what have scientist learned or discovered about molecules?
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In chemistry, a molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by special forces.[1] Generally, a molecule is considered the smallest particle of a pure chemical substance that still retains its composition and chemical properties.[2] In the molecular sciences, a molecule is a sufficiently stable, electrically neutral entity composed of two or more atoms.[3] The concept of "monatomic molecule", i.e. a single-atom as found in noble gases, is used almost exclusively in the kinetic theory of gases.[4] Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically-charged molecules.\n\nSee http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecules for more information.
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No difference by definition.  A molecule is the same molecule no matter how it was made.  As a practical matter, synthesizing molecules that are normally produced biologically is not always easy.  The exact way to do it may not have been discovered yet, in which case you might end up synthesizing something close, but not exact (but then, they would be considered different molecules--their origins would be irrelevant).  Even if you can synthesize the exact molecule, there is usually an issue of yield (you didn't just synthesize that molecule, but you also made lots of side products and incorrect isomers).
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the manipulation of individual molecules.\n\nfor applications, see below.
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The discovery of oxygen
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DNA was discovered as a chemical long before the 50's when Watson and Crick discovered the structure of it.  I can't totally answer your question, but hopefully that keeps you from getting sidetracked.
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1 Theory: Jabir Ibn Haiyan, known as the alchemist Geber of the Middle Ages, is generally known as the Father of Chemistry.\n\nHis full name was Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He had established himself as one of the leading scientist while he practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa (in present day Iraq) around 776 C.E. In his early days, he was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizier during the Abbasid Caliphate of Haroon al-Rashid. Jabir died in Kufa in 803 C.E.\n\n2nd Theory: The father of physical chemistry\n\n\nWilhelm Ostwald, best known for his work on catalysis and chemical affinity, was born 150 years ago this year.\n\n3rd theory: The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier helped establish modern\nchemical nomenclature, named oxygen and discovered its role\nin combustion, and propounded the law of conservation\nof matter—achievements that inspire\ntextbooks to dub him the father of modern\nchemistry.
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A complex molecule formed by the joining of many simple molecules is known as a Polymer(example as poly-ethene or polythene). Sorry, I don't know the latter part of your question.
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Oxygen was discovered for the first time by a Swedish Chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1772. Joseph Priestly, an English chemist, independently, discovered oxygen in 1774 and published his findings the same year, three years before Scheele published. Antonie Lavoisier, a French chemist, also discovered oxygen in 1775, was the first to recognize it as an element, and coined its name "oxygen"
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Not sure you can get an exact ranking, because three were researched simultaneously:\n\nHelium was discovered on Earth in 1895 by Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay, though some credit the discovery of helium (in the sun's spectrum) to Janssen and Lockyear in 1868. Ramsay discovered most of the remaining noble gases--argon in 1894 (with Lord Rayleigh) and krypton, neon, and xenon in 1898 (with Morris M. Travers). Radon was discovered in 1898 by Fredrich Ernst Dorn.
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Yes. You can view the current list of 119 molecules at Al Wootten's page at the NRAO. Since the 1950's, astronomers have found over 50 different kinds of molecules in dense 'interstellar clouds'. The most common molecules that have been detected are carbon monoxide ( CO), hydroxyl (OH), silicon monoxide (SiO) and graphite ( in the form of dust grains). Water, formaldehyde, ammonia, and cyanogen have also been detected. The most complex molecules have 10 or more atoms.\n\nThe longest molecules I have heard about are Ethyl Cyanide, CH3CH2CN with 9 atoms; and a 13-atom molecule NC11N. There were 66 molecules listed in a table dated from 1990, and I am sure a few more have been found since then. The best hunting grounds are in the Orion Molecular Cloud and in the massive molecular cloud called Sagittarius B2 in the center of the Milky Way.
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What do you want to know?  He is considered the father of experimental chemistry.  He is credited with describing the Law of Conservation of Mass.
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The models that already exist are good enough for most chemists maybe all. Developments in molecular orbital theory on the other hand would be welcome.
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chemistry, quantum mechanics...
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Both.  Molecules are combinations of bonded atoms, so they definitely have a structure.  You can look in google for a picture of a water molecule, famous for its "Mickey Mouse" structure.\n\nAnd yes, molecules have potential or kinetic energy.
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Realllllll Simply:\n\nCovalent molecules (atoms that make up the molecule) each contribute enough electrons (which are shared) to each other so that each atom thinks is has the nearest Noble Gas configuration. \n\nIonic molecules (the atoms that make up the molecule) transfer the electrons. One atom gains them and one atom loses them. Thus the atoms become ions (as in ionic bond), so they have charges.\n\nGet an "A".
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Go to this site and it will show you structures of a whole bunch of molecules with Carbon and without, by formula and by name, kind of mess around with it for a while. http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/molecules/index.html
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You'll have to be more specific as to which chemicals you want to know about.  The building blocks of Genes are Organic Structures / chemicals as are the individual nucleic acids and nitrogenous bases.     \n\nPlease see my sources for more information.