title: Acacia stellaticeps

abstract: Acacia stellaticeps, commonly known as the Northern star wattle, poverty bush and glistening wattle. Indigenous Australians the Nyangumarta peoples know the bush as pirrnyur or pirrinyurru and the Ngarla peoples know it as panmangu. It is a shrub of the genus Acacia and the subgenus Plurinerves.

text:
# Acacia stellaticeps

***Acacia stellaticeps***, commonly known as the **Northern star wattle**, **poverty bush** and **glistening wattle**. Indigenous Australians the Nyangumarta peoples know the bush as **pirrnyur** or **pirrinyurru** and the Ngarla peoples know it as **panmangu**. It is a shrub of the genus *Acacia* and the subgenus *Plurinerves*.

## Description

The low dense shrub typically grows to a height of 2 metres (7 ft) and to a width of around 3 m (9.8 ft). It has numerous slender main stems separating from each other at ground level that are covered in smooth or finely fissured, grey coloured bark. Like most species of *Acacia* it has phyllodes rather than true leaves. The dull-green to greyish green phyllodes have an asymmetrically elliptic-obovate shape and are usually slightly sigmoid. They have a length of 5 to 25 mm (0.20 to 0.98 in) and a width of 3 to 15 mm (0.12 to 0.59 in) and appear nerveless with one to three longitudinal nerves that are slightly more distinct than the others. It blooms from October to May and produces yellow flowers.

## Taxonomy

The species was first formally described by the botanists Peter Kodela, Mary Tindale and D.Keith in 2001 as part of the work *Acacia stellaticeps (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae), a new species from the Pilbara, Western Australia, to Tanami, Northern Territory.* as published by the world *Nuytsia*. It was reclassified as *Racosperma stellaticeps* in 2003 by Leslie Pedley then transferred back to genus *Acacia* in 2006.

## Distribution

It is native to an area in the Kimberley, Pilbara and northern Goldfields regions of Western Australia. It is commonly found on flats, plains and sand ridges where it grows in stony sandy or clay soils. It is mostly found from around the Exmouth Gulf in the south to around Broome in the north extending eastward into the Great Sandy Desert and the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory. The shrub is usually found in soft spinifex communities especially those with *Triodia pungens* and *Triodia epactia* and in red sandy soils where *A. stellaticeps* can large, dense, pure stands.

## InfoBox

| Northern star wattle | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Fabales |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
| Subfamily: | Caesalpinioideae |
| *Clade*: | Mimosoid clade |
| Genus: | *Acacia* |
| Species: | ***A. stellaticeps*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Acacia stellaticeps***<br>Kodela, Tindale & D.A.Keith | |
|
|  | |
| Occurrence data from AVH | |


title: Wörth, Upper Bavaria

abstract: Wörth is a municipality in the district of Erding in Bavaria in Germany.

text:
# Wörth, Upper Bavaria

**Wörth** (German pronunciation: \[vœʁt\] ) is a municipality in the district of Erding in Bavaria in Germany.

## InfoBox

| Wörth | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
| Church of Saint Peter | |
|  | |
| Location of Wörth within Erding district | |
| Wörth Wörth | |
| Coordinates: 48°14′N 11°54′E / 48.233°N 11.900°E / 48.233; 11.900 | |
| Country | Germany |
| State | Bavaria |
| Admin. region | Oberbayern |
| District | Erding |
| Municipal assoc. | Hörlkofen |
| Government | |
| Mayor (202026) | Thomas Gneißl |
| Area | |
| Total | 21.05 km2 (8.13 sq mi) |
| Highest elevation | 520 m (1,710 ft) |
| Lowest elevation | 480 m (1,570 ft) |
| Population (2023-12-31) | |
| Total | 4,483 |
| Density | 210/km2 (550/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| Postal codes | 85457 |
| Dialling codes | 08123, 08122 |
| Vehicle registration | ED |
| Website | www.vg-hoerlkofen.de |


title: Protocell

abstract: A protocell is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a rudimentary precursor to cells during the origin of life. A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and how their progeny could diversify, thus enabling the accumulation of novel biological emergences over time. Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, the goal to understand the process appears well within reach. A protocell is a pre-cell in abiogenesis, and was a contained system consisting of simple biologically relevant molecules like ribozymes, and encapsulated in a simple membrane structure – isolating the entity from the environment and other individuals – thought to consist of simple fatty acids, mineral structures, or rock-pore structures.

text:
# Protocell

A **protocell** (or **protobiont**) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a rudimentary precursor to cells during the origin of life. A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and how their progeny could diversify, thus enabling the accumulation of novel biological emergences over time (i.e. biological evolution). Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, the goal to understand the process appears well within reach.

A protocell is a pre-cell in abiogenesis, and was a contained system consisting of simple biologically relevant molecules like ribozymes, and encapsulated in a simple membrane structure – isolating the entity from the environment and other individuals – thought to consist of simple fatty acids, mineral structures, or rock-pore structures.

## Overview

Compartmentalization was important in the origin of life. Membranes form enclosed compartments that are separate from the external environment, thus providing the cell with functionally specialized aqueous spaces. As the lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to most hydrophilic molecules (dissolved by water), modern cells have membrane transport-systems that achieve nutrient uptake as well as the export of waste. Prior to the development of these molecular assemblies, protocells likely employed vesicle dynamics that are relevant to cellular functions, such as membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, using amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, numerous chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the ingredients of life. Of these substances, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular assembly to cellular life. Vesicle dynamics could progress towards protocells with the development of self-replication coupled with early metabolism. It is possible that protocells might have had a primitive metabolic system (Wood-Ljungdahl pathway) at alkaline hydrothermal vents or other geological environments like impact crater lakes from meteorites, which are known to be composed of elements found in the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway.

Another conceptual model of a protocell relates to the term "chemoton" (short for 'chemical automaton') which refers to the fundamental unit of life introduced by Hungarian theoretical biologist Tibor Gánti. It is the oldest known computational abstract of a protocell. Gánti conceived the basic idea in 1952 and formulated the concept in 1971 in his book *The Principles of Life* (originally written in Hungarian, and translated to English only in 2003). He surmised the chemoton as the original ancestor of all organisms, or the last universal common ancestor.

The basic assumption of the chemoton model is that life should fundamentally and essentially have three properties: metabolism, self-replication, and a bilipid membrane. The metabolic and replication functions together form an autocatalytic subsystem necessary for the basic functions of life, and a membrane encloses this subsystem to separate it from the surrounding environment. Therefore, any system having such properties may be regarded as alive, and will contain self sustaining cellular information that is subject to natural selection. Some consider this model a significant contribution to origin of life as it provides a philosophy of evolutionary units.

## Selectivity for compartmentalization

Self-assembled vesicles are essential components of primitive cells. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the universe becomes increasingly disordered (entropy), yet life is distinguished by its great degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate life processes from non-living matter. This fundamental necessity is underpinned by the universality of the cell membrane which is the only cellular structure found in all organisms on Earth.

In the aqueous environment in which all known cells function, a non-aqueous barrier is required to surround a cell and separate it from its surroundings. This non-aqueous membrane establishes a barrier to free diffusion, allowing for regulation of the internal environment within the barrier. The necessity of thermodynamically isolating a subsystem is an irreducible condition of life. In modern biology, such isolation is ordinarily accomplished by amphiphilic bilayers of a thickness of around 10−8 meters.

Researchers including Irene A. Chen and Jack W. Szostak have demonstrated that simple physicochemical properties of elementary protocells can give rise to simpler conceptual analogues of essential cellular behaviors, including primitive forms of Darwinian competition and energy storage. Such cooperative interactions between the membrane and encapsulated contents could greatly simplify the transition from replicating molecules to true cells. Competition for membrane molecules would favor stabilized membranes, suggesting a selective advantage for the evolution of cross-linked fatty acids and even the phospholipids of today. This micro-encapsulation allowed for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages of encapsulation include increased solubility of the cargo and creating energy in the form of chemical gradients. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in molecular structures such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when chemically combined with oxygen during cellular respiration.

## Vesicles, micelles and membranes

When phospholipids or simple lipids like fatty acids are placed in water, the molecules spontaneously arrange such that the hydrophobic tails are shielded from the water, resulting in the formation of membrane structures such as bilayers, vesicles, and micelles. In modern cells, vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, and enzyme storage. They can also act as natural chemical reaction chambers. A typical vesicle or micelle in aqueous solution forms an aggregate with the hydrophilic "head" regions in contact with surrounding solvent, sequestering the hydrophobic single-tail regions in the micelle center. This phase is caused by the packing behavior of single-tail lipids in a bilayer. Although the spontaneous self-assembly process that form lipid *monolayer* vesicles and micelles in nature resemble the kinds of primordial vesicles or protocells that might have existed at the beginning of evolution, they are not as sophisticated as the *bilayer* membranes of today's living organisms. However, in a prebiotic context, electrostatic interactions induced by short, positively charged, hydrophobic peptides containing seven amino acids in length or fewer, can attach RNA to a vesicle membrane, the basic cell membrane.

Rather than being made up of phospholipids, early membranes may have formed from monolayers or bilayers of simple fatty acids, which may have formed more readily in a prebiotic environment. Fatty acids have been synthesized in laboratories under a variety of prebiotic conditions and have been found on meteorites, suggesting their natural synthesis in nature. Oleic acid vesicles represent good models of membrane protocells

Cohen et al. (2022) suggest that plausible prebiotic production of fatty acids — leading to the development of early protocell membranes — is enriched on metal-rich mineral surfaces, possibly from impact craters, increasing the prebiotic environmental mass of lipids by 102 times. They evaluate three different possible synthesis pathways of fatty acids in the Hadean, and found that these metal surfaces could produce 1011 \- 1015 kg of 6-18 carbon fatty acids. Of these products, the 8-18C fatty acids are compatible with membrane formation. They also propose that alternative amphiphiles like alcohols are co-synthesized with fatty acid, and can help improve membrane stability. However, despite this production, the authors state that net fatty acid synthesis would not yield sufficient concentrations for spontaneous membrane formation without significant evaporation of Earth's aqueous environments.

## Membrane transport

For cellular organisms, the transport of specific molecules across compartmentalizing membrane barriers is essential in order to exchange content with their environment and with other individuals. For example, content exchange between individuals enables the exchange of genes between individuals (horizontal gene transfer), an important factor in the evolution of cellular life. While modern cells can rely on complicated protein machineries to catalyze these crucial processes, protocells must have accomplished this using more simple mechanisms.

Protocells composed of fatty acids would have been able to easily exchange small molecules and ions with their environment. Modern phospholipid bilayer cell membranes exhibit low permeability, but contain complex molecular assemblies which both actively and passively transport relevant molecules across the membrane in a highly specific manner. In the absence of these complex assemblies, simple fatty acid based protocell membranes would be more permeable and allow for greater non-specific transport across membranes. Molecules that would be highly permeable across protocell membranes include nucleoside monophosphate (NMP), nucleoside diphosphate (NDP), and nucleoside triphosphate (NTP), and may withstand millimolar concentrations of Mg2+. Osmotic pressure can also play a significant role regarding this passive membrane transport.

Environmental effects have been suggested to trigger conditions under which a transport of larger molecules, such as DNA and RNA, across the membranes of protocells is possible. For example, it has been proposed that electroporation resulting from lightning strikes could enable such transport. Electroporation is the rapid increase in bilayer permeability induced by the application of a large artificial electric field across the membrane. During electroporation, the lipid molecules in the membrane shift position, opening up a pore (hole) that acts as a conductive pathway through which hydrophobic molecules like nucleic acids can pass the lipid bilayer. A similar transfer of content across protocells and with the surrounding solution can be caused by freezing and subsequent thawing. This could, for instance, occur in an environment in which day and night cycles cause recurrent freezing. Laboratory experiments have shown that such conditions allow an exchange of genetic information between populations of protocells. This can be explained by the fact that membranes are highly permeable at temperatures slightly below their phase transition temperature. If this point is reached during the freeze-thaw cycle, even large and highly charged molecules can temporarily pass the protocell membrane.

Some molecules or particles are too large or too hydrophilic to pass through a lipid bilayer even under these conditions, but can be moved across the membrane through fusion or budding of vesicles, events which have also been observed for freeze-thaw cycles. This may eventually have led to mechanisms that facilitate movement of molecules to the inside of the protocell (endocytosis) or to release its contents into the extracellular space (exocytosis).

## Suitable prebiotic environments

***See also:** Abiogenesis: Suitable Geologic Environment, RNA World: Prebiotic RNA Synthesis*

### Hydrothermal systems

It has been proposed that life began in hydrothermal vents in the deep sea, but a 2012 study suggests that hot springs have the ideal characteristics for the origin of life. The conclusion is based mainly on the chemistry of modern cells, where the cytoplasm is rich in potassium, zinc, manganese, and phosphate ions, not widespread in marine environments. Such conditions, the researchers argue, are found only where hot hydrothermal fluid brings the ions to the surface—places such as geysers, mud pots, fumaroles and other geothermal features. Within these fuming and bubbling basins, water laden with zinc and manganese ions could have collected, cooled and condensed in shallow pools. However, a recent discovery of alkaline hydrothermal vents with an ionic concentration of sodium lower than in seawater suggests that high concentrations of potassium can be found at marine environments.

A study in the 1990s showed that montmorillonite clay can help create RNA chains of as many as 50 nucleotides joined together spontaneously into a single RNA molecule. Later, in 2002, it was discovered that by adding montmorillonite to a solution of fatty acid micelles (lipid spheres), the clay sped up the rate of vesicle formation 100-fold.

Some minerals can catalyze the stepwise formation of hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids from hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases—gases that may have been released from hydrothermal vents or geysers. Fatty acids of various lengths are eventually released into the surrounding water, but vesicle formation requires a higher concentration of fatty acids, so it is suggested that protocell formation started at land-bound hydrothermal freshwater environments such as geysers, mud pots, fumaroles and other geothermal features where water evaporates and concentrates the solute.

In 2019, Nick Lane and colleagues show that vesicles form readily in seawater conditions at pH between 6.5 and \>12 and temperatures 70 °C, meant to mimic the conditions of alkaline hydrothermal vents, with the presence of lipid mixtures, however a prebiotic source to such mixtures is unclear in those environments. Simple amphiphilic compounds in seawater do not assemble into vesicles because of the high concentration of ionic solutes. Research has shown that vesicles can be bound and stabilized by prebiotic amino acids even while in the presence of salt ions and magnesium ions.

In hot spring conditions, self-assembly of vesicles occurs, which have a lower concentration of ionic solutes. Scientists oligomerized RNA in alkaline hydrothermal vent conditions in the laboratory. Although they were estimated to be 4 units in length, it implies RNA polymers possibly were synthesized at such environments. Experimental research at hot springs gave higher yields of RNA-like polymers than in the laboratory. The polymers were encapsulated in fatty acid vesicles when rehydrated, further supporting the hot spring hypothesis of abiogenesis. These wet-dry cycles also improved vesicle stability and binding. UV exposure has also been shown to promote the synthesis of stable biomolecules like nucleotides.

In the origin of chemiosmosis, if early cells originated at alkaline hydrothermal vents, proton gradients can be maintained by the acidic ocean and alkaline water from white smokers while an inorganic membranous structure is in a rock cavity. If early cells originated in terrestrial pools such as hot springs, quinones present in meteorites like the Murchison meteorite would promote the development of proton gradients by coupled redox reactions if the ferricyanide, the electron acceptor, was within the vesicle and an electron donor like a sulfur compound was outside of the lipid membrane. Because of the "water problem", a primitive ATP synthase and other biomolecules would go through hydrolysis due to the absence of wet-dry cycles at hydrothermal vents, unlike at terrestrial pools. Other researchers propose hydrothermal pore systems coated in mineral gels at deep sea hydrothermal vents to an alternative compartment of membranous structures, promote biochemical reactions of biopolymers, and could solve the "water problem". David Deamer and Bruce Damer argue that biomolecules would become trapped within these pore systems upon polymerization and would not undergo combinatorial selection. Catalytic FeS and NiS walls at alkaline hydrothermal vents has also been suggested to have promoted polymerization.

However, Jackson (2016) evaluates how the pH gradient between alkaline hydrothermal vents and acidic Hadean seawater might influence prebiotic synthesis. Three main criticisms emerge from this evaluation. Firstly, the maintenance and stability of membranes positioned suitably between turbulent pH gradients seemed implausible. They claim that the proposition of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 precipitates interacting with fluid mixing in subsurface pores do not produce satisfactory environments. Secondly, they suggest that the molecular assemblies required to utilize key energetic gradients available at hydrothermal systems were too complex to have been relevant at the origin of life. Lastly, they argue that even if a molecular assembly could have harvested available hydrothermal energy, those assemblies would have been too large to operate within the proposed membrane thicknesses accepted by proponents of the hydrothermal vent hypothesis. In 2017, Jackson takes a further stance, suggesting that even if an organism successfully originated in alkaline hydrothermal pores, exploiting natural pH gradients for energy, it would not be able to withstand the drastic change of environment after emergence from the vent environment in which it had solely evolved. This emergence, however, is essential to the niche differentiation of life, allowing for the diversification of habitats and energetic strategies. Counters to these arguments suggest that the close resemblance between biochemical pathways and geochemical systems at alkaline hydrothermal vents gives merit to the hypothesis, and that selection on these protocells would improve resilience to environmental change, allowing for emergence and distribution.

It has been considered by other researchers that life originating in hydrothermal volcanic ponds exposed to UV radiation, zinc sulfide photocatalysis, and occurrence of continuous wet-dry cycling would not resemble modern biochemistry. Maximal ATP synthesis is shown to occur at high water activity and low ion concentrations. Despite this, hydrothermal vents are still considered to be a feasible environment as some shallow hydrothermal vents emit freshwater and the concentration of divalent cations in Hadean oceans were likely lower than in modern oceans. Nick Lane and coauthors state that "alkaline hydrothermal systems tend to precipitate Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions as aragonite and brucite, so their concentrations are typically much lower than mean ocean values. Modelling work in relation to Hadean systems indicates that hydrothermal concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ would likely have been \<1 mM, which is in the range that enhanced phosphorylation here. Other conditions considered here, including salinity and high pressure, would have only limited effects on ATP synthesis in submarine hydrothermal systems (which typically have pressures in the range of 100 to 300 Bars). Alkaline hydrothermal systems might also have generated Fe3+ in situ for ADP phosphorylation. Thermodynamic modelling shows that the mixing of alkaline hydrothermal fluids with seawater in submarine systems can promote continuous cycling between ferrous and ferric iron, potentially forming soluble hydrous ferric chlorides, which our experiments show have the same effect as ferric sulphate".

### Montmorillonite bubbles

Another group suggests that primitive cells might have formed inside inorganic clay microcompartments, which can provide an ideal container for the synthesis and compartmentalization of complex organic molecules. Clay-armored *bubbles* form naturally when particles of montmorillonite clay collect on the outer surface of air bubbles under water. This creates a semi permeable vesicle from materials that are readily available in the environment. The authors remark that montmorillonite is known to serve as a chemical catalyst, encouraging lipids to form membranes and single nucleotides to join into strands of RNA. Primitive reproduction can be envisioned when the clay bubbles burst, releasing the lipid membrane-bound product into the surrounding medium.

### Membraneless droplets

Another way to form primitive compartments that may lead to the formation of a protocell is polyesters membraneless structures that have the ability to host biochemicals (proteins and RNA) and/or scaffold the assemblies of lipids around them. While these droplets are leaky towards genetic materials, this leakiness could have facilitated the progenote hypothesis.

### Coacervates

Researchers have also proposed early encapsulation in aqueous phase-separated droplets called coacervates. These droplets are driven by the accumulation of macromolecules, producing a distinct dense phase liquid droplet within a more dilute liquid medium. These droplets can propagate, retaining their internal composition, through shear forces and turbulence in the medium, and could have acted as a means of replicating encapsulation for an early protocell. However, replication was highly disordered and droplet fusion is common, calling into question coacervates true potential for distinct compartmentalization leading to competition and early Darwinian-selection.

## Sexual reproduction

Eigen *et al*. and Woese proposed that the genomes of early protocells were composed of single-stranded RNA, and that individual genes corresponded to separate RNA segments, rather than being linked end-to-end as in present-day DNA genomes. A protocell that was haploid (one copy of each RNA gene) would be vulnerable to damage, since a single lesion in any RNA segment would be potentially lethal to the protocell (e.g. by blocking replication or inhibiting the function of an essential gene).

Vulnerability to damage could be reduced by maintaining two or more copies of each RNA segment in each protocell, i.e. by maintaining diploidy or polyploidy. Genome redundancy would allow a damaged RNA segment to be replaced by an additional replication of its homolog. For such a simple organism, the proportion of available resources tied up in the genetic material would be a large fraction of the total resource budget. Under limited resource conditions, the protocell reproductive rate would likely be inversely related to ploidy number, and the protocell's fitness would be reduced by the costs of redundancy. Consequently, coping with damaged RNA genes while minimizing the costs of redundancy would likely have been a fundamental problem for early protocells.

A cost-benefit analysis was carried out in which the costs of maintaining redundancy were balanced against the costs of genome damage. This analysis led to the conclusion that, under a wide range of circumstances, the selected strategy would be for each protocell to be haploid, but to periodically fuse with another haploid protocell to form a transient diploid. The retention of the haploid state maximizes the growth rate. The periodic fusions permit mutual reactivation of otherwise lethally damaged protocells. If at least one damage-free copy of each RNA gene is present in the transient diploid, viable progeny can be formed. For two, rather than one, viable daughter cells to be produced would require an extra replication of the intact RNA gene homologous to any RNA gene that had been damaged prior to the division of the fused protocell. The cycle of haploid reproduction, with occasional fusion to a transient diploid state, followed by splitting to the haploid state, can be considered to be the sexual cycle in its most primitive form. In the absence of this sexual cycle, haploid protocells with damage in an essential RNA gene would simply die.

This model for the early sexual cycle is hypothetical, but it is very similar to the known sexual behavior of the segmented RNA viruses, which are among the simplest organisms known. Influenza virus, whose genome consists of 8 physically separated single-stranded RNA segments, is an example of this type of virus. In segmented RNA viruses, "mating" can occur when a host cell is infected by at least two virus particles. If these viruses each contain an RNA segment with a lethal damage, multiple infection can lead to reactivation providing that at least one undamaged copy of each virus gene is present in the infected cell. This phenomenon is known as "multiplicity reactivation". Multiplicity reactivation has been reported to occur in influenza virus infections after induction of RNA damage by UV-irradiation, and ionizing radiation.

## Artificial models

### Langmuir–Blodgett deposition

Starting with a technique commonly used to deposit molecules on a solid surface, Langmuir–Blodgett deposition, scientists are able to assemble phospholipid membranes of arbitrary complexity layer by layer. These artificial phospholipid membranes support functional insertion both of purified and of *in situ* expressed membrane proteins. The technique could help astrobiologists understand how the first living cells originated.

### Jeewanu protocells

Jeewanu protocells are synthetic chemical particles that possess cell-like structure and seem to have some functional living properties. First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and basic organics while exposed to sunlight, it is still reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of semipermeable membrane, amino acids, phospholipids, carbohydrates and RNA-like molecules. The nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to be clarified.

In a similar synthesis experiment a frozen mixture of water, methanol, ammonia and carbon monoxide was exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This combination yielded large amounts of organic material that self-organised to form globules or vesicles when immersed in water. The investigating scientist considered these globules to resemble cell membranes that enclose and concentrate the chemistry of life, separating their interior from the outside world. The globules were between 10 and 40 micrometres (0.00039 and 0.00157 in), or about the size of red blood cells. Remarkably, the globules fluoresced, or glowed, when exposed to UV light. Absorbing UV and converting it into visible light in this way was considered one possible way of providing energy to a primitive cell. If such globules played a role in the origin of life, the fluorescence could have been a precursor to primitive photosynthesis. Such fluorescence also provides the benefit of acting as a sunscreen, diffusing any damage that otherwise would be inflicted by UV radiation. Such a protective function would have been vital for life on the early Earth, since the ozone layer, which blocks out the sun's most destructive UV rays, did not form until after photosynthetic life began to produce oxygen.

### Bio-like structures

The synthesis of three kinds of "jeewanu" have been reported; two of them were organic, and the other was inorganic. Other similar inorganic structures have also been produced. The investigating scientist (V. O. Kalinenko) referred to them as "bio-like structures" and "artificial cells". Formed in distilled water (as well as on agar gel) under the influence of an electric field, they lack protein, amino acids, purine or pyrimidine bases, and certain enzyme activities. According to NASA researchers, "presently known scientific principles of biology and biochemistry cannot account for living inorganic units" and "the postulated existence of these living units has not been proved".

### Analogous Research: Fuel Cells

In March 2014, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated a unique way to study the origins of life: fuel cells. Fuel cells are similar to biological cells in that electrons are also transferred to and from molecules. In both cases, this results in electricity and power. The study of fuel cells suggest that an important factor in protocell development was that the Earth provides electrical energy at the seafloor. "This energy could have kick-started life and could have sustained life after it arose. Now, we have a way of testing different materials and environments that could have helped life arise not just on Earth, but possibly on Mars, Europa and other places in the Solar System."

## Ethics, controversy, and research considerations

Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including criticism of vague definitions of "artificial life". The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern, although the most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication.

Additionally, postulation into the conditions for protocellular origins of life on Earth remain debated. Scientists in the field emphasize the importance of further hypothesis based experimentation over theoretical conjecture to more concretely constrain the prebiotic plausibility of different protocell morphologies, geologic conditions, and synthetic schemes.


title: Matsumyia

abstract: Matsumyia is a genus of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

text:
# Matsumyia

***Matsumyia*** is a genus of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

## Species

## InfoBox

| *Matsumyia* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Family: | Syrphidae |
| Subfamily: | Eristalinae |
| Tribe: | Milesiini |
| Subtribe: | Criorhinina |
| Genus: | *Matsumyia*
Shiraki, 1949 |
|
| Type species | |
| *Priomerus jesoensis*
Matsumura, 1911 | |


title: Raymond Forchion

abstract:
Raymond Forchion is an American actor, writer, producer, and director who has appeared on film, television and stage. Aside from several pilots and TV movies, he has co-starred on series such as Burn Notice, Numb3rs, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Femme Fatales, Southland,
Will & Grace, The Golden Girls, Wiseguy and In the Heat of the Night. He has had recurring roles on General Hospital and Miami Vice. His film credits include Flight of the Navigator (1986), Point Break (1991) and Masterblaster (1987). Directors and actors he has worked with include: Ron Howard, Katherine Bigelow, Randal Kleiser, Burt Reynolds, Johnny Depp, Joshua Logan, Curtis Hanson, Keanu Reeves, Franco Zeffirelli, Cliff Robertson, James Burrows, Joe Roth, Tobe Hooper, Jay Roach, Robert Ellis Miller and others. Forchion has starred in nearly 100 commercials. In addition to playing O. J. Simpson in the award-winning CBS miniseries, American Tragedy, he co-starred in HBO's Emmy-winning movie about the 2000 election, Recount, with Kevin Spacey, Tom Wilkinson, Ed Begley Jr., and Laura Dern. In 2007, Forchion produced Confessions of a Thug, a hip-hop musical film starring Daron Fordham, in which an educated street hustler re-examines his life. It won Best Direction from the San Diego Black Film Festival and was an official selection of the Urbanworld/Vibe Film Festival in New York. In 1992, he was a producer of Last Breeze of Summer, which was made at the American Film Institute and garnered an Oscar nomination for Best Live Action Short. The Horrible Dr. Bones, from Forchion's original screenplay, is available in stores now from Full Moon Releasing. Forchion is a recipient of the 1999 Team Player Award from the Black Hollywood Education Resource Center, a lifetime achievement for service to the film industry.

text:
# Raymond Forchion

**Raymond Forchion** is an American actor, writer, producer, and director who has appeared on film, television and stage. Aside from several pilots and TV movies, he has co-starred on series such as *Burn Notice*, *Numb3rs*, *Star Trek: The Next Generation*, *Femme Fatales*, *Southland*, *Will & Grace*, *The Golden Girls*, *Wiseguy* and *In the Heat of the Night*. He has had recurring roles on *General Hospital* and *Miami Vice*. His film credits include *Flight of the Navigator* (1986), *Point Break* (1991) and *Masterblaster* (1987).

Directors and actors he has worked with include: Ron Howard, Katherine Bigelow, Randal Kleiser, Burt Reynolds, Johnny Depp, Joshua Logan, Curtis Hanson, Keanu Reeves, Franco Zeffirelli, Cliff Robertson, James Burrows, Joe Roth, Tobe Hooper, Jay Roach, Robert Ellis Miller and others. Forchion has starred in nearly 100 commercials. In addition to playing O. J. Simpson in the award-winning CBS miniseries, *American Tragedy*, he co-starred in HBO's Emmy-winning movie about the 2000 election, *Recount*, with Kevin Spacey, Tom Wilkinson, Ed Begley Jr., and Laura Dern.

In 2007, Forchion produced *Confessions of a Thug*, a hip-hop musical film starring Daron Fordham, in which an educated street hustler re-examines his life. It won Best Direction from the San Diego Black Film Festival and was an official selection of the Urbanworld/Vibe Film Festival in New York. In 1992, he was a producer of *Last Breeze of Summer*, which was made at the American Film Institute and garnered an Oscar nomination for Best Live Action Short. *The Horrible Dr. Bones*, from Forchion's original screenplay, is available in stores now from Full Moon Releasing.

Forchion is a recipient of the 1999 Team Player Award from the Black Hollywood Education Resource Center, a lifetime achievement for service to the film industry.

## Personal life

Forchion was born in Mount Holly Township, New Jersey, and raised in Moorestown Township, New Jersey. Later, he moved to Miami, Florida, and currently resides in Los Angeles, California.

## Filmography

Film
| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1979 | *Hot Stuff* | Holdup Man #1 |  |
| 1980 | *The Pilot* | Advertising Personnel |  |
| | *Island Claws* | Jean |  |
| 1981 | *The Funhouse* | Man in Tent Show | Uncredited |
| | *Nobody's Perfekt* | Army Officer |  |
| | *Freddie of the Jungle* | African Warrior | Uncredited |
| 1983 | *Cat and Dog* | | Angry Man |
| | *Blue Skies Again* | Jimmy |  |
| | *Smokey and the Bandit Part 3* | Tar Worker |  |
| 1985 | *The Mean Season* | Newsroom Reporter | Uncredited |
| | *Private Resort* | Bartender |  |
| 1986 | *Flight of the Navigator* | Detective Banks |  |
| | *Whoops Apocalypse* | Conference Guard |  |
| 1987 | *Masterblaster* | Lincoln Shakir |  |
| | *Revenge of the Nerds II* | Policeman |  |
| 1988 | *Mac and Me* | Police Officer #1 |  |
| 1991 | *Point Break* | Neighbor |  |
| | *True Identity* | Burly Cop |  |
| 2001 | *No Turning Back* | Hospital Cop |  |
| 2002 | *Are You a Serial Killer?* | Juice | Short |
| 2005 | *Confessions of a Thug* | Himself | Also producer |
| 2013 | *Island Songs* | Detective | Short |
| 2013 | *Pastor Shirley* | Mr. Titan |  |
| 2014 | *Last Writes* | Doctor | Short |
| 2016 | *Neron* | Moll |  |
| 2017 | *Destruction Los Angeles* | Fire Marshall |  |
| 2018 | *Lost Fare* | Gardener |  |
| 2019 | *Faith, Hope and Love* | City Worker Joe |  |
| 2021 | *Wizardream* | N/A |  |

Television
| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1977 | *The African Queen* | African Villager | TV movie, uncredited |
| 1979 | *Jennifer's Journey* | Street Guy | 1 episode |
| 1980 | *Angel City* | Migrant Worker | TV movie |
| | *The Wild and the Free* | Habibu | |
| | *¿Qué pasa, U.S.A.?* | Mike Donahue | Episode: "There Goes the Neighborhood" |
| 1983 | *Feel the Heat* | Detective | Pilot |
| 1984–1986 | *Miami Vice* | Don/ O'Hara | 4 episodes |
| 1986 | *Intimate Strangers* | Corey Wells | TV movie |
| | *Charley Hannah* | N/A | |
| 1987 | *Wiseguy* | Cecil Demont | Episode :"Loose Cannon" |
| 1988 | *Bustin' Loose* | Cop | 1 episode |
| | *Moonlighting* | Crime Scene Cop | Episode :"And the Flesh Was Made Word" |
| | *Star Trek: The Next Generation* | Lt. Ben Prieto | Episode: "Skin of Evil" |
| | *Hemmingway* | Willard | 4 episodes |
| 1991 | *In the Heat of the Night* | Wallace Fannoy | Episode :"Just A Country Boy" |
| | *Bad Attitudes* | Cohn | TV movie |
| | *Us* | | Warden Turner |
| 1992 | *The Golden Girls* | Professor Bradley | Episode :"Question and Answers" |
| 1994 | *Smart Kids* | Dad | TV movie |
| | *In a Split Second* | Father | |
| 1995–1996 | *Ellen* | Smitty / Customer #2 | 2 episodes |
| 1999 | *City Guys* | Mr. Washington | Episode :"Alley Oops" |
| 2000 | *American Tragedy* | O.J Simpson | TV movie |
| | *Will & Grace* | Clayton | Episode :"Low in the Mid-Eighties" |
| 2008 | *Recount* | Jeff Robinson | TV movie |
| | *General Hospital* | Coast Guard Officer | Episode #1.11681 |
| 2010 | *Numb3rs* | Wayne Petersen | Episode: "Scratch" |
| 2012 | *Southland* | Carter | Episode: "Community" |
| | *Burn Notice* | Butch McCall | Episode: "Split Decision" |
| | *Femme Fatales* | Judge Aldrich | Episode: "Hell Hath No Furies" |
| 2013 | *Grey's Anatomy* | Minister | Episode: "Things We Said Today" |
| 2014 | *Taylor'd Problems* | Mr. Johnson | Episode: "Guess Who's Coming for Dinner ?" |
| | *Franklin & Bash* | Male Board Member #5 | Episode: "Falcon's Nest" |
| | *Scandal* | Judge Lancaster | Episode: "An Innocent Man" |
| 2015 | *Shameless* | Minister | Episode: "I'm the Liver" |
| | *The Adversaries* | Judge Haywood Dempsey | TV movie |
| 2016 | *2 Lava 2 Lantula !* | | Hal |
| | *Fresh Off the Boat* | Ted | 2 episodes |
| 2017 | *Insecure* | Uncle Jesse | Episode: "Hella Open" |
| 2018 | *Goliath* | Mayor Peter Anderson | Episode: "Who's Gabriel" |
| | *Snowfall* | Rushed Customer | Episode: "Serpiente" |
| | *Into the Dark* | Hank | Episode: "The Body" |
| | *Almost Perfect* | Detective George | TV movie |
| | *Station 19* | Minister | Episode: "Last Day on Earth" |
| 2019 | *S.W.A.T* | Marcus | Episode: "Funny Money" |
| | *Good Trouble* | Pastor Thurston | 2 episodes |
| 2020 | *Better Things* | Settlement Officer | Episode: "Father's Day" |
| 2021 | *A Christmas Family Reunion* | Terrence | TV movie |
| 2023 | *Legacy* | Tommy | Episode: "Afternath" |

## InfoBox

| Raymond Forchion | |
| --- | --- |
| Raymond Forchion | |
| Born | Moorestown Township, New Jersey, U.S. |
| Occupation(s) | Actor, writer, producer, director |
| Years active | 1977–present |


title: Matt Leonard

abstract: Matt Leonard is a former professional American football defensive tackle in the National Football League (NFL). He played four games for the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2003, recording two tackles. He had a tenor.

text:
# Matt Leonard

**Matt Leonard** (born November 7, 1979) is a former professional American football defensive tackle in the National Football League (NFL). He played four games for the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2003, recording two tackles. He had a tenor.

## InfoBox

Matt Leonard
| No. 96 | |
| --- | --- |
| Position: | Defensive tackle |
| Personal information | |
| Born: | (1979-11-07) November 7, 1979<br>Agua Dulce, California |
| Height: | 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) |
| Weight: | 301 lb (137 kg) |
| Career information | |
| High school: | Palmdale (Palmdale, California) |
| College: | Stanford |
| Undrafted: | 2003 |
| Career history | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Career NFL statistics | |
| Total tackles: 2  Games played: 4  Games started: 0 | |
|  | |
| Player stats at **PFR** | |
|  | |


title: Wells Japanese Garden

abstract: Wells Japanese Garden is a small Japanese garden located at 1608 Lindsay Street in Newberry, South Carolina. It is open daily. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. The garden was created by W. Fulmer Wells in 1930, donated to the city in 1971, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. It is currently being restored and maintained by the Newberry Council of Garden Clubs. The garden contains two ponds, concrete bridges in a Japanese style, torii, a teahouse, and a variety of indigenous and exotic flora including lotus, Japanese iris, water lilies, crepe myrtle, dogwood, and cypress. On February 12, 2012, at 12:12 the City of Newberry met with Senior Curator of The Presidential Service Museum, Martin CJ Mongiello, to accept a gift of a Matsu (pine) tree. Mongiello lived in Japan for many years and remembered visiting Tokyo's famed Zōjō-ji Temple, where Presidents George H. W. Bush and Ulysses S. Grant each planted a pine tree. City officials at the meeting were Matt DeWitt and Jeff Shacker. Doctor Jerry Livingston, a local resident and former missionary in Japan of 40 years visited at 2:12 on the 12th to be introduced to the garden for the first time. Komatsu Corporation donated a sizeable fund to help with additions at the garden in 2012. Both Doctor Livingston and Mongiello pledged to assist in the garden for 2012.

text:
# Wells Japanese Garden

**Wells Japanese Garden** is a small Japanese garden located at 1608 Lindsay Street in Newberry, South Carolina. It is open daily.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

The garden was created by W. Fulmer Wells in 1930, donated to the city in 1971, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. It is currently being restored and maintained by the Newberry Council of Garden Clubs.

The garden contains two ponds, concrete bridges in a Japanese style, torii, a teahouse, and a variety of indigenous and exotic flora including lotus, Japanese iris, water lilies, crepe myrtle, dogwood, and cypress.

On February 12, 2012, at 12:12 the City of Newberry met with Senior Curator of The Presidential Service Museum, Martin CJ Mongiello, to accept a gift of a Matsu (pine) tree. Mongiello lived in Japan for many years and remembered visiting Tokyo's famed Zōjō-ji Temple, where Presidents George H. W. Bush and Ulysses S. Grant each planted a pine tree. City officials at the meeting were Matt DeWitt and Jeff Shacker. Doctor Jerry Livingston, a local resident and former missionary in Japan of 40 years visited at 2:12 on the 12th to be introduced to the garden for the first time.

Komatsu Corporation donated a sizeable fund to help with additions at the garden in 2012. Both Doctor Livingston and Mongiello pledged to assist in the garden for 2012.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Wells Japanese Garden | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | 1608 Lindsay St., Newberry, South Carolina |
| Coordinates | 34°16′42″N 81°37′11″W / 34.27833°N 81.61972°W / 34.27833; -81.61972 |
| Area | 0.5 acres (0.20 ha) |
| Built | 1930 |
| Architect | Wells, W. Fulmer |
| MPS | Newberry MRA |
| NRHP reference No. | 80003689 |
| Added to NRHP | November 26, 1980 |


abstract: The Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District, roughly bounded by Jackson, 15th, and 8th Streets, as well as the Union Pacific main line, is located in downtown Omaha, Nebraska. Today this historic district includes several buildings listed individually on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Union Pacific Depot and the Burlington Station.

text:
# Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District

The **Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District**, roughly bounded by Jackson, 15th, and 8th Streets, as well as the Union Pacific main line, is located in downtown Omaha, Nebraska. Today this historic district includes several buildings listed individually on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Union Pacific Depot and the Burlington Station.

## About

The Union Pacific Railroad was of central importance to the growth of Omaha, particularly between 1887 and 1945. Buildings in the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District were built to serve business related to the main line of the transcontinental railroad, which runs through the present-day district. Large warehouses, manufacturing warehouses, transfer and storage companies, and service businesses filled the area.

Today, the buildings border the Old Market, and serve as apartments, artist studios and other commercial enterprises.

## Notable buildings

Several buildings within the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places or are significant for their local history.

| Name | Year | Location | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Bushman Warehouse | 1890 | 1013 Leavenworth Street | This is a five-story brick and stone building originally used as a warehouse. The Bushman Warehouse was converted to rental residential and commercial space in 1998. |
| Union Pacific Depot | 1931 | 10th and Marcy Streets |  |
| Burlington Station | 1898 | 10th and Pacific Streets |  |
| Bemis Bag Company Building | 1889 | 11th and Jones Streets | Built in 3 phases between 1887 and 1902, the oldest part of the building is the portion next to the alley on 11th street. |
| Avery Manufacturing Warehouse | 1899 |  |  |
| Mercantile Storage and Warehouse Building | 1920 |  |  |
| Sattley Manufacturing Building | 1899 |  |  |
| Butternut Building | 1909 | 714-716 South 10th Street, Omaha, Nebraska | Also known as the Parlin, Orendorff and Martin Plow Company Building, this nine-story building was designed in the Renaissance Revival style by John Latenser, Sr. |
| Creighton Block | 1906 |  |  |
| Bekins Building | 1916 |  | Also known as the Western Newspaper Union and the Joslyn Lofts. |
|

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. Historic district | |
|  | |
| View from the 10th Street Bridge, looking west | |
|  | |
| Location | Roughly bounded by Jackson, 15th, 8th Sts., and UP Main Line, Omaha, Nebraska |
| Coordinates | 41°15′9″N 95°55′46″W / 41.25250°N 95.92944°W / 41.25250; -95.92944 |
| Area | 74.3 acres (30.1 ha) |
| Built | 1887 |
| Architect | multiple |
| Architectural style | late 19th and early 20th century American Movements |
| NRHP reference No. | 96000769 |
| Added to NRHP | July 19, 1996 |


title: Falagria sulcata

abstract: Falagria sulcata is a species of rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae. It is found in North America and Europe.

text:
# Falagria sulcata

***Falagria sulcata*** is a species of rove beetle in the family Staphylinidae. It is found in North America and Europe.

## Further reading

* Lobl, I.; Smetana, A., eds. (2015). *Catalogue of Palaearctic Coleoptera, Volume 2: Hydrophiloidea - Staphylinoidea*. Apollo Books. ISBN 978-90-04-29685-5.

## InfoBox

| *Falagria sulcata* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Staphylinidae |
| Genus: | *Falagria* |
| Species: | ***F. sulcata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Falagria sulcata***<br>(Paykull, 1789) | |
|


title: Rally Hokkaido

abstract: The Rally Hokkaido (ラリー北海道), is an international rallying event held on the island of Hokkaidō in Japan. The rally was first held in 2002 as Japan's entry into the Asia-Pacific Rally Championship and Japan's return to international rallying. In 2004 the rally was promoted to World Championship status as the inaugural Rally Japan. The following year the World and Asia-Pacific rallies were split into separate rallies with both still being held in Hokkaido with Rally Japan as the WRC round, Rally Hokkaido as the APRC round. It has been throughout a Japan Rally Championship event as well. The event has been dominated by Subaru Imprezas. Local driver Toshihiro Arai has won his home event six times.

text:
# Rally Hokkaido

The **Rally Hokkaido** (ラリー北海道), is an international rallying event held on the island of Hokkaidō in Japan.

The rally was first held in 2002 as Japan's entry into the Asia-Pacific Rally Championship and Japan's return to international rallying.

In 2004 the rally was promoted to World Championship status as the inaugural Rally Japan. The following year the World and Asia-Pacific rallies were split into separate rallies with both still being held in Hokkaido with Rally Japan as the WRC round, Rally Hokkaido as the APRC round. It has been throughout a Japan Rally Championship event as well.

The event has been dominated by Subaru Imprezas. Local driver Toshihiro Arai has won his home event six times.

## List of winners

Sourced in part from:

| Year | Winner | Car |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2002 | Possum Bourne | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2003 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2004 | Petter Solberg | Subaru Impreza WRC 2004 |
| 2005 | Katsuhiko Taguchi | Mitsubishi Lancer Evo III |
| 2006 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2007 | Cody Crocker | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2008 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2009 | Cody Crocker | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2010 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2011 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2012 | Toshihiro Arai | Subaru Impreza WRX STi |
| 2013 | Gaurav Gill | Škoda Fabia S2000 |
| 2014 | Jan Kopecký | Škoda Fabia S2000 |
| 2015 | Pontus Tidemand | Škoda Fabia S2000 |
| 2016 | Gaurav Gill | Škoda Fabia R5 |
| 2017 | Gaurav Gill | Škoda Fabia R5 |
| 2018 | Yuya Sumiyama | Škoda Fabia R5 |
| 2019 | Mike Young | Toyota C-HR |
| 2023 | Jari-Matti Latvala | Toyota GR Yaris Rally2 |
|


title: Academic discourse socialization

abstract: Academic discourse socialization is defined as one's growing process to realize the academic discourse and reach the expectation of the academic community. Academic discourse socialization is a form of language socialization through which newcomers or novices gain knowledge of the academic discourses by socializing and interacting with peers, experts, or more knowledgeable people in their community and social network. A dynamic and complex process, academic discourse socialization requires negotiation of both knowledge and one's identity. This kind of interaction is defined as a bidirectional process in which both novice learners and experts learn from one another.

text:
# Academic discourse socialization

**Academic discourse socialization** is defined as one's growing process to realize the academic discourse and reach the expectation of the academic community. Academic discourse socialization is a form of language socialization through which newcomers or novices gain knowledge of the academic discourses by socializing and interacting with peers, experts, or more knowledgeable people in their community and social network. A dynamic and complex process, academic discourse socialization requires negotiation of both knowledge and one's identity. This kind of interaction is defined as a bidirectional process in which both novice learners and experts learn from one another.

## Early work and major contributions

Over the last two decades, the field of applied linguistics has given renewed attention to academic discourse socialization, especially the disciplinary socialization of second language students. A growing body of research has explored socialization experiences of both first and second language learners through oral discourses, such as academic presentations, small group discussions and student-teacher individual conferences for feedback on writing. To understand the complex processes that academic discourse socialization entails, some studies have also explored students' out of class interactions. For instance, Seloni's micro ethnography investigated the role of both in-class and out-of-class collaboration of first-year doctoral students in facilitating their socialization into their respective academic communities. She also noted that in these social spaces (classroom and informal interactions) doctoral students accepted and resisted literacy practices and thus created "hybrid forms of literacy practices". While some studies revealed that out of class collaborations are effective and have a positive effect on socialization experiences, others demonstrated that these collaborations are not always favorable.

Recently, written interactions in the form of feedback have also gained some attention in the field and increased our understanding on the impact of feedback (as a social practice) on second language students' socialization into their academic discourses and communities.

Technology-mediated academic discourse socialization have also become more common with the increasing use of digital tools, such as discussion forums, google docs, blogs and applications of Wikipedia-based assignments in higher education.

## Function and process

Collaboration is central to academic discourse socialization. Shifting from individual to collaborative work and building a social network expands understanding of the textbook and discourses. Not only interactions that take place in formal settings (classrooms) but also collaborating with others, especially peers beyond the classroom, help learners socialize into their desired academic communities. Academic Discourse Socialization is an investment in which learners get academic and emotional support as a return and peers play an important role in providing this support. Peers are also called literacy brokers and could be someone who is going through the same process, they don't necessarily have to be experts. Peer support both inside (formal contexts) and outside (informal contexts) of the classroom help learners gain knowledge of academic discourses and enhances students' understanding of their trajectories, identities and capabilities.

Academic presentations also provide a good context to socialize into oral discourses and culture of discourse communities. Socialization through small group discussions allows learners to draw ideas from their prior and existing knowledge and understand a new concept. Given the affordances of digital tools, asynchronous discussions are also considered a productive for academic discourse socialization and literacy development, provided these discussions are graded, carefully designed, and pay attention to learners' agency.

## Academic discourse

"Academic discourse refers to the ways of thinking and using language which exist in the academy." Discourse is not just "language" itself; discourse is language use that represents a person's existence in the world. Thus, what one has said and written are significant to academic community, which also shows that the institution cannot exist without academic discourse. Academic discourse does not only function as a tool to convey one's thoughts but also influences one's formation of social identity, values, and world knowledge. The common ways to present academic discourse are through textbooks, conference presentations, dissertations, lectures, and research articles.

Students in the institution learn to display their thoughts through different types of academic discourse, such as classroom and conference presentations, assignments, and dissertations. In this way, they acquire social practice in the different academic fields, get to the heart of the academic enterprise, and finally become a member of a social group.

Discourse conventions in a particular academic field are shaped by the ways of thinking of community members and the values they believe in. Written works and speeches are widely accepted if they are composed and delivered in a suitable way in terms of discourse conventions. The recognition of a publication from an academic community is regarded as the accomplishment of one's academic life and the realization of academic discourse. It is highly motivating when one's published paper was cited or further developed by community members because it is evidence of acceptance. In order to get a reputation of the academic community, people make some contributions through publication to receive compliments.

## Popularity of academic discourse

From the mid-1960s, the issues of academic discourse have caught researchers’ and scholars’ eyes and grown massively. The first reason why academic discourse has become popular is because the number of students in higher education has dramatically increased, resulting in greater diversity of students.

“This more culturally, socially and linguistically heterogeneous student population means that learners bring different identities, understandings and habits of meaning-making to a more diverse range of subjects.” Therefore, it leads to the problem that it is more difficult for teachers to know whether students acquire the required ability of the principle or not. With the popularity of the concept of academic discourse, teachers can clearly define students’ learning achievement through their performance on different types of academic discourse.

The second reason concerns the transformation of education system. Nowadays, schools do not solely rely on government funding; instead, students’ fees are thought of as a major source of income. Universities are more competitive because students as customers choose prestigious schools which are highly evaluated on the aspect of academic discourse, including the publication of dissertations and lectures in conferences.

The last reason, and also the most important factor affecting the development of academic discourse is the spread of English. English becomes a lingua franca for oral and written communication. Even academic journals, as a representative type of academic discourse, are most in English. Moreover, “the global status of English has come to influence both the lives of scholars throughout the globe and the production and exchange of academic knowledge in the twenty-first century.” As a result, the learning of academic discourse is especially meaningful for second language learners.

Novice learners first enter into legitimate peripheral participation and then move to the center of the academic community. That is, beginners first acquire the conventions of academic discourse peripherally and imitate discourse activities from experienced learners or experts. After a period of time, learners can also complete academic oral presentations and academic essays, and in the end, the publication of dissertations and participation in international conferences just as what former experts do in the academic community.

Students in the institution learn to display their thoughts through different types of academic discourse, such as classroom and conference presentations, assignments, and dissertations. In this way, they acquire social practice in the different academic fields, get to the heart of the academic enterprise, and finally become a member of a social group, which can be seen as a process of academic discourse socialization.

## Bibliography

* Flowerdew, J. (2002). Introduction: Approaches to the analysis of academic discourse in English. In Flowerdew, J. (Ed.), Academic discourse. (pp. 21–39). Edinburgh Gate, H: Longman.
* Morita, N. (2000). Discourse socialization through oral classroom activities in a TESL graduate program. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 279-310.
* Morita, N. (2009). Language, culture, gender, and academic socialization. Language and education, 23, 443-460.
* Zamel, V. (1998). Questioning academic discourse. In Zamel, V. & Spack, R. (Eds.), Negotiating academic literacies: Teaching and learning across languages and cultures (pp. 187–197). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.


title: Murilo Sartori

abstract: Murilo Setin Sartori is a Brazilian swimmer. At the age of 16, participating in the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires, he won a silver medal in the Boys' 4 × 100 metre freestyle relay. He also finished 6th at the Boys' 200 metre freestyle. At the age of 17, he won a bronze medal in the 200 metre freestyle at the 2019 FINA World Junior Swimming Championships. He competed in the men's 200 metre freestyle at the 2020 Summer Olympics at age 19. He made a time of 1:47.11, finishing in 24th place overall. Sartori also made it to the Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay final, finishing in 8th place. He has committed to competing collegiately for the University of Louisville. At the 2021 FINA World Swimming Championships in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, in the Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay, the Brazilian relay, composed by Sartori, Fernando Scheffer, Kaique Alves and Breno Correia, again obtained a medal, now bronze, maintaining the good performance of 2018, when Brazil won the gold beating the world record. He also finished 10th in the Men's 200 metre freestyle. At the 2022 World Aquatics Championships held in Budapest, Hungary, in the men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay event, the Brazilian team, composed by Sartori, Fernando Scheffer, Vinicius Assunção and Breno Correia, broke the South American record twice in a row, in the heats, and the finals, reaching a time of 7:04.69 and obtaining an unprecedented fourth place in the long-distance World Championships. The Brazilian team just didn't get a medal because of the exceptional performance of Tom Dean when closing the British relay.

text:
# Murilo Sartori

**Murilo Setin Sartori** (born 18 May 2002) is a Brazilian swimmer.

At the age of 16, participating in the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires, he won a silver medal in the Boys' 4 × 100 metre freestyle relay. He also finished 6th at the Boys' 200 metre freestyle. At the age of 17, he won a bronze medal in the 200 metre freestyle at the 2019 FINA World Junior Swimming Championships.

He competed in the men's 200 metre freestyle at the 2020 Summer Olympics at age 19. He made a time of 1:47.11, finishing in 24th place overall. Sartori also made it to the Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay final, finishing in 8th place. He has committed to competing collegiately for the University of Louisville.

At the 2021 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, in the Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay, the Brazilian relay, composed by Sartori, Fernando Scheffer, Kaique Alves and Breno Correia, again obtained a medal, now bronze, maintaining the good performance of 2018, when Brazil won the gold beating the world record. He also finished 10th in the Men's 200 metre freestyle.

At the 2022 World Aquatics Championships held in Budapest, Hungary, in the men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay event, the Brazilian team, composed by Sartori, Fernando Scheffer, Vinicius Assunção and Breno Correia, broke the South American record twice in a row, in the heats, and the finals, reaching a time of 7:04.69 and obtaining an unprecedented fourth place in the long-distance World Championships. The Brazilian team just didn't get a medal because of the exceptional performance of Tom Dean when closing the British relay.

## InfoBox

Murilo Sartori
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Murilo Setin Sartori |
| Nationality | Brazilian |
| Born | (2002-05-18) 18 May 2002<br>Americana, São Paulo, Brazil |
| Height | 181 cm (5 ft 11 in) |
| Weight | 71 kg (157 lb) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Swimming |
| Medal record      Representing  Brazil  World Championships (SC)  2021 Abu Dhabi  4×200 m freestyle  Pan American Games  2023 Santiago  4×200 m freestyle  2023 Santiago  200 m freestyle  South American Championships  2021 Buenos Aires 400 m freestyle  2021 Buenos Aires 4×200 m freestyle  Youth Olympic Games  2018 Buenos Aires 4×100 m freestyle  World Junior Championships  2019 Budapest  200 m freestyle | |


title: Matsumyia bimaculata

abstract: Matsumyia bimaculata is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

text:
# Matsumyia bimaculata

***Matsumyia bimaculata*** is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

## Distribution

China.

## InfoBox

| *Matsumyia bimaculata* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Family: | Syrphidae |
| Subfamily: | Eristalinae |
| Tribe: | Milesiini |
| Subtribe: | Criorhinina |
| Genus: | *Matsumyia* |
| Species: | ***M. bimaculata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Matsumyia bimaculata***<br>Huo & Ren, 2006 | |
|


title: Matthew Margeson

abstract: Matthew Margeson is an American composer, musician, and arranger of film, television, and video game scores. He is a member of Hans Zimmer's Remote Control Productions, and has been a frequent collaborator of fellow composer Henry Jackman on films like Kick-Ass 2, Kingsman: The Secret Service, and its sequel Kingsman: The Golden Circle.

text:
# Matthew Margeson

**Matthew Margeson** (born June 9, 1980) is an American composer, musician, and arranger of film, television, and video game scores. He is a member of Hans Zimmer's Remote Control Productions, and has been a frequent collaborator of fellow composer Henry Jackman on films like *Kick-Ass 2, Kingsman: The Secret Service,* and its sequel *Kingsman: The Golden Circle*.

## Filmography

### As main composer

| Year | Title | Director | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2010 | *Burning Palms* | Christopher Landon |  |
| | *Skyline* | Brothers Strause |  |
| 2011 | *Night of the Living Carrots* | Robert Porter | Short film |
| | *Transformers: Prime* | Various | Animated television series
21 episodes
with Brian Tyler |
| | *Carnival Island* |  | Video game |
| 2012 | *PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale* | | Manjit Jhita |
| | *Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos* | Raman Hui | Short film
with Henry Jackman |
| 2013 | *Knack* | Mark Cerny | Video game
with Wataru Hokoyama |
| | *Kick-Ass 2* | Jeff Wadlow | with Henry Jackman |
| 2014 | *Kingsman: The Secret Service* | | Matthew Vaughn |
| 2015 | *Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse* | Christopher B. Landon |  |
| | *Eddie the Eagle* | Dexter Fletcher |  |
| 2016 | *Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children* | Tim Burton | with Mike Higham |
| 2016–17 | *Wrecked* | Various | Television series
17 episodes |
| 2017 | *Rings* | F. Javier Gutiérrez | Replaced Benjamin Wallfisch |
| | *Kingsman: The Golden Circle* | Matthew Vaughn | with Henry Jackman |
| 2018 | *Truth or Dare* | Jeff Wadlow |  |
| 2019 | *Rocketman* | Dexter Fletcher |  |
| | *Buffaloed* | Tanya Wexler |  |
| 2020 | *A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting* | Rachel Talalay |  |
| 2021 | *The King's Man* | Matthew Vaughn | with Dominic Lewis |
| 2022 | *Alice's Wonderland Bakery* | Nathan Chew | Animated television series |
| | *Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile* | Will Speck
Josh Gordon |  |
| 2023 | *Star Wars: Young Jedi Adventures* | Elliot M. Bour | Animated television series |

### As other

| Year | Title | Director | Composer(s) | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2004 | *Catwoman* | Pitof | Klaus Badelt | Assistant |
| | *Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King* | Uli Edel | | |
| 2005 | *Constantine* | Francis Lawrence | Klaus Badelt
Brian Tyler | |
| 2006 | *Ultraviolet* | Kurt Wimmer | Klaus Badelt | Synth programmer |
| | *First Flight* | Cameron Hood
Kyle Jefferson | James Dooley | Assistant |
| 2008 | *Bachelor Party 2: The Last Temptation* | | James Ryan | Technical score advisor |
| | *Made of Honor* | Paul Weiland | Rupert Gregson-Williams | Additional music composer |
| | *You Don't Mess with the Zohan* | | | Dennis Dugan |
| | *The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning* | Peggy Holmes | James Dooley | Additional music arranger |
| | *Beverly Hills Chihuahua* | Raja Gosnell | Heitor Pereira | Score synth programmer |
| 2009 | *Thick as Thieves* | Mimi Leder | Atli Örvarsson | Additional music arranger
Music programmer |
| | *Monsters vs. Aliens* | Rob Letterman
Conrad Vernon | Henry Jackman | Additional music arranger |
| | *Dragonball Evolution* | James Wong | | Brian Tyler |
| | *I Hate Valentine's Day* | Nia Vardalos | | Keith Power |
| | *Angels & Demons* | Ron Howard | Hans Zimmer | Synth programmer |
| | *Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen* | Michael Bay | Steve Jablonsky | Additional music composer |
| | *Monsters vs. Aliens: Mutant Pumpkins from Outer Space* | Peter Ramsey | Henry Jackman | Additional music arranger |
| 2010 | *Henri 4* | Jo Baier | | Henry Jackman & Hans Zimmer |
| | *How to Train Your Dragon* | Dean DeBlois
Chris Sanders | John Powell | Assistant |
| | *Kick-Ass* | Matthew Vaughn | John Murphy
Ilan Eshkeri
Henry Jackman
Marius de Vries | Additional music arranger |
| | *Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time* | Mike Newell | | Harry Gregson-Williams |
| | *The Expendables* | Sylvester Stallone | | Brian Tyler |
| 2011 | *Season of the Witch* | Dominic Sena | | Atli Örvarsson |
| | *Battle: Los Angeles* | Jonathan Liebesman | | Brian Tyler |
| | *Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides* | Rob Marshall | Hans Zimmer | Additional music composer |
| | *X-Men: First Class* | Matthew Vaughn | | Henry Jackman |
| | *Puss in Boots* | | | Chris Miller |
| | *Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows* | Guy Ritchie | Hans Zimmer | Additional music arranger |
| 2012 | *Man on a Ledge* | Asger Leth | Henry Jackman | Additional music composer |
| | *Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter* | Timur Bekmambetov | | |
| | *Wreck-It Ralph* | Rich Moore | | Additional music arranger |
| 2013 | *Gangster Squad* | Ruben Fleischer | Steve Jablonsky | Score programmer |
| | *G.I. Joe: Retaliation* | Jon M. Chu | Henry Jackman | Additional music composer |
| | *This Is the End* | | | Seth Rogen
Evan Goldberg |
| | *Captain Phillips* | | | Paul Greengrass |
| 2014 | *Captain America: The Winter Soldier* | | | Russo brothers |
| | *How to Train Your Dragon 2* | Dean DeBlois | John Powell | Assistant |
| 2015 | *Pan* | | Joe Wright | Score producer |
| 2018 | *The Predator* | Shane Black | Henry Jackman | Additional music composer |
|


title: Wells Lake (politician)

abstract: Wells Lake was an American farmer and politician from New York.

text:
# Wells Lake (politician)

**Wells Lake** (January 12, 1772 – November 26, 1839) was an American farmer and politician from New York.

## Life

Wells Lake was born January 12, 1772, in Stratford, Connecticut, the son of David (1733-1800) and Sarah Wells Lake (1742-1803). Through his mother, Lake is a direct descendant of Connecticut Governor Thomas Welles. It is unclear when Lake moved to New York, but it was there that he met his wife, Ruth (née Hine) Lake (1782-1827), and married her in 1801. Ruth's brother, Reuben Holmes Hine, was the New Paltz Town Supervisor in 1842 and a New York State Assemblyman in 1844.

He lived in that part of the Town of New Paltz which was separated in 1845 as the Town of Lloyd, in Ulster County, New York.

He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Sullivan and Ulster Co.) in 1820-21; and (Ulster Co.) in 1823

He was a member of the New York State Senate (2nd D.) from 1825 to 1828, sitting in the 48th, 49th, 50th and 51st New York State Legislatures.

Separated by his terms in both New York State branches, Lake served as the Supervisor of New Paltz from 1818 to 1819 and 1821 to 1824.

In 1834, he served as President of the Ulster County Jackson Republican Convention.

He died on November 26, 1839, in New Paltz, and was buried in the Highland Cemetery in Highland, New York.

## Personal life

Wells Lake and his wife Ruth had at least 11 children:

1. Hiram Lake (1801-1837)
2. Mary Lake (1803-1853)
3. Lewis Hine Lake (1803-1873)
4. Sarah Lake (1807-1875)
5. Stephen Lake (1809-1861)
6. Harriet Lake (1811-1902)
7. Lydia Lake (1814-1880)
8. Eli Lake (1816-1877)
9. Ruth Lake (1816-1888)
10. Emily Lake (1818-?)
11. Olive Lake (1821-?)

His son Stephen served as the second Town of Lloyd Supervisor from 1849 to 1851. Stephen's brother-in-law, Reuben Deyo (1800-1864), had served as the first following the Lloyd split from New Paltz (1845-1848).

His daughter Ruth married John Benson Schoonmaker (1810-1895), and they named their son Wells Lake Schoonmaker, after Ruth's father. Wells L. Schoonmaker served as the Town of Marbletown Supervisor from 1884 to 1885. Another son, Hiram Schoonmaker (1836-1910), married Josephine Chambers, daughter of physician, Supervisor and State Senator George Chambers.

## Sources


title: Olympic-class container ship

abstract: The Olympic class is a series of six container ships built for Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC). The ships have a maximum theoretical capacity of 19,224 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). The ships were built by Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME).

text:
# Olympic-class container ship

The **Olympic class** is a series of six container ships built for Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC). The ships have a maximum theoretical capacity of 19,224 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). The ships were built by Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME).

## List of ships

| Ship | Yard number | IMO number | Delivery | Status | ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *MSC Oscar* | 4277 | 9703291 | 29 Dec 2014 | In service |  |
| *MSC Oliver* | 4278 | 9703306 | 30 Mar 2015 | In service |  |
| *MSC Zoe* | 4279 | 9703318 | 24 Jun 2015 | In service |  |
| *MSC Maya* | 4280 | 9708679 | 19 Aug 2015 | In service |  |
| *MSC Sveva* | 4281 | 9708681 | 22 Oct 2015 | In service |  |
| *MSC Clara* | 4282 | 9708693 | 11 Nov 2015 | In service |  |

## InfoBox

| *MSC Zoe* in the port of Rotterdam | |
| --- | --- |
| Class overview | |
| Builders | Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering |
| Operators | Mediterranean Shipping Company |
| In service | 2014–present |
| Planned | 6 |
| Completed | 6 |
| Active | 6 |
| General characteristics | |
| Type | Container ship |
| Tonnage | 192,237 GT |
| Length | 395.5 m (1,297 ft 7 in) |
| Beam | 59.1 m (193 ft 11 in) |
| Draught | 16 m (52 ft 6 in) |
| Propulsion | MAN 11S90ME-C10.2 |
| Capacity | 19,224 TEU |


title: FXT1

abstract: FXT1 is a texture compression scheme for 3D graphics, invented by the hardware vendor 3dfx Interactive and offered as an open source rival standard to S3TC in September 1999, a year after S3TC had been adopted by Microsoft as part of DirectX. Limited vendor hardware support has been a barrier to its acceptance. Notably, despite being open source, FXT1 was not adopted by Nintendo for the GameCube, nor by Sony for the PlayStation 3, in both cases losing out to the established S3TC standard. Another possible reason for its lack of adoption is that the CC_MIXED mode probably infringes the S3TC patent. Four different compression algorithms are used by FXT1, chosen at a block level to optimize visual quality. Having to select an optimal path for each texture ensured FXT1 was relatively slow at compression, making it unsuitable for real-time compression in applications. The original white paper did not follow well-known scientific rules, being actually a commercial presentation. The lack of theoretical guidance from the inventors might have been the cause of badly optimized compression scheme selection code, and despite potentially better performance due to four available compression schemes instead of one, FXT1 did not show any quality improvements to S3TC, being inferior to it in most test cases. In hindsight, FXT1 might have been more successful if 3dfx spent more effort examining optimization of the CC_MIXED compression mode, more similar to S3TC, and dropped the other three codecs from the standard. 3dfx was subsequently taken over by Nvidia who have continued to support S3TC as their preferred compression tool.

text:
# FXT1

**FXT1** is a texture compression scheme for 3D graphics, invented by the hardware vendor 3dfx Interactive and offered as an open source rival standard to S3TC in September 1999, a year after S3TC had been adopted by Microsoft as part of DirectX. Limited vendor hardware support has been a barrier to its acceptance. Notably, despite being open source, FXT1 was not adopted by Nintendo for the GameCube, nor by Sony for the PlayStation 3, in both cases losing out to the established S3TC standard. Another possible reason for its lack of adoption is that the CC\_MIXED mode (see below) probably infringes the S3TC patent (US 5956431  System and method for fixed-rate block-based image compression with inferred pixel values).

Four different compression algorithms are used by FXT1, chosen at a block level to optimize visual quality. Having to select an optimal path for each texture ensured FXT1 was relatively slow at compression, making it unsuitable for real-time compression in applications.

The original white paper did not follow well-known scientific rules, being actually a commercial presentation. The lack of theoretical guidance from the inventors might have been the cause of badly optimized compression scheme selection code, and despite potentially better performance due to four available compression schemes instead of one (as in S3TC), FXT1 did not show any quality improvements to S3TC, being inferior to it in most test cases.

In hindsight, FXT1 might have been more successful if 3dfx spent more effort examining optimization of the CC\_MIXED compression mode, more similar to S3TC, and dropped the other three codecs from the standard. 3dfx was subsequently taken over by Nvidia who have continued to support S3TC as their preferred compression tool.

## Compression algorithms

Four different compression algorithms are set out in the original white paper:

CC\_MIXED (similar to other S3TC)A 4x4 texel block is represented by two bits-per-texel for opaque textures. Additionally, each block has two 16-bit colors stored in an RGB 565 format. The two RGB 565 colors and two additional colors (created by interpolating between the two RGB 565 colors) form the primary colors for this texel block and its associated four color lookup table. A 2-bit index is used to determine which color from the lookup table will be used for each texel in the 4x4 block. Transparent textures are created by making one of the four colors transparent. CC\_HI (best for spatial resolution)A 4×8 texel block is represented by three bits-per-texel for opaque and transparent textures. Each block stores two 15-bit colors in an RGB 555 format. The two RGB 555 colors and five additional colors (created by interpolating between the two RGB 555 colors) form the primary colors for this texel block. Additionally, an eighth color is defined to be the transparent color. A 3-bit index is used to determine which color from the 8-entry lookup table will be used for each texel in the 4x8 block. CC\_CHROMA (good at complex color areas)A 4×8 texel block is represented by two bits-per-texel for opaque textures. Each block stores four 15-bit colors in an RGB 555 format. All four colors are used directly with no interpolation to form a 4-entry lookup table. The 2-bit index assigned to each texel in the block is used to determine which of the four colors is assigned to each individual texel. Note that Colors4 only applies to opaque textures, as it does not support transparency. CC\_ALPHA (gives the best control over complex alpha transparencies at four bits-per-texel)A 4×8 texel block is represented by two bits-per-texel for opaque and transparent textures. Each block stores three 20-bit colors stored in a 5555 format. The first and second 20-bit colors are used for the primary colors of the left 4x4 block, while the second and third colors are used for the primary colors of the right 4×4 block. Two additional colors are created in each block by interpolating between the two primary colors for that block. A 2-bit index is assigned to each texel in the block and a lookup table is used to determine which color is applied to each texel.


title: Rally Isle of Man

abstract: Rally Isle of Man is a car rally competition held in the Isle of Man. It was first held in 1963, and later became a well-known event in the British Open Rally Championship and the European Rally Championship. In 2002, it became part of the Irish Tarmac Rally Championship in addition to the British Rally Championship. The most successful drivers in the history of the rally include the five-time winner Mark Higgins and the four-time winners Tony Pond and Russell Brookes. This has been an annual event for many years, apart from cancellation in 2011. In early September 2018, it was announced that the 2018 event had been cancelled. Various allegations were made, blaming the cancellation on, inter alia, the rally organisers, the Department of Infrastructure and the Department for Enterprise. The event returned in 2022 as part of the FIA Celtic Rally Trophy.

text:
# Rally Isle of Man

**Rally Isle of Man** (previously the *Manx International Rally* and formerly the *Manx Trophy Rally*) is a car rally competition held in the Isle of Man. It was first held in 1963, and later became a well-known event in the British Open Rally Championship and the European Rally Championship (until 1996). In 2002, it became part of the Irish Tarmac Rally Championship in addition to the British Rally Championship. The most successful drivers in the history of the rally include the five-time winner Mark Higgins and the four-time winners Tony Pond and Russell Brookes.

This has been an annual event for many years, apart from cancellation in 2011. In early September 2018, it was announced that the 2018 event had been cancelled. Various allegations were made, blaming the cancellation on, inter alia, the rally organisers, the Department of Infrastructure and the Department for Enterprise. The event returned in 2022 as part of the FIA Celtic Rally Trophy.

## Stage locations

Rally Isle of Man is run on public roads closed for racing by the provisions of an Act of Tynwald (the parliament of the Isle of Man). The event has special timed stages that use narrow farm-lanes with high grass banks, stages over open moorland and Monaco-style 'around-the-houses' stages in Ramsey or Castletown. The exact routes vary each year, but in 2008 the longest timed special stage was the 21.46 mile *Milerisk* stage and the shortest included the 1.46 mile *Balley Cashtal* stage in Castletown and the 0.90 mile *Villa Marina* "super-special" stage in Douglas.

## Special stage records

Records and stage times for competition sections for the Manx International Rally and Rally Isle of Man
| Name | Route | Year | Driver | Type | Length | Time | Average
speed |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Balley Cashtal | Castletown | 2006 | Andreas Mikkelsen | Ford Focus RS WRC 05 | 1.26 miles | 1' 17.00 | 58.90 mph |
| Castle Rushen | Castletown - Balladoole - Poyll Vaaish - Strandhall - Kentraugh Mill | 2016 | Desi Henry | Škoda Fabia R5 | 5.08 miles | 4' 19.9 | 70.36 mph |
| Classic | Ballaugh Glen – Druidale – Brandywell Cottage – Injebreck – Baldwin Valley – TT Grandstand | 2008 | Eamonn Boland | Subaru Impreza WRC S12 | 13.27 miles | 11' 30.5 | 71.16 mph |
| Cringle | Ballabeg – Round Table – Glen Rushen Mines – St. Johns | 2004 | Mark Higgins | Škoda Octavia WRC | 13.66 miles | 11' 06.2 | 74.73 mph |
| Glascoe | Dog Mills – Andreas – Jurby East – Sandygate – St. Judes | 2009 | Keith Cronin | Mitsubishi Lancer Evo | 12.47 miles | 10' 08.8 | 73.74 mph |
| Glen Roy | Begoade Road – Conrhenny – 5½ Mile Corner – Social Cottage – Baldhoon | 2007 | Andreas Mikkelsen | Ford Focus RS WRC 05 | 4.66 miles | 4' 10.7 | 66.91 mph |
| Kella | West Kella – The Curraghs – Ballaugh Cronk – Orrisdale | 2007 | Andreas Mikkelsen | Ford Focus RS WRC 05 | 11.21 miles | 9' 23.1 | 71.66 mph |
| Marine | Douglas Head – Port Soderick – Crogga – Santon | 2008 | Eamonn Boland | Subaru Impreza WRC S12 | 3.30 miles | 4' 23.8 | 66.09 mph |
| Maughold | Hibernia – Ballajora – Slieau Lewaigue | 1991 | François Chatriot | Subaru Legacy RS | 3.30 miles | 2' 50.0 | 66.33 mph |
| Newtown (Milerisk) | Santon – The Braaid – Foxdale – Loobs Road – St. Marks – The Gate | 2006 | Tapio Laukkanen | Renault Mégane Maxi | 21.38 miles | 17' 20.00 | 74.28 mph |
| Ravensdale | Druidale – Brandywell Cottage – Sartfield Hairpin – Little London | 1989 | Jimmy McRae | Ford Escort RS Cosworth | 7.14 miles | 6' 08.0 | 68.08 mph |
| Sand Quarry | ***German Parish:*** Ballagyr – (Loop Section; Lynague – Ballakaighen – Staarvey – The Kew – East Lhergydoo) – Ballagyr Lane | 2017 | Fredrik Ahlin | Škoda Fabia R5 | 13.23 miles | 10' 37.8 | 74.74 mph |
| Staarvey | ***German Parish:*** Stockfield – Lynague – Ballagyr – East Lhergydhoo – Staarvey Road – Ballakaighen | 2009 | Mark Higgins | Subaru Impreza WRX STI | 7.22 miles | 6' 12.0 | 68.97 mph |
| Tholt-e-Will | Sulby Claddaghs – Sulby Glen – Tholt-e-Will Glen | 1999 | Martin Rowe | Renault Mégane Maxi | 4.14 miles | 3' 36.3 | 68.97 mph |
| Villa Marina
(Super-Special) | ***Douglas:*** Harris Promenade – Broadway – Villa Marina – Gaiety Chicane – Loch Promenade – Senna Slip Hairpin – Greensills Corner – Sefton Chicane – Villa Marina – Broadway | 2016 | Craig Breen | Citroën DS3 R5 | 0.90 miles | 1' 02.8 | 51.62 mph |
| West Baldwin | Little London – Brandywell Cottage – Injebreck – Ballaoates – Abbeylands – Cronk-ny-Mona | 1992 | Colin McRae | Subaru Legacy RS | 11.65 miles | 9' 21.0 | 74.82 mph |

## Winners

| Season | Driver | Co-driver | Car |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1963 | Reg McBride | Don Barrow | Allardette |
| 1964 | Dave Friswell | Keith Binns | Mini Cooper S |
| 1965 | Tony Fall | Dave Fawcett | Mini Cooper S |
| 1966 | Dennis Easthorpe | Dennis Craine | Ford Cortina GT |
| 1967 | Norman Harvey | Terry Vaux | Mini Cooper S |
| 1968 | John Huyton | Bob Corrin | Ford Cortina GT |
| 1969 | Colin Malkin | John Davenport | Hillman Imp |
| 1970 | Chris Sclater | John Davenport | Ford Escort TC |
| 1971 | Roger Clark | Henry Liddon | Ford Escort RS1600 |
| 1972 | Roger Clark | Jim Porter | Ford Escort RS1600 |
| 1973 | Adrian Boyd | John Davenport | Ford Escort RS1600 |
| 1974 | Cahal Curley | Austin Frazer | Porsche |
| 1975 | Roger Clark | Jim Porter | Ford Escort RS1800 |
| 1976 | Ari Vatanen | Peter Bryant | Ford Escort RS1800 |
| 1977 | Pentti Airikkala | Risto Virtanen | Vauxhall Chevette HSR |
| 1978 | Tony Pond | Fred Gallagher | Triumph TR7 V8 |
| 1979 | Russell Brookes | Paul White | Ford Escort RS1800 |
| 1980 | Tony Pond | Fred Gallagher | Triumph TR7 V8 |
| 1981 | Tony Pond | Mike Nicholson | Vauxhall Chevette HSR |
| 1982 | Jimmy McRae | Ian Grindrod | Opel Ascona 400 |
| 1983 | Henri Toivonen | Fred Gallagher | Opel Manta 400 |
| 1984 | Jimmy McRae | Mike Nicholson | Opel Manta 400 |
| 1985 | Russell Brookes | Mike Broad | Opel Manta 400 |
| 1986 | Tony Pond | Rob Arthur | MG Metro 6R4 |
| 1987 | Jimmy McRae | Ian Grindrod | Ford Sierra RS Cosworth |
| 1988 | Patrick Snijers | Dany Colebunders | BMW M3 |
| 1989 | Russell Brookes | Neil Wilson | Ford Sierra RS Cosworth |
| 1990 | Russell Brookes | Neil Wilson | Ford Sierra RS Cosworth |
| 1991 | Colin McRae | Derek Ringer | Subaru Legacy RS |
| 1992 | Colin McRae | Derek Ringer | Subaru Legacy RS |
| 1993 | Richard Burns | Robert Reid | Subaru Legacy RS |
| 1994 | Malcolm Wilson | Bryan Thomas | Ford Escort RS Cosworth |
| 1995 | Frank Meagher | Michael Maher | Ford Escort RS Cosworth |
| 1996 | Armin Schwarz | Denis Giraudet | Toyota Celica GT-Four ST205 |
| 1997 | Martin Rowe | Nicky Beech | Renault Mégane Maxi |
| 1998 | Martin Rowe | Derek Ringer | Renault Mégane Maxi |
| 1999 | Martin Rowe | Derek Ringer | Renault Mégane Maxi |
| 2000 | Mark Higgins | Bryan Thomas | Vauxhall Astra Kit Car |
| 2001 | *Cancelled due to the United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis.* | | |
| 2002 | Mark Higgins | Craig Thorley | Toyota Corolla WRC |
| 2003 | Jonny Milner | Nicky Beech | Toyota Corolla WRC |
| 2004 | Jonny Milner | Nicky Beech | Subaru Impreza WRC |
| 2005 | Mark Higgins | Bryan Thomas | Ford Focus RS WRC 02 |
| 2006 | Eugene Donnelly | Paul Kiely | Toyota Corolla WRC |
| 2007 | Eugene Donnelly | Paul Kiely | Subaru Impreza WRC |
| 2008 | Mark Higgins | Rory Kennedy | Subaru Impreza WRX STI |
| 2009 | Mark Higgins | Bryan Thomas | Subaru Impreza WRX STI |
| 2010 | Keith Cronin | Barry McNulty | Subaru Impreza WRX STI |
| 2011 | *Cancelled* | | |
| 2012 | Steven Quine | Richard Skinner | Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6 |
| 2013 | Arron Newby | Rob Fagg | Subaru Impreza N11 |
| 2014 | Nigel Cannell | Michaela Cannell | Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 9 |
| 2015 | Steve Colley | Andrew Cowley | Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 9 |
| 2016 | Elfyn Evans | Craig Parry | Ford Fiesta R5 |
| 2017 | Keith Cronin | Mikie Galvin | Ford Fiesta R5 |
| 2018–2023 | *Not held* | | |
|

### Multiple winners

| Wins | Manufacturer |
| --- | --- |
| 17 | Ford |
| 9 | Subaru |
| 4 | Opel |
| | Toyota |
| 3 | Mini |
| | Mitsubishi |
| | Vauxhall |
| | Renault |
| 2 | Triumph |
|

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Rally Isle of Man | |
| **Country** | Isle of Man |
| **Date** |  |
| **Type** | Stage Rally/Asphalt |
| **Clerk of the Course** | Alan Teare (National A - formerly an International event) |
| **Event Organiser** | Rally Isle of Man Ltd |
| **Principal Sponsor** | Microgaming Software Systems Ltd |
| History | |
| **First Event** | 1963 Manx Trophy Rally |
| **Number of events** | 50 (2014) |
| **First winner** | Reg McBride/Don Barrow (1963) |
| **Most wins** | Mark Higgins 5 (1989–2009) |


title: Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus

abstract: Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus, the bridled leatherjacket, is a species of fish of the family Monacanthidae in the order of Tetraodontiformes. It can reach 14 cm in total length.

text:
# Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus

***Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus***, the **bridled leatherjacket**, is a species of fish of the family Monacanthidae in the order of Tetraodontiformes. It can reach 14 cm in total length.

## Habitat

It is a fish of subtropical climate and demersal.

## Geographical distribution

It is found in Australia, from Perth to Sydney.

It is harmless to humans.

1. FishBase
2. Kuiter, R.H., 1993. Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu, Hawaii. 437 p.

## InfoBox

| *Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Tetraodontiformes |
| Family: | Monacanthidae |
| Genus: | *Acanthaluteres* |
| Species: | ***A. spilomelanurus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus***<br>Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 | |
|


title: Murilo Ramos Krieger

abstract: Murilo Sebastião Ramos Krieger, SCJ is a retired Brazilian prelate of the Catholic Church who was the Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia and Primate of Brazil from 2011 to 2020. He served as archbishop of Florianópolis from 2002 to 2011.

text:
# Murilo Ramos Krieger

| Styles of
**Murilo Sebastião Ramos Krieger** | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Reference style | The Most Reverend |
| Spoken style | Your Excellency |
| Religious style | Archbishop |
| Posthumous style | not applicable |

**Murilo Sebastião Ramos Krieger**, SCJ (born 19 September 1943) is a retired Brazilian prelate of the Catholic Church who was the Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia and Primate of Brazil from 2011 to 2020. He served as archbishop of Florianópolis from 2002 to 2011.

## Biography

### Early life and priesthood

Ramos Krieger was born in 1943 in Brusque, in the Archdiocese of Florianópolis, Brazil. He entered the seminary of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (the Dehonians), where he did his primary and secondary studies. He studied philosophy in the convent of the Congregation in Brusque, and theology in Taubaté. He also earned a degree in spirituality in Rome and attended university courses in Brazil.

On 2 February 1967 he made his perpetual profession in the Congregation of the Priests of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and on 7 December 1969 was ordained a priest. He was assistant pastor in Taubaté, superior of the Dehonian scholasticate and then rector of the Dehonian Theological Institute in that same city, as well as superior of the South Brazilian Province of the Congregation.

### Bishop

On 16 February 1985, he was appointed Titular Bishop of Lysinia and Auxiliary Bishop of Florianópolis by Pope John Paul II, and received episcopal consecration on 28 April. On 8 May 1991, he became Bishop of Ponta Grossa, State of Paraná and, on 7 May 1997, Archbishop of Maringá, also in the State of Paraná. On 20 February 2002 he was appointed Metropolitan Archbishop of Florianópolis, State of Santa Catarina, where he served until 2011.

### Archbishop and Primate

On 12 January 2011, Ramos Krieger was appointed Primate of Brazil and Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia by Pope Benedict XVI. He was installed on 25 March. On 20 April 2015, he became the Vice-President of the National Congress of Bishops of Brazil. He writes monthly for the magazine Messenger of the Sacred Heart (São Paulo-SP), Brazil Christian (Valinhos-SP) and the Journal of the Archdiocese (Florianópolis, SC).

Pope Francis accepted his resignation on 11 March 2020.

## InfoBox

| The Most Reverend Dom
Murilo Ramos Krieger | |
| --- | --- |
| Archbishop emeritus of São Salvador da Bahia, Primate of Brazil | |
|  | |
| Church | Roman Catholic Church |
| Archdiocese | Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia |
| Appointed | 12 January 2011 |
| Term ended | 11 March 2020 |
| Predecessor | Geraldo Majella Agnelo |
| Successor | Sérgio da Rocha |
| Previous post(s) | * Titular Bishop of Lysinia (1985–1991) * Auxiliary Bishop of Florianopolis (1985–1991) * Bishop of Monta Grossa (1991–1997) * Archbishop of Maringá (1997–2002) * Archbishop of Florianópolis (2002–2011) |
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 7 December 1969 |
| Consecration | 28 April 1985
by Archbishop Alfonso Niehues |
| Rank | Archbishop-Primate |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Murilo Sebastião Ramos Krieger
(1943-09-19) 19 September 1943
Brusque, Brazil |
| Denomination | Roman Catholic |
| Motto | Deus Caritas Est ('**God Is Love'**) |
| Coat of arms |  |


title: Matěj Psota

abstract: Matěj Psota is a Czech professional ice hockey player. He is currently playing with HC Bílí Tygři Liberec of the Czech Extraliga. Psota made his Czech Extraliga debut playing with HC Bílí Tygři Liberec during the 2012–13 Czech Extraliga season.

text:
# Matěj Psota

**Matěj Psota**  (born January 24, 1994) is a Czech professional ice hockey player. He is currently playing with HC Bílí Tygři Liberec of the Czech Extraliga.

Psota made his Czech Extraliga debut playing with HC Bílí Tygři Liberec during the 2012–13 Czech Extraliga season.

## InfoBox

| Matěj Psota | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Born | (1994-01-24) January 24, 1994<br>Liberec, Czech Republic | | |
| Height | 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) | | |
| Weight | 187 lb (85 kg; 13 st 5 lb) | | |
| Position | Forward | | |
| Shoots | Left | | |
| Czech team | *HC Bílí Tygři Liberec* | | |
| NHL draft | Undrafted | | |
| Playing career | 2013present | | |