what is hybridisation in the orbits of an atom?
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Keywords:\n              Help\n\nCarbon has a unique place in our lives. Each living cell, food, wood, paper, petro-chemicals, cooking gas, perfumes, etc are all made up of carbon. Chemistry of carbon compounds is known as organic chemistry. Organic chemistry encompasses study of all carbon-hydrogen compounds. These are also called hydrocarbons. Inorganic carbon chemistry is the study of oxides, nitrides and allotropes of carbon.\n\nThere are many differences between organic and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds are mostly insoluble in water. They have low melting points and exist by forming covalent bonds. Inorganic compounds on the other hand usually dissolve in water and have high melting points. Inorganic compounds can be formed due to either ionic or covalent bonds. Another characteristic of organic compounds is that they are inflammable.\n\nCarbon has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons. Its chemical symbol is 12C 6. Its electronic configuration is 2 electrons in the K-shell, and 4 electrons in the L-shell. In principle it should either give up or borrow 4 electrons while forming compounds. But it doesn’t form ionic bonds at all. It likes to share its four electrons with other atoms and form covalent bonds instead. Carbon covalent bonds are the strongest in nature.\nWe might expect that a carbon atom to form three bonds of one kind using the p orbital electrons and one bond of another kind using the s orbital electron. But this does not happen!! The one 2s and three 2p orbitals mix together and give rise to four new altogether different types of orbitals. This is called  hybridization and is seen only in carbon atom. The four orbitals are at an angle of 109028’. This is called tetrahedral or sp3 (pronounced as sp three) type of hybridization. There are sp2 and sp types of hybridization also.
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Because an orbital is not  linear, it is 3-dimensional, however, it is difficult to draw orbits in 3D so they use a cross section just so people can get a general idea as to thier shape.  For a really cool  program to plot out atomic orbitals goto\nhttp://www.orbitals.com/orb/index.html\n \nits pretty cool.
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the measure of an element 2 combine with other is called VALENCY.to work out the valenceys for certain chemicals we havta see the no. of atoms in outer & inner orbits..>>&then use the formula>>.hope it'll help u.
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There are 3 orbitals: px, py, and pz. Each of the orbitals can take 2 electrons.\n\nIf you take an X-Y-z plot and draw 3 figure eights with each of three dimensions, you'll get the shape of the p orbital.\n\nThe p orbital is also symmetrical (gerade), so electrons in complex don't easily go from a p orbital to a d orbital (which is ungerade) according to LaPorte rules.
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Fusion means the combination of the various bits and pieces of atoms.  The atoms are "fused" together.  The difference between elements depends on the number of the bits and pieces - electons, protons and neutrons - in individual atoms.  When two atoms combine the number of bits and pieces is (roughly) the combined number of bits and pieces from the combinant atoms, so a new element is formed.
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This is true.  The Px, Py, and Pz orbitals are degenerate in all atoms provided the atom is not subjected to a magnetic field. \n\nIn hydrogen and other single electron systems (He+ etc) only the n quantum number matters to determine energy.  So you can actually say that the 2s, 2px, 2py and 2pz are all degenerate.  \n\nThe s, p etc orbitals lose this degeneracy when there is more than one electron due to electrostatic repulsion between the electrons, so then you need both the n quantum number and the l quantum number to determine energy.
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sp character means the orbitals have 1/2 s character and 1/2 p character.\nsp2 character means the orbitals have 1/3 s character and 2/3 p character\nsp3 character means the orbitals have 1/4 s character and 3/4 p character.\nSo, from sp to sp3, you see s character contribution decreases from 50% to 33.33% to 25%, so you can say so.\n\nYou can check out more about hybridisation online. You would notice hybridisation can be used to explain on a lot on the bond angles and quite a few more properties in organic chemistry, but break down when we deal on a quantum level. I believe hybridisation should be studied for historical purposes... So i believe the theory is not perfect.
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1. There are two molecular orbitals for hydrogen, the lower energy orbital has its greater electron density between the two nuclei. This is the bonding molecular orbital - and is of lower energy than the two 1s atomic orbitals of hydrogen atoms making this orbital more stable than two seperated atomic hydrogen orbitals. The upper molecular orbital has a node in the electronic wave function and the electron density is low between the two positively charged nuclei. The energy of the upper orbital is greater than that of the 1s atomic orbital, and such an orbital is called an antibonding molecular orbital.\nNormally, the two electrons in hydrogen occupy the bonding molecular orbital, with anti-parallel spins. If molecular hydrogen is irradiated by ultra-violet (UV) light, the molecule may absorb the energy, and promote one electron into its antibonding orbital (s*), and the atoms will seperate. The energy levels in a hydrogen molecule can be represented in a diagram - showing how the two 1s atomic orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals, one bonding (s) and one antibonding (s*). This is shown below - by clicking upon either the s or s* molecular orbital in the diagram - it will show graphically in a window to the right.\n\n2.Hybridisation\nThe Valence Bond model suggests that for a covalent bond to form, two atomic orbitals must overlap sufficiently so that electrons can be shared. However, if the hydrogen atoms are positioned tetrahedrally, not all of them will overlap with orbitals on the carbon atom. This is because the carbon's p orbitals are positioned octahedrally, whereas the hydrogen atoms are orientated tetrahedrally. How does the VSEPR model account for this problem? By inventing hybrid orbitals (N.B. these were proposed by Linus Pauling). In the carbon atom, the 2s and 2p orbitals have different energies. If the 2s orbital combines with the three 2p orbitals, four new sp3 hybrid orbitals will be formed. These new hybrid orbitals are identical - they are arranged tetrahedrally and have the same energy (they are degenerate). The 1s orbitals from the hydrogen atoms can now overlap with the sp3 hybrid orbitals, forming single covalent bonds.\n\nImportant: insert a picture of formation of hybrid orbitals (energy levels)\n\nGeometries of Hybrid Orbitals\n\nsp\n sp2\n sp3\n sp3d\n sp3d2\n \n[edit]\nLone Electron Pairs\nThe VSEPR model treats lone electron pairs in a similar way to bonding electrons. In ammonia (NH3) for example, there are three hydrogen atoms and one lone pair of electrons surrounding the central nitrogen atom. Because there are four groups, ammonia has a tetrahedral shape but unlike methane, the angle between the hydrogen atoms is slightly smaller, 107.3°. This can be explained by theorising that lone electron pairs take up more space physically than bonding pairs. This is a reasonable theory: in a bond, the electron pair is distributed over two atoms whereas a lone pair is only located on one. Because it is bigger, the lone pair forces the other electron pairs together.\n\nTesting this assumption with water provides further evidence. In water (H2O) there are two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs, again making four groups in total. The electron pairs repel eachother into a tetrahedral shape. The angle between the hydrogen atoms is 104.5°, which is what we expect from our model. The two lone pairs both push the bonds closer together, giving a smaller angle than in ammonia. The scientific method has succeeded again!
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The electron of a hydrogen atom orbits around the hydrogen atom nucleus. If there was no electron it wouldn't be an atom of any kind. In other words, the electron is "inside" a hydrogen atom.\n\nThis website for graphics of the hydrogen atom and suggestions for a science project:\n\nhttp://education.jlab.org/qa/atom_model.html
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Sigma Bond:\n     A type of bond between two atoms in which two partially filled atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that the probability of finding an electron is maximum around the line joining the two nuclei.\n                           OR\n     Sigma bonds are those bonds between atoms in a molecule that exhibit orbital hybridization\nPi Bond:\n     A type of bond which is formed by the sideways overlap of two half filled co-planar p-orbitals in such a way that the probability of find finding an electron is maximum perpendicular to the line joining the two nuclei.\n                          OR\n    Pi bonds are those bonds between two atoms in a molecule that do not exhibit orbital hybridization
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Orbitals are solutions to the schrodinger wave equation, quantum mechanics, taking into account translation, number, and rotation, letter.  The rotational levels, s p d f, are from the symmetry of the solutions.  With lower levels of translational energy the higher symmetries do not exist.\n\nsee the source from "Solution of Schrödinger equation: Overview of results" and down for a true mathematical explaination.
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I think if you put that sort of question you are familliar with SCHRODINGER ecuation. It is a complex ecuation simply described by\n\nNabla (a small triangle with the basis on the upper side) of H (hamiltonian - a complex math analysis operator) equals to zero.\n\nThis equation was solved only for the Hydrogen atom (in my physics books from college the solution occupy 8 A4 pages ...) and the results were extrapolated for others atoms (helium, lithium, berylium, etc.) but is just an extrapolation. \n\nFor other atom than Hydrogen the Schrodinger equation can not be solved with the mathematical apparatus we dispose today ...\n\nSo, the Schrodinger equation describes the POSSIBILITY to find an electron in a region of space at one moment. The shape of this spatial arrangement is called orbital (wave function) and we have S orbitals (spherical shape - maximum 2 electrons), P orbitals (spatial simetry over Ox, Oy and Oz with a shape similar to mathematical sign for infinitum on every axis - maximum 6 alectrons in 3 pairs), D orbitals (maximum 10 electrons in 5 pairs) and F orbitals (maximum 14 electrons in 7 pairs)\n\nSo the Sulphur electronical configuration is:\n1S(2)2S(2)2P(6)3S(2)3P(4)\n\nFrom the last shell is probably the easier to extract an electron. The distance from the nucleus dictate the strenght of atraction ... So, an 3S electron is harder to remove than an 3P electon but easier to remove than a 2P electron\n\nDONE!
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Any orbital other than the 1s  orbital is excited if populated.  2s, 2p, 3s,3p, 3d....
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True.  Elements are characterized by the nature of their atoms; each atom has a positively charged nucleus and is surrounded by a cloud of electrons.  All atoms of a particular element have the same nuclear charge.  Under normal circumstances, atoms are in a low energy state (the "ground state") in which the shape of the electron orbitals is roughly spherical -- bearing in mind that we're talking about the shape of a fog, without definite edges.  In higher energy states, the electron orbitals can get arbitrarily large.
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electron does not orbit the nuleus. this idea was dismissed long back. in fact they spin in their place in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. \n\noption (c) is correct
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Atom  \n\nThe smallest unit matter can be divided into whilst still retaining its chemical identity. Atoms are not single particles but complex arrangements of three types of particles. The subatomic particles, protons, neutrons and electrons, combine to form atoms. The protons and neutrons provide the bulk of an atom's mass and are concentrated into a tiny central region known as the atomic nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force which acts between the constituent particles (termed nucleons ). The protons are positively charged and so mutually repel each other, but it is not until there are many of them that they overcome the nuclear force. Thus there is only one stable element beyond lead (Z=82). Whilst the radius of an atom is in the region of 10-10 metres, the atomic nucleus is about ten thousand times smaller at 10-14 metres. The volume surrounding the nucleus is where the electrons exist. They are much lighter than the protons and neutrons and carry a negative electrical charge. Being opposite in charge to the nucleus, the electrons are held in orbits around it by the force of electromagnetism. The electrons exist in electron orbitals around the nucleus. These orbitals are grouped into shells. Within each shell are energy levels which allow the electrons to exist in unique quantum states, depending upon their angular momentum (hence energy), in accordance with Pauli's exclusion principle . In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the number of protons. When ionisation occurs, one or more electrons are provided with enough energy to escape the atom altogether. What remains is known as an ion because it is now positively charged and will behave in a different way chemically from neutral atom. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (the atomic number , Z) defines which chemical element it is. There are just over 110 known chemical elements and these can be arranged in a classification sequence known as the periodic table. The number of neutrons in any given atomic nucleus can also vary. The total number of protons + neutrons is termed the atomic mass number (A). Most atoms have a prefered number of neutrons at which their nuclei are stable. Atoms with more or less neutrons than the stable configuration are known as isotopes and will often undergo radioactive decay. The simplest of all atoms is hydrogen and is a special case which has a nucleus of one solitary proton and a single electron in orbit around it. It is the only nuclide (species of nucleus) with no neutron. A stable isotope of hydrogen is called deuterium which has one neutron in its nucleus; tritium is an unstable (radioactive) isotope of hydrogen and has two neutrons. See also atomic absorption , atomic emission , atomic number , molecule .
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Layer, orbital (azimuthal), magnetic and spin.\n\nNo two electons in the same atom can all the 4 numbers the same: be in the same layer, in the same orbital, sharing the same magnetic and spin value.