent surface, for instance the patterns appearing under clear water surface, 3 main phenomena can be observed:
Very bright (condensed light intensity) points (so-called singularity)
Curve-like objects that connect the points
Regions with low light intensity
To perform computation, the following 3 quantities are being respectively introduced to describe the geometric characteristics of the pattern: point singularity (measuring light intensity at certain highly concentrated light-point), curve singularity (measuring light intensity at/around a light-curve), and irradiance measure (measuring intensity in a certain poorly concentrated light-area). Putting them altogether, the following function defines the total radiant flux measure at a certain section ฮฉ on the target surface:
After this step, there are two existing measures of the radiant flux measures of the source (uniform distribution, by initialization) and the target (computed in previous step). What remains to compute is the mapping from the source to target. In order to do this, there are several quantities to be defined. Firstly, two light intensities evaluated by probabilities: (light intensity evaluated by dividing by the flux of the union region between and ), (light intensity evaluated by dividing by the flux of the union region between and ) are defined. Secondly, the source mesh is generated as multiple sites , which is later being deformed. Next, a power diagram (a set of power cells) is defined on this set of sites weighted by a weight vector . Finally, the goal is to decide whether which power cells are going to be move. Considering all vertices on the surface, finding the minimizer of the following convex function will produce the matched power diagram for the target:
Optimizing target surface
After solving optimal transport problem, the vertices are achieved. However, this gives no information about what the final surface should look like. To achieve the desired target surface given the incoming light ray , outgoing light ray and power diagram from the step above, the surface normals representation can be computed according to Snell's law as:
where,
: refraction coefficient
: target position obtained from solving above optimal transport problem
As the normal representation is obtained, surface refinement is then achieved by minimizing the following compound energy function:
where,
is the integration energy that aligns the vertex normals obtained from the Optimal Transport with the target normals obtained from the Snell's law computation above.
as mesh generated in step Solving Optimal Transport cannot adapt to the sharp instances from the discontinuities, this energy is to penalize the vertices to not change significantly from the incoming light ray.
is the energy measuring the flux over the triangle in the mesh.
is the energy that regularizes the shape of the triangles to maintain its well-shapedness.
is barrier energy to ensure that surface does not deform beyond a certain distance threshold .
Differentiable inverse rendering caustic pattern design
Basic principle
Inverse graphics is a method of observing the data from an image and inferring all possible properties including 3D geometry, lighting, materials, and motion in order to generate a realistic image. In conventional computer graphics, to render an image with desired appearance and effects, it is given all the relevant properties/characteristics. This could be described as the forward method. On the contrary, in caustic design, the properties and characteristics of objects (especially the material surface) are not trivial. The given constraint is the target image to obtain. Therefore, the goal is to obtain its properties and characteristics by observing and inferring the target image. This can be considered the inverse/backward method.
The following is the basic loss function explaining how to optimize the parameters:
where,
: loss function, mean square error of the rendered image and the target
: contains elements which can influence the generated image
: target image
Designed pipeline
At first, the target pattern is designed and the forward pass computed to get the synthetic pattern. It's compared to the target pattern and get the loss.
The objection is to let the synthetic pattern is similar to the target pattern as much as possible. And then do the back propagation to get the optimized properties need to use in caustic manufacturing.
Elements contributing to generated image
Appearance: per-pixel surface appearance is modeled as product of mipmapped texture and per-pixel brightness.
Geometry: assume a 3D scene to be approximated by triangles, parameterized by vertices .
Camera: focal length, the point of view, the center of the camera.
There could be more elements, for example albedo and refraction coefficient.
General differentiable framework
Introduce U as an intermediate variable indicating 2D projected vertex coordinate positions. The gradient of these properties can be derived by chain rule indirectly.
After applying the stochastic gradient descent, the optimal , and could be achieved. Subsequently, these quantities are used to carve or mill the material to generate the target pattern.
Implementation
One common approach is to utilize the ability to perform differential operations in various deep learning auto-differentiation frameworks/libraries such as: Tensorflow, PyTorch, Theano.
One more approach is to make use of the OpenDR framework to build a forward graphics model and to automatically obtain derivatives with respect to the model parameters for optimization. As optimization properties are obtained, the target image can be generated. OpenDR provides a local optimization method that can be incorporated into probabilistic programming frameworks. This can be used to solve the problem of caustic.
Manufacturing
Once the caustic pattern has been designed computationally, the processed data will be then sent to the manufacturing stage to get the final product. The most common approach is subtractive manufacturing (machining).
Various materials can be used depending on the desired quality, the effort it takes to manufacture, and the available manufacturing method.
Common refractive materials: acrylic, polycarbonate, polyethylene, glass, diamond
Common reflective materials: steel, iron, aluminum, gold, silver, titanium, nickel
Caustic pattern design has many real-world applications, for example in:
Luminaires
Jewelry
Architecture
Decorative glass production
See also
Focus (optics)
Circle of confusion
Caustic (mathematics)
References
Further reading
Geometrical optics
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แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แซแแแ
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แแแแแแแแแแก แแ แซแแแ โ แฅแ แแกแขแแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แฏแแแแ แแแ แแแแก แแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแซแฃแแแก แแ แแแ แแแแแงแ แแแแแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ. แแ แซแแแ แแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแ แแฃแแแ 718 แแ 722 แฌแแแก. แแแแแแแแ แแแ แแกแขแแ แแแแ แแคแแ แแแแจแแฃแ แแแก แแแแฉแแแแก แ แแแแแแแกแขแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแแ.
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แกแแแฎแแ-แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแก แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแ โ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแก แแแแ แแแแฏแแแกแ แแ แกแแแฎแแแก แจแแ แแก. แแ แ แฅแแแงแแแก แแแแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แแ แแก แแแแงแแ แแ.
แจแแแแแ แแงแ แกแแแฎแแแกแ แแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแก แจแแ แแก แแแ 1918-1920 แฌแฌ.
1948 แฌแแแก แกแกแ แ-แจแ, แกแแแฎแแแแก แกแกแ -แจแ แแแแฌแงแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แแขแแกแขแแแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ. แกแแแแแแแแแแแก แแแฌแแแ แแแแแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แแแแฏแแแก แแแแแแ แงแแ แแแแฆแ แฃแแแ แแแแแแ แกแแแฎแแแแกแแแแก. แแ แแขแแกแขแแก แขแแแฆแ แแแแฌแแแแแ 1988 แฌแแแก, แ แแแแกแแช แกแแแฎแแ-แแแแ แแแแฏแแแก แจแแ แแก แแแ แแแแฌแงแ.
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Sauerborn, Djan; Scianna, Bastian Matteo; Mazziotti, Marius: "Multipolarity is key: Assessing Azerbaijan's foreign policy"
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แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ 1988 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
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แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ 1988 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
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แฅแแแงแแแแ 1988 แฌแแแก แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
แแฎแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแแก แแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแจแแแแ
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แกแแแแแกแ โ VII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แกแแแแฎแ แแกแขแแ แแแแกแ. แแแแแก โแแกแขแแ แแแจแโ แแฆแฌแแ แแแ แแฅแแก แแ แแ-แแแแแแขแแแก แแแแแ VII แกแแฃแแฃแแแจแ, แแ แแแแ แแแจแฅแ แแแแแ, แกแแแฎแแแแก แกแแจแแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแ แกแฎแแ. แกแแแฃแแแกแฎแแแ แแแกแ แชแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ.
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แกแขแแแแแแแ โ แแแกแแฎแแแแ แแฃแแแแ แแแจแ. แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแ แฏแแแแก แแแฅแจแ, แจแแแแก แแ แแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแก 24 แแแแแแแแก.
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แแแแแแ แแแแ bgmaps.com-แแก แแแแฅแขแ แแแฃแ แ แฃแแแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paunikha
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Paunikha
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Paunikha is a rural locality (a village) in Razinskoye Rural Settlement, Kharovsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 18 as of 2002.
Geography
Paunikha is located 30 km north of Kharovsk (the district's administrative centre) by road. Fedyakovo is the nearest rural locality.
References
Rural localities in Kharovsky District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purba%20Medinipur%20district
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Purba Medinipur district
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Purba Medinipur district
Purba Medinipur (English: East Medinipur, alternative spelling Midnapore) district is an administrative unit in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the southernmost district of Medinipur division โ one of the five administrative divisions of West Bengal. The headquarters in Tamluk. It was formed on 1 January 2002 after the Partition of Medinipur into Purba Medinipur and Paschim Medinipur which lies at the northern and western border of it. The state of Odisha is at the southwest border; the Bay of Bengal lies in the south; the Hooghly river and South 24 Parganas district to the east; Howrah district to the north-east; Paschim Medinipur district to the west.
Purba Medinipur is formed of the sub-divisions of Tamluk, Contai and Haldia of erstwhile Medinipur district. Another sub-division, Egra has been created out of the erstwhile Contai sub-division during the partition of Medinipur. In 2011, the state government has proposed to rename the district as Tamralipta district after the ancient port city of Tamralipta which used to lie near the modern district headquarters.
Purba Medinipur saw many political movements during the British Raj. A parallel government named the Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar was formed during the Quit India Movement in Tamluk. In 2007, Purba Medinipur witnessed the Nandigram violence, an incident of police firing that killed 14 farmers.
History
Tamralipta
Tamralipta, the port in ancient India, is believed by scholars to have been around modern-day Tamluk. It is mentioned in the writings of Ptolemy (150 AD), the Greco-Egyptian writer, as well as Faxian and Xuanzang, Chinese monks and travellers. It was the main port used by Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor. With too much siltation the port lost its importance around eighth century A.D.The supreme leader of Tamralipta Jatiya sarkar was Satish chandra Samanta.
Geography
Overview
Purba Medinipur district is part of the lower Indo-Gangetic Plain and Eastern coastal plains. Topographically, the district can be divided into two parts โ (a) almost entirely flat plains on the west, east and north, (b) the coastal plains on the south. The vast expanse of land is formed of alluvium and is composed of younger and coastal alluvial. The elevation of the district is within 10 meters above the mean sea level. The district has a long coastline of 65.5 km along its southern and south eastern boundary. Five coastal CD Blocks, namely, Khejuri II, Contai II (Deshapran), Contai I, Ramnagar I and II, are occasionally affected by cyclones and tornadoes. Tidal floods are quite regular in these five CD Blocks. Normally floods occur in 21 of the 25 CD Blocks in the district. The major rivers are Haldi, Rupnarayan, Rasulpur, Bagui and Keleghai, flowing in north to south or south-east direction. River water is an important source of irrigation. The district has a low 899 hectare forest cover, which is 0.02% of its geographical area.
Major cities and towns
Major cities and towns include Panskura, Tamluk, Nandakumar, Contai, Egra, Haldia, Mecheda, Mahishadal, Digha, Mandarmani, Khejuri, Ramnagar, Patashpur, Kolaghat, Nandigram.
Divisions
Administrative subdivisions
Purba Medinipur district is divided into the following administrative subdivisions:
Tamluk subdivision consists of Tamluk municipality, Panskura municipality and seven community development blocks: Nandakumar, Moyna, Tamluk, Shahid Matangini, PanskuraโI, PanskuraโII and Chandipur (NadigramโIII). Haldia subdivision consists of Haldia municipality and five community development blocks: Mahishadal, NandigramโI, NandigramโII, Sutahata and Haldia. Egra subdivision consists of Egra municipality and five community development blocks: BhagawanpurโI,EgraโI, EgraโII, PataspurโI and PataspurโII. Contai subdivision consists of Contai municipality and eight community development blocks: KanthiโI, KanthiโII, KanthiโIII, KhejuriโI, KhejuriโII, RamnagarโI and RamnagarโII, BhagawanpurโII.
Tamluk is the district headquarters. There are 21 police stations, 25 development blocks, 5 municipalities and 223 gram panchayats in this district.
Other than in the municipality area, each subdivision contains community development blocks which in turn are divided into rural areas and census towns. In total there are 10 urban units: five municipalities and five census towns. Panskura municipality was established in 2001.
Tamluk subdivision
Two municipalities: Tamluk and Panskura
Nandakumar community development block consists of rural areas only with 12 gram panchayats.
Moyna community development block consists of rural areas with 11 gram panchayats and one census town: Garsafat.
Tamluk community development block consists of rural areas with 12 gram panchayats and two census towns: Anantapur and Dakshin Baguan.
Sahid Matangini community development block consists of rural areas with 10 gram panchayats and two census towns: Kakdihi and Shantipur.
Panskura community development block consists of rural areas only with 14 gram panchayats.
Kolaghat community development block consists of rural areas with 13 gram panchayats and four census towns: Kolaghat, Amalhara, Mihitikri and Kharisha.
Chandipur community development block consists of rural areas with 10 gram panchayats and two census towns: Kotbar and Ershal.
Haldia subdivision
One municipality: Haldia.
Mahishadal community development block consists of rural areas with 11 gram panchayats and one census town: Garh Kamalpur.
Nandigram I community development block consists of rural areas with 10 gram panchayats and one census town: Nandigram.
Nandigram II community development block consists of rural areas with 7 gram panchayats and one census town: Ashadtalya.
Sutahata community development block consists of rural areas with 6 gram panchayats and one census town: Barda
Haldia community development block consists of rural areas only with 4 gram panchayats.
Egra subdivision
One municipality: Egra.
Bhagabanpur I community development block consists of rural areas with 10 gram panchayats and two census towns: Benudiya and Hincha Gerya.
Egra I community development block consists of rural areas only with 8 gram panchayats.
Egra II community development block consists of rural areas only with 8 gram panchayats.
Patashpur I community development block consists of rural areas only with 9 gram panchayats.
Patashpur II community development block consists of rural areas only with 7 gram panchayats.
Contai subdivision
One municipality: Contai.
Contai I community development block consists of rural areas only with 8 gram panchayats.
Deshapran community development block consists of rural areas with 8 gram panchayats and one census town: Basantia.
Contai III community development block consists of rural areas only with 8 gram panchayats.
Khejuri I community development block consists of rural areas only with 6 gram panchayats.
Khejuri II community development block consists of rural areas only with 5 gram panchayats.
Ramnagar I community development block consists of rural areas with 9 gram panchayats and one census town: Khadalgobra.
Ramnagar II community development block consists of rural areas only with 8 gram panchayats.
Bhagabanpur II community development block consists of rural areas only with 9 gram panchayats.
Assembly Constituencies
Purba Medinipur contains 16 assembly constituencies, equally divided between two Lok Sabha constituencies Tamluk and Kanthi. The MP for Tamluk is Dibyendu Adhikari (AITC) while the MP for Kanthi is Sisir Adhikari (BJP). These are members of the Adhikari family which has dominated politics in the district whose prominent member has been Suvendu Adhikari, now Leader of Opposition in the West Bengal Legislative Assembly.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census Purba Medinipur district has a population of 5,095,875, roughly equal to the United Arab Emirates or the US state of Colorado. This gives it a ranking of 20th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 15.32%. Purba Medinipur has a sex ratio of 936 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 88.60%. 11.63% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 14.63% and 0.55% of the population respectively.
Bengali is the predominant language, spoken by 98.31% of the population. The Bengali dialect around Kanthi is heavily influenced by nearby dialect of Odia and along the Odisha border, the two dialects cannot be distinguished
Religion
Hindus are the majority religion in the district. Muslims are the second largest religion.
Economy
In 2006 the Ministry of Panchayati Raj named Purba Medinipur one of the country's 250 most backward districts (out of a total of 640). It is one of the 11 districts in West Bengal receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF). in East Medinipur Mat "Madur" industry are very popular , it's occupation of most people. In , agriculture sector paddy, wheat, chilli, vegetable are also popular in India.
Literacy and education
According to the 2011 census, the district has a literacy rate of 87.66 up from 80.20% of 2001 census. As per 2001 census, this district had a male literacy rate of 89.1% and female literacy rate was 70.7%. The education index of this district is 0.74 and it is ranked first in literacy in comparison to other districts of West Bengal.
Given in the table below (data in numbers) is a comprehensive picture of the education scenario in Purba Medinipur district for the year 2013โ2014. It may be noted that primary schools include junior basic schools; middle schools, high schools, and higher secondary schools include madrasahs; technical schools include junior technical schools, junior government polytechnics, industrial technical institutes, industrial training centres, nursing training institutes, etc.; technical and professional colleges include engineering colleges, polytechnics, medical colleges, para-medical institutes, management colleges, teachers training, and nursing training colleges, law colleges, art colleges, music colleges etc. Special and non-formal education centres include sishu siksha kendras, madhyamik siksha kendras, centres of Rabindra mukta vidyalaya, recognised Sanskrit tols, institutions for the blind and other handicapped persons, Anganwadi centres, reformatory schools etc.
Healthcare
The table below (all data in numbers) presents an overview of the medical facilities available and patients treated in the hospitals, health centres and sub-centres in 2014 in Purba Medinipur district.
Tourism
The coastal region of Purba Medinipur district is in the face of river Hoogly. With good coastal, landform, seasonal, rural and heritage diversity, it offers the potential for tourism in its typical coastlines and rural areas. The famous tourist spots are
Tamluk (Tamralipta)
Tamluk, district headquarters of Purba Medinipur district is situated on the bank of river Rupnarayan which is a very popular picnic spot. The other places are:
Temple of Devi Barghobhima is an 1150 years old Kali temple and is considered one of the 51 Shakti Peethas. According to Puran, the gorali of left feet of Sati/Parvati fell here when Lord Vishnu cut the sacred body of Goddess Sati into several pieces to make Lord Shiva quiet.
Archeological Museum of Tamluk is a must-see place. It contains artifacts of tamra (copper) and has preserved a tamralipta with Greek inscriptions. It preserves the historical heritage of Bengal.
Rakhit Bati is another important place to visit in Tamluk. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was famous as a secret centre of the then revolutionary parties Anusilan Samiti and Gupta Samiti.
There are many other ancient temples in Tamluk town to visit, i.e., Jagannath Temple, Hari Temple, Mahaprabhu Temple, Ram Jiu Temple, Rajbari Temple, etc.
Panskura
It is a municipality upgraded in 2002. It is one of the busiest towns in East Midnapore district. Panskura is known as "Valley of Flowers" with large supplies of flowers to other places. Panskura is also known for its green vegetables wholesale market near the Panskura Junction railway station. It is open every day after 10 pm until 7 am the next morning with a regular gathering of lakhs of people. Panskura is one of the busiest railway stations which extends up to Digha or Haldia directly through this station or by bus. The river Kansabati is a good picnic spot and Mahakali (Bhavatarini) temple nearby old Panskura bazar is a pilgrimage spot. Panskura is also well known for its cultural side. Many cultural schools and institutes are there. Panskura is famous for the recitation institute Chandabani [เฆเฆจเงเฆฆเฆฌเฆพเฆฃเง].
Mahishadal
Mahishadal is only 16 km from Tamluk town where tourists can visit the Mahishadal Rajbari, the museum there and Gopal Jiu temple. Geonkhali is a place 8 km from Mahishadal, a perfect picnic spot at the junction (mohona) of three rivers.
Digha
Digha is a seaside resort town of Purba Medinipur district and, at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, is the most popular seaside resort of West Bengal. Renowned for its beaches, Digha is visited by thousands of tourists every year.
Mandarmani
Mandarmani is a small virgin beach on the Bay of Bengal under Kalindi Gram Panchayat, only 14 km from Digha-Contai Road from Chaulkhola Bus Stop. It is a small fishing harbour and a fast developing tourist spot.
Haldia
Haldia, a city and a municipality in Purba Medinipur, is a major seaport approximately southwest of Kolkata near the mouth of the Hooghly River, one of the distributaries of the Ganges. It is being developed as a major trade port for Kolkata, intended mainly for bulk cargoes.
Notable people
Birendranath Sasmal, barrister, freedom fighter, and politician
Satish Chandra Samanta, freedom fighter, politician
Sushil Kumar Dhara, freedom fighter, politician
Ajoy Mukherjee, freedom fighter, politician
Matangini Hazra, freedom fighter, martyr in Quit India Movement
Anil Ghorai, poet, novelist and short story writer
Mani Lal Bhaumik, Indian American physicist and an internationally bestselling author, entrepreneur and philanthropist
Phulrenu Guha, educationist and politician
Geeta Mukherjee, social worker, politician
Paresh Maity, painter
Notes
References
External links
Legacy of Midnapore (Medinipur, Midnapur, Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur, East Midnapore, West Midnapore)
Map of old Medinipur district (district has now been split)
Districts of West Bengal
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Slaves & Masters
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Slaves & Masters โ Deep Purple-แแก แแแชแแแแขแ แกแขแฃแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ, แแแแแชแแแฃแแ 1990 แฌแแแก. แแก แแ แแก แฏแแฃแคแแก แแ แแแแแ แแ แแแแแแ แฏแ แแแ แขแแ แแแ แแก แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แจแแชแแแแ แแแ แแแแแแ. แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แแแกแแแก The Battle Rages On แฉแแฌแแ แแก แแ แแก แขแแ แแแ แ แแแแแ แแงแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แแแ แกแแแแแแจแ.
แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแกแแก แงแฃแ แแแฆแแแ แแ แแ แแฅแขแแแฃแแแ, แชแฃแแแ แแงแแแแแแแ แจแขแแขแแแจแ, 1991 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแฃแแ แขแฃแ แ แแแกแจแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แฌแแ แแแขแแแฃแแ แแฆแแแฉแแแ. แฏแแฃแคแแก แแ แแแ แกแแแแแแก (Mk V) แแแ แแแขแแแก แกแชแแแแแแ แชแแแแแแแแ แกแแขแแแกแขแแแแก แแแแ.
แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แกแแ
The vinyl edition has "Fortuneteller" as track 4
Fire Ice & Dynamite (แกแแฃแแแขแ แแแ)
Fire, Ice & Dynamite (แแแแแแแ แ, แแแแแแ แ, แขแแ แแแ แ) - 4:33
แคแแฅแขแแแ
แแแแแแแก Slaves And Masters แแแ แแ, Mk 5 แกแฎแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ 1990-91 แฌแแแแจแ. แแ แ-แแ แแ แแงแ Slow Down Sister (แกแแแแแแแแ Love Conquers All). แแกแแแ แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ Fire, Ice and Dynamite (แ แแแแแแช แแแฎแแแ แแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแก แคแแแแจแ). แกแแแฆแแ แ แจแแขแแแแแ แแฅแแ แคแแแแแก แกแแฃแแแขแ แแแจแ. แฏแแ แแแ แแ แแ แกแแแฆแแ แแจแ แแ แฃแแ แแแก - แแแก แแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแแขแแ แแแแ แแแฃแแ แ แ แแฏแแ แแแแแแ แแ.
แแแแแแแก แแ แช แแ แแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแฃแแ แชแแชแฎแแแ 1991 แฌแแแก แขแฃแ แแก แจแแแแแ (แแแ แแ แจแขแแขแแแแก). แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ King Of Dreams, แ แแแแแแช แแแฎแแแ 2002 แฌแแแก แฐแแฃแแแกแ แแ แขแแ แแแ แแก แแ แแแแแแ แแแ แแแฃแ/แแแแแแฃแ แขแฃแ แแแจแ. แแก แแแ แกแแ แแฎแแแก แแงแ แแ แแแแแแแฃแ แแแ แแ แแกแแแแแแแแแก แแแขแแ แแกแ แแแแแงแ แ. แแแ แจแแขแแแแแ แแฅแแ แแ แแแฅแขแแก 2002 แฌแแแก แแแแแแจแ Live In Tokyo.
แแแ แกแแแแแ
แฏแ แแแ แขแแ แแแ แ - แแแแแแ
แ แแฉแ แแแแแแแ แ - แแแขแแ แ
แฏแแ แแแ แแ - แแ แแแแ, แแแแแแจแแแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแกแขแ แฃแแแแขแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แแแ
แ แแฏแแ แแแแแแ แ - แแแก-แแแขแแ แ
แแแ แแแแกแ - แแแกแแ แขแงแแแแ แกแแแ แแแแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
Deep Purple-แแก แแแแแแแแ
1990 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ
RCA Records-แแก แแแแแแแแ
แแแแแแแแ แ แแฏแแ แแแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแฃแกแแ แแแแ
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501854
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9F%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%29
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แแแแแแแ (แแแแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
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แแแแแแแ (แแแแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแ)
แแแแแแแ โ แกแแคแแแ แ แฃแกแแแแก แคแแแแ แแชแแแจแ, แแแจแแแ แแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแแก แแแแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแจแ.
2010 แฌแแแก แแแแแชแแแแแแ แกแแคแแแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแก 512 แแแแแแแแ. แ แแแแแฃแ แชแแแขแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ 28 แแแแแแแขแ แแ. แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแแฃแ แแ แแ แแฃแขแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแจแแ แแแฃแแแ 40 แแ-แแ.
2002 แฌแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แฃแแ แแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแ-แแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแแแแแแ (40 %).
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
ะกะพะฒะตั ะผัะฝะธัะธะฟะฐะปัะฝัั
ะพะฑัะฐะทะพะฒะฐะฝะธะน ะ ะตัะฟัะฑะปะธะบะธ ะะฐัะบะพััะพััะฐะฝ.
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแฃแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแแแ
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397922
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A6%E1%83%95%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90
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แแฎแแแแแ แแก แฆแแแแกแแจแแแแแก แแแแแกแแ
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แแฎแแแแแ แแก แฆแแแแกแแจแแแแแก แแแแแกแแ โ แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แซแแแแ, แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ, แแฎแแแแแ แจแ. แแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแ แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ.
แแแแแกแแ แซแแ แแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แจแแแแแกแแแแ แแแกแแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแแ แ แแงแแก แฅแแ. แแแ แแแแฃแแ แแแแแกแแ แแแแแแ แฌแแแ แซแแแแแฃแแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแ แกแ แฃแแแแแ. แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แกแแแแแ แแแแแแจแ แแแญแ แแแแ แแแฆแแแแแ แกแแ แแแแแแ. แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแแแ แฌแแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแฅแแ แแแแแกแแแ แขแ แแแแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแ แฎแแ แชแแแแแแแ. แแแกแแแแก แฉแ แแแแแแ แแฎแแ แแก แแ แแ แแแฆแแแแแ แแ แแ แแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แแแจแแ. แกแแขแ แแฃแแคแ แแแฆแ แแแแแแจแแ แฉแแซแแ แฃแแ. แกแแแฃแ แแฎแแแแแก แแแขแแแ แแแฎแ แกแแคแแฎแฃแ แแ แแแฆแแแแ แแแ แแแแแก แแแขแแแแ. แแ แซแแแ แแแแแแแ แฌแงแแแแ แแแแแกแขแ แแแแ แกแแ แแแฌแแแแ แแงแแคแ. แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แแแแแ แแก แกแแแ แฏแแแ แแแฆแแแ แแ แแคแแแแ แแแฃแ แแแแแกแขแแแก แแงแ แแแแแ. แแแแแกแขแ แแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแก แแแฆแแแ. แจแแแ แกแแแ แชแ แแแแแแแ แแแกแแแแแแแก แแ แ แแแฆแแแแแ แแ แแ แแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ, แฉแ แแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแก แแ แแ แกแฌแแ แแฃแแฎแ แกแแ แแแแแแ. แแแกแแแแแแ แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแแแฆแแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แกแแแฎแ แแแแกแ แแ แฅแแขแ แแแฃแแ. แกแแแฎแ แแแ แจแแกแแกแแแแแ แแ แกแแ แแแแแ แแแแจแแแแแฃแแแ. แแแขแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแฃแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแแฃแ แแ.
แแแแแกแแแก แแแกแแแแแ แคแแกแแแจแ แฉแแขแแแแแฃแแแ แแแฉแฃแฅแฃแ แแแแแฃแแ แฅแแแก แแแแแ แแแ แแงแแแแแแฃแแ แฏแแ แแก แ แแแแแคแฃแ แ แแแแแกแแฎแฃแแแแแ. แแ แ-แแ แ แแแแแ แแ, แฏแแ แแก แแแแ แแฃแแฎแแแแจแ แแแ แแแกแแแ แ แแ แแแแแแขแแ. แแแแแ แ แแแฉแแ แฉแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแแขแ แแฃแแ แฌแแฃแแแ. แแงแแแแแแฃแแ แฏแแ แแก แแแแแกแแฎแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแ แแแช, แฎแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแแ แฌแแ แฌแแ แแก แคแ แแแแแแขแแแ. แแฆแแแกแแแแแแแก แคแแกแแแแก แแแแ แแแฌแแแจแ, แแแฃแ แแก แฌแงแแแแจแ แฉแแซแแ แฃแแแ แขแแแแแแแแ แฏแแแ แ. แกแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแงแแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแขแ แแแแฅแแแก แแแแแแแแ แฉแแแแงแ แแแแ. แกแแแฎแ แแ แแ แฉแ แแแแแแ แคแแกแแแแแก แกแแแแ แ แฅแแ แจแแแแชแแแแ แแฅแแก. แแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แฃแแแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แจแแแ แฅแแ แแแ, แแฎแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแขแแขแแก แแ แฅแแขแแฅแขแฃแ แฃแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแ, แข. IV, แแ., 2008, แแ., 14
แแฎแแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แขแแซแ แแแ
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12146
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D
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แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ
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แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แคแแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ (IX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแกแ แฃแแ โ XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแ). แแแกแ แแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แฐแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช, แแแกแ แแแแแแแแขแฃแแแแก แชแแแแแ, 893 แแแคแแก แขแแขแฃแแ แแแแฆแ.
แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ
IX-X แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แฅแแ แแฃแ แแ แฃแชแฎแแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแฌแแแแแ โแจแแฅแโ, โแแแแแแฉแแแโ. แแก แแแ แแแแ แแแแฎแกแแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแ โแ แแแโ, โแแแแแแแแโ. แฅแแ แแฃแ แจแฃแแกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ โแ แแแแแแโ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แขแแแแช แแฌแแแแแ. แแแแแแฃแ แ แขแแแแแ แแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแแแแช แแฌแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแขแแแแช โแ แแแโ แแ โแฐแแ แแแโ แแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแก แแแแแฎแแแ, แแแแแขแฃแ แ แชแแแแแแแ. แฅแแ แแฃแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแ แฎแแ โแฐแแ แแแแโ แแฌแแแแแ แแ แฎแแแแช โแ แแแแโ, แแแแกแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแ โแฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแโ แแ แแแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแก โแจแแฅแแก แกแแแแคแแกแโ แแ แกแแแฎแฃแ แ แแ แแแแแแขแแฃแ แ แฌแงแแ แแแแแก โแแแแแแแ แกแแแแคแแกโ แแแแแขแฃแ แแชแแ. แแ แกแแแแคแแก แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แฃแแฎแแแแกแ แแแแแแแแก, แซแแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แขแแแแก, แฐแแ แแแแกแแแแ แแฌแแ แแแแก, แแ แแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแก โ แจแแฅแแกแแแแ, แกแแแฎแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแแแ แแแก แแแแแแแแก แฃแฌแแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แแก แงแแคแแแ แแแแแแแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แฉแแแแงแแแแแแ. แฅแแ แแฃแแจแ แขแแ แแแแ โแแแแแแแแโ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแ. แแก แ แแแแแแแแแฏแแ แแแฎแแแแแ แกแแแฎแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ, แกแแแแช, แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก, แแก แกแแแฎแฃแ แแแแ แแแฅแแแแแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแแฆแแแฃแแ. แแแแแแแแแก แจแแกแแขแงแแแกแแ IX-XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแแก แฅแแ แแฃแ (แ แแแแ แช แแ แแแแแแแฃแ , แแกแ แกแแแฎแฃแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแ) แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แแแฎแแแแแ โแฐแแ แแแโ. IX-X แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแ แ แแแแฃแ แแแแช แแแแฎแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแ แแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช I-V แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แแ แชแแแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แแแกแแแแก แแฆแแแแแ, แกแแกแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแ, แขแแ แแขแแ แแฃแแแ แจแแแชแแ แแ แแ แแแแแกแ แแ แกแแแแแแก แแ แแแแ แฎแแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแแก แคแแ แแแแแจแ แแแแฅแชแ. แแแแแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแ, แคแแฅแขแแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแแแแก แแฆแกแแแแจแแแแแ แกแฎแแ แขแแ แแแแ แแ แแชแแแ แแแ แแ แฐแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแช แแแแซแแแแก แกแแคแฃแซแแแแก แแแ แแฃแแแกแแแแแก, แ แแ โแฐแแ แแแกโ แแ แ แแแ แขแ IX-X แกแก-แจแ, แแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แ แแแแจแแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ: แแแฌแ แ โ แกแแแฃแแ แแ แฐแแ แแแแกแ แแ แคแแ แแ โ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแแกแ.
แจแแแแแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแ แแแ
แฐแแแแแแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ แขแแฎแขแแ แแแแก แแแกแ แจแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแ. แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ (โแแแขแแแแ แฅแแ แแแแกแแฒโ, แแแฎแฃแจแขแ แแแขแแแแจแแแแ) แแแแ แแแกแ แแแขแ แแแ. แแแก แแ แแก แแแแฎแแแแแแ 915, แแแฎแแแแก แฅแแ แแแแกแแแแแกแแ แแแแ แแแ I-แแ (892โ918) แแคแฎแแแแ แแแคแ แแแแกแขแแแขแแแ III-แแแ แแ แแแ แแแแแแจแฅแ แ แฐแแ แแแแก แฌแแแแแฆแแแแ. แแแแแแจแแ แแแแแ แแแแแงแ แแก แแ แแแแแแฌแแแแก แฐแแ แแแแก แแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแแ: แแ แแจแ (แแฎแแแแแแแ แแแแกแซแแ แ), แแแแแแ (แแฎแแแแแแแ แแฎแแแกแแคแแแ), แแ แญแแแ. แ แแแแแแแแ แฎแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแแ แแแกแ แแแขแ แแแแ แแกแแ แแแแแ แแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแก แกแแแแ แแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแแก แแแ แแฃแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแฃแแ แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแแแแ แฃแแ. แแแแ แแแกแ แแแขแ แแแแก แจแแแแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แแแคแ แแงแ แแแกแ แซแ แแจแฎแแแแแ (แแแแฎแแแแแแ 943โX แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 60-แแแแ แฌแแแแ). แแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แฐแแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแกแ โ แแแแแ แแแแแคแแแ (แขแแ-แแแแ แฏแแแแก แแแแ แแขแแแแแ แกแแฎแแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแแแ, แแแแ แแแกแ II-แแก แแกแฃแแ แแ แชแแแแแแ แแฃแ แแแ IV แแแแแก, แแ แแกแแแแแแ แแกแแแแแก, แแแแแกแขแ แแกแแก แแ).
แแแ แฐแแฃแแแแแก แแฎแแฃแแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแจแฎแแแแแแก แแแคแแแแก แแ แแก แฐแแ แแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแก โ แกแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แแแกแแแ แแงแ. X แกแแฃแแฃแแแก 50-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแจแฎแแแแแแ แแกแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแ แแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแจแ แจแแแแคแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแ แแ แฎแแ แแแก แแแชแแแ แจแแฌแงแแแขแ. แฅแแ แแฃแแ แฌแงแแ แแแแแก แแแฎแแแแแ, แแจแฎแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแคแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแก แฎแแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแแ แฃแแ แงแ แแแแแคแแแแขแแแ แแ แแฆแแแ แ แฅแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแ แฌแแแกแ. แแ แแแแแแแจแแแแแแแแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแ-แแกแขแแ แแฃแแ แแฅแขแแ แแแแฎแแ แชแแแแแ แฐแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแ แฅแแ แแฃแ (แแชแฎแแแแก) แแแแแกแแแกแแแ.
แแจแฎแแแแแแก แจแแแแแ แแแคแแแแ แแแแแ แกแแแแฅแแ แแแ (แแแแฎแแแแแแ X แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแกแ แฃแแ). แแแแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แฎแแ แฏแแ, แ แแก แแแแแช แฌแแแแ แแ แแแคแแก แขแแขแฃแแแช แแแแฆแ. XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแแแแ แกแแแกแขแแ แแ แฌแงแแ แแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแแก แแแคแ แแฆแแ แแฎแกแแแแแแ. แ แแแแ แช แฉแแแก, แแ แแ แแก แแ แกแแแแแ แจแแฌแงแแแขแ แฐแแ แแแแก แแคแแแแแแแ แแแแแกแขแแแ.
XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแคแ แแแแ แแข III แแ แแแฎแแ แฅแแ แแแแกแแแแแกแ แแแแแแ (976โ1010) แแแ แซแแแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แแแกแแแงแ แแแแ. XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแชแแแ แฌแแแแจแ แแแฎแแแแก แแแคแ แแแแ แแแ III (1010โ1037) แแแแแ แแแแแงแ แ แฐแแ แแแ แกแแแแคแ แ แแแแช แแแกแ แฃแแแ แแแฎแแ-แฐแแ แแแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แจแแ แฌแงแแแก แแ แแชแแกแ. แแแแแ แแแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแแ แจแแฌแงแแแขแ แแแแแฃแแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแ แแ แแแแฅแชแ แแฎแแแ แจแแฅแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแฃแแแก โ โแ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแแโ แกแแแแคแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
XII แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แฐแแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแก แกแแแแคแแกแแแ แแ แแแ แแแฎแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแฃแงแแคแแแ แแแฌแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแฅแขแแฃแ แแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แฅแแแงแแแก แกแแชแแแแฃแ -แแแแแแแแแฃแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แฃแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ. IX-X แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แแแแแขแแแฃแ -แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แซแแแแ แแแ แแ แแแฆแแแ แแฃแแขแฃแ แ แแแกแขแฃแ แแแแ แแกแขแแ แแฃแ แฐแแ แแแแก แขแแ แแขแแ แแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแ แแแขแแ แแแแฃแ แ แแฃแแขแฃแ แแก แซแแแแแแแก แกแแแ แแแแแ. แจแแแแแแฎแฃแแแ แจแแกแแแแจแแแแ แฎแฃแ แแแแแซแฆแแ แฃแแ แซแแแแแแ: แงแฃแแแก แแแแแแแแ (VIII แก.), แแแฅแแแแก แขแแขแ แแแแแแฅแ (VIII-IX แกแก.), แแฃแ แฏแแแแแก (แแแฎแแฃแแแแก) โแงแแแแแฌแแแแแโ (VIII-IX แกแก.), แฎแแ แกแแก โแกแขแแคแแแฌแแแแแโ (IX แก.), แแแแแแแแแก โแแแแฆแแแแโ (IX แก.) แแ แแ แแแแแ แกแฎแแ.
แแแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแแแแ แแแแ
แแกแแแ, แ แแแแ แช แแแแแ แฉแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแจแ, แแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแขแแแแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแจแ, แฐแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแแแ แจแแคแแ แฎแแแแ, แแแแ แแ แแแแแช แฌแแแกแแแแก แแแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแแแแงแ แแแแแแแ, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแ แแแแแแ, แแแ แแแแแ แจแแแคแแ แฎแแก, แแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแแฉแแ แแก แฅแแแงแแแก แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแ. แจแฃแ แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแจแ แคแแแแแแฃแ แ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแแก แแแแแขแแแชแแแแก, แ แแกแแช แแแ แแฎแแแ แแแฌแแก แแฎแแแ แคแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแกแแแ, แฎแแแก แฃแฌแแแแ แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก, แแแ แจแ โ แแแแแฆแแแแ-แแแแแแแฎแแแแแก, แกแแฎแแแแ แแแฌแแแแแฅแแแแแแแก, แแแแก แแแแจแ โ แซแแ แแแแแแ, แแแกแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแ -แแแแแแแก แแฃแแแก แแแ แ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแแแฎแแแแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แ แแแแแ แแงแ. แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแขแแแกแแฃแ แ แแแ แแแแแก, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฎแแแแ-แแแแแฆแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแกแแแแแก, แกแแฅแแแแฅแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแก แแฆแแแแแแแแกแแแแแก แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแฃแแ แแแแจแแแแแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แกแแ แฌแงแแแ แกแแกแขแแแแก แแ แกแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแแ แแแจแแแแแช แแ แแแแแแแ แจแแแแ แฉแแแแแ แฐแแ แแแจแ. แแแแก แแแแ แแแแแแ แ แแงแ แแแแฃแ แ แกแแซแแแ แแแแ, แ แแช แฎแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแ แแแชแฎแแแ แแแแแก, แแแชแฎแแแแแแแก, แแกแฎแแแแคแแฎแ แ แฅแแกแแแ แแแกแแฅแแแแแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก. แแแฎแฃแจแขแ แแแแ แแขแแแแแก แแแ แแ, แแ แ-แแ แแ แ แแแแแแแก, แแแแแแฉแแแแแแก (แฅแแแแงแแก) แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแ, แแแแแฉแแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแ. แแฃ แแก แแแ แแฃแแ แกแฌแแ แแ, แแก แแแฃแแแแแแก แแ แ แแแแแแจแ แแแแแฉแแก แแแแ แชแแแแแแแ แฃแซแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแ แฃแแแ แกแขแ แแแแแ (แซแ. แแ แแฎแแแ แฌแแแแแฆแ แแชแฎแแแแ แแแฏแแ) แแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแกแแแแก แฃแฌแแแแแก. แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแก แแฆแแแแแแแ แฎแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแ แกแแคแแแก แแแฃแ แแแแแแกแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ แฎแแแแกแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก. แแ แฅแแแแแแแฃแ แ แแแแฎแ แแแแก แจแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแกแแแ แแแแกแขแฃแ แแแก แแแ แแแแแฃแแ แแ แแแแแก แกแแฌแแ แแแแแแก แแ แกแแแแแแก, แแแฅแแแแ แแแแแก, แกแแฎแแแ-แกแแแแแ, แกแแแแแแ แแแ แแฆแแก แแญแแแแแแแก แแ แกแแแแแแก, แแแแแแแแฃแแแ แแแแแก แกแแกแฎแแแแ แแแแ แแ แ แแแแแก แกแฎแแ แแแ แแฆแแแ.
แฐแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแแแกแแแจแ แฃแแแแแแกแ แแ แแแ แแแฎแแแแก แ แแแแแแแชแแแกแแแ แแแแแแแแจแแ แแแแแ แแแ, แ แแช แฎแแแก แฃแฌแงแแแแ แแ แแฎแแ แแก แแแแแแแแ แแแแก. แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แกแแแแแแ แแญแแแ แ แกแแแแญแ แ แฃแ แแแแ แแแแ แฐแฅแแแแ แกแแฎแแแแคแแกแแแ, แ แแกแแช แฐแแ แแแจแ แแฆแแแฉแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแ แแชแฎแแแแแ แแ แแแฃแแ แแแแแขแแแ แแแฌแแแแแ. แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ แแ แแแแ แกแแแ แแแจแแ แแกแ แกแแขแ แแแแแขแ แแแญแ แแแแจแ แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ แแ แกแแแฃแแแ แ แกแแฎแแแแกแแ แแฃ แกแแกแแคแแ-แกแแแแฃแ แแแ แกแแฅแแแแแแช แแแฐแฅแแแแ.
แฐแแ แแแแก (โแ แแแแโ) แแแคแแแแ
XI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แฐแแ แแแ แฃแแแ แกแฃแกแข แกแแฎแแแแฌแแคแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก, แ แแแแแก แแแฃแคแแแแแกแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แซแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแขแแแฃแ แ แแ แแแฃแแแแ. 1008 แฌแแแก แฐแแ แแแก แแแแแแแก แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแ แแแแ แแแคแ แแแแ แแข III. 1010 แฌแแแแแ แฐแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แแ แแแแจแแแแ แแแแ แแแ III. 1020 แฌแแแแแ แแ แฐแแ แแแ แแแแแแงแ แแ แแแแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแแแแคแแก แแ แแแฎแแแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแฅแแแ แแแฎแแ-แฐแแ แแแแก แกแแแแคแ (แ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแแ แกแแแแคแ).
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แฐแแ แแแแก แแแคแแแแแก แแแแแแแแแแ
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แแแแฃแแจแแแแ แ., แฐแแ แแแแก แแกแขแแ แแแก แกแแแแแฎแแแ, แแ., 1970;
แแแกแแแ, แ แแแแ แแ แแแฎแแ แกแแแแคแ (VII-XI แกแก.), แแ., 1982;
แ. แแแ แแฅแแคแแแแซแ, แ. แแฃแกแฎแแแแจแแแแ, แ . แแแขแ แแแแแ., แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแกแขแแ แแ, แข. 2 โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแ IV แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ XIII แกแแฃแแฃแแแแแ, 2012 แฌแแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แงแแแแแคแแ แ แฐแแ แแแแก (แกแแแแแแแ) แจแแกแแฎแแ // hereti.org - แแแแแแแแแ, แแแแแขแแแ, แแฃแแขแฃแ แ, แแแแแแแแแ แแ แกแฎแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
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แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ
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แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ (แ. 14 แแแแแกแขแ, 1959, แญแแแแกแแแแ, แชแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ, แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แกแกแ ) โ แฅแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แ แแแแแขแแแแกแ.
แแแแแ แแคแแ
แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแแแแแ 1959 แฌแแแก 14 แแแแแกแขแแก แชแแแแ แแก แ แแแแแแก แกแแคแแ แญแแแแกแแแแจแ. 1982 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แ แจแ แแแแก แฌแแแแแ แแ แแจแแก แแ แแแแแกแแแ แ. แ. แแแแแแแก แกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแ. แกแแแแแแแ แ แแ แฐแแแ แแแแแฅแขแ แแกแแแแฃแ แแแแก แฐแแแ แแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแจแแแแแแแแแก แกแแแชแแแแแแแแ. แแแแแแแแฃแ แ แฎแแ แแกแฎแ-แกแแชแแแแฃแ แ แแแชแแแแ แแแแแแก แแแฅแขแแ แ. แแแแแแแ -แฐแแแ แแขแแฅแแแแแกแ. แแแฅแขแแ แแแขแ-แกแขแฃ (2013-2016)
แแแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แแ แแก แแงแ: แชแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แกแแแ แแแฃแแแก แฌแแแ แ (2006 - 2008) แฅแแแแ แชแแแแ แแก แแแแแก แกแแแ แแแฃแแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แ (2002 - 2006) แชแแแแ แแก แกแแแแแ แกแแแแแ แแแแแแก แฃแคแ แแกแแก แแแแแแแแ (1997 - 2002) แแแฉแฎแฃแแแก แแฆแแ แซแแแแแแก แคแแแแแก แแแแแฏแแแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแ (1996 - 1997) แกแแแ แแแแขแแแแชแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแแแฆแแแ แแฃแแฅแขแแก แแแแแ (1995 - 1995) แฅแแแแ แชแแแแ แแก แกแแคแแแก แกแแแ แแแฃแแแก แแแแแแแ (1991 - 1995) แแแ แแแก แแแแแขแแแแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแกแแแแแแ (1988-1990), แแ แชแแแแ แแก แ แแแแแแแก แแแกแขแ แฃแฅแขแแ แ (1987 - 1989) แชแแแแ แแก แแแแแแฃแ แแแแแแก แแแ แขแแฃแแ แแแแแขแแขแแก แแแแแแแ (1986 - 1987) แแแแ แชแแแแ แแก แ แแแแแแแก แแแแงแแคแแแแแแก แแแแแ (1985 - 1986) แแแแ แชแแแแ แแก แ แแแแแแแก แแแกแ แฃแฅแขแแ แ (1983 - 1985) แแ แชแแแแ แแก แแแแฃแแแแฃแ แกแแฌแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแแขแแก แแแแแแแ แ (1982 - 1983).
2008-2012 แฌแแแแจแ แแงแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ-7 แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แ (แชแแแแ แแก แแแแแ แแขแแ แ), แกแแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแแ: โแกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แ แแกแแฃแแแแแฃแ แ แแแ แขแแโ. 2012-2016 แฌแแแแจแ โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ-8 แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แ แแแ แขแแฃแแ แกแแแ, แกแแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแแ: โแแแซแแแ แแแแแแจแแแแ โ แฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแโ. 2016-2020 แฌแแแแจแ โ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแ-9 แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แ แแแ แขแแฃแแ แกแแแ, แกแแแ แฉแแแแ แแแแแ: โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแ โ แแแแแแ แแขแแฃแแ แกแแฅแแ แแแแแโ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 14 แแแแแกแขแ
แแแแแแแแฃแแ 1959
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก VII แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก VIII แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แแแ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก IX แแแฌแแแแแก แแแ แแแแแแขแแก แฌแแแ แแแโ
แกแแฅแแ แแแแแแก แแแแแขแแฅแแแแฃแ แ แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก แแฃแ แกแแแแแแแ แแแฃแแแแ (1982)
แชแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แแแแแแแแฃแแแแ
แแแ แแ
โแฅแแ แแฃแแ แแชแแแแแกโ แฌแแแ แแแ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000%20Georgian%20Cup
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1999โ2000 Georgian Cup
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1999โ2000 Georgian Cup
The 1999โ2000 Georgian Cup (also known as the David Kipiani Cup) was the fifty-sixth season overall and tenth since independence of the Georgian annual football tournament.
Preliminary round
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Round of 32
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Round of 16
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Quarter-finals
The matches were played on 15 March (first legs) and 22 March 2000 (second legs).
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Semi-finals
The matches were played on 2 May (first legs) and 9 May 2000 (second legs).
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Final
See also
1999โ2000 Umaglesi Liga
References
External links
The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
es.geofootball.com
Georgian Cup seasons
Cup
Georgian Cup, 1999-2000
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แแแแ แแก-แแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ (แขแแฉแแ แ)
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แแแแ แแก-แแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ (แขแแฉแแ แ)
แแแแ แแก-แแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ โ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแแแแกแฃแแแแจแ, แขแแฉแแ แแก แจแขแแขแจแ, แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แขแแฉแแ แแก แจแขแแขแแก 29 แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแแ แแ แ-แแ แแก. แแแแแฅแแแแฅแแ แแแ แแแ แ, แคแแ แแแแ 102 แแยฒ. แแแแแกแฃแแแแก แแ แแแแฃแแ แกแขแแขแแกแขแแแแก แแแกแขแแขแฃแขแแก 2011 แฌแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แแฆแฌแแ แแก แแแฎแแแแแ แแแแ แแก-แแแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแจแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแ 20 358 แแแแแแแแ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแแก แกแแแญแแแ แแแ แจแแแแแแแก 199,59 แแแแแแแแก 1 แแแแแ แแขแฃแ แแแแแแแขแ แแ.
แแฎแแแแ แแแ แแแแ
แแแแแกแฃแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แขแแฉแแ แแก แจแขแแขแ
แขแแฉแแ แแก แจแขแแขแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somebody%20to%20Love
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Somebody to Love
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Somebody to Love
โSomebody to Loveโ โ แแ แแขแแแฃแแ แ แแ-แฏแแฃแค Queen-แแก แกแแแฆแแ แ, แ แแแแแก แแแขแแ แแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แกแแแแกแขแ แแ แแแแแแกแขแ แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แ. แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแแแแฃแขแ แแแแแแ แแ แฏแแฃแคแแก 1976 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ A Day at the Races. แแแ แแแ แแแแ แจแแขแแแแแแ แแแ 1981 แฌแแแก แแ แแแฃแแจแ Greatest Hits.
แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแฅแแก แแกแแแแกแแแ Queen-แแก แแแ แแแแแ แฐแแขแแแ โBohemian Rhapsodyโ, แแแแแกแ แ แแฃแแ แฐแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแแขแแ แแก แกแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแ แแขแแแแแแก แฉแแ แขแแแจแ แแ แแ-13 Billboard Hot 100-แจแ. แกแแแฆแแ แแ แแฉแแแแ, แ แแ โQueen-แก แจแแแซแแ แกแแแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ แแกแแแ แซแแแแ แแ, แ แแแแ แช แ แแแแก, แแแกแแแแแก แแฃแกแแแแก แกแฃแแแกแแแแแแแแโ.
แแแ แแฃแ แแก แแแแ แคแแ แขแแแแแแแแ แแแฌแแ แแแ, โSomebody to Loveโ แแ แแก แกแฃแแแกแจแแแซแแ แแแ แแแฌแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแญแแฅแแแจ แแงแแแแแก แฆแแแ แแแก แ แแแก แฃแกแแงแแแ แฃแแ แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ. แฎแแแก แคแแแแแแก แขแแฅแแแแแก แกแแจแฃแแแแแแ Queen-แแ แจแแซแแ, แจแแแฅแแแ 100-แฎแแแแแ แแฃแแแแก แแแแชแแฃแ แ แฎแแ แกแแแ แแแแแแแกแขแแก, แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแก, แแ แแแแ แแแแกแ แแ แ แแฏแแ แขแแแแแ แแกแแแ. แฏแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแแจแ แแแฅ-แแแแแแ แแ แจแแฃแกแ แฃแแแแแแแ. แแแ แแฃแ แแก แแฆแคแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแฆแขแแชแแแแ แแ แแแ แคแ แแแแแแแแก แแแแแ แ แฃแแแแแกแ แแแแแแแ แแฅแแแแ แแ แกแแแฆแแ แแก แจแแฅแแแแจแ.
Queen โSomebody to Loveโ-แก แแแแชแแ แขแแแแ แฃแแ แแแแ 1977 แฌแแแแแ 1985 แฌแแแแแ, แฎแแแ แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แฉแแแแฌแแ แ แจแแขแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแ Queen Rock Montreal. แแแแแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแ 1992 แฌแแแก 20 แแแ แแแก The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert-แแ, แฌแแแงแแแ แแแแแแแ แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ.
1976 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแแแแก แจแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แแแแแฉแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แกแแขแแแแแแแแ แจแแฃแกแ แแ แกแแ แแแแจแ, แ แแแแ แแแแชแแ Idol, The X Factor แแ แแแฃแแ, แแกแแแ แคแแแแแแจแ, แแแ แจแแ แแก แแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแฏแแแแแแฃแแ .
แคแแแ
แแกแแแ แ แแแแ แช "Bohemian Rhapsody"-แก (แแแแแแ แ แฐแแขแ Queen-แแก แฌแแแ แแแแแแแแแ A Night at the Opera) "Somebody to Love"-แกแแช แแฅแแก แ แแฃแแ แแแแแแแ แแ แแแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแฆแแ แแแแก แฆแ แแ แคแแแ. "Bohemian Rhapsody " แแคแฃแซแแแแแแ แแแแแแกแฃแ แกแแแฃแแแ แกแขแแแแแก, แแแจแแ แ แแแแกแแช "Somebody to Love" แแแแแฃแแ แแงแ แแแกแแแแแก แแฃแแแฃแ แแ แแแแแ แแแแแ. แแก แแงแ แแแ แแแแ แกแแแแแ A Day at the Races-แแแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แแแ แแฃแ แ, แแแ แแ แขแแแแแ แ แฌแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแ แฎแแแแก แแฃแแขแแขแ แแแแก แกแแฎแแ, แ แแแ แจแแแฅแแแแ 100-แฎแแแแแ แกแแฎแแ แแแแก แแฃแแแแก แจแแแแแญแแแแแแ. แขแแฅแกแขแ แแ แแก แ แฌแแแแแแ, แกแแกแแฌแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แกแฃแแแก แซแแแแแแ. แแแแฆแแ แแแ แแญแแฅแแแจ แแงแแแแแก แ แแแแ แช แแแก แชแฎแแแ แแแแจแ แแแแชแแแแ แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแก แแแแแแแแแแก, แแกแแแ แฆแแแ แแแก แ แแแกแ แแ แแ แกแแแแแแก. แขแแฅแกแขแจแ แแกแแแ แแแฎแแแแแ แกแแฃแแแ แ แกแแกแแฌแแ แแแแแแกแ แแ แแแแแแชแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แแฎแแแแก แกแแงแแแ แฃแแแก แซแแแแแก แกแแแงแแ แแจแ, แ แแแแแจแแช แฅแแแแ แแแแแแแชแแแ แแแฃแฆแแแแแ แแแแแแแ (โแฃแแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแแ แชแแฎแแก แกแแแแแแแ. แแแแกแแ แแแฅแแแแ แแแแแกแฃแคแแแ"). Queen แแแขแแ แแแ แแ แแแแขแแ แแแฃแแ แกแขแแแแก แแ แแแฃแแ แ แฉแแแแแ, แแแ แแกแแแ แกแแแกแ แแงแ แ แแฃแแ แฐแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแ แแ แแแแ แแแแก แแแแแ แฉแแฃแแ แแแขแแ แแก แกแแแแแ. แกแแแฆแแ แแ แแแแแแแ แแแแ แ แแแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแแแฃแแ แกแแแแคแแก แกแแแแแแแแก แฉแแ แขแจแ แแ แแแชแแแแขแ Billboard Hot 100-แจแ แแจแจ-แจแ.
แแแแแแแ แกแแ แแแแแแ แแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแ แแแแแแแก แแแแแแฃแ แฉแแแแฌแแ แก Sarm Studios-แจแ (แกแแแแช แฉแแฌแแ แแแ แแงแ แแแแแแ A Day at the Races) แแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แฌแแ แแแแแแแแก แแแกแแฎแแแ แแแแ แแแก แฐแแแ-แแแ แแจแ.
แชแแชแฎแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ
แกแแแฆแแ แ แแงแ A Day at the Races แแ News of the World แขแฃแ แแแแแแก แซแแ แแแแแ แแแฌแแแ 1977 โ 78 แฌแแแแจแ. The Game Tour-แจแ แแก แแฎแแแแ แขแฃแ แแก แแแกแแฌแงแแกแจแ แแแฃแแ แแก. แแก แแกแแแ แฌแแ แแแแแแแแแ แแงแ South America Bites The Dust, Live at the Bowl แแ Queen Rock Montreal-แจแ. แแแแแแแแแแแ The Works Tour-แจแ แจแแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแ แกแแ แฌแแ แฃแซแฆแแแ โKiller Queenโ-แก. แชแแชแฎแแแ แแแ แกแแ 1984/85 แขแฃแ แแแแ แฉแแแฌแแ แ แแ แแแแแแฆแแก แกแแแแแชแแ แขแ แคแแแแแ, Final Live in Japan 1985 แฌแแแก.
แกแแแฆแแ แ แแกแแแ แแงแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแ แขแ แแแแแแ, แกแแแแช แแแแแแ แแฆแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแก, แชแแชแฎแแแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแแก แแ แแก. แแแกแ แฎแแ แแแแคแแแ แแกแแแแ แแฃแขแแแแแแแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แแแแแกแแแแแแ แแ แแก แแแ แขแจแ 1977 แฌแแแก แแแแแกแจแ แแ แฐแแฃแกแขแแแแก แกแแแแขแแ 1977 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแ แจแ.
แแแ แแฃแ แแก แแแ แแแชแแแแแแแก แจแแแแแแแช แแ, 1991 แฌแแแก, "Somebody to Love" แจแแแกแ แฃแแแก แฏแแฃแคแแก แแแ แฉแแแแแแ แฌแแแ แแแแ, แแแแกแแแ, แขแแแแแ แแแ แแ แ แแแแแแแแ แกแฎแแ แแแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแ. แฃแแแแแแก แกแขแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแฃแ แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแกแแแแ แแแซแฆแแแแ แแแแชแแ แขแแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแ. แแแแแแแก แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ "Somebody to Love" แจแแคแแกแแ, แ แแแแ แช "แคแ แแแแกแแแแ แแแซแฆแแแแแ แแแแชแแ แขแแก แแ แ-แแ แแ แกแแฃแแแแแกแ แจแแกแ แฃแแแแ". แแแแแแแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแ แ แฎแแแแฎแแ แแแแแแแแ 1993 แฌแแแก, แ แแแแ แช EP- แแก แแแแแแ แ แขแ แแแ, แกแแฎแแแฌแแแแแแ Five Live, แ แแแแแแช แแ แแขแแแแแจแ # 1 แแแแแแแ แแแแแแ. แแก แแแ แกแแ แแกแแแ แฎแแแแแกแแฌแแแแแแ Greatest Hits III- แแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ 1999 แฌแแแก
แกแแแฆแแ แ แจแแกแ แฃแแแ Queen + Adam Lambert แขแฃแ แแแแแแก แกแแขแแแกแขแแแจแ 2012, 2014-2015 แแ 2016 แฌแแแแจแ แแแแ แแแแแแ แขแแก แแแแแฌแแแแแแแ. แแกแแแ IHeartRadio Festival-แแ 2013 แฌแแแก, แ แแแแ แช Queen + Fun .
แแแ แกแแแแแ
แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แ - แฌแแแงแแแแ แแ แแแฅ แแแแแแ, แคแแ แขแแแแแแ
แแ แแแแ แแแ - แแแแฅแขแ แ แแแขแแ แ, แแแ แแแแแแ
แ แแฏแแ แขแแแแแ แ - แแ แแแ, แแแ แแแแแแ
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แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแกแ แแ Queen-แแก แแแ แกแแ
Articles with hAudio microformats
แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแ แกแแแฆแแ แ Queen-แแก แแแ แฉแแแแ แฌแแแ แแแแแ แแ แแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแ แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแกแแแแ แแแซแฆแแแแ แแแแชแแ แขแแ, 1992 แฌแแแก แแแ แแแจแ. แฅแแแแ แแ แแแแฆแฌแแ แแแแแ แแแ แแแ แแแแแแก แแ แแขแแแฃแ แฉแแ แขแแแจแ 3 แแแแ แแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ.
แขแ แแ แกแแแแแแก แแแ แกแแ
2018 แฌแแแก แแแแแแแ แจแ แแแกแขแ แแแแแแแ แแแแฆแแ แแแแ แขแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แแแแแฃแจแแ แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแแ แกแแ. แกแแแฆแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แคแแแแแก Bohemian Rhapsody-แแก แแแแแกแแแแก แแแแฎแแแแแ. Universal Music Group- แแ แแแแแฃแจแแ แกแฎแแแแแกแฎแแ แจแแแกแ แฃแแแแแแก แกแแแ แขแ แแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแกแแฎแแแก แแแ แจแแแแแแ แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแก. แกแแแฆแแ แ แแ แแก แแแกแแแ แแ แแแแ แแแฌแแแ, แจแแ แแแแแแกแแก โunder pressureโ แแ 5 seconds of summer โkiller Queenโ-แแก แจแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแช แแแแแแแแ 2018 แฌแแแก แแฅแขแแแแแ แจแ.
แแแแชแฎแแแแแแจแ แกแแแแแแ แแฆแแแจแแ: โแฉแแแแแแก แแแแ แแแขแแแแ, แ แแ แแแฎแแแแก Queen-แแก แแแแ โSomebody to Loveโ-แก, แงแแแแแแ แแแแแแแแ แฃแแ แฏแแฃแคแแก แแกแขแแขแฃแ แ แกแแแฆแแ แแก แแแคแแ แแแแโ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ YouTube แแแแแแแแ: แคแ แแแ แแแ แแฃแ แแกแแแแ แแแซแฆแแแแ แแแแชแแ แขแแ (แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแแ), แแแแแ Queen-แแกแแแ: Days Of Our Lives แแแแฃแแแแขแฃแ แ แคแแแแแแแ
แกแแแฆแแ แแแ Queen-แแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแแแกแแแขแแ
The Sunday Freeman - แแแแแฎแแแแ
Queenpedia - แแแขแแแฃแ แ แแแคแแ แแแชแแ แแกแแคแแแ แขแฃแ แแแก แจแแกแแฎแแ
แกแฅแแแแ
1976 แฌแแแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
Parlophone-แแก แกแแแแแแแ
Hollywood Records-แแก แกแแแแแแแ
EMI Records-แแก แกแแแแแแแ
Elektra Records-แแก แกแแแแแแแ
แฏแแ แฏ แแแแแแแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
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1976 แฌแแแก แกแแแแแแแ
Queen-แแก แกแแแฆแแ แแแ
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13162187
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoyos%20del%20Espino
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Hoyos del Espino
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Hoyos del Espino is a municipality located in the province of รvila, Castile and Leรณn, Spain. According to the 2011 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 444 inhabitants. The area is located at an elevation of above sea level.
The village holds the music festival "Mรบsicos en la naturaleza" (Musicians in nature), where world-known artists like Sting, Bob Dylan or Deep Purple have performed since the first edition, which took place in 2006.
References
Municipalities in the Province of รvila
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508338
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%90
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แแแแแ แแแแ
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แแแแแ แแแแ โ แฅแแแแฅแ แแ แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แจแแแแก แแแแแ แแก แแ แแแแแชแแแก แแแขแ-แแแแแกแแแก แแแแแ แแแก แจแแแแแแแแแแแแจแ. แคแแ แแแแ โ 4 แแยฒ. แแแกแแฎแแแแแ โ 220 แแแชแ (2020 แฌ.).
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แแแแแ แแแแแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแก แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แ แกแแแขแ
แกแฅแแแแ
แแแแแ แแก แแฃแแแชแแแแแแขแแขแแแ
แแแแแ แแก แฅแแแแฅแแแ
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7289802
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingachevir%20reservoir
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Mingachevir reservoir
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Mingachevir reservoir
The Mingachevir reservoir or The Mingachevir sea) is a large reservoir in northwestern Azerbaijan. It is the largest reservoir in the Caucasus. The reservoir's filling began in 1953 and was completed in 1959.
Overview
The reservoir was built on a section of Kura River flowing through Mount Bozdaฤ in 1953. The filling capacity of the reservoir is whereas the volume is 15.73 kmยณ. It has been filled to its maximum levels in 1959, 1963, 1968, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1988 and 2010. The length is and width is . Maximum depth is , average depth - . The length along the shoreline is , the overall area is . The largest hydroelectric power station of Azerbaijan is located on the reservoir. Mingachevir Hydro Power Plant has an installed electric capacity of 401.6 megawatts. The length of the hydroelectric dam is , its width is and height is .
The reservoir supplies water to Upper Karabakh and Upper Shirvan channels. It is also a source for fishing, water supplies and irrigation.
Orographic description
Cliffs are particular for both banks of the river Kur and they are also observed where the river flows into Mingachevir reservoir. However, sandy-clayey sediments belonging to the Paleogene-Neogene are widespread in the area of reservoir. At the edges of the Mingachevir reservoir, landslide processes occur periodically.
As a possible military target
Within the context of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, scholars and politicians have speculated the possibility of the Mingachevir reservoir being used as a military target by Armenian forces. Russian ethnographer Sergey Arutyunov stated in a 2010 interview:
In the aftermath of the 2014 ArmenianโAzerbaijani clashes, Armenia's Defense Minister Seyran Ohanyan stated at the government session on August 7 that the Troops of the Civil Defense of the Azerbaijani Ministry of Emergency Situations have recently been mainly protecting the Mingachevir Hydro Power Plant fearing an attack by the Armenian forces. In response, the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry issued a statement the next day which said that "the Armenian people should know that the response to any sabotage attempts against Mingachevir Hydro Power Plant from the Armenian side will be more miserable" and cautioned that Azerbaijan had the capability to raze Yerevan, Armenia's capital.
Telman Zeynalov, president of the National Center of Environmental Forecasting, said in an interview that the entire area from Arran (i.e. the great triangle of land, lowland in the east but rising to mountains in the west, formed by the junction of the rivers Kura and Aras) to Baku, the Azerbaijani capital, would be flooded if Mingachevir Dam was destroyed. In his words, it would lead to a "large-scale environmental disaster." Zeynalov added that the Armenian side should be cautious because the flooding "would affect both sides" and most of Armenian-occupied Karabakh would also be flooded. The latter claim was rejected by Armenian analyst Hrant Melik-Shahnazaryan who stated that the waters of the Mingachevir reservoir cannot possibly reach the highlands of Karabakh.
Armenia's former defense minister Vagharshak Harutiunyan mentioned attacking the reservoir dam in a July 2020 interview.
Vagif Dargahli, spokesperson of Azerbaijan's Ministry of Defense stated in July 2020 that the "land topography of the Mingachevir water reservoir, protective land works in the area and advanced air defense systems in service with the countryโs missile defense troops make a strike on this strategically important facility impossible."
See also
Rivers and lakes in Azerbaijan
Shamkir reservoir
References
Reservoirs in Azerbaijan
Reservoirs built in the Soviet Union
Mingachevir
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129529
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camponotus%20ramulorum%20marcidus
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Camponotus ramulorum marcidus
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Camponotus ramulorum marcidus โ แคแแฎแกแแฎแกแ แแแแแ แขแแแแก แแฌแแ แแ แแแแกแแก แญแแแแญแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแ แ-แแ แแ แแแแ แกแแฎแแแแ Camponotus-แก แแแแ แแแแ.
แกแฅแแแแ
Camponotus
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104843
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90
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แขแแ แแแ แ
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แขแแ แแแ แ โ แแแแแแ แ แแกแแแแแแจแ, แแแขแแแแแแแก แแฎแแ แแจแ. แแแแแแกแแแ แแ แแแแก แฎแแแแแแจแฃแ แแฆแแแก. แแแแแแ แแก แจแแกแแ แแแแ แฎแแกแแแแแแแ แแแแขแแ, แ แแแแแก แคแแ แแแแแช 8แแ2-แก แจแแแแแแแก.
แแกแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแแ
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31760484
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20and%20John%20Crow%20Mountains%20National%20Park
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Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park
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Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park is a national park in Jamaica. The park covers 495.2 km2 and accounts for 4.5% of Jamaica's land surface. It gets its name from the Blue Mountains, the mountain range that runs through it, as well as a common bird found in the park, the "John crow" or turkey vulture (Cathartes aura). The park is globally known for its biodiversity. This park is the last of two known habitats of the giant swallowtail butterfly (Papilio homerus), the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere and also the habitat for the endangered Jamaican blackbird (Nesopsar nigerrimus), a refuge for the Jamaican boa (Chilabothrus subflavus) and the Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii).
The park was inscribed to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site for mixed criteria (cultural and natural) on 3 July 2015.
References
External links
Explore the Blue and John Crow Mountains in the UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
National parks of Jamaica
Geography of Portland Parish
Tourist attractions in Portland Parish
Blue Mountains (Jamaica)
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44719442
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeste%20Ng
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Celeste Ng
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Celeste Ng (born July 30, 1980) is an American writer and novelist. She has released many short stories that have been published in a variety of literary journals. Ng's first novel, Everything I Never Told You, released on June 26, 2014 won the Amazon Book of the Year award as well as praise from critics. Ng's short story Girls at Play won a Pushcart Prize in 2012, and was a 2015 recipient of an Alex Award. Her second novel, Little Fires Everywhere, was published in 2017. The tv-miniseries based on the book premiered in 2020. Ng received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 2020. Her most recent novel, Our Missing Hearts, was released on October 4, 2022.
Early life and education
Celeste Ng was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Her parents moved from Hong Kong in the late 1960s. Her father Dr. Daniel L. Ng (d. 2004) was a physicist at NASA in the John H. Glenn Research Center (formerly known as the NASA Lewis Research Center). Her mother was a chemist who taught at Cleveland State University.
When Ng was ten years old, she moved from Pittsburgh to Shaker Heights, Ohio with her parents and sister. She attended the schools in the Shaker Heights City School District, from Woodbury Elementary all the way up to Shaker Heights High School. At Shaker Heights High School, Ng was involved with the Student Group on Race Relations ("SGORR") for three years and was a co-editor of the school's literary magazine, Semanteme. She graduated from high school in 1998.
After graduating from high school, Ng studied English at Harvard University. She then attended graduate school at University of Michigan, where she earned her Master of Fine Arts in writing, now the Helen Zell Writersโ Program. At the University of Michigan, Ng won the Hopwood Award for her short story "What Passes Over".
Career
Ng received the Pushcart Prize in 2012 for her story "Girls, At Play". Her fiction has appeared in One Story, TriQuarterly, and Subtropics. Her essays have appeared in Kenyon Review Online, The Millions, and elsewhere. Ng taught writing at the University of Michigan and at Grub Street in Boston. Ng also was an editor of blogs at the website Fiction Writers Review for three years.
Ng's debut novel, Everything I Never Told You: A Novel, is a literary thriller that focuses on an American family in 1970s Ohio. The novel had four drafts and one revision before completion, which took six years. Working on it, Ng said she drew upon her own experiences of racism as well as her family and friends. The book, which the Los Angeles Times called an "excellent first novel about family, love, and ambition," won Amazonโs book of the year award in 2014 and was a New York Times Notable Book of 2014. It has been translated into 15 languages. In 2020, it was reported that Annapurna Television would develop the novel into a limited series. Ng and Mary Lee of production company A-Major Media will serve as executive producers.
Ng's second novel, Little Fires Everywhere, is set in Shaker Heights, Ohio, and follows two families, one a mother and daughter, that challenge the boundaries and culture of the town. The novel was developed into a 2020 Hulu miniseries of the same name starring and executive produced by Reese Witherspoon and Kerry Washington; Ng also served as one of the show's producers.
Ng's third novel, Our Missing Hearts, is set in a future where America has legitimized racism, particularly against those of Asian descent, and stifled free expression. It follows a 12 year-old boy of Chinese descent named Bird who rediscovers his dissident mother's art. The novel released in October 2022.
Personal life
As of 2014, Ng resides in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with her husband and son.
While on a book tour for Everything I Never Told You, Ng said her favorite book as a child was Harriet the Spy. As an adult, one of her favorite books is The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy.
In 2018, when the American government separated the children and parents of undocumented immigrant families, Ng used her Twitter account to call attention to the policy. Ng and a group of other writers auctioned naming rights of future characters in their books. The goal was to raise money for Immigrant Families Together, a volunteer group dedicated to reuniting migrant families.
Bibliography
References
External links
1980 births
Living people
People from Shaker Heights, Ohio
American people of Hong Kong descent
American women writers of Chinese descent
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American women writers
American novelists of Chinese descent
American women novelists
Harvard University alumni
University of Michigan alumni
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30776757
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesme%20Church
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Chesme Church
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Chesme Church
The Chesme Church (full name Church of Saint John the Baptist at Chesme Palace, also called the Church of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist), is a small Russian Orthodox church at 12 Lensoveta Street, in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was built by the Russian court architect Yury Felten in 1780, at the direction of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia. A memorial church, it was erected adjacent to the Chesme Palace (: damaged during the Siege of Leningrad and restored in 1946) between Saint Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo to commemorate the anniversary of Russia's 1770 victory over Turkish forces in Chesme Bay in the Aegean Sea during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768โ1774.
The church and Chesme Palace were the earliest Neo-Gothic constructions in the St Petersburg area. Considered by some to be St Petersburg's single most impressive church, it is a rare example of very early Gothic Revival influence in Russian church architecture.
Etymology
The church was named "The Church of the Birth of St. John the Baptist" as it was consecrated on the birthday of John the Baptist. As it was built to honour the Battle of Chesme which the Russians won in 1770, the church is also popularly known as the "Chesme Church".
Geography
The church is located in Red Village, which was a country estate of the Sergey Poltoratski family, friends of Alexander Pushkin. It is situated in an area that was known as Kekerekeksinen which is now in a housing area known as Moskovsky Prospekt, approximately halfway between Park Pobedy and the Moskovskaya metro station. While the church was built at a very ordinary location in 1770, over the centuries, it became part of the city of Saint Petersburg. Located between St. Petersburg and the Summer Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, it served as a traveler's resting place.
History
In 1777, King Gustav III of Sweden attended the laying of the church's foundation. The church was built between 1777 and 1780. It is a memorial church to honour the 1770 Russian victory at the Battle of Chesme. Empress Catherine II chose the site as it was here that she got the news of the Russian victory over the Turks. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor was present at the church's consecration.
The knights of the Order of St. George were also in possession of the church at some point when it was given the third name, "St. Georgeโs Church".
The church and the Chesme Palace became a labour camp when the Soviet government occupied it. In 1923, the church was closed and used as a storehouse. Between 1941 and 1945, the church suffered damages during the "Great Patriotic War". During the Second World War, the Institute of Aviation Technology took possession of the Church and the Chesme Palace. During 1970โ75, it was fully restored under the supervision of the architects M.I. Tolstov and A.P. Kulikov. In 1977, the church became a museum of the Battle of Chesme (with artifacts from the Central Naval Museum). Religious control was restored to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1991, and regular church services have been held at the church since then.
Architecture
The church, built in Gothic Revival style faces southwest. Painted pink and white, the church appears like a "candy cone, with long, vertical white stripes (embossed vertical string cornices drawn together with figured horizontal fascias) giving the impression that itโs rising straight up from the earth like a mirage and shooting upwards". The church was built by Yury Felten who was the court architect to Catherine the Great.
The inspiration for adopting the pseudo-Gothic style of architecture was a symbol of "the exoticism of the Turkish architecture but also reflected the Anglomania that significantly influenced the design of Catherineโs palaces and the parks surrounding them". While the Chesme Palace was built on these lines, the Church of John the Baptist was also built in a similar style. This style introduced during Catherine's time came in vogue in Russia in the subsequent centuries as well. It is also said that the choice of the Gothic Revival architecture style was indicative of "triumph for ancient northern virtues in the spirit of the crusaders".
The church was built with brick and white stone. It has a "quatrefoil" layout in the form of four semi cylinders with barrel vaults. Finials, spires and lancet windows were built over it, and the edifice emerged as a fusion of Gothic and neo-Gothic motifs. The quatrefoil design was common in the late 17th century in many private estate churches and the style was known as the "Moscow baroque". During the 18th century, its adoption during Catherine's reign was considered an experimentation reflecting "the increasing secularization of the upper nobility". The entrance to the church has a neo-Gothic Rose window and a round window above it. The entrance portal has sculptures of angels. The main tower and four small towers have small domes, which are replacements of the traditional onion domes commonly seen in Russia. The walls are striped and crenellated. The impressive relief design on the top of the walls is also in the form of crenellated parapet with pinnacles. There is also a bell in one of the towers. It also has lancet windows and doorways. The interior, which originally had Italian icons, was destroyed in a fire in 1930. However, it was restored when the church was refurbished. Inside the church, there are many iconic paintings and one particular painting of interest is that of Christโs arrival in Nazareth. When it was a naval museum, there was a vivid painting, in rich colours, depicting the sea battle and Russian victory over the Turks, in place of the "Christ the saviour in the iconostasis-less altar apse". Nothing remains of the original interiors.
The exterior views of the church are impressive. The lanterns on the roof are stated to be similar to those seen on the Gothic temple at Stowe House.
Grounds
The church precincts have been used as a resting place for war heroes since the time of its consecration and during the Siege of Leningrad. The cemetery is known as the "Chesmenskoe War Veterans' Cemetery", and contains unnamed graves dated 1812โ1944 of those who died in Russian wars.
Notable people
The coffin of Rasputin rested in Chesme Church before his burial at Tsarskoye Selo in 1916.
References
External links
Russian Orthodox churches in Saint Petersburg
Gothic Revival church buildings in Russia
Churches completed in 1780
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Saint Petersburg
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66568
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90
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แแ แแแแแ แคแจแฃแแฃแแ
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แแ แแแแแ แคแจแฃแแฃแแ โ แกแแญแแแแ แกแแแ แแฃแแแคแจแฃแแแแแแแ แฏแคแฃแแแกแ. แแฅแแก แแฃแ แแแกแแแ แ แแแงแแคแกแฎแแฃแแ, แ แแแแแก แแแแแแขแ แ 3-6 แกแ แแฆแฌแแแก. แฏแแ แแแแ แแ, แจแแแแแ แแแจแแแ. แจแแแแแแกแ แแแแแแแแ แแแแแ แแแแ แแ, แจแแแแแ แแแแแแกแคแแ แ แแ แแแแแก แแฃแ แ-แแแฌแแแแแ. แแแ แแแแ แขแงแแก แแแ แแแแ, แแแแแแ แแแกแ แแ แแแแแแแแแ แแแคแฎแฃแแจแ แแ แจแแแแแแแแแ. แกแแญแแแแแ แแฎแแแแ แแแ แฉแ แแแ แแ.
แแแขแแ แแขแฃแ แ
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
แแแแแแแฃแแแแแ แกแแแแแแ
แกแแญแแแแ แกแแแแแแ
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197185
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yevgeny%20Khrunov
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Yevgeny Khrunov
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Yevgeny Khrunov
Yevgeny Vasilyevich Khrunov (10 September 1933 โ 20 May 2000) was a Soviet cosmonaut who flew on the Soyuz 5/Soyuz 4 mission.
Early life
Yevgeny Khrunov was born on 10 September 1933 to Vasily Yegorevich and Agrafena Nikolayevna. Nicknamed โZhenyaโ he had five brothers and two sisters. Khrunov's family was a farming family. Khrunov married Svetlana Sokolyuk and had a son on 13 July 1959.
He was born in Prudy, Tula Oblast, Russian SFSR.
Education and career
Khrunov began officially being schooled in 1941. Khrunov was initially interested in pursuing farming in studies. His interest in flying would soon follow after he watched the planes during wartime. Once he graduated from primary school he enrolled at Kashira Agricultural Secondary School on scholarship and would graduate from there in 1952. His teachers regularly spoke highly of him and considered him a hard working student. In 1952 Khrunov was also drafted into the Soviet Army where he would follow his interests in becoming a pilot and apply for pilot school. Khrunov was accepted and continued school in the military at Pavlograd in Ukraine. Khrunov later transferred to the Serov Higher Air Force School in Rostov Oblast, Southwestern Russia. Upon graduation he would receive the rank of Lieutenant. Khrunov later received another promotion to senior lieutenant on 6 August 1958. The following year Khrunov was interviewed along with Gorbatko in regards to becoming a cosmonaut although they were not expressly told that was what they were being interviewed for. Both Gorbatko and Khrunov were evaluated in medical exams and approved for training to become cosmonauts.
Awards
Hero of the Soviet Union
Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR
Order of Lenin
Order of the Red Star
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin"
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945"
Jubilee Medal "40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Jubilee Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Medals "For Impeccable Service" 1st, 2nd and 3rd classes
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Soviet Militia"
Medal "For Strengthening Military Cooperation"
Later life
After leaving the space program in 1980 he worked at the 30th Central Scientific Research Institute, Ministry of Defence (Russia), and later he was appointed to the Chief State Committee for foreign economic relations until his retirement in 1989.
He died of a heart attack on 20 May 2000 at the age of 66.
References
External links
The official website of the city administration Baikonur โ Honorary citizens of Baikonur
1933 births
2000 deaths
1969 in spaceflight
Soviet cosmonauts
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Spacewalkers
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3707920
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champasak%20%28town%29
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Champasak (town)
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Champasak (town)
Champasak is a small town in southern Laos, on the west bank of the Mekong River about 40 km south of Pakse, the capital of Champasak Province. It is the seat of the Champasak district (muang).
The town was once the seat of the Kingdom of Champasak, an independent Lao state which was abolished by the French in 1945 when they created the Kingdom of Laos, but the last King of Champasak had his palace in Pakse. Today the town is very small, consisting mostly of guesthouses along the riverbank, catering to tourists visiting the Wat Phu temple ruins some 10 km away.
External links
Districts of Champasak province
Populated places on the Mekong River
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258768
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https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%20%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98
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แแแ แแ แแแ แแแฅแกแแแแจแ
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แแแ แแ แแแ แแแฅแกแแแแจแ
แแแ แแแแแ แแแฅแกแแแแจแ โ แแแแแแแแ แ แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแแ แแแแคแแแฅแขแ แแแแแฃแ แแแข แแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแแแก แจแแ แแก, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แซแแแแ แแ แแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแฃแแ แแแแขแ แแแแกแแแแก แแ แแกแแแ แแแฅแกแแแแก แกแแแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแแก แแ แจแแแแ แแฆแแแฃแ แกแแแแฅแแแแฅแ แฏแแฃแคแแแก. 2006 แฌแแแแแ, แ แแแแกแแช แแแฅแกแแแแก แกแแแฎแแแ แ แแแขแแ แแแแชแแ แแแแฌแงแ, แแแแแ แแแแก แซแแ แแแแแ แแแแแแ แแงแ แแแ แแแขแแแแแแแ แแแแแแจแแ แแแฃแแ แซแแแแแแแแก แฉแแฎแจแแแ. แแแ แแ แแแแกแ, แแแฅแกแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแ แแแแแชแฎแแแ, แ แแ แแแแ แฃแแแ แแแแแกแ แแแแแแ แซแแแแ แ แแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแแแแก แแแแแฌแแแ แแแ แแงแ, แแแแ แ แแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแแก แแแแแแแ แแชแแแแแ, แ แแกแ แแแแแแแแแช แแจแจ-แ แแแแแก แแแแแ แแแฆแ.
แแแฃแฎแแแแแแ แแแแกแ, แ แแ แแแฅแกแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแแแ แแ แแแ แแแขแ แแคแแแแก แแ แแแแแแแชแแแแ แแ แกแแแแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแแแฃแแ แฌแแแก แแแแแแแแแแแจแ, แแกแแแ แฃแคแ แ แซแแแแ แ แแแฎแแแแ Cali Cartel-แแก , Medellรญn Cartel-แแก แแ Colombian-แแก แแแจแแแก แจแแแแแ 1990-แแแ แฌแแแแจแ. แแแฅแกแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแ แขแแแแแ แแฎแแ แแแแแแแ แแแก แกแแแแแฃแแ แฃแแแแแแ แแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแ แแ 2007 แฌแแแก แแแแแขแ แแแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแฃแ แจแขแแขแแแจแ แแแแแแแแก แจแแกแแแแก 90%-แก. แแแ แขแแแแแแก แแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแขแแแ แแแแแแ, แแแแกแแแฃแแ แแแแ Tijuana Cartel-แแก แแ Gulf cartel-แแก, แแแแแแฌแแแ แแ แแแแ แซแแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแช แแแ แขแแแแแ แแแ แซแแแแ แจแแแ แแแแฃแแ แจแขแแขแแแแก แขแ แแคแแแแแแแก แแแ แจแ แฃแขแแแแก แแแแขแ แแแแกแแแแก.
แแแแแแขแแแแกแแแแก แแแ แแฃแแแ, แฃแแแแแแ แแแ แแแขแแแแแแก แแแงแแแแแแแก แแแแแแ แแแ แงแแแแก $ 13,6 แแแแแแ แแแแแ $ 49,4 แแแแแแ แแแแแ แงแแแแแฌแแแฃแ แแ.
แคแแแแแ แแแแแแ แแแแก แแแแแแแกแขแ แแชแแแก แแแแแกแแแแก (2006-2012 แฌแฌ.) แแแฅแกแแแแก แแแ แแ แแแจแ แแคแแชแแแแฃแ แแ แแแฆแฃแแฃแแแ แ แแแแแแแแ แแ แแก แแแแแแฃแ 60 000. แแแฃแแแกแขแฃแ แแแแแ แแแแแแแ แแจแแแแ แแแแแแแแฃแแ แแแแแแแแแแแแก แ แแแแแแแแ 100 000 แแฆแฌแแแก, แแ แฎแแแฎแแก แฉแแแแแแ, แ แแแแแแแแช แแแฅแ แแแ.
แ แแกแฃแ แกแแแ แแแขแแ แแแขแจแ
Guns in Mexico โ Daily Gun Policy News Feed
Bowers, Charles. ยซThe Mexican Kidnapping Industryยป An academic paper examining both the emergence of kidnapping as a drug war spillover, and statewide variance in Mexicoโs kidnapping statutes.
ยซBorder Storiesยป profiles a newspaper reporter caught up in the drug war in Mexico (video)
AP interactive map: Mexican Drug Cartels
Map: Areas of cartels' influences
The Mexican Zetas and Other Private Armies
XXI แกแแฃแแฃแแแก แแแแแ
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