title: Melon (cetacean)

abstract: The melon is a mass of adipose tissue found in the foreheads of all toothed whales. It focuses and modulates the animal's vocalizations and acts as a sound lens. It is thus a key organ involved in communication and echolocation.

text:
# Melon (cetacean)

The **melon** is a mass of adipose tissue found in the foreheads of all toothed whales. It focuses and modulates the animal's vocalizations and acts as a sound lens. It is thus a key organ involved in communication and echolocation.

## Description

The melon is structurally part of the nasal apparatus and comprises most of the mass tissue between the blowhole and the tip of the snout. The function of the melon is not completely understood, but scientists believe it is a bioacoustic component, providing a means of focusing sounds used in echolocation and creating a similarity between characteristics of its tissue and the surrounding water so that acoustic energy can flow out of the head and into the environment with the least loss of energy. In the past, some scientists believed that the melon had functions in deep diving and buoyancy, but these ideas have been discounted over the last 40 years, so are no longer considered valid by cetologists.

The varying composition of the melon creates a sound velocity gradient that refracts sound directionally. Sounds also bounce off the skull and air sacs that surround the melon.

Melon size is unrelated to maximum dive depth in toothed whales. The particular characteristics of the melon probably have more to do with odontocete phylogeny, the taxonomic relationships over evolutionary time. In some species, melons are more specialized than in others. The sperm whale has the largest nose of any animal in the world. The bulk of that nose is composed of two large, fatty structures, the spermaceti organ and the "junk". The junk is structurally the same as the melon (homologous to it).

The melon is *not* homologous to the spermaceti organ. Research on the expression of genes such as that for the protein MYH16 show it originates from the masseter muscle.

## Composition

The melon is a mixture of triglycerides and wax esters. The exact composition varies throughout the melon. Typically, the inner core of the melon has a higher wax content than the outer parts and conducts sound more slowly. This gradient refracts sound and focuses it like a lens.

The lipids in the melon cannot be digested by the animal, as they are metabolically toxic. A starving dolphin has a robust melon even if the rest of its body is emaciated. The lipids in the melon tend to be of lower molecular weight and more saturated than the blubber.

The melons of the Delphinidae (dolphins) and Physeteroidea (sperm whales) have a significant amount of wax ester, whereas those of the Phocoenidae (porpoises) and Monodontidae (narwhals and beluga whales) contain little or no wax. The speed of sound in the melon is lowest in the Delphinidae, Phocoenidae, and Monodontidae, intermediate in the Ziphiidae (beaked whales), and highest in the Physeteridae and Platanistidae (South Asian river dolphins).

### Pilot whales

The melon of pilot whales (Globicephala) is a mixture of wax esters and triglycerides. The inner core of the melon is about 33% wax esters, while the outer layer is about 5% wax esters. Most of the fats are saturated.

### Pygmy sperm whale

In the pygmy sperm whale (*Kogia breviceps*), the melon consists of an outer layer and an inner core, which has a generally larger proportion of wax esters than the outer layer.

Behind the melon is a cornucopia-shaped organ that many scientists refer to as the "spermaceti organ". This organ is different in form and composition from the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale.

Melon composition in *K. breviceps*
|  | | Outer melon | Inner melon | Spermaceti organ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Lipid content (weight) | | 15–91% | 74–94% | 92–96% |
| Lipid
composition | Wax esters | 8–46% | 40–90% | 84–99% |
| | Triglycerides | 54–92% | 10–69% | 1–16% |
| Average number
of carbons | Wax esters | 32–35 | 29–32 | 28–29 |
| | Triglycerides | 47–51 | 41–46 | 45 |

### Sperm whale

The analogous structure in the sperm whale is traditionally called "the junk" because whalers dismissed it as worthless for extracting sperm oil. It contains compartments of spermaceti separated by walls of cartilage.

### Beluga whale

The melon of the beluga whale is also unique in that the whale can change the melon's shape at will. These changes in shape probably have the effect of changing the size, shape, direction, and frequency composition of the echolocation beam.


title: Marshall D. Shulman

abstract: Marshall Darrow Shulman was an American diplomat, scholar of Soviet studies and the founding director of W. Averell Harriman Institute for Advanced Study of the Soviet Union at Columbia University. Born in Jersey City, New Jersey, Shulman earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Michigan, a graduate degree in English literature from Harvard University, and a master's degree from Columbia University's Russian Institute. He served as an information officer for the US mission to the United Nations, as special assistant to Dean Acheson, and as special adviser on Soviet affairs to Secretary of State Cyrus R. Vance. He was also an associate director of the Russian Research Center at Harvard University.

text:
# Marshall D. Shulman

**Marshall Darrow Shulman** (1916 - June 21, 2007) was an American diplomat, scholar of Soviet studies and the founding director of W. Averell Harriman Institute for Advanced Study of the Soviet Union at Columbia University.

Born in Jersey City, New Jersey, Shulman earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Michigan, a graduate degree in English literature from Harvard University, and a master's degree from Columbia University's Russian Institute.

He served as an information officer for the US mission to the United Nations, as special assistant to Dean Acheson, and as special adviser on Soviet affairs to Secretary of State Cyrus R. Vance. He was also an associate director of the Russian Research Center at Harvard University.


title: 17th New Brunswick Legislature

abstract: The 17th New Brunswick Legislative Assembly represented New Brunswick between July 17, 1856, and April 1, 1857. The assembly sat at the pleasure of the Governor of New Brunswick John Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton. Charles Simonds was chosen as speaker for the house.

text:
# 17th New Brunswick Legislature

The **17th New Brunswick Legislative Assembly** represented New Brunswick between July 17, 1856, and April 1, 1857.

The assembly sat at the pleasure of the Governor of New Brunswick John Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton.

Charles Simonds was chosen as speaker for the house.

## List of members

| Electoral District | Name |
| --- | --- |
| Saint John County | John H. Gray |
| | Robert D. Wilmot |
| | John F. Godard |
| | Charles Simonds |
| York | Charles Macpherson |
| | John C. Allen |
| | Charles Fisher |
| | George L. Hatheway |
| Westmorland | Albert J. Smith |
| | Bliss Botsford |
| | Amand Landry |
| | Robert K. Gilbert |
| Kings | Sylvester Z. Earle |
| | Hugh McMonagle |
| | Walter B. Scovil |
| Queens | John Earle |
| | John Ferris |
| Charlotte | James Boyd |
| | Arthur Hill Gillmor |
| | John McAdam |
| | George Dixon Street |
| Northumberland | George Kerr |
| | Peter Mitchell |
| | Richard Sutton |
| | John M. Johnson |
| Sunbury | William E. Perley |
| | David Tapley |
| Kent | Francis McPhelim |
| | Lestock P. W. DesBrisay |
| Gloucester | Joseph Read |
| | William End |
| Carleton | Charles Connell |
| | Charles Perley |
| Restigouche | John Montgomery |
| | Andrew Barberie |
| Albert | John Lewis |
| | Abner R. McClelan |
| Victoria | Charles Watters |
| | James Tibbits |
| Saint John City | James A. Harding |
| | Joseph Wilson Lawrence |


title: Wuzhun Shifan

abstract: Wuzhun Shifan was a Chinese calligrapher, and Zen Buddhist monk who lived during the late Song Dynasty (960-1279).

text:
# Wuzhun Shifan

**Wuzhun Shifan** (Chinese: 無準師範; Wade-Giles: **Wu Chun Shih Fan**; 11781249) was a Chinese calligrapher, and Zen Buddhist monk who lived during the late Song Dynasty (960-1279).

## Life

Wuzhun Shifan was born in Zitong, Sichuan province, China. He eventually became a Buddhist abbot at the Temple of Mount Jingshan. He was once summoned by Emperor Lizong of Song (理宗; r. 1224-1264) in 1233 in order to share with him the doctrine of Chán (Zen) Buddhism, discussing Dharma with the emperor. For this Wuzhun was given the title *Fojian Yuanzhao Chanshi* (Mirror of the Buddha, Zen Teacher) as well as a gold-embroidered kaśaya that he wears in his portrait painting of 1238.

Wuzhun had many disciples who studied under him. This included Enni Ben'en (圓爾辯圓 ; 1201–1280; Shoichi Kokushi), who studied under Wuzhun in China from 1235 to 1241 and later brought Wuzhun's teachings to Japan. Afterwards, Enni helped cement greater acceptance for Zen teaching in Japan and aided in the establishment of the Tōfuku-ji temple of Kyoto in 1236.

## Calligraphy and artwork

Some of Wuzhun's written calligraphy that was handed down to Enni is still preserved on plaques found at Tōfuku-ji, and a scroll of Wuzhun's calligraphy was even presented to the Tokugawa family as a gift to the *shōgun*. There is also a written letter of Wuzhun Shifan, dated to 1242, that is now preserved as a national treasure of calligraphy at the Tokyo National Museum.

Wuzhun Shifan's written inscription appears on the 13th century Chinese painting *A Monk Riding a Mule*, housed in the Collection of John M. Crawford Jr. It is possible that he painted the picture, although it is unknown if he is the true author of the artwork.

Wuzhun's portrait was painted in 1238 by an anonymous artist, taken to Japan by Enni Ben'en in 1241, and is still located at Tōfuku-ji in Kyoto, Japan. It has been designated at National Treasure in the category *paintings*. The painting also bears an inscription penned by Wuzhun Shifan. Bernard Faure writes that it is painted in the Chan priest portrait style, known as *dingxiang* or *zhenxiang* (Japanese: *chinzō*). Like others of its style, the Chan monk sits in a lotus posture, donning in full monastic robes, with the monk's shoes placed at a footstool below and his right hand grasping a whisk or staff.

* Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1997). *Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching*. Armonk: ME Sharpe, Inc.
* Faure, Bernard. (2003). *Chan Buddhism in Ritual Context*. New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-29748-6.
* Lauer, Uta. (2002). *A Master of His Own*. Stuttgart: Steiner. ISBN 3-515-07932-7.

## InfoBox

| Wuzhun Shifan | |
| --- | --- |
| Portrait of Zen master Wuzhun Shifan, painted in 1238, Song Dynasty. | |
| Title | Ch'an-shih |
| Personal | |
| Born | 1178
Sichuan Province, China |
| Died | 1249
China |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| Nationality | Chinese |
| School | Ch'an |
| Occupation | Buddhist monk, calligrapher, diddler, painter |
| Senior posting | |
| Based in | China |


title: Vodacom Challenge

abstract: The Vodacom Challenge was an association football pre-season tournament that featured Vodacom-sponsored South African clubs Orlando Pirates and Kaizer Chiefs plus from 2006 onwards an invited European club. Prior to 2006, the competition consisted of the two Soweto giants and two invited African clubs. Tottenham Hotspur became the first non-African team to win the competition in 2007. According to the tournament promoter, Jabu Mathibela the tournament was cancelled due to "time constraints" before the 2012 season would have commenced.

text:
# Vodacom Challenge

The **Vodacom Challenge** was an association football pre-season tournament that featured Vodacom-sponsored South African clubs Orlando Pirates and Kaizer Chiefs plus from 2006 onwards an invited European club. Prior to 2006, the competition consisted of the two Soweto giants and two invited African clubs.

Tottenham Hotspur became the first non-African team to win the competition in 2007.

According to the tournament promoter, Jabu Mathibela the tournament was cancelled due to "time constraints" before the 2012 season would have commenced.

## Vodacom Challenge Final with African Teams

| Year | Winners | Score | Runners Up | Venue |  | 3rd Place | Score | 4th Place | Venue |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **1999** |
Orlando Pirates | **4-1** |
Espérance ST | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
Kaizer Chiefs | **2-1** |
ASEC | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |
| **2000** |
Kaizer Chiefs | **1-0** |
Orlando Pirates | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
Dynamos | **2-1** |
Africa Sports | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |
| **2001** |
Kaizer Chiefs | **0-0
*3-2 on pens*** |
Asante Kotoko | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
Hearts of Oak | **0-0
*4-3 on Pens*** |
Orlando Pirates | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |
| **2002** |
St Eloi Lupopo | **1-0** |
Kaizer Chiefs | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
Orlando Pirates | **1-1
*8-7 on Pens*** |
Asante Kotoko | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |
| **2003** |
Kaizer Chiefs | **0-0
*3-2 on pens*** |
TP Mazembe | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
Orlando Pirates | **1-0
** |
St Eloi Lupopo |
Kings Park Stadium, Durban |
| **2004** |
AS Vita Club | **0-0
*5-4 on pens*** |
Kaizer Chiefs | Soccer City, Soweto |  |
Orlando Pirates | **2-1
** |
TP Mazembe |
Soccer City, Soweto |
| **2005** |
Orlando Pirates | **2-1** |
Kaizer Chiefs | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |  |
AS Vita Club | **2-1** |
Green Buffaloes | Kings Park Stadium, Durban |

## Vodacom Challenge Results with European Teams

| Year | Winners | Score | Runners Up | Venue | 3rd Place |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2006
*Details* |
Kaizer Chiefs | 0-0
*4-3 on Pens* |
Manchester United | Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria |
Orlando Pirates |
| 2007
*Details* |
Tottenham Hotspur | 3-0 |
Orlando Pirates | Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria |
Kaizer Chiefs |
| 2008
*Details* |
Manchester United | 4-0 |
Kaizer Chiefs | Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria |
Orlando Pirates |
| 2009
*Details* |
Kaizer Chiefs | 1-0 |
Manchester City | Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria |
Orlando Pirates |
| 2010
 | Cancelled due to 2010 FIFA World Cup | | | | |
| 2011
*Details* |
Tottenham Hotspur | 3-0 |
Orlando Pirates | Ellis Park, Johannesburg |
Kaizer Chiefs |
| 2012
 | Cancelled due to "time constraints". | | | | |

## Invited African clubs

### 1999

### 2000

### 2001

### 2002

### 2003

### 2004

### 2005

## Invited European clubs

### 2006

### 2007

### 2008

### 2009

### 2011

## InfoBox

Vodacom Challenge
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Founded | 1999 |
| Region | Africa (CAF) and International guest |
| Current champions | Tottenham Hotspur |
| Most successful team(s) | Kaizer Chiefs (5 times) |
| Website | www.vodacomchallenge.com |


title: Melville, Oregon

abstract: Melville is an unincorporated community in Clatsop County, Oregon, United States, on the Lewis and Clark River. Its post office was established in February 1891, with Wilthea S. Ingalls postmaster. The post office closed in November 1922.

text:
# Melville, Oregon

**Melville** is an unincorporated community in Clatsop County, Oregon, United States, on the Lewis and Clark River. Its post office was established in February 1891, with Wilthea S. Ingalls postmaster. The post office closed in November 1922.

## InfoBox

| Melville, Oregon | |
| --- | --- |
| Unincorporated community | |
| MelvilleMelville | |
| Coordinates: 46°03′36″N 123°50′37″W / 46.06000°N 123.84361°W / 46.06000; -123.84361 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Oregon |
| County | Clatsop |
| Elevation | 26 ft (8 m) |
| Time zone | UTC-8 (Pacific (PST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-7 (PDT) |
| ZIP code | 97103 |
| Area code(s) | 503 and 971 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1136532 |


title: Los Angeles Conference on Magic History

abstract: The Los Angeles Conference on Magic History is a biennial invitation-only conference created to showcase historical magic. The conference was started in 1989, designed to highlight various aspects of the history of magic from around the world. Each conference features a series of re-created performances and lectures from famous and well noted magicians. The event is co-hosted by Ricky Jay, Mike Caveney, John Gaughan and Jim Steinmeyer. Past conferences have featured unique recreations of historical illusions, including effects from Guy Jarrett, David Devant, John Nevil Maskelyne and Dr. Samuel Cox Hooker.

text:
# Los Angeles Conference on Magic History

The **Los Angeles Conference on Magic History** is a biennial invitation-only conference created to showcase historical magic. The conference was started in 1989, designed to highlight various aspects of the history of magic from around the world. Each conference features a series of re-created performances and lectures from famous and well noted magicians. The event is co-hosted by Ricky Jay, Mike Caveney, John Gaughan and Jim Steinmeyer. Past conferences have featured unique recreations of historical illusions, including effects from Guy Jarrett, David Devant, John Nevil Maskelyne and Dr. Samuel Cox Hooker.

## Past Conferences

* 1989 DeKolta's Expanding Die, Automata, Thayer magic
* 1991 Rene Lavand, The Charles Carter Show
* 1993 Hooker Card Rise, Sawing a Woman in Halves.
* 1995 Tribute to Robert Lund, The Blue Room.
* 1997 Will, the Witch and the Watch, the Chess Automaton.
* 1999 The Mascot Moth, the Automaton Clarinet Player.
* 2001 Guy Jarrett’s creations, The Million Dollar Mystery, The Great Fasola
* 2003 Tanagra, Lesley Hazlitt (Piddington), Devant’s Chocolate Soldier from St. George's Hall and Morritt’s famous Oh! illusion from Egyptian Hall.
* 2005 The Mighty Cheese, Professor Thomas Tobin’s Palingenesia, Del Adelphia, and Kellar’s Psycho.
* 2007 Hooker Rising Cards


title: MaryGail Douglas

abstract: MaryGail K. Douglas is an American politician. She is a former member of the South Carolina House of Representatives from the 41st District, serving from 2013 to 2017.

text:
# MaryGail Douglas

**MaryGail K. Douglas** is an American politician. She is a former member of the South Carolina House of Representatives from the 41st District, serving from 2013 to 2017.

1. "MaryGail K. Douglas bio". *South Carolina Legislature*. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
2. "MaryGail K. Douglas". Open States. Retrieved 27 December 2022.

## InfoBox

| MaryGail Douglas | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the South Carolina House of Representatives
from the 41st district | |
| **In office**
November 12, 2013  2017 | |
| Preceded by | Boyd Brown |
| Succeeded by | Annie McDaniel |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1950-01-19) January 19, 1950
Fairfield County, South Carolina, United States |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Alma mater | University of South Carolina |
|  | |


title: Michelle Kosch

abstract:
Michelle Kosch is an American philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at Cornell University.
She is known for her works on nineteenth and twentieth century continental philosophy.

text:
# Michelle Kosch

**Michelle Kosch** (born 1965) is an American philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at Cornell University. She is known for her works on nineteenth and twentieth century continental philosophy.

## Books

## InfoBox

| Michelle Kosch | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1965 |
| Education | Columbia University (PhD) |
| Awards | DAAD fellowship |
|  | |
| Era | 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| Institutions | Cornell University |
| Main interests | moral psychology |
|  | |
| Website | http://www.mkosch.net/ |


title: Garlyano

abstract: Garlyano is a village in Kyustendil Municipality, Kyustendil Province, south-western Bulgaria.

text:
# Garlyano

**Garlyano** is a village in Kyustendil Municipality, Kyustendil Province, south-western Bulgaria.

## InfoBox

| Garlyano Гърляно | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Garlyano | |
| Coordinates: 42°15′00″N 22°34′09″E / 42.2500°N 22.5692°E / 42.2500; 22.5692 | |
| Country | Bulgaria |
| Province | Kyustendil Province |
| Municipality | Kyustendil |
| Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |


title: Meridiani Planum

abstract:
Meridiani Planum (alternatively Terra Meridiani) is a large plain straddling the equator of Mars. The plain sits on top of an enormous body of sediments that contains bound water. The iron oxide in the spherules is crystalline (grey) hematite (Fe2O3). The Meridiani Planum is one of the most thoroughly investigated regions of Mars. Many studies were carried out by the scientists involved with NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Opportunity. Two outstanding features found by these investigations are the actions of water flow and aqueous chemistry in this plain's geological history and, particularly specific to the plain, an abundance and ubiquity of small spherules composed mainly of grey-hematite that sit loosely on top of the plain's soils and underneath embedded inside its sediments. The loose surface spherules were eroded out of the sediments. They are informally called "blueberries". The plain's sediments have extremely high sulfur content (as sulfates) and high phosphate levels. The boundaries of the Meridiani Planum are not firmly fixed and accepted by the community of Mars planetary scientists. However, the boundaries of the hematite-bearing plain were operationally defined in the late 1990s and early 2000s by the extent of the orbital detection of the plain's surface hematite by the thermal emission spectrometer (TES) on the satellite Mars Global Surveyor. The various names for this region (i.e., Terra Meridiani, Meridiani Planum) started to be used in the published literature in 2002/2003/2004. Each name reflects the coincidental (somewhat arbitrary) fact that the plain straddles the prime meridian for the system of longitude lines introduced for east/west Mars mapping. The area covered by the detected surface hematite is around 150,000 km⁲, i.e., larger than Lake Superior (82,000 km⁲ (32,000 sq mi)) in North America. Except for transport by large meteor impact, loose surface spherules tend to remain within a few meters of their starting embedded location. The surface hematite spherules and sediments are coextensive in surface area. So, the area extent of the underlying sediments is at least as large as the area of detected surface hematite spherules but likely somewhat larger since, for example, a significant area of surface hematite was covered by ejecta from the Bopolu Crater impact. The typical depth of the underlying sediments is several hundred meters.
The Meridiani plain's sediments overlay older geological formations that appear around the sediments' boundary. The plain's sediments and surface hematite spherules were formed in three geological epochs and by three different sets of geological processes (more below). The MER Opportunity rover investigated the rim of Endeavour Crater from August 2011 until the rover's demise in 2018. The plain's sediments do not cover this crater rim and are geologically younger than this rim. As such, the rim of Endeavour Crater is distinct from the plain, although it is surrounded by the plain and its sediments.

text:
# Meridiani Planum

Map of surface hematite at Meridiani Planum detected from orbit.

**Meridiani Planum** (alternatively **Terra Meridiani**) is a large plain straddling the equator of Mars. The plain sits on top of an enormous body of sediments that contains bound water. The iron oxide in the spherules is crystalline (grey) hematite (Fe2O3).

The Meridiani Planum is one of the most thoroughly investigated regions of Mars. Many studies were carried out by the scientists involved with NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) *Opportunity*. Two outstanding features found by these investigations are the actions of water flow and aqueous chemistry in this plain's geological history and, particularly specific to the plain, an abundance and ubiquity of small spherules composed mainly of grey-hematite that sit loosely on top of the plain's soils and underneath embedded inside its sediments. The loose surface spherules were eroded out of the sediments. They are informally called "blueberries". The plain's sediments have extremely high sulfur content (as sulfates) and high phosphate levels.

The boundaries of the Meridiani Planum are not firmly fixed and accepted by the community of Mars planetary scientists. However, the boundaries of the hematite-bearing plain were operationally defined in the late 1990s and early 2000s by the extent of the orbital detection of the plain's surface hematite by the thermal emission spectrometer (TES) on the satellite *Mars Global Surveyor*. The various names for this region (i.e., Terra Meridiani, Meridiani Planum) started to be used in the published literature in 2002/2003/2004. Each name reflects the coincidental (somewhat arbitrary) fact that the plain straddles the prime meridian for the system of longitude lines introduced for east/west Mars mapping.

The area covered by the detected surface hematite is around 150,000 km2, i.e., larger than Lake Superior (82,000 km2 (32,000 sq mi)) in North America. Except for transport by large meteor impact, loose surface spherules tend to remain within a few meters of their starting embedded location. The surface hematite spherules and sediments are coextensive in surface area. So, the area extent of the underlying sediments is at least as large as the area of detected surface hematite spherules but likely somewhat larger since, for example, a significant area of surface hematite was covered by ejecta from the Bopolu Crater impact. The typical depth of the underlying sediments is several hundred meters. The Meridiani plain's sediments overlay older geological formations that appear around the sediments' boundary. The plain's sediments and surface hematite spherules were formed in three geological epochs and by three different sets of geological processes (more below).

The MER *Opportunity* rover investigated the rim of Endeavour Crater from August 2011 until the rover's demise in 2018. The plain's sediments do not cover this crater rim and are geologically younger than this rim. As such, the rim of Endeavour Crater is distinct from the plain, although it is surrounded by the plain and its sediments.

## 19th Century Maps

The Meridiani Planum was first observed as part of a larger region that appeared as a distinct dark (low albedo) spot in small telescope images of Mars. Around 1830 the earliest Mars map-makers, Johann Heinrich von Mädler and Wilhelm Beer, chose to place the prime meridian for maps of Mars through this dark spot. In the late 1870s, Camille Flammarion called this dark region Sinus Meridiani ("Meridian Bay"). The Meridiani Planum covers the western part of the Sinus Meridiani.

## Viking 1 & Viking 2: Smooth Terrain, Sediments, Water

The *Viking 1* and *Viking 2* missions successfully landed the first landers on Mars at locations far away from the Meridiani Planum. However, both missions also included satellites (operating between 1976 and 1982) that took many images of the surface of Mars from orbit. Viking 1 and Viking 2 satellite images of what is today called the Meridiani Planum (and its adjacent regions) were studied in three works in the 1980s and again in two 1997 papers published in the months between the launch of the *Mars Global Surveyor* mission and its arrival at Mars. Edgett and Parker noted the smooth terrain of what we now call the Meridiani Planum and realized early that the plain was likely made of sediments and probably had a wet, watery past.

## Strategy Impacting the Exploration of Meridiani Planum: Search for Water & Life

In the 1990s, NASA officials, especially Daniel S. Goldin, wanted to delineate a framework for "faster, better, cheaper" exploration of Mars. In this context, the "Water Strategy" was outlined in 1995/1996. The "Water Strategy" was "to explore and study Mars in three areas: - Evidence of past or present life, - Climate (weather, processes, and history), - Resources (environment and utilization)." All three areas were seen as intimately connected to water. High priority goals for NASA in the mid-1990s were to gather some evidence for surface water using satellite surveys and to land robotic rovers on the surface to collect detailed local evidence of water and signs of life.

## Global Satellite Surveys: Surface Hematite & Water

Two NASA missions arrived at Mars in mid-1997: *Mars Pathfinder* and *Mars Global Surveyor*. *Mars Pathfinder* made the first successful Mars landing in over twenty years and the first-ever deployment of a Mars rover, the small, short-lived *Sojourner*. *Mars Global Surveyor* surveyed most of the surface of Mars to map its surface topography, some mineral distributions, and make some other measurements.

### Hematite, Water, Plain, Life Potential: A Place to Land a Rover

An important survey carried out between 1997 and 2002 by the *Mars Global Surveyor* collected surface hematite levels with the satellite's thermal emissions spectrometer (TES). The TES hematite survey data was turned into the low-resolution map shown in Figure 1a. This map, covering all of Mars, has just one large spot covering a region with high hematite levels. This green, yellow, and red spot straddles the equator and the prime meridian in the middle of Figure 1a. A higher resolution image of the high-hematite region is shown in Figure 1b.

In early the 2000s, the hematite map of Figure 1b and the confirmation (from the topography mapping done by the *Mars Global Surveyor*) that this area is a flat plain and relatively easy to land on were the decisive pieces of evidence for choosing the Meridiani Planum as one of the landing sites for NASA's two bigger Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), named *Opportunity* and *Spirit*. The decisiveness for NASA of the hematite map of Figure 1b for choosing the landing site for *Opportunity* was due to the fact that NASA was using high hematite levels as proxy evidence for large amounts of liquid water flowing in the region in the past (hematite only forms in the presence of liquid water in geological settings). In 2003, this high-hematite region was a high-priority place to start to search for signs of life on Mars.

### Present Day Water at Meridiani Planum (satellite evidence)

Since 2001, evidence for water at the present-day Meridiani Planum was collected by the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) mounted on the *Mars Odyssey* orbiter. This neutron detector collects signals of "water-equivalent hydrogen" (WEH) over the entire planet. It gradually built up global maps of surface WEH. These maps show that polar and near-polar regions of Mars have the highest levels of surface WEH; although, the Meridiani Planum has relatively high WEH for a non-polar region. The WEH maps are likely to underestimate the present-day water resources at Meridiani Planum since (a) the HEND has a shallow (1 m) penetration depth, (b) the majority of the plain's surface is covered in dehydrated soils, and hematite spherules.

## Starting Missions: *Opportunity* rover and other landers

Starting with Daniel S. Goldin's strategies and NASA's engineering attention to detail, Mars Exploration Rover *Opportunity* successfully made the "hole-in-one" landing into Eagle Crater at Meridiani Planum on January 24 (PST), 2004. NASA named this landing site the Challenger Memorial Station to honor the final crew of the Space Shuttle *Challenger*, who died in 1986 when that shuttle broke up in flight.

The Meridiani Planum was also the target landing site for two other missions: *Mars Surveyor 2001* Lander and *Schiaparelli* EDM. However, these other two lander missions were not successful. The *Mars Surveyor 2001* Lander was canceled after the failures of the *Mars Climate Orbiter* and *Mars Polar Lander* missions, while the *Schiaparelli* EDM (Entry, Descent, and Landing Demonstrator Module) system lost control during the descent stage and terminally crash-landed on October 19, 2016. (*Schiaparelli* EDM was part of the ExoMars program of the European Space Agency.)

## *Opportunity'*s Traverse

*Opportunity* traveled 28.06 miles (45.16 kilometers) across the Meridiani Planum and around the rim of Endeavour Crater between January 2004 and June 2018. Figure 2 highlights the rover's traverse route (yellow line). The route's position within the Meridiani Planum is shown by the blue line traverse route labeled "OT" in Figure 1b. The journey started on January 25, 2004, with the landing in Eagle Crater. The rover crossed the plain's sediments and soils and studied many small and medium-sized craters until August 2011, when it reached the rim of the enormous Endeavour Crater. Between August 2011 and June 10, 2018, it studied the rim of Endeavour (which has different geological features from the plain). The rover's last communication with NASA was on June 10, 2018. The *Opportunity* mission was declared ended on February 13, 2019.

## *Opportunity'*s human-like (Pancam) view of Meridiani Planum

The *Opportunity* rover had five cameras. One, the Pancam (panoramic cam), was mounted at the height of 1.5 m, i.e., a height similar to the eye height of most people. The Pancam was used to take scientific data, and it also took images that were approximate true color (ATC) photographs of the rover's surroundings; that is, the Pancam photographed images close to what people would see if standing in the rover's place. The following pictures, Figure 3 through Figure 10, provide a selection of images that cover the common and outstanding features a person would see standing at locations along *Opportunity*'s traverse of the Meridiani Planum.

### The Wide View: A Flat Plain with Smooth or Ripple Soils

### Inside Craters: Layered Sediments, Burns Cliff

### Iron on the ground: Spherules (Blueberries), Meteorites

### Crater Rim Overview (large and small)

The dominant visual impressions at eye level are that:

* Meridiani is a very flat plain.
* The plain is primarily covered in dark soils but with patches of lighter sediment outcrop.
* Vast numbers of small bluish-grey hematite spherules (mostly 1 mm - 6 mm in diameter) sit loosely on the soils and sediment outcrop (many more spherules are on soils than outcrop).
* At most locations, you are close to a visible small crater (5 to 30-meter diameters) - the visible small crater density is 65 to 127 craters per km2 (about 1 per hectare or about 1 per 2.5 acres). (There are plenty of tiny craters with diameters below 5 m.)
* At larger craters (like Endurance and Victoria Craters), the crater walls expose large (stratigraphic) sections of Meridiani sediments in which many sediment layers and partly embedded hematite spherules are visible.
* Scattered across the plain are (usually smallish) ejecta blocks of sediment from crater-forming meteorite impacts.
* The tall rims of enormous craters (like Endeavour and Bopolu Craters) are visible from great distances.
* Large meteorites sitting on soils and top sediment outcrops are somewhat rare but outstanding features.
* The soils come in fields with two main bedform types (i) *smooth sheets* (these are remarkably flat, and almost no sediment outcrop is visible in smooth sheet fields) and (ii) *plains ripples* (these are slopped and usually 10 to 40 cm tall and 1.5 to 5 m wide) that are often interspersed with top sediment outcrop.
* There are many sinuous, 1 cm tall "crest" ripples running on top of smooth sheet fields. These crest ripples are made up of sub-millimeter fragments of hematite spherules.

## Composition of the Major Materials found at Meridiani Planum

This section covers the composition of the major materials found at the Meridiani plain (i.e., sediments, spherules, soils, and dust). The discoveries and compositions of meteorites and long-distance ejecta are given in the next section. A later section covers the geological materials found by *Opportunity* after August 2011, i.e., around the rim of Endeavour Crater.

### Sediments

The layered sedimentary outcrop rocks exposed in Eagle, Fram, and Endurance caters were examined by the suite of instruments on *Opportunity*. Mature data analysis found the following (broad category) mineral composition of the sediments (excluding embedded spherules): 36-37 wt% hydrated sulfates, 35 wt% hydrated aluminosilicates, 16 wt% basaltic rock, 10 wt% hematite and other oxides, 2 wt% chlorides, and 1-2 wt% phosphates. An outstanding feature of this composition is the extreme levels of the sulfates. These are about 5 times higher than the overlying Meridiani soils, about 20 times higher than in the basalts in Gusev Crater (investigated Spirit, the sibling MER), and even more extreme relative to typical Earth rocks. The principle sulfates are hydrated magnesium sulfates (e.g., kieserite & epsomite), hydrated calcium sulfates (e.g., bassanite & gypsum), and jarosite (a complicated hydrated sulfate containing iron and probably potassium or sodium); the chloride salts include halite and bischofite. Detecting jarosite was a surprise, and its presence significantly constrains the possible geochemical pathways leading to the formation of Meridiani sediments.

**Water Content?** An outstanding unknown is the amount of residual water in the layered sediments today. Answers from direct measurement by the rover *Opportunity* were not possible because the rover's instruments could not detect water or hydrogen. However, in 2005, Clark et al. gave a range of 6 wt% to 22 wt% based on an indirect geochemical argument. Further, the actual water content should be higher than the water equivalent hydrogen (WEH) measurements made by the neutron detector orbiting on *Mars Odyssey* (due to the shallow (1m) penetration depth of the neutron detector and the layer of water-poor top soil covering most areas of Meridiani). In 2005 the measured WEH level at Meridiani was 7 wt%, but continued neutron detection produced a 2018 WEH map indicating 9-10 wt% WEH across Meridiani.

There is a small field of scientific study concentrating on how hydration levels of hydrated magnesium and calcium sulfates vary with temperature at Martain atmosphere pressures. At Martian pressures, these studies readily extracted water from magnesium sulfates with various levels of hydration using applied temperatures between 50 oC and 200 oC. They also observed a hyper-hydrated magnesium sulfate on Earth that they called meridianiite (after Meridiani Planum), with the formula MgSO4.11H2O, which decomposes to epsomite, MgSO4.7H2O, and water at 2 oC.

*Opportunity*'s Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) found rather high levels of phosphorus in the rocks. Since the solubility of phosphorus is related to the solubility of uranium, thorium, and rare-earth elements, it was suggested these other metals are also enriched in Meridiani outcrop sediments.

### Spherules

#### Early Spherule Results

Early on, *Opportunity*'s Mössbauer spectrometer took data that determined that the iron mineral component of these spherules is dominated by hematite. However, the Mössbauer spectrometer provided no information about the mineral components of these spherules that do **not** contain iron.

The "berry bowl" experiment took alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) readings of two sampling targets just centimeters apart: One had no (zero or one) spherules in the spectrometer's field of view (FOV), while the other had around 25 spherules in the FOV. Figure 11 shows the adjacent "berry bowl" sampling targets. The APXS results indicated there was noticeably more iron in the target with ~25 spherules relative to the target with 0 or 1 spherules. Based on this and similar experiments, several unreviewed conference abstracts claimed (deliberately not cited here) that hematite dominated the composition of the spherules and some published papers cited these conference claims. However, there were reasons to be cautious. The instruments detected mixed signals from sampling targets that included signals not only from the spherules but also from dust and rock (in the "berry bowl" experiment) or dust and soils (in other composition data collections). In 2006, Morris et al. showed that the methods used by some researchers to pick out the spherule composition signal from the dust and soil signals were flawed and that such methods could do no more than constrain the iron oxide content of the spherules to between 24 wt% and 100 wt% (that is, almost no constraint at all).

#### Later Spherule Results

A 2008 paper published the result of a clever experiment that showed *Opportunity*'s mini-TES (thermal emission spectrometer) could **not** detect any silicate minerals in the spherules. This non-detection constrained silicate levels in spherules to less than 10 wt% and probably below 8 wt%. This result is helpful since the APXS data shows a strong anti-correlation between silicates and iron oxide in the spherules - so low silicate levels indicate high iron oxide levels.

A recent paper used the mini-TES's non-detection of silicates and some improved data analysis methods to find over 340,000 allowable standard oxide chemical compositions for the spherules (allowable = consistent with the silicate non-detection). The lowest and highest weight percentages for the iron oxide content in these allowable spherule compositions were, respectively, 79.5 wt% and 99.8 wt%. While, for the large majority of the allowable compositions, the iron oxide contents in the spherules were between 85 wt% and 96 wt%; further, the nickel content was always close to 0.3 wt%, a group of five standard oxides (MgO, Na2O, P2O5, SO3, and Cl) each had content above trace-level with a combined group content of 6.8 +/- 2.4 wt%, the SiO2 levels ranged between 8 wt% and 0 wt%, and the other eight APXS standard oxides had either 0 wt% content or only trace level content.

### Soils

The underlying soils at Meridiani Planum are similar to those at Gusev Crater, Ares Vallis, and Gale Crater; although, the levels of sulfates in Meridiani soils are noticeably higher than other locations. At Meridiani Planum, the soils are armored with a thin top layer of hematite spherules with their distinct composition (not found at Gusev Crater, Ares Vallis, and Gale Crater). This layering of spherules (and spherule fragments) on top, with basaltic soils below, is shown in Figure 12.

Most of the underlying soil consists of basaltic material but mixed with varying amounts of dust and sulfate-rich ejecta debris from the sediments. A typical mineral composition for basaltic Meridiani soils is 40 wt% plagioclase, 35 wt% pyroxenes, 15 wt% amorphous glasses, 10 wt% olivine, and around 5 wt% sulfates and oxides. Standard oxide compositions for typical basaltic soils are 44-46 wt% SiO2, 18-19 wt% FeO + Fe2O3, 9-10 wt% Al2O3, 7.4 wt% MgO, 6.9 wt% CaO2, 5.8 wt% SO3, 2.2 wt% Na2O, ~5 wt% other oxides (total).

### Dust

Dust covers everything all over Mars and the composition of this dust is essentially uniform everywhere, due to the many dust storms over Mars, including global dust storms every few years.

*Opportunity*'s APXS measurement of a commonly referenced dust-covered sampling target, MontBlanc\_LeHauches, gives a dust composition that is largely basaltic in character with the following weight perecentages for the standard oxides: 45.3 wt% SiO2, 17.6 wt% Fe0, 9.2 wt% Al2O3, 7.6 wt% MgO, 7.3 wt% SO3, 6.6 wt% CaO, 2.2 wt% Na20, 1.0 TiO2, 0.9 wt% P2O5, and a total of 2.0 wt% for the other seven standard oxides.

A Mössbauer spectrum was made of the dust that gathered on *Opportunity*'s capture magnet. The results suggested that the magnetic component of the dust was titanomagnetite, rather than just plain magnetite, as was once thought. A small amount of olivine was detected which was interpreted as indicating a long arid period on the planet. On the other hand, a small amount of hematite that was present meant that there may have been liquid water for a short time in the early history of the planet.

## Discoveries of Meteorites & Long Distance Ejecta

### Meteorites

*Opportunity* found six large iron-nickel meteorites just sitting on the plains (Heat Shield Rock (shown in Figure 8), Block Island, Shelter Island, Mackinac Island, Oileán Ruaidh, and Ireland), although these six may originate from fewer impacts (i.e., an original meteor broke into pieces). Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES), Mossbauer spectrometer, and APXS led researchers to classify Heat Shield Rock as an IAB meteorite with close to 93 wt% iron content and 7 wt% nickel content (mostly in metallic form). Heat Shield Rock (see Figure 8) was the first meteorite recognized on another planet. (The other MER, Spirit, found two rocks in Gusev Crater, "Allan Hills" and "Zhong Shan," that may be iron meteorites.)

The top layers of the plain's soils contain a noticeable content (~1 wt%) of small-particle, iron-nickel meteoritic material \- many iron-nickel meteorites disintegrate during descent and impact, and these pieces were too small for the Pancam to identify.

Stony meteorites are more challenging to identify than iron-nickel meteorites. However, the cobble named "Fig Tree Barberton" and three others in the "Barberton group" are thought to be stony or stony-iron meteorites (mesosiderite silicate),.

*Opportunity* studied nine cobbles in the "Arkansas Group" that were breccias displaying evidence of material melting from heat generated by meteorite impacts.

### Long Distance Ejecta

The rover found two odd boulders with mineralogies significantly different from the plain's common sediment rocks. One rock, "Bounce Rock," contains mainly pyroxene and plagioclase but no olivine. It closely resembled a part, Lithology B, of the shergottite meteorite EETA 79001, a meteorite on Earth known to have come from Mars. Bounce rock received its name by being bounced on by the airbags of *Opportunity'*s lander. The other rock, "Marquette Island," is believed to have originated deep inside the crust of Mars. Both "Bounce Rock" and "Marquette Island" are considered to be ejecta from large crater impacts occurring off the plain at large distances from where these rocks were found by the rover.

## Geological history

The history of geological change at Meridiani Planum fits into three epochs with distinct processes. These three eras of change at Meridiani align reasonably well with the three standard epochs for the whole planet, i.e., the Noachian, Hesperian, and Amazonian epochs.

### Noachian River Flows

Prior to the formation of Meridiani's defining sediments, in the wet Noachian (named for the biblical Noah) more than about ~3.7 billion years ago, liquid water was present and plentiful enough to form river channels that bought and deposited large quantities of basaltic silt to the current Meridiani region. Edgett and Parker could barely discern some of these river valleys in the *Viking* orbiter images from the 1970s. However, they are easy to see in thermal inertia images taken in orbit by *Mars Odyssey* and reproduced in Figure 13 (click on it for higher resolution). These river channels took water from the higher ground in the southeast (lower right of Figure 13) toward the northwest and down to the present-day Meridiani Planum. The river valleys seen in Figure 13 terminate abruptly as they flow into the Meridiani's massive formation of sediments.

Current evidence points to the sloping ground (necessary for the river flows) being created by a giant tilt in the surface of Terra Meridiani Mars caused by the emergence of the enormous Tharsis Plateau and the vast volcanoes of Tharsis several thousand kilometers away.

### Formation of Today's Sediments & Embedded Spherules

From around the late-Noachian/early-Hesperian to sometime around 3.5 billion years ago, the layered sediments deposited in the earlier Noachian epoch were transformed. This transformation probably included a significant additional deposition of high-sulfur-content material of volcanic origin. The change certainly included aqueous geochemistry that was acidic and salty, as well as rising & falling water levels: Features providing evidence include cross-bedded sediments, the presence of vugs (cavities), and embedded hematite spherules that cut across sediment layers, additionally the presence of large amounts of magnesium sulfate and other sulfate-rich minerals such as jarosite and chlorides. Jarosite formation requires aqueous acidic conditions below pH 3.

Figures 14 and 15 show Microscopic Imager close-up images of the sediment rock matrix that appeared (cropped) in a prestigious paper. Figure 14 illustrates the four physical constituents of sediment outcrop: (i) the sedimentary layers containing a lot of basaltic sand particles; (ii) the embedded hematite spherules; (iii) fine-grained, sulfate-rich cement (in most parts of the outcrop); (iv) vug cavities (that are thought to be molds for crystals of, for example, hydrated sulfates). Figure 15 images a similar sediment outcrop surface to Figure 14. However, *Opportunity*'s Rock Abrasion Tool abraded this surface. Such abrasions showed that (a) the sediment layers are very soft and easy to cut, and (b) the hematite spherules have uniform internal structures.

The "diagenetic" transformation (i.e., change by water-rock interactions) to today's sediments involved a significant shift in water flows in the region. The inflows from rivers became less and less, and in this period, the dominant water movements in the sediments became vertical movements with rising and falling aquifer levels. At least one model of global Martian hydrology accounts for the historical shift in water flows at Meridiani Planum. This model links Meridiani's change in water flows to activity in the volcanic Tharsis region. With the vertical aquifer flows, it is believed that (playa) lakes repeatedly formed and disappeared as the aquifer levels rose and fell. (The dry area around Utah's Great Salt Lake is a playa.) The *Opportunity* team found minerals ("evaporites") that typically form when salty water evaporates; these evaporites cemented together other components of the sediment (such as basaltic particles and the spherules).

McLennan and his students constructed a geochemical model that generates hematite within a context like the Meridiani sediment. The hematite formed into spherules by concretion. The concretion process to form near spherical balls (spherules) of hematite probably occurred by diffusion of the hematite through the sedimentary rock matrix (the hematite still in the rock matrix probably fixed in place when moveable water disappeared).

The results of these transformations are still largely intact today. The main subsequent changes just affected the top layers of the Meridiani sediments (more below).

### Crater Degradation, Formation of Soils & Loose Spherules

The period of rising and falling aquifer levels ceased, and no water flowed on Meridiani Planum thereafter. Although, when this happened is poorly understood. Estimates include around 3.5 billion years ago and about 3 billion years ago. The only water left at the plain was and is bound in rocks.

Erosion with water flows in earlier eras was much faster than in this last (and present) arid epoch. However, erosion did not stop. Other much slower erosional processes continued and became the primary agents of change to the plain. This slower change was and is driven by meteorite impacts, the wind, and gravity. Over the hard-to-grasp eon of around three billion years, meteorite impacts, and the wind formed the sandy topsoil and loose hematite spherules and sorted these into the layered soil bedforms that *Opportunity*'s Pancam photographed, and we can now see.

The meteorite, gravity, and wind-driven processes work like this:

* Over billions of years, meteorite impacts created many craters on the plain.
* There were enough small (5 to 30 m diameter) craters created in the eon of around three billion years to cover, on average, the whole plain once. Although, each small crater degraded and disappeared in about 25 million years or less, and only about 0.7% of the plain's area is presently covered in small craters.
* Each meteorite impact produces large numbers of blocks of sediment material in the crater rim and as ejecta around the crater: See, for example, Concepcion Crater in Figure 10 and the tiny Granada Crater (on the right side) of Figure 9.
* Most of the initial sediment blocks project above the surrounding material (by a few centimeters or more) and are exposed to saltating sand (i.e., wind-driven, bouncing sand).
* The saltating sand erodes the soft, easy-to-erode parts of the sediment matrix in the projecting blocks.
* These blocks are either completely eroded or erode until they become smooth and no longer project into saltating sand.
* This block erosion creates dust particles and turns embedded spherules into loose spherules (more below).
* The dust particles are blown off the plain and become part of the global dust.
* The sulfates preferentially turn into dust and are transported off the plain by the wind.
* The larger basalt sand particles, spherules fragments, and hematite spherules remain in place on the plain.
* Wind, gravity, and size-sorting created the soil bedforms from the basaltic sands, spherule fragments, and spherules.
* With the aid of gravity and wind, the original (small) crater holes are gradually filled in (with material from eroded rim blocks and other local erosion material), and the plain is returned to a flat state.

Phil Christensen outlined these processes in 2004, soon after *Opportunity* landed. Later, more in-depth research (with more years of data from *Opportunity*) confirmed the above processes and added details. Christensen's rapid assessment of the erosional processes was probably connected to his correct 2000 prediction that the plain's surface material is soft and easy-to-erode (friable). And that prediction was made after orbiter data showed that Meridiani Planum is very smooth and that small craters degrade and disappear more rapidly than in adjoining regions.

*Opportunity* found that Meridiani sediments are soft and friable. More satellite and rover data showed that erosion rates on the Meridiani Planum are both very slow (relative to water-related erosion on Earth and early Mars) but also extremely fast (about 30 to 300 times faster) when compared to other arid regions of Mars (such as Gusev Crater).

Figure 17 shows hematite spherules as they turned from being embedded spherules into loose spherules. In Figure 17, right around seven blocks of eroding sediment ejecta (from the tiny Granada Crater) are rings surrounding these blocks where these rings are formed by locally high surface concentrations of loose spherules and caused by additional loose spherules eroding out of the blocks of sediment. Figure 17 is cropped from Figure 7, which was, in turn, cropped from Figure 9. Click and enlarge Figure 17 to see the high-density rings of spherules.

## Size & Surface Density of Hematite Spherules (Blueberries)

### Spherule Size

The size of the hematite spherules varied by location along *Opportunity*'s traverse of Meridiani Planum. The figures below illustrate this variation. Figures 18, 19, and 20 show loose surface spherules at Eagle Crater (the rover's landing site in January 2004), 500m northwest of Victoria Carter (August 2007), and 200m outside the rim of Endeavour crater (late July 2011). The straight-line distance between the sampling targets shown in Figures 18 and 20 is about 23 km (the rover's route between the two targets was 33 km). Figure 20 features one of the largest spherules photographed on the plain by *Opportunity*'s Microscopic Imager; it is 8.3 mm in diameter.

Figure 21 shows spherule fragments (or very small spherules) in a "crest ripple". These were right next to much larger spherules lying on top of smooth sandy soils and within a few meters of the trench shown in Figure 12. The top section of Figure 12 shows two crest ripples and the much larger spherules spread out between the crest ripples on top of the soils. The wide view Figure 3 also shows crest ripples as the sinuous wind-formed lines on top of the smooth sandy soil bedforms.

### Numbers of Hematite Spherules & Loose Spherule Surface Density

There are no peer-reviewed published estimates of the number of loose hematite spherules on Meridiani's soils or embedded hematite spherules in the plain's sediments. However, the reader can sense how mind-boggling big those numbers are with a photograph of an area of soil with a typical surface density of the hematite spheres. Such a photograph *has* been published.

Figures 22 and 23 are true-color and false-color versions of the photo. The spherules are easier to see in the published false-color version (Figure 23). Click on it to enlarge it. The sampling target of Figures 22 & 23 had 29% coarse hematite coverage. The range of coverage among similar targets was 10% to 40%. These targets were sampled over a wide area, between Sol 70 (2004-04-04) and Sol 999 (2007-11-15).

The parts of the plain *Opportunity* studied are *not* special: Compared to the rest of Meridiani Planum, they do not have high surface hematite levels. To see this, look at the plain's surface hematite map (Figure 1b) and the small blue line (labeled OT) indicating the route of *Opportunity*'s Traverse of the plain.

The mind-bogglingness of the number of loose hematite spherules hits when Figures 22 & 23 are extrapolated to the plain's whole surface area (about 150,000 km2): 150,000 km2 is close to 2/3's the area of the main island of Japan (Honshu) and also 72% the area of the main island of the UK (Great Britain), it is also bigger than the land areas of 30 of the 50 states of the USA.

The number of embedded spherules (in the plain's sediments) is probably much higher than the number of loose spherules (on soils). Since (1) the estimates of the erosion depth of original sediment needed to produce the loose spherules are less than 1 meter, while (2) the typical depths of the plain's sediments are several hundred meters.

## Summary of Evidence of Water

Many lines of evidence indicate water either at Meridiani Planum today or in the distant past. Before giving a short summary of the major lines of evidence already provided above, a few more are introduced.

Some rocks showed small layers (laminations) with shapes only made by gently flowing water. The first such laminations were found in a rock called "The Dells." Geologists would say that the cross-stratification showed festoon geometry from transport in subaqueous ripples. Figure 24 illustrates cross-stratification, also called crossbedding.

The concentration of the element bromine in rocks was highly variable. This may be evidence of water. Bromine is very soluble and may have moved with water flows. Thin-film water frost deposition may have concentrated bromine in certain spots.

In mid-2004, thermal inertia signals (collected by the *Mars Global Surveyor'*s TES) for "light-toned outcrop" (that is, outcrops of the plain's sediments) were found all over Meridiani Planum and also over extensive adjacent regions to the west, north, and east of the plain. Noting early results from *Opportunity* that the outcrop showed evidence of "long-term water interaction locally at the landing site", ref suggested the entire region with light-toned outcrop displayed evidence of past water.

*Major Lines of Evidence for Water:*

The orbiting satellite evidence includes (A) the TES spectra for surface hematite (mapped in Figure 1b) since hematite only forms in watery conditions, and (B) the orbiting neutron detector's finding of fairly high levels of WEH over the plain and the adjacent regions (to the west, north, and east).

The deposition of sediments and the visible dried-up river valleys flowing into the plain's sediments are both strong evidence of ancient water flows in the Meridiani region.

The stratigraphic details of plain's sediments provide several lines of evidence for water, including cross-bedded sediments, the presence of vugs (cavities), and embedded hematite spherules that cut across sediment layers. The geochemical details of plain's sediments provide more lines of evidence for water, including the presence of large amounts of magnesium sulfate and other sulfate-rich minerals such as jarosite as well as chlorides.

## Endeavour Crater

At Endeavour Crater, Opportunity investigated the Homestake Vein, the Matijevic formation containing smectites, the Shoemaker formation composed of breccia at the crater rim, the Grasberg formation composed of clastics, and much else.

*Homestake Vein:*

In December 2011, *Opportunity* had driven onto the rim of Endeavour Crater and found a white vein identified as being pure gypsum. Tests confirmed that it contained calcium, sulfur, and water. It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. The vein is called "Homestake." It is in a zone where the sulfate-rich sedimentary bedrock of the plains meets older, volcanic bedrock exposed at the rim of Endeavour.

## North of Meridiani Planum

A broad region north of the Meridiani plain displays layered features from orbit.

A detailed discussion of layering with many Martian examples can be found in Sedimentary Geology of Mars.

## Craters on Meridiani Planum

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

## InfoBox

Meridiani Planum
| Mars Exploration Rover *Opportunity* looks across the smooth soil of Meridiani Planum, towards the discarded heat shield of the rover's lander | |
| --- | --- |
| Feature type | Plains |
| Coordinates | 0°2′S 3°8′W / 0.033°S 3.133°W / -0.033; -3.133 |
| Diameter | ~1 060 km |
| Eponym | Latin *merīdiānus* |


title: Marshall D. Gates Jr.

abstract: Marshall D. Gates Jr. (1915–2003) was an American chemist, holding the position of C.F. Houghton Professor of Chemistry at the University of Rochester. He was an organic chemist whose research was in the field of natural product synthesis. He is best known for publishing the first total synthesis of morphine in 1952.

text:
# Marshall D. Gates Jr.

**Marshall D. Gates Jr.** (1915–2003) was an American chemist, holding the position of C.F. Houghton Professor of Chemistry at the University of Rochester. He was an organic chemist whose research was in the field of natural product synthesis. He is best known for publishing the first total synthesis of morphine in 1952.

## Biography

Marshall Gates was born in 1915 in Boyne City, Michigan. He received his undergraduate training at Rice University and his masters and doctoral degrees from Harvard University. He married Martha L. Meyer with whom he had two sons and two daughters. From 1941 to 1949 he taught at Bryn Mawr College at which point he moved to the University of Rochester where he remained until his retirement in 1981. From 1943 to 1946 he did work for the National Defense Council and served as editor in chief of the Journal of the American Chemical Society from 1949 to 1969. In honor of his death in 2003, a named professorship was established at the University of Rochester Department of Chemistry.

## Morphine Total Synthesis

Gates's total synthesis of morphine was the first of its kind and an important confirmation of the structural determination made by Robert Robinson some 27 years prior. The synthesis was based on the construction of a cyanodiketone from the dihydroxynaphthalene shown below. The key step was a high-pressure Diels-Alder reaction with butadiene that established the fused ring system core. Reductive coupling between the hydroxyl and cyano groups furnished the ethylamine bridge and further elaboration (including an arduous epimerization of the highlighted stereocenter) established the so-called "Gates Intermediate." Syntheses published thereafter focused, for a time, on improvements to the synthesis of this intermediate as well as the final steps.

1. "Marshall D. Gates, Chemist to First Synthesize Morphine, Dies". University of Rochester. October 3, 2003.
2. Nicolaou, K.C. and Montagon T. *Molecules that Changed the World*. Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2008.
3. Gates, M.D.; Tschudi, G. *J. Am. Chem. Soc.*, **1956**, *78* (7), pp 1380–1393. doi:10.1021/ja01588a033
4. "Morphine and Codeine," Baran Lab Presentation. Link

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Marshall D. Gates Jr. | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1915 |
| Died | 2003 |
| Nationality | American |
| Alma mater | Rice University
Harvard University |
| Known for | Total synthesis of morphine |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Organic chemistry |
| Institutions | University of Rochester
Bryn Mawr College |
|  | |


title: 1896 Albion football team

abstract: The 1896 Albion football team was an American football team that represented Albion College in the 1896 college football season. Under first-year head coach and former star halfback F. J. Shipp, Albion compiled a 4–4 record, and were outscored by their opponents 124 to 67. In the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, the team finished with a 2–1 record.

text:
# 1896 Albion football team

The **1896 Albion football team** was an American football team that represented Albion College in the 1896 college football season. Under first-year head coach and former star halfback F. J. Shipp, Albion compiled a 4–4 record, and were outscored by their opponents 124 to 67. In the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, the team finished with a 2–1 record.

## Schedule

| Date | Time | Opponent | Site | Result | Attendance | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| October |  | Detroit Athletic Club* |  | W 17–6 |  |  |
| October |  | Jackson High School* |  | W 24–0 |  |  |
| October 17 | 4:00 p.m. | at Detroit Athletic Club* | Detroit, MI | L 0–22 |  |  |
| October 24 |  | Hillsdale | Albion, MI | W 20–0 |  |  |
| October 31 |  | at Notre Dame* |  | L 0–24 |  |  |
| November 7 |  | Michigan State Normal | Ypsilanti, MI | L 0–52 |  |  |
| November 14 |  | Kalamazoo | Albion, MI | W 6–4 |  |  |
| November 26 |  | Detroit Athletic Club | Detroit, MI | L 0–16 | 1,000 |  |
| * \*Non-conference game | | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| 1896 Albion football | |
| --- | --- |
| Conference | Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association |
| Record | 4–4 (2–1 MIAA) |
| Head coach | * F. J. Shipp (1st season) |
| Captain | Harrow (right end) |
|


title: Wuzhou Film Distribution

abstract: Wuzhou Film Distribution is a Chinese film distribution company owned by Wanda Group.

text:
# Wuzhou Film Distribution

**Wuzhou Film Distribution** (Chinese: 五洲电影发行有限公司) is a Chinese film distribution company owned by Wanda Group.

## Filmography

| Title | Release date | Box office gross | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Tale of the Rally* | September 6, 2014 | CN¥12 million |  |
| *One Step Away* | September 19, 2014 | CN¥77 million |  |
| *Don't Go Breaking My Heart 2* | November 11, 2014 | CN¥199 million |  |
| *Gone with the Bullets* | December 18, 2014 | CN¥515 million |  |
| *The Taking of Tiger Mountain* | December 23, 2014 | CN¥883 million |  |
| *One Hundred Thousand Bad Jokes* | December 31, 2014 | CN¥120 million |  |
| *Running Man* | January 30, 2015 | CN¥434 million |  |
| *Crazy New Year's Eve* | February 6, 2015 | CN¥70 million |  |
| *Zhong Kui: Snow Girl and the Dark Crystal* | February 19, 2015 | CN¥409 million |  |
| *Let's Get Married* | April 2, 2015 | CN¥284 million |  |
| *Helios* | April 30, 2016 | CN¥210 million |  |
| *Monk Comes Down the Mountain* | July 2, 2016 | CN¥401 million |  |
| *Jian Bing Man* | July 17, 2015 | CN¥1,160 million |  |
| *Wild City* | July 30, 2015 | CN¥149 million |  |
| *Go Away Mr. Tumor* | August 13, 2015 | CN¥511 million |  |
| *Goodbye Mr. Loser* | September 30, 2015 | CN¥1,441 million |  |
| *My Original Dream* | November 11, 2016 | CN¥12 million |  |
| *Oh My God* | December 4, 2015 | CN¥57 million |  |
| *Mojin: The Lost Legend* | December 18, 2015 | CN¥1,682 million |  |
| *Detective Chinatown* | December 31, 2015 | CN¥823 million |  |
| *Kill Time* | February 14, 2016 | CN¥13 million |  |
| *Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Sword of Destiny* | February 19, 2016 | CN¥256 million |  |
| *The Rise of a Tomboy* | March 18, 2016 | CN¥40 million |  |
| *Chongqing Hot Pot* | April 1, 2016 | CN¥370 million |  |
| *Never Gone* | June 8, 2016 | CN¥336.6 million |  |
| *A Busy Night* | July 29, 2016 | CN¥8.8 million |  |
| *New Happy Dad and Son 2: The Instant Genius* | August 19, 2016 | CN¥70.0 million |  |

## InfoBox

Wuzhou Film Distribution
| Industry | Film |
| --- | --- |
| Headquarters | China |
| Services | Film distribution |
| Parent | Wanda Group |


title: Vivica Genaux

abstract: Vivica Genaux is an American coloratura mezzo-soprano. She was born in Fairbanks, Alaska. She has sung in major operas such as The Barber of Seville at the Metropolitan Opera, L'italiana in Algeri at Opéra National de Paris, and La Cenerentola with Dallas Opera and the Bavarian State Opera.

text:
# Vivica Genaux

**Vivica Genaux** (pronounced \[vi.vi.ka ʒe.no\]; born July 10, 1969) is an American coloratura mezzo-soprano. She was born in Fairbanks, Alaska. She has sung in major operas such as *The Barber of Seville* at the Metropolitan Opera, *L'italiana in Algeri* at Opéra National de Paris, and *La Cenerentola* with Dallas Opera and the Bavarian State Opera.

## Education

Vivica Genaux was born on July 10, 1969, in Fairbanks. Her father was a biochemistry professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and her Mexico-born mother was a language teacher. She began her vocal studies as a young girl with American dramatic soprano Dorothy Dow. She then studied with the late Nicola Rossi-Lemeni and Virginia Zeani at Indiana University Bloomington and for many years with Claudia Pinza Bozzolla (daughter of bass Ezio Pinza) in Pittsburgh.

## Singing career

Genaux began her professional career specializing in charming portrayals of Rossini comic heroines (Rosina in *Il barbiere di Siviglia*, Isabella in *L'italiana in Algeri*, Angelina in *La Cenerentola*). She has performed these roles more than two hundred times with many of the major U.S. opera companies (including the Metropolitan, San Francisco, Dallas, Seattle, San Diego, Pittsburgh, and Minnesota Operas), as well as in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Amsterdam, Dresden, Munich, Montreal, Tel Aviv, Verona, Santiago and Perth.

Her official debut took place in Florence in October 1994 as Isabella in *L'italiana in Algeri*.

Her role as the hero in Handel's *Arminio* was her first baroque role, and she continues to expand her repertoire, which currently includes 28 roles, 20 of which are pants roles and some of which were originally written for the castrato voice.

### Highlights

Prior career highlights have included: Brussels (La Monnaie) and Paris (Champs-Elysées) for Hasse's *Marc'Antonio e Cleopatra*, led by long-time mentor, conductor René Jacobs; the recently rediscovered Alessandro Scarlatti oratorio *La Santissima Trinità* in Paris, Palermo and Lyon, which marked her first collaboration with Fabio Biondi and his Europa Galante; Gluck's *Orfeo ed Euridice* at the Los Angeles Opera; a Weill Hall recital at New York's Carnegie Hall; Rosinas at the Deutsche Staatsoper Berlin, Vienna State Opera and the Metropolitan Opera; the Opéra National de Paris (*Barbiere* and *Alcina*); a concert at the Deutsche Staatsoper Berlin with René Jacobs and the Akademie für Alte Musik performing music from their "Arias for Farinelli" CD; Mendelssohn's *A Midsummer Night’s Dream* in Paris and Hong Kong with Kurt Masur and the Orchestre National de France; *Rinaldo* in Montpellier and Innsbruck; Minnesota Opera for *Lucrezia Borgia*, *I Capuleti e i Montecchi* and *Semiramide*; Urbain in *Les Huguenots* for the opening of the new opera house in Bilbao; Hassem in Donizetti's *Alahor in Granata* in Seville; Selimo in Hasse's *Solimano* at the Deutsche Staatsoper Berlin; Juno/Ino in Handel's *Semele* at New York City Opera; and seven appearances at the Caramoor Festival.

## Personal life

Vivica is a distant relative of Belgian football player Régis Genaux. Her interest in European Baroque music led her to settle in Venice. She is the subject of 2004 documentary *A Voice Out of the Cold*.

## Recordings

## InfoBox

| Vivica Genaux | |
| --- | --- |
| Vivica Genaux in 2010. Behind her is Fabio Biondi | |
| Born | (1969-07-10) July 10, 1969<br>Fairbanks, Alaska, United States |
| Occupation | Opera singer (mezzo-soprano) |
| Years active | 1994–present |
| Website | vivicagenaux.com |


title: WCRS (AM)

abstract: WCRS is a radio station licensed to Greenwood, South Carolina, United States. The station is licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to broadcast on 1450 kHz with a transmitter power of 1 kW unlimited, non-directional.

text:
# WCRS (AM)

**WCRS** (1450 AM) is a radio station licensed to Greenwood, South Carolina, United States. The station is licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to broadcast on 1450 kHz with a transmitter power of 1 kW unlimited, non-directional.

## History

WCRS signed on in the 1940s with a format similar to WFBC.

In 1979, WCRS ended its simulcast with 96.7 FM.

Peregon bought WCRS and WHZQ from Pro-Com Communications LLC in 2006.

The station featured Citadel Media's Timeless Favorites satellite feed for many years.

WCRS now carries a variety of talk shows, such as *The Rush Limbaugh Show* and *The Laura Ingraham Show*.

In February 2010, it was purchased by Anne's Entertainment Vision, Inc.

## Translator

In May 2016, the station began broadcasting on FM via translator station W253BL.

Broadcast translator for WCRS
| Call sign | Frequency | City of license | FID | ERP () | HAAT | Class | Transmitter coordinates | FCC info |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| W253BL | 99.5 FM | Greenwood, South Carolina | 156229 | 250 | 0  (0 ft) | D | 34°12′32.6″N 82°9′6.6″W / 34.209056°N 82.151833°W / 34.209056; -82.151833 | LMS |

## InfoBox

WCRS
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Frequency | 1450 kHz |
| Programming | |
| Format | News/Talk |
| Ownership | |
| Owner | * Anne Eller * (Anne's Entertainment Vision, Inc.) |
| History | |
| First air date | 1967 |
| Technical information | |
| Licensing authority | FCC |
| Facility ID | 25239 |
| Class | C |
| Power | 1,000 watts unlimited |
| Transmitter coordinates | 34°12′34″N 82°9′5″W / 34.20944°N 82.15139°W / 34.20944; -82.15139 |
| Translator(s) | W253BL (98.5 MHz, Greenwood) |
| Links | |
| Public license information |  |
| Webcast | Listen Live |
| Website | www.wcrs1450am.net |


title: Louis Auslander

abstract: Louis Auslander was a Jewish American mathematician. He had wide-ranging interests both in pure and applied mathematics and worked on Finsler geometry, geometry of solvmanifolds and nilmanifolds, locally affine spaces, many aspects of harmonic analysis, representation theory of solvable Lie groups, and multidimensional Fourier transforms and the design of signal sets for communications and radar. He is the author of more than one hundred papers and ten books.

text:
# Louis Auslander

**Louis Auslander** (July 12, 1928 – February 25, 1997) was a Jewish American mathematician. He had wide-ranging interests both in pure and applied mathematics and worked on Finsler geometry, geometry of solvmanifolds and nilmanifolds, locally affine spaces, many aspects of harmonic analysis, representation theory of solvable Lie groups, and multidimensional Fourier transforms and the design of signal sets for communications and radar. He is the author of more than one hundred papers and ten books.

## Education and career

Auslander received his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1955 under Shiing-Shen Chern. He was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1955-57 and again in 1971-72. After holding a variety of faculty positions at US universities, in 1965 Auslander joined the faculty at Graduate Center of the City University of New York and since 1971 he had been a Distinguished Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science there.

## Personal life

Louis Auslander was married twice, first for over 25 years to Elinor Newstadt Auslander, with whom he had three children (Nathan, Rose, and Daniel), and later to Fernande Couturier Auslander. His brother Maurice Auslander was also a mathematician.

## Selected publications

### Articles

* Auslander, Louis & Kostant, Bertram (1971). "Polarization and unitary representations of solvable Lie groups". *Inventiones Mathematicae*. **14** (4): 255–354. Bibcode:1971InMat..14..255A. doi:10.1007/bf01389744. S2CID 122009744.
* Auslander, L.; Tolimieri, R. (1979). "Is computing the finite Fourier transform pure or applied mathematics?". *Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society*. New Series. **1**: 847–897. doi:10.1090/s0273-0979-1979-14686-x.

### Books

* with L. Markus: *Flat Lorentz 3-Manifolds*, AMS 1957
* with Robert MacKenzie: *Introduction to differentiable Manifolds*, McGraw Hill 1963
* with Leon W. Green and Frank J. Hahn: *Flows on homogeneous spaces*, Princeton University Press 1963 (with the assistance of Lawrence Markus and William S. Massey and an appendix by L. Greenberg)
* with Calvin C. Moore: *Unitary representations of solvable Lie groups*, AMS 1966
* *Abelian Harmonic Analysis, Theta Functions and Function Algebras on a Nilmanifold*, Springer, 1975
* *Lecture Notes on Nil-Theta Functions*, CBMS lectures, American Mathematical Society, 1977
* *Minimal flows and their extensions*, North-Holland 1988
* as editor: *Signal processing theory*, 2 volumes, Springer 1990

Sources

## InfoBox

| Louis Auslander | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1928-07-12)July 12, 1928
Brooklyn |
| Died | February 25, 1997(1997-02-25) (aged 68) |
| Nationality | American |
| Alma mater | University of Chicago |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Mathematics |
| Institutions | CUNY Graduate Center
Purdue University |
| Doctoral advisor | Shiing-Shen Chern |
|  | |


title: Martin Legner

abstract: Martin Legner is a professional Austrian wheelchair tennis player who has been ranked number one for wheelchair doubles. Legner has won the Australian Open doubles title four times with Robin Ammerlaan since 2000, and has won eight doubles titles. Six of them are Australian Open Titles, the other two being French Open titles. He has won one French Open and one Australian Open singles title. He has represented his country at every Summer Paralympics since 1992, and has competed in both singles and doubles at all of those Games. His favorite surfaces are clay and hard court. As of 7 April 2007 his highest singles rank was number three. Also of that date, he was ranked number six for singles and doubles. He competed in wheelchair tennis at the 2020 Summer Paralympics.

text:
# Martin Legner

**Martin Legner** (born 17 December 1961 in Tyrol) is a professional Austrian wheelchair tennis player who has been ranked number one for wheelchair doubles. Legner has won the Australian Open doubles title four times with Robin Ammerlaan since 2000, and has won eight doubles titles. Six of them are Australian Open Titles, the other two being French Open titles. He has won one French Open and one Australian Open singles title. He has represented his country at every Summer Paralympics since 1992, and has competed in both singles and doubles at all of those Games. His favorite surfaces are clay and hard court. As of 7 April 2007 his highest singles rank was number three. Also of that date, he was ranked number six for singles and doubles.

He competed in wheelchair tennis at the 2020 Summer Paralympics.

## Grand Slam wins

### Singles

### Doubles


title: Michelle Belegrin

abstract: Michelle Belegrin is an American actress and model, who starred as Andrea Zavatti on the MyNetworkTV serial Desire. She has also modeled, standing at 5 feet 7½ inches tall, for Marie Claire, ELLE and Fashion Quarterly. She appeared in the 2009 film, Blood and Bone, starring Michael Jai White.

text:
# Michelle Belegrin

**Michelle Belegrin** is an American actress and model, who starred as Andrea Zavatti on the MyNetworkTV serial *Desire*. She has also modeled, standing at 5 feet 7½ inches tall, for *Marie Claire*, *ELLE* and *Fashion Quarterly*. She appeared in the 2009 film, *Blood and Bone*, starring Michael Jai White.

## Personal

Belegrin has lived all over California from Sacramento to Los Angeles. She obtained a degree from the University of California Santa Barbara.

## Appearances

At the start of her career, Belegrin did several commercials for Honda, Panasonic and Bally's Total Fitness. She has appeared in many television series and movies, including *CSI: Miami*, *CSI: Crime Scene Investigation*, *Kitchen Confidential*, *Fistful of Diamonds*, *Project Solitude*, *Potheads: The Movie*, *Red 71* and *Blood and Bone*.

## InfoBox

| Michelle Belegrin | |
| --- | --- |
| Occupation(s) | Television, film actress |


title: Garlède-Mondebat

abstract: Garlède-Mondebat is a commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in south-western France.

text:
# Garlède-Mondebat

**Garlède-Mondebat** is a commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in south-western France.

## InfoBox

| Garlède-Mondebat | |
| --- | --- |
| Commune | |
| The surrounding countryside | |
| Location of Garlède-Mondebat | |
| Garlède-MondebatGarlède-Mondebat | |
| Coordinates: 43°30′09″N 0°19′50″W / 43.5025°N 0.3306°W / 43.5025; -0.3306 | |
| Country | France |
| Region | Nouvelle-Aquitaine |
| Department | Pyrénées-Atlantiques |
| Arrondissement | Pau |
| Canton | Terres des Luys et Coteaux du Vic-Bilh |
| Intercommunality | Luys en Béarn |
| Government | |
| Mayor (20202026) | Eric Lafontan |
| Area**1** | 8.65 km2 (3.34 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | 219 |
| Density | 25/km2 (66/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| INSEE/Postal code | 64232 /64450 |
| Elevation | 126–222 m (413–728 ft)
(avg. 192 m or 630 ft) |
| **1** French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers \> 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |


title: Meridianiite

abstract: Meridianiite is the mineral consisting of magnesium sulfate undecahydrate, MgSO4·11H2O. It is colorless transparent crystalline salt that precipitates from solutions saturated in Mg2+ and SO42− ions at temperatures less than 2 °C. The synthetic compound was formerly known as Fritzsche's salt. Meridianiite is a naturally occurring mineral species found on Earth in a variety of environments including sea ice, crusts and efflorescences in coal/metal mines, cave systems, oxidized zones of sulfide deposits, salt lakes/playas and Antarctic ice-cores. It is commonly associated with other evaporite minerals such as epsomite, mirabilite, halides, and other sodium-magnesium-sulfates. There is some evidence that it was once present on the surface of Mars, and may occur in several bodies of the Solar System. As of 2012, it was the only undecahydrate sulfate known.

text:
# Meridianiite

**Meridianiite** is the mineral consisting of magnesium sulfate undecahydrate, MgSO
4·11H
2O. It is colorless transparent crystalline salt that precipitates from solutions saturated in Mg2+ and SO42− ions at temperatures less than 2 °C. The synthetic compound was formerly known as **Fritzsche's salt**.

Meridianiite is a naturally occurring mineral species found on Earth in a variety of environments including sea ice, crusts and efflorescences in coal/metal mines, cave systems, oxidized zones of sulfide deposits, salt lakes/playas and Antarctic ice-cores. It is commonly associated with other evaporite minerals such as epsomite, mirabilite, halides, and other sodium-magnesium-sulfates. There is some evidence that it was once present on the surface of Mars, and may occur in several bodies of the Solar System. As of 2012, it was the only undecahydrate sulfate known.

## Properties

Meridianiite belongs to the triclinic crystal system, having cell parameters a = 6.7459 Å, b = 6.8173 Å, c = 17.299 Å, a density = 1.512 g/cm3, x-ray diffraction peaks at d-spacings = 5.73, 5.62, 5.41, 4.91, 4.85, 2.988, 2.958 (highest intensity), and 2.940, and is IR active. It produces needle-shaped to broad flat crystals that are clear to colorless-white.

Meridianiite decomposes incongruently above 2 °C to produce epsomite (MgSO4·7H2O) and water. Meridaniite and water have a eutectic point at −3.9 °C and 17.3% (mass) of MgSO4.

Meridianiite can incorporate large proportions of other divalent cations (whose sulfates themselves do not seem to form an undecahydrate) as solid solution, without changes to its structure. These include nickel (up to about 27% of the cations replaced), zinc (up to about 27%), cobalt (up to about 67%), manganese(II) (about 62%), copper (about 8%), and iron(II) (about 8%).

At pressures of about 0.9 GPa and at 240 , meridianiite decomposes into a mixture of ice VI and the enneahydrate MgSO
4·9H
2O,

## Discovery

In 1837 by C. J. Fritzsche described what he interpreted as magnesium sulfate dodecahydrate, based on the weight loss during dehydration to the anhydrous salt. The substance was referred to as "Fritzsche's salt" and not formally given a mineral name or designation.

The crystal structure was later resolved by Peterson and Wang in 2006, revealing that it belonged to the triclinic crystal system, and each formula unit included 11 molecules of water, not 12.

The name "meridianiite" is derived from Meridiani Planum, the locality on Mars where it is believed to have existed in the past. The mineral species and the name were approved by the Commission on New Mineral Names and Mineral Nomenclature of the International Mineralogical Association in November 2007.

## Occurrence on Earth

Meridianiite has been found to occur on the surface of the ice layer formed in winter over the ponds known as Basque Lakes, in Canada. The water in those ponds has a high concentration of magnesium sulfate and other salts. Water seeping through the ice layer evaporates at the surface leaving a deposit of crystalline meridianiite.

Meridianiite has also been detected in sea-ice collected in winter from the saline Lake Saroma in Japan, as well as in ice cores from Dome Fuji station, Antarctica, near the summit of the east Dronning Maud Land plateau.

## Extraterrestrial occurrence

Imagery of the massive sulfate deposits sent back by the NASA *Opportunity* rover in Meridiani Planum show numerous needle-shaped void spaces throughout the deposit. The now empty angular holes are interpreted as being cavities once filled by a highly soluble mineral species, most likely a magnesium sulfate. These cavities are observed to closely match the crystal habit of meridianiite, and have been proposed as sites where crystals of meridianiite were located, having subsequently dissolved when environmental conditions rendered the crystal unstable. Due to the decomposition of meridianiite to 70% epsomite and 30% water, it has been proposed that meridianiite may represent a periodic reservoir of water near the Martian surface. During warmer periods in Mars’ history it is possible that triggered melting of this mineral may help explain the occurrence of some of the chaotic, and short lived, surface-water episodes throughout Martian history.

Remote sensing of other planetary bodies has also indicated the presence of numerous hydrated mineral species, including sulfates, near various planetary surfaces, a prominent example of which is Jupiter’s moon Europa. The relatively smooth, and very young surface of Europa has been interpreted as evidence for a putative ocean beneath the moons icy surface, and is therefore suggestive of liquid brine at depth. Due to the cryospheric conditions present on Europa it is likely that any magnesium sulfate minerals present, and in contact with liquid water, would inherently occur as meridianiite, and thus, it may make up an important mineral phase, and liquid water reservoir at depth.

1. Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". *Mineralogical Magazine*. **85** (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.
2. Mindat.org
3. Webmineral.com
4. R. C. Peterson, W. Nelson, B. Madu, and H. F. Shurvell (2007): "Meridianiite: A new mineral species observed on Earth and predicted to exist on Mars". *American Mineralogist*, volume 92, issue 10, pages 1756–1759. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2668
5. F. E. Genceli, M. Lutz, A.L. Spek, and G-J. Witkamp (2007): "Crystallization and characterization of a new magnesium sulfate hydrate MgSO4•11H2O." *Crystal Growth & Design*, 7, pages 2460–2466.
6. F. E. Genceli, S. Horikawa, Y. Iizuka, S. Toshimitsu, T. Hondoh, T. Kawamura, and G-J. Witkamp (2009): "Meridianiite detected in ice". *Journal of Glaciology*, volume 55, issue 189, pages 117–122.DOI: https://doi.org/ doi:10.3189/002214309788608921
7. A. Dominic Fortes, Frank Browning, and Ian G. Wood (2012): "Cation substitution in synthetic meridianiite (MgSO4·11H2O) I: X-ray powder diffraction analysis of quenched polycrystalline aggregates". *Physics and Chemistry of Minerals*, volume 39, issue , pages 419–441. doi:10.1007/s00269-012-0497-9
8. A. D. Fortes, I. G. Wood, and K. S. Knight (2008). "The crystal structure and thermal expansion tensor of MgSO4•11D2O (meridianiite) determined by neutron powder diffraction". *Physics and Chemistry of Minerals*, 35, pages 207–221.
9. A. Dominic Fortes, Kevin S. Knight, and Ian G. Wood (2017): "Structure, thermal expansion and incompressibility of MgSO4·9H2O, its relationship to meridianiite (MgSO4·11H2O) and possible natural occurrences". *Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structureal Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials*, volume 73, part 1, pages 47-64. doi:10.1107/S2052520616018266
10. C. J. Fritzsche (1837): "Ueber eine neue Verbindung der schwefelsauren Talkerde mit Wasser". *Poggendorff's Annalen Der Physik Und Chemie*, now *Annalen Der Physik*, volume 118, issue 12, pages 577–580. doi:10.1002/andp.18371181211
11. R. C. Peterson and R. Wang (2006): "Crystal molds on Mars: Melting of a possible new mineral species to create Martian chaotic terrain". *Geology*, 34, pages 957–960.
12. J. B. Dalton (2003): "Spectral behavior of hydrated sulfate salts: Implications for Europa mission spectrometer design." *Astrobiology*, 3, pages 771–784.

## InfoBox

| Meridianiite | |
| --- | --- |
| Meridianiite crystals displaying blocky, triclinic, crystal forms. | |
| General | |
| Category | Sulfate minerals |
| Formula
(repeating unit) | Magnesium sulfate 11 hydrate MgSO4·11H2O |
| IMA symbol | Mdn |
| Strunz classification | 7.CB.90 |
| Crystal system | Triclinic |
| Crystal class | Pinacoidal (1)
(same H-M symbol) |
| Space group | *P*1 |
| Unit cell | a = 6.7459 Å
b = 6.8173 Å
c = 17.299 Å;
α = 88.137°, β = 89.481°, γ = 62.719°
Z = 2 |
| Identification | |
| Formula mass | 318.55 g/mol |
| Color | Colorless or white |
| Crystal habit | Needle-shaped to broad flat crystals |
| Tenacity | Brittle |
| Luster | Vitreous – dull |
| Streak | White |
| Diaphaneity | Transparent |
| Specific gravity | 1.512 |
| Melting point | At temperatures above 2 °C |
| Solubility | Highly soluble in water |
| References |  |