Why is the Concentration of chloride in redblood cells higher in venous blood than arterial blood?
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The majority of CO2 in blood is converted to H + HCO3 by carbonic anhydrase to carry CO2 to the lungs. Carbonic anhydrase has higher activity in the RBCs, so CO2 diffuses in to be converted to H + HCO3. In order for HCO3 to leave the RBC, it goes through a chloride-bicarbonate exchanger -- Cl goes in, HCO3 out. The opposite then occurs when it gets to the alveoli.
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Oxygen Transport\nIn the lungs, oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into the blood because the venous blood has a lower partial pressure. The oxygen dissolves in the blood. Only a small amount is carried as a physical solution (0.31 ml per 100 ml). The remainder of the oxygen is carried in chemical combination with the hemoglobin in red blood cells (erthrocytes).\n\nfrom http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/260acidbasebal.html\n\n\nNormal analysis results\nNormal blood gas values are as follows:\n partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2): 75-100 mm Hg \n\n\nfrom http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/blood_gas_analysis.jsp
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It isn't because it helps the drug become more soluble, (it does have that effect but that isn't the reason they make it that way)\n\nIt is because the hydrochloride molecule is ABSORBED into the body more easily, and it carries the medication molecule(s) as a piggy-back into the body systems. If there wasn't the HCl molecule, most of the medication would just pass through your body as waste or obvious foreign matter that gets filtered out rather than metabolized.
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let me explain this with an example.take Cl atom which has 17 protons in the nucleus and equal no. of electrons(17)revolving around the nucleus.this means tht the 17 positive charges are attracting the 17 negative charges.\nnow let us consider the chloride ion Cl(-1). the protons are again 17 here but one negative charge is extra ie there are 18 electrons.so,in this case the 17 positive charges are pulling the 18 negative charges.\nnow u can imagine in which case is the pull less efficient atom or anion?\nobviously it is less efficient in case of anion because of the inequality of charges thus making it bigger in size.\nhope ,i ve made it clear with an example...
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It does stand for hydrochloride, which is a salt derived from hydrochloric acid.  Many drugs are combined with this salt to make them more soluble in water.  In this form the active agent is more easily absorbed from the stomach or small intestine into the bloodstream.
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There are a number of different cell types in circulation in the blood stream. Here's a quick review:\n\nRed cells carry oxygen to the cells of the body. They are essentially bags of hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying molecule. Hemoglobin binds oxygen to iron atoms, which give the hemoglobin and thus the cells their distinctive red color. \nWhite cells (leukocytes, "clear cells") are divided into two types: \nPolymorphonuclear cells, are of three types: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. \nNeutrophils fight bacterial infection. They form pus and are the chief ingredient of an abscess. See band cells. \nEosinophils are cells which are strongly related to allergy and the recognition of foreign things in the body such as parasites. \nBasophils are cells that are also part of the allergy and parasite recognition system.\nLymphocytes are the virus killers. There are two types of these: \nT-cells which remember what germs we've been exposed to and how to kill them. T-cells are the key component of the immune system that is missing in AIDS. \nB-cells that secrete the actual antibodies that attach to viruses and bacteria and identify them as things to be destroyed - rather like tagging the target with a laser so that the smart bomb will home in and blast the target. \nMonocytes are cells that are related to lymphocytes but have a killing and cleaning function. They cruise through the tissues of the body cleaning up debris and killing any bacteria they find. They are often increased in viral infections - a reassuring finding that your doctor may note on your child's blood count. See mononucleosis. \nPlatelets are the cells that plug leaks in the vascular system, the clotting cells. \n\n What are the different blood groups?   \n   The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.\n\nThere are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today, but the AB0 and Rh systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.\n\nNobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both the AB0 and Rh blood groups.\n\n \n\n \n   \n    AB0 blood grouping system   \n    According to the AB0 blood typing system there are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB or 0 (null).\n\n \n   \n   Blood group A\nIf you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.\n\n\n\n \n   \n   Blood group B\nIf you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.\n\n\n\n \n   \n   Blood group AB\nIf you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.\n\n\n\n \n   \n   Blood group 0\nIf you belong to the blood group 0 (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.\n\n \n\n \n   \n    Rh factor blood grouping system   \n \n \n   Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cell's surface. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who haven't are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma (as one can have A or B antibodies, for instance). But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+ bloo
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In a hypotonic solution, the concentration of solutes on the inside is HIGHER than on the outside, so to equilibrate this, the cell must allow either the solvent to flow in or it must transport the solutes out of the cell.  In an experiment, there is no active transport, so the only way to equilibrate the concentrations on the insides and outsides of the cell is by osmosis, the diffusion of water.  In a hypotonic solution, water will flow into the cell, and if the cell cannot contain it, then it will lyse.\n\nA hypertonic solution is when the concentration on the inside is LOWER than the outside, the it's the vice versa of the hypotonic solution situation above.\n\nAn isotonic solution means that the concentrations are equal, so the rate of water flowing in is equal to that of the rate of water flowing out.
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Cl- rushes out of RBC as HCO3- rushes into RBC (chloride shift), HCO3- combines with H+ to form carbonic acid that immediately splits into CO@ and H2O.  CO2 moves outside RBC and diffuses into alveoli, allowing O2 to cross into the bloodstream and combine with Hgb in RBC.  The diffusion occurs mainly due to the partial pressure of O2 being higher in the alveoli than the blood, and vice versa for the CO2. Partial pressures exert themselves as if no other gas were present (Dalton's Law).
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a) isotonic to the blood
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OPPS SORRY, I sent incomplete. Believe it or not, it is generally described as thus: The body wants to have 2/3 of the water inside the cells \n(intracellular fluid) and 1/3 of the water between the cells (extracellular) however a Teacher is probably looking for the technical name of: interstitial fluid
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Systolic is the top number in your blood pressure.  It represents the pressure against arterial walls when the heart is contracted.  The diastolic pressure represents the pressure against the arterial walls when the heart is relaxed, or at the beginning of a cardiac cycle.  What affects vasoconstriction or vasodilation are neurotransmitters.  These occur naturally in your body, but have been replicated for medical use.  Vasodilation is when your vascular system, or your veins, open up.  (A good example of this is Nitro Glycerine.) With more space, there is less pressure.  Vasoconstriction is when the vascular system constricts, (A good example of a vasoconstrictor is dopamine.) so less space, more pressure. With lower pressure, the heart thinks it has to work harder to fill the "container", (container being your vascular system.) so it increases its rate to compensate.  Higher pressure means the heart is having to work harder to get the liquid (blood) where it needs to go.  Picture a pump system.  You need a pump, (your heart) a container (vascular system) and liquid volume. (Blood.)  THe point would be to keep the container filled, volume circulating, and the pump working.  \n     Hope that clears it up for you a bit!
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NaCl - Sodium Chloride (salt)\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe blood of animals is well designed as it changes its properties in order to facilitate gas exchange between the blood and the tissues. Blood serves as a transport mechanism for many different molecules such as hormones, those involved in metabolism, and many other chemical agents found in the bodies of animals. In certain conditions, the volume of the red blood cells can change (increase or decrease) as a physiological response to changing conditions, such as the concentration of extracellular solutes, or changes in pH. Blood will also change its volume properties when different levels of oxygenation occur, and with the effects of molecules such as epinephrine. The main objectives of this investigation are to design some experiments that will test the affect of varying NaCl concentration on red blood cell volume, and to discover some other factors that can alter the red blood cell volume.\n\nMaterial & Methods\n\nIn this experimentation, the cell volume of the red blood cells in the sample of bovine blood were determined by measuring hematocrit (hematocrit (Hct) = % packed red cell volume). Measuring hematocrit indicates the percentage of a sample of blood that is composed of red blood cells.\nMeasuring Hematocrit\n\nThe hematocrit of the blood sample (any blood sample in this lab, regardless of treatment) was determined using the following method. First, the blood sample was well mixed. A hematocrit tube was dipped into the blood at a 45°C angle, allowing capillarity to fill the tube with blood. When the tube filled to around 80 - 90%, the filled end was capped using Critoseal. The tube was then placed in the hemafuge (with the Critoseal towards the outside). The tube is then centrifuged for 5 minutes @ 10,000 g. After the five minutes of centrifugation, the %Hct of the blood sample is measured using a reference card.\n\nEffects of NaCl Concentration on Red Blood Cell Volume\n1ml of the blood sample was placed in each of 3 plastic centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 3 minutes. The centrifuge forces the red blood cells to the bottom of the tube, leaving plasma at the top. 200µl of plasma was then removed from each centrifuge tube, and replaced with 200µL of a salt solution of known concentration. The tubes were then shaken in order to mix the red blood cells, the plasma, and the added NaCl solution. Three Hct tubes were then made from each of the three blood samples, and the % Hct was then determined. This procedure was completed for salt concentrations (molarity of added NaCl) of 0.075, 0.15, 0.30, 0.60, 1.20, and 2.40 M solutions of NaCl.\n\nThis procedure was also done for the conditions of distilled water, and a condition where no NaCl was added to the centrifuged blood sample (control).\n\nThe following calculation was used in order to calculate the new dilutions :\n\nNew concentration = (200 µL • X M) + (300 µL • 0.15 M)\n                              500 µL\n\nWhere X M = the concentration of the added NaCl solution\n\nEffect of Oxygenation Status\n\nAfter measuring the Hct of the stock solution of blood, the blood was treated with 02, N2, Air, and CO2. This was done by bubbling the various gases through the blood and taking Hct (in triplicate) values immediately after.\n\nEffect of Adrenaline (Epinephrine) on Red Blood Cell volume\n\nThe stock solution of blood was measured for Hct value and then 0.1 m 10-5 adrenaline solution was added. Hct values were taken after 5, 15, and 30 minutes.\n\nResults\n\n\nTable 1 Results of adding varying concentrations of NaCl. Note that (*) indicates that lysis occurred (plasma was red at the end of centrifugation)\n\n\nTable 2 Mean Hct results for distilled water, epinephrine treatments, and exposure to various gasses. Note that (*) indicates that lysis occurred (plasma was red at the end of centrifugation)\n\n\nFigure 1 Illustration of the decrease in % Hct as concentration of NaCl (M) increases.\n\nDiscussion\n\nHematocr
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a. Soluble because of the presence of Na.\nb. Soluble because of the presence of K.\nc. Soluble because of the presence of NO3\nd. Soluble because of the presence of Cl.\n\npeace\nvixklen
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Blood is composed of several kinds of corpuscles; these formed elements of the blood constitute about 40% of whole blood. The other 60% is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, appearing yellow in color. The normal pH of human arterial blood is approximately 7.40 (normal range is 7.35-7.45). Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is acidic, while blood pH above 7.45 is alkaline. Blood pH along with arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO2) and HCO3 readings are helpful in determining the acid-base balance of the body. Blood is about 7% of the human body weight [1], so the average adult has a blood volume of about 5 liters, of which 2.7-3 liters is plasma. The combined surface area of all the erythrocytes in the human anatomy would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.\n\nThe corpuscles are:\n\n    * Red blood cells or erythrocytes (96%). In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles. They contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and some other cells) are also marked by proteins that define different blood types.\n    * White blood cells or leukocytes (3.0%), are part of the immune system; they destroy infectious agents.\n    * Platelets or thrombocytes (1.0%) are responsible for blood clotting (coagulation)\n\nBlood plasma is essentially an aqueous solution containing 96% water, 4% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Some components are:\n\n    * albumin\n    * blood clotting factors\n    * immunoglobulins (antibodies)\n    * hormones\n    * various other proteins\n    * various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chlorine)\n\nTogether, plasma and corpuscles form a non-Newtonian fluid whose flow properties are uniquely adapted to the architecture of the blood vessels.
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1- No. Because there is no NETO FLOW of chloride ions. Chloride ions can pass membrane. There is active pump that expels them out from the cell. But they get into the cell by passive diffusion, so they are in constant extracellular/intracellular equilibrium and don't affect resting membrane potential.\n\n2- "Excitable cells (nerves, muscles) have higher membrane potentials than non excitable cells (red blood cells, fibroblasts, etc.)"\n3- Absolute refractory period seems to be somewhat longer than relative. See link: http://www.unmc.edu/Physiology/Mann/mann3b.html\n4- Curare is a mixture of plant toxins. South American Indians use it on tips of their arrows to paralyze the pray. Purified active component of that poison is d-tubocurarine, which blocks signalization through neuromuscular synapse because it binds to nAChR - and so it blocks binding of ACh.
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Red blood cell: The blood cell that carries oxygen. Red cells contain hemoglobin and it is the hemoglobin which permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon dioxide). Hemoglobin, aside from being a transport molecule, is a pigment. It gives the cell its red color (and name). \nThe mature red blood cell (RBC) is a non-nucleated biconcave disk. Thanks to this unusual shape and its hemoglobin content, the RBC is superbly suited to the transport of oxygen. \nA red blood cell is sometimes simply referred to as a red cell. It is also called an erythrocyte or, rarely today, a red blood corpuscle.\n\nWhite blood cell: One of the cells the body makes to help fight infections. There are several types of white blood cells (leukocytes). The two most common types are the lymphocytes and neutrophils (also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes, PMNs, or "polys"). \n\nLymphocytes are made in lymphoid tissue in the spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus gland. There are different kinds of lymphocytes. Lymphocytes identify foreign substances from germs (bacteria or viruses) in the body and produce antibodies and cells that specifically target them. It takes from several days to weeks for lymphocytes to recognize and attack a new foreign substance. \n\nNeutrophils are also major players in the body's defense against bacterial infections. Neutrophils are made in the bone marrow and circulate in the bloodstream. Neutrophils move out of the blood vessels into the infected tissue to attack the bacteria. The pus in a boil (an abscess) is made up largely of neutrophils. Normally a serious bacterial infection causes the body to produce an increased number of neutrophils, resulting in a higher than normal white blood cell count (WBC). When the WBC is low, there may not be enough neutrophils to defend against bacterial infections. \n\nThe white blood cell count is done by counting the number of white blood cells in a sample of blood. A normal WBC is in the range of 4,000 to 11,000 cells per microliter. A low WBC is called leukopenia. A high WBC is termed leukocytosis. \n\nA normal absolute neutrophil count (ANC) is in the range of 1,500 to 8,000 cells per microliter. If the ANC is below 500 for an extended period of time, the risk of serious bacterial infection may increase significantly. A low neutrophil count is called neutropenia.
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A Hypotonic solution is one in which the concentration of electrolyte is below that in cells. In this situation osmotic pressure leads to the migration of water into the cells, in an attempt to equalize the electrolyte concentration inside and outside the cell walls. If the difference in concentration is significant, the cell walls may rupture, leading to the death of the cell. Consequently, it is vital that the electrolyte concentration of liquids used during blood transfusions be matched to that in cells.