How are artificial chromosomes made?
400289
The only artificial chromosome I have heard about was created for yeast cells.  They are eukaryotic (vs. prokaryotic bacteria) thus they have (4?) chromosomes like us.  I don't know exactly how they made it, but I think they just introduced another altered copy of one of their natural chromosomes that they would tolerate.  They also made it so they could put whatever genes of interest into the chromosome for further studies.
888340
When cells undergo meiosis, sometimes the cells divide incorrectly and either, gametes that have abnormal number of chromosomes are formed, or the cell ends up with multiple copies of the genome. Cells that have many sets of chromosomes are said to be undergoing polyploidy. The genetic material has been duplicated and ready for division, but division does not occur, forming a gamete with an extra set of chromosomes.
941171
During prophase 1 of meiosis, the chromosomes have duplicated and have joined with their homologous pair to form a 4 stranded tetrad.\n\nBecause you get one chromosome in each homologous pair from your mother and one from your father, although they code for the same concepts, they may code slightly differently (ie blue eyes vs brown eyes).\n\nTo exchange genetic material, during prophase one the two chromatids closest together in the tetrad (one from each mom and dad- the outer two are too far away to do this, so they remain untouched) "cross over".  Literally, the ends of the chromatids cross each other and bits of the chromosomes break off of one and reattach on the other, giving genetic variability.\n\nOk, so for example: the chromosome your mother gave you coded for blue eyes, blonde hair, curly hair, and long fingers.\nThe chromosome from your father codes for the same principles, just differently- say brown eyes, red hair, straight hair and short fingers.\n\nSo crossing over between these two occur in prophase 1, and some codes are swapped.\n\nNow we have a tetrad (4 chromatids) that code for the following.\n(We'll say the chromosome from mother is on the left and from father is on the right)\nStarting with the leftmost and going to the rightmost:\nChromatid 1 codes for: \n-blue eyes, blonde hair, curly hair, and long fingers\nChromatid 2 codes for:\n-blue eyes, brown hair, curly hair, and short fingers.\nChromatid 3 codes for:\n-brown eyes, blonde hair, straight hair, and long fingers\nChromatid 4 codes for:\n-brown eyes, brown hair, straight hair and short fingers.\n\nSo now we have the genetic variability, and 4 completely unique chromatids, that are still homologous pairs, just giving us four different codings for the same traits.\n\nHope this helps.
290398
It's not entirely unlike modern automobile factories that produce many different kinds of cars on the same factory line.  The robots are each programmed to do certain tasks (welding, bolting, etc.) but as each car comes along a different set of instructions is fed to the robot to tell it exactly where to weld, bolt, drill, and so on.\n\nIn a similar way protein synthesis enzymes get an RNA "program" that tells each to perform its specific task in a different way.  One might string a group of amino acids together in a specific chain, while another will take that chain and add on some extra active component molecules (like the iron in hemoglobin), while the last one takes this nearly-finished protein and "twists" it into its final shape.\n\nIt's all pretty complicated.  How much detail do you need?
1018240
none\n\n\nyou start with one pair of homologous chromosomes in prophase I of meiosis I.  at metaphase I, these homologues line up across the metaphase plate, and at anaphase, they seperate so that one homologue goes to one pole, and the other homologue goes to the other pole.  after cytokinesis at the end of telophase I, you have one homologue in each cell...that homologue then goes through meiosis II, and at metaphase II, that homologue lines up at the metaphase plate with each sister chromatid facing each pole, and the chromosome is "pulled apart".  Anaphase II pulls the sister chromatids to each pole, and cytokinesis splits the one cell into two....two cells, each containing one sister chromatid of a homologous pair. (although in some text books this is refered to as a single homologue)
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Each chromosome in your body has an "identical pair"- there are two chromosomes that code for the same functions- one from your mother and one from your father.\n\nBecause they come from two sources, they are coding for the same functions, but may code differently for them (ie blue eyes as opposed to brown eyes).\n\nDuring prophase one, each chromosome duplicates into two sister chromatids joined by a centromere, and then the double stranded chromosome finds it's partner which is coding for the same thing (just came from the opposite parent), and is also double stranded.  Now you have a 4 stranded tetrad.\n\nGenetic variability comes from crossing over.  This is where the two chromatids closest together in the tetrad exchange some genetic information.\n\nFor example, two of the chromatids code for blue eyes, brown hair and shortsightedness.\nThe other two chromatids code for brown eyes, red hair and normal vision.\n\nDuring crossing over one chromatid from each pair forming the tetrad literally have ends "crossing over" and bits of information are exchanged.\n\nAfter crossing over, you have 4 chromatids with unique codings.  Using the example above, we may now have:\n-blue eyes, brown hair, shortsightedness\n-blue eyes, red hair, normal vision\n-brown eyes, brown hair, shortsightedness\n-brown eyes, red hair, normal vision\n\nWe now have genetic variability in each gamete produced from this meiotic division.
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There are three types of cloning, 1)DNA cloning 2)Reproductive cloning and 3)Therapeutic cloning.\n\nMost cloning in animals are done with Reproductive cloning.\n\nIn this process, the genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell is transferred to an egg whose nucleus, and thus its genetic material, has been removed. The reconstructed egg containing the DNA from a donor cell must be treated with chemicals or electric current in order to stimulate cell division. Once the cloned embryo reaches a suitable stage, it is transferred to the uterus of a female host where it continues to develop until birth. \n\nYou may wish to visit the websites http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml\nhttp://www.rds-online.org.uk/pages/page.asp?i_ToolbarID=5&i_PageID=162
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It happens during meiosis, when the gametes are being formed. You know how chromosomes, in diploids, divide so that half of them go into one of the eggs/sperm and the other half go into the other, so that there's one of each in the gamete?\n\nWell, that is a way to re-combine the genetic material so that the offspring will have some from mom and some from dad. It's like having two sets of encyclopaediae, and combining them so that two new sets are produced, each with books from the two parents.\n\nNow imagine you have Volume 21 of the encyclopaedia from mom, and Vol. 21 from dad. You could assign one or the other to the new set being formed, but you want even more variety in the information.\n\nSo you take pages from one Volume 21 and _switch_ them with the equivalent pages from the other Volume 21.\n\nThat is crossing over and recombination. It increases the amount of possible children generated enormously.\n\nIt happens just before the chromosomes are segregated. In humans, we have 23 pairs of chromosomes. During meiosis, those 23 pairs split, forming 2 sets of 23 pairs each (chromatids). Those sets separate, and within each set the pairs recombine--that is, they cross over each other and exchange segments. Just like switching equivalent pages between the two same-numbered volumes of an encyclopaedia set.\n\nThat way the two sets of pairs, who will go on to form four new gametes, contain chromosomes that are neither identical to mom's nor to dad's, but a combination of segments of the chromosomes from both.
289884
The insertion of foreign DNA fragments into a cell/organism which will replicate the DNA and integrate it into its own genome
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Gametes are produced via meiosis\n\nThe chromosomes are seperated into two and go to their respective cells.\n\nMeiosis divides the genetic material in a normal cell if half. A normal cell has 46 chromosomes, a gamete has 23.\n\nTwo gametes combine during infertilization creating a zygot so to grow into a fetus.
1115957
Not with current freezing techniques. Too much cell damage. In the future I think that a process will be possible. Will it be ethical or moral in a rapidly overpopulating world will be the ultimate question.
249178
Are you asking about DNA causing itself to be assembled?
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Go back to before the child is concieved.  Back to the creation of these specific gametes.\n\nIn the meiosis process that created the gametes, one of the gametes that eventually combined to create the person ended up having an extra chromosome.\n\nInstead of the spindle fibres pulling the chromosomes apart perfectly in half ( "n" to each pole), one side of the cell got "n-1" and one got "n+1".  The gamete with "n-1" probably died from too little information, but the one with "n+1" ended up combining into the zygote and eventually became the coding for the person with Down's syndrome.\n\nDown's syndrome has an entire extra 21 chromosome.
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the cell won't work even if you inject human sperm DNA to chimp egg\nthe chromosome number size are different \nthey cannot complementary to do pairing up in cell division\nMay be the recognition of microtubule to foreign DNA and condensation of foreign DNA by protein \nare not possible too \nthe cell cannot enter cell cycle
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Eukaryotic cell--use modeling clay.
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a.cell fusion -2 Living cells fused using synthetic medium artificially, it casues karyoplast fusion as well as cytoplast fusion, When an undifferentiated stem cell fuses with a mature differentiated cell, the resultant cell can retain the mature cell \n\nb.Tissue culture - A branch of biotechnology working using invtro cell lines in a petridish growing in 37 degree incubator with 5% Carbon dioxide.. example Hela cell lines - A cell line obtained from Henrita laks ( other exapmles like  tissues cut from kidney or other tissues and homogeneous suspension is  made  and grown in dishes to study drug targetting and for transfection.Also in plants small part of bud is cultured in a test tube with appropriate shoot inducing and rooinducing hormones to get plants with desired charecters .A biotechnology teaching college is incomplete without a tissue culture lab aslo known as cell culture lab\n\nc.Recombinent DNA - Most of the times bacterial plasmids are engineered to ligate with gene of interest using enzymes to obtain required protein ,usually used for commercial purpose and also for research purpose ( recombining DNA -a major feild also called as genetic engineering )\n\nd.Embryo transfer - 2 kinds of embryo transfers are commenly seen .One in the laboratory,it is done using mouse embryos, after embryo manipulations , to obtain transgenic animals or knock out animals or for other purposes embryos are transfered to a surrogate mother ,It is done in two ways. uterine or oviduct (depending on the stage of the embryo) , 2nd one ,in hosipitals  invitro clininc IVF therapy ,Embryos are transferred using a cappilary pipe and a syringe,through the vegina ( generally in blastocyst stage)to the mother after invitro fertilisation for those mothes who has problem in natural fertilsation and also for various other reasons ,to get disigned babies .Embryo transfers are also practicved in other animals as well .Dolly is also a gud example born after embryo transfer after somatic cell nuclear transfer \n\ne.Artificial insemination - Here sperm is placed into a female's uterus by artificial means unlike natural copulation.Semen is collected, extended, then cooled or frozen. It can be used on site or shipped to the female's location.artificial insemination were first developed for the dairy cattle industry to allow many cows to be impregnated with the sperm of a bull with traits for improved milk production.and also in other animals .In humans artificial insemination is usually part of an infertility treatment; either the woman's partner's sperm (artificial insemination by husband, AIH) or donor sperm (artificial insemination by donor, AID) can be used.\n\nf.protoplast fusion - a technique used to generate genetically modified fruits,Protoplast is nothing but cell minus cell wall , so two protoplasts are fused from two fruits after removing cell wall using generally PEG and sendiviruses to enhance fusion .Generally it causes somatic cell fusion.Protoplasts are useful in genetic manipulations because they do not have cell walls. They are ideal targets for taking up naked DNA and for fusing with protoplasts of other related species. In the related genus, Episcia, some species and selections have true yellow and red flowers. this procedure has been successfully applied  for plant regeneration from African violet protoplasts to protoplasts of Episcia cupreata Tropical Topaz .Several researchers have emphasized production of hybrids between distantly related, sexually incompatible species, not all are success stories there are more failure also .\n\ng. test tube baby - A test-tube baby is the term that refers to a \nchild that is conceived outside the woman's body.  The first \nsuccessful test-tube baby was born in England in 1978 and since then.over 20,000 test-tube babies have been born worldwide. The process is referred to as in vitro (outside the body) fertilization.Simply put, eggs are removed from the mother's ovary and inc
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Chromosomes are collections of genes which are coded in DNA molecules. Because after the split each daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the cell division starts with the parent cell making a copy of each chromosome. \n\nEach chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself, called sister chromatids.\n\nDuring the dividing process the chromatids are split, and one half ends up in each of the two daughter cells.\n\nErrors in the cell splitting process are rare, but the process may go wrong, especially during the early cellular divisions of an embryon.