What concepts did Kant  explain in his treatise "The Science of Right"?
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Part I:\n\n"The universal and lasting establishment of peace constitutes not merely a part, but the whole final purpose and end of the science of right as viewed within the limits of reason."\n\n1. The conception of right--as referring to a corresponding\nobligation which is the moral aspect of it--in the first place, has regard only to the external and practical relation of one person to another, in so far as they can have influence upon each other, immediately or mediately, by their actions as facts.\n\n2. In the second place, the conception of right does not indicate the relation of the action of an individual to the wish or the mere desire of another, as in acts of benevolence or of unkindness, but only the relation of his free action to the freedom of action of the other.\n\n3. And, in the third place, in this reciprocal relation of voluntary actions, the conception of right does not take into consideration the matter of the act of will in so far as the end which any one may have in view in willing it is concerned. In other words, it is not asked in a question of right whether anyone on buying goods for his own business realizes a profit by the transaction or not; but only the form of the transaction is taken into account, in considering the relation of the mutual acts of will. Acts of will or voluntary choice are thus regarded only in so far as they are free, and as to whether the action of one can harmonize with the freedom of another, according to a universal law.\n\nRight, therefore, comprehends the whole of the conditions under which the voluntary actions of any one person can be harmonized in reality with the voluntary actions of every other person, according to a universal law of freedom.\n\nThe key doctrine of Kant's philosophy, called transcendental idealism, is that the mind knows objects in the world only by means of sensible forms, space and time, which it produces itself. Without these forms, Kant argues, knowledge would not be possible because the mind would have no way to order or structure the data given to it by the senses. Kant therefore claims that we know objects only as they "appear" in space and time (rather than as "things in themselves"). While the specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy, his thesis that the mind itself makes a constitutive contribution to its knowledge (and that knowledge is therefore subject to limits which cannot be overcome) nevertheless irrevocably reshaped philosophy. Similarly, his argument that human beings are free inasmuch as their power of reason itself dictates a moral law for their actions redefined the terms of philosophical debate about morality.\n\nPart II:\n\nThe US Declaration of Independence (1776)\n\n"...all men...are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights...among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."
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"There is a principle which is a bar against all information, which is proof against all arguments and which can not fail to keep a man in everlasting ignorance-that principle is contempt prior to investigation."\n     --HERBERT SPENCER
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Kelsen's theory is based on the consideration of a law as a norm, that is, a “should”. Every law can be traced back to another law that validates it as a law, until one reaches the final validating “basic norm”, or, in German, Grundnorm. An effective law, coming from a court, is validated by the statute which tells the court what to do and gives the court the power to make the law. The legislature derives such power from, usually, a constitution. The constitution derives its normative force from the Grundnorm.\n\nKelsen's theory has the essential problem that nothing can be said to explain the Grundnorm and its own validation; he was driven in his later works to admit that it could be considered a fiction. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, Kelsen's work was invaluable in bringing into legal discourse the unremittingly reasoned approach that philosophers have long demanded.\n\nMicrosoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia. © 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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1. Law of identity.\n2. Law of contradiction.\n3. Law of the excluded middle.\n4. Law of Sufficient Ground.
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general principle: article 6 and 11 of the Maastricht threaty.\ncharter of fundamental rights (that is more a declaration of principles).\nthe Court of justice also protect human rights with his jurisprudence
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Mens sibi conscientia recti\n\nLiterally, "A mind with a consciousness of uprightness for itself"
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Democritus basically coined the original atomic theory.  He stated that the atom was the smallest particle that things are made from, and that is cannot be divided into smaller units.  He turned out to be wrong, but was a few thousand years ahead of his time, no less.
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Methods of Constitutional Interpretation - Doctrinalism \n  \nBobbitt, Constitutional Fate Bobbitt\nStrauss, "Conmon Law, Common Ground, and Jefferson's Principle" \n search about the names to find out it...
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Ask him yourself. Below is his website and phone number. Click on it.\n\n\n\n\n\nhttp://www.calvin.edu/academic/philosophy/ratzsch/
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The Making of America:  The substance and Meaning of the Constitution\nW. Cleon Skousen
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Kant believed that a priori truths could be found in the two areas; mathematics and the categories which organize the material of experience and science. Kant divided a priori truths into two\ncategories: the synthetic and the analytic. Traditionally, mathematical propositions were seen as both analytic and a priori. Kant, however, classifies both mathematics and the categories as synthetic a priori. Math is synthetic a priori because it depends on the pure intuitions of the elements of time and space. Kant argued time and space were central intuitions to mathematical knowledge, and were thus the reasons for his grouping mathematical truths in the synthetic a\npriori. Our categories are identified as synthetic a priori because denying them does not lead to a contradiction. On the other hand, these categories are central to experience. Kant used the example of causality, in the "Second Analogy" of the Critique of Pure Reason, to demonstrate that the concept of an "event" having a "cause" must be connected before we can give apply either notion. This connection can only be a synthetic one, since it is not tautological.
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John Locke was an English philosopher who created the theory of natural rights. It's the thought that God gives each man the right to life, liberty, and property. "Property" was amended in the Declaration of Independence and changed to "the pursuit of happiness" (which was property at the time of the revolution).
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i am too tired to help you tonight ( final tomorrow)\nBUT\nyou can\n1. google search and maybe you'll find some philosopher's corner\nor \n2. check w/ your school library... and see if there's electronic collections on encyclopedia of philosophy....\nthose are very helpful ( i was saved by those... )\ncheers
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Although Thomas Hobbes was fascinated with geometry, I'm not aware of any real contribution he made to this field of mathematics. Rather, he tried to use geometry, in particular Euclidean reasoning, as a basis for explaining the human condition, part of his view of a mechanistic universe.
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The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement, "The Enlightenment." This movement advocated rationality as a means to establish an authoritative system of ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as courageous and elite, and regarded their purpose as leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny (which they believed began during a historical period they called the "Dark Ages"). This movement also provided a framework for the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, the Polish Constitution of May 3 as well as leading to the rise of capitalism and the birth of socialism. It is matched by the high baroque and classical eras in music, and the neo-classical period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includes logical positivism.
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Spinoza argues that knowledge of good and evil arises from the awareness of what causes pleasure and pain. The greatest good of the mind, and its greatest virtue, is to know God (IV, Prop. XXVIII). To act with virtue is to act according to reason (IV, Prop. XXXVI). If we act according to reason, then we desire only what is good. If we act according to reason, then we try to promote what is good not only for ourselves but for others. Freedom is the ability to act according to reason. Freedom is not the ability to make free, undetermined choices. Freedom is the ability to act rationally and to control the emotions. Servitude is the inability to act rationally or to control the emotions.  According to Spinoza, pain is the knowledge of evil. Pain arises from inadequate ideas, i.e. ideas which do not adequately express the essence of God. Knowledge of evil is thus inadequate knowledge (IV, Prop. XIV). Pleasure is knowledge of what is good. Pleasure arises from adequate ideas, i.e. ideas which adequately express the essence of God. Knowledge of good is thus adequate knowledge.
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Dr. Isaac Newton proposed the 3 Laws of Motion, as below:\n\nFirst law:\nObjects in motion tend to stay in motion, and objects at rest tend to stay at rest unless an outside force acts upon them.\n\nOr simply, a force is required to move a stationary object or to stop a moving object.  \n\nSecond law:\nThe rate of change of the momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and the direction of the change in momentum takes place in the direction of the net force.\n\nOr simply, a body moves along the direction of application of the force.\n\nThird law:\nTo every action (force applied) there is an equal and opposite reaction (equal force applied in the opposite direction).\n\nOr simply, there is always a reaction for any action. Egs: Due to Friction (reaction) only, we are able to walk (action).; Rocket shoots up (action) due to the reaction of the hot gases that expend through the nozzle downwards.