for fusing Hydrogen or deutrium or tritum or H4 .... which kind of lasers are used with how much power?
121871
To be annoyingly pedantic, there are no fusion reactors yet.  They still have not achieved breakeven point of input energy=output energy.  The lasers you refer to are one area of research to achieve this.  \n\nTo answer your question, it is an evolving field, not just laser technology; but now the design of the fuel pellet is now a subject of interest.\n\n"Nova Laser System\n\nNova is the name given to the second generation laser fusion device at Lawrence Livermore Laboratories. It employs lasers ten times more powerful than the Shiva laser fusion device and will attempt to reach the breakeven point for fusion. Nova makes use of ten lasers which are focused on a 1 mm diameter target area, dumping 100,000 joules of energy into the target in a nanosecond.\n\nAs of 1994, Nova has reached the Lawson criterion, but at a temperature too low for fusion ignition."\n\nHowever, by designing the laser to make multiple passes through the laser material using lenses; and by designing the fuel pellet to these criteria, the LNL's 192 nova lasers  have competition.  a Few (<10 I believe) of these new lasers and redesigned fuel pellets achieved close to the aame results as the 192 nova lasers.
59833
You need one that is fully mirrored.\n\nThis is needed - almost - in some types of laser. A cylinder is used where on side is a perfect mirror (as perfect as one can get) and the other side is a partial mirror (say 99% of the light is reflected, the rest goes through like glass).\n\nThis sort of configuration is used to build up the strength of the lasing effect inside the cylinder and make for a better laser.\n\nOther types of modern lasers are efficient enough that this isn't necessary. Enough lasing is done down the length of the laser that no reflections are needed.\n\n(This isn't to be confused with the other concept of a "light trap" which is to keep light from leaking out. In that case you need something like this:\nhttp://www.uky.edu/Ag/Entomology/ythfacts/4h/unit2/hotm&ult.htm )
144594
To get a good start, try www.howstuffworks.com.\nLook in the back of a textbook to see where the editors got their information.\nFind out which companies develop/research chemical lasers then look at their websites.
422830
Man did u luck out running into me, go to www.sciplus.com "American science and surplus", all sorts of abandon science projects, factory over runs, cancelled government orders, motors, solar cells, weird stuff in the science dept, it's a mad doctors dream come true, CHEAP TOO ! check it out, you'll find lots of "COOL" stuff, that has many uses ! I did a hydro-electric demonstration of power application, that was so small, I could do it in a lab sink, E-mail me if you want an "A", it's an easy experiment, inexpensive, looks very sophisticated, yet simply displays the hydro-electric properties of producing low cost, hydro-electric power, using no battery's or electric for assistance, just water, so it's completely SAFE ! works on displaying milli-amps of D.C. power, yet you are still producing (at a very low voltage) power.
256703
Well in the 808 to 908 nm you are working in the range of photon emission of water.  I have not heard of a H2O laser yet; but, you never know...  I have seen some Noble gas lasers work near this frequency range however, most generate much higher power then the mw range you are querying about.\n\nAs to the range of a laser it really depends on the divergence of the beam.  The greater the beam spreads out from the end of the laser the less likely it will go far with any appreciable energy.  And example might be a Helium Neon at 6.15 um and 5 mw with a beam divergence of 1.5 radians.  Though visible at the target up to 1 mile away\nthe amount of energy is very small and can only be observed as a distant red dot.  That you have chosen a laser with a higher energy density (by a factor of about 10,000) you might be able to detect it at a distance of 100 miles as a small bluish dot regardless of the power level.  All the power level at this distance will do is determine the relative intensity of the blue dot, (IE faint, barely visible, clearly visible in a dark night sky.)  However, you would not be able to see the ends on the surface of the planet as the curvature of the earth limits the distance between two points at about 6 feet above the ground to around 14-15 miles.)\n\nThe other issue you have is how much interference there is between the laser and the target.  Indoors you can simulate long distances using fiber optic cables; however, most are tuned for higher frequencies.  Though Corning makes a 50nm single mode fiber that might be used to simulate a long distance; however as a general rule Bell Labs discovered the greatest distance they could send a high frequency signal through the fiber with a loss of less then one third the signal strength is around 160 miles.  In free air emissions there are a number of variables, dust or aerosols, rain, water vapor even the nitrogen in the air can attenuate the power of the laser.  Again Bell Labs did a number of experiments using laser to attempt to form a very tight communications channel between ground stations and satellites, they found it was possible; however, the interference was so great that even with 100 watts of a blue laser the signal would not allow a reliable signal.\n\nBut, I digress, if you want to calculate the db loss you have to know the signal loss of the medium the laser light will pass.  There are a number of tables that will help you estimate this data; but, you have to pay attention to the test conditions.  As a general rule you need to know the initial power, the attenuation of the medium and the minimum detection power required of the detector.  You have the initial power in your choices above, the minimum power of the detector will generally be around 10mw at this frequency.  So you only need to know the db loss of the medium.  The general rule of thumb is as you double the distance you reduce the energy level by the square root of the initial power.  So if you start with 100 mw at 1 meter you would be at 10 mw at 100 meters.  If you start with 1 watt you would normally reach 10 mw at 1000 meters.  If you start with 10 watts you would normally reach 10 mw at 10,000 meters.  All providing you do not have much interference.\nIf the medium has a db loss of 3db that means in addition to the squares rule you would have half the power or distance capability.  If you have 9db loss you would have about 1/8th the power level.  \n\nI don't know how much this will help you; but, these are general rules of thumb that should at least help you determine for yourself the type of data you might need to either do more research or guide you in your research.  \n\nGood Luck,\nDave Cooke
168479
The science newsgroups have been a-buzz with tales of a 2-kiloton yield Russian red mercury fusion device, theoretically in the possession of terrorists. This, of course, prompts the question: What Is Red Mercury? The answer to this question depends largely on whom you ask. Is red mercury real? Absolutely, but definitions vary. If you had asked me before I did a bit of Internet research, I would have given you the standard cinnabar/vermillion answer. However, the Russium tritium fusion bomb is more interesting... \n\nCinnabar/Vermillion \nCinnabar is naturally-occurring mercuric sulfide (HgS), while vermillion is the name given to the red pigment derived from either natural or manufactured cinnabar. \n\nMercury (II) Iodide \nThe alpha crystalline form of mercury (II) iodide is called 'red mercury', which changes to the yellow beta form at 127°C. \n\nAny Red-Colored Mercury Compound Originating in Russia \nas in the cold war definition of 'Red'. Sponsored Links\nOrganic Chemistry Review\nDiscovery Online AP Chemistry Tutorials Grades K-12. 30-Day Trial\nwww.Cosmeo.com\n\nDistance Organic Chem\nOnline University Course Enroll today and start next week\ndistance.une.edu\n\nFree Learn Chemistry Kit\nExperiments With Fuel & Combustion Learn The Basics. Submit Offer\nChemistry.Learning-Offer.com\nI doubt anyone is using 'red mercury' in this manner, but it's a possible interpretation. \n\nA Ballotechnic Mercury Compound\nPresumably red in color. Ballotechnics are substances which react very energetically in response to high-pressure shock compression. Google's Sci.Chem group has had a lively ongoing discussion about the possiblity of a an explosive form of mercury antimony oxide. According to some reports, red mercury is a cherry red semi-liquid which is produced by irradiating elemental mercury with mercury antimony oxide in a Russian nuclear reactor. Some people think that red mercury is so explosive that it can be used to trigger a fusion reaction in tritium or deuterium-tritium mixture. Pure fusion devices don't require fissionable material, so it's easier to get the materials needed to make one and easier to transport said materials from one place to another. Other reports refer to a documentary in which is was possible to read a report on Hg2Sb207, in which the compound had a density of 20.20 Kg/dm3 (!). Personally, I find it plausible that mercury antimony oxide, as a low density (nonradioactive?) powder, may be of interest as a ballotechnic material. The high-density material seems unlikely. It would also seem unreasonably dangerous (to the maker) to use a ballotechnic material in a fusion device. One intriguing source mentions a liquid explosive, HgSbO, made by Du Pont laboratories and listed in the international chemical register as number 20720-76-7. Anyone care to look it up?
107
Materials that form an inverse energy distribution?  Not quite.\n\nThere are three basic components for getting a laser to work.  First, one needs an excitation source (pumping source) such as a flashlamp, an electrical spark, etc.  Second, one needs a material (the gain medium) which can exhibit what's known as population inversion - the capacity for a material to raise the electron energy level from the lower to the upper energy states.  Nearly all materials will exhibit this behavior with some more efficiently than others.  Finally, one needs to direct the stimulated energy by using a resonator.\n\nThere are many combinations of pump sources, lasing materials and optical configurations depending on the intended use.  There are solid state (ruby, Nd:YAG), gas (nitrogen, helium-neon) and semiconductor (gallium-arsenide) lasers that come in a variety of wavelengths (colors) to choose from, again, depending on what you want to do with it.\n\nJust a little bit of background: My degree is in Physics, and I've been working in the lasers and electro-optics field for the past 10+ years.  You can see what my graduate lab at SDSU looked like at: http://www.equationlab.com/mtp/quantumblog/about.html
265264
Neuclear Fission and Fusion:\n\nSIMILARITIES:\n\n1.Both work on the basis of electromagnetic radiation.\n2.In both, a slow moving nuetron is used to emit radiation.\n3The source partiles are the same(U235, U238, PLUTANIUM, ETC)\n\n\n\nDifferences between fission and fusion\n\n\n\n\nThe main difference that there is between fission and fusion is that fission is the splitting of an atom to form two smaller ones while fusion is the fusing of two smaller atoms to form a larger atom. In each of these the binding energy of the final product or products is higher than that of the prerequisites. This is explained more fully in the next section (Binding Energy).\n\n\n\n\nFission itself is a nuclear process which does not usually occur naturally in nature (at least not that we know of) as it requires a large mass and an incident neutron to start the reaction. However this would not last for a long time as the reaction would explode and produce a result such as in an atomic bomb. This volatile nature is what prevents fission from occurring for any length of time naturally.\n\n\n\n\nFusion on the other hand is a process which occurs quite naturally. In fact, if fusion did not occur naturally we would not be around today. This is due to stars being the result of the fusion process, the fusion of mainly light atoms into heavier atoms. Fusion also releases a lot more energy in comparison to fission in relation to the mass input. Put simply you will get more energy released from the fusion of 1kg of hydrogen ions than you will from fission of 1kg of Uranium.
499133
fusion \n\nIT CONVERTS HYDROGEN INTO HELIUM
321706
Just goanna tell you why it is like that physically not mathematically but the math part I think you already know.\n\nFor starters there aren't any 2 level lasers there are 3 level lasers and 4 level lasers (4 levels is better then 3) never 2, you will understand why.\nNow first of all you have three processes:\nStimulated emission ;(SE)\nStimulated absorption ;(SA)\nSpontaneous emission;\nThe first two are absolutely symmetric they work with the same constants, they have just one difference, the SE is   proportional to the number of electrons in the exited state and SA proportional to the number of electrons in the fundamental (I do not consider empty places because in practice they aren't really important, don't know if you have saw them if not forget it). Now imagine your gain medium in the fundamental state, you pump it, the medium passes to have more electrons in the exited state, you pump it hard, so now what happens you have the 3 processes. The SA increases the population in the upper level and the SE in the lower level, the SA at first is more successful because there are more atoms in the fundamental state. But you arrive to a point where the population in the 2 levels is equal then both processes have the same intensity, that’s the limit of this system equal population, but you pump even stronger  trying to get an inversion population, what happens? Both process are equal in intensity the population will not vary, now let’s consider the third process. This is a less intense process if you pump well; this will just contribute to the population in the lower level, so you never arrive to have half the atoms in the upper state because even if the SA and SE are equal the spontaneous emission will create one more atom in the lower level.\n\nYou can never have population inversion in a 2 level system. There aren't any lasers with 2 levels, but you can do the calculations for. If you do not understand why population inversion is important here it goes:   you always have lost in your cavity, reflection in the gain medium, output coupler ...Only when you built a laser you see: there are "huge" losses in the laser everywhere. So you have to compensate that with a gain at every passage, well your gain medium only will have a gain > then 1 if you have population inversion, if not your medium will absorb and emit the same quantity having given 0 photons in plus to your system, So you will lose photons at every turn your light will end up really quickly.\n\nNow 3 level systems, in this systems you can pump really hard to the level 3 you can pump electrically by other means, you can pump it optically… but for instance imagine that the only thing getting out of 3 is the spontaneous decay from 3 to 2 only (which is possible, stimulated emission from 3 to 1 might not even be possible) then you can have more atoms in 2 then 1 you have population inversion. 3 level systems are the ruby, first laser ever built, and the Nd:Yag a very powerfull laser, used a lot \n\nIn relation to 4 levels 3 levels systems difference, there you can see the following, when you start to pump in the 4 level systems your base state (in relation to the emission line), is desert you have population inversion immediately, is easier to obtain gain.\n\nTo finalise this part of the answer I can tell you that getting energy out of a 2 level system would be like getting more energy then the one you input it would violate the thermodynamic law the energy conservation principle.\n\nThe second part of the question, I do not now if you where talking in the 2 level or in the 3 level system but I suppose it’s the 3 level system all the way.\nNow the answer to your question is one of most beautiful things that the basic laser physic has, remember you have medium and a cavity, this cavity reproduces it self times and times over. You need the source in 1 to 3 and you create population inversion, now your medium will emit in all directions b
152558
If you could find a transition between an inverted state and a ground state of 1 joule, you could probably make a laser of that frequency. At this point, hard gamma rays are the limit we have done.
427000
For Al .. \n\nElectron configuration : [Ne] 3s2 3p1 ... so after losing 3 electrons its stable and need high energy to destabilize it ..\n\nwhile for As [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3 .. \nfor Ga [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1\nfor Se [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4\nfor S [Ne] 3s2 3p4\n\n4th ionization energy in kJ/mol :\n\nAl  11577 \nGa 6180 \nAs 4837 \nS 4556\nSe 4144
209637
20-1000mW is a huge range for power and cost will vary considerably.  You should also consider your other specifications (cw/pulsed, wavelength, beam stability, beam divergence) as these will vary from laser to laser.\n\nEdmund Optics (http://www.edmundoptics.com/onlinecatalog/displayproduct.cfm?productID=1341)\n20 mW green for $3.2k\n50 mW green for $5.0k\n\nThinkLasers (http://www.thinklasers.com/)\n30mw-300mW green for $595-$2250\n150mW-250mW blue for $3470-$7650
131318
A two-color three-photon ionization technique, using two pulsed dye lasers, was employed to explore the high-lying energy levels of U I. A number of new U I levels in the 34 290--35 120-cm/sup -1/ region was observed.^Uncertainty in the assignment of J values to some levels known from earlier studies was also reduced or removed.\n\nHUH? Is that what you want?\n\nEDIT\nAbstract. Two-colour resonance ionization spectroscopy was used for identification of 240 new levels of 238U in the energy range of 38 500 to 41 200 cm-1. A precision of +or-0.03 cm-1 (1 SD) for the energies was obtained by using laser-induced fluorescence signals of I2 for spectral calibration. The angular momentum quantum number, J, was uniquely assigned for 134 of these levels by using angular momentum selection rules. \n\nThats a little more specific\nAnd some more\n\nAbstract. Visible and infrared absorption measurements on the  ion in tetragonal zircon-type matrix  are reported and analysed in terms of the standard parametrization scheme. The observed 17 main peaks and a number of less intense lines have been assigned and fitted to most of the 32 allowed electric dipole transitions with the root mean square error equal to . The free-ion parameters obtained for the model Hamiltonian, , ,  and , as well as the corresponding crystal-field parameters, , , ,  and , agree fairly well with the initial theoretical estimations. The results are discussed in relation to the previous spectroscopic study on the scheelite-type matrix .
62097
I don't know if this would be possible. The C atom is able to acheive this state, which is semi-unique to the group IV atoms such as Si, Ge, Pb, and Sn. \n\nFor a hydrogen atom to acheive sp2 hybridization it would have to skip 4 base states. This configuration is 'highly' improbable and would be 'highly' unstable requiring a steady influx of energy to retain this configuration.
371646
In "hydrogen" bombs, lithium deuteride, a solid, (lithium hydride with deuterium as the hydrogen isotope) is typically used.  When bombarded with neutrons from the primary fission bomb, the lithium decays to tritium adding to the fusion explosion.  Gaseous hydrogen is NOT used in these devices.
496226
Reference to the Freedman article on Light Brigade is below.  I couldn't find any with the other title or author.  The laser technology have been in development for years.  The second reference is to organic light emitting devices.  Perhaps that is related to what you are talking about.  But until you say something about what fate of what new magnets, I can't directly address your question.\n\nTechnologies this promising usually make it into production unless they hit some technical or financial roadblock, or something better comes along first.