title: History of St. Louis (1804–1865)

abstract: The history of St. Louis, Missouri from 1804 to 1865 included the creation of St. Louis as the territorial capital of the Louisiana Territory, a brief period of growth until the Panic of 1819 and subsequent depression, rapid diversification of industry after the introduction of the steamboat and the return of prosperity, and rising tensions about the issues of immigration and slavery. St. Louis also played a role in the American Civil War.

text:
# History of St. Louis (1804–1865)

The **history of St. Louis, Missouri** from 1804 to 1865 included the creation of St. Louis as the territorial capital of the Louisiana Territory, a brief period of growth until the Panic of 1819 and subsequent depression, rapid diversification of industry after the introduction of the steamboat and the return of prosperity, and rising tensions about the issues of immigration and slavery. St. Louis also played a role in the American Civil War.

## Changes in government and politics

After the last Spanish lieutenant governor surrendered upper Louisiana and St. Louis to Amos Stoddard, representative of France and the United States, Stoddard was given civil command of the territory (March-October 1804) until the U.S. Congress acted further. Stoddard quickly established a citizens' committee (led by leading Creole families) to write local regulations. However, Congress passed an organization law that separated the Louisiana Purchase at the 33rd parallel, with the upper part including St. Louis to be called the District of Louisiana and governed by officials from the Indiana Territory. The district was divided into sub-districts that included St. Louis, St. Charles, and Ste. Genevieve, among others. The act also banned the foreign slave trade and nullified any land grants greater than 640 acres made after October 1, 1800. Most wealthy Creoles found the new organization law to be particularly repulsive, if not for its threat toward slavery then due to its reduction of the significance of St. Louis.

The Creole families and Americans who held large Spanish land grants thus petitioned Congress in 1804 to review the system. The petition received support from the territorial governor, William Henry Harrison, and in July 1805, Congress reorganized the District of Louisiana as the Louisiana Territory, with its territorial capital at St. Louis. The new reorganization also created a land claims board that would review large land grant claims to determine their legitimacy. Jefferson quickly appointed James Wilkinson as the new territorial governor, with John Coburn, Rufus Easton, and John Baptiste Charles Lucas as territorial judges. Both Easton and Lucas remained fixtures of St. Louis government well into the 19th century.

By 1806, Wilkinson had become widely unpopular in St. Louis due to his interference with the land claims review board and refusal to convene a territorial legislature. Wilkinson also had befriended Aaron Burr, which provoked rumors that the two were planning a western rebellion. Wilkinson thus was removed from office in May 1806 and replaced in early 1807 by Meriwether Lewis, explorer and co-namesake of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, who took office in March 1808. Lewis's tenure was short, however, as he died on a trip to Washington, D.C. in late 1809.

The population of the city expanded slowly after the Louisiana Purchase, but with expansion came increased desire to incorporate St. Louis as a town, allowing it to create local ordinances without the approval of the territorial legislature. After a failed effort in 1808, the local district court approved a petition from the town to incorporate, and on November 27, 1809, the first Board of Trustees were elected to represent the citizens of the town.

The Board of Trustees was composed primarily of members of the Creole elite and newly arrived Americans: Auguste Chouteau, William C. Carr, Jean Cabanne, Edward Hempstead, and William Christy, with Chouteau chosen as the chairman. The Board primarily concerned itself with slave control, except for one ordinance banning horse racing on city streets. Other ordinances created volunteer fire department companies, required the removal of dead animals from the town, and created a streets overseer who was able to order males to work on streets adjacent to their property. The town also enacted a small property tax and obtained some revenue from issuing business licenses.

The Board of Trustees established a constabulary to enforce its ordinances, which consisted of four men who served without pay, chosen on a rotating basis from among the adult men of the town. The district and town jail was located in the former masonry tower, known as Fort San Carlos, built by Leyba for the Battle of St. Louis in 1780. Crime remained relatively rare until the 1810s; the city's first murder occurred in 1817.

In 1812, the Louisiana Territory was renamed the Missouri Territory, and from 1812 to 1821, St. Louis remained the capital of the territory. In addition to renaming the territory, all subdistricts (such as St. Louis, St. Charles, Ste. Genevieve, etc.) were renamed as counties. In the new territorial legislature, St. Louis County (which at that time included the town of St. Louis) was entitled to four representatives, the most of any county.

After the end of the War of 1812, the population of St. Louis and the Missouri Territory began expanding quickly. Between 1804 and 1810, the town increased from 1,200 to 1,400, while from 1810 to 1820, the town population more than tripled from 1,400 to 4,600. It was during this influx of population that Auguste Chouteau and J.B.C. Lucas subdivided their land the west of Third Street, adding lots west through Seventh Street and doubling the width of the east-west streets. Chouteau and Lucas also donated a lot to be used as a county courthouse, where in 1828 the Old St. Louis County Courthouse was constructed.

The population increase also stirred interest in statehood for Missouri; nearly all of the St. Louis elites (both Creole and American) supported statehood as a way of increasing their political power in the region. In December 1818, Congress debated over the admission of Missouri, ending its debate with the Missouri Compromise and an Enabling Act in March 1820 that authorized Missouri to elect a state government and create a state constitution. The constitutional convention of Missouri began work on June 12, 1820 in the Mansion House Hotel on Third Street in St. Louis, completing and adopting the Missouri Constitution on July 19, 1820. After statehood, the first General Assembly met at the Missouri Hotel in St. Louis, where the legislature selected St. Charles as a temporary home for the state capital until Jefferson City was completed as the permanent capital. St. Louisans had "no apparent regrets" at their loss of capital status, as they made little attempt to garner it.

Among the early decisions of the General Assembly was to take up a petition from St. Louis for incorporation as a city with a charter. The first St. Louis city charter was approved by the legislature on December 9, 1822, which was subject to city voters approval (which then passed by a margin of 107 to 90). The first mayor of the city was a recently arrived American physician, William Carr Lane, who defeated city founder Auguste Chouteau by a vote of 122–70 in April 1823. A nine-member Board of Aldermen also were elected (replacing the earlier Board of Trustees), and the city limits were expanded west to Seventh Street and north and south by approximately 5 blocks each.

The focus of the early city government was on improvements to the riverfront and city health conditions. In 1823, the aldermen voted to regrade and pave Main (First) Street, and in 1824 voted for a general ordinance to pave streets and sidewalks and to create alleyways in all city blocks. However, the paving progress was slow and most streets remained dirt through the 1830s. In addition to the paving program, the aldermen voted to rename the streets, with north-south streets officially being given numbers, while east-west streets being named after trees.

## Catholic revival and growth of Protestantism in St. Louis

The transfer of Louisiana to the United States caused the Catholic Church in St. Louis considerable financial hardship; prior to the transfer, the Spanish government had paid all church operating expenses, and so no tithing was necessary among the citizens. Thus the resident priest of St. Louis left in 1804, and local Catholics were given periodic services by a traveling priest from Ste. Genevieve roughly six times a year until 1818. In spite of the problems, baptisms continued at the church in St. Louis, with roughly 400 whites and 100 blacks baptized between 1804 and 1816.

In 1815, Louis William Valentine Dubourg, the apostolic administrator of New Orleans, was assigned to the bishopric of the newly created Diocese of Louisiana and the Floridas (which had been separated from the Diocese of New Orleans, and he established his episcopal see in St. Louis. Upon his arrival in early January 1818, Bishop Dubourg ordered the demolition of the decayed log church built under Cruzat and replaced it with a brick church on the same church block. The new church, 135 by 40 feet in size, cost more than $24,000 and its interior was never completed, although the first mass was celebrated in it on December 25, 1819. Dubourg departed St. Louis to return to New Orleans permanently in 1822, but his recruitment of resident priests, establishment of a seminary, and the reconstruction of the church improved the standing of the Catholic Church in St. Louis. By 1826, a separate St. Louis diocese was created with Joseph Rosati named as the first bishop in 1827.

Protestants began to receive services in their homes led by itinerant ministers starting in the late 1790s, but most were quickly required to remove to American territory prior to the Louisiana Purchase. After the purchase, the Baptists organized a congregation in 1807 and built a log church in 1815 on Fee Fee Creek (well beyond St. Louis town limits). Only in 1818 was a Protestant church built within St. Louis, organized by Baptist missionary John Mason Peck with eleven members claiming membership in the First Baptist Church. Itinerant Methodist ministers also reached the town during the early years after the purchase, but only formed a congregation in 1821.

The third Protestant group to affect St. Louis was the Presbyterian Church, which was organized originally as a Bible reading society in 1811 by Charles Gratiot Sr., William C. Carr, and Stephen Hempstead (father of Edward Hempstead). Two Presbyterian missionaries preached in St. Louis in 1816, but it was only December 1817 before a church was organized. The fourth Protestant group to take root was the Episcopal Church, founded in 1825 when Thomas Horrell became the first rector of the Christ Church Episcopal Church. Regardless of the new churches and revival of Catholicism, however, most of the population was uninterested in organized religion or were agnostic.

## Early commerce and the Panic of 1819

The commerce of the town after the Louisiana Purchase remained focused on the fur trade; trade operations in St. Louis were led by the Chouteau family and its alliance with the Osages and by Manuel Lisa and his Missouri Fur Company. These early operations largely depended on trading posts near Indian villages, where Indians and some white trappers could exchange furs for goods. Benefiting from the expertise of these traders was the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which left St. Louis in May 1804, reached the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1805, and returned on September 23, 1806. The fur trade remained the basis of the wealth of elite St. Louis Creole families such as the Chouteaus well into the early 1820s.

Starting in the early 1810s with the growth of American families moving to St. Louis, brick buildings began to be built in the town. Architecture reflected the American style as well, with more frame houses and log buildings than the Creole style of the original village. American business practices also took hold, with signage and advertising of services on buildings present by about 1810. These early American and immigrant families began opening new businesses, including printing and banking, starting in the 1810s.

Among the early printers to settle in St. Louis was an Irish immigrant named Joseph Charless, who published the first newspaper west of the Mississippi, the *Missouri Gazette*, in St. Louis on July 12, 1808. Charless printed government proceedings, international news, birth and death notices, and his own editorials, but generally refused to print information about duels.

Also during the 1810s, St. Louis merchants began facing the problem of too little bullion currency and an increase in the supply of unreliable paper currency issued by banks in Kentucky and Ohio. To improve upon the de facto barter economy of St. Louis, in December 1816 a group of merchants formed the Bank of St. Louis, which was chartered by the territorial legislature and accepted furs as collateral. However, the bank failed as a result of mismanagement and fraud on the part of its cashier. In early 1817, another group of merchants formed the Bank of Missouri, which initially was successful and became a United States depository bank with $150,000 in guaranteed deposits. However, the Second Bank of the United States contracted its currency policy in late 1818, causing the Panic of 1819 and the eventual closure of the Bank of Missouri.

The effect of the Panic of 1819 and subsequent depression slowed commercial activity in St. Louis until the mid-1820s. By 1824 and 1825, however, St. Louis businesses began outfitting an increasing number of farmers going west, while other merchants supplied military forces going to western outposts. St. Louis also had increasing connections with eastern markets after the introduction of the steamboat; the first steamboat to arrive in St. Louis, the *Zebulon M. Pike*, docked on August 2, 1817. By the time of the economic recovery of the mid-1820s, steamboats were common on the Mississippi and at the St. Louis docks. Rapids north of the city made St. Louis the northernmost navigable port for many large riverboats, and the *Pike* and other ships soon transformed St. Louis into a bustling inland port.

## Antebellum economic expansion

Diversification in products available in St. Louis took place during the economic recovery, largely as a result of the new steamboat power. Confectioneries, jewelers, bookstores, musical instrument shops, lumber yards, and mortuaries all opened for the first time in the late 1820s and 1830s. Banking began to reestablish itself in the late 1830s with brokerage and insurance firms also offering deposits, until a banking crisis again forced liquidation of several companies in the early 1840s. Wholesalers also began to operate during the 1830s, supplying retail establishments from large company warehouses in the city. The city's Merchants Exchange, founded in 1836, was the first commodity-trading exchange in the United States. Also, the fur trade continued as a major commercial venture through the 1820s and into the 1830s.

After the Panic of 1819 and the economic depression, the fur trade had shifted from being based on trading with Indians and trappers to one based on directly trapping and shipping furs. Among the pioneers of this method was the company known as the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, which departed from St. Louis in April 1822 and included mountain men such as Jim Bridger, Jedediah Smith, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Jim Beckwourth, and Etienne Provost. The Rocky Mountain group eventually was forced from business by the American Fur Company, owned by John Jacob Astor, but the western fur trade remained headquartered in St. Louis. However, by the late 1830s and early 1840s, changes in fashion meant that beaver fur no longer was in demand, although St. Louis continued as a hub of buffalo hides and other furs.

As commercial trade resumed, so did construction and physical development of the city. The construction of the Old St. Louis County Courthouse in the late 1820s encouraged other growth, with an addition of western lots to Ninth Street and a new city hall adjacent to the river in 1833. Between 1833 and 1845, another 31 additions were made to the city, extending the western edge to 14th Street. The military post at Fort Bellefontaine (north of the city along the Missouri River) moved and expanded in 1826 to Jefferson Barracks, roughly ten miles south of St. Louis on the Mississippi River. In tandem, the army purchased 37 acres three miles south of the city to build an armory, prompting an industrial addition and railroad line south to Iron Mountain, Missouri. Another addition to the north of the city connected the town of Bremen, which was then annexed by St. Louis

The 1830s saw dramatic growth in the city's population: by 1830, the city population had increased to 5,832 from roughly 4,500 in 1820. By 1835, the city population reached 8,316, doubled by 1840 to 16,439, doubled again by 1845 to 35,390, and again by 1850 to 77,860. By 1850, St. Louis had become the largest U.S. city west of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and the second-largest port in the country, with a commercial tonnage exceeded only by New York City.

## Infrastructure improvements

In large part due to the rapid growth of the 1830s and 1840s, cholera became a significant problem in St. Louis. In December 1848, cholera cases were reported after several steamboats crowded with immigrants likely brought the disease. In the spring and summer of 1849, cholera spread throughout the population to epidemic proportions, killing nearly 5,000 people. As a solution to the cholera problem, city officials constructed a sewer system to drain sinkholes that had become clogged with sewage and garbage. In addition to the nearly 31 miles of sewer pipe built by 1861, cemeteries were removed to the outskirts of the town to Bellefontaine Cemetery and Calvary Cemetery to reduce groundwater contamination, and a large mill pond was drained in 1851.

In the same year of the 1849 cholera epidemic, a large fire broke out on a steamboat on the levee, spread to 23 other boats, then destroyed a large portion of the center city. Property losses were estimated at $6.1 million, while thousands became unemployed, hundreds lost their homes, and dozens of major businesses were destroyed. In response to the fire, streets were widened, the wharf was improved, and a new building code required structures to be built of stone or brick.

The levee also saw significant improvement during the 1850s. In the first half of the 19th century, a second channel developed in the Mississippi River at St. Louis. An island (nicknamed Bloody Island for the duels fought there) formed between the two channels, and a smaller island (Duncan's Island) developed below St. Louis. It was feared that the levee at St. Louis might be left high and dry, and federal assistance was sought and obtained with a grant of $50,000 in 1851. Using the engineering planning of Robert E. Lee, levees were constructed in 1852 and 1853 on the Illinois side to direct water toward Missouri and eliminate the second channel, joining Bloody Island to the land on the Illinois side and washing away Duncan's Island by 1855.

One final component of city infrastructure that was created before the Civil War was the city's water system. Originally, city residents used river water, hauled directly from the riverbank slightly north of the city. Starting in 1830, a pumping station and reservoir was built on top of a Native American mound, but it quickly became inadequate to the city's needs. In 1843 and 1845 the station and reservoir were expanded, but again proved inadequate. Four new reservoirs were built between 1849 and 1860, but prior to the Civil War, there was no significant improvement in water quality or supply.

## Education before the Civil War

Joseph Charless, printer of the *Missouri Gazette*, also published the first book in the Missouri Territory (about territorial laws) and operated a bookstore. In addition, most wealthy individuals in St. Louis also owned private book collections. However, a sizable proportion of adults remained illiterate.

Early schools in St. Louis were all fee-based and mostly conducted lessons in French. The first substantial educational effort came about under the authority of the Catholic Church, which in 1818 opened Saint Louis Academy, later renamed Saint Louis University, offering courses in divinity, philosophy, languages, and mathematics. However, the academy primarily catered to seminary students rather than the general public. Later, in the 1840s and 1850s, Catholic schools offered education to more than 3,000 students in at least ten parochial schools.

Public education in St. Louis began in 1838, when the city Board of Aldermen voted to levy a common lands income tax to support two elementary schools, known as North and South schools. A third school opened in 1841, called Benton School, offering instruction in basic writing, reading, and mathematics. Initially the schools required students to pay fees, but by 1847 tax levies allowed for free public education and expansion of the system. By 1854, the system had 27 schools and served nearly 4,000 students, in 1855 a high school was opened with considerable fanfare, and by 1860, nearly 12,000 students had enrolled in the St. Louis Public Schools. The district also opened a normal school in 1857, which later became Harris-Stowe State University.

## Slavery and racism in St. Louis

Missouri was admitted as a slave state in 1821. Many slaveholders had migrated to the territory from Kentucky and Tennessee, and settled with slaves along the central Missouri River, in an area that became known as "Little Dixie", as well as in the delta area of the Bootheel. Many free blacks and slaves lived and worked in St. Louis, as domestics, artisans, crew on the riverboats and laborers at the wharves.

After the admission of Missouri as a slave state, the owning and sale of slaves continued in St. Louis, although as the town grew, the percentage of the population held as slaves declined. The treatment of slaves in St. Louis as compared with other areas is unclear; some evidence suggests mild to harsh treatment, and it is clear that many slaves attempted to escape. Slave sales occurred usually through advertising in newspapers, with transactions conducted in hotels or private homes. Slaves often were held in the St. Louis jail prior to their movement to a particular farm or to a dealer. Many slaves worked on steamboats as crew or as laborers on the riverfront, and some escaped across the river to the free state of Illinois, continuing via the Underground Railroad to Canada. Some slaves also were hired out by their owners for farm or commercial work for periods of up to a year.

The availability of work meant that slaves could earn wages, and some were able to save money to purchase their freedom or that of relatives. One such example was that of John Berry Meachum, a cooper who purchased his own freedom, then worked to purchase his family and others from slavery. Meachum later became a Baptist minister and founded the African Baptist Church of St. Louis. Other slaves were freed via manumission after some period of service, such as was the case of a slave named Francis who was emancipated by Auguste Chouteau in 1826. From 1828 to 1865, just under 1,000 slaves gained their freedom, out of a total population of slaves never higher than 2,600.

In addition to the practice of manumission and self-emancipation, some slaves gained their freedom through freedom suits, lawsuits allowed under an 1824 Missouri state law designed to protect free blacks from enslavement by allowing them to sue for their freedom. Among the earliest of these freedom suits was brought by the Scypion family. Marie Jean Scypion, an enslaved half Indian, should technically have been freed at the beginning of Spanish rule in the 1760s with the O'Reilly decree; in 1805, her daughter Marguerite sued for freedom and initially won in court, a decision which was reversed by the Missouri Territorial Court. After statehood, Tayon sold the family to Jean Pierre Chouteau (brother of Auguste Chouteau). In 1825, Marguerite again filed a freedom suit, this time under the 1824 Missouri state law. After several appeals, including to the Missouri Supreme Court and the U.S. Supreme Court, Marguerite Scypion won her case in 1836, freeing the Scypion family and ending Indian slavery in Missouri.

In 1846, the slaves Dred Scott and his wife Harriet sued for freedom, in a case heard at the Old Courthouse, based on their having traveled and lived with their master in free states. Although the state ruled in his favor, an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in an 1857 ruling against them. The Supreme Court ruled that slaves could not be counted as citizens. This decision overturned the basis of the Missouri Compromise. The year of the decision, both of the Scotts were emancipated by their master's family.

Including the Scypion family case and the Dred Scott case, three hundred and one freedom suits were filed in St. Louis courts from 1814 to 1860. However, slaves gained freedom in less than half of them.

## Immigration and nativism in St. Louis

During the economic expansion of the 1830s, Irish and German immigration to St. Louis increased substantially. In particular, the writings of Gottfried Duden encouraged German immigration to the Midwest, and St. Louis in particular. By the early 1830s the German population of St. Louis had become significant enough to be regarded as a bloc by the Americans and French. Indeed, on a single day in December 1833 more than 500 immigrants from Germany arrived in the town. German immigration continued in the 1840s and 1850s, particularly after the failure of the Revolutions of 1848.

The second major group of pre-Civil War immigrants came from Ireland, including both Catholic and Protestant Irish. Although in other regions Irish immigrants were equated with poverty during the 1820s and 1830s, the early Irish community of St. Louis in the 1830s often included wealthy, politically powerful and influential members, such as John Mullanphy, Alexander McNair, and John O'Fallon. However, starting in the mid-1840s large numbers of Irish fled poverty abroad and arrived in St. Louis with little money or skills. Many of these Irish were motivated by the Great Famine of 1845–1846 and the failed Irish uprising of 1848.

Nativist sentiment increased in St. Louis during the late 1840s, leading to a mob attack in 1844 on Saint Louis University and attacks on naturalized citizens in the April 1844 election. However, the increased number of naturalized citizens led to the election of Democratic mayors supportive of the immigrants in 1847, 1848 and 1849. In spite of this, nativist sentiments led to another riot in 1849, in which nativist mobs attacked immigrants and their property. In a third riot that took place in 1852, German immigrants were accused of attacking nativist Whig Party supporters at a polling place in Soulard Market For its part, the Whig Party was supported with the wealthy Creoles and Irish leaders of St. Louis, and Germans had accused the Whigs of discrimination.

However, the worst nativist riot in St. Louis, which took place in 1854, combined the problems of anti-immigration and the slavery issue. Thomas Hart Benton, who had formerly been a Missouri senator, was running for reelection as U.S. representative of Missouri's 1st congressional district. Benton was a solid member of the Democratic Party and was supported by newly naturalized and lower-class Germans and Irish. He faced Luther M. Kennett, who had garnered the support of the disintegrating Whig Party (including the wealthy St. Louis elite class) and the nativist Know Nothing movement. On August 7, 1854, election day in St. Louis, a nativist mob began attacking Democratic Irish voters and Irish property in south St. Louis. The Irish began fighting back, when the riot moved to the riverfront where dockworkers began fighting the nativist mob, which had grown in size to several thousand. The Irish and dockworkers retreated to boarding houses, at which point the nativists began attacking Saint Louis University and German newspaper offices. The St. Louis police department and local militia eventually quelled the riot, though not before 10 were killed, 33 wounded, and 93 buildings were damaged. Regulations on elections (such as closing saloons on election day) prevented fighting in future elections in 1856 and 1858.

## St. Louis in the American Civil War

Militarily, the Civil War (1861–1865) barely touched St. Louis; the area saw only a few skirmishes in which Union forces prevailed. But the war shut down trade with the South, devastating the city's economy. Missouri was nominally a slave state, but its economy did not depend on slavery, and it never seceded from the Union. The areas of "Little Dixie" and the border with Kansas were a base for insurgency and guerrilla activity during the war. The state also had people who resisted slavery, as with the foundation of the militant Knights of Liberty in 1846. The arsenal at St. Louis was used during the war to construct ironclad ships for the Union.

* Hodes, Frederick A. (2009). *Rising on the River: St. Louis 1822 to 1850, Explosive Growth from Town to City*. The Patrice Press. ISBN 978-1-880397-67-1.
* Primm, James Neal (1998). *Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764–1980*. Missouri History Museum Press. ISBN 978-1-883982-25-6.

## Further reading


title: Hold Me Now (album)

abstract: Hold Me Now is a studio album by Australian-born Irish singer and composer Johnny Logan. The album includes his 1987 Eurovision Song Contest winning song Hold Me Now and a new version of his 1980 Eurovision winning song What's Another Year?.

text:
# Hold Me Now (album)

***Hold Me Now*** is a studio album by Australian-born Irish singer and composer Johnny Logan. The album includes his 1987 Eurovision Song Contest winning song *Hold Me Now* and a new version of his 1980 Eurovision winning song *What's Another Year?*.

## Track listing

LP/Cassette

Side A
| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Hold Me Now" | Johnny Logan | 3:03 |
| 2. | "Stay" | Logan | 3:40 |
| 3. | "Foolish Love" | Logan | 3:07 |
| 4. | "When Your Woman Cries" | Dominic Bugatti, Frank Musker | 3:39 |
| 5. | "I'm Not In Love" | Eric Stewart, Graham Gouldman | 4:41 |

Side B
| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Helpless Heart" | Paul Brady | 3:45 |
| 2. | "What's Another Year? (New Version)" | Shay Healy | 3:12 |
| 3. | "Heartbroken Man" | Logan, Trevor Knight | 4:00 |
| 4. | "Living a Lie" | Logan, Healy |  |
| 5. | "Such A Lady" | Logan | 3:23 |

## Charts

| Chart (1987) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart | 49 |
| German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) | 18 |
| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100) | 59 |
| Norwegian Albums (VG-lista) | 12 |
| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) | 23 |
| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) | 25 |
| UK Albums (OCC) | 83 |

## InfoBox

| Hold Me Now | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Johnny Logan | |
| Released | July 1987 |
| Genre |  |
| Label | Epic Records |
| Producer | Bill Whelan |
| Johnny Logan chronology | |
| *Straight from the Heart*
(1985) ***Hold Me Now***
(1987) *Mention My Name*
(1989) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *Hold Me Now* | |
| 1. "Hold Me Now"
Released: April 1987 2. "I'm Not in Love"
Released: 1987 | |
|  | |


title: Hold Me Tight (Johnny Nash song)

abstract: "Hold Me Tight" is a song written and performed by Johnny Nash. It was featured on his 1968 album Hold Me Tight, was arranged by Arthur Jenkins and produced by Jenkins and Nash. The single's B-side, "Cupid", reached #6 on the UK Singles Chart, #38 on the adult contemporary chart, and #39 on the U.S. pop chart in 1969.

text:
# Hold Me Tight (Johnny Nash song)

"**Hold Me Tight**" is a song written and performed by Johnny Nash. It was featured on his 1968 album *Hold Me Tight*, was arranged by Arthur Jenkins and produced by Jenkins and Nash.

The single's B-side, "Cupid", reached #6 on the UK Singles Chart, #38 on the adult contemporary chart, and #39 on the U.S. pop chart in 1969.

## Chart performance

"Hold Me Tight" reached #1 on the Canadian chart. In the US, it went to #5 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #7 on the Cash Box Top 100 as well as #20 on the adult contemporary chart. It peaked at #21 on the U.S. R&B chart and #5 in the UK Singles Chart, all in 1968. The song ranked #37 on *Billboard* magazine's Top 100 singles of 1968 and #47 in Canada.

## Other charting versions

* The tune was also used in Score commercials.

## InfoBox

| "Hold Me Tight" | |
| --- | --- |
| Single by Johnny Nash | |
| from the album  *Hold Me Tight* | |
| B-side | "Cupid" |
| Released | July 1968 (1968-07) |
| Genre |  |
| Length | 2:50 |
| Label | JAD |
| Songwriter(s) | Johnny Nash |
| Producer(s) | Arthur Jenkins, Johnny Nash |
| Johnny Nash singles chronology | |
| "(I'm So) Glad You're My Baby"
(1967) "**Hold Me Tight**"
(1968) "You Got Soul"
(1968) | |


title: Sabriya (TV series)

abstract: Sabriya is an Uzbek TV-series that was premiered on 30 November 2021 on SevimliTV.

text:
# Sabriya (TV series)

**Sabriya** is an Uzbek TV-series that was premiered on 30 November 2021 on SevimliTV.

## Plot

## Cast

| Actors | Characters |
| --- | --- |
| Shirinabonu Sotvoldiyeva | Sabriya |
| Jahongir Abdumuminovich | Doston |
| Anvar Azimov | Mahmud the rich |
| Gulhumor Abdullayev | Saida |
| Nasiba Tursunova | Shaydo |
| Fathula Ma'sudov | Ismoil |
| Gavhkhar Zakirova | Mahmud's wife |
| Ma'rufkhon Muhammedov | Sirojiddin |
| Zufar Raimov | Ibrohim |
| Nodirbek Uzoqov | Nizom |

## General view

| Season | | Number of Episodes | | Original release dates | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Start date | | End date | Channel |
|  | 1 | 37 | | 30 November 2021 | 21 January 2022 | Sevimli TV |

## Episodes

| Episode | Directed by | Screenplay by | Release date | Ratings (TOTAL) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Episode 1 | Nasiba Tursunova | Utkirbek Kakhorov | 30 November 2021 | 4.33 |
| Episode 2 | | | 1 December 2021 | 3.75 |
| Episode 3 | | | 2 December 2021 | 4.74 |
| Episode 4 | | | 3 December 2021 | 4.90 |
| Episode 5 | | | 6 December 2021 | 3.13 |
| Episode 6 | | | 7 December 2021 | 3.66 |
| Episode 7 | | | 8 December 2021 | 4.26 |
| Episode 8 | | | 9 December 2021 | 4.38 |
| Episode 9 | | | 10 December 2021 | 4.64 |
| Episode 10 | | | 13 December 2021 | 4.93 |
| Episode 11 | | | 14 December 2021 | 4.90 |
| Episode 12 | | | 15 December 2021 | 5.95 |
| Episode 13 | | | 16 December 2021 | 5.90 |
| Episode 14 | | | 17 December 2021 | 5.70 |
| Episode 15 | | | 20 December 2021 | 3.80 |
| Episode 16 | | | 21 December 2021 | 4.00 |
| Episode 17 | | | 22 December 2021 | 4.80 |
| Episode 18 | | | 23 December 2021 | 4.10 |
| Episode 19 | | | 24 December 2021 | 4.40 |
| Episode 20 | | | 27 December 2021 | 4.00 |
| Episode 21 | | | 28 December 2021 | 4.20 |
| Episode 22 | | | 29 December 2021 | 3.60 |
| Episode 23 | | | 30 December 2021 | 2.90 |
| Episode 24 | | | 4 January 2022 | 4.75 |
| Episode 25 | | Durdona Urokova | 5 January 2022 | 2.97 |
| Episode 26 | | 6 January 2022 | 4.29 |
| Episode 27 | | 7 January 2022 | 3.81 |
| Episode 28 | | 10 January 2022 | 4.27 |
| Episode 29 | | 11 January 2022 | 5.03 |
| Episode 30 | | 12 January 2022 | 4.50 |
| Episode 31 | | 13 January 2022 | 3.04 |
| Episode 32 | | 14 January 2022 | 2.93 |
| Episode 33 | | 17 January 2022 | 3.12 |
| Episode 34 | | 18 January 2022 | 3.42 |
| Episode 35 | | 19 January 2022 | 4.68 |
| Episode 36 | | 20 January 2022 | 4.04 |
| Episode 37. Final | | 21 January 2022 | 3.70 |

## Reviews

Saida Mirziyoyeva, deputy chairwoman of the Board of Trustees of the Public Foundation for Support and Development of National Mass media, Member of the Commission on Ensuring Gender Equality of the Republic of Uzbekistan, said,

> *"I will use my viewer's right to express my attitude towards the drama Sabriya. I'm sure there isn't a single woman among the creators of the drama. Because I've never seen so much hate for women in a script in any movie. It is not clear why the plot contains complete and correct instructions for taking drugs? In this case, no consequences are presented. The most unpleasant and disgusting are the scenes of violence against women; and as the only way out of the situation - to commit suicide. "Excellent" recommendation!*
>
> *Feature films are one of the ways to shape the modern agenda in society. We are making incredible efforts to ensure that gender equality and respect for women will become the norm in our society. Each of us, the owner of the audience, has a great responsibility for this word. However, such serials hinder the development of gender equality. There are no solid thoughts in them, only painful fantasies about the life of Uzbekistan.*
>
> *Our women do not deserve such an attitude from the cinema. Neither private nor general!"*

Amira Rashidova, one of the producers of Sevimli TV, commented

> *“Only one trailer was distributed. In a joint trailer, a drug addict tries to inflict violence on a woman. In this trailer, the director filmed the episode without blood, body exposure, and physical violence. No explicit violence or vulgar scenes are shown. According to the scenario, the criminal in the same episode receives punishment for his actions. We don't live in a time where we can't show bad people, they are still exist. Many scenes of the series are taken from real life.*
>
> *I am against all forms of violence against women.*
>
> *SevimliTV marks the series as "+16" and It is enough to watch 3 more minutes to understand the end of the movie before the accusations of "immorality". This series is the first work of the director Nasiba Tursunova. Like many filmmakers, SevimliTV supported her and expressed its confidence. We are considering collaborating with her in the future, I am against offending the artist..."*

Firdavs Abdukhalikov, General Director of Uzbekistan Cinematography Agency, said:

> *"Sabriya series, which has been broadcast on SevimliTV channel, is really not very artistic and content. Despite being one of the director's first works of art, it turned out that the television's arts council did not provide the necessary advice and practical assistance.."*

## InfoBox

| *Sabriya* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Genre | Drama |
| Screenplay by | Utkirbek Kakhorov and Durdona Urokova |
| Directed by | Tursunova Nasiba |
| Starring | * Shirinabonu Sotvoldiyeva * Jahongir Abdumuminovich * Nasiba Tursunova * Fatkhulla Masudov * Gulkhumor Abdullayeva |
| Theme music composer | Khamdam Sobirov |
| Opening theme | Dildora Niyozova |
| Ending theme | Ozoda Nursaidova |
| Composer | Khamdam Sobirov |
| Country of origin | Uzbekistan |
| Original language | Uzbek |
| No. of seasons | 1 |
| No. of episodes | 37 |
| Production | |
| Producer | Davlat Rashidov |
| Production locations | Tashkent and Tashkent Region |
| Running time | 40 mins |
| Production company | Sevimli TV |
| Original release | |
| Release | 30 November 2021 (2021-11-30) <br>23 January 2022 (2022-01-23) |


title: Saadet III Giray

abstract: Saadet III Giray was briefly khan of the Crimean Khanate between the second and third reigns of Selim I Giray. Oddly, he did not visit Crimea during his reign. He was the son of Kyrym Giray, one of the many sons of Selâmet I Giray. His brother Haci II Giray was briefly khan between the first and second reigns of Selim I Giray. Saadet had been nureddin under his cousin Murad Giray who ruled between the first and second reigns of Selim I. In 1691 Selim I abdicated and proposed his cousin Saadat as a replacement. Saadet chose as kalga and nureddin Devlet and Fetikh Giray. Saadet, who was in Istanbul at this time, was immediately ordered to raise an army to fight the Austrians. He marched up the west shore of the Black Sea and forced the reluctant Budjak Horde to join him. The other Crimean and Nogai nobles were also reluctant. Devlet planned to betray him and was removed. Marching across Romania, he severely punished troops who abused the local population. Due to overlong preparations he arrived late at the Battle of Slankamen where the Turks were defeated. He was removed from office in December and exiled to Yambol in Bulgaria, and later to Rhodes, where he died. He was followed by Safa Giray of Crimea who also had a short reign. After Safa, Selim became khan for the third time.

text:
# Saadet III Giray

**Saadet III Giray** (reigned **1691**, lived 1645–1695, крым. III Saadet Geray, ٣سعادت كراى;) was briefly khan of the Crimean Khanate between the second and third reigns of Selim I Giray. Oddly, he did not visit Crimea during his reign. He was the son of Kyrym Giray, one of the many sons of Selâmet I Giray. His brother Haci II Giray was briefly khan between the first and second reigns of Selim I Giray.

Saadet had been nureddin under his cousin Murad Giray who ruled between the first and second reigns of Selim I. In 1691 Selim I abdicated and proposed his cousin Saadat as a replacement. Saadet chose as kalga and nureddin Devlet and Fetikh Giray (Devlet had been kalga since 1684 and became khan Devlet II Giray in 1699). Saadet, who was in Istanbul at this time, was immediately ordered to raise an army to fight the Austrians. He marched up the west shore of the Black Sea and forced the reluctant Budjak Horde to join him. The other Crimean and Nogai nobles were also reluctant. Devlet planned to betray him and was removed. Marching across Romania, he severely punished troops who abused the local population. Due to overlong preparations he arrived late at the Battle of Slankamen (19 August 1691) where the Turks were defeated. He was removed from office in December and exiled to Yambol in Bulgaria, and later to Rhodes (an Aegean island), where he died. He was followed by Safa Giray of Crimea who also had a short reign. After Safa, Selim became khan for the third time.

## Sources

* Henry Hoyle Howorth, *History of the Mongols*, 1880, Part 2, p. 565
* Олекса Гайворонский «Созвездие Гераев». Симферополь, 2003.
* In the absence of a proper source in English, this is mostly extracted from the Russian Wikipedia which apparently follows Gaivoronsky. Howorth is old and has only one paragraph.


title: Hochfrottspitze

abstract: The Hochfrottspitze is a 2,649-metre-high (8,691 ft) mountain, made of main dolomite, in the Allgäu Alps near Oberstdorf in Germany and the highest German mountain in the Allgäu Alps. The border with Austria runs along its ridge. Together with the Trettachspitze and Mädelegabel, the Hochfrottspitze forms the famous triumvirate of peaks on the main crest of the Allgäu Alps. The busy Heilbronn Way runs past it to the south and east, about 100–150 metres below the summit. In spite of that, the summit is rarely climbed because the routes to it are challenging. Climbers leave the Heilbronn Way at the wind gap of the Bockkarscharte and ascend from the south following a faint path through broken rubble and schrofen terrain with climbs of UIAA grade I to the start of the vertical summit face which is an exposed grade II+ climb. Somewhat simpler is the western approach from the Waltenberger Haus: this follows the route to the Bockarscharte; it then leaves the path after 20 minutes to climb up steep gullies to the arête of the Mountains of Good Hope. It continues over the scree-covered western ridge, trackless in places, up steps, along railings and climbing sections up to grade I to the summit. Another alternative is the ridge crossing from the Mädelegabel to Hochfrottspitze. The wind gap between the two peaks can be climbed directly from the Schwarzmilzferner. The mountain was first climbed in 1869 by Hermann von Barth.

text:
# Hochfrottspitze

The **Hochfrottspitze** is a 2,649-metre-high (8,691 ft) mountain, made of main dolomite, in the Allgäu Alps near Oberstdorf in Germany and the highest German mountain in the Allgäu Alps. The border with Austria runs along its ridge.

Together with the Trettachspitze and Mädelegabel, the Hochfrottspitze forms the famous triumvirate of peaks on the main crest of the Allgäu Alps. The busy Heilbronn Way (*Heilbronner Weg*) runs past it to the south and east, about 100–150 metres below the summit. In spite of that, the summit is rarely climbed because the routes to it are challenging. Climbers leave the Heilbronn Way at the wind gap of the *Bockkarscharte* and ascend from the south following a faint path through broken rubble and schrofen terrain with climbs of UIAA grade I to the start of the vertical summit face which is an exposed grade II+ climb. Somewhat simpler is the western approach from the Waltenberger Haus: this follows the route to the *Bockarscharte*; it then leaves the path after 20 minutes to climb up steep gullies (grade I) to the arête of the Mountains of Good Hope (*Berge der guten Hoffnung*). It continues over the scree-covered western ridge, trackless in places, up steps, along railings and climbing sections up to grade I to the summit. Another alternative is the ridge crossing from the Mädelegabel to Hochfrottspitze (exposed grade II climb). The wind gap between the two peaks can be climbed directly from the Schwarzmilzferner.

The mountain was first climbed in 1869 by Hermann von Barth.

## Sources

* Thaddäus, Steiner (2007). *Allgäuer Bergnamen* (in German) (3rd ed.). Fink Kunstverlag Josef. ISBN 9783898703895.
* Thaddäus Steiner: *Die Flurnamen der Gemeinde Oberstdorf im Allgäu*, München, Selbstverlag des Verbandes für Flurnamenforschung in Bayern, 1972
* Seibert, Dieter (2004). *Allgäuer Alpen und Ammergauer Alpen alpin* (in German). ISBN 3763311262.
* Alpenvereinskarte 1:25,000, Sheet 2/1, *Allgäuer- Lechtaler Alpen, West*

## InfoBox

| Hochfrottspitze | |
| --- | --- |
| The Hochfrottspitze from the ascent to the Mädelegabel | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 2,649 m (8,691 ft) |
| Prominence | 203 m Socktalscharte Hohes Licht |
| Isolation | 2.3 km Hohes Licht |
| Coordinates | 47°17′50″N 10°17′37″E / 47.29722°N 10.29361°E / 47.29722; 10.29361 |
| Geography | |
| Hochfrottspitzeon the border of Bavaria, Germany and Tyrol, Austria | |
| Parent range | Central ridge, Allgäu Alps |
| Geology | |
| Mountain type | Main Dolomite |
| Climbing | |
| First ascent | 1869 by Hermann von Barth |


title: History of a Feeling

abstract: History of a Feeling is the fifth studio album by American singer-songwriter Madi Diaz, released on August 27, 2021, through Anti-. Diaz co-produced the album with Andrew Sarlo, which follows seven years after her previous studio album, Phantom (2014). It received positive reviews from critics.

text:
# History of a Feeling

***History of a Feeling*** is the fifth studio album by American singer-songwriter Madi Diaz, released on August 27, 2021, through Anti-. Diaz co-produced the album with Andrew Sarlo, which follows seven years after her previous studio album, *Phantom* (2014). It received positive reviews from critics.

## Background

Diaz began writing the album in 2018 after a break-up.

## Critical reception

Professional ratings
| Aggregate scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| Metacritic | 80/100 |
| Review scores | |
| Source | Rating |
| AllMusic |  |
| *Mojo* |  |
| *Pitchfork* | 7.5/10 |
| *Uncut* | 8/10 |
| *Under the Radar* | 7.5/10 |

*History of a Feeling* received a score of 80 out of 100 on review aggregator Metacritic based on five critics' reviews, indicating "generally favorable" reception. *Mojo* called it "gorgeous and achingly candid", while *Uncut* felt that "Diaz deftly carries the torch, fusing stripped-down, bleeding-heart acoustic meditations with bursts of fiery instrumentation, her glossy voice at once tender and insistent, rhythmically narrating her loveworn journey with precise, clever turns of phrase". Marcy Donelson of AllMusic characterized it as a "notably personal and forthright set of songs" that concern "a painful breakup, issues of identity surrounding the transitioning of her former partner, and even the centering of the events, which tended to relegate Diaz to a bystander role".

Reviewing the album for *Pitchfork*, Shaad D'Souza described it as "a spare, unvarnished, and occasionally volatile style of indie rock that feels in step with the newly sharpened edge to her lyricism", with D'Souza writing that each song is "driven by a strong, indelible vocal melody memorable and polished enough to sit on a far more commercial record". *Under the Radar*'s Caleb Campbell found it to be "unrepentantly dramatic and gorgeously messy" and "a concerted exorcism of all of Diaz's rage, resentment, and sadness".

## Track listing

*History of a Feeling* track listing
| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Rage" |  | 1:49 |
| 2. | "Man in Me" |  | 4:48 |
| 3. | "Crying in Public" |  | 4:00 |
| 4. | "Resentment" | * Diaz * Floyd * Wrabel | 2:53 |
| 5. | "Think of Me" |  | 3:30 |
| 6. | "Woman in My Heart" |  | 2:59 |
| 7. | "Nervous" |  | 2:46 |
| 8. | "Forever" |  | 4:38 |
| 9. | "History of a Feeling" |  | 3:19 |
| 10. | "New Person, Old Place" |  | 4:06 |
| 11. | "Do It Now" | * Diaz * Kritzstein | 3:27 |
| Total length: | | | 38:15 |

## Charts

Chart performance for *History of a Feeling*
| Chart (2021) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| UK Americana Albums (OCC) | 32 |

## InfoBox

| History of a Feeling | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Madi Diaz | |
| Released | August 27, 2021 (2021-08-27) |
| Genre | Indie rock |
| Length | 38:15 |
| Label | Anti- |
| Producer |  |
| Madi Diaz studio album chronology | |
| *Phantom*
(2014) ***History of a Feeling***
(2021) *Weird Faith*
(2024) | |


title: History of a Heart

abstract: History of a Heart is a 1951 Mexican drama film directed by Julio Bracho and starring Rosario Granados, Albert Carrier and Alma Delia Fuentes.

text:
# History of a Heart

***History of a Heart*** (Spanish:***Historia de un corazón***) is a 1951 Mexican drama film directed by Julio Bracho and starring Rosario Granados, Albert Carrier and Alma Delia Fuentes.

## Cast

1. Ibarra p.266

## Bibliography

* Jesús Ibarra. *Los Bracho: tres generaciones de cine mexicano*. UNAM, 2006.

## InfoBox

| History of a Heart | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Julio Bracho |
| Written by |  |
| Produced by | Jesús Grovas |
| Starring |  |
| Cinematography | Raúl Martínez Solares |
| Edited by | Gloria Schoemann |
| Music by | Manuel Esperón |
| Production<br>company | Cinematográfica Grovas |
| Release date | * 22 August 1951 (1951-08-22) |
| Running time | 105 minutes |
| Country | Mexico |
| Language | Spanish |


abstract: History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America is an account published by the French Huguenot Jean de Léry in 1578 about his experiences living in a Calvinist colony in the Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. After the colony dissolved, de Léry spent two months living with the Tupinambá Indians.

text:
# History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil

***History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America*** (French: *Histoire d'un voyage fait en la terre de Brésil*; Latin: *Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America Dicitur*) is an account published by the French Huguenot Jean de Léry in 1578 about his experiences living in a Calvinist colony in the Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. After the colony dissolved, de Léry spent two months living with the Tupinambá Indians.

## Historical context

Brazil was the first area of the Americas explored by the French. At the time of Jean de Léry's *History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America*, the French and the Portuguese were in competition for control of the resources of Brazil. While reports of cannibalism among the indigenous people were widespread, interactions with the natives showed that they were friendly. At the time, it was common practice to use Europeans who had spent time with the indigenous peoples as interpreters to help the Europeans communicate with the natives. In the years preceding de Léry's writing of *History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America*, the Portuguese had begun their effort to completely colonize Brazil, so the influence of the French was fading, though pockets of French control and influence still existed in Brazil. This fading influence coincided with the Portuguese's exploration of the Amazon river delta, though trade between the people of Brazil and the English and the Dutch was also increasing. A product of the competition for control of the lands of Brazil between the French and the Portuguese in Brazil was the creation of tribal alliances, with the Tupinamba, the group referred to in *History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America*, siding with the French against the Tupiniquim, who allied themselves with the Portuguese. In this era of first contacts, the understanding of the indigenous peoples were being informed by the accounts of early explorers like de Léry and the Portuguese explorers, so much of what was known to new arrivals about the indigenous peoples came from reports like de Léry's. These other accounts had some thematic similarities to de Léry's, such as the usage of tribe names to describe the people specifically, or the frequent use of gender-indicating nouns like “man” or “woman”. Thus, de Léry was writing in a different historical context from those accounts emerging from Africa, which emphasized racial elements more than they emphasized gender or non-racial elements.

## About Léry

Jean de Léry was born to an upper-class family in 1534 in Margelle (Bourgogne), France. He was well-educated; he studied theology in Geneva whilst working as a shoe-maker. Léry was alive during the Wars of Religion time-period in France between the Protestants and the Catholics. It was during this time that the Genevan church was recruiting Frenchmen to be trained as missionaries of the Reformed Gospel. Léry joined this group but instead of returning to France, in November 1556, he and a group of thirteen Calvinist ministers were sent to Brazil. They were to create the first Protestant mission in the New World. Upon his return to France in 1558, he got married but it is unknown whether or not he had children. He returned to Geneva to further his ministerial studies and became a Protestant minister near Lyon. He also joined Protestant troops in the French religious wars where he used knowledge he gained from his expeditions in Brazil to help him and other soldiers to survive. In 1613, he died of the plague at the age of 79.

## Synopsis

The book has 22 chapters, with Chapter 1 discussing the motive behind the voyage to Brazil and Chapters 2-5 describing the sights and events that occurred during the voyage to Brazil. Chapters 6-20 consist of Léry describing the land of Brazil, the physical description of the indigenous people, and the behaviors and customs of the indigenous people. Lastly, Chapters 21 and 22 recount the departure from Brazil and the trip back to France. The book contains detailed descriptions of the plants, animals, and indigenous people in the New World for the French.

## Themes

### The Tupinamba physical constitution

Léry describes the physical characteristics of the Tupinamba people and details the modifications they make to their bodies, as well as their comfortability with being completely nude. Lery describes the constitution of the average Tupinamba person:

> Not taller, fatter, or smaller in stature than we Europeans are; their bodies are neither monstrous, nor prodigious with respect to ours. In fact, they are stronger, more robust and well filled-out, more nimble, less subjected to disease; there are almost none among them who are lame; one eyed or disfigured

Léry goes on to describe that some individuals that he encountered lived well beyond one hundred years old (with respect that the Tupinamba people had a different Calendar than the Gregorian Calendar), and their elders are slow to develop grey or white hair. When describing the skin tone of the average Tupinamba person Lery states

> They are not particularly dark, but merely of tawny shade, like the Spanish or provencals

Léry then discusses how the Tupinamba people are completely comfortable with being naked, especially the women.

> We tried several times to give them dresses and shifts (as I have said we did for the men, who sometimes put them on) it has never been our power to make them wear clothes: to such a point were they resolved (and I think they have not changed their minds) not to allow anything at all on their bodies

### Bodily modifications

Much of the chapter is dedicated to describing various body modifications Lery witnessed among men and women of the Tupinamba nation including, but not limited to, tattoos and piercings. Lery states that men more often modify their bodies than women do. Lery describes a tradition of piercing the lower lip in young boys and inserting a bone an inch wide and that can be removed at any time. On this page he also describes how after birth, babies often have their noses pushed in to make their noses seem more attractive.

> However, our Americans, for whom the beauty of their children lies in being pug-nosed, have the noses of their children pushed in and crushed with the thumb as soon as they come out of their mother’s wombs.

### Tattoos

Tattoos are described as being made with the dye of the genipap fruit. Lery states that often people would blacken their legs and that the dye is to a degree waterproof and can take up to twelve days to wash off. Some of these painting are put over incisions they make on their skin that show how many people they have killed.

Léry also describes facial paintings. This process is noted to have involved feathers from hens, red dye from Brazilwood (he described how other tribes used other colored dyes from different objects), and boiling the feathers. A gum was used as an adhesive and the feathers were chopped up with iron tools they procured from the colonists. Once this process was complete these feathers were put all over the body. Lery described how in some accounts these feathers have led to a misconception in Europe that the Tupinamba were covered in hair, and he stated this is not the case and that naturally the Tupinamba did not have a lot of hair on their bodies. It is also mentioned that feathers from a Toucan were often placed in the front of the ear and attached with an adhesive gum by many women. Ostrich feathers are also said to have been attached along a cotton thread to make a decorative hip belt.

Léry states that Tupinamba people would regularly strip their bodies of hair which included eyebrows and eyelashes. Women would have their hair long, while men would typically shave their heads.

### Jewelry and necklaces

According to Léry, the Tupinamba people had different types of necklaces. He wrote about what the natives called a boure which was made with pieces of seashells that were polished on a sandstone which then were pierced and lined along a cotton string. Lery also notes that boure can be made with a type of 'black wood' that has a similar appearance to seashell boure. Women also made bracelets around their arms that were made of bones joined together with a gum.

### Civil order and everyday life

Léry describes the customs of the Tupinambá people, how the Tupinambá people live, and how they treat their guests. For the most part, Jean de Léry indicates that the Tupinambá people are peaceful, but rarely a fight breaks out between them that may end in a death. The family of the deceased then has the right to kill the murderer as the Tupinambá people believe in revenge, such as a life for a life.

Léry also recounts the living setup of the Tupinambá people. The houses are big and are made out of wood and pindo plants. Although families live in the same house, they are separated and have their own space, including land to plant crops. From time to time, the Tupinambá people would move their houses to a different location and when Jean de Léry asked for the reason why he was told that,

> “The change of air keeps them healthier, and that if they did other than what their grandfathers did, they would die immediately”

Jean de Léry then goes in depth on how women spin cotton in order to make the beds that the Tupinambá people sleep on. Based on the description Jean de Léry gives, the beds are hammocks that are set up outside the houses. In addition to spinning cotton, women also do the majority of the housework and make pottery.

### Cannibalism

Léry also describes an event that occurred to him regarding cannibalism. When he and his interpreter made a stop at one of the villages, he was greeted accordingly and realized that the Tupinamba people were in the midst of a celebration. This celebration consisted of dancing, cooking, and eating a prisoner they had killed earlier. Jean de Léry did not want to participate in the celebration and stayed at his bed alone. However, one of the Tupinamba people came and offered him the prisoner's foot, but since Jean de Léry's interpreter was not present, he thought they were threatening to eat him. By morning, Jean de Léry realized his error and was afraid for nothing.

### Treatment of guests

The customs of the Tupinambá people regarding how they treat guests consisted of seating their guests on a bed while the women wept in gratitude for their visit. During this, the head of the household makes an arrow and when he is done, he greets the guest and offers them food. The guests must eat on the ground since there are no tables. After the women are done weeping, they serve the guest fruit or other small gifts. If the guest desires to sleep there, their bed is hung among several fires to keep them warm. At the end of the visit, gifts are exchanged, which are usually small since the Tupinambá people travel by walking and do not have animals to carry cargo for them. Jean de Léry praises the treatment he has received from the Tupinambá people and even compares it to the French, as he states,

> “...I can’t help saying that the hypocritical welcomes of those over here who use slippery speech for consolidation of the afflicted is a far cry from the humanity of these people, whom nonetheless we call “‘barbarians’”

Lastly, Jean de Léry describes how the Tupinambá people make fires through the use of sticks only. He describes their method and how they deem it necessary to have fire with them at all times due to their fear of an evil spirit called Aygnan. He ends the chapter explaining that the Tupinambá people and the French get along well because they have a common enemy: the Portuguese.

### Illnesses and death

Jean de Léry describes how the Tupinambá people treat illnesses and how they handle deaths. If someone has a wound and bedridden, they are treated through suction and are not fed unless they explicitly ask for food. However, celebrations still continue as normal. The most dangerous disease that the Tupinambá people cannot treat is called pians and occurs through lechery. Jean de Léry compares it to smallpox and states that it affects the entire body and lasts for a lifetime.

If someone dies, there is great mourning as Jean de Léry compares the cries of women to, “the howling of dogs and wolves. The Tupinambá people comfort each other, remember the good deeds the deceased person had done, and sing in their memory. Mourning lasts half a day, until the Tupinambá proceed with burying the body in the ground with jewelry the person used to wear. Jean de Léry mentions how the Tupinambá people do not bury any valuable jewelry with dead bodies anymore since the French have arrived, perhaps due to past experiences with Europeans digging up graves for jewelry. On the first night the body is buried, the Tupinambá people have a feast on the grave of the deceased person and do this until they believe the body has fully decayed. The rationale behind this custom is that the Tupinambá people believe that Aygnan, the evil spirit mentioned before, is hungry and finds no other meat around, he will dig up the dead body and eat it. Thus, the celebration occurs for protection. Still, Jean de Léry finds this custom disrespectful and tried to convince the Tupinambá people not to do it through interpreters with little success. Lastly, the Tupinambá people place the plant called pindo used to build houses on graves as well so that they can recognize where their loved one was buried.

## Reception

*History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil* is regarded as a significant work in many fields. Reviewers of the text note the breadth of its scope and the varying opportunities for its use. It is fundamental in ethnographic studies and South American ecology. It also provides insight to history, colonizer and native languages, religion, and political theory. Because of its wide disciplinary coverage, it is a valuable source for historians and colonial scholars as well as geologists and biologists. For colonial historians, it contributes to a greater understanding of “the meaning and significance of the European conquest of the Americas” and helps to describe native people, their relationship with the Europeans, and the cognitive justifications of European domination. It also details “how Brazil was created out of a fusion of Indian, European (and later African) elements” and highlights larger historical themes.

Reviews of Janet Whatley's 1990 English translation of *History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil* are overwhelmingly favorable. There are two main components to most reviews beyond the text's significance: praise for the detail provided by de Léry and praise for Whatley's translation. De Léry describes the lives, culture, and rituals of the Tupinambá with “detailed thoroughness” and is seen as exceptional in “his surprising openness to an alien culture.” The great detail of de Léry's work and his willingness to intimately engage with the Tupinambá is only critiqued by his “naive comparisons between the savagery of the Indians and the savagery of the Europeans.” Whatley is noted as a “graceful” translator and “a stylistic marvel.” It is generally agreed that she was able to stay true to the charm of de Léry's prose and maintain the stylistic integrity of sixteenth-century French writing. Additions made by Whatley were also received well, as the inclusion of notes on references made by de Léry were helpful reading guides and aided in the placement of de Léry's writing in historical context.

## InfoBox

History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America
| Cover of the 1578 French Edition | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Jean de Léry |
| Original title | **Histoire d'un voyage fait en la terre de Brésil** |
| Language | French |
| Publisher | pour Antoine Chuppin |
| Publication date | 1578 |
| Publication place | France |


title: Saak Karapetyan

abstract: Saak Albertovich Karapetyan was a Russian deputy attorney general of Armenian descent. He was killed in a helicopter crash in October 2018 at age 58.

text:
# Saak Karapetyan

**Saak Albertovich Karapetyan** (28 March 1960 – 3 October 2018) was a Russian deputy attorney general of Armenian descent. He was killed in a helicopter crash in October 2018 at age 58.

## Biography

From 1983 to 1996, Karapetyan was in various positions as a prosecutor of the Rostov region: he started as an intern, reached the head of the department for supervision of the investigation of particularly important cases and operational investigative activities. From 1996 to 2000, he was a State Duma deputy from the Yabloko party, deputy chairman of the security committee.

## Death

Karapetyan died when a Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil crashed in Kostroma.

## InfoBox

| Saak Karapetyan | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Deputy Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation | |
| **In office**
2016  3 October 2018 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Saak Albertovich Karapetyan
(1960-03-28)28 March 1960
Sovetsky, Balko-Gruzskoe Rural Settlement, Yegorlyksky District, Rostov Oblast, RSFSR, USSR |
| Died | 3 October 2018(2018-10-03) (aged 58)
Kostroma, Russia |
| Political party | United Russia |
|  | |