title: Protoavis

abstract: Protoavis is a problematic taxon known from fragmentary remains from Late Triassic Norian stage deposits near Post, Texas. The animal's true classification has been the subject of much controversy, and there are many different interpretations of what the taxon actually is. When it was first described, the fossils were described as being from a primitive bird which, if the identification is valid, would push back avian origins some 60–75 million years. The original describer of Protoavis texensis, Sankar Chatterjee of Texas Tech University, interpreted the type specimen to have come from a single animal, specifically a 35 cm tall bird that lived in what is now Texas, USA, around 210 million years ago. Though it existed far earlier than Archaeopteryx, its skeletal structure is more bird-like. Protoavis has been reconstructed as a carnivorous bird that had teeth on the tip of its jaws and eyes located at the front of the skull, suggesting a nocturnal or crepuscular lifestyle. Reconstructions usually depict it with feathers, as Chatterjee originally interpreted structures on the arm to be quill knobs, the attachment point for flight feathers found in some modern birds and non-avian dinosaurs. However, re-evaluation of the fossil material by subsequent authors such as Lawrence Witmer have been inconclusive regarding whether or not these structures are actual quill knobs. However, this description of Protoavis assumes that Protoavis has been correctly interpreted as a bird. Many palaeontologists doubt that Protoavis is a bird, or that all remains assigned to it even come from a single species, because of the circumstances of its discovery and unconvincing avian synapomorphies in its fragmentary material. When they were found at the Tecovas and Bull Canyon Formations in the Texas panhandle in 1973, in a sedimentary strata of a Triassic river delta, the fossils were a jumbled cache of disarticulated bones that may reflect an incident of mass mortality following a flash flood.

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# Protoavis

***Protoavis*** (meaning "first bird") is a problematic taxon known from fragmentary remains from Late Triassic Norian stage deposits near Post, Texas. The animal's true classification has been the subject of much controversy, and there are many different interpretations of what the taxon actually is. When it was first described, the fossils were described as being from a primitive bird which, if the identification is valid, would push back avian origins some 60–75 million years.

The original describer of *Protoavis texensis*, Sankar Chatterjee of Texas Tech University, interpreted the type specimen to have come from a single animal, specifically a 35 cm tall bird that lived in what is now Texas, USA, around 210 million years ago. Though it existed far earlier than *Archaeopteryx*, its skeletal structure is more bird-like. *Protoavis* has been reconstructed as a carnivorous bird that had teeth on the tip of its jaws and eyes located at the front of the skull, suggesting a nocturnal or crepuscular lifestyle. Reconstructions usually depict it with feathers, as Chatterjee originally interpreted structures on the arm to be quill knobs, the attachment point for flight feathers found in some modern birds and non-avian dinosaurs. However, re-evaluation of the fossil material by subsequent authors such as Lawrence Witmer have been inconclusive regarding whether or not these structures are actual quill knobs.

However, this description of *Protoavis* assumes that *Protoavis* has been correctly interpreted as a bird. Many palaeontologists doubt that *Protoavis* is a bird, or that all remains assigned to it even come from a single species, because of the circumstances of its discovery and unconvincing avian synapomorphies in its fragmentary material. When they were found at the Tecovas and Bull Canyon Formations in the Texas panhandle in 1973, in a sedimentary strata of a Triassic river delta, the fossils were a jumbled cache of disarticulated bones that may reflect an incident of mass mortality following a flash flood.

## Description

*Protoavis* is usually depicted as being a bipedal archosaur, similar to several poposaurids and rauisuchids that lived during roughly the same time as *Protoavis*. In a description published by Sankar Chatterjee, structures were identified as quill knobs, although there has been debate as to whether these are actually quill knobs or not.

### Skull and braincase

The braincase of *Protoavis* is similar in some respects to *Troodon*, with an enlarged cerebellum that shifted the optic lobes ventrolaterally, and also has a large floccular lobe. The inner ear is also pretty similar and bird-like in both taxa. The canalicular systems and the cochlear process differ in both taxa, and the vestibular region is relatively small and located in a ventral position to most of the anterior and posterior semicircular canals. The anterior semicircular canal is significantly longer than the others, and the cochlear process is a relatively long, vertically oriented tube. However, *Protoavis* is also remarkedly non-bird like in that it possess only a single exit for the trigeminal. However, these characters are not robust enough to identify *Protoavis* as a bird.

The skull has an extremely narrow parietal with block like dorsal aspect, very broad, T-shaped frontals that form the "lateral wings" that Chatterjee applies to the lack of postorbitals. There are short curved ulnae with olecranon processes, and a possible scapula with bent shaft, and the cervicals have profiles and aspects to their exterior that are very similar to the *Megalancosaurus* cervical series. All the cervicals but the most posterior and axis/atlas have hypapophyses and those triangular neural spines; all characteristics that have been described in *Megalancosaurus*. This suggests that portions of *Protoavis* may be drepanosaurid in nature.

Chatterjee presents the skull of *Protoavis* as complete, although only the caudal aspect of the cranium is represented in the available fossils. Chatterjee argues that the temporal region displays a streptostylic quadrate with orbital process for attachment of the M. protractor pterygoidei et quadrati, with associated confluence of the orbits with the temporal fenestrae, thus facilitating prokinesis. He further asserts that the braincase of *Protoavis* bears a number of characters seen in Ornithurae, including the structure of the otic capsule, the widespread pneumatization of the braincase elements, a full complement of tympanic recesses, and the presence of an epiotic.

Of this material, only the quadrate and orbital roof, in addition to limited portions of the braincase are preserved with enough fidelity to permit any definitive interpretation. The quadrates of **TTU P 9200** and **TTU P 9201** are not particularly alike; a fact not easily explained away if the material is conspecific, as Chatterjee insists. There does not appear to be an orbital process present on either bone, and the modifications of the proximal condyle permitting wide range of motion against the squamosal, are not readily apparent. Furthermore, the quadratojugal and jugal appear far more robust in the *Protoavis* specimens themselves, than represented by Chatterjee. The size and development of the quadratojugal seems to contradict Chatterjee's assertion that this bone contacted the quadrate via a highly mobile pin joint. These data render the assertion of prokinesis in the skull of *Protoavis* questionable at best, and it seems most parsimonious to conclude that the specimen displays a conventional opisthostylic quadrate.

The braincase is where *Protoavis* comes close to being as avian as Chatterjee has maintained. The otic capsule is allegedly organized in avian fashion, with three distinct foramina arranged as such: fenestra ovalis, fenestra pseudorotunda, and the caudal tympanic recess, with a bony metotic strut positioned between the fenestra pseudorotunda and caudal tympanic recess. The claim that the full complement of tympanic recesses seen in ornithurines, are similarly observed in *Protoavis* is questionable, as the preservation of the braincase is not adequate to permit concrete observations on the matter. Chatterjee omits in his 1987 account of the braincase, the presence of a substantial post-temporal fenestra, which in all Aves (including *Archaeopteryx*), is reduced or absent altogether, and the lack of a pneumatic sinus on the paroccipital. Furthermore, the braincase possesses multiple characters symplesiomorphic of Coelurosauria, including an expanded cerebellar auricular fossa, and a vagal canal opening into the occiput. What is preserved of the preorbital skull curiously lacks apomorphic characters to be expected in a specimen, which is allegedly more closely allied to Pygostylia than is *Archaeopteryx lithographica*. Most telling is the complete absence of accessory fenestrae in the antorbital fossa, leading to maxillary sinuses.

### Post-cranial anatomy

The post-cranial remains are as badly preserved, or worse, than the cranial elements, and their interpretation by Chatterjee are in many cases unsubstantiated or speculative. Of the postcranial skeleton, Chatterjee has isolated the axial skeleton as displaying a suite of avian characters, including heterocoelus centra, hypapophyses and reduction of the neural spines. First and foremost, the preservation quality of the vertebrae is poor. While the centra are modified, they do not appear to be truly heterocoelus. The presence of incipient hypapophyses in and of itself might be considered indicative of avian affinity, but their poor development and presence on vertebrae otherwise thoroughly non-avian, is most parsimoniously regarded as mild convergence until further material should be brought to light. The reduction of the neural spines is questionable.

Curiously, Gregory Paul has noted that the cervicals of *Protoavis* and drepanosaurs are astonishingly similar, such they are hardly distinguishable from one another. Considering the modification of the drepanosaur neck for the purposes of snap-action predation, it becomes more likely that superficial similarities in the cervicals of both taxa are in fact only convergent with Aves. Chatterjee does not identify the remaining vertebrae as particularly avian in their osteology.

#### Pectoral girdle

The pectoral girdle is discussed by Chatterjee as being highly derived in *Protoavis*, displaying synapomorphies of avialans more derived than *Archaeopteryx*, including the presence of a hypocleidium-bearing furcula, and a hypertrophied, carinate sternum. Chatterjee's interpretation of the fossils identified as such in his reviews of the *Protoavis* material are open to question due to the preservation quality of the elements and as of this time, it is not clear whether either character was in fact present in *Protoavis*. The glenoid appears to be oriented dorsolaterally permitting a wide range of humeral movement. Chatterjee implies that this is a highly derived trait which allies *Protoavis* to Aves, but why this should be so is not clearly discussed in the descriptions of the animal. In and of itself, the orientation of the glenoid is not a sufficient basis for placing *Protoavis* within Aves. The scapular blade is far broader than illustrated by Chatterjee in his 1997 account, and not particularly avian in its gross form. The coracoid, identified by Chatterjee as strut-like and retroverted, is, like the supposed furcula and sternum, too poorly preserved to permit accurate identification. Moreover, the original spatial relationship of the alleged coracoid to the scapula is entirely unknown. Uncinate processes and sternal ribs are missing.

#### Pelvic girdle

Chatterjee asserts that the pelvic girdle is apomorphic comparative to archaic birds and displays a retroverted pubis, fusion of the ischium and ilium, an antitrochanter, and the presence of a renal fossa. The pubis does appear to display opisthopuby, although this has yet to be verified. The alleged fusion of the ischium and ilium into an ilioischiadic plate is currently not substantiated by the fossils at hand, despite Chatterjee's auspicious illustration to the contrary in *The Rise of Birds*. At this time the pelvic girdle is not sufficiently well preserved to ascertain whether or not a renal fossa was present, although as no known avian from the Mesozoic displays a renal fossa, it is not clear why *Protoavis* should, even if it is more derived than *Archaeopteryx*. Similarly, it is unclear if the alleged antitrochanter has been correctly identified as such.

#### Arms and legs

The manus and carpus are among the few areas of the *Protoavis* material which are well preserved, and they are astonishingly non-avian. The distal carpals, while long, are in no way similar to those observed in the urvogel or other archaic birds. There is no semilunate element, and the structure of the radiale and ulnare would have limited the flexibility of the wrist joint. The manus is not tridactyl, and metacarpal V is present. In even the most basal avialian, *Archaeopteryx*, there is no vestige of the fifth metacarpal and its presence in *Protoavis* seems incongruous with the claim that it is a bird, let alone one more derived than *Archaeopteryx*.

Chatterjee claims that the humerus of *Protoavis* is "remarkably avian", but as in all matters with the fossils referred to this taxon, accurate identification of the elaborate trochanters, ridges, etc., attributed to the humerus by Chatterjee is impossible at this time. The expanded distal condyles, which appear to be present in the humerus of *Protoavis* and enlarged deltopectoral crest (a ridge for the attachment of chest and shoulder muscles), are congruent with the morphology of ceratosaur humeri, as is the apparent presence of a distal brachial depression.

The femur of *Protoavis* is astonishingly similar to non-tetanurans, namely coelophysoids. The proximal femur displays a trochanteric shelf caudal to the lesser and greater trochanters, a feature distinguishing non-tetanurans theropods from Tetanurae. Further similarities between the proximal humerus of *Protoavis* and that of non-tetanuran theropods are found in the shared presence of an enlarged obturator ridge, whose morphology in *Protoavis* is again, uncannily like that observed in robust basal theropods, e.g., *"Syntarus" kayentakatae*. The resemblance between the femur of *Protoavis* and that of a non-tetanuran theropod becomes ever more pronounced at the distal end of the bone. Both share a crista tibiofibularis groove, a feature of a non-tetanuran theropod separating the medial and lateral condyles.

The tibia of *Protoavis* allegedly possesses both a lateral and cranial cnemial crest, though the validity of this claim is subject to question due to the preservation quality of the material. The fibula is continuous to the astragalocalcaneal unit. A tibiotarsus is absent, unusual considering Chatterjee's claims for the pygostylian affinity of *Protoavis*, as is a tarsometatarsus. The ascending process of the astragalus is reduced, a character entirely incongruous with a highly derived status for *Protoavis*. Curiously, such abbreviation of the ascending process is found in ceratosaurs, and in its general osteology, the *Protoavis* tarsus and pes, is quite similar to those of non-tetanuran theropods. Chatterjee's restoration of the hallux as reversed is nothing more than speculation, as the original spatial relationships of the pedal elements are impossible to ascertain at this time.

#### Quill knobs

Reconstructions usually depict *Protoavis* with feathers, as Chatterjee originally interpreted structures on the arm to be quill knobs, the attachment point for flight feathers found in some modern birds and non-avian dinosaurs. However, re-evaluation of the fossil material by subsequent authors such as Lawrence Witmer have been inconclusive regarding whether or not these structures are actual quill knobs.

In his 1997 account, Chatterjee infers the presence of feathers from alleged quill knobs on the badly smashed ulna and metacarpals III and IV, and infers the presence of remiges from such structures (though he does caution that this is uncertain). As is the case with the alleged quill knobs on the ulna, the metacarpal structures appear to be attributable to post-mortem damage. Moreover, the thumb, unlike the case in all birds, is not medially divergent. Considering how poorly preserved the ulna is, it is entirely premature to make any definitive conclusions as to the presence of quill knobs until such time as more adequate material becomes available. Upon further examination of the material no structures were isolated that could be deemed as homologous to remigial papillae.

## Classification and taxonomy

The taxonomy of *Protoavis* is controversial, with several palaeornithologists considering it to be an early ancestor of modern birds, while most others in the palaeontological community regard it as a chimaera, a mixture of several specimens. American palaeontologist Gregory Paul suggested that *Protoavis* is a herrerasaur. In a paper by Phil Currie and X.J. Zhao discussing a braincase of a *Troodon formosus*, they compared the bird-like characters of *Troodon* and *Protoavis*. In the paper, they made a number of corrections involving both Chatterjee's and Currie's own misinterpretations of parts of *Troodon* cranial anatomy before the particular braincase being described was found. At least a couple of the corrections (the anterior tympanic recess, and the relatively kinetic quadrate-squamosal contact) made *Troodon* more bird-like then Chatterjee made out in his *Protoavis* paper, but overall these particular corrections seemed to have little bearing on the avian features of *Protoavis*. Currie and Zhao did not explicitly state whether or not they considered *Protoavis* to be a theropod, however they suggested that although *Protoavis* has characters suggesting avian affinities, most of these are also found in theropod dinosaurs.

### *Protoavis* is a bird

> The most remarkable thing about *Protoavis* is that, although it predates *Archaeopteryx* by 75 million years, it is considerably more advanced than *Archaeopteryx*...*Protoavis* is more closely related to modern birds than is *Archaeopteryx*.
>
> Sankar Chatterjee

Sankar Chatterjee and a few other palaeornithologists claimed that this material documents a Triassic origin of birds and the presence of a bird more advanced than *Archaeopteryx*. Though it existed approximately 75 million years before the oldest known bird, its skeletal structure is allegedly more bird-like. *Protoavis* has been reconstructed as a carnivorous bird that had teeth on the tip of its jaws and eyes located at the front of the skull, suggesting a nocturnal or crepuscular lifestyle. The fossil bones are too badly preserved to allow an estimate of flying ability; although reconstructions usually show feathers, judging from thorough study of the fossil material there is no indication that these were present.

However, this description of *Protoavis* assumes that *Protoavis* has been correctly interpreted as a bird. Almost all palaeontologists doubt that *Protoavis* is a bird, or that all remains assigned to it even come from a single species, because of the circumstances of its discovery and weak avialan synapomorphies in its fragmentary material. When they were found at a Dockum Group quarry in the Texas panhandle in 1984, in a sedimentary stratum of a Triassic river delta, the fossils were a jumbled cache of disarticulated bones reflecting an incident of mass mortality following a flash flood.

### *Protoavis* is a chimaera

> Except for a few elements, the available material of *Protoavis* is extremely fragmentary. Chatterjee's interpretations of certain bones are questionable, and even the association of elements into specimens and then into a single taxon seems difficult to support.
>
> Luis Chiappe

Chatterjee was convinced that some of these crushed bones belonged to two individuals – one old, one young – of the same species. However, only a few parts were found, primarily a skull and some limb bones which moreover do not well agree in their proportions respective to each other, and this has led many to believe that the *Protoavis* fossil is chimaeric, made up of more than one organism: the pieces of skull appear like those of a coelurosaur, while the femur and ankle bone catalogued under **TTU P-9200** and **TTU P-9201** respectively suggest affinities to non-tetanuran theropods and at least some vertebrae are most similar to those of *Megalancosaurus*, a drepanosaurid. However, those supposed similarities between the cervicals of *Protoavis* and drepanosaurids were the same similarities that Feduccia and Wild (1993) used to argue for an affinity between *Archaeopteryx* and drepanosaurids.

> "Everywhere one turns; the very fossils ascribed thereto challenge the validity of *Protoavis*. The most parsimonious conclusion to be inferred from these data is that Chatterjee's contentious find is nothing more than a chimera, a morass of long-dead archosaurs."

If it really is a single animal and not a chimera, *Protoavis* would raise questions about when birds began to diverge from other theropods, if they are a lineage of theropod dinosaurs at all, but until better evidence is produced, the animal's status currently remains uncertain. Furthermore, paleobiogeography suggests that true birds did not colonize the Americas until the Cretaceous; the most primitive undisputed bird-like maniraptorans found to date are all Eurasian. Certainly, the fossils are most parsimoniously attributed to primitive dinosaurian and other reptiles as outlined above. However, coelurosaurs and ceratosaurs are in any case not too distantly related to the ancestors of birds and in some aspects of the skeleton not unlike them, explaining how their fossils could be mistaken as avian. Palaeontologist Zhonghe Zhou stated:

> "\[*Protoavis*\] has neither been widely accepted nor seriously considered as a Triassic bird ... \[Witmer\], who has examined the material and is one of the few workers to have seriously considered Chatterjee's proposal, argued that the avian status of *P. texensis* is probably not as clear as generally portrayed by Chatterjee, and further recommended minimization of the role that *Protoavis* plays in the discussion of avian ancestry."

Welman has argued that the quadrate of *Protoavis* displays synapomorphies of Theropoda. Paul has demonstrated the drepanosaur affinities of the cervical vertebrae. Gauthier & Rowe, and Dingus & Rowe have argued convincingly for identifying the hind limb of *Protoavis* as belonging to a ceratosaur. Feduccia has argued that *Protoavis* represents an arboreal "thecodont". In a study of early ornithischian dinosaurs, Sterling Nesbitt and others determined some of the partial remains of *Protoavis* to be a non-tetanuran theropod. The entire skull and neck are considered to be most likely from a drepanosaurid because the skull and neck are too big compared to the dorsal vertebrae of *Protoavis*.

### In discussions of evolution

Scientists such as Alan Feduccia have cited *Protoavis* in an attempt to refute the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs. However, some scientists have claimed the only consequence would be to push the point of bird divergence further back in time. At the time when such claims were originally made, the affiliation of birds and maniraptoran theropods which today is well-supported and generally accepted by most ornithologists was much more contentious; most Mesozoic birds have only been discovered since then. Chatterjee himself has since used *Protoavis* to support a close relationship between dinosaurs and birds.

> "As there remains no compelling data to support the avian status of *Protoavis* or taxonomic validity thereof, it seems mystifying that the matter should be so contentious. The author very much agrees with Chiappe in arguing that at present, *Protoavis* is irrelevant to the phylogenetic reconstruction of Aves. While further material from the Dockum beds may vindicate this peculiar archosaur, for the time being, the case for *Protoavis* is non-existent."

### Phylogenetic implications

It has been argued that if valid, *Protoavis* will represent the death knell to the theropod descent of birds. Palaeontologists counter that if valid, *Protoavis* in no way falsifies the theropod origin of birds. The very fact that Chatterjee used his putative bird to defend theropod origin seems to contradict the argument of Alan Feduccia that a true bird from the Triassic would bring about the collapse of the theropod "dogma".

## Discovery and history

> Smushed and mashed and broken.
>
> Jacques Gauthier informally describing the holotype specimen.

Archosaur discoveries are comparatively abundant in Texas, and have been recovered in some quantity since E. D. Cope worked the redbeds of the panhandle over a century ago. The holotype specimen of *Protoavis* (**TTU P 9200**), the paratype (**TTU P 9201**), and all referred materials, were discovered in the Dockum Group, from the panhandle of Texas. The Dockum dates from the Carnian through the early Norian, in the terminal Triassic and is composed of four units of decreasing age: the Santa Rose Formation, the Tecovas Formation, the Trujillo Formation, the Cooper Canyon Formation, and the Bull Canyon Formation. Many skeletal elements and partial elements of *Protoavis* were collected from the Post (Miller) Quarry of the Bull Canyon Formation in the 1980s and other specimens referred to *Protoavis* were collected from the underlying Kirkpatrick Quarry of the Tecovas Formation. The specimens altogether consists of a partial skull and postcranial remains belonging to possibly several large individuals. The bones were completely freed of the surrounding matrix, and some were heavily reconstructed and the identification of some of the elements have been questioned by other palaeornithologists and palaeontologists.

The type material was collected from mudstone deposits in June 1973 and initially identified as a juvenile *Coelophysis bauri*. The level of the Dockum group from which the *Protoavis* material was recovered, was most likely deposited in a deltaic river system. The bone bed excavated by Sankar Chatterjee and his students of Texas Tech University, in which *Protoavis* was discovered, likely reflects an incident of mass mortality following a flash flood. Chatterjee, who first described *Protoavis*, has assigned the binomial *Protoavis texensis* ("first bird from Texas") to the small cache of bones, allegedly conspecific. He interpreted the type specimen to have come from a single animal, specifically a 35 cm tall bird that lived in what is now Texas, USA, between 225 and 210 million years ago.

Due to the nature of the bones being jumbled into sandstone nodules, and completely disarticulated, it has been suggested that *Protoavis* was reworked from later sediments. However, a basic stratigraphic principle, the "principle of inclusions", is a special case of the principle of cross-cutting relationships. It states that rock has to exist before it can be included in other sedimentary rock. Reworking is the process of weathering fossils or rock containing fossils out of rocks already present, transporting them, and redepositing them in sediments which are later lithified as new sedimentary rocks. Since the Jurassic rocks occurred *after* the Triassic sediments of the Dockum Group, they could not have been reworked into the Dockum sediments as inclusions.

## Palaeoenvironment

The inferred palaeoclimate of the Dockum Group would have been subtropical and governed by a distinct dry/wet season pattern, with the latter marked by monsoonal rains. The botanical evidence indicates that the area was densely forested, and the abundance of both invertebrate and vertebrate material from the site suggests that the locale was in general richly populated by a wide variety of species. Dinosaurs were still fairly rare in the Dockum group, and only some ceratosaurs and other basal forms are well documented. The principal carnivores of the locale would have been poposaurids such as *Postosuchus*, a species well represented in the Triassic redbeds of Texas. Other archaic archosaurs, such as rhynchosaurs and aetosaurs, were also fairly common.

### Taphonomy

Both the holotype and paratype were recovered from disparate locations, both disarticulated and unassociated. Consequently, spatial relationships are impossible to determine. No record of the original orientation of the material even as recovered, exists. Further material assigned to the taxon has been recovered in isolation with no apparent spatial relationships to each other, and more or less has been referred to *Protoavis* spuriously. Thus, the presentation of the holotype and paratype as coherent skeletons by Chatterjee is fallacious. Such representations are ad hoc conglomerations of bone whose status as conspecific is not apparent from their taphonomy.

Not only were the remains recovered disarticulated and unassociated, there are glaring morphometric differences in the various components of the holotype and paratype. For instance, the scapulae and coracoids are so reduced, that the association with the axial skeleton is extremely difficult to support. Juvenile ontogeny cannot be invoked credibly to explain this discrepancy. Furthermore, the degree of morphometric variation in the holotype and paratype seems incongruent with the component material representing a conspecific assemblage of bones.

The fossils themselves display significant postmortem damage, and are in some cases so badly crushed and distorted at the hand of geological processes, that accurate interpretation thereof is impossible. Consequently, the lucid analyses offered by Chatterjee are in many cases more artistic creativeness than an accurate description.

In his definitive analysis of the material, *The Rise of Birds* (1997), Chatterjee failed to illustrate the *Protoavis* fossils via pictures or sketches of the fossils proper, and instead offers the reader artistic reconstructions. For this, Chatterjee has been sharply criticized. Such an approach in science is entirely intolerable in that it idealizes the material at hand, and obscures the very fragmentary nature of the fossils, and their poor state of preservation.

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24. Renesto, S (2000). "Bird-like head on a chameleon body: new specimens of the enigmatic diapsid reptile *Megalancosaurus* from the Late Triassic of northern Italy" (PDF). *Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia*. **106**: 157–180.
25. Martz, J. W.; Mueller, B.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Stocker, M. R.; Parker, W. G.; Atanassov, M.; Fraser, N.; Weinbaum, J.; Lehane, J. (2013). "A taxonomic and biostratigraphic re-evaluation of the Post Quarry vertebrate assemblage from the Cooper Canyon Formation (Dockum Group, Upper Triassic) of southern Garza County, western Texas". *Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh*. **103** (3–4): 339–364. doi:10.1017/S1755691013000376. S2CID 129744424.
26. EvoWiki (2004). Chatterjee's Chimera: A Cold Look at the Protoavis Controversy. Version of 22 January 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
27. Zhou, Z (2004). "The origin and early evolution of birds: discoveries, disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence". *Naturwissenschaften*. **91** (10): 455–471. Bibcode:2004NW.....91..455Z. doi:10.1007/s00114-004-0570-4. PMID 15365634. S2CID 3329625.
28. Welman, J (1995). "*Euparkeria* and the origin of birds". *South African Journal of Science*. **91**: 533–537.
29. Feduccia, A. (1996): *The Origin and Evolution of Birds* (1st ed.). Yale University Press, New Haven.
30. Irmis, Randall B.; Parker, William G.; Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Liu, Jun (2007). "Early ornithischian dinosaurs: the Triassic record" (PDF). *Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology*. **19** (1): 3–22. Bibcode:2007HBio...19....3I. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.539.8311. doi:10.1080/08912960600719988. S2CID 11006994.
31. Marjanovic, David (5 September 2001). "Protoavis Material, Episode II". *Dinosaur* (Mailing list). Retrieved 11 August 2009.
32. Martin, L (1988). "Review of: *The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight*, K. Padian (ed)". *Auk*. **105** (3): 596–597. JSTOR 4087470.
33. Tarsitano, S. (1991). *Archaeopteryx*: Quo vadis? In: Schultze, H. P. and Trueb, L. (eds.), *Origins of the Higher Groups of Tetrapods*, 319–332.
34. Bock, W (1997). "Review of: *The Origin and Evolution of Birds*, by A. Feduccia". *Auk*. **114** (3): 531–534. doi:10.2307/4089261. JSTOR 4089261.
35. Shipman, P. (1998). *Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight*. Simon & Schuster, New York.
36. Cope, E. D. (1892). "A contribution to the vertebrate paleontology of Texas". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **30**: 123–131.
37. Lehman, T. (1994). The saga of the Dockum Group and the case of the Texas/New Mexico boundary fault. Summarized in *The Rise of Birds: 225 Million Years of Evolution*, Chatterjee (1997).
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39. Woolf, Jonathon (18 October 1997). "Re: Protoavis?". *Dinosaur* (Mailing list). Retrieved 11 August 2009.
40. Ash, S. R. 1972. Upper Triassic Dockum flora of eastern New Mexico and Texas. In *New Mexico Geological Society Guide Book*, 124–128.
41. Chatterjee, S (1984). "A new ornithischian dinosaur from the Triassic of North America". *Naturwissenschaften*. **71** (12): 630–631. Bibcode:1984NW.....71..630C. doi:10.1007/bf00377897. S2CID 6993997.
42. Chatterjee, S (1993). "*Shuvosaurus*, a new theropod". *National Geographic Research and Exploration*. **9**: 476–491.
43. Paul, G.S. (1988): *Predatory Dinosaurs of the World*. Simon & Schuster, New York.
44. Witmer, L. (1991): Perspectives on avian origins. *In:* Schultze, H.-P. & Trueb, L. (eds.): *Origins of the Higher Groups of Tetrapods*: 427–466.
45. Sanz; et al. (1998). "Living with dinosaurs". *Nature*. **393** (6680): 32–33. Bibcode:1998Natur.393...32S. doi:10.1038/29916. S2CID 5480705.
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* *Protoavis* at the Fossil Wiki, upon which this article is adapted from.

## InfoBox

| *Protoavis*<br>Temporal range: Late Triassic, | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Protoavis texensis* paratype (TTU P 9201) | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| *Clade*: | Neodiapsida |
| *Clade*: | *incertae sedis* |
| Genus: | *Protoavis* |
|
| Type species | |
| ***Protoavis texensis***<br>Chatterjee, 1991 | |


title: World of Warcraft (comics)

abstract: World of Warcraft is a comic book series set in the Warcraft universe and released monthly in a standard American comic format.

text:
# World of Warcraft (comics)

***World of Warcraft*** is a comic book series set in the *Warcraft* universe and released monthly in a standard American comic format.

## Publication history

At the time of its conception, the ongoing comic was set for two story arcs, both six issues each. Both were set concurrent with the events of *The Burning Crusade*. Later, it was expanded to last 25 issues.

*World of Warcraft: Ashbringer* is a four-issue mini-series that ran from late 2008 to early 2009. It was written by Micky Neilson, with pencils by Ludo Lullabi and inks by Tony Washington.

On December 16, 2009, WildStorm stated that the publication of the *World of Warcraft* comic series had been changed from monthly issues to original graphic novels to be released in 2010. The special, *World of Warcraft: Beginnings and Ends*, would be the last issue released and both the original comic (planned to be renamed to *Alliance* from issue 26) and the future *Horde* title had been canceled.

## Issue list

### World of Warcraft

**Volume 1 "Dragon Hunt"**

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0 | *Prologue* | November 9, 2007 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 1 | *Stranger in a Strange Land* | November 14, 2007 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 2 | *Killing Ground* | December 13, 2007 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 3 | *Destiny Awaits!* | January 16, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 4 | *Balancing the Scales* | February 20, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 5 | *The Beast Within!* | March 19, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 6 | *Blood* | April 16, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |
| 7 | *Revelations* | May 21, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Ludo Lullabi & Sandra Hope |

**Volume 2**

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 8 | *The Return* | June 18, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Jon Landry & Jerome K. Moore |
| 9 | *Through the Mirror Darkly* | July 16, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Jon Landry & Jerome K. Moore |
| 10 | *Last of the Line* | August 20, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Jon Buran & Jerome K. Moore |
| 11 | *Descent* | September 17, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Jon Buran & Jerome K. Moore |
| 12 | *The Enemy Revealed* | October 29, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Jon Buran, Mike Bowden,
Jerome K. Moore & Phil Moy |
| 13 | *Flashback* | November 19, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden, Jerome K. Moore,
Phil Moy, Andy Smith, Mark Irwin,
Trevor Scott & Randy Mayor |
| 14 | *Into the Jaws of Death!* | December 31, 2008 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden & Trevor Scott |

**Volume 3**

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 15 | *Conflicting Loyalties* | January 21, 2009 | Walter Simonson | Jon Buran, Jerome K. Moore &
Derek Fridolfs |
| 16 | *Threat!* | February 18, 2009 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden & Walden Wong |
| 17 | *Gathering Thunder!* | March 18, 2009 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden & Walden Wong |
| 18 | *Showdown!* | April 15, 2009 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden, Phil Moy,
John Livesay & Sandra Hope |
| 19 | *The Winds of War* | May 20, 2009 | Walter Simonson | Mike Bowden, Phil Moy,
Richard Friend & Sandra Hope |
| 20 | *Repercussions* | June 17, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Pop Mhan |
| 21 | *Secrets* | July 15, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Mike Bowden & Tony Washington |

**Volume 4**

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 22 | *Whispers* | August 19, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Mike Bowden |
| 23 | *The Gathering* | September 16, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Mike Bowden |
| 24 | *Hard Choices* | October 21, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Mike Bowden |
| 25 | *Armageddon* | November 18, 2009 | Walter Simonson &
Louise Simonson | Mike Bowden & Tony Washington |

### Ashbringer

*World of Warcraft: Ashbringer* recounts the story of the Ashbringer and Alexandros Mograine.

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | *Death is Contagious* | September 10, 2008 | Micky Neilson | Ludo Lullabi & Tony Washington |
| 2 | *Ashes to Ashes* | October 22, 2008 | Micky Neilson | Ludo Lullabi & Tony Washington |
| 3 | *Naxxramas* | December 31, 2008 | Micky Neilson | Ludo Lullabi & Tony Washington |
| 4 | *Dust to Dust* | February 25, 2009 | Micky Neilson | Ludo Lullabi & Tony Washington |

### Beginnings and Ends

*World of Warcraft: Beginnings and Ends* is a one-shot special issue that introduced new Alliance and Horde characters that had not been seen in the ongoing series.

| Issue Number | Title | Release Date | Author | Artist |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| One-shot | *Beginnings and Ends* | December 16, 2009 | Mike Costa | Pop Mhan |

## Collected editions

The series has been collected into trade paperbacks:

## InfoBox

| *World of Warcraft* | |
| --- | --- |
| Cover of the first issue | |
| Publication information | |
| Publisher | WildStorm |
| Schedule | Monthly |
| Genre |  |
| Publication date | November 2007 – December 2009 |
| No. of issues | 30 (25 monthly issues, 4-issue mini-series and 1 special) |
| Creative team | |
| Created by | Blizzard Entertainment |
| Written by | Walt Simonson
Louise Simonson |
| Artist(s) | Mike Bowden
Pop Mhan |
| Penciller(s) | Ludo Lullabi
Jon Buran
Jon Buran |
| Inker(s) | Sandra Hope
Jerome K. Moore
Phillip Moy
Trevor Scott
Andy Smith
Walden Wong |
| Letterer(s) | Nick Napolitano
Sal Cipriano
Steve Wands
Wes Abbott |
| Colorist(s) | Randy Mayor
Gabriel Eltaeb |
| Editor(s) | Hank Kanalz
Kristy Quinn
Sarah Gaydos |
| Collected editions | |
| *Volume 1 HC* | ISBN 1-4012-1836-9 |
| *Volume 2 HC* | ISBN 1-4012-2370-2 |
| *Volume 3 HC* | ISBN 1-4012-2810-0 |
| *Ashbringer HC* | ISBN 1-4012-2341-9 |


title: Matthew McKagan

abstract: Matt McKagan in Seattle, WA, is a former Grammy-nominated, award-winning Music Educator at Lindero Canyon Middle School in Agoura Hills, CA.

text:
# Matthew McKagan

**Matt McKagan** (born April 8, 1961) in Seattle, WA, is a former Grammy-nominated, award-winning Music Educator at Lindero Canyon Middle School in Agoura Hills, CA.

## National Awards

On 26 October 2022, McKagan was named a semi-finalist for the Grammy's 2023 Music Educator Award.

McKagan previously won national music education awards including the Mr. Holland's Opus Award in 2017, given at Carnegie Hall to the most inspiring Music Educators in the nation, along with the Los Angeles Music Center's 1999 BRAVO Award, which honors innovation and creativity in arts education.

Under McKagan's direction, Lindero Jazz Band "A" or Combo (2018) won first place in the middle school division at Reno Jazz Festival during years: 2011, 2012, 2017, 2018.

## Performance career

McKagan performed as a hornist and recorded with his brother, Duff McKagan, on several Guns N' Roses albums including the "Live and Let Die" track on *Use Your Illusion I*.

## InfoBox

| Matt McKagan | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1961-04-08) April 8, 1961<br>Seattle, Washington |
| Occupation | Music Educator |
| Known for | 2023 Music Educator Award Grammy nominee semi-finalist |


title: Razor Burn

abstract: Razor Burn is the seventh studio album by South African gothic rock band The Awakening, released on Massacre Records in Germany and Intervention Arts in Africa and the US in September 2006.

text:
# Razor Burn

***Razor Burn*** is the seventh studio album by South African gothic rock band The Awakening, released on Massacre Records in Germany and Intervention Arts in Africa and the US in September 2006.

## Recording

Marketed as a "blend of pounding metal guitars and traditional gothic rock," the album features dark, moody industrial elements mixed with mid-tempo rock song structures. With the European distribution and marketing of Massacre Records it received additional media attention, wider distribution and positive reviews from alternative music press.

## Track listing

1. "Outside the Asylum"
2. "Arrow"
3. "Heaven Waits"
4. "The Neon Sky"
5. "Razor Burn"
6. "Darkness Calls (Razor Burn part 2)"
7. "Bleeding"
8. "Descent"
9. "Oblivion"
10. "Halo"
11. "Below"
12. "Asylum"

## InfoBox

| Razor Burn | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by The Awakening | |
| Released | September 2006 |
| Recorded | 2006 Intervention Studios & Sonovision Music, Johannesburg, South Africa |
| Genre | Gothic rock, industrial rock |
| Label | Intervention Arts
Massacre Records |
| Producer | Ashton Nyte & Jon Buckley |
| The Awakening chronology | |
| *Darker Than Silence*
(2004) ***Razor Burn***
(2006) *Tales of Absolution and Obsoletion*
(2009) | |


title: Matsumyia cyaniventris

abstract: Matsumyia cyaniventris is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

text:
# Matsumyia cyaniventris

***Matsumyia cyaniventris*** is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae.

## Distribution

Philippines.

## InfoBox

| *Matsumyia cyaniventris* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Family: | Syrphidae |
| Subfamily: | Eristalinae |
| Tribe: | Milesiini |
| Subtribe: | Criorhinina |
| Genus: | *Matsumyia* |
| Species: | ***M. cyaniventris*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Matsumyia cyaniventris***<br>(Sack, 1926) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Penthesilea cyaniventris* Sack, 1926 | |


title: Minimum Age Convention, 1973

abstract: The ILO Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment C138, is a convention adopted in 1973 by the International Labour Organization. It requires ratifying states to pursue a national policy designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise progressively the minimum age for admission to employment or work. It is one of eight ILO fundamental conventions. Convention C138 replaces several similar ILO conventions in specific fields of labour.

text:
# Minimum Age Convention, 1973

The ILO **Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment** C138, is a convention adopted in 1973 by the International Labour Organization. It requires ratifying states to pursue a national policy designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise progressively the minimum age for admission to employment or work. It is one of eight ILO fundamental conventions. Convention C138 replaces several similar ILO conventions in specific fields of labour.

## Minimum ages

Countries are free to specify a minimum age for labour, with a minimum of 15 years. A declaration of 14 years is also possible when for a specified period of time. Laws may also permit light work for children aged 13–15 (not harming their health or school work). The minimum age of 18 years is specified for work which "is likely to jeopardise the health, safety or morals of young persons". Definitions of the type of work and derogations are only possible after tripartite consultations (if such a system exists in the ratifying country).

## Effect on other conventions

The convention is a revision of several conventions for workers in specific areas. Upon entry into force, some of these conventions were closed for ratification and becoming a party to this convention automatically resulted in denunciation of the older ones. An overview of older minimum age conventions of ILO is shown below:

| ILO code | Field | conclusion date | entry into force | closure for signature/withdrawal | Parties
(January 2023) | Denunciations
(January 2023) | Revising convention(s) | Text and ratifications references |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| C5 | Industry | 28 November 1919 | 13 June 1921 | N.A. | 1 | 71 | C59, this convention |  |
| C7 | Sea | 7 July 1920 | 27 September 1921 | 19 June 2021 | 1 | 52 | C58, this convention, MLC |  |
| C10 | Agriculture | 16 November 1921 | 31 August 1923 | N.A. | 4 | 51 | this convention |  |
| C15 | trimmers and stokers | 11 November 1921 | 20 November 1922 | N.A. | 7 | 62 | this convention |  |
| C33 | Non-Industrial Employment (revised) | 30 April 1932 | 6 June 1935 | 29 December 1950 | 2 | 23 | *C60*, this convention |  |
| C58 | Sea (revised) | 24 October 1936 | 11 April 1939 | N.A. | 6 | 45 | this convention, *MLC* |  |
| C59 | Industry (revised) | 22 June 1937 | 21 February 1941 | 19 June 1976 | 8 | 28 | *this convention* |  |
| C60 | Non-Industrial Employment | 22 June 1937 | 29 December 1950 | N.A. | 0 | 11 | this convention |  |
| C112 | Fishermen | 19 June 1959 | 7 November 1961 | N.A. | 2 | 27 | this convention, *Work in Fishing Convention* |  |
| C123 | Underground Work | 22 June 1965 | 10 November 1967 | N.A. | 21 | 20 | this convention |  |

## Ratifications

Minimum ages defined by states

14 (32%)  15 (43%)  16 (25%)

ILO Convention C138 entered into force one year after deposition of the first two ratifications (Cuba and Libya). As of July 2023 176 countries have ratified Convention C138. Initially, however, the pace of ratification of this convention was extremely slow. Therefore, an alternative Convention with a more limited scope was initiated in 1999. It concerns ILO Convention 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour.

Convention C138 enters into force for a ratifying country one year after ratification. This can be denounced every 10 years in the year after 10 years have passed (e.g. 19 June 202719 June 2028).

The following countries have ratified this convention:
| Country | Date | Minimum age (years) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Afghanistan | 7 April 2010 | 14 |
| Albania | 16 February 1998 | 16 |
| Algeria | 30 April 1984 | 16 |
| Angola | 13 June 2001 | 14 |
| Antigua and Barbuda | 17 March 1983 | 16 |
| Argentina | 11 November 1996 | 14 |
| Armenia | 27 January 2006 | 16 |
| Australia | 13 June 2023 | 15 |
| Austria | 18 September 2000 | 15 |
| Azerbaijan | 19 May 1992 | 16 |
| Bahamas | 31 October 2001 | 14 |
| Bahrain | 7 March 2012 | 15 |
| Bangladesh | 22 March 2022 | 14 |
| Barbados | 4 January 2000 | 15 |
| Belarus (as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic) | 3 May 1979 | 16 |
| Belgium | 19 April 1988 | 15 |
| Belize | 6 March 2000 | 14 |
| Benin | 11 June 2001 | 14 |
| Bolivia | 11 June 1997 | 14 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 2 June 1993 | 15 |
| Botswana | 5 June 1997 | 14 |
| Brazil | 28 June 2001 | 16 |
| Brunei | 17 June 2011 | 16 |
| Bulgaria | 23 April 1980 | 16 |
| Burkina Faso | 11 February 1999 | 15 |
| Burundi | 19 July 2000 | 16 |
| Cambodia | 23 August 1999 | 14 |
| Cameroon | 13 August 2001 | 14 |
| Canada | 8 June 2016 | 16 |
| Cape Verde | 7 February 2011 | 15 |
| Central African Republic | 28 June 2000 | 14 |
| Chad | 21 March 2005 | 14 |
| Chile | 1 February 1999 | 15 |
| China | 28 April 1999 | 16 |
| Colombia | 2 February 2001 | 14 |
| Comoros | 17 March 2004 | 15 |
| Congo | 26 November 1999 | 14 |
| Costa Rica | 11 June 1976 | 15 |
| Côte d'Ivoire | 7 February 2003 | 14 |
| Croatia | 8 October 1991 | 15 |
| Cuba | 7 March 1975 | 15 |
| Cyprus | 2 October 1997 | 15 |
| Czech Republic | 26 April 2007 | 15 |
| Democratic Republic of the Congo | 20 June 2001 | 14 |
| Denmark | 13 November 1997 | 15 |
| Djibouti | 14 June 2005 | 16 |
| Dominica | 27 September 1983 | 15 |
| Dominican Republic | 15 June 1999 | 14 |
| Ecuador | 19 September 2000 | 14 |
| Egypt | 9 June 1999 | 14 |
| El Salvador | 23 January 1996 | 14 |
| Equatorial Guinea | 12 June 1985 | 14 |
| Eritrea | 22 February 2000 | 14 |
| Estonia | 15 March 2007 | 15 |
| Ethiopia | 27 May 1999 | 14 |
| Fiji | 3 January 2003 | 15 |
| Finland | 13 January 1976 | 15 |
| France | 13 July 1990 | 16 |
|
| Gabon | 25 October 2010 | 16 |
| Gambia | 4 September 2000 | 14 |
| Ghana | 6 June 2011 | 15 |
| Georgia | 23 September 1996 | 15 |
| Germany | 8 April 1976 | 15 |
| Greece | 14 March 1986 | 15 |
| Grenada | 14 May 2003 | 16 |
| Guatemala | 27 April 1990 | 14 |
| Guinea | 6 June 2003 | 16 |
| Guinea-Bissau | 5 March 2009 | 14 |
| Guyana | 15 April 1998 | 15 |
| Haiti | 5 March 2009 | 14 |
| Honduras | 9 June 1980 | 14 |
| Hungary | 28 May 1998 | 16 |
| Iceland | 6 December 1999 | 15 |
| India | 13 June 2017 | 14 |
| Indonesia | 7 June 1999 | 15 |
| Iraq | 13 February 1985 | 15 |
| Ireland | 22 June 1978 | 16 |
| Israel | 21 June 1979 | 15 |
| Italy | 28 July 1981 | 15 |
| Jamaica | 13 October 2003 | 15 |
| Japan | 5 June 2000 | 15 |
| Jordan | 23 March 1998 | 16 |
| Kazakhstan | 18 May 2001 | 16 |
| Kenya | 9 April 1979 | 16 |
| Kiribati | 17 June 2009 | 14 |
| South Korea | 28 January 1999 | 15 |
| Kuwait | 15 November 1999 | 15 |
| Kyrgyzstan | 31 March 1992 | 16 |
| Laos | 13 June 2005 | 14 |
| Latvia | 2 June 2006 | 15 |
| Lebanon | 10 June 2003 | 14 |
| Lesotho | 14 June 2001 | 15 |
| Liberia | 13 June 2022 | 15 |
| Libya | 19 June 1975 | 15 |
| Lithuania | 22 June 1998 | 16 |
| Luxembourg | 24 March 1977 | 15 |
| Macedonia | 17 November 1991 | 15 |
| Madagascar | 31 May 2000 | 15 |
| Malawi | 19 November 1999 | 14 |
| Malaysia | 9 September 1997 | 15 |
| Maldives | 4 January 2013 | 16 |
| Mali | 11 March 2002 | 15 |
| Malta | 9 June 1988 | 16 |
| Mauritania | 3 December 2001 | 14 |
| Mauritius | 30 July 1990 | 15 |
| Mexico | 10 June 2015 | 15 |
| Moldova | 21 September 1999 | 16 |
| Montenegro | 3 June 2006 | 15 |
| Mongolia | 16 December 2002 | 15 |
| Morocco | 6 January 2000 | 15 |
| Mozambique | 16 June 2003 | 15 |
| Myanmar | 8 June 2020 | 14 |
| Namibia | 15 November 2000 | 14 |
| Nepal | 30 May 1997 | 14 |
| Netherlands (European territory) | 14 September 1976 | 15 |
| Netherlands (Aruba) | 18 February 1986 | 15 |
| Nicaragua | 2 November 1981 | 14 |
| Niger | 4 December 1978 | 14 |
| Nigeria | 2 October 2002 | 15 |
| Norway | 8 July 1980 | 15 |
| Oman | 21 July 2005 | 15 |
| Pakistan | 6 July 2006 | 14 |
| Panama | 31 October 2000 | 14 |
| Papua New Guinea | 2 June 2000 | 16 |
| Paraguay | 3 March 2004 | 14 |
| Peru | 13 November 2002 | 14 |
| Philippines | 4 June 1998 | 15 |
| Poland | 22 March 1978 | 15 |
| Portugal | 20 May 1998 | 16 |
| Qatar | 3 January 2006 | 16 |
| Romania | 19 November 1975 | 16 |
| Russia (as the Soviet Union) | 3 May 1979 | 16 |
| Rwanda | 15 April 1981 | 14 |
| Saint Kitts and Nevis | 3 June 2005 | 16 |
| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 25 July 2006 | 14 |
| Samoa | 29 October 2008 | 15 |
| San Marino | 1 February 1995 | 16 |
| São Tomé and Príncipe | 4 May 2005 | 14 |
| Saudi Arabia | 2 April 2014 | 15 |
| Senegal | 15 December 1999 | 15 |
| Serbia (as Serbia and Montenegro) | 24 November 2000 | 15 |
| Seychelles | 7 March 2000 | 15 |
| Sierra Leone | 13 June 2011 | 16 |
| Singapore | 7 November 2005 | 15 |
| Slovakia | 29 September 1997 | 15 |
| Slovenia | 29 May 1992 | 15 |
| Solomon Islands | 22 April 2013 | 14 |
| South Africa | 30 March 2000 | 16 |
| South Sudan | 29 April 2012 | 14 |
| Spain | 16 May 1977 | 16 |
| Sri Lanka | 11 February 2000 | 14 |
| Sudan | 7 March 2003 | 14 |
| Suriname | 15 January 2018 | 16 |
| Swaziland | 23 October 2002 | 15 |
| Sweden | 23 April 1990 | 15 |
| Switzerland | 17 August 1999 | 15 |
| Syria | 18 September 2001 | 15 |
| Tajikistan | 26 November 1993 | 16 |
| Tanzania | 16 December 1998 | 14 |
| Thailand | 11 May 2004 | 15 |
| Togo | 16 March 1984 | 14 |
| Trinidad and Tobago | 3 September 2004 | 16 |
| Tunisia | 19 October 1995 | 16 |
| Turkey | 30 October 1998 | 15 |
| Turkmenistan | 27 March 2012 | 16 |
| Uganda | 25 March 2003 | 14 |
| Ukraine (as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic) | 3 May 1979 | 16 |
| United Arab Emirates | 2 October 1998 | 15 |
| United Kingdom | 7 June 2000 | 16 |
| Uruguay | 2 June 1977 | 15 |
| Uzbekistan | 6 March 2009 | 15 |
| Venezuela | 15 July 1987 | 14 |
| Vietnam | 24 June 2003 | 15 |
| Vanuatu | 24 June 2019 | 14 |
| Yemen | 15 June 2000 | 14 |
| Zambia | 9 February 1976 | 15 |
| Zimbabwe | 6 June 2000 | 14 |

## InfoBox

C138, Minimum Age Convention, 1973
| Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment | |
| --- | --- |
| Member states of the Convention.  16  15  14 | |
| Drafted | 26 June 1973 |
| Effective | 19 June 1976 |
| Condition | 2 ratifications |
| Ratifiers | 176 |
| Depositary | Director-General of the International Labour Office |
| Languages | French and English |


title: Olivella dolichomorpha

abstract: Olivella dolichomorpha is a species of small sea snail, marine gastropod mollusk in the subfamily Olivellinae, in the family Olividae, the olives. Species in the genus Olivella are commonly called dwarf olives.

text:
# Olivella dolichomorpha

***Olivella dolichomorpha*** is a species of small sea snail, marine gastropod mollusk in the subfamily Olivellinae, in the family Olividae, the olives. Species in the genus Olivella are commonly called dwarf olives.

## Description

The length of the shell attains 14.1 mm (0.56 in).

## Distribution

This marine species occurs off Martinique.

* Paulmier G. (2015). Les Olivellidae (Neogastropoda) des Antilles françaises. Description de quatre nouvelles espèces. Xenophora Taxonomy. 8: 3-23

## InfoBox

| *Olivella dolichomorpha* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Shell of *Olivella dolichomorpha* (holotype at MNHN, Paris) | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Olividae |
| Genus: | *Olivella* |
| Species: | ***O. dolichomorpha*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Olivella dolichomorpha***<br>Paulmier, 2007 | |
|


title: Paap Aur Punya

abstract: Paap Aur Punya is a Bollywood drama film directed by Prayag Raj. The film stars Shashi Kapoor, Sharmila Tagore and Ajit. Shashi Kapoor also appears in dual role.

text:
# Paap Aur Punya

***Paap Aur Punya***  (transl.Sin and Virtue) is a Bollywood drama film directed by Prayag Raj. The film stars Shashi Kapoor, Sharmila Tagore and Ajit. Shashi Kapoor also appears in dual role.

## Plot

Fair-minded Raja Gajraj Singh is overthrown in a coup by his brother, Balbir Singh. Both Gajraj's and Balbir's wives are pregnant, and give birth to twin sons, and a son respectively. Balbir orders that Gajraj's son be killed. Then he arranges for Gajraj and his wife's accidental death by a motor vehicle. Years go by, most people have forgotten Raja Gajraj, and Balbir is the sole acclaimed ruler with his fair-minded and soft-spoken son, Ganga Singh, who is all set to succeed the throne from his dad. Then Ganga meets a young woman named Jugni from a poor family and falls in love with her, she too falls in love with him, and both want to get married. But Balbir will not have anything to do with her, as he would like Ganga to marry rich and wealthy Mala. Chaos and anarchy suddenly descent upon the palace, when Ganga undergoes a character change and becomes womanizing, alcoholic, and foul-mouthed, much to the chagrin of his dad. But the clouds do have a silver lining for Ganga is now willing to wed Mala. What was the reason behind the sudden change in Ganga? What will the poor heart-broken Jugni do now?

## Cast

## Production

During the filming of a scene, one of the actors who played the villain was bitten by Tagore's then two-year-old son, Saif, who thought Shashi Kapoor was being attacked for real.

## Songs

*Paap Aur Punya* at IMDb

## InfoBox

| Paap Aur Punya | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Directed by | Prayag Raj |
| Produced by | Shyam Sunder Shivdasani |
| Starring | Shashi Kapoor
Sharmila Tagore
Ajit
Indrani Mukherjee |
| Music by | Kalyanji Anandji |
| Release date | * 1 June 1974 (1974-06-01) |
| Country | India |


title: Graham Cray

abstract: Graham Alan Cray is a retired British Anglican bishop. He was the Bishop of Maidstone in the Diocese of Canterbury from 2001 to 2009, and was the Archbishops' Missioner and Team Leader of Fresh Expressions from 2009 to 2014.

text:
# Graham Cray

**Graham Alan Cray** (born 21 April 1947) is a retired British Anglican bishop. He was the Bishop of Maidstone in the Diocese of Canterbury from 2001 to 2009, and was the Archbishops' Missioner and Team Leader of Fresh Expressions from 2009 to 2014.

## Early life and education

Cray grew up without his mother Doris, who killed herself when he was 8 years old. Cray was educated (gaining a Bachelor of Arts), at Leeds University and St John's College, Nottingham.

## Ordained ministry

He began his ministry as a curate at St Mark's Church, Gillingham. Cray later spent 14 years at St Michael-le-Belfry in York (at first working with, and later succeeding, David Watson) before becoming Principal of Ridley Hall theological college in Cambridge.

Cray was consecrated a bishop in March 2001. He served as the Bishop of Maidstone, a suffragan bishop in the Diocese of Canterbury, between 2001 and 2009. In 2009, he was appointed to lead the Archbishops' (of Canterbury and of York) Fresh Expressions team. He retired from full-time ministry in 2014.

He is the Chairman of Soul Survivor. In 2024 Cray was subject to disciplinary action for failing to pass on information regarding allegations against Mike Pilavachi.

## InfoBox

| The Right Reverend
Graham Cray | |
| --- | --- |
| Archbishops' Missioner and Team Leader of Fresh Expressions | |
| Church | Church of England |
| In office | 2009–2014 |
| Other post(s) | Bishop of Maidstone (2001–2009)
Principal, Ridley Hall (1992–2001) |
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 1971 (deacon); 1972 (priest) |
| Consecration | March 2001
by George Carey |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1947-04-21) 21 April 1947 |
| Denomination | Anglican |
| Parents | Alan & Doris |
| Spouse | Jacqueline Webster (m. 1973) |
| Children | Two daughters |
| Alma mater | University of Leeds
St John's College, Nottingham |


title: Janos Kirz

abstract: Janos Kirz is a Hungarian-American physicist, Professor emeritus at Stony Brook University, and pioneer of X-ray microscopy.

text:
# Janos Kirz

**Janos Kirz** (born 1937) is a Hungarian-American physicist, Professor emeritus at Stony Brook University, and pioneer of X-ray microscopy.

## Biography

Kirz was born in Budapest, Hungary and emigrated to the United States following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He studied physics at the University of California, Berkeley and after getting his PhD in 1963, he spent a year as a postdoc at CEA in Saclay. In 1968 Kirz took a position at Stony Brook University where he was appointed professor in 1973. Kirz is the nephew of physicist Edward Teller.

## Research

Kirz's work has focused on Soft X-ray microscopy and the development and use of zone plates.

## Awards

## Publications

* Kirz, Janos (1974). "Phase zone plates for x rays and the extreme uv". *Journal of the Optical Society of America*. **65** (3): 301–309. doi:10.1364/JOSA.64.000301.
* Kirz, Janos; Jacobsen, Chris; Howells, Malcolm (1995). "Soft X-ray microscopes and their biological applications". *Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics*. **28** (1): 33–130. doi:10.1017/S0033583500003139. PMID 7676009. S2CID 37999221.

## InfoBox

| Janos Kirz | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1937 (1937)
Budapest, Hungary |
| Alma mater | University of California, Berkeley |
| Known for | X-ray microscopy
Zone plates |
| Awards | Arthur H. Compton Award (2005) |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Physics |
| Institutions | Stony Brook University
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |
| Doctoral advisor | Luis Walter Alvarez
Robert D. Tripp |
|  | |


title: Prototheora serruligera

abstract: Prototheora serruligera is a species of moth of the family Prototheoridae. It is found in South Africa. The wingspan is 21–22 mm. Adults have been recorded from January to mid-March.

text:
# Prototheora serruligera

***Prototheora serruligera*** is a species of moth of the family Prototheoridae. It is found in South Africa.

The wingspan is 21–22 mm. Adults have been recorded from January to mid-March.

## InfoBox

| *Prototheora serruligera* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Prototheoridae |
| Genus: | *Prototheora* |
| Species: | ***P. serruligera*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Prototheora serruligera***<br>Meyrick, 1920 | |
|


title: Rebecca Field Jones

abstract: Rebecca Field Jones (1905–2002) was an American artist who worked for the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and went on to found the West Hartford Art League.

text:
# Rebecca Field Jones

**Rebecca Field Jones** (1905–2002) was an American artist who worked for the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and went on to found the West Hartford Art League.

## Biography

Jones née Field was born in Montague, Massachusetts, on March 13, 1905. She briefly attended Massachusetts Agricultural College (now the University of Massachusetts Amherst) and the Massachusetts Art School before studying in art in Munich, Germany. In 1934 she cofounded the West Hartford Art League along with Getrude Patterson Bezanker. The organization was located in red brick schoolhouse at 87 Mountain Road. From 1935 through 1938 she worked for the Public Works of Art Project and its successor, the Federal Arts Project. She then worked for the Public Works Administration's drafting department.

In 1941 she married fellow artist Frederic Edward Jones. She taught at the West Hartford Art League, Miss Porter's School, and the Oxford School. She was a member of the Hartford Society of Women Painters. In the 1970s Jones relocated to New Hampshire. She died on April 16, 2002, in Windsor, Vermont.

## InfoBox

| Rebecca Field Jones | |
| --- | --- |
| Rebecca Field Jones sculpting a bust of Henry Barnard | |
| Born | Rebecca Field
(1905-03-13)March 13, 1905
Montague, Massachusetts |
| Died | April 16, 2002(2002-04-16) (aged 97)
Windsor, Vermont |
| Known for | Sculptor, Educator |


title: Matěj Paprčiak

abstract: Matěj Paprčiak is a Czech former footballer who is currently a model and actor. He began his career at Slavia Prague and made his Gambrinus liga debut for Slavia against Dukla Prague on 16 September 2011. He was then loaned out to various clubs including ČFL side FK Králův Dvůr, Viktoria Žižkov and Admira Prague. Paprčiak retired following a ligament injury. He then became a model and actor.

text:
# Matěj Paprčiak

**Matěj Paprčiak** (born 3 May 1991) is a Czech former footballer who is currently a model and actor. He began his career at Slavia Prague and made his Gambrinus liga debut for Slavia against Dukla Prague on 16 September 2011. He was then loaned out to various clubs including ČFL (tier 3) side FK Králův Dvůr, Viktoria Žižkov and Admira Prague.

Paprčiak retired following a ligament injury. He then became a model and actor.

## InfoBox

Matěj Paprčiak
| Paprčiak in 2022 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Personal information | | | |
| Date of birth | (1991-05-03) 3 May 1991 | | |
| Place of birth | Czechoslovakia | | |
| Position(s) | Forward | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2011–15 | Slavia Prague | 6 | (0) |
| 2012–13 | Králův Dvůr (loan) |  |  |
| 2013 | Viktoria Žižkov (loan) |  |  |
| 2014 | Admira Prague B (loan) | 4 | (2) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 31 December 2014 | | | |


title: Milliman

abstract: Milliman, formerly Milliman & Robertson, is an international actuarial and consulting firm based in Seattle, Washington. The company was founded in 1947, by Wendell Milliman and Stuart A. Robertson and operates 59 offices internationally, with over 3,000 employees. Milliman is owned and managed by approximately 350 principals. The firm's primary business includes consulting practices in employee benefits, healthcare, investment, life insurance and financial services, and property and casualty insurance. The firm also provides data analysis and predictive analytics.

text:
# Milliman

**Milliman**, formerly **Milliman & Robertson**, is an international actuarial and consulting firm based in Seattle, Washington.

The company was founded in 1947, by Wendell Milliman and Stuart A. Robertson and operates 59 offices internationally, with over 3,000 employees. Milliman is owned and managed by approximately 350 principals. The firm's primary business includes consulting practices in employee benefits, healthcare, investment, life insurance and financial services, and property and casualty insurance. The firm also provides data analysis and predictive analytics.

## History

In the late 1940s, actuary Wendell Milliman started a consultancy in the Pacific Northwest. He was later joined by Stuart A. Robertson to establish Milliman & Robertson, Inc. The firm was initially centered mainly on assessing business risk and pension issues. In the retirement plan industry, Milliman provided services in actuarial consulting, consulting on compensation and care, retirement outsourcing, and others.

During the 1950s, Milliman & Robertson established the first health insurance benchmarking tool for the US healthcare market. During this time the company began expanding to other states and began offering other services, such as new forms of annuities, and employee benefit plans and pensions. The company’s first international office was opened in Tokyo during the 1990s, which was followed by international offices in several other foreign markets, and the first foreign insurance consulting assignment to be given in the People's Republic of China.

## Milliman indices

Milliman produces economic indexes for the American healthcare and insurance markets, including the Milliman 100 Pension Funding index. The Pension Funding Index examines the liabilities and assets of the top 100 pension funds in the US, establishing the funded status of the group overall. The company also releases an annual Milliman Medical Index, first published in 2001. The Medical Index calculates the total annual cost of healthcare for an American family of four covered by employer healthcare coverage. Between 2002 and 2015, it has shown an increase of 267% in healthcare costs to these family units.

### Milliman care guidelines

Milliman Inc. previously owned MCG (formerly known as Milliman Care Guidelines and now known as MCG Health), which has been producing evidence-based clinical guidelines for healthcare organizations since 1990. In 2012, the Hearst Corporation acquired MCG.

## InfoBox

Milliman Inc.
|
|  |
| Company type | Actuarial, Consulting |
| Industry | Actuarial
Management consulting
Insurance
Human Resources
Professional Services
Employee Benefits |
| Founded | 1947 (1947) |
| Headquarters | Seattle, Washington, U.S. |
| Key people | Dermot Corry, President and CEO
Ken Mungan (Actuary), Chairman |
| Products | Professional Services
Consulting |
| Website | www.milliman.com |


title: Olivella fortunei

abstract: Olivella fortunei is a species of small sea snail, marine gastropod mollusk in the subfamily Olivellinae, in the family Olividae, the olives. Species in the genus Olivella are commonly called dwarf olives.

text:
# Olivella fortunei

***Olivella fortunei*** is a species of small sea snail, marine gastropod mollusk in the subfamily Olivellinae, in the family Olividae, the olives. Species in the genus Olivella are commonly called dwarf olives.

## Description

## Distribution

## InfoBox

| *Olivella fortunei* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Olividae |
| Genus: | *Olivella* |
| Species: | ***O. fortunei*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Olivella fortunei***<br>(Marrat, 1871) | |
|


title: Pablo Acha

abstract: Pablo Acha González is a Spanish male recurve archer. Acha won an individual gold medal and a mixed team silver medal at the 2021 European Championships. He has also medalled at the 2018 Mediterranean Games, the 2019 European Games and several Archery World Cups.

text:
# Pablo Acha

**Pablo Acha González** (born 4 August 1996) is a Spanish male recurve archer.

Acha won an individual gold medal and a mixed team silver medal at the 2021 European Championships. He has also medalled at the 2018 Mediterranean Games, the 2019 European Games and several Archery World Cups.

## Career

In 2017, Acha debuted on the senior international circuit. He won a surprise bronze medal in the mixed team event in the second leg of the 2017 Archery World Cup in Antalya, defeating the American team in the third-place match while partnering with Alicia Marín. He also competed in his first World Championships a few months later.

Acha won two bronze medals at the 2018 Mediterranean Games in Tarragona, one as an individual and one as a team. He followed this with another individual bronze at the 2019 European Games in Minsk, which secured Spain's qualification to the 2020 Summer Olympics. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the only notable event Acha competed at in 2020 was the Indoor World Cup in France, where he placed fifth in the individual event.

In 2021, Acha won two team medals in the Archery World Cup: a gold in the first leg and a silver in the second. He teamed with Miguel Alvariño and Daniel Castro, beating the United States in the final to win their country's first gold medal in history of the event. That summer he competed at the 2021 European Championships. He won a gold medal in the individual event, defeating Galsan Bazarzhapov in the final. He also took home a silver medal partnering with Elia Canales in the mixed team event, ultimately losing to the Russian duo of Aldar Tsybikzhapov and Elena Osipova.

He won the silver medal in the men's team recurve event at the 2022 European Archery Championships held in Munich, Germany.

## Personal life

Originally from Burgos, Acha moved to Madrid for his training. He got his start in archery at the age of eight because his older brother was doing it and his uncle was president of a local archery club.

Acha is currently studying robotics and automation at the University of Burgos.

## InfoBox

Pablo Acha
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Pablo Acha González |
| Born | (1996-08-04) 4 August 1996<br>Burgos, Spain |
| Sport | |
| Country | Spain |
| Sport | Archery |
| Event | Recurve |
| Medal record      Men's Archery  Representing  Spain  European Championships  2021 Antalya Individual  2021 Antalya Mixed team  European Games  2023 Kraków-Małopolska Team  2019 Minsk Individual  2023 Kraków-Małopolska Individual  Mediterranean Games  2022 Oran  Team  2018 Tarragona Individual  2018 Tarragona Team  World Cup  2021 Guatemala City  Team  2021 Lausanne  Team  2017 Antalya  Mixed team | |
| Updated on 9 June 2021 | |


title: Rakovica, Bosnia and Herzegovina

abstract: Rakovica is a village in central-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, located west of Ilidža and Sarajevo on the local road towards Kiseljak. The village is located in the municipality of Ilidža. Ernst von Mansfeld, a well-known mercenary general of the Thirty Years' War, died at Rakovica in 1626, while trying to reach Venice.

text:
# Rakovica, Bosnia and Herzegovina

**Rakovica** (Serbian Cyrillic: Раковица) is a village in central-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, located west of Ilidža and Sarajevo on the local road towards Kiseljak. The village is located in the municipality of Ilidža.

Ernst von Mansfeld, a well-known mercenary general of the Thirty Years' War, died at Rakovica in 1626, while trying to reach Venice.

## Demographics

According to the 2013 census, its population was 1,836.

Ethnicity in 2013
| Ethnicity | Number | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Bosniaks | 1,730 | 94.2% |
| Croats | 43 | 2.3% |
| Serbs | 14 | 0.8% |
| other/undeclared | 49 | 2.7% |
| **Total** | **1,836** | **100%** |

## InfoBox

| Rakovica Раковица | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Rakovica | |
| Coordinates: 43°52′40″N 18°12′23″E / 43.87778°N 18.20639°E / 43.87778; 18.20639 | |
| Country | Bosnia and Herzegovina |
| Entity | Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina |
| Canton | Sarajevo |
| Municipality | Ilidža |
| Area | |
| Total | 2.95 sq mi (7.65 km2) |
| Population (2013) | |
| Total | 1,836 |
| Density | 620/sq mi (240/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Jannathul Uloom Arabic College

abstract: Jannathul Uloom Arabic College (JUAC) also called Jannathul Uloom is a religious educational institute of sunni muslims located at Valiyangadi near Palakkad town. It was established In 1967 by Shaikhuna E.K. Hasan Musliyar, and was Kerala's second Islamic Arabic College established by Sunni Muslims after Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College Pattikkad and first in the Palakkad district

text:
# Jannathul Uloom Arabic College

**Jannathul Uloom Arabic College (JUAC)** also called **Jannathul Uloom**  is a religious educational institute of sunni muslims located at Valiyangadi near Palakkad town. It was established In 1967 by Shaikhuna E.K. Hasan Musliyar, and was Kerala's second Islamic Arabic College established by Sunni Muslims after Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College Pattikkad and first in the Palakkad district

## Curriculum

Language is a barrier for scholars of Islam. Therefore, the 'ULOOMI' course teaches Arabic, Urdu, English and Malayalam. Jannathul Uloom offers an eight-year course that integrates religious education with general subjects. The basic eight-year course is divided into three stages - a three-year secondary course, a two-year Senior Secondary course, a three-year Degree course. It is compulsory for every student to pursue an official degree course in any of the arts or commerce subjects from any recognized University. After the completion of these eight years students will be awarded the Moulavi Fadhil ULOOMI Certificate and get eligibility to join Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College for a Faizy Degree. The syllabus includes religious subjects such as Quran, Tajweed, Hadith, Usul ul-Hadith, Fiqh, Usul ul-Fiqh, Aqeeda, Tasawwuf, Nahvu, Sarf, Mantiq, Balagha and comparative studies of various religions, as well as secular subjects like Maths, Social Sciences, History, Physics, Chemistry and Biology as well as PSC-approved certified computer courses since 1999.

### Library

JUAC has well-equipped library with good collection of books including Islamic studies, Islamic history, English, Arabic, Malayalam, literature, etc., and subscribes to many periodicals in different languages.

### Admission process

All boys who have successfully completed primary education from any recognized SKIMVB madrasa and formal school are eligible to attend the entrance examination conducted by JUAC. Admission is based on merits in the oral and written entrance examination. Special entrance examinations are also conducted by JUAC for muqthasar batch (one-year) in every academic year.

## Principals

1. Shaikhuna EK Hasan Musliyar (1967–78)
2. Shaikhuna CKM Swadiq Musliyar
3. Shaikhuna Kidangazhi Abdurahman Musliyar
4. Shaikhuna Karakkunnu P Muhammad Musliyar
5. Shaikhuna MC Abdullah Musliyar Aripra (1997–98)
6. Shaikhuna AP Muhammad musliyar Kumaramputhoor
7. Shaikhuna Nattika V Moosa Musliyar (1996-96)
8. Shaikhuna Anamagad Aabdurahman Musliyar (1996–97) (1998-2000)
9. Shaikhuna Rasheed Faizy Chemmala (2000–2002)

Now principal is Usthad NA Hussain Mannani, since 2002

## Student activities

Jannathu Thwalaba Studend's Association (JTSA) is students' union of JUAC. It make laborious effort to nourish and creativity and potential of students. It has made a fruitful journey by upbringing the status of students and institution. It has many sub wings to control different kinds of activities in different fields such as da'wa activities in coimbatore and palakkad areas

## Alumni

Alumnies of Jannathul Uloom Welfare Association (AJWA) is the alumni association and backbone of JUAC. They are scholars who completed the course from this college. The union keeps all promises of institution and works well to serve the community and conducts many programs like seminars and debates. Main obligation of this association is to keep all alumni to community related activities.

### Notable alumni

1. Hakeem Faizy Adrussery, Rector of CIC

2. Sayyid PK Imbichikkoya Thangal Pazhayalakkidi, SYS State vice president

3. Ustad Rasheed Faizy Chemmala, Former Principal of JUAC

10°46′25″N 76°38′47″E / 10.77354°N 76.64629°E / 10.77354; 76.64629

## InfoBox

Jannathul Uloom Arabic College
| الكلية العربية جنة العلوم | |
| --- | --- |
| Former name | Jannaathul Uloom Madrassa |
| Motto | لَيْسَ العِلْمُ مَا حُفِظَ، إِنَّما العِلْمُ مَا نَفَعَ |
| Type | Islamic Education |
| Established | 9 July 1967 |
| Founder | Shaikhuna E.K. Hasan Musliyar |
| Affiliation | Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College |
| Officer in charge | TK Saifudheen Uloomi |
| President | Syed Sadiqali Shihab Thangal |
| Principal | Usthad NA Hussain Mannani |
| Location | Palakkad, Kerala, 678014, India |
| Campus | Urban |
| Website | www.jannathululoom.blogspot.com |


title: Protothread

abstract: A protothread is a low-overhead mechanism for concurrent programming. Protothreads function as stackless, lightweight threads, or coroutines, providing a blocking context cheaply using minimal memory per protothread. Protothreads are used to accomplish a non-preempted form of concurrency known as cooperative multitasking and, therefore, do not incur context switch when yielding to another thread. Within a protothread, yielding is accomplished by utilizing Duff's device within a thread's function and an external variable used in within the switch statement. This allows jumping (resuming) from a yield upon another function call. In order to block threads, these yields may be guarded by a conditional so that successive calls to the same function will yield unless the guard conditional is true. A feature of protothreads relative to other implementations of coroutines, or proper threads, is that they are stackless. This has advantages and disadvantages. A disadvantage is that local variables within the protothread cannot be trusted to have retained their values across a yield to another context. They must retain their state through the use of static or external, often global, variables. An advantage is that they are very lightweight and therefore useful on severely memory constrained systems like small microcontrollers where other solutions are impractical or less desirable. Tom Duff, of Duff's device fame, had this to say about the shortcomings of the method: "a similar trick for interrupt-driven state machines that is too horrible to go into. [...] I never thought it was an adequate general-purpose coroutine implementation because it’s not easy to have multiple simultaneous activations of a coroutine and it’s not possible using this method to have coroutines give up control anywhere but in their top-level routine. A simple assembly-language stack-switching library lets you do both of those." The protothread concept was developed by Adam Dunkels and Oliver Schmidt, based on prior work by Simon Tatham and Tom Duff.

text:
# Protothread

A **protothread** is a low-overhead mechanism for concurrent programming.

Protothreads function as stackless, lightweight threads, or coroutines, providing a blocking context cheaply using minimal memory per protothread (on the order of single bytes).

Protothreads are used to accomplish a non-preempted form of concurrency known as cooperative multitasking and, therefore, do not incur context switch when yielding to another thread. Within a protothread, yielding is accomplished by utilizing Duff's device within a thread's function and an external variable used in within the switch statement. This allows jumping (resuming) from a yield upon another function call. In order to block threads, these yields may be guarded by a conditional so that successive calls to the same function will yield unless the guard conditional is true.

A feature of protothreads relative to other implementations of coroutines, or proper threads, is that they are stackless. This has advantages and disadvantages. A disadvantage is that local variables within the protothread cannot be trusted to have retained their values across a yield to another context. They must retain their state through the use of static or external, often global, variables. An advantage is that they are very lightweight and therefore useful on severely memory constrained systems like small microcontrollers where other solutions are impractical or less desirable.

Tom Duff, of Duff's device fame, had this to say about the shortcomings of the method: "a similar trick for interrupt-driven state machines that is too horrible to go into. \[...\] I never thought it was an adequate general-purpose coroutine implementation because it’s not easy to have multiple simultaneous activations of a coroutine and it’s not possible using this method to have coroutines give up control anywhere but in their top-level routine. A simple assembly-language stack-switching library lets you do both of those."

The protothread concept was developed by Adam Dunkels and Oliver Schmidt, based on prior work by Simon Tatham and Tom Duff.