title: Metafemale

abstract: A metafemale is a low viability Drosophila fruit fly with a female phenotype in which the ratio of X chromosomes to sets of autosomes (A) exceeds 1.0. For example: a fly with one X chromosome and two sets of autosomes is a normal male, a fly with two X chromosomes and two sets of autosomes is a normal female, and a fly with three X chromosomes and two sets of autosomes is a metafemale. American geneticist Calvin Bridges, who discovered the genic balance sex-determination system in Drosophila in 1921, used the terms "superfemale" and "supermale". German-American geneticist Curt Stern proposed the alternative terms "metafemale" and "metamale" in 1959.

text:
# Metafemale

A **metafemale** (or **superfemale**) is a low viability *Drosophila* fruit fly with a female phenotype in which the ratio of X chromosomes to sets of autosomes (A) exceeds 1.0. For example: a fly with one X chromosome and two sets of autosomes is a normal male, a fly with two X chromosomes and two sets of autosomes is a normal female, and a fly with three X chromosomes and two sets of autosomes (or four X chromosomes and three sets of autosomes) is a metafemale.

American geneticist Calvin Bridges, who discovered the genic balance sex-determination system in *Drosophila* in 1921, used the terms "superfemale" and "supermale". German-American geneticist Curt Stern proposed the alternative terms "metafemale" and "metamale" in 1959.


title: Fritzie Connally

abstract: Fritzie Lee Connally is a former professional baseball player. A right-handed third baseman, he played parts of two seasons in Major League Baseball for the Baltimore Orioles and Chicago Cubs. After a career at Baylor University, Connally was drafted by the Cubs in the 7th round of the 1980 June amateur entry draft. Connally worked his way through the minors for four seasons, getting a late-season call-up to the Cubs in 1983. He made his debut with the Cubs on September 9 as a pinch hitter for Tom Grant. St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Neil Allen struck him out. Connally had six more pinch-hit appearances that year, as well as one start at third base, but didn't get his first major league hit until his final at-bat of the year, October 2 against the Cardinals, when he was again called upon to pinch-hit for Grant. This time, Connally singled against Dave Rucker. He remained in the game to play third base in what would prove to be his last game as a Cub. On December 7, Connally was sent to the San Diego Padres as part of a three-team trade involving Craig Lefferts, Carmelo Martinez, and Scott Sanderson. Connally spent 1984 with the Las Vegas Stars, the Padres' AAA affiliate, before being traded February 7, 1985 to the Orioles for Vic Rodriguez. He made Baltimore's Opening Day roster and made most of his appearances at third base, also seeing time at first base and designated hitter. Connally's first two major league home runs were notably grand slams. The first came off the Toronto Blue Jays' Doyle Alexander, and the second came at the expense of the Seattle Mariners' Matt Young. Though he was batting.280 in early June, Connally fell into a 3-for-31 slump, dropping his average to.232, before being sent down to AAA Rochester for the remainder of the campaign. Connally retired after the 1985 season.

text:
# Fritzie Connally

**Fritzie Lee Connally** (born May 19, 1958) is a former professional baseball player. A right-handed third baseman, he played parts of two seasons in Major League Baseball for the Baltimore Orioles and Chicago Cubs.

After a career at Baylor University, Connally was drafted by the Cubs in the 7th round of the 1980 June amateur entry draft. Connally worked his way through the minors for four seasons, getting a late-season call-up to the Cubs in 1983. He made his debut with the Cubs on September 9 as a pinch hitter for Tom Grant. St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Neil Allen struck him out.

Connally had six more pinch-hit appearances that year, as well as one start at third base, but didn't get his first major league hit until his final at-bat of the year, October 2 against the Cardinals, when he was again called upon to pinch-hit for Grant. This time, Connally singled against Dave Rucker. He remained in the game to play third base in what would prove to be his last game as a Cub. On December 7, Connally was sent to the San Diego Padres as part of a three-team trade involving (among others) Craig Lefferts, Carmelo Martinez, and Scott Sanderson.

Connally spent 1984 with the Las Vegas Stars, the Padres' AAA affiliate, before being traded February 7, 1985 to the Orioles for Vic Rodriguez. He made Baltimore's Opening Day roster and made most of his appearances at third base, also seeing time at first base and designated hitter. Connally's first two major league home runs were notably grand slams. The first came off the Toronto Blue Jays' Doyle Alexander, and the second came at the expense of the Seattle Mariners' Matt Young. Though he was batting .280 in early June, Connally fell into a 3-for-31 slump, dropping his average to .232, before being sent down to AAA Rochester for the remainder of the campaign.

Connally retired after the 1985 season.

## Personal

Connally lives in Arlington, Texas.

## InfoBox

| Fritzie Connally | |
| --- | --- |
| **Third baseman** | |
| **Born:**  (1958-05-19) May 19, 1958<br>Bryan, Texas | |
| **Batted:** Right**Threw:** Right | |
| MLB debut | |
| September 9, 1983, for the Chicago Cubs | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| July 2, 1985, for the Baltimore Orioles | |
| MLB statistics | |
| Batting average | .221 |
| Home runs | 3 |
| Runs batted in | 15 |
|  | |
| Teams | |
|  | |


title: NGC 93

abstract: NGC 93 is an interacting spiral galaxy estimated to be about 260 million light-years away in the constellation of Andromeda. It was discovered by R. J. Mitchell in 1854. The galaxy is currently interacting with NGC 90 and has some signs of interacting with it. NGC 93 and NGC 90 form the interacting galaxy pair Arp 65.

text:
# NGC 93

**NGC 93** is an interacting spiral galaxy estimated to be about 260 million light-years away in the constellation of Andromeda. It was discovered by R. J. Mitchell in 1854. The galaxy is currently interacting with NGC 90 and has some signs of interacting with it.

NGC 93 and NGC 90 form the interacting galaxy pair Arp 65.

* Media related to NGC 93 at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| NGC 93 | |
| --- | --- |
| NGC 93 (top right) and its spiral companion to the left, NGC 90 | |
| Observation data (J2000 epoch) | |
| Constellation | Andromeda |
| Right ascension | 00h 22m 03.211s |
| Declination | +22° 24 29.15 |
| Redshift | 0.017946 |
| Heliocentric radial velocity | 5380 ± 10 km/s |
| Distance | 259.7 ± 68.1 Mly
(79.633 ± 20.875 Mpc) |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 14.34 |
| Characteristics | |
| Type | S |
| Apparent size (V) | 1.4' x 0.7' |
| Other designations | |
| UGC 209, MCG+04-02-012,PGC 1412 | |


title: Nicholas Bovell

abstract:
Nicholas Edward Anthony ("Nick") Bovell is an Olympic swimmer from Trinidad and Tobago. He is the younger brother of fellow Trinidad swimming Olympic George Bovell. Bovell represented his native country at the:
  - 2008 Olympics,
  - 2003 World Championships,
  - 2003 Pan American Games. He was also to swim at the 2004 Olympics; however, he was injured at the time of the Games and was unable to compete.

text:
# Nicholas Bovell

**Nicholas Edward Anthony ("Nick") Bovell** (born 11 May 1986) is an Olympic swimmer from Trinidad and Tobago. He is the younger brother of fellow Trinidad swimming Olympic George Bovell.

Bovell represented his native country at the:

He was also to swim at the 2004 Olympics; however, he was injured at the time of the Games and was unable to compete.

## InfoBox

Nick Bovell
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Nicholas Bovell |
| Nickname | Nick |
| Nationality | Trinidad and Tobago |
| Born | (1986-05-11) 11 May 1986 |
| Height | 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m) |
| Weight | 76 kg (168 lb) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Swimming |
| Medal record      Central American and Caribbean Games  2006 Catagena 50m Backstroke  2006 Catagena 100 Backstroke | |


title: Pogo pin

abstract: A pogo pin or spring-loaded pin is a type of electrical connector mechanism that is used in many modern electronic applications and in the electronics testing industry. They are used for their improved durability over other electrical contacts, and the resilience of their electrical connection to mechanical shock and vibration. The name pogo pin comes from the pin's resemblance to a pogo stick – the integrated helical spring in the pin applies a constant normal force against the back of the mating receptacle or contact plate, counteracting any unwanted movement which might otherwise cause an intermittent connection. This helical spring makes pogo pins unique, since most other types of pin mechanisms use a cantilever spring or expansion sleeve. A complete connection path requires a mating receptacle for the pin to engage, which is termed a target or land. A pogo target consists of a flat or concave metal surface, which unlike the pins, has no moving parts. Targets may be separate components in the complete connector assembly, or in the case of printed circuit boards, simply a plated area of the board. Spring-loaded pins are precision parts fabricated with a turning and spinning process which does not require a mold, thus allowing the production of smaller quantities at a lower cost.

text:
# Pogo pin

A **pogo pin** or **spring-loaded pin** is a type of electrical connector mechanism that is used in many modern electronic applications and in the electronics testing industry. They are used for their improved durability over other electrical contacts, and the resilience of their electrical connection to mechanical shock and vibration.

The name *pogo pin* comes from the pin's resemblance to a pogo stick  the integrated helical spring in the pin applies a constant normal force against the back of the mating receptacle or contact plate, counteracting any unwanted movement which might otherwise cause an intermittent connection. This helical spring makes pogo pins unique, since most other types of pin mechanisms use a cantilever spring or expansion sleeve.

A complete connection path requires a mating receptacle for the pin to engage, which is termed a *target* or *land*. A pogo target consists of a flat or concave metal surface, which unlike the pins, has no moving parts. Targets may be separate components in the complete connector assembly, or in the case of printed circuit boards, simply a plated area of the board.

Spring-loaded pins are precision parts fabricated with a turning and spinning process which does not require a mold, thus allowing the production of smaller quantities at a lower cost.

## Structure

A basic spring-loaded pin consists of 3 main parts: a *plunger*, *barrel*, and *spring*. When force is applied to the pin, the spring is compressed and the plunger moves inside the barrel. The shape of the barrel retains the plunger, stopping the spring from pushing it out when the pin is not locked in place.

In the design of electrical contacts, a certain amount of friction is required to hold a connector in place and retain the contact finish. However, high friction is undesirable because it increases stress and wear on the contact springs and housings. Thus, a precise normal force, typically around 1 newton, is required to generate this friction. Since a spring-loaded pin needs to have a slight gap between the plunger and barrel so that it can slide easily, momentary disconnections can happen when there is vibration or movement. In order to counter this, the plunger usually has a small tilt to ensure a continuous connection.

Many manufacturers have created their own proprietary variations on this design, most commonly by varying the interface between the plunger and spring. For example, a ball may be added between the two components, or the plunger may have an angled or countersunk tip.

## Materials

The plunger and barrel of pogo pins usually use brass or copper as a base material on which a thin layer of nickel is applied.

As common in electrical connectors, manufacturers often apply a gold plating that improves the durability and contact resistance.

The springs are usually made of copper alloys or spring steel.

## Applications

Spring-loaded connectors are used for a wide variety of applications, in both industrial and consumer electronics:

### Connector arrangement

When pogo pins are used in a connector, they are usually arranged in a dense array, connecting many individual nodes of two electrical circuits. They are commonly found in automatic test equipment like bed of nails testers, where they facilitate the rapid, reliable connection of the devices under test (DUTs). In one extremely high-density configuration, the array takes the form of a ring containing hundreds or thousands of individual pogo pins; this device is sometimes referred to as a *pogo tower*.

They can also be used for more permanent connections, for example, in the Cray-2 supercomputer.

When used in the highest-performance applications, pogo pins must be very carefully designed to allow not only high reliability across many mating/unmating cycles but also high-fidelity transmission of the electrical signals. The pins themselves must be hard, yet plated with a substance (such as gold) that provides for reliable contact. Within the body of the pin, the plunger must make good electrical contact with the body lest the higher-resistance spring carry the signal (along with the undesirable inductance that the spring represents). The design of pogo pins to be used in matched-impedance circuits is especially challenging; to maintain the correct characteristic impedance, the pins are sometimes arranged with one signal-carrying pin surrounded by four, five, or six grounded pins.

### Combination with magnets

Spring-loaded connectors may be combined with magnets to form a strong and reliable connection  a technique which has been employed extensively for consumer electronics such as 2-in-1 PCs and high-frequency data transfer. One notable example of this is Apple's MagSafe connector.

### Commercial products

Although often used as a generic name, *pogo pin* is a registered trademark of Everett Charles Technologies (ECT).


title: Hejbuty

abstract: Hejbuty is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wydminy, within Giżycko County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.

text:
# Hejbuty

**Hejbuty** \[xɛi̯ˈbutɨ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wydminy, within Giżycko County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.

## InfoBox

| Hejbuty | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Hejbuty | |
| Coordinates: 53°54′11″N 22°4′32″E / 53.90306°N 22.07556°E / 53.90306; 22.07556 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Warmian-Masurian |
| County | Giżycko |
| Gmina | Wydminy |


title: Mycetophagus melsheimeri

abstract: Mycetophagus melsheimeri is a species of hairy fungus beetle in the family Mycetophagidae. It is found in North America.

text:
# Mycetophagus melsheimeri

***Mycetophagus melsheimeri*** is a species of hairy fungus beetle in the family Mycetophagidae. It is found in North America.

## Further reading

* Lobl, I.; Smetana, A., eds. (2013). *Catalogue of Palaearctic Coleoptera, Volume 5: Tenebrionoidea*. Apollo Books. ISBN 978-90-04-26090-0.

## InfoBox

| *Mycetophagus melsheimeri* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Mycetophagidae |
| Genus: | *Mycetophagus* |
| Species: | ***M. melsheimeri*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Mycetophagus melsheimeri***<br>LeConte, 1856 | |
|


title: Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board

abstract: Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board is one of the 21 local boards of the Auckland Council, and is overseen by the council's Manukau ward councillors. The board is governed by seven board members elected at-large. The board's administrative area includes the suburbs Māngere Bridge, Māngere, Ōtāhuhu, and Favona, and covers areas south of the Manukau Harbour.

text:
# Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board

| Local Board Members | |
| --- | --- |
| Leadership | |
| Chairperson | Tauanu’u Nanai Nick Bakulich, Labour |
| Deputy chairperson | Togiatolu Walter Togiamua, Labour |
| Structure | |
| Seats | 7 |
| Political groups | Labour (7) |
| Length of term | 3 years |
| Elections | |
| Last election | 2022 |
| Next election | 2025 |
| Meeting place | |
| Shop 17, 93 Bader Drive, Māngere Town Centre, Māngere, Auckland | |

**Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board** is one of the 21 local boards of the Auckland Council, and is overseen by the council's Manukau ward councillors. The board is governed by seven board members elected at-large. The board's administrative area includes the suburbs Māngere Bridge, Māngere, Ōtāhuhu, and Favona, and covers areas south of the Manukau Harbour.

## Demographics

Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board Area covers 52.51 km2 (20.27 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 89,200 as of June 2023, with a population density of 1,699 people per km2.

Historical population
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2006 | 68,154 |  |
| 2013 | 70,959 | +0.58% |
| 2018 | 78,450 | +2.03% |
| 2023 | 78,642 | +0.05% |
| Source: | | |

Ethnicities, 2023 Census
| Ethnicity | Population |
| --- | --- |
| New Zealand European | 14,466 |
| Māori | 13,302 |
| Pasifika | 47,463 |
| Asian | 15,408 |
| MELAA | 804 |
| Other | 282 |

Māngere-Ōtāhuhu had a population of 78,642 in the 2023 New Zealand census, an increase of 192 people (0.2%) since the 2018 census, and an increase of 7,683 people (10.8%) since the 2013 census. There were 21,645 dwellings. The median age was 30.9 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 18,756 people (23.8%) aged under 15 years, 19,470 (24.8%) aged 15 to 29, 32,958 (41.9%) aged 30 to 64, and 7,458 (9.5%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 18.4% European/Pākehā, 16.9% Māori, 60.4% Pasifika, 19.6% Asian, 1.0% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African New Zealanders, and 0.4% other. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board Area had a population of 78,450 at the 2018 New Zealand census. There were 17,880 households, comprising 38,991 males and 39,459 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.99 males per female.

The percentage of people born overseas was 39.7, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 18.9% had no religion, 60.7% were Christian, 1.9% had Māori religious beliefs, 5.7% were Hindu, 5.1% were Muslim, 1.1% were Buddhist and 1.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 6,957 (12.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 12,747 (22.1%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $24,700, compared with $31,800 nationally. 4,758 people (8.2%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 28,164 (48.8%) people were employed full-time, 6,297 (10.9%) were part-time, and 3,627 (6.3%) were unemployed.

## 2022-2025 term

The current board members for the 2022-2025 term, elected at the 2022 local elections, are:

| Name | Ticket (if any) | | Position |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Tauanu’u Nanai Nick Bakulich |  | Labour | Chairperson |
| Togiatolu Walter Togiamua |  | Labour | Deputy Chairperson |
| Makalita Kolo |  | Labour | Board member |
| Christine O’Brien |  | Labour | Board member |
| Harry Fatu Toleafoa |  | Labour | Board member |
| Papaliitele Lafulafu Peo |  | Labour | Board member |
| Joe Glassie-Rasmussen |  | Labour | Board member |
|

## 2019–2022 term

The board members elected at the 2019 local body elections in October, were:

Tauanu'u Nick Bakulich, Labour – (8044 votes) Christine O'Brien, Labour – (8015 votes) Lemauga Lydia Sosene, Labour – (7982 votes) *Anae Neru Leavasa, Labour – (7870 votes)* Walter Togiamua, Labour – (7797 votes) Harry Fatu Toleafoa, Labour – (7784 votes) Makalita Kolo, Labour – (6936 votes)

## 2016–19 term

The board members who served from the 2016 local body elections to the 2019 elections were:

Lemauga Lydia Sosene (Chair) - Labour Togiatolu Walter Togiamua (Deputy Chair) - Labour Carol Elliot - Labour Makalita Kolo - Labour Tafafuna'i Tasi Lauese - Labour Christine O'Brien - Labour Tauanu'u Nick Bakulich - Labour    1. "ArcGIS Web Application". *statsnz.maps.arcgis.com*. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
2. "Subnational population estimates (RC, SA2), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (regional councils); "Subnational population estimates (TA, SA2), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (territorial authorities); "Subnational population estimates (urban rural), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (urban areas)
3. "Howick Local Board". Auckland Council. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
4. "Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board". 22 October 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2018.
5. "Statistical area 1 dataset for 2018 Census". Statistics New Zealand. March 2020. Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board Area (CMB07617). 2018 Census place summary: Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board Area
6. "2023 Census national and subnational usually resident population counts and dwelling counts" (Microsoft Excel). Stats NZ - Tatauranga Aotearoa. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
7. "Contact Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board members". *www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz*. Auckland Council. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
8. "Local elections 2022 | Official results" (PDF). *www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz*. Auckland Council. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
9. "Local board members" (PDF). Auckland Council. 18 October 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
10. "Papaliitele Lafulafu Peo wins Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board by-election". *Our Auckland*. Auckland Council. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
11. "Contact Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board". 22 October 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2018.

36°58′11″S 174°47′56″E / 36.96961988°S 174.798875°E / -36.96961988; 174.798875

## InfoBox

| Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board *Te Poari ā-Rohe o Māngere-Ōtāhuhu* | |
| --- | --- |
| Local board of Auckland Council | |
| Māngere-Ōtāhuhu Local Board offices in Māngere | |
|  | |
| Country | New Zealand |
| Region | Auckland |
| Territorial authority | Auckland Council |
| Ward | Manukau ward |
| Legislated | 2010 |
| Area | |
| Land | 52.51 km2 (20.27 sq mi) |
| Population (June 2023) | |
| Total | 89,200 |


title: Fritz Coleman

abstract: Fritz Coleman is a retired weathercaster, who worked for NBC Channel 4 (KNBC) in Los Angeles, California from 1982 until 2020. He began hosting Media Path Podcast with Louise Palanker in 2020.

text:
# Fritz Coleman

**Fritz Coleman** (born May 27, 1948) is a retired weathercaster, who worked for NBC Channel 4 (KNBC) in Los Angeles, California from 1982 until 2020. He began hosting Media Path Podcast with Louise Palanker in 2020.

## Early life and education

Coleman and was born in Philadelphia and grew up in Radnor, Pennsylvania. He attended Salem University in Salem, West Virginia and Temple University in Philadelphia, where he studied radio, television and film.

## Career

Coleman worked as a comedian and disc jockey for several years and as radio personality **Jay Fredericks** at WBEN and later WKBW in Buffalo, New York. In 1980, he left Buffalo for Los Angeles to work as a stand-up comic. In 1982, he began work as weekend weatherman at KNBC and became the weekday weatherman in 1984. He also hosted or appeared on a number of other KNBC shows, including *It’s Fritz* from 1988 to 1990 and *What a Week* from 1990 to 1991.

He has written and performed two one-man theater acts, titled *The Reception* and *It's Me! Dad!* He received the 2004 EMA Community Service Award for his involvement with KNBC's *4 Our Planet*, a children's program. He appeared in a supporting role in one of Raymond Burr's last Perry Mason television films, *The Case of the Telltale Talk Show Host* in 1993.

He received a credit on the film *Wake Up, Ron Burgundy: The Lost Movie*, an alternate film companion to *Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy*.

From 2009 to 2011, Coleman also did the weekday weather for KNBC in Los Angeles and KNSD in San Diego.

In June 2020, Coleman announced that he would retire after almost 40 years at KNBC.

## InfoBox

| Fritz Coleman | |
| --- | --- |
| Coleman in 2022 | |
| Born | May 27, 1948 (1948-05-27) (age 76)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
| Alma mater | Salem College
Temple University |
| Occupation | Weathercaster |
| Children | 2 sons and 1 daughter |
| Website | www.fritzcolemancomedy.com |


title: Mencui

abstract: Mencui is a village in the municipality Soriguera, located in the comarca of Pallars Sobirà, in Catalonia, Spain. It lies at an altitude of 1.256 m. Six women and three men were officially reported as inhabitants as of January 2007.

text:
# Mencui

42°22′49″N 1°2′34″E / 42.38028°N 1.04278°E / 42.38028; 1.04278

**Mencui** is a village in the municipality Soriguera, located in the comarca of Pallars Sobirà, in Catalonia, Spain. It lies at an altitude of 1.256 m. Six women and three men were officially reported as inhabitants as of January 2007.

## Demographic Data

| Year | 1857 | 1888 | 1900 | 1910 | 1920 | 1930 | 1940 | 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1981 | 1986 | 1991 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Inhabitants | 133 | 98 | 85 | 104 | 101 | 124 | 86 | 82 | 57 | 39 | 22 | 31 | 24 |
|

## Sources

1. Website Xarxa Telemàtica Educativa de Catalunya (XTEC) dated from 14.08.2009


title: Rockets Red Glare (wargame)

abstract: Rockets Red Glare, subtitled "An Operational and Strategic Study of the War of 1812 in North America", is a board wargame published by Simulations Canada in 1980 that simulates the War of 1812. The game's title is taken from the American national anthem The Star Spangled Banner, written by poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships in 1814.

text:
# Rockets Red Glare (wargame)

***Rockets Red Glare***, subtitled "An Operational and Strategic Study of the War of 1812 in North America", is a board wargame published by Simulations Canada in 1980 that simulates the War of 1812. The game's title is taken from the American national anthem *The Star Spangled Banner*, written by poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships in 1814.

## Description

*Rockets Red Glare* is a two-person wargame in which one player controls British forces and the other controls American forces. The game is a mixture of operational-level and strategic-level, and uses two hex grid maps to achieve this:

* An operational map of the border between the United States and British North America from Detroit to Montreal scaled at 13 mi (21 km) per hex
* A strategic map of the United States from New Orleans to Boston and the surrounding ocean scaled at 85 mi (137 km) per hex. Operations on this map cover both land operations and naval operations, which have separate victory conditions.

### Operational game

The operational game simulates American attempts to invade Upper Canada and Lower Canada, as well as naval combat on the Great Lakes. Movement in this area of rugged and undeveloped boreal forest is slow, and at both the start and end of a player's turn, units that are out of supply are eliminated. This can happen if a unit travels too far from its supply fort, or if the fort that was supplying it is captured. Units can be supplied via naval transport on the Great Lakes, but are subject to being eliminated if their supply ship is captured or destroyed.

### Strategic game: Oceans

American ships attempt to damage the British fleet. Fourteen of the American ships are classified as of superior quality and receive an advantage during combat. Critic Peter Hatton noted that if the American player keeps all of their ships together, an unhistorical strategy in an age of individual ship-to-ship combat, this inevitably leads to an American victory in this phase of the game.

### Strategic game: Land

There are no supply rules for the strategic game. Victory points are for areas occupied, which critic Peter Hatton pointed out is unhistorical — the war along the eastern and south-eastern coast consisted of British amphibious raids, such as the raid that resulted in the Burning of Washington; Hatton believed that by forcing the British to attempt to invade the entire United States, an American victory in this area of the game is guaranteed.

### Victory conditions

Each phase of the game has separate victory conditions:

* In the operational game, possession of key objectives gains victory points
* In the ocean strategic game, victory points are awarded for destroying enemy ships.
* In the land strategic game, victory points are awarded for control of areas.

The winner of the overall game is the player who accumulates the most Victory Points from all three aspects of the game.

## Publication history

Stephen Newberg designed *Rockets Red Glare*, trying to "show the military and logistical reasons for the poor showing on the field by all participants that led to a military status quo and the eventual political results." Simulations Canada published it in 1980 with a print run of 1500 copies packaged in ziplock bags. Although reviews were mixed, Newberg later wrote that the game was "one of the favourites of my own design."

## Reception

In Issue 91 of *Strategy & Tactics*, Eric Goldberg thought that "The design is original in many places and conveys a sense of one of the more senseless wars in history. The Americans begin by harassing the greatly superior British naval forces, and then watch the American heartland get stomped by powerful British stacks." Goldberg did not like the convoluted Victory Point system, feeling that it "detracts from an otherwise likable — if eccentric — game." Goldberg concluded, "If you are vaguely interested in the situation, the text is worth wading through."

In Issue 34 of *Fire & Movement*, Bob Proctor found the rule book to be too brief, noting, "*Rockets Red Glare* demands a lot from its rule book ... Unfortunately, \[the rulebook's\] brevity has left some areas so vague that without errata there is a good chance for misinterpretation." Despite this, Proctor called it "a very successful game in that it fulfills all of the designer's objectives. It combines a nice blend of historical constraints and strategic choices. It portrays the relationship between sea power (and lake power) and land power extremely well." Proctor concluded "Stephen Newberg has done an excellent job. It is an innovative treatment playable in six to eight hours."

Peter Hatton, writing in *The Wargamer*, found the slow movement and harsh supply rules in the operational game brought the game to a crawl, writing, "So the conflict here, though a faithful simulation of a difficult backwoods sector, is pretty boring." Hatton was also not thrilled with the ocean strategic game, pointing out that it was an easy American win if the American player grouped all their ships together. And Hatton also found the Americans the clear winners of the land strategic game due to the victory conditions of owning inland areas pointing out that "Scattering 25,000 British troops over 216,000 square miles of the Southern U.S.A. is not a strategy of any historic merit." Hatton concluded "the result plays unhistorically on the strategic map and historicity of the operational map lacks excitement ... not a game to recommend."

In a retrospective review in Issue 10 of *Simulacrum*, Steve Carey called *Rockets Red Glare* "one of SimCan's icon games, an ambitious design on an unheralded topic. \[Designer Stephen\] Newberg stated that he really enjoyed working on the project, and it shows. The interweaving of the various scales and units, both land and naval, provides for a different gaming experience.


title: Achim Steiner

abstract: Achim Steiner is a Brazilian-German environmentalist who currently serves as the administrator of the United Nations Development Programme and vice-chair of United Nations Sustainable Development Group. Before joining UNDP, he was executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme UNEP (2006–2016), and director of the Oxford Martin School (2016–2017). He has also served as director general of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and secretary-general of the World Commission on Dams.

text:
# Achim Steiner

**Achim Steiner** (born 17 May 1961) is a Brazilian-German environmentalist who currently serves as the administrator of the United Nations Development Programme and vice-chair of United Nations Sustainable Development Group.

Before joining UNDP, he was executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme UNEP (2006–2016), and director of the Oxford Martin School (2016–2017). He has also served as director general of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and secretary-general of the World Commission on Dams.

## Early life and education

The son of a German farmer who had emigrated to Rio Grande do Sul, Achim Steiner was born in Brazil in 1961 and holds German as well as Brazilian citizenship. He went to school in Carazinho and at Dover College. He obtained a bachelor's degree from Worcester College of the University of Oxford and a master's degree from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) of the University of London, specializing in development economics, regional planning, international development and environmental policy. He also studied at the German Development Institute and the Harvard Business School.

## Career

Steiner started his career in 1989 at the Rural Regional Development Department, GIZ, in Germany. From 1991 to 1997 he worked for the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Southern Africa and Washington, D.C. He was Chief Technical Adviser of the Mekong River Commission (1997–1998) before becoming Secretary-General of the World Commission on Dams. In 2001 he returned to IUCN as Director-General.

### United Nations Environment Programme, 2006–2016

Acting on the nomination of Secretary-General Kofi Annan, the United Nations General Assembly in 2006 unanimously elected Steiner Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) for a four-year term. At the time, he was not nominated by a Member State, but prevailed over candidates such as Børge Brende of Norway and Rajendra K. Pachauri of India. His mandate was later extended twice, this time on the proposal of the Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.

The Secretary-General appointed Steiner as director-general of the United Nations Office at Nairobi (UNON), where he served from March 2009 to May 2011. Within the UN system, he also chaired the High-level Committee on Programmes of the United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination and the United Nations Environment Management Group. On 3 May 2016, Ban Ki-moon announced that the post of executive director of UNEP would be taken over by Erik Solheim in June 2016.

### Oxford Martin School, 2016–2017

Upon leaving UNEP, Steiner was appointed director of the Oxford Martin School, a post he took up in September 2016. In addition to his role at the University of Oxford, Steiner was appointed Envoy of the Chair of the Platform on Disaster Displacement by the Federal Government of Germany in October 2016.

In late 2015, Reuters reported that Steiner was one of three candidates shortlisted to succeed António Guterres as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, alongside Helle Thorning-Schmidt of Denmark, Jasmine Whitbread of the United Kingdom, and Filippo Grandi of Italy; the post eventually went to Grandi.

### United Nations Development Programme, 2017–present

In April 2017, following consultations with the executive board of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Secretary-General António Guterres appointed Steiner as the programme's new Administrator. On 19 April 2017, the United Nations General Assembly confirmed him for a four-year term.

In November 2018, Guterres also appointed Steiner to co-chair (alongside Maria Ramos) the United Nations Task Force on Digital Financing of Sustainable Development Goals.

## Other activities

## Honours and awards

### Awards

### Honorary degrees

## InfoBox

| Achim Steiner | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 9th Administrator of the
United Nations Development Programme | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
19 April 2017 | |
| Secretary-General | António Guterres |
| Preceded by | Helen Clark |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 17 May 1961 (1961-05-17) (age 63)
Carazinho, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil |
| Nationality | Brazilian, German |
| Alma mater | Worcester College, Oxford
SOAS, University of London
Harvard Business School |
|  | |


title: Nicholas Ferguson

abstract: Nicholas Ferguson is an English artist and television director.

text:
# Nicholas Ferguson

**Nicholas Ferguson** (born 2 June 1938) is an English artist and television director.

## Education

Born in London, Ferguson's artistic career started at the Chelsea College of Art before moving on to University College London's Slade School of Art. At the Slade he studied under William Coldstream, Lucian Freud and Nicholas Georgiadis.

## Television

During the 1960s, Ferguson worked as an art director for *Ready Steady Go!*, a popular music show broadcast on ITV made by Associated-Rediffusion. He then directed "Step into Christmas" for Elton John and other music videos including Paul McCartney's "Mull of Kintyre" and David Bowie's "Heroes" in 1977.

He later went on to direct a number of soap operas including *Coronation Street*, *Families*, *Family Affairs* and spin-offs from *Hollyoaks*, including *Hollyoaks Let Loose*. He also directed two cult music programmes for Granada Television, *Marc!* presented by the musician Marc Bolan and *So It Goes*, fronted by Tony Wilson. As a freelance director, Ferguson has worked on many productions within the UK Independent television network.

## Fine art

As well as a televisionist, Ferguson has maintained his personal passion for creating fine art, particularly abstract painting.

## Sources

## InfoBox

| Nicholas Ferguson | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1938-06-02) June 2, 1938<br>London, United Kingdom |
| Occupation | Television Director / Producer |
| Notable work | Coronation Street, Hollyoaks, Family Affairs |


title: NGC 918

abstract: NGC 918 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Aries, about 67 million light years from the Milky Way. It was discovered by John Herschel on Jan 11, 1831. The brightness class of NGC 918 is III and it has a broad line of neutral hydrogen. NGC 918 is also an active nucleus galaxy (AGN). Moreover, it is a field galaxy; that is to say, it does not belong to a cluster or group and is therefore gravitationally isolated. Many non-redshift measures give a distance of 19,115 ± 6,160 Mpc, which is within the distances calculated using the value shift. Two supernovae have been observed in this galaxy. SN 2009js was discovered on October 11, 2009. This was the first subluminous supernova to be studied in infrared wavelengths. Supernova SN 2011ek was discovered on Aug. 4, 2011 by Kōichi Itagaki.

text:
# NGC 918

**NGC 918** is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Aries, about 67 million light years from the Milky Way. It was discovered by John Herschel on Jan 11, 1831.

The brightness class of NGC 918 is III and it has a broad line of neutral hydrogen. NGC 918 is also an active nucleus galaxy (AGN). Moreover, it is a field galaxy; that is to say, it does not belong to a cluster or group and is therefore gravitationally isolated.

Many non-redshift measures give a distance of 19,115 ± 6,160 Mpc (~62,3 million ly), which is within the distances calculated using the value shift.

Two supernovae have been observed in this galaxy. **SN 2009js** (type II, mag. 17.2) was discovered on October 11, 2009. This was the first subluminous supernova to be studied in infrared wavelengths. Supernova **SN 2011ek** (type Ia, mag. 16.4) was discovered on Aug. 4, 2011 by Kōichi Itagaki.

## InfoBox

| NGC 918 | |
| --- | --- |
| NGC 918 by the Mount Lemmon SkyCenter | |
| Observation data (J2000 epoch) | |
| Constellation | Aries |
| Right ascension | 02h 25m 50s |
| Declination | +18° 29 46 |
| Redshift | 0.005027 |
| Heliocentric radial velocity | 1507 ± 3 km/s |
| Distance | 20.6±1.5 mpc |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 15.01 |
| Apparent magnitude (B) | 16.0 |
| Characteristics | |
| Type | SAB(rs)c |
| Other designations | |
| NGC 918,MCG+03-07-011, LEDA 9236 | |


title: Plymouth to Yealmpton Branch

abstract: The Plymouth to Yealmpton Branch was a Great Western Railway single track branch railway line in Devon, England, that ran from Plymstock to Yealmpton. The line was planned as part of a route to Modbury, but the scheme was cut back to Yealmpton; it opened in 1898, and the passenger train service ran from Plymouth Millbay, but road competition led to declining usage and the passenger service was withdrawn in 1930. During heavy air raids in 1941 many Plymouth workers preferred to find accommodation outside the city, and in 1941 the passenger service was reinstated, transferring to Plymouth Friary as the terminal. This service ceased in 1947 and the goods service on the line finished in 1960.

text:
# Plymouth to Yealmpton Branch

The **Plymouth to Yealmpton Branch** was a Great Western Railway single track branch railway line in Devon, England, that ran from Plymstock to Yealmpton. The line was planned as part of a route to Modbury, but the scheme was cut back to Yealmpton; it opened in 1898, and the passenger train service ran from Plymouth Millbay, but road competition led to declining usage and the passenger service was withdrawn in 1930.

During heavy air raids in 1941 many Plymouth workers preferred to find accommodation outside the city, and in 1941 the passenger service was reinstated, transferring to Plymouth Friary as the terminal. This service ceased in 1947 and the goods service on the line finished in 1960.

## Background

| East of Plymouth Lines |
| --- |
|  |
|  |

The broad gauge group of companies, called the *Associated Companies*, had early on established main line primacy in the Plymouth area, the South Devon Railway having reached the city in 1849. The rival London and South Western Railway (LSWR) had long had ambitions to reach the city, and its trains first entered Plymouth in 1876. However this was not entirely satisfactory, as the trains had to run over the South Devon Railway's Tavistock line for the final approach to Plymouth, and work started on an independent line in 1887, through the medium of a friendly company, the Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway.

Seeing that it was now in sight of establishing itself in the city, the LSWR planned a large Plymouth terminal, which became Plymouth Friary station and goods depot, and it acquired a moribund mineral line, the Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway (P&DR), and through it obtained an Act of Parliament authorising the Turnchapel Branch.

The Associated Companies had by this time amalgamated and become the Great Western Railway (GWR), and these competing developments were alarming to it. Now a South Hams Railway, branching from the Turnchapel branch and running through Yealmpton to Modbury, was authorised by Act of 22 June 1888. The GWR feared its extension to Torbay and Exeter, areas it considered to be its own.

However aggressive rivalry was modified to collaboration, and by Act of 1894 the South Hams line was modified, the rights for the portion as far as Yealmpton being transferred to the GWR, the LSWR retaining the section beyond, and mutual running powers being applied.

## Construction

The contractor appointed was Lucas and Aird. Work on the line started in late December 1895; there was a ceremonial inauguration on 15 January 1898, and the public opening took place on 17 January 1898. As well as the branch line from Plymstock Junction LSWR to Yealmpton, a short spur was built connecting Mount Gould Junction to Cattewater Junction; the trains travelled over the LSWR Turnchapel Branch line for a short distance, including the crossing of the Laira.

The line was inspected by Lieutenant Colonel Sir Horatio Arthur Yorke, Chief Inspector of Railways, Board of Trade who reported that everything was satisfactory on 7 December 1897

### Route

Passenger trains to Yealmpton from Plymouth Millbay turned at Lipson Junction to Mount Gould Junction, diverging there to Cattewater Junction, where the trains joined the LSWR (nominally P&DR) Turnchapel Branch to cross the Laira by Laira Bridge. At Plymstock the Yealmpton branch diverged east from the Turnchapel line, the passenger station being in the fork of the junction. The short section from Mount Gould Junction to Cattewater Junction was built specially for the Yealmpton service; it was 29 chains (580 m) in length and was called *Plymouth no. 2 Loop*.

The branch, which was 6 miles 38 chains (10.42 km) in length, was single track between Plymstock and Yealmpton. Its direction ran broadly east with a southward swoop at Brixton Road, with stations at Billacombe, Elburton Cross, Brixton Road, Steer Point, and the terminus at Yealmpton. The line climbed steeply from Plymstock to Billacombe, with a ruling gradient of 1 in 68; from Billacombe it fell again at 1 in 60 for a mile and a half. Then the line was broadly level, with a short climb at 1 in 60 on the approach to Yealmpton. Passengers at Steer Point could use steamers running between the quay at Steer Point and Newton Ferrers.

There was an important quarry and stone crushing plant at Billacombe, which despatched stone by rail. Although it was the terminus of the line, Yealmpton station was still configured as a through station because the proposal had been to build a railway to Modbury, 4.5 mi (7.2 km) away.

## Operation

The line was now simply a GWR branch line; passenger trains ran from the GWR Plymouth terminus at Millbay. In 1898 the working timetable showed four return passenger trains on the branch, the first into Plymouth arriving at Millbay at 08:35. Trains called at Elburton only "if required". By 1913 there were nine return passenger journeys as well as a late Saturday train, and three Sunday trips; all were worked by railmotor. The first GWR-operated motor bus service in the area was instituted from Yealmpton to Modbury, the originally projected terminus, from 2 May 1904.

The route was initially popular, particularly in the Plymouth urban area when railmotor trains operated the passenger service, providing a relatively frequent service at convenient stopping points as residential development took place on the periphery of the city. By 1905 it was decided to open a new stopping place, Mount Gould and Tothill Halt, located on the Mount Gould Junction to Cattewater Junction loop, considered to be part of the Yealmpton line. The halt opened on 2 October 1905, and the line here was double track so there were two platforms; it was described by the Inspecting Officer as being "a new stopping place for motor cars" (i.e. the railmotors). However it proved less attractive than anticipated, and it was closed on 1 February 1918.

The line between Plymstock and Yealmpton was at first worked as a single section by electric train staff. Plymstock was a LSWR signalbox. Brixton Road later had a signal box, from 1905, breaking the branch into two sections, but it was closed in 1924 or 1925. When the passenger service was withdrawn in 1930, the signalling was converted to *one engine in steam* and Yealmpton box was abolished.

By the 1920s competition from motor buses had substantially reduced passenger numbers. The decline was so severe that passenger services were withdrawn from 7 July 1930, with goods traffic only continuing. Steer Point and Elburton Cross stations were demolished, and the remaining stations were rented.

However, during the two summers following closure to passengers, the GWR experimented with a Saturday train service, in 1931 and 1932.

## Second World War

During World War II Plymouth suffered an exceptional volume of bombing attacks during the Plymouth blitz, and many workers in essential industries wished to take lodgings in communities outside the city. To accommodate this need, unadvertised workmen's trains were introduced on the branch from 21 July 1941. The Millbay terminus in Plymouth had already suffered from bombing and it had been closed to passengers, so this service used Plymouth, North Road station (the present-day *Plymouth* station) as its terminus. However, there were problems with congestion at that station, and from 3 November 1941 the service was transferred to operate from the LSWR (by now the *Southern Railway*) Plymouth Friary terminus. The rolling stock was GWR. The services consisted of eight return railmotor trips, the first inward train arriving at Plymouth Friary at 08:32.

Restoration of the passenger service in 1941 led to provision of electric train token signalling; an intermediate instrument was provided at Brixton Road to recess goods trains there, and a two lever ground frame was provided at Yealmpton. After the second closure, the signalling reverted to *one engine in steam* on 11 October 1952.

## Closure

The passenger services ceased on 6 October 1947, from which date goods trains only ran on the line; it closed completely on 29 February 1960.


title: Hellfyre Club

abstract: Hellfyre Club is an American independent record label based in Los Angeles, California. It was founded and is currently owned by rapper Nocando. According to Pitchfork Media, it is "an assemblage of West Coast art rap luminaries connected to Project Blowed, a long-running hip hop workshop that served as a proving ground for 90s and aughts L.A. aesthetes from Freestyle Fellowship and Abstract Rude to Pigeon John."

text:
# Hellfyre Club

**Hellfyre Club** is an American independent record label based in Los Angeles, California. It was founded and is currently owned by rapper Nocando.

According to *Pitchfork Media*, it is "an assemblage of West Coast art rap luminaries connected to Project Blowed, a long-running hip hop workshop that served as a proving ground for 90s and aughts L.A. aesthetes from Freestyle Fellowship and Abstract Rude to Pigeon John."

## History

Hellfyre Club released *Prometheus*, a label compilation mixed by DJ Nobody, in March 2011. Another compilation, *Veneris Nigrum*, followed in November that year. It featured contributions from E.Super, Kail, Subtitle, Rheteric Ramirez, Open Mike Eagle, Pistol McFly, Sahtyre, Nocando, and VerBS. *Dorner vs. Tookie*, a 17-track compilation, was released on the label in November 2013.

On May 2, 2017, the label released its first project in nearly three years with "The Live I Live" EP by Cadalack Ron.

## Roster

### Former

## Discography

## InfoBox

| Hellfyre Club | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Founded | 2011 (2011) |
| Founder | Nocando |
| Status | Active |
| Genre | Alternative hip hop |
| Country of origin | U.S. |
| Location | Los Angeles, California |
| Official website | hellfyreclub.bandcamp.com |


title: Mägenwil

abstract: Mägenwil is a municipality in the district of Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

text:
# Mägenwil

**Mägenwil** is a municipality in the district of Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

## History

Mägenwil is first mentioned in 924 as *Maganwilare*. In 1273 it was mentioned as *Echwile*.

## Geography

Mägenwil has an area, as of 2006, of 3.5 km2 (1.4 sq mi). Of this area, 45.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 30.3% is forested. The rest of the land, (24%) is settled.

The municipality is located in the Baden district, on the southern edge of the *Birrfeld* region. It consists of the linear village of Mägenwil and the hamlets of Eckwil with which it was grown together. Before 1905 Eckwil was an independent municipality.

## Coat of arms

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is *Gules a Poppy Seedpod Or slipped and leaved.*

## Demographics

Mägenwil has a population (as of 31 December 2020) of 2,139. As of 2008, 17.3% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 25.8%. Most of the population (as of 2000) speaks German (88.7%), with Serbo-Croatian being second most common ( 1.9%) and Albanian being third ( 1.8%).

The age distribution, as of 2008, in Mägenwil is; 223 children or 12.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 266 teenagers or 14.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 217 people or 11.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 285 people or 15.5% are between 30 and 39, 349 people or 19.0% are between 40 and 49, and 212 people or 11.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 151 people or 8.2% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 104 people or 5.6% are between 70 and 79, there are 29 people or 1.6% who are between 80 and 89,and there are 5 people or 0.3% who are 90 and older.

As of 2000, there were 52 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 257 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 276 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 2.54 individuals. In 2008 there were 350 single family homes (or 49.2% of the total) out of a total of 712 homes and apartments.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 42.3% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (17.4%), the FDP (14.6%) and the SP (11.1%).

The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Mägenwil about 74.1% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a *Fachhochschule*). Of the school age population (in the 2008/2009 school year), there are 176 students attending primary school in the municipality.

The historical population is given in the following table:

Historical population
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1799 | 339 |  |
| 1850 | 511 | +50.7% |
| 1900 | 450 | −11.9% |
| 1950 | 633 | +40.7% |
| 2000 | 1,551 | +145.0% |
| 2010 | 1,963 | +26.6% |

## Transportation

Mägenwil railway station is a stop of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11.

## Economy

As of  2007, Mägenwil had an unemployment rate of 2.06%. As of 2005, there were 38 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 324 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 20 businesses in this sector. 1,158 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 95 businesses in this sector.

As of 2000 there was a total of 828 workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 644 or about 77.8% of the residents worked outside Mägenwil while 1,238 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 1,422 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.

## Religion

From the 2000 census, 703 or 45.3% are Roman Catholic, while 501 or 32.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 2 individuals (or about 0.13% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic faith.

## InfoBox

| Mägenwil | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Mägenwil | |
| MägenwilMägenwil | |
| Coordinates: 47°25′N 8°14′E / 47.417°N 8.233°E / 47.417; 8.233 | |
| Country | Switzerland |
| Canton | Aargau |
| District | Baden |
| Area | |
| Total | 3.48 km2 (1.34 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 423 m (1,388 ft) |
| Population (31 December 2018) | |
| Total | 2,110 |
| Density | 610/km2 (1,600/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (Central European Time) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (Central European Summer Time) |
| Postal code(s) | 5506 |
| SFOS number | 4032 |
| ISO 3166 code | CH-AG |
| Surrounded by | Birrhard, Brunegg, Hägglingen, Othmarsingen, Wohlenschwil |
| Website | www.maegenwil.ch
SFSO statistics |


title: NCCU International MBA

abstract: The International MBA program at the National Chengchi University College of Commerce was established in 2001. It has an MBA program with an accredited English MBA program in Taiwan. A third of the instructors are faculty members of the College of Commerce at National Chengchi University (NCCU).

text:
# NCCU International MBA

The **International MBA** program (simplified Chinese: 国际经营管理硕士; traditional Chinese: 國際經營管理碩士; pinyin: *Guójì Jīngyín Guǎnlǐ Shuòshì*; abbreviated **IMBA**) at the National Chengchi University College of Commerce was established in 2001. It has an MBA program with an accredited English MBA program in Taiwan.

A third of the instructors are faculty members of the College of Commerce at National Chengchi University (NCCU).

## Programs

The IMBA program offers full-time or part-time studies. The program also has courses and activities. The program is slated for a minimum one year of instruction, a maximum four years to fulfill program requirements, and a minimum of forty-two credit hours for completion. The program also offers the option of either pursuing a general MBA or a specialized MBA in one of four concentrations: Entrepreneurship, Finance, Management in Asia, and Marketing.

Students have an option to complete a number of the courses in the area to obtain a specialized MBA degree. Students can also take up courses in any area and graduate with a general MBA by fulfilling the credit requirements.

The IMBA offers a system of continuing education. The program allows for both current IMBA candidates and graduates to enroll in selected courses within the program and throughout the College of Commerce.

### International exchange

NCCU International MBA offers students exchange programs and dual degree programs with universities in the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Pacific from recognition by AACSB International and EQUIS.

## InfoBox

NCCU International MBA
| 國立政治大學國際經營管理碩士 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Established | 2001 |
| Academic staff | 142 |
| Location | Taipei City |
| Website | imba.nccu.edu.tw |


title: Harvey D. Hinman

abstract: Harvey DeForest Hinman was an American attorney and Republican politician who represented Binghamton, New York in the New York State Senate from 1905 to 1912. He was an ally of Governor Charles Evans Hughes and President Theodore Roosevelt. He ran for governor himself in 1914 with Roosevelt's support but lost the Republican primary to Charles S. Whitman. After his political career ended, he was influential in the founding of Binghamton University.

text:
# Harvey D. Hinman

**Harvey DeForest Hinman** (September 17, 1864 – July 11, 1954) was an American attorney and Republican politician who represented Binghamton, New York in the New York State Senate from 1905 to 1912. He was an ally of Governor Charles Evans Hughes and President Theodore Roosevelt. He ran for governor himself in 1914 with Roosevelt's support but lost the Republican primary to Charles S. Whitman. After his political career ended, he was influential in the founding of Binghamton University.

## Biography

He was born in Pitcher, Chenango County, New York on September 17, 1864. In 1893, Hinman, who had come to Binghamton in 1889, went to work as a clerk for a lawyer named George F. Lyon. Later that same year, Lyon took on another law clerk, Archibald Howard, just out of Lafayette College. In 1894, Thomas B. Kattell went with Lyon as a law clerk. On 27 November 1901 he married Phebe Anna Brown. In 1901-1902, the three joined together to form Hinman, Howard & Kattell, an upstate New York law firm that continues under the same name today.

Hinman was a member of the New York State Senate from 1905 to 1912, sitting in the 128th, 129th (both 38th D.), 130th, 131st, 132nd, 133rd, 134th and 135th New York State Legislatures (all six 39th D.). During his service as a New York State Senator, he became a key strategist and confidant of Governor Charles Evans Hughes. In 1914, it was former New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt who encouraged him to run for governor. Although he was defeated in 1914 in the Republican primary for Governor of New York by Charles S. Whitman, his political connections and influence in New York State only deepened over the years.

Returning to the practice of law full-time, but continuing his call to public service, Senator Hinman was also influential in the establishment in 1949 of Harpur College, which would eventually become Binghamton University, and B.U.’s Hinman College pays respect to his leadership in this regard. He died on July 11, 1954 in Binghamton, New York.

## InfoBox

| Harvey D. Hinman | |
| --- | --- |
| Hinman in 1910 | |
|  | |
| Member of the
New York State Senate | |
| **In office**
January 1, 1905  December 31, 1912 | |
| Preceded by | George E. Green |
| Succeeded by | Clayton L. Wheeler |
| Constituency | 38th district (1905–06)
39th district (1907–12) |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | September 17, 1864
Pitcher, New York, U.S. |
| Died | July 11, 1954(1954-07-11) (aged 89)
Binghamton, New York, U.S. |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | Phebe Anna Brown (m. 1901) |
|  | |


title: Plexippus petersi

abstract: Plexippus petersi is a species of jumping spider native to Asia that has been introduced to Africa and Pacific islands. The male is between 6 and 10 mm in length, and the female is around 10 millimetres (0.39 in). This spider is commonly known as the tropical flycatcher or small zebra jumper.

text:
# Plexippus petersi

***Plexippus petersi*** is a species of jumping spider native to Asia that has been introduced to Africa and Pacific islands. The male is between 6 and 10 mm (0.24 and 0.39 in) in length, and the female is around 10 millimetres (0.39 in). This spider is commonly known as the **tropical flycatcher** or **small zebra jumper**.

## Description

The male *Plexippus petersi* is between 6 and 10 mm (0.24 and 0.39 in) long and the female is slightly larger. The head bears four pairs of eyes, one pair is larger than the others, forward-facing and movable, while the remainder are small and fixed in position. The cephalothorax is longer than it is wide and is brown with two darker reddish-brown bands on the dorsal surface. The abdomen is twice as long as it is wide and is yellowish-brown dorsally with two longitudinal darker brown bands which are broken posteriorly to give a pair of orangish spots on either side; the ventral surface is yellowish-brown and the spinnerets are greyish-brown. The pale parts of the abdomen are clad with whitish setae (bristles), and the darker areas are covered with brown setae. The legs are yellowish-brown, streaked with darker brown and darker near the joints, and have blackish-brown leading edges. There are scattered setae on the legs and the femur has a dense patch of brown hairs.

## Distribution

*Plexippus petersi* is native to Southeastern Asia. Its range includes Africa, China, Japan, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Australia.

## Ecology

*Plexippus petersi* is a house spider, living indoors, and admired for the skilful way it hunts and catches mosquitoes, flies and other invertebrates. It has also been found living in crops in the Philippines, in one instance in a rice field infested with the armyworm *Spodoptera mauritia*, and in another, in a corn field attacked by the northern armyworm *Mythimna separata*. This spider has been investigated as a control agent for houseflies and showed potential as a bio-control agent.

## InfoBox

| *Plexippus petersi* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Male on a human finger | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Araneae |
| Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
| Family: | Salticidae |
| Subfamily: | Salticinae |
| Genus: | *Plexippus* |
| Species: | ***P. petersi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Plexippus petersi***<br>(Karsch, 1878) | |
|


title: Joop Hartog

abstract: "Joop" (Joost) Hartog is a Dutch economist and an Emeritus Professor of Economics at the University of Amsterdam. He ranks among the most important Dutch labour economists and was elected to be a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001) and the Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Humanities. The Joop Hartog Dissertation Prize, a bi-annual prize for the best Ph.D. thesis defended at the University of Amsterdam's Faculty of Economics and Business, is named after Hartog.

text:
# Joop Hartog

**"Joop" (Joost) Hartog** (born in Sliedrecht, the Netherlands, on June 29, 1946) is a Dutch economist and an Emeritus Professor of Economics at the University of Amsterdam. He ranks among the most important Dutch labour economists and was elected to be a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001) and the Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Humanities. The *Joop Hartog Dissertation Prize*, a bi-annual prize for the best Ph.D. thesis defended at the University of Amsterdam's Faculty of Economics and Business, is named after Hartog.

## Biography

A native of Sliedrecht, Joop Hartog studied at the Netherlands School of Economics (1964–70) and at Queen's University, Kingston, where he earned a M.A. in 1971. Thereafter, Hartog did a Ph.D. at the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR) under the supervision of C.J. van Eijk on the topic of personal income distribution, which he defended in 1978. After working several years at EUR, he became Professor of Microeconomics at the University of Amsterdam in 1981 and worked there until his emeritation. In parallel to his appointment in Amsterdam, Hartog has held numerous visiting appointments, e.g. as Fulbright Scholar at Stanford University, as Wertheim Fellow at Harvard University, or as visiting fellow at the European University Institute. Hartog helped found *Labour Economics* and has performed editorial duties for the *European Economic Review*, *Economics of Education Review*, and the *Journal of Pay and Reward Management*. Finally, he is also on the board of several boards and advisory councils, including the Dutch Council of Economic Advisors and the Hennipman Foundation.

## Research

Joop Hartog's research focuses on education, wages, and migration. According to IDEAS/RePEc, Hartog belongs to the top 4% of economists in terms of research output.

### Research on education

With regard to the economics of education, Joop Hartog has conducted research on overeducation and the returns to education, among else. Together with Hessel Oosterbeek, he finds that due to more higher education enrollment, undereducation in the Netherlands decreased throughout the 1960s and 1970s while overeducation increased, though the rate of return to education is positive even in cases of "overeducation", implying that overeducation doesn't necessarily imply private or social inefficiency. However, comparing the stylized facts of over- and undereducation in the U.S., Netherlands, UK, Portugal and Spain with models of search theory, human capital theory, and assignment, Hartog concludes that none of the models convincingly explains the earnings function associated with over- and undereducation. Together with Oosterbeek, he observes health, wealth or happiness among Dutch not to increase linearly in education: individuals with only a non-vocational secondary school degree are generally healthier, wealthier and happier than TVET or university graduates; moreover, they find IQ to increase health, social background to increase wealth, and being a woman to increase happiness. Finally, in work with Pedro T. Pereira and Jose A.C. Vieira, he finds returns to education in Portugal to have increased during the 1980s and early 1990s, especially since its accession to the European Union in 1986, though the returns to education grew most at the upper part of the wage distribution, thus also explaining part of the increase in Portuguese wage inequality in the 1980s.

### Research on wages and entrepreneurship

With regard to wages, Hartog and Oosterbeek observe that, in the early 1990s, the earnings prospects of Dutch public sector workers were better in the public sector than in the private sector and vice versa, pointing to comparative advantages among workers. Together with Coen Teulings, Hartog has leveraged his research on wage behaviour to develop a theory why non-competitive wage differentials are smaller in a corporatist system than in a decentralized system, arguing that corporatist institutions provide a solutions to the hold-up problem of investments by specifying ex ante contracts that remove the need for labour market parties to bargain ex post over the use of the employment relationship's economic surplus. More recently, Hartog has also conducted research on the nexus between entrepreneurship, earnings, risks and skills. In research with Ada Ferrer-i-Carbonell and Nicole Jonker, Hartog finds that Arrow-Pratt measures of risk aversion decrease in income and wealth, are higher for employees than for entrepreneurs, lower for private sector employees than for civil servants as well as for men than for women. In further work with Jonker, J.S. Cramer and Mirjam van Praag, he moreover finds evidence that individuals with low risk aversion are more likely to be or become entrepreneurs. Finally, in an influential study with van Praag and Justin van Sluis, Hartog observes that general ability has a stronger impact on entrepreneurial income than on wages, that mathematical, social and technical abilities are more valuable for entrepreneurs, whereas employees benefit more from verbal and clerical abilities, and that having a skill set balanced across these various kinds of abilities benefits only entrepreneurs, a finding in line with Edward Lazear's "Jack-of-all-trades" theory of entrepreneurship.

## InfoBox

| Joop Hartog | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | (1946-06-29) June 29, 1946<br>Sliedrecht, Netherlands |
| Nationality | Dutch |
|  | |
| Academic career | |
| Institution | University of Amsterdam |
| Alma mater | Erasmus University Rotterdam |
|  | |


title: Fritz Rau

abstract: Fritz Rau was a German music promoter, who was influential in the development of the appreciation of jazz and blues music in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s, and has since been a leading promoter of rock and pop music. He was nominated to the Blues Hall of Fame in 2012, together with his former business partner Horst Lippmann.

text:
# Fritz Rau

**Fritz Rau** (9 March 1930 – 19 August 2013) was a German music promoter, who was influential in the development of the appreciation of jazz and blues music in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s, and has since been a leading promoter of rock and pop music. He was nominated to the Blues Hall of Fame in 2012, together with his former business partner Horst Lippmann.

## Life and career

Rau was born in Pforzheim, but after the death of his parents moved at the age of ten to live with relatives. He studied in Ettlingen, and later graduated with a degree in law from the University of Heidelberg. He worked as a court clerk in Rhineland-Palatinate, and in a law firm in Neustadt an der Weinstraße, while at the same time becoming involved in running a jazz club, *Cave 54*, in Heidelberg. In December 1955, he organised his first major concert, featuring Albert Mangelsdorff at Heidelberg Town Hall, where his abilities were noticed by concert agent and promoter Horst Lippmann. Lippmann then hired him to help run the *Jazz at the Philharmonic* tours of Europe arranged by Norman Granz, and they began to work together regularly from 1957. Rau also became concert organiser of the German Jazz Federation.

In 1962 he and Lippmann established the concert agency "Lippmann + Rau", and organised the first European tour by the American Folk Blues Festival. This brought American blues musicians such as Willie Dixon, Howlin' Wolf, Muddy Waters, Sonny Boy Williamson II, John Lee Hooker, Memphis Slim, T-Bone Walker, Buddy Guy, Otis Rush, Little Brother Montgomery, J.B. Lenoir, Lonnie Johnson, Victoria Spivey, Big Joe Williams, Sleepy John Estes and others to Europe for the first time. Several annual tours by American blues musicians over the following years directly influenced a generation of young musicians, especially in Britain where new bands such as The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds with an interest in blues music were already emerging. Albums by the AFBF artists were also released on Lippmann and Rau's own Scout and L+R labels. The promotional approach adopted by Lippmann and Rau has been criticised for taking a conservative and romantic view of blues music, and presenting it as a heritage rather than putting in the context of the civil rights movement in the US.

Lippmann and Rau worked together to promote a wide variety of jazz, rock, pop and gospel acts across Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. After Lippmann's death in 1997, Rau worked as an independent promoter and tour organiser, and also helped establish the Lippmann + Rau Music Archive in Lippmann's home town of Eisenach.


title: Metaplasticity

abstract: Metaplasticity is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of individual synapses. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term meta-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in memory and learning such as long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD) and so forth. These mechanisms depend on current synaptic "state", as set by ongoing extrinsic influences such as the level of synaptic inhibition, the activity of modulatory afferents such as catecholamines, and the pool of hormones affecting the synapses under study. Recently, it has become clear that the prior history of synaptic activity is an additional variable that influences the synaptic state, and thereby the degree, of LTP or LTD produced by a given experimental protocol. In a sense, then, synaptic plasticity is governed by an activity-dependent plasticity of the synaptic state; such plasticity of synaptic plasticity has been termed metaplasticity. There is little known about metaplasticity, and there is much research currently underway on the subject, despite its difficulty of study, because of its theoretical importance in brain and cognitive science. Most research of this type is done via cultured hippocampus cells or hippocampal slices.

text:
# Metaplasticity

**Metaplasticity** is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of *individual* synapses. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term *meta*-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in memory and learning such as long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD) and so forth. These mechanisms depend on current synaptic "state", as set by ongoing extrinsic influences such as the level of synaptic inhibition, the activity of modulatory afferents such as catecholamines, and the pool of hormones affecting the synapses under study. Recently, it has become clear that the prior history of synaptic activity is an additional variable that influences the synaptic state, and thereby the degree, of LTP or LTD produced by a given experimental protocol. In a sense, then, synaptic plasticity is governed by an activity-dependent plasticity of the synaptic state; such plasticity of synaptic plasticity has been termed metaplasticity. There is little known about metaplasticity, and there is much research currently underway on the subject, despite its difficulty of study, because of its theoretical importance in brain and cognitive science. Most research of this type is done via cultured hippocampus cells or hippocampal slices.

## Hebbian plasticity

The brain is "plastic", meaning it can be molded and formed. This plasticity is what allows you to learn throughout your lifetime; your synapses change based on your experience. New synapses can be made, old ones destroyed, or existing ones can be strengthened or weakened. The original theory of plasticity is called "Hebbian plasticity", named after Donald Hebb in 1949. A quick but effective summary of Hebbian theory is that "cells that fire together, wire together", together being the key word here which will be explained shortly. Hebb described an early concept of the theory, not the actual mechanics themselves. Hebbian plasticity involves two mechanisms: LTP and LTD, discovered by Bliss and Lomo in 1973. LTP, or long-term potentiation, is the increase of synapse sensitivity due to a prolonged period of activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron. This prolonged period of activity is normally concentrated electric impulses, usually around 100 Hz. It is called "coincidence" detection in that it only strengthens the synapse if there was sufficient activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. If the postsynaptic cell does not become sufficiently depolarized then there is no coincidence detection and LTP/LTD do not occur. LTD, or long-term depression, works the same way however it focuses on a lack of depolarization coincidence. LTD can be induced by electrical impulses at around 5 Hz. These changes are synapse specific. A neuron can have many different synapses all controlled via the same mechanisms defined here.

The earliest proposed mechanism for plastic activity is based around glutamate receptors and their ability to change in number and strength based on synapse activity. Glutamate binds two main receptor types: AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and NMDA receptors (NMDARs). These are named after drugs that bind to the receptors: alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), respectively, but they both bind glutamate. When a glutamatergic synapse releases glutamate it binds to any AMPA and the NMDA receptors present in the postsynaptic membrane. The AMPA receptors are ionotropic receptors that are responsible for fast synaptic transmission. In a nutshell the NMDA receptors evoke a response in the cell only when sufficient glutamate has been transmitted to cause that cell to depolarize enough to unblock the NMDA receptor. Sufficient depolarization in the membrane will cause the magnesium cation blockade in the NMDA receptors to vacate, thus allowing calcium influx into the cell. NMDA receptors are "coincidence detectors". They determine when the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron are linked in time via activity. When this occurs, NMDA receptors become the control mechanism that dictates how the AMPA and NMDA receptors are to be rearranged. The rearrangement of AMPA and NMDA receptors has become the central focus of current studies of metaplasticity as it directly determines LTP and LTD thresholds. However, some evidence indicates that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are responsible for controlling NMDA receptor activity, which suggests that NMDAR-mediated changes in synaptic strength are modulated by the activity of GPCRs. There is large amounts of research focused on finding the specific enzymes and intracellular pathways involved in the NMDAR-mediated modulation of membrane AMPA receptors. Recent biochemical research has shown that a deficiency in the protein tenascin-R (TNR) leads to a metaplastic increase in the threshold for LTP induction. TNR is an extracellular-matrix protein expressed by oligodendrocytes during myelination.

## Synaptic states

Research in 2004 has shown that synapses do not strengthen or weaken on a sliding scale. There are discrete states that synapses move between. These states are active, silent, recently silent, potentiated, and depressed. The states which they can move to are dependent on the state that they are in at the moment. Thus, the future state is determined by the state gained by previous activity. For instance, silent (but not recently silent) synapses can be converted to active via the insertion of AMPARs in the postsynaptic membrane. Active synapses can move to either potentiated or depressed via LTP or LTD respectively. Prolonged low-frequency stimulation (5 Hz, the method used to induce LTD) can move an active synapse to depressed and then silent. However, synapses that have just become active cannot be depressed or silenced. Thus there is state-machine-like behavior at the synapse when it comes to transitions. However, the states themselves can have varying degrees of intensity. One active-state synapse can be stronger than another active-state synapse. This is, in theory, how you can have a strong memory vs. a weak memory. The strong memories are the ones with very heavily populated active synapses, while weak memories may still be active but poorly populated with AMPARs. The same research has shown that NMDA receptors themselves, once thought to be the control mechanism behind AMPA receptor organization, can be regulated by synaptic activity. This regulation of the regulation mechanism itself adds another layer of complexity to the biology of the brain.

## Synaptic tagging

Recent research has found a mechanism known as synaptic tagging. When new receptor proteins are being expressed and synthesized they must also be transported to the synaptic membrane, and some sort of chemical messaging is required for this. Their research has shown that activation of cAMP/PKA signaling pathways is required for LTP induction due to its "tagging" nature. It was even shown that simple pharmacological activation of cAMP/PKA pathways was sufficient for the synapse to be tagged, completely independent of any sort of activity.

## NMDA receptors

The NMDA receptor is made up of three subunits: GluN1 (formerly NR1), a variable GluN2 (formerly NR2) subunit, and a variable GluN3 (formerly NR3) subunit. Two GluN2 subunits in particular have been the subject of intense study: GluN2A and GluN2B. The GluN2B subunit not only is more sensitive to glutamate and takes longer to desensitize, but also allows more calcium entrance into the cell when it opens. A low GluN2A/GluN2B ratio is generally correlated with a decreased threshold of activation caused by rearing animals in light-deprived environments. This has been shown experimentally via light deprivation studies in which it was shown that the GluN2A/B ratio declined. The threshold can be increased in some situations via light exposure. Studies of this nature were used to find the critical period for formation of the visual system in cats. This shifting ratio is a measurement of LTD/LTP threshold and thus has been posited as a metaplasticity mechanism.

## Gliotransmitters

Glial cells not only provide structural and nutritional support for neurons, but also provide processing support via chemicals known as gliotransmitters. Gliotransmitters include glutamate, ATP, and, more recently, the amino acid D-serine. Once thought to be glycine itself, D-serine serves as a ligand in the glycine site of NMDARs. D-serine is synthesized by astrocytes and is heavily co-localized with NMDARs. Without D-serine there can be no NMDA-induced neurotoxicity, or almost any NMDA response of any kind. Due to this evidence it is clear that D-serine is an essential ligand for the NMDA receptors. An essential factor in this research is the fact that astrocytes will vary their coverage of neurons based on the physiological processes of the body. Oxytocin and vasopressin neurons will have more NMDA receptors exposed due to astrocyte activity during lactation than during normal functioning. This research took place mostly in cells from the hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus (SON). Due to synaptic plasticity being almost completely dependent on NMDAR processing, dynamic astrocyte NMDAR coverage is by nature a metaplasticity parameter.

## Synaptic homeostasis

Homeostatic plasticity manages synaptic connections across the entire cell in an attempt to keep them at manageable connection levels. Hebbian methods tend to drive networks into either a maximized state or a minimized state of firing, thus limiting the potential activity and growth of the network. With homeostatic mechanisms in place there is now a sort of "gain control" which allows these Hebbian methods to be checked in order to maintain their information processing abilities. This kind of modulation is important to combat intense lack of neural activity, such as prolonged sensory deprivation (in this study in particular it is light-deprivation affecting visual cortex neurons) or damage caused by stroke. Synaptic scaling is a mechanism in place to hold synapse sensitivity at normalized levels. Prolonged periods of inactivity increase the sensitivity of the synapses so that their overall activity level can remain useful. Chronic activity causes desensitization of the receptors, lowering overall activity to a more biologically manageable level. Both AMPA and NMDA receptor levels are affected by this process and so the overall "weight" of each synaptic connection (refined by Hebbian methods) is maintained while still increasing the overall level of activity over the entire neuron. It has been shown that both the presynaptic and the postsynaptic neuron are involved in the process, changing the vesicle turnover rate and AMPA receptor composition respectively.

Recent research has found that the calcium-dependent enzyme CaMKII, which exists in an alpha and beta isoform, is key in inactivity-dependent modulation. A low alpha/beta ratio causes an increased threshold for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP.

### Memory formation

There are several different stages of sleep, but only two separate types, REM (or rapid-eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement). NREM sleep is characterized by slow-wave neuronal activity known as theta waves, or delta waves. These slow-wave oscillations occur at very low frequencies, between 0.5 and 4.5 Hz. A recent hypothesis has come to the surface, integrating sleep and something known as synaptic homeostasis.

The hypothesis comes in four parts:

1. Wakefulness is associated with synaptic potentiation;
2. Synaptic potentiation is tied to the regulation of slow-wave activity in sleep;
3. Slow-wave activity is associated with synaptic depression;
4. Synaptic downscaling is tied to the beneficial effects of sleep.

**Wakefulness is associated with synaptic potentiation:** Potentiation is happening all the time: through the many hours we spend reading useless information, or encountering something longer than 5 minutes, i.e. that random person who stood in front of us at the grocery store. Everything that we see, read, or focus on, is being potentiated somewhere in our brain.

**Synaptic potentiation is tied to the regulation of slow-wave activity in sleep:** Whenever a particular area in our brain receives extensive potentiation from our day, the affected area undergoes more slow-wave activity than its neighbors do. In essence, the amount of potentiation we receive during our day, effects the type of sleep we get at night. If we spend all day sick and lying in bed, not much potentiation is happening. Sure, the colors of the walls, curtains, bed sheets, etc. but that isn't surprisingly interesting. The amount of slow-wave oscillation activity that would be present at night would not be extensive in the slightest.

**Slow-wave activity is associated with synaptic depression:** Synaptic depression is the other side to synaptic potentiation. If LTP is formed from strongly depolarizing stimuli, or high frequency stimuli, then long-term depression, LTD, is formed from prolonged periods of very weak stimuli or very low frequency stimulus. The hypothesis proposes that the slow wave activity is enough to evoke LTD, or downscaling, of the cells.

**Synaptic downscaling is tied to the beneficial effects of sleep:** This is what ties it all together. LTD from the synaptic downscaling of the slow wave activity causes just the right amount of reduction to our neuronal firing patterns. The prolonged LTD from sleep would allow for all the non-essential LTP that took place during our day to become forfeit. It helps reduce the amount of synaptic noise that is created when so much potentiation happens during the day.

**What does this all mean?:** The idea is LTP is occurring all the time during wakefulness. All of this information flow and storage will eventually become too much, and that is why we sleep. The point of sleep is to downgrade and eliminate some of the synaptic potentials that are not necessary from throughout our day. What one was wearing on the third Tuesday last February is irrelevant, but knowing one's middle name isn't. Extensive LTP has been put in place to remember one's middle name, and therefore that synaptic pathway would not be so easily forgotten, whereas what one was wearing on that one particular day received so little potentiation it can be forgotten in a day or two. A lot of potentiation on a certain topic would help facilitate that memory, making it "more important" in the 'eyes of the cortex' so it is not forgotten.

### What else may be involved

The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant amount of melatonin causes a "dramatic decrease" in learning and memory formation.

This study was performed at night under bright lights, to inhibit the release of natural amounts of melatonin and learning behaviors were conducted. The authors also gave a drug to the fish to help block the effects of melatonin and then studied their behavioral patterns on memory formation and retrieval. It was found that in the daytime when melatonin was artificially administered, the fish's ability to learn new material was at its lowest.

As one stays awake for a long time, so much extra potentiation has already happened from the waking day, and trying to force more LTP isn't going to help anything. Too much extra information is floating around, and the neurons can't handle all of the extra activity. In addition, however, as the night starts to loom, the circadian rhythm begins to take effect and the body naturally begins to release stores of melatonin. This increase in melatonin reduces the ability to learn and facilitate new memories. The ability for melatonin to suppress memory formation is very significant, however. The melatonin would work in conjunction with the LTD during slow oscillations during sleep, to keep individuals from potentiating unwanted, or unneeded, information from their day.

**Is sleep the only thing that matters in this synaptic homeostasis hypothesis?** In February 2002, two separate articles were published on the discovery of a receptors' involvement in synaptic homeostasis. Bone morphogenetic proteins, BMPs, were originally found to cause a differentiation in bone formation; however, they have recently been discovered necessary for synaptic regulation. It was noticed that when there were mutations in the BMP type II receptor, more commonly known as wishful thinking or wit for short, the sizes of synaptic clefts were significantly reduced, as well as the synaptic output in the studied species.

The amount of neurotransmitters that were stored and released by these cells was also found to be exceedingly lacking, so further studies were conducted. When the wit receptor is activated, a particular protein known as LIMK1 becomes active as well.

Eaton and Davis also studied the synaptic footprints of the cells. The synaptic footprints are indications that a synapse was once there, but no longer contains the axon terminus, and therefore the synaptic footprints are located in the postsynaptic cell in the dendrites. In mutated wit receptors, the amount of synaptic footprints was increased by almost 50%, indicating that the BMP receptor and its cellular counterpart, the LIMK1 protein, are significantly responsible for growth of a cell.

**Why is any of this important, and what does it mean?** Significant amounts of LTP would be required if we are to keep our already formed memories. During sleep, the slow wave oscillations cause an overall synaptic depression throughout the brain, where only the stronger neuronal pathways are kept from the previous day's LTP. There is a second requirement, however, if we are to keep our neuronal synapses. The wishful thinking receptor also has to be active if the synapses are to be kept. If a newly formed synapse is the result from some potentiation from the day, then presumably that synapse would not have had the time to form the wit pathways from the cell. Without wishful thinking activation, the synapses are much more prone to destruction and would likely get removed, likewise, very heavily potentiated pathways would be much more likely to be kept, as BMP activation would very likely be prevalent.

## Endocannabinoids

Research in 2004 has shown that endocannabinoid release from the postsynaptic neuron can inhibit activation of the presynaptic neuron. Type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) are the receptors on the presynaptic neuron responsible for this effect. The specific ligand is thought to be 2-arachidonyl glycerol, or 2-AG. This has mainly been found in GABAergic synapses and thus has been termed inhibitory long term depression (I-LTD). This effect has been found to be extremely localized and accurate, meaning the cannabinoids do not diffuse far from their intended target. This inhibition of inhibitory neurotransmission primes proximal excitatory synapses for future LTP induction and is thus metaplastic in nature.

## Neuronal adaptation mechanism

A new mechanism has been proposed that concerns the innate excitability of a neuron. It is quantified by the size of the hyperpolarization in mV due to K+ channels re-opening during an action potential. After any sort of learning task, particularly a classical or operant conditioning task, the amplitude of the K+ hyperpolarization, or "after hyperpolarization (AHP)", is greatly reduced. Over time this AHP will return to normal levels. This normalization does not correlate with a loss of memory but instead a loss of learning potential.


title: Nicolae Rainea

abstract: Nicolae Rainea, nicknamed The Locomotive of the Carpathians, was a Romanian football referee and player. Among the most highly regarded referees of his generation, he is considered one of the best international officials of the 70s and 80s and, arguably, the finest Romanian referee of all time.

text:
# Nicolae Rainea

**Nicolae Rainea** (19 November 1933 – 1 April 2015), nicknamed *The Locomotive of the Carpathians*, was a Romanian football referee and player. Among the most highly regarded referees of his generation, he is considered one of the best international officials of the 70s and 80s and, arguably, the finest Romanian referee of all time.

## Career

Nicolae Rainea played football in the lower leagues of Romania for Laminorul Brăila, Metalul Piatra Neamț and Constructorul Bârlad, he retired in 1959 to start his career as a referee, making his debut in Liga I in 1965. He refereed at three FIFA World Cups (1974, 1978, 1982), the UEFA Euro 1980 Final, the 1983 European Cup Final, the second leg of the 1978 European Super Cup and the second leg of the 1978 UEFA Cup Final.

Rainea officiated the Italy v Argentina game at the 1982 World Cup. He was linesman in a later match between France and Northern Ireland.

## Honours and legacy

Rainea was decorated by two presidents of Romania, Ion Iliescu and Traian Băsescu. He was made honorary citizen of Galați where he resided and served four local council terms.

Nicolae Rainea Stadium in Galați is named after him.

## Personal life and death

In 2011, he celebrated 50 years of marriage. He had a son and a daughter, both living in Sweden.

After an untreated mild cold turned into a pulmonary edema, Rainea suffered a cardiac arrest while in hospital and died on 1 April 2015 in Galați. He was 81 years old.

## InfoBox

Nicolae Rainea
| Rainea in 1980 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Born | (1933-11-19)19 November 1933
Brăila, Romania | | |
| Died | 1 April 2015(2015-04-01) (aged 81)
Galați, Romania | | |
| Other occupation | Technician, Footballer | | |
| Domestic | | | |
| Years | **League** | **Role** |
| 1964–1984 | Liga I | Referee |
| International | | | |
| Years | **League** | **Role** |
| 1967–1989 | FIFA-listed | Referee |