title: Unconventional warfare (United States)

abstract: In US military doctrine, unconventional warfare is one of the core activities of irregular warfare. Unconventional warfare is essentially support provided by the military to a foreign insurgency or resistance. The legal definition of UW is: Unconventional Warfare consists of activities conducted to enable a resistance movement or insurgency to coerce, disrupt or overthrow an occupying power or government by operating through or with an underground, auxiliary or guerrilla force in a denied area.

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# Unconventional warfare (United States)

In US military doctrine, ***unconventional warfare*** (abbreviated ***UW***) is one of the core activities of irregular warfare. Unconventional warfare is essentially support provided by the military to a foreign insurgency or resistance. The legal definition of *UW* is:

> Unconventional Warfare consists of activities conducted to enable a resistance movement or insurgency to coerce, disrupt or overthrow an occupying power or government by operating through or with an underground, auxiliary or guerrilla force in a denied area.

## U.S. Department of Defense UW mission

UW was the first mission assigned to United States Army Special Forces when they were formed in 1952; they now have additional missions, including foreign internal defense (FID). In the United States, "special forces" refers specifically to the United States Army Special Forces (SF), as opposed to the usage in most other countries, where "special forces" refers to the range of unit types that the U.S. calls "special operations forces" controlled by the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). SF units are tasked with seven primary missions:

SF may be given other missions including warfare and support, combat search and rescue (CSAR), security assistance, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, humanitarian demining and counter-drug operations; other USSOCOM units or other U.S. government activities may be the specialists in these secondary areas.

The UW mission assumes that U.S. forces will work with troops in another country and possibly with other allies and is always multinational. Depending on the particular situation, their role may vary from pure training to leading a joint force in combat. Over more than fifty years, roles and missions have continued to evolve, based on the history of operations.

### History

The idea of UW came from Second World War resistance movements assisted by U.S. personnel, especially against the Empire of Japan's invasion of the Philippines as well as numerous European national resistance against the invasion by Nazi Germany. The main strength of these movements came not from U.S., but local personnel. U.S. "behind the lines" units such as Merrill's Marauders, in modern doctrine, were not conducting UW but DA and SR. The idea extended to resistance against an expected Soviet invasion of Europe following World War II. Rarely, however, did the U.S. create a guerrilla force. Far more often, the U.S. supported an existing national organization.

#### World War II

A variety of organizations, including United States personnel, conducted UW missions. Many of the operations in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) were multinational, such as Jedburgh teams, which usually were composed of three soldiers, one from the U.S., one from the U.K., and one from France.

The earliest US soldiers involved in UW were in the Philippines, soon allied with Filipino forces, and who declined to follow Japanese orders to surrender, such as Wendell Fertig. While not trained in UW, Fertig, along with other U.S. and Filipino leaders, eventually created guerrilla forces fighting the Japanese, forces that numbered in the tens of thousands. A few experienced soldiers' ability to train and lead a quite large resistance was a guiding principle of the formation of United States Army Special Forces in 1952.

#### 1950s model of resistance to invasion of Europe

After World War II, the original SF mission of UW, as shown in the first SF deployment of the 10th Special Forces Group to Europe, was in expectation of a Soviet attack on Western Europe. SF would help organize, train, and lead resistance movements to such an invasion. A 1951 doctrine for UW, still called guerrilla warfare at that point, was:

> Guerilla Warfare is defined. As operations carried out by small independent forces, generally in the rear of the enemy, with the objective of harassing, delaying, and disrupting the enemy's military operations. The term is sometimes limited to the military operations and tactics of small forces whose objective is to inflict casualties and damage on the enemy rather than seize or defend terrain; these operations are characterized by the extensive use of surprise and the emphasis on the avoidance of casualties. The term ... includes organized and directed passive resistance, espionage, assassination, sabotage and propaganda, and, in some cases, ordinary combat. Guerilla warfare is normally carried on by irregular, or partisan forces; however, regular forces that have been cut off behind enemy lines or infiltrated into the enemy rear areas may use guerilla tactics.
>
> 1951 version of U.S. Army guerrilla warfare manual cited in

#### 1960s model of dealing with wars of national liberation

When American advisors were sent to Laos and South Vietnam in the fifties and early sixties, the major problem was not to create guerrilla units, but to fight existing Laotian and Vietnamese guerrilla forces. To them it seemed logical that soldiers trained to *be* guerrillas would have a deep understanding of how to *fight* guerrillas, so Special Forces was given that mission. The White Star mission in Laos was initially covert, and used Special Forces and other personnel under Central Intelligence Agency control. Whether the mission is called counterguerrilla, counterinsurgency, or foreign internal defense, it involves assisting a friendly government—the "foreign" in FID—to defend against guerrillas acting inside its borders. FID can also involve training a foreign government to deal with a future internal guerrilla threat.

Later in Southeast Asia, SF personnel, often assigned to the Studies and Observation Group, carried out SR missions against infiltrators from the North, directing air strikes and assessing damage.

#### 1970s and 1980s

In the 1970s, until the NCA withdrew them as part of its "tilt" to Iraq, SF supported Kurdish resistance to Iraq under Saddam Hussein. In the 1980s, SF worked with the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviets, but in a role of supporting rather than leading the local personnel. They did not need to create an underground and an auxiliary, and often supported the guerrillas from outside the area of operations. Parts of the Afghan resistance, supported by SF and CIA elements, later became hostile to the U.S.

#### 1990s

Following the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, SF teams worked with the Kuwaiti resistance. When they can direct, using long-distance secure communications, air and missile strikes on targets, the guerrillas need not risk their limited resources in raids and ambushes. While U.S. special operations doctrine had conceived of guiding strikes, that was seen as being done directly by SF specialists. The evolving model would have SF UW trainers teach the guerrillas how to guide strikes against targets. Separating the means of destruction from the guerrillas not only makes them safer, but avoids the problem of "blowback" if the guerrillas later turn against the U.S.

#### 2000s

In the 2001 joint operations with the Afghan Northern Alliance, the SF teams with the Afghans provided the precision targeting information to air units, but did not operate in a SR mode, separate from the local force. The SR targeting function was performed, but in a UW support context rather than a separate U.S. operation.

SF produced intelligence for their own operations, for their supported regional command, and national-level authorities. "Arriving in their operational areas, SF cultivated relationships with local leaders citizens of the area, much as in the Balkans." Their mission was neither pure UW nor pure FID, but the intelligence preparation featured in the fifth step, Buildup, of the operational model.

## Evolution of the UW mission

In 1998, Gen. Peter J. Schoomaker, then USSOCOM commander and later Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff told Robert E. Kelley "Unconventional warfare is not a viable mission for Special Forces. The only reason you train for unconventional warfare is because it is the best vehicle for maintaining your Special Forces skill set." Kelley also cites the October 1997 *Army Special Forces Vision XXI* as saying "Dissident elements are the key to UW mission potential in any region. As long as there are dissidents, there will be UW potential to support U.S. national interest."

Gen. Schoomaker, however, did use the term *global scouts* to describe the role that Special Forces have in "preparing the battlefield" before regular forces enter it. While the later stages of UN operations in Somalia suffered from overly ambitious goals resulting in the Battle of Mogadishu, SF teams preceded the United States Marine Corps unit that formed the first overt assistance force, and made contact with various clans whose cooperation was needed. Such contact falls into the early parts of the UW operational model, without moving into combat phases. Other than special reconnaissance, such information collection is not now listed as a basic SF mission. Kelley suggests that the SF UW doctrine be revised to include just such activity:

* Intelligence activities in a UW environment should be the first area addressed: Schoomaker's global scout role. This can fit into existing UW doctrine if it is understood the resistance may never need to engage in direct combat.
* Employment of subversion and sabotage needs to be made a priority, and updated. The update should emphasize that direct access and violent means may not be necessary if, for example, communications and computers can be disrupted by remote information operations.
* SF units already have assisted insurgencies as diverse as the Contras and Northern Alliance. A support, rather than leadership, role has not been formulated in SF UW doctrine.
* Complete the revision of UW doctrine to take a more modern view of guerrilla warfare, in contrast with the current model that emphasizes World War II-style leadership of rural partisans.

Kelley concluded that UW remains a viable mission, but the doctrine for it, as of 2000, is outdated. It has been relatively rare that U.S. forces, since World War II, actually trained and led a guerrilla force. They did so in Laos, but, in Afghanistan and elsewhere, they supported an existing rebel force. For example, UW missions were sometimes initiated by paramilitary personnel of the Central Intelligence Agency, sometimes with SF personnel on clandestine detail to the CIA. See CIA activities in Laos. Eventually, these UW forces came back under U.S. Army control. Later in the Vietnam War, SF-led units conducted offensive actions against opponents on the Ho Chi Minh Trail and other infiltration paths. Increasingly, SF personnel took on other missions, principally SR and DA.

In 1990–91, the UW mission supported intelligence collection, sabotage, and subversion by the Kuwaiti underground. UW had a major role, in 2001, of supporting the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan. UW experience is more of support to intelligence collection, subversion and sabotage by insurgents, and less one of direct combat through raids and ambushes. Current doctrine allows both; there may need to be a change of emphasis.

## Strategic role of UW

Unconventional warfare is a form of insurgency, which exploits grievances to influence or overthrow a government believed repressive by the supporters of the UW force. US doctrine assumes there will usually be a government in exile with which the UW plan can be developed. UW leaders must never forget that they are extending politics with military means, and that, in a guerrilla situation, their military means are limited. Successful UW always recognizes that its essence is political, not simply military. No warfare should ignore Carl von Clausewitz's dictum that "war is the extension of politics with the addition of other means". Subversion, psychological operations and other nonviolent means may be as potent as an ambush, in advancing the political goals of the UW force.

The U.S. doctrine for special operations emphasizes that commanders cannot dominate a politicomilitary environment in the same way in which a conventional force can exert "battlefield dominance." UW is conceptually at a strategic level, and its commanders must constantly remain aware of political goals such as "military successor defeat, a change in hostile strategy or tactics, or fluctuating levels of US support. They must know who the friendly and hostile decision makers are, what their objectives and strategies are, and how they interact. They must influence friendly decision makers to ensure they understand the implications of SO mission requirements and the consequences of not adequately supporting them."

### Relationships with U.S. National Command

The ability to create or support resistance forces expands the range of options available to national leadership, filling a niche intermediate between diplomacy and all-out warfare. As the Cold War began, the focus was on Europe, but it began to expand. Faced the reality of wars of national liberation from the mid-fifties on, President John F. Kennedy gave the first public endorsement to special forces, as a means of countering communist expansion in the third world, a very different problem than the original UW concept of leading resistance movements after a Soviet invasion of Europe.

> \[W\]e need to be prepared to fight a different war. This is another type of war, new in its intensity, ancient in its origin, war by guerilla, subversives, insurgents, assassins; war by ambush instead of combat, by infiltration instead of aggression, seeking victory by eroding and exhausting the enemy instead of engaging him and these are the challenges that will be before us in the next decade if freedom is to be saved, a whole new kind of strategy, a wholly different kind of force, and therefore a new and wholly different kind of military training.
>
> John F. Kennedy, speech at United States Military Academy, 1962

.

Operational SF personnel assigned to a Unified Combatant Command (UCC) or USSOCOM reports to the National Command Authority (NCA) of the United States (i.e., the President of the United States and the United States Secretary of Defense). Other national-level organizations, such as the United States Department of State or the Director of National Intelligence, may have a role in establishing policy for the UW operation, which is under the direct command of a joint organization made up of U.S. and government in exile personnel. Personnel qualified in the UW mission provided the NCA and UCC commanders with "a flexible, highly trained military force ready for small-scale, complex, high-risk missions inside hostile states. Throughout its history, SF's core purpose has been unconventional warfare (UW) and although light infantry and paramilitary units may employ UW tactics, SOF remain the only doctrinally trained UW experts".

### UW as a source of intelligence

UW forces have intelligence capability for their own targeting, but also are major sources of intelligence to the commands they support, and to the national level of the United States and the supported government in exile. This is a two-way process; the higher headquarters can provide appropriate national-level intelligence and guidance on targeting, while the UW forces can conduct intelligence collection. The local forces have language and cultural skills to blend with an enemy while conducting reconnaissance. Underground and auxiliary forces can clandestinely emplace SIGINT and MASINT technical collection devices.

Intelligence operation pioneered during Special Forces operations in Bosnia and Kosovo continued their evolution during Afghanistan and Iraq. "Analysis of the operations conducted by Special Forces from the Balkans to OEF and OIF demonstrate a distinct trend away from the traditional "top-driven" intelligence, gathered and evaluated at higher command levels and disseminated to lower units, to a "bottom-driven" intelligence system based upon collection and exploitation of information at the user level. Intelligence organizations at higher command levels were not always organized to make the best use of SF-collected intelligence.

> Direct effects of the COE include personnel and training changes resulting from the increased emphasis on ... intelligence and information technologies for SF to operate effectively in the joint, multinational, and interagency environment. Indirect effects of the COE include increases in command and control, combat support, and combat service support assets required to conduct multiple, sustained special operations globally.

### SF, UW, and force multiplication

SF units are force multipliers. While SF have missions other than UW, UW can more impact when they can create a much larger force of guerrillas rather than trying to do everything themselves. An effective SF commander had the attitude, "Hey, we're all in this together with our Kurdish counterparts,"... Our commander and his counterpart ... were very close and like-minded, to the point that they would show up together for JSOTF coordination and planning meetings ... In fact, I would say that what they were seeing was genuine rapport and a real camaraderie. In our sector, the Kurds had a standing order not to allow any Americans to get killed, and thus they surrounded our ODAs during combat."

## Operational model of UW

At the operational level, the UW force, prepares the battlefield for other units and conducts operations on conditions favorable to it. SF must constantly be ready to adapt, and to use the political insights of guerrilla warfare theorists whose ideology might be quite different from theirs:

> The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we pursue."
>
> Mao Zedong

### Relationships with theater-level command

In most cases, the AO will be within the scope of a U.S. regional Unified Combatant Command (UCC), and the UW force will be part of the special operations organization subordinate to that command. There may be rare circumstances in which the SF operation is controlled at national level, with USSOCOM retaining command.

A U.S. Joint Special Operations Task Force is "joint" in the sense that it contains components from different branches of the U.S. military. The JSOTF may also include personnel, perhaps on exchange assignments, from countries with which the U.S. has especially close relationships.

There may be multiple joint task forces (JTFs) in a theater, which contain both regular and special operations forces under a JTF commander. Alternatively, the geographic combatant commander can authorize the theater special operations command (SOC) to establish JSOTFs for pure special operations, based on area of operations or type of operation (e.g., UW versus FID).

Security may dictate that the JSOTF not be on the ground of one of the countries within the geographic region. Especially when the JSOTF has a significant naval component (e.g., while a direct action (DA) mission, Operation Prime Chance headquarters was afloat), the JSOTF headquarters may be afloat. Using advanced communications, the formal headquarters may stay in the United States, with a "forward" command post in the area of operations. Both of these choices can help deal with situations where it might be awkward for the host nation, or the nation hosting the government in exile, to have a U.S. headquarters on its soil.

In the organizational chart, the pink horizontal lines show multinational relationships; in practice, at least some of those pink lines will actually represent multinational headquarters operations. The lower the organization level, the more likely a multinational headquarters will exist.

Sometimes, the resistance organization already controls part of the AO. Still, there usually will be some liaison personnel that can meet with the regional U.S. planners. If the UW operation is planned to support conventional operations (e.g., the French Resistance started a preplanned series of attacks on German transportation about 48 hours before the Normandy Invasion), UW control may be passed to SF officers attached to the supported conventional force.

Army Special Operations Task Force (ARSOTF) describes an Army command, with an SF or ranger core plus attachments, that deals with specific operations in a UCC. It is typically based on an SF group or ranger regiment. Since countries are assigned to UCCs, the government in exile will work with both American diplomats and an appropriate level of SF organization. An SF battalion, subordinate to a Group, may command all SF operations in a medium-sized country, or a region of a larger one, from a forward operating base (FOB). Company-level headquarters called "advanced operating bases" (AOB) supplement FOB capabilities.

### Seven-step operational model

An SF UW campaign is now defined to have seven steps, ending in combat and demobilization. Changing concepts in UW, however, may change the model so that the UW force avoids entering the main combat phase, but carries out critical support operations with the steps before it.

#### Preparation

Much of the early steps may take place in a safe area outside the AO, where SF, as well as psychological operations personnel from USSOCOM, the United States Department of State, the Central Intelligence Agency, and other organizations establish contacts with sympathizers in the target country. A wide range of psychological operations techniques are used to increase the likelihood that citizens of the target country will be sympathetic. Such operations can range from overt (i.e., "white propaganda") radio and television broadcasts, to clandestine material purporting to be issued by the opposition (i.e., "black propaganda").

#### Initial contact

Small units or individuals, typically from SF or CIA, make clandestine contact with leaders in the AO, and gain agreement that SF teams will be welcomed. For example, in Afghanistan in 2001, CIA paramilitary personnel made the initial contact with leaders of the Northern Alliance, who agreed to accept SF teams that would train and fight with the Afghan resistance. CIA personnel had been in Afghanistan, in noncombat roles, certainly as early as 1999, and had created relationships that could not have been established under the military roles and missions of the time.

> CIA paramilitary operatives entered Afghanistan on 26 September 2001 ahead of U.S.
>
> Those operatives established helicopter landing zones for follow-on SOF, and guide SF operational detachments "A" -- who arrived with their arsenal of laser target designators to enable U.S. aircraft to strike Taliban positions -- to the enemy. These CIA officers were inserted ahead of the SOF because of their ability to get on the ground quickly, their language skills and knowledge of the terrain, and their existing contacts with anti-Taliban groups. At the same time, U.S. military forces continued to flow quickly into
>
> Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and the Arabian Sea, while the CIA continued to increase its activity in the region, adding logistics hubs, communication sites, and command and control centers and capabilities.

#### Infiltration

SF operational detachments enter the AO, by clandestine means, such as parachuting at night (especially using HAHO or HALO techniques), delivery by naval special operations vessels or from submarines, by out-of-uniform infiltration from a neighboring country, sub-surface infiltration utilizing closed circuit dive gear (combat diver), etc.

If the infiltrating party is to be met by local supporters, there must be pre-agreed recognition signals. Should the infiltrators not be able to find their local contacts, they should have a variety of backup plans, ranging from establishing a clandestine base and waiting for contact, or to be recovered by their own side.

Early in an insurgency, electronic communications should be avoided, as enemy SIGINT might learn of activities simply by detecting an unexpected radio signal. Couriers and personal meetings are resistant to SIGINT, but also have problems of maintaining physical security.

#### Organization

Citizen soldiers of the guerrilla force, underground and auxiliary are trained and equipped for their intended roles. SF personnel, possibly supplemented with communications and security experts in the AO, as well as support organizations outside the country, create the clandestine cell system to be used by hidden units. In this phase and later phases, SF medical personnel often work to improve the health of their sympathizers.

#### Buildup

The operation increases recruiting, and may begin clandestine intelligence collection and subversion, and possibly some hit-and-run raids and ambushes that have a high probability of success and a low risk of compromising security.

Another covert operational technique, which may be used during this phase, is placing improvised explosive devices (i.e., mines and boobytraps). Sabotage, such as placing an explosive charge under a railroad track, is easier to hide than a raid on the train. If there is aerial bombing of targets, it can be used as a cover for sabotage activities.

Forces that have reached this level have significant intelligence collection, sabotage and subversion, and fire direction capabilities.

#### Employment

In the combat phase, the guerrilla force increases the tempo of operations, in a manner consistent with its own safety and security, until the government falls or the guerrilla force links up with conventional forces.

#### Transition

A stable country will no longer have autonomous guerrillas. The guerrilla force may form the nucleus of a new military, come under the control of the new national government, or go back to civilian life. It is essential that these experienced soldiers support, not oppose, the new government.

## Tactics

UW is asymmetric warfare, which attempts to meet a conventional force under conditions that optimize the UW force's strengths; UW forces avoid combat when conditions are unfavorable to them.

Since UW and other special operations may precede operations by other military components (e.g., regular ground forces, air and missile attacks, etc.), friendly fire is a serious concern, since the special operation may be highly classified, such that the other components are not aware of the UW operation or its location. *Deconfliction* is the military term for avoiding fratricide, and it is the responsibility of the JSOTF commander, who must balance operations security (OPSEC) against the need for other components to know where they may operate freely.

The basic mechanism for deconfliction is establishing a joint special operations area (JSOA), defined by the overall joint force commander (JFC).

> While establishment of a designated JSOA for SOF to conduct independent operations assists in the ease of control of SO and the prevention of fratricide, the JFC should always evaluate the value of isolating SOF against the greater benefit of integrating SOF into the overall campaign plan.

Interdiction is the basic UW combat activity, which uses a variety of tactics to "drain the hostile power's morale and resources, disrupt its administration, and maintain the civilian population's morale and will to resist." UW attacks should be unpredictable, but widely dispersed and occasionally against a target previously struck, so the enemy must disperse their forces. Even in a guerrilla context, the dispersion of hostile forces may become so great that the guerrillas can temporarily gain a local superiority of force.

No target should be attacked without a specific reason for doing so; the selected targets should be part of neutralizing a system of targets. For example, if it is known that the enemy has limited supplies of fuel, attacks against tanker trucks, pipelines, refineries, and storage farms all contribute to damaging their petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL) system. If POL is deemed the critical target system, other attacks support the attacks on POL. If an attack on a barracks will draw away soldiers that otherwise might guard POL resources, such an attack is both diversionary and supportive of the main attack on a critical resource.

### Basic field operations model

In SF doctrine, an operational UW force, made up of U.S. and local personnel, has three general components, although they may not all be part of a specific mission:

* *guerrilla force* that engages in direct combat with enemy forces. Depending on the situation, this force may be full-time or part-time, and often stays hidden when not in combat.
* *underground*; a mixture of covert and clandestine functions. Covert functions include sabotage and psychological warfare. Clandestine missions include intelligence gathering and helping key personnel escape from the area of operation.
* *auxiliary*; whose activities should remain clandestine. Its functions include supply, transportation, acquisition or manufacture of weapons, recruiting, counter-intelligence, reception of personnel and equipment arriving clandestinely, medical services, finance, etc. This support organization can be urban or rural. Especially in urban warfare, the guerrilla force and underground may be integrated.

### Targeting

Detailed targeting may be conducted by separate special reconnaissance or other special operations intelligence resources. The UW unit, however, will almost certainly identify and prioritize targets on its own. One relevant U.S. doctrine is identified by the CARVER mnemonic, although CARVER tends to emphasize air, artillery, direct action raids rather than UW:

* Criticality: How important the target is, in a strategic context. The effect its destruction will have on other elements of the target system. If it is more important to have real-time surveillance of the target (e.g., a road junction) than its physical destruction.
* Accessibility: Ascertain whether an SR team can reach or sense the target, keep it under surveillance for the appropriate time, and then exfiltrate after the target is struck.
* Recuperability: When the target is destroyed by fire support or direct action, in the case of DA missions, ascertain if the enemy can repair, replace, or bypass it quickly, with minimum resources. If so, it may not be a viable target.
* Vulnerability: Find out if SR (including DA) and supporting units have the capability to destroy the target.
* Effect: Beyond pure military effect, what the political, economic, legal, and psychological effects of destroying the target are, and How the attack would affect local civilians.
* Recognizability: Make sure the target can be recognized clearly, by SR and attack forces, under the prevailing weather, light, and in its terrain. If there are critical points within the target, they also must be recognizable by the means of destruction used.

Major target systems vulnerable to UW interdiction operations include railway, highway, waterway, airway, communication, power, water supply, fuel supply, and air defense systems.

### Means of interdiction

To interdict enemy operations, the resistance can use direct combat means such as raids and ambushes. They can also use methods less risky to their security, such as mining or long-range sniping.

#### Raids and ambushes

Raids are short-duration attacks on objectives, with the specific understanding that the attacking force will withdraw quickly after achieving the mission objective, or finding they are confronting forces too strong to handle. UW raids can be simply to disrupt an enemy force, to capture usable equipment, for taking prisoners for intelligence exploitation, and destroying installations. Both for attacking strong points at a distance, and for destroying reinforced structures, SF may use missiles, typically derived from antitank weapons. When the raiding force can access the key target, they often use explosives, manually placed so that a small amount can do maximum damage.

Certain targets, such as bridges, historically could be attacked only by manually placed explosives. With the advent of precision-guided munitions, the destructive part of the raid may involve the SF unit controlling air strikes. Air strikes, however, are practical only when U.S. involvement is not hidden.

Where a raid goes to the enemy and attacks, an ambush waits for enemy forces to come to it, and then engages in combat. A well-planned ambush can have the element of surprise, possibly achieve temporary local superiority, fight from cover, and have preplanned withdrawal routes to avoid being encircled.

Mining and sniping support both raids and ambushes. In a raid, mines may be laid near the enemy reaction force barracks. Snipers can take out critical equipment (e.g., floodlights, radars, artillery) or commanders as the raid begins. Both methods can discourage pursuit while the raid or ambush force withdraws.

#### Mining and improvised explosive devices

In guerrilla warfare, a great number of casualties are caused by mines and other destructive devices that are triggered by some mechanical interaction between a person and the detonation mechanism of the device. Since such devices rarely have a means of distinguishing between a combatant and a noncombatant, there is a very real risk to civilians, and continues to be in areas of the world where there has been much guerrilla warfare. The United States has not ratified the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty. It does promulgate policies and rules of engagement for their use.

When an explosive device is triggered only by the action of a member of the guerrilla force after identifying a legal target, as with the command-detonated mode of the M18A1 Claymore antipersonnel mine, the device is not considered a mine within the context of the Ottawa Treaty. Such devices often are used to initiate combat in an ambush, combining surprise with an intense burst of fragments. U.S. policy states that a directional mine of this type may be emplaced if:

* They are not left out longer than 72 hours.
* The Claymores are located in the immediate proximity of the military unit that emplaced them.
* The area is monitored by military personnel to ensure civilians stay out of the area.

A common use of mines in guerrilla warfare, however, would be to emplace them behind a retreating guerrilla force, so the pursuit force would trigger them. Modern mines disarm themselves after a period of time, but the majority of both purpose-built and improvised mines do not and present the chief humanitarian concern. U.S. policy commits to stop using manufactured mines, which do not automatically disarm, by 2010 "with exception for use for mine action/demining training and research purposes. The US no longer uses non-detectable land mines of any type", although these restrictions all apply to mines manufactured by the United States. The use of improvised mines and boobytraps, however, is a continuing issue.

Since a guerrilla force expects to have the population become increasingly loyal to it, there is an obvious psychological problem with leaving an area with active explosive devices. Especially when a guerrilla force has limited supplies, there is tactical utility to improvising devices, which could be as simple as a hand grenade, fastened next to a trail, and with a taut wire attached to the activating lever of the grenade. Stepping on the wire would pull out the safety ring and start the detonation sequence of the grenade. SF policy does not clearly address this type of device, or those made completely from local materials and having no automatic disarming features. The U.S. Rules of Engagement might ban such devices, but, especially in urban or jungle areas where the guerrillas are not constantly observed, the ban might not be enforced.

#### Sniping

Snipers, when the term is used properly, are highly skilled riflemen that use specialized weapons and tactics to attack specific personnel and equipment far outside normal rifle range. SF sniper training is separate from the training of snipers assigned to conventional units; the USSOCOM sniper school is at Fort Bragg, while the general Army school is at Fort Benning.

In most circumstances, SF snipers use the same rifles as other Army snipers:

* 7.62 mm for ranges under 1 kilometer
    + M24 7.62 mm sniper weapon system, based on the commercial Remington M700 rifle
* .50 caliber for ranges over 1 kilometer, especially for materiel targets:
    + M107/M88, a bolt-action rifle that is the standard sniper rifle for U.S. Navy special operations
    + M82A1, a semiautomatic rifle used by conventional units

### Sabotage and subversion

Both sabotage and subversion are means to reduce the military, political, economic, or morale strengths of an opponent. They differ in that sabotage involves physical damage or damage to information systems, while subversion relies more on changing the behavior of personnel trusted by the opponent. Before the act of sabotage or subversion is executed, preparations for the act must be kept under tight security control. Only a small information leak could defeat the attack.

When sabotage takes place, it may be covert rather than clandestine, in that the enemy knows he has been hurt, but may not know who hurt him. In the more subtle examples of sabotage, however, the enemy may not suspect deliberate action caused an aircraft to crash.

Where the saboteur might contaminate aircraft fuel, the aircraft could be put out of service by a clerk committing subversion, by delaying or losing maintenance orders, resupply of fuel or munitions, or "misrouting" an order for the aircraft to attack.

#### Sabotage

The U.S. defines sabotage as "an act or acts with intent to injure, interfere with, or obstruct the national defense of a country by willfully injuring or destroying, or attempting to injure or destroy, any national defense or war materiel, premises, or utilities, to include human and natural resources."

In a more modern context, sabotage may be one of many ways to attack a given enemy target system. If, for example, the POL target system is targeted, tank farms and refineries could be raided, or pipelines and tanker trucks ambushed or attacked with mines. These will be very evident to the enemy, and the resistance could be damaged if some of their combat teams are captured and interrogated.

If a saboteur were able to gain access to that tank farm, or fuel tanks of vehicles and aircraft, and add a chemical that slowly damaged engines, that agent could be far away by the time the enemy determines what had happened. Carefully planned sabotage can be one of the safest tactics for a UW force.

Sabotage is usually carried out clandestinely by the underground or auxiliary, but it can be carried out by the guerrilla force, under the cover of a combat operation.

SF teams must take great care, especially in failed or failing states with crumbling infrastructure, not to enable dissidents to create hardship for the general population. An excellent example, which reflects societal characteristics that might not be obvious to Americans, is sabotaging an airfield that provides a widely used commodity that must be fresh, such as khat in Somalia.

#### Subversion

Subversion is formally defined as "action designed to undermine the military, economic, psychological, or political strength or morale of a regime." In an insurgency, it will almost certainly be carried out by members of the underground or auxiliary, who have gained the trust of the enemy.

## Support to the UW force

### Strike support

In the organization chart, there is a dotted line to the UCC air command, which normally controls both Air Force and Navy aircraft in the region, and may have air assets based in the U.S. detailed to them. The military staff of the guerrilla government might, assuming U.S. involvement is known, request a U.S. air strike on some target that the guerrillas cannot destroy, or perhaps even reach. Such strikes are not a panacea, as an air strike with civilian casualties will turn the essential political dynamic against the guerrilla force.

### Communications

Communications security is critical. New Special Forces software-defined radios, such as the AN/PRC-148 Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) Inter/Intra Team Radio (JITR) are easily portable, secure and flexible, but capture of such a unit, in the early phases of an operation, confirms U.S. involvement. Tactical radios used internally by the UW force are even more vulnerable to capture. When U.S. involvement is known, however, the latest technology is routinely used.

As a consequence, SF communications specialists must be competent with old but deniable radio communications, including those using Morse Code or field-improvised antennas in the high frequency (HF) range.

### Intelligence support to UW forces

All levels of SF operational detachment have some intelligence collection and analysis capability. Where appropriate, SF has two standing types of teams for intelligence augmentation, one for SIGINT/secure communication and one for counterintelligence. The SF SIGINT unit is the Support Operations Team-Alpha.

Sensitive intelligence sources and methods may not be shared, although the information learned through these sources and methods will be shared. This is not a U.S.-only rule; while the U.S. may not share the details of technical methods such as SIGINT, the guerrilla government may have extremely sensitive information sources. During the Vietnam War, for example, the general U.S. rule was that Vietnamese allies could see only SIGINT information that had a SECRET or lower classification, and that did not carry the additional restriction "handle through COMINT channels only".

### Logistics

Logistical support for all U.S. special operations come from two lines of command: USSOCOM provides "SO-peculiar support to SOF units worldwide." An example of SO-peculiar support would be providing Soviet-bloc ammunition if the guerrillas already have weapons that need it. The UCC commander, however, has overall responsibility for all joint support in his theater. The JSOTF logistics officer (J-4) is responsible for using the extraordinary procurement mechanisms legislatively authorized for USSOCOM, and making sure they are used appropriately.

Note that dotted lines run from the underground and auxiliary to Navy and Air special operations units under the UCC Special Operations commander. These indicate that resupply might be brought in by sea or air, and the UW force will use other than the guerrilla force to receive them. Indeed, the guerrillas might make a diversionary attack to draw attention from the logistics or other vulnerable operation.

SF commands, at battalion and above, have service detachments, tailored to specific missions. The SF support detachment has the responsibility for delivering supplies to the UW units in the field, by means specific to the situation, ranging from clandestine parachuting to armed conventional convoy crossing to the AO.

Title 10 United States Code, Section 167, vests the SOCOM commander with the responsibility and the authority for the development and acquisition of SO-peculiar equipment, materiel, supplies and services—items needed for SO activities; for which there is no service-common requirement; or which the SOCOM commander deems as critically urgent for the immediate accomplishment of an SO activity.

Supplies may be provided by the host nation or private companies within it, if such acquisition is consistent with operational security and mission-specific requirements. This function is centralized under the JSOTF J-4, but civil affairs personnel may provide the actual interface to local providers.


title: Umudu

abstract: Umudu is a village on the west coast of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. It is located to the south of Rasirik and Matakan Mission. In 1990 it had a population of 152. It is located in Namatanai Rural LLG.

text:
# Umudu

**Umudu** is a village on the west coast of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. It is located to the south of Rasirik and Matakan Mission. In 1990 it had a population of 152. It is located in Namatanai Rural LLG.

## InfoBox

| Umudu | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| UmuduLocation | |
| Coordinates: 3°50′S 152°28′E / 3.833°S 152.467°E / -3.833; 152.467 | |
| Country | Papua New Guinea |
| Province | New Ireland Province |
| District | Namatanai District |


title: Umueshi

abstract: Umueshi is a community in Ideato South Local Government Area in Imo State, Nigeria. The community comprises 15 villages, including: Okorobi, Umuezeanuwai, Umunwangwu, Umuanajughi, Ukabi, Umuokwara, Umudieshi, Okoroikpa, Umuduruaku, Umudire, and Obinugwu.

text:
# Umueshi

**Umueshi** is a community in Ideato South Local Government Area in Imo State, Nigeria. The community comprises 15 villages, including: Okorobi, Umuezeanuwai, Umunwangwu, Umuanajughi, Ukabi, Umuokwara, Umudieshi, Okoroikpa, Umuduruaku, Umudire, and Obinugwu.

## Environment

It is the home of Umueshi Gully Erosion intervention project by the World Bank.

## Culture

Umueshi is a Christian community. The two major denominations are Catholic and Anglican. The native inhabitants speak Igbo and English.

## Economy

The main occupations are agriculture and trade.

Natural resources include palm trees, white sand, bamboo trees etc.

## Culture

The Umueshi people maintain cordial relations with their neighbours: Ntueke, Amanator, Ogboko, Obiohia, Isiekenesi, Dikenafai, Umuobom, Ugbelle, Umuma-isiaku, Umuchima and Urualla.

## Geography

Other villages in Umueshi are Umuokwaraire, Umuawa, Umuokohia Umuokaranadike, Okabi, Umuelee, Agwa, and Umuegbu

Umuawa is a village in Umunagankpa clan of Umueshi autonomous community Ideato in Imo state.

Ideato South has faced erosion problems. An intervention programme has the support of the World Bank. Umueshi Gully Erosion intervention site includes Amanato and Ntueke as neighbouring (watershed contributor) communities.

## Economy

The major occupations are agriculture and trade.

## InfoBox

| Umueshi | |
| --- | --- |
| UmueshiLocation of Umueshi in Nigeria | |
| Coordinates: 05°49′49″N 007°6′23″E / 5.83028°N 7.10639°E / 5.83028; 7.10639 | |
| Country | Nigeria |
| State | Imo |
| Local Government Area | Ideato South |
| Government | |
| Governor | Hope Uzodinma (APC) |


title: Management control system

abstract: A management control system (MCS) is a system which gathers and uses information to evaluate the performance of different organizational resources like human, physical, financial and also the organization as a whole in light of the organizational strategies pursued. Management control system influences the behavior of organizational resources to implement organizational strategies. Management control system might be formal or informal.

text:
# Management control system

A **management control system** (**MCS**) is a system which gathers and uses information to evaluate the performance of different organizational resources like human, physical, financial and also the organization as a whole in light of the organizational strategies pursued.

Management control system influences the behavior of organizational resources to implement organizational strategies. Management control system might be formal or informal.

## Overview

Management control systems are tools to aid management for steering an organization toward its strategic objectives and competitive advantage. Management controls are only one of the tools which managers use in implementing desired strategies. However strategies get implemented through management controls, organizational structure, human resources management and culture.

According to Simons (1995), management control systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers use to maintain or alter patterns in organizational activities

Anthony & Young (1999) showed management control system as a black box. The term black box is used to describe an operation whose exact nature cannot be observed.

## History

One of the first authors to define management control systems was Ernest Anthony Lowe, Professor of Accounting and Financial Management at the University of Sheffield, in his 1971 article "On the idea of a management control system." He listed the following four reasons for the need for a planning and control system:

*The need for a planning and control system within a business organization flows from certain general characteristics of the nature of business enterprises, the chief of which are follows:* * *firstly, the enterprise has (by definition) organizational objectives, as distinct from the separable and individual ones of the members constituting the 'managerial coalition';*
* *Secondly, the managers of the sub-units of the enterprise must necessarily be ambivalent in view of their own personal goals, as well as have a good deal of discretion in deciding how they should behave and in formulating their part of any overall plan to achieve organizational objectives;*
* *thirdly, business situations (and people's behaviour) are full of uncertainty, internally as well as externally to the business enterprise.*
* *fourthly, there is a necessity to economize, in human endeavours we are invariably concerned with an allocation of effort and resources so as to achieve a given set of objectives...*

The term ‘management control’ was given of its current connotations by Robert N. Anthony (Otley, 1994).

## Management control system, topics

### Management control

According to Maciariello et al. (1994), management control is concerned with coordination, resource allocation, motivation, and performance measurement. The practice of management control and the design of management control systems draws upon a number of academic disciplines.

* Management control involves extensive measurement and it is therefore related to and requires contributions from accounting especially management accounting.
* Second, it involves resource allocation decisions and is therefore related to and requires contribution from economics especially managerial economics.
* Third, it involves communication, and motivation which means it is related to and must draw contributions from social psychology especially organizational behavior (see Exhibit#1).

\[Anthony and Govindajaran\] (2007) defined Management Control as the process by which managers influence other members of the organization to implement the organization’s strategies. According to Kaplan, management controls are exercised on the basis of information received by the managers.

### Management accounting and management accounting system

Anthony & Young (1999) showed that management accounting has three major subdivisions:

Chenhall (2003) mentioned that the terms management accounting (MA), management accounting systems (MAS), management control systems (MCS), and organizational controls (OC) are sometimes used interchangeably.

In this case, management accounting refers to a collection of practices such as budgeting, product costing or incentives. Organizational controls are sometimes used to refer to controls built into activities and processes such as statistical quality control, just-in-time management.

### Finance-oriented vs. operational-oriented management control

Traditionally, most measures used in management control systems are accounting-based and financial in nature. This emphasis on financial measures, however, distracts from essential non-financial factors such as customer satisfaction, product quality, etc. Furthermore, non-financial measures are better predictors of long-run performance.

Consequently, a management control system should include a comprehensive set of performance aspects consisting of both financial and non-financial metrics. The inclusion of non-financial measures has become an essential characteristic of current management control systems, to the point of becoming the main criterion in distinguishing different systems.

Therefore, depending on the balance between financial and non-financial measures, a management control system may be characterized as finance-oriented or operations-oriented. Finance-oriented control systems are primarily based on financial accounting data, such as costs, earnings or profitability, whereas operations-oriented control systems are primarily based on non-financial data that focus on operational output and quality, for example service volume, employee turnover, or customer complaints.

## Management control system techniques

According to Horngren et al. (2005), management control system is an integrated technique for collecting and using information to motivate employee behavior and to evaluate performance. Management control systems use many techniques such as


title: Management entrenchment

text:
# Management entrenchment

Management is a type of labor with a special role of coordinating the activities of inputs and carrying out the contracts agreed among inputs, all of which can be characterized as "decision making". Managers usually face disciplinary forces by making themselves irreplaceable in a way that the company would lose without them. A manager has an incentive to invest the firm's resources in assets whose value is higher under him than under the best alternative manager, even when such investments are not value-maximizing.

## Managerial entrenchment theory

When managers hold little equity and shareholders are too dispersed to take action against non-value maximization behavior, insiders may deploy corporate actions to obtain personal benefits, such as shirking and perquisite consumption. When ownership and control is divided within a company, agency costs arise. However agency costs decline if the ownership within the company increases as managers are responsible for a larger shares of these costs. On the other hand, giving ownership to a manager within a company may translate into greater voting power which makes the manager's workplace more secure. Hence, they gain protection against takeover threats and the current managerial market.

### Examples of entrenchment strategies

There are a variety of entrenchment practices that managers may employ, such as poison pills, super majority amendments, anti-takeover devices, or the so-called golden parachutes.

* Poison pills - There are two types of poison pills: 1. A "flip-in" allows existing shareholders (except the acquirer) to buy more shares at a discount. 2. A "flip-over" allows stockholders to buy the acquirer's shares at a discounted price after the merger.
* Golden parachutes are contracts given to key executives and can be used as a type of anti-takeover measure taken by a firm to discourage an unwanted takeover attempt.
* Anti-takeover devices - Companies have many different options for preventing takeovers. Continuous provisions include stipulations in the corporate covenant and issues of participating preferred stock. The sporadic measures include the pac-man and macaroni defenses, among others.
* A corporate amendment in a company's charter requiring a large majority (anywhere from 67-90%) of shareholders to approve important changes, such as a merger. This is sometimes called a "supermajority amendment". Often a company's charter will simply call for a majority (more than 50%) to make these types of decisions.

## Managerial entrenchment and capital structure decision

### Associations between the two

There are associations between managerial entrenchment and capital structure decisions which mostly result on the fact that CEOs are reluctant to go into debt when funding an investment. The capital structure is the way that the company chooses to fund its own operations and growth. Debt comes in the form of bond issues or long-term notes payable, while equity is classified as common stock, preferred stock or retained earnings.

Many models suggest that the manager keeps the leverage level according to where the firm mostly maximizes its value. The efficient choice of debt (optimal for shareholders) generally differs from the entrenchment choice (optimal for managers whose objective is to maximize tenure).

### Research

Cross-sectional studies suggest that there is low leverage on firms where the CEO has characteristics associated with entrenchment. A characteristic would be if the CEO has years of experience in the same company. Low leverage was also persistent in companies which had no pressure or strong discipline over their CEOs. Events like the involuntary departure of the CEO and the arrival of a new large stockholder would gradually increase the levels of leverage comparing to before the events were to occur. Leverage also increases after CEOs are subjected to greater performance incentives in the form of increased inventories of stock options.

Moreover, during takeover threats, managers tend to increase debt in order to increase the firm's value, making it more difficult for the takeover to occur. However, this does not necessarily mean that the manager's job is secure. In a sample of target firms that levered up the most, 37 percent of the managers lost their jobs within a year of the failed takeover attempt.

### Conclusions

According to the above research, there are three possible actions managers could take to entrench themselves in association with the gearing ratio:

* Managers are reluctant towards leverage as it concerns the firm's growth and activity. At the same time, they have the tendency to protect under-diversified human capital.
* Managers increase leverage above optimal point to increase their voting power of their stocks/shares with the aim of minimizing placement attempts.
* Managers sometimes allow excess leverage which is a temporary sign that assets are being sold and reorganized. This prevents attempts from outsiders as they might have different projects on how the company should grow.

## Managerial entrenchment and corporate governance

### Corporate governance and firm value

Corporate governance essentially involves balancing the interests of the many stakeholders in a company - these include its shareholders, employees, management, customers, suppliers, financiers, government and the community. A stronger corporate governance is associated with a higher firm valuation and corporate governance mechanisms can be classified into a number of categories such as regulatory mechanisms, disclosures, shareholder rights, ownership structures, and board monitoring.

However through management entrenchment, ownership structure (one of the corporate governance mechanisms) changes in that way which benefits the managers. We already know from the above information that managers have a greater voting power while they are entrenched. A study carried out by Mock et al. on the relationship between manager ownership and firm's value found that as manager ownership increases, the firm's value increases as well, however not in the case where the manager is entrenched. The convergence-of-interest hypothesis suggests that a firm's market valuation should rise as its management owns an increasingly large portion of the firm. On the other hand, the entrenchment hypothesis suggests that as management increases its ownership, the incentive to maximize value declines as market discipline becomes less effective against a larger shareholding manager.

Hence the entrenchment effect will dominate the incentive effect only for medium concentrated levels of management ownership.

### Corporate governance in credit unions

Credit unions have a different approach towards management entrenchment and corporate governance. Since credit unions lack principal-agent governance between shareholders and other members, managers already enjoy benefits and job entrenchments that are not based on their performance. Given the theoretical predictions of Fudenberg and Tirole (1995) and the empirical research by Kanagaretnam, Lobo and Mathieu (2003) we predict that credit union managers with higher comparative levels of salary and perquisites (and limited outside opportunities) will aggressively engage in accounting manipulations when job security is threatened.

### Why managers engage in accounting manipulations

But to what extent are these managers willing to manipulate when capital requirements of credit unions are not met?

Triggering regulations to meet capital requirements for a credit union is very costly, but censuring accounting arbitrage is very costly at the same time. However, some argue the expected costs of regulatory violation are larger than the reputation costs of censure from capital management.

Therefore, managers have three good reasons to involve and censure their accounting manipulations:

1. Credit unions lack equity capital.
2. Lack of opportunities to increase raw capital because managers are unwilling to rise earning as in credit unions it is against their philosophical background (non-profit organisations)
3. Weak agency relationship between shareholders, members, boards etc.

Nowadays, there are several articles and essays on how to accomplish a proper entrenched management exercise without hurting shareholders, yet not abuse them–for example–when a board of directives is given the power to take corporate decisions in certain matters, where the corporation will be protected against hostile takeovers. Nonetheless, this form of corporate governance may cause distinct reaction on shares prices, which is why entrenchment management is not an easy concept to accomplish. Along with corporate governance, entrenchment management requires a lot of research and good management from the corporate market.

## Unions vs. entrenched managers

In practice, entrenched CEOs tend to get higher salary than non-entrenched CEOs. A survey has been conducted. which results suggest that entrenched CEO give higher salaries to their workers compared to non-entrenched CEOs. Because cash flow rights ownership by the CEO and better corporate governance are found to mitigate such behaviour, we interpret the higher pay as evidence of agency problems between shareholders and managers affecting workers' pay.

In a very real sense, unions and managers compete to offer benefits to employees. Since entrenched CEO pay their workers high salaries, the CEO-worker relationship improves, making workers less likely to unionize. Often workers perceive managers' benefits to be more beneficial for them than unions. This leads us to the conclusion that entrenched CEOs have the characteristic of being very competitive when it comes to work loyalty.


title: Unexplained Phenomena

abstract: Unexplained Phenomena is an album by American jazz saxophonist Rob Brown, which was recorded live at the 2010 Vision Festival and released on the French Marge label. He leads a new quartet with vibraphonist Matt Moran, bassist Chris Lightcap and drummer Gerald Cleaver.

text:
# Unexplained Phenomena

***Unexplained Phenomena*** is an album by American jazz saxophonist Rob Brown, which was recorded live at the 2010 Vision Festival and released on the French Marge label. He leads a new quartet with vibraphonist Matt Moran, bassist Chris Lightcap and drummer Gerald Cleaver.

## Reception

Professional ratings
| Review scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| *Down Beat* |  |

The *Down Beat* review states:

> Brown shows that he also can conform to conventions, which is reflected in the structure of the pieces and the instrumentation. Ironically, the saxophonist’s playing is sonically more extreme: proof that even though Brown’s tone has been getting more polished over the years, its ferocity and tartness always come back to the fore when he is at his most incandescent.
>
> Alain Drouot

## Track listing

*All compositions by Rob Brown* 1. "Kite" – 11:00
2. "Wonder/Wander Off" – 9:56
3. "Tic Toc" – 8:42
4. "Lurking/Looking" – 11:51
5. "Bell Tone" – 13:45

## Personnel

## InfoBox

| Unexplained Phenomena | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Live album by Rob Brown | |
| Released | 2011 |
| Recorded | June 23, 2010 |
| Venue | Abrons Arts Center, New York City |
| Genre | Jazz |
| Length | 55:14 |
| Label | Marge |
| Producer | Gérard Terronès |
| Rob Brown chronology | |
| *Natural Disorder*
(2010) ***Unexplained Phenomena***
(2011) *Unknown Skies*
(2011) | |


title: Ultimatum (comics)

abstract: "Ultimatum" is a 2009 comic book storyline published by Marvel Comics under its Ultimate Marvel imprint. It consists of a core five-issue eponymous miniseries written by Jeph Loeb and illustrated by David Finch that was published from January to September 2009, and a number of tie-in books. The storyline deals with Magneto's attempts to destroy the world following the apparent deaths of his children, Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver in The Ultimates 3. The first issue of the core miniseries was the best-selling comic of January 2009, selling over 100,000 copies, though sales dropped with subsequent issues. Despite relatively strong sales, the miniseries received almost universally negative reviews upon its conclusion, as it holds a score of 4 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup. By contrast, the overall crossover storyline holds a score of 5.8 out of 10, whereas higher scores are held by the tie-in series, Ultimatum: Fantastic Four Requiem, Ultimatum: Spider-Man Requiem and Ultimatum: X-Men Requiem hold scores of 7, 7.7 and 6.3, respectively.

text:
# Ultimatum (comics)

"**Ultimatum**" is a 2009 comic book storyline published by Marvel Comics under its Ultimate Marvel imprint. It consists of a core five-issue eponymous miniseries written by Jeph Loeb and illustrated by David Finch that was published from January to September 2009, and a number of tie-in books. The storyline deals with Magneto's attempts to destroy the world following the apparent deaths of his children, Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver in *The Ultimates 3*.

The first issue of the core miniseries was the best-selling comic of January 2009, selling over 100,000 copies, though sales dropped with subsequent issues. Despite relatively strong sales, the miniseries received almost universally negative reviews upon its conclusion, as it holds a score of 4 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup. By contrast, the overall crossover storyline holds a score of 5.8 out of 10, whereas higher scores are held by the tie-in series, *Ultimatum: Fantastic Four Requiem*, *Ultimatum: Spider-Man Requiem* and *Ultimatum: X-Men Requiem* hold scores of 7, 7.7 and 6.3, respectively.

## History

The foreshadowing of the "Ultimatum" storyline began in late 2007 when *Ultimate Power* #8 featured a banner on its cover reading, "March on Ultimatum". The following year, a teaser advertisement for "Ultimatum" ran in all Marvel titles. It depicted a broken tombstone reading 2000-2008, with the 2008 piece broken from its place, indicating that the Ultimate Universe would be ending that year. In an interview on YouTube, artist David Finch said that Loeb would be bringing much to all of the Ultimate Universe to a close.

Loeb said in an interview with Comic Book Resources that the storyline would "hopscotch back and forth between the two books \[*Ultimate Fantastic Four* and *Ultimate X-Men*\] and conclude what I would like to say is the first chapter of the Ultimate Universe."

During the Marvel Ultimate Universe panel at the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con, Jeph Loeb said that Aron Coleite's run on *Ultimate X-Men* would tie-in to "Ultimatum", but did not indicate that the former series would end. While it was first reported in *Wizard* magazine that only one Ultimate Marvel title would be ending following the series, *Ultimate X-Men*, *Ultimate Spider-Man*, and *Ultimate Fantastic Four* were all canceled following the events of "Ultimatum".

*The Ultimates* continued under the title *Ultimate Comics: New Ultimates* after "Ultimatum", and is written by Jeph Loeb and drawn by artist Frank Cho. Mark Millar, writer and creator of *The Ultimates*, *Ultimate Fantastic Four*, and *Ultimate X-Men*, was the writer for a series that was introduced after "Ultimatum", *Ultimate Comics: Avengers*, which featured a rotating team of artists such as Carlos Pacheco, Leinil Francis Yu and Steve Dillon. *Ultimate Spider-Man* was relaunched after the end of "Ultimatum", written by Brian Michael Bendis and drawn by artist David Lafuente, who provided the art for the third *Ultimate Spider-Man Annual*. Loeb also wrote a second series entitled *Ultimate Comics: X*, which dealt with mutants struggling under the new laws passed in the Ultimate Universe after the events of "Ultimatum".

## Storyline

### Background

Elements of "Ultimatum"'s story were established in the *Ultimates 3*, *Ultimate Power*, and *Ultimate Origins* miniseries, all of which featured a banner reading "March on Ultimatum" on their covers. During "Ultimatum", the three Ultimate Marvel titles (*Ultimate X-Men*, *Ultimate Spider-Man*, and *Ultimate Fantastic Four*), featured tie-in stories about various characters and events that occur throughout "Ultimatum". The series mainly builds on the events of *Ultimates 3*, in which the villainous robot Ultron shoots and kills the Scarlet Witch. Ultron's rebellion and Wanda's death lead to a series of events which end with the apparent death of Wanda's brother, Quicksilver, who is shot by Hawkeye when Quicksilver uses his super-speed to intercept the bullet meant for his father. Magneto vows revenge on the Ultimates. Before escaping the Ultimates, Magneto is able to steal Thor's hammer which he uses, along with his magnetic abilities, to reverse the Earth's polarity. It is further revealed that Doctor Doom was manipulating these events.

### Synopsis

A series of disasters befalls a few major cities: a lightning storm suddenly appears in New York City and a tsunami hits Manhattan. Mister Fantastic and the Invisible Woman attempt to make it back into the Baxter Building, while the Thing attempts to hold off a whale that has just crashed through a window. Yellowjacket breaks out of Tony Stark's mansion looking for the Wasp. In the flooded streets of New York City, Bruce Banner appears to have drowned only to turn into the Hulk. Spider-Man attempts to help in rescue efforts. As Beast and Nightcrawler are caught in the tsunami, Angel carries an unconscious Dazzler from underwater to the top of a building. Iron Man rescues Captain America, reporting that many people have died and that he does not know where the rest of the Ultimates are. The Invisible Woman uses a massive force field to push all the water back out of the city without affecting civilians or buildings, but this puts her in a coma. In Latveria, Doctor Doom leaves his castle and discovers that everyone except him has been frozen. Professor X states that millions have died and telepathically informs many of the world's superheroes that Magneto is responsible for the destruction, having made use of a doomsday attack that Xavier knew he had but never believed he would use. Magneto is then revealed to be in a floating citadel with Thor's hammer Mjolnir.

In the aftermath, the Human Torch is missing. Mister Fantastic searches for Namor, whom he believes to be responsible for the widespread destruction. Dazzler, Beast, and Nightcrawler are dead, and the rest of the X-Men begin searching for survivors. Hulk arrives and peacefully assists Spider-Man in rescue efforts. At the Triskelion, Iron Man arrives with an unconscious Captain America, who is put on life support. Hawkeye helps Yellowjacket search for the Wasp, but they discover the Blob eating her corpse. Enraged, the giant-sized Hank Pym bites off the Blob's head. Back at the Baxter Building, the Thing watches over a comatose Invisible Woman, whose powers lash out at him. Meanwhile, Doctor Doom and Zarda confront Reed Richards, and forge a plan to retrieve Nick Fury from the Supreme Power universe. Upon finding Valkyrie's lifeless body, Thor enters Valhalla to reclaim her soul. He is then confronted by Hela, who forces Thor to battle Hela's army of fallen warriors to reach Valkyrie. Captain America appears in Valhalla, implying that he has died. Meanwhile at Xavier's Institute for Gifted Children, Magneto confronts Professor X and tells him that the deaths of Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch have spurred him to exterminate the entire human race. When Professor X states that his motives have made him similar to Osama bin Laden, Pol Pot, and Adolf Hitler, Magneto kills Professor X and leaves.

As the X-Men mourn their dead, Jean Grey telepathically learns of Professor X's death and informs the others. At Magneto's citadel, a Jamie Madrox clone arrives with a bomb strapped to his chest accusing Magneto of turning on his own kind, but Magneto is not dissuaded from his genocidal path. In Valhalla, Thor sacrifices himself to save Valkyrie and Captain America from Hela. Captain America then wakes up, now healed, and announces that Thor is dead. A horde of Jamie Madrox's duplicates—one of many suicide-bomber hordes dispatched by Magneto to blow up targets all over the world—attack the Triskelion just as Yellowjacket arrives. He instructs Iron Man to take Wasp's body and find a file titled "The Jocasta Project". He then carries all the Madrox clones out to sea where he allows himself to be blown up with them. Captain America orders the Ultimates to gather all the remaining heroes and lead them in an assault on Magneto's citadel.

Kitty Pryde leaves to search for Spider-Man, who was caught in an explosion inside the Sanctum Sanctorum, the home of Doctor Strange. She and Spider-Woman find his mask, and assume he is dead.

Strange's home is destroyed by an explosion. When Dormammu appears, Strange confronts him. Dormammu, who is channeling the Human Torch's flame, kills Doctor Strange. Meanwhile in the Supreme Power universe, Richards, Doom, Zarda, and Arcanna approach the exiled Nick Fury. Fury reveals that he knew of Magneto's plan and forces Doctor Doom to reveal that he is responsible for the Scarlet Witch's death. Doom explains that he killed her in an attempt to overthrow humanity himself, but never expected Magneto to seek vengeance upon the world. Mister Fantastic and Zarda are outraged that Doom instigated Magneto's mass murder. Back in the Ultimate Universe, the Ultimates and Wolverine confront Magneto at his citadel. Angel also arrives and is immediately killed by Sabretooth. Hawkeye blinds Sabretooth by shooting him through the eye. Magneto's arm is cut off by Valkyrie who is trying to reclaim Thor's hammer. Magneto slashes Valkyrie's throat, but this does not kill her. Captain America attacks Magneto. In response, Magneto collapses the ceiling on them, trapping them in the rubble. He flees and cauterizes his arm with his magnetic abilities. He is confronted by Cyclops, Phoenix, Wolverine, Storm, Hawkeye, and Iron Man.

After controlling Cyclops' visor and Iron Man's lasers into hitting Wolverine, Magneto kills Wolverine by ripping the adamantium from his bones and affecting his cells in such a way that he cannot regenerate. Nick Fury arrives with Mister Fantastic, Doctor Doom, and Zarda, and implements his contingency plan. Using Jean's telepathy, Fury transmits his memories to Magneto, showing him that the existence of mutants was in fact the result of a misguided genetic super-soldier experiment (the decades-ago merging of Nick Fury's super-soldier blood and the DNA of Wolverine, thereafter alternately known as "Mutant Zero") and not the "divine calling" that Magneto had long thought it was. Disillusioned, Magneto immediately reverses the damage he had done to the Earth's magnetic poles. Despite insisting that Professor X would have forgiven him, Cyclops disintegrates Magneto's head with his optic blast at Magneto's request. The heroes destroy the citadel and leave. Eight days later, the world has begun to recover from the devastation. Cyclops gives a speech in Washington D.C. before a crowd of anti-mutant protesters. He acknowledges Magneto's crimes, but pleads for peace between humans and mutants. He also announces that Congress is currently voting on a bill that will require all mutants to turn themselves in to the U.S. government or be shot on sight. However, Cyclops is fatally shot in the head by an unknown assassin. Meanwhile, Thing travels to Latveria and kills Doctor Doom after being informed by Reed Richards that in every one of millions of alternate scenarios he can come up with, the world suffers greatly under Doom's rule unless he is killed. In Wundagore, Quicksilver is revealed to be alive and reveals that he was the one who assassinated Cyclops. He then takes Magneto's helmet and swears to carry on his father's dream, all while in the presence of an unknown mastermind – a woman whose identity is hidden in the shadows.

### Aftermath

Following the "Ultimatum" storyline, each Ultimate title was given a *Requiem* follow-up series or one-shot, dealing with the status of each book's characters in the aftermath of *Ultimatum*.

## Reception

### Sales

The core *Ultimatum* miniseries enjoyed strong sales. The first issue was the #1 selling book for November 2008, with 114,230 books sold by Diamond. However, sales dropped with the second issue, which sold less than 75,000 copies. Over the course of its nine-month run, *Ultimatum* lost an estimated 27,482 readers.

### Critical reception

The overall crossover holds a score of 5.8 out of 10 on the review aggregator Comic Book Roundup, based on 17 reviews. The core miniseries holds a score of 4 out of 10, based on five reviews. The tie-in series hold higher scores, with *Ultimatum: Fantastic Four Requiem*, *Ultimatum: Spider-Man Requiem* and *Ultimatum: X-Men Requiem* holding scores of 7, 7.7 and 6.3, respectively, based on 1, 2, and 1 reviews, respectively. The initial reviews of the core miniseries' earlier issues were mixed, with issue #1 holding a score of 6.3 out of 10 at Comic Book Roundup, based on 10 reviews, with the following four issues holding scores of 4.8, 3.7, 2.2 and 2.8, based on 8, 5, 6, and 6 reviews, respectively.

In reviews of the first issue, Zak Edwards of ComicBookBin took notice of Loeb's ability to relay characterization while plotting a catastrophic event, while Jesse Schedeen of IGN thought Loeb's characterization in the first issue was poor. Weekly Comic Book Review's Andrew C. Murphy gave the miniseries' first issue a B+, praising David Finch's art, while Ben Berger gave it a C, opining that there was too much exposition, but also praising Finch's art.

Criticism of Loeb's writing was more common in reviews of subsequent issues, and universal by the time of the series' conclusion. David Finch's art generally drew more praise, though even that element was not without its critics, with some reviewers taking issue with Finch's focus on characters' physical beauty over expressiveness, and more than one reviewer criticizing him for his depiction of Carol Danvers's breast size.

Schedeen gave the series' final issue a scathing review, saying, "*Ultimatum* is one of the worst comics I have ever read," and called it "the ultimate nightmare." Criticism of Loeb's writing centered on his dialogue, the number of characters he killed off, and inconsistent characterization and storytelling. Other points of criticism among these reviews also included the level of graphic violence, which included cannibalism, and the notion that the series was sold on the basis of its shock value.

Still others asserted the story lacked originality, and that the series would have been better suited to someone who had previously been more involved with the Ultimate Marvel line, such as Brian Michael Bendis or Mark Millar, particularly in light of Loeb's critically panned work on *Ultimates 3*.

## Collected editions

| Title | Material collected | Published date | ISBN |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Ultimatum: March On Ultimatum* | *Ultimate Fantastic Four/Ultimate X-Men Annual* #1, *Ultimate X-Men/Ultimate Fantastic Four Annual* #1, *Ultimate Captain America Annual* #1, *Ultimate Hulk Annual* #1 and *Ultimate Spider-Man Annual* #3 | February 2009 | 978-0785135647 |
| *Ultimatum* | *Ultimatum* #1-5 | October 2009 | 978-0785133001 |
| *Ultimatum: X-Men/Fantastic Four* | *Ultimate X-Men* #98-100 and *Ultimate Fantastic Four* #58-60 | May 2009 | 978-0785134329 |
| *Ultimatum: Spider-Man* | *Ultimate Spider-Man* #129-133, and *Annual* #3 | September 2009 | 978-0785141242 |
| *Ultimatum: Requiem* | *Ultimatum: Spider-Man Requiem*, *Fantastic Four Requiem*, and *X-Men Requiem* | October 2009 | 978-0785139256 |
| *Ultimatum Companion* | *Ultimate Fantastic Four* #58–60, *Ultimatum Fantastic Four: Requiem, Ultimate Spider-Man* #129–133, *Ultimatum Spider-Man: Requiem* #1–2, *Ultimate X-Men* #98–100, *Ultimatum X-Men: Requiem, March on Ultimatum Saga, Marvel Spotlight: Ultimatum* | May 2011 | 978-0785155072 |

## InfoBox

| *Ultimatum* | |
| --- | --- |
| Cover of *Ultimatum* 1 (Nov, 2008), art by David Finch | |
| Publication information | |
| Publisher | Marvel Comics |
| Schedule | Monthly |
| Format | Limited series |
| Genre |  |
| Publication date | January – September 2009 |
| No. of issues | 5 |
| Main character(s) | Brotherhood of Mutants
Fantastic Four
Spider-Man
X-Men
Ultimates |
| Creative team | |
| Written by | Jeph Loeb |
| Penciller(s) | David Finch |
| Inker(s) | Danny Miki |
| Colorist(s) | Steve Firchow
Peter Steigerwald
Guru eFX |


title: Manauli Fort

abstract: Manauli Fort is located in the Manauli village of Mohali district, Punjab, India. It is 11 kilometres (7 mi) from Mohali city and nearly 4 km away from International Chandigarh Airport Road Mohali. Manauli is a small village with a population of 3,919 and 693 households. As per land record area of the village is 738 hectares. The fort is 6.1 metres (20 ft) above the village habitation level.

text:
# Manauli Fort

**Manauli Fort** is located in the Manauli village of Mohali district, Punjab, India. It is 11 kilometres (7 mi) from Mohali city and nearly 4 km away from International Chandigarh Airport Road Mohali. Manauli is a small village with a population of 3,919 and 693 households (2011 Census). As per land record area of the village is 738 hectares (1,820 acres) (s.no. 85). The fort is 6.1 metres (20 ft) above the village habitation level.

## InfoBox

| Manauli Fort | |
| --- | --- |
| Manauli, Punjab, India | |
| Front view of Manauli Fort | |
| Manauli Fort | |
| Coordinates | 30°38′37″N 76°43′27″E / 30.64361°N 76.72417°E / 30.64361; 76.72417 |
| Type | Fort |
| Site information | |
| Controlled by | Government of Punjab (India) |
| Open to<br>the public | Yes |
| Condition | Not Good |
| Site history | |
| Built by | Nawab Kapur Singh |


title: Unguja South Region

abstract: Unguja South Region, Zanzibar South Region or South Zanzibar Region is one of the 31 regions of Tanzania. The region covers an area of 854 km⁲ (330 sq mi). The region is comparable in size to the combined land area of the nation state of Kiribati. and the administrative region is located entirely on the island of Zanzibar. Unguja South Region is bordered on three sides to the south by Indian Ocean, northeast by Unguja North Region and northwest by Mjini Magharibi Region. The regional capital is the town of Koani. Besides being known for its Spinner dolphin populations, the region is also home to the oldest mosque in East Africa, the Kizimkazi Mosque and also historic Makunduchi town. The region has the fourth highest HDI in the country, making one of the most developed regions in the country. According to the 2022 census, the region has a total population of 195,873.

text:
# Unguja South Region

**Unguja South Region**, **Zanzibar South Region** or **South Zanzibar Region** (*Mkoa wa Unguja Kusini* in Swahili) is one of the 31 regions of Tanzania. The region covers an area of 854 km2 (330 sq mi). The region is comparable in size to the combined land area of the nation state of Kiribati. and the administrative region is located entirely on the island of Zanzibar. Unguja South Region is bordered on three sides to the south by Indian Ocean, northeast by Unguja North Region and northwest by Mjini Magharibi Region. The regional capital is the town of Koani. Besides being known for its Spinner dolphin populations, the region is also home to the oldest mosque in East Africa, the Kizimkazi Mosque and also historic Makunduchi town. The region has the fourth highest HDI in the country, making one of the most developed regions in the country. According to the 2022 census, the region has a total population of 195,873.

## Geography

### Geology

The geological area of Unguja Island that is on its southern and eastern sides shares a border with Unguja North Region to the north, and Unguja Urban West Region to the west. There aren't many rivers, but three major freshwater creeks that feed Chwaka Bay are surrounded by mangrove forests and expand into huge stretches of seagrass and calcareous Halimeda beds.4,934 acres of Unguja Island is covered with mangroves, the majority of which is in the South Unguja Region, particularly the Uzi Island complex in the south and the Chwaka Bay forest in the northeast. For many marine life forms, especially fish and crustaceans, the Chwaka Bay is crucial as spawning grounds and feeding grounds. There are a few clay-bound sands and gravels near to river-dominated areas, although biogenic and recent limestone origins are generally the dominant sediment types.

### Coral reefs

The region is distinguished by a significant length of bordering reef that stretches from the region's northernmost point, where it borders with Unguja North, southward to the island's southwest, where it borders with West Region. These reefs are rather small in size and mostly comprise a reef flat and a reef slope. There are a few weak and small patch reefs in the lagoon on the landward of this bordering reef. The Menai Bay in the western part of the region is an exception, since it contains a number of small islands and sand banks with several patch reefs on the sheltered side and diverse formations of bordering reefs around the islands, particularly on the sides that are exposed to high seas.Pungume, Mianembe, Komunda, and Miwi Islets are some of Unguja South Region's reefs.

### Temperature and percipitation

In the coastal plains, the climate is hot and muggy, whereas in the highlands, it is temperate. The highest monthly means are between 31.6 °C and 33 °C during the hot season from December to March, when the temperatures only drop to 23.5 °C to 24.1 °C. The data on average monthly temperatures from Zanzibar weather station (Zanzibar Airport) between 1986 and 2012 show ranges from a low of around 20.5 °C during the coolest months of August and September, when maximum temperatures are 29.1 °C and 30.3 °C for those months. The minimum relative humidity during the dry season (July to September) is 60%. Relative humidity ranges from 87% in April to 76% in November.

Over the period of 1987 to 2012, the nearest weather station at Zanzibar Airport recorded an average annual rainfall of 1,583 mm (ranging from 704 mm to 2,459 mm), with monthly rainfall peaks in April and May (the main wet season), when 641 mm of rain fell during those two months, and November to December (the short rains), when over 375 mm of rain fell. This rainfall pattern is clearly predominantly bi-modal.

## Economy

The people of the Unguja South Region participate in a variety of economic activities, with farming, fishing, tourism, seaweed farming, retail trade, and employment in the government among the major ones. The region's two main industries, farming and fishing, employ roughly 26% and 23% of the labor force, respectively. Tourism employs 14.5%, seaweed farming employs 24.5%, and all other activities combined employ 10.3%.

### Infrastructure

The Region is connected to adjacent areas and to the entire Unguja Island by a decent network of tarmac roads. A number of feeder roads exist. Almost every village has a road that leads to it, with varying degrees of accessibility throughout the year. There aren't many feeder roads that are challenging to maneuver when it rains. Since there are numerous phone towers in this area and all major mobile phone operators have networks there, the coverage is adequate.

### Agriculture

On the entire Unguja Island (or roughly 34% of the entire island), there are 528 km2 of agricultural land. Coconut, cloves, maize (678 ha), paddy (1813 ha), sorghum (228 ha), seaweed (142 ha), sweet potatoes (1955 ha), yams (789 ha), cocoyam (358 ha), and cassava (4,248 ha) are the main crops grown in the Unguja South region, according to the 2007/8 agricultural census. Other crops grown include okra, cabbage, bitter aubergine, radish, cowpeas, green peas, and many kinds of vegetables. 4,488 people work as seaweed farmers in the Unguja South region, largely in coastal communities on the district's eastern beaches, primarily in the communities near Chwaka Bay and as far south as Paje and Jambiani.

The Unguja South region has roughly 33,003 cattle, 20,915 goats, 155,063 chickens, 3,900 ducks, and minor numbers of other species of livestock, making livestock rearing another significant agricultural activity.

In the South Unguja Region, fishing is the third-largest industry after agriculture and tourism, employing 3,360 fishermen in addition to 1,681 foot fishers. In 2009, the South region's annual capture of fishery products was 3,331 tons, of which 1,535 tons were collected in the Kati District and 1,796 tons in the Kusini District. There are 1,386 different types of fishing boats total, including dinghy, dugout canoe, outrigger canoe, boats, and dhow.

### Tourism

Beaches and hotels of all classes and standards may be found in South Unguja Region, which is very well known for them. In the South Unguja Region, 13.3% of families work directly in the tourism industry, which includes jobs in direct sales, product sales, dolphin tourism (at Kizimkazi), handcraft production and sales, and tour guiding. Although handcrafting and some hotel jobs, particularly housekeeping, are predominately held by women, the business is largely controlled by men. Between June and November, humpback whale sightings in the Zanzibar Channel are frequently reported to be only a few miles offshore. Bottlenose and humpback dolphin sightings are also frequent near the Zanzibar Channel reefs. The almost 250 bottlenose dolphins that live off Kizimkazi contribute to the area's main tourist draw. The Jozani Forest Nature Reserve, which has been expanded to include Chwaka Bay, is home to the Red Colubus Monkey, Zanzibar Duiker, and maybe Zanzibar Leopard as well. On the entire Unguja Island, there are 756 km2 of woodland (representing about 49% of the island) and 42 km2 of natural forest (representing about 3%). Unguja's protected woods and woodlands are primarily found in the South, in Jozani-Chwaka Bay.

## Population

The first people in what is now Unguja South Region are the Hadimu, whom trace their ancestry to Pwani Region. Followed by the Swahili, Shirazi, Omani and Indian communities over the centuries. There are 115,588 people total in Unguja South Region, 57,708 females and 57,880 males. The region's population increased by more than 26% throughout the ten-year period, with an average annual growth rate of 2.33% between 2002 and 2012. From 104 people per square kilometer in 2002, the population density in the area increased to 131 people per square kilometer in 2012. 53.8% of people live in poverty in Unguja South, compared to a 49% total poverty incidence in Zanzibar (Zanzibar HBS, 2004/05). According to figures from 2006, 94.7% of males and 90.3% of women over the age of 15 were literate, while the under-five mortality rate in Unguja South was 114 (per 1,000 live births).

## Administrative divisions

### Districts

Unguja South Region is divided into two districts, each administered by a council:

| Districts of Unguja South Region | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Map | District | Population (2022) |
|  | Kati District | 132,717 |
| | Kusini District | 63,156 |
| | **Total** | **195,873** |

### Constituencies

For parliamentary elections, Tanzania is divided into constituencies. As of the 2010 elections Zanzibar Central/South Region had five constituencies:

* Kati District
    + Chwaka Constituency
    + Koani Constituency
    + Uzini Constituency
* Kusini District
    + Makunduchi Constituency
    + Muyuni Constituency

## Notable people from Unguja Kusini Region

## InfoBox

| Unguja South Region *Mkoa wa Unguja Kusini* (Swahili) | |
| --- | --- |
| Region | |
| **From top to bottom:**
Kizimkazi scene, Kizimkazi Mosque & Red colobus in Jozani forest | |
| Nickname: Wild Zanzibar | |
| Location in Tanzania | |
| Coordinates: 6°15′51.48″S 39°26′42″E / 6.2643000°S 39.44500°E / -6.2643000; 39.44500 | |
| Country | Tanzania |
| Named for | Unguja Island |
| Capital | Koani |
| Districts | List |
| Area | |
| Total | 854 km2 (330 sq mi) |
| Rank | 29th of 31 |
| Population (2022) | |
| Total | 195,873 |
| Rank | 31st of 31 |
| Density | 230/km2 (590/sq mi) |
| Demonym | South Zanzibari |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Settler | Swahili, Shirazi, Omani, Indians |
| Native | Hadimu |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (EAT) |
| Postcode | 72xxx |
| Area code | 024 |
| ISO 3166 code | TZ-11 |
| HDI (2021) | 0.639
medium · 4th |
| Website | Official website |
|  | |
| Symbols of Tanzania | |
|  | |
| Bird | Pemba white-eye |
| Butterfly | African grass blue |
| Fish | Powder blue surgeonfish |
| Mammal | Spinner dolphin |
| Tree | Black mangrove |
| Mineral | Coral |
|  | |


title: Unguka Bank

abstract: LOLC Unguka Finance PLC, commonly known as Unguka Bank, is a microfinance institution in Rwanda. It is one of the MFI licensed by the National Bank of Rwanda, the country's banking regulator.

text:
# Unguka Bank

**LOLC Unguka Finance PLC**, commonly known as **Unguka Bank**, is a microfinance institution in Rwanda. It is one of the MFI licensed by the National Bank of Rwanda, the country's banking regulator.

## Overview

As of June 2012, UBL was a small but growing financial service provider, whose total asset valuation and shareholders' equity were publicly unknown at this time. At that time, the bank had 556 shareholders and 14 branches.

## History

The institution was founded in 2005, as Unguka Microfinance Limited, by 215 investors with total capital of about US$538,400 (RWF:321.1 million). In 2008, the bank's processes were automated. In 2012, the institution transformed into a microfinance bank, following the issuance of a microfinance banking licence by the National Bank of Rwanda. The bank rebranded as Unguka Bank Limited.

## Ownership

The stock of Uguka Bank is privately owned by corporate and individual investors. At this time, the detailed shareholding in the bank is not publicly known. 35% shareholding is owned by Rural Impulse Fund II (RIF).

## InfoBox

LOLC Unguka Finance PLC
| Company type | Private |
| --- | --- |
| Industry | Banking |
| Founded | 2005 |
| Headquarters | Kigali, Rwanda |
| Key people | Justin Kagishiro<br>chief executive officer |
| Products | Loans, Electronic productss, savings, investments, mortgages, Remittances |
| Revenue | Aftertax: US$387,000+ (RWF:230 million) (2010) |
| Number of employees | 170 |
| Website | www.lolcunguka.com |