the human genome illustrates both continuity and changr describe theuse of bacterial plasmid to clone n sequen
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The PCR process consists of a series of twenty to thirty cycles. Each cycle consists of three steps \n\n The double-stranded DNA has to be heated to 94-96°C in order to separate the strands. This step is called denaturing; it breaks apart the hydrogen bonds that connect the two DNA strands. Prior to the first cycle, the DNA is often denatured for an extended time to ensure that both the template DNA and the primers have completely separated and are now single-strand only. Time: 1-2 minutes.\n\n\nAfter separating the DNA strands, the temperature is lowered so the primers can attach themselves to the single DNA strands. This step is called annealing. The temperature of this stage depends on the primers and is usually 5°C below their melting temperature (45-60°C). A wrong temperature during the annealing step can result in primers not binding to the template DNA at all, or binding at random. Time: 1-2 minutes.\n\nFinally, the DNA-Polymerase has to fill in the missing strands. It starts at the annealed primer and works its way along the DNA strand. This step is called extension. The extension temperature depends on the DNA-Polymerase. The time for this step depends both on the DNA-Polymerase itself and on the length of the DNA fragment to be amplified. As a rule-of-thumb, 1 minute per 1000bp.\n\n\nRestriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a technique in which organisms may be differentiated by analysis of patterns derived from cleavage of their DNA. If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage of a particular restriction endonuclease, the length of the fragments produced will differ when the DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme. The similarity of the patterns generated can be used to differentiate species (and even strains) from one another.
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I think you might be refering to plasmids.\nA plasmid is a small circular piece of DNA found in bacteria. A plasmid will often include genes which encode a protein that confers resistance to antibiotics. They can be transferred fromn one bacterium to another and replicate separately from the bacterial genomic DNA. One bacterium can contain many copies of a particular plasmid.\n\nLook it up & see if it is relevant to your enquiry.
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Transformation\nNucleotides\nBase
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Are you looking for all known orthologues of the individual genes in the operon (I assume) or for all occurences of these particular genes in an operon in other organisms (bacteria)?\n\n\n\n/////////\nI would try to look at "HomoloGENE", "Genome" and "UniGene" at the Entrez gateway at the US National Library of Medicine, Nat'l Ctr. for Biotechnology Info. (NCBI) \n\nhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gquery/gquery.fcgi?itool=toolbar
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I'm not certain if this is what you mean, but prokaryotic  organisms (i.e. bacteria) have plasmids more often than do eukaryotic organisms. Not all bacterial chromosomes are plasmids, and not all plasmids are bacterial chromosomes.
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Base-pairing with the complementary strand of DNA.
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Might want to be slightly more specific in the question.\n\nCloning, can refer to the copying of a complete individual. Or it can mean a single cell's complete genome has been copied for use in a gene library so that a specific gene can be separated out and studied.\n\nGenetic engineering, is manipulating the genes of a plant or animal, so that deleterious phenotypes, or even advantageous phenotypes can be bread in or out. Say like making a tomato last longer or stay nice and shiny red.
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http://www.microbesonline.org/operons/gnc205922.html
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dr d is correct.\n\nIt is transfer of genes within a generation, as compared to transfer from the parental generation to the offspring generation; that is vertical gene transfer between generations.\n\nIf genes are picked up from a cell in some way, and put into other cells (not involving cell division), then the genes have been transferred "horizontally".\n\nAn example is when a bacterium carrying a certain plasmid grows a "sex pilus", which then connects with the cell wall of a bacterium that does not carry that plasmid.  It will inject a copy of the plasmid, via the sex pilus, and the recipient has then become a carrier, too.  These plasmids often carry extra genes, as well as those coding for this ability.  These phenomena are sometimes considered to be similar to sex, but are really more like catching a virus!
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The plasmid is basically spliced into where the insulin gene is able to attach onto the ring to complete it.
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C)gel electrophoresis. \nIn gene splicing ther's cutting of DNA At specific regions. DNA Cloning involves the magnification or production of identical copies of DNA
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One word contradicts your "facts". \n\nPlasmids.\n\nPlasmids are non-chromosomal loops of DNA found in bacteria.  They often contain antibacterial resistance genes, or give the ability to use different sugars.  These plasmids are commonly shared by bacteria.  This is a gain of genetic information.\n\nNow, it is true that we only have 4 types of nucleotides in DNA, and they make about 20 amino acids.  This is conserved in all life forms. But from this, a countless number of proteins can be made, and have a nearly infinite number of effects.  Your suggesting could be likened to saying that we can never invent a new word, since we only have 26 letters.  \n\nPlease provide a source for your claims, perhaps then we can understand how you arrived at such a conclusion.
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DNA is the human or biological equivalent of computer code.
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I gave a lecture on this recently and have had first hand experience with this technology in a lab, so let me give you a brief and easy summary to take with you about this topic about Recombinant DNA Technology:\n\nIn order to clone you need 2 things: Bacterial DNA (the circular form called a "plasmid"), and the DNA you want to clone (be it human, mouse, plant, other species etc)\n\nThen you will need to cut the Bacterial DNA with enzymes called "endonucleases" that work like scissors. (So imagine a circle and I take a pair of scissors and cut the circle at some point in it, b/c I want to insert the foreign DNA (non native DNA) where I had cut.) I will have to do the same with the foreign DNA and have endonucleases cut OUT the particular piece i want cloned. \n\nThen we can put the two pieces together, the cut circular plasmid DNA from the bacteria, and the CUT out piece of foreign DNA. \n\nWhen we put the two pieces together it is called "ligation", and it is done as a reaction in a tube with enzymes inside that "glue" the "sticky ends" of the bacteria DNA to the foreign DNA. \n\nAfter the reaction normally done in a 16 deg. Celsius water bath, we now will have "circular" plasmids with our Foreign DNA inserted into the bacterial DNA (the circle DNA)\n\nThen we would re-insert this DNA back into the bacterial host (that the circle DNA first came out of) in a process called "transformation", this is where the broth from the water bath we just discussed is grown in a growth medium at 37 deg. celsius so that the bacteria can grow and produce MORE of those circle plasmids with our foreign DNA inserted into it. \n\nThen we would "plate" these onto agar plates, and let them grow in incubators at 37 deg. Celsius over night until we get small colonies of bacteria on the plate. \n\nEach "mound" of bacteria (small like white dots on the plate) contains millions of copies of our gene (inserted in the circular plasmid DNA of the bacteria). \n\nNow we can take these small colonies, and harvest them further, by putting them in large Erlenmeyer flasks to be grown in the same "growth broth" over night on a shaker for 37 deg. celsius. \n\nAfter of which we can harvest, and purify that culture so that only the circular plasmids remain (this is a long and convuluted process so we won't go into it in detail here), and from there you can store those in a 4 deg. Celsius fridge and keep it in stock for further research purposes. \n\nHope that helps!
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Not really.  Gene flow is the transfer of alleles (genes) between populations.  This would have to occur through movement in (immigration) or movement out (emigration) of individuals - or more accurately - their gametes.\n\nI forgot to mention a special case scenario called "horizontal gene flow".  This is actually the movement of genes between different species.  Normally, we think of genes only moving within a species because mating occurs within a species.  However, bacteria have an uncanny ability to pick up genes from other (bacteria) species and incorporate them into their own genome.  Most of these genes are on 'plasmids' - small circular DNA.  Plasmids don't encode a lot of genes, usually only a couple of genes.  \nOne type of genes often found on plasmids encode for antibacterial resistance.  When these plasmids find their way from one species of bacteria to another, they can confer new antibiotic resistance to that species.  This explains why there is so much concern about the over-use of antibiotics.  Combining the evolutionary pressure of selecting for antibiotic-resistant strains with the ability to pass these genes between bacterial species - well, it could become quite scary.
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There are multiple start codons, depending on the species.  But I'm pretty sure that there are always a few oddities in how different species might encode information is slightly non-standard ways.
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human body and molecular biology..