title: Papakolea Beach

abstract: Papakōlea Beach is a green sand beach located near South Point, in the Kaʻū district of the island of Hawaiʻi. It is one of only four green sand beaches in the world, the others being Talofofo Beach, Guam; Punta Cormorant on Floreana Island in the Galapagos Islands; and Hornindalsvatnet, Norway. It gets its distinctive coloring from olivine sand eroded out of the enclosing volcanic cone.

text:
# Papakolea Beach

**Papakōlea Beach** (also known as **Green Sand Beach** or **Mahana Beach**) is a green sand beach located near South Point, in the Kaʻū district of the island of Hawaiʻi. It is one of only four green sand beaches in the world, the others being Talofofo Beach, Guam; Punta Cormorant on Floreana Island in the Galapagos Islands; and Hornindalsvatnet, Norway. It gets its distinctive coloring from olivine sand eroded out of the enclosing volcanic cone (tuff ring).

## Characteristics

Papakōlea Beach is located in a bay half circled by Puʻu Mahana, a tuff ring formed over 49,000 years ago and associated with the southwest rift of Mauna Loa. Unlike cinder cones, tuff rings consist mostly of volcanic ash produced by violent interactions of magma with groundwater (Diamond Head, on the Island of Oahu, is another example of a tuff ring). Since its last eruption, the tuff ring has partially collapsed and been partially eroded by the ocean. The beach is sometimes named after the tuff ring, and sometimes after the area of land called Papakōlea, which comes from *papa kōlea*, which means plover flats in the Hawaiian language. Papakōlea is the area near the crater where Pacific golden plovers (*Pluvialis fulva*) are sometimes seen in winter.

The fragmented volcanic material (pyroclastics) of the tuff ring contains olivine, a silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium, also known as peridot when of gem quality. Olivine is a common mineral component of lava and is one of the first crystals to form as magma cools. Olivine is locally known as "Hawaiian Diamond" and is notably found in Oʻahu's famous Diamond Head landmark. The source of the green coloration of the beach sands is due to the olivine crystals (whose green color is due to ferrous iron) which are winnowed from the eroding headland by the action of the sea. Olivine, being denser than the enclosing ash matrix, tends to accumulate on the beach whereas the less dense volcanic sand is swept out to sea. Elsewhere on the Big Island, olivine is enclosed in lava rock, rather than volcanic ash, so the olivine is not easily freed from the enclosing rock and tends to weather away rather than accumulate and concentrate as beach sand.

Although these crystals are eventually broken down by weathering and chemical action and washed away, the constant erosion of the tuff ring ensures a steady supply of sand for the foreseeable future. Eventually, however, the supply will run out and the beach will look like any other.

The formation of the tuff ring is currently a point of contention, with some arguing that lava flowing into the sea was suddenly cooled, forming an edifice on the coastline (a littoral cone) and others noting that the cone was most likely too far away from the ocean at the time of formation (sea level was much lower during the last Ice Age, when the cone formed) to make such an event possible. Regardless of how it was formed, according to the United States Geological Survey, the last lava flow in the area ended over 10,000 years ago, making the area one of the more stable features in the geologically turbulent Kaʻū region. As such, the geologic history of the site can be seen in the rock surrounding the beach and bay, which are not subject to erosion and thus display geologic layers formed by previous eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. In addition, the current patterns of erosion can be seen first-hand, as only the portions at the bottom of the tuff ring collapse have been subject to the waves and turned into green sand; the remaining portions appear gray.

## Access

The beach is located about 3 miles (5 km) east of Ka Lae (known as South Point) on the island of Hawaiʻi. It is surrounded by pasturelands and is only legally accessible by foot. The paths are rugged (due to both illegal vehicular traffic and erosion) and the land owner, the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, has attempted to restrict vehicular traffic in the area since 2016. However, these attempts to restrict the illegal shuttling of tourists through the exceptionally fragile ecosystem have failed due to the demand created by tourists to avoid the 2.9 mile walk to the beach. The tourists pay for illegal shuttles which have created ruts in the soil that reach well over 8 feet deep as shown in the photo below from December 20, 2020.

In order to reach the beach after crossing the pastureland, one has to climb down the tuff ring.

## Further reading

18°56′11″N 155°38′47″W / 18.93639°N 155.64639°W / 18.93639; -155.64639


title: H. P. Lovecraft II

abstract: H. P. Lovecraft II is the second album by the American psychedelic rock band H. P. Lovecraft and was released in September 1968 on Philips Records. As with their debut LP, the album saw the band blending psychedelic and folk rock influences, albeit with a greater emphasis on psychedelia than on their first album. H. P. Lovecraft II failed to sell in sufficient quantities to reach the Billboard Top LPs chart or the UK Albums Chart, despite the band being a popular act on the U.S. psychedelic concert circuit. Legend has it that the album was the first major label release to have been recorded by musicians who were all under the influence of LSD.

text:
# H. P. Lovecraft II

***H. P. Lovecraft II*** is the second album by the American psychedelic rock band H. P. Lovecraft and was released in September 1968 on Philips Records. As with their debut LP, the album saw the band blending psychedelic and folk rock influences, albeit with a greater emphasis on psychedelia than on their first album. *H. P. Lovecraft II* failed to sell in sufficient quantities to reach the *Billboard* Top LPs chart or the UK Albums Chart, despite the band being a popular act on the U.S. psychedelic concert circuit. Legend has it that the album was the first major label release to have been recorded by musicians who were all under the influence of LSD.

## Background

Recording sessions for the album began in June 1968 at I.D. Sound Studios in Los Angeles, with the band's manager George Badonsky producing and British-born Chris Huston serving as audio engineer. H. P. Lovecraft had toured intensively during the first half of 1968 and consequently, there was a lack of properly arranged new material for the album. As a result, much of *H. P. Lovecraft II* was improvised in the studio, with Huston playing a pivotal role in enabling the underprepared band to complete the recording sessions.

Huston was also instrumental in creating the psychedelic sound effects that adorned much of the album's contents. The band's singer and guitarist, George Edwards, recalled the importance of Huston's contributions during an interview with journalist Nick Warburton: "Chris came up with a lot of very innovative techniques that prior to that record had not really been used. He was way ahead of his time. We had no material, the band was totally fried and Chris helped us make a record. That record would never have happened without Chris."

Among the tracks that were recorded for the album were the Edwards-penned compositions "Electrollentando" and "Mobius Trip", the latter of which featured lyrics that music historian Richie Unterberger has described as "disoriented hippie euphoria." In addition, the band elected to cover "Spin, Spin, Spin" and "It's About Time", which had both been performed by Terry Callier, an old friend of Edwards' from his days as a folk singer. Unterberger has remarked that both of these songs made effective use of the oddly striking vocal interplay and close harmony singing of Edwards and the band's keyboardist Dave Michaels.

The band's newest recruit, Jeff Boyan, who had only joined the group in early 1968 as a replacement for bassist Jerry McGeorge, was featured as lead vocalist on his own composition "Blue Jack of Diamonds" and on the band's cover of the folk standard "High Flying Bird". The track "Nothing's Boy" featured a contribution from voice artist Ken Nordine, and the cover version of Brewer & Shipley's "Keeper of the Keys" was issued as a single in late 1968, following its appearance on the album, but it failed to reach the charts.

The self-penned "At the Mountains of Madness" was based on the 1931 novella *At the Mountains of Madness* by horror writer H. P. Lovecraft, after whom the band had named themselves. Written by Edwards, Michaels and lead guitarist Tony Cavallari, the song featured some chaotically acrobatic vocal interplay and made ample use of swirling, echoed reverse tape effects, which served to highlight the song's sinister subject matter.

## Release and legacy

*H. P. Lovecraft II* was released in September 1968. Critic Richie Unterberger has remarked that, despite being less focused than the band's first album, it nonetheless managed to successfully expand on the musical approach of its predecessor. He also opined that it shared the haunting, eerie ambiance of the band's first album. Writing for the Allmusic website, Unterberger has described the album as, "much more progressive than their first effort", although he also noted that it "showed the band losing touch with some of their most obvious strengths, most notably their disciplined arrangements and incisive songwriting."

Although *H. P. Lovecraft II* failed to chart at the time of its release and had gone out of print by the early 1970s, a revival of interest in the band's music had begun by the late 1980s. This resulted in the album being reissued by Edsel Records, along with the band's debut album, on the *At the Mountains of Madness* compilation in 1988.

The album was again reissued in 2000, along with *H. P. Lovecraft*, on the Collectors' Choice Music CD, *Two Classic Albums from H. P. Lovecraft: H. P. Lovecraft/H. P. Lovecraft II*. In addition, the nine songs that make up *H. P. Lovecraft II* were included on the Rev-Ola Records compilation *Dreams in the Witch House: The Complete Philips Recordings*.

## Track listing

### Side 1

1. "Spin, Spin, Spin" (Terry Callier) – 3:21
2. "It's About Time" (Terry Callier) – 5:17
3. "Blue Jack of Diamonds" (Jeff Boyan) – 3:08
4. "Electrallentando" (George Edwards) – 6:34

### Side 2

1. "At the Mountains of Madness" (George Edwards, Dave Michaels, Tony Cavallari) – 4:57
2. "Mobius Trip" (George Edwards) – 2:44
3. "High Flying Bird" (Billy Ed Wheeler) – 3:21
4. "Nothing's Boy" (Ken Nordine) – 0:39
5. "Keeper of the Keys" (Mike Brewer, Tom Shipley) – 3:05

## Personnel

### Musicians

### Technical

## InfoBox

| H. P. Lovecraft II | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by H. P. Lovecraft | |
| Released | September 1968 |
| Recorded | June – July 1968 |
| Studio | I.D. Sound Studios, Los Angeles, CA |
| Genre | Psychedelic rock, folk rock |
| Length | 33:21 |
| Label | Philips |
| Producer | George Badonsky |
| H. P. Lovecraft chronology | |
| *H. P. Lovecraft*
(1967) ***H. P. Lovecraft II***
(1968) *Live May 11, 1968*
(1991) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *H. P. Lovecraft II* | |
| 1. "Keeper of the Keys"
Released: November 1968 | |
|  | |


title: Aganang FM

abstract: Aganang FM is a South African community radio station based in the North West.

text:
# Aganang FM

**Aganang FM** is a South African community radio station based in the North West.

## Coverage areas

Covers a 100 km radius that includes:

## Broadcast languages

## Broadcast time

## Target audience

* LSM Groups 4 - 8
* Age Group 14 - 60

## Programme format

## Listenership Figures

Estimated Listenership
|  | 7 Day |
| --- | --- |
| Jun 2013 | 59 000 |
| May 2013 | 65 000 |
| Feb 2013 | 58 000 |
| Dec 2012 | 48 000 |

## InfoBox

Aganang FM
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Frequency | 90.0 FM |
| Links | |
| Website | www.aganangfm.org.za |


title: Ramonia

abstract: Ramonia is a genus of lichenized fungi in the family Gyalectaceae. It contains 24 species. The genus was circumscribed by Ernst Stizenberger in 1862. The genus name of Ramonia is in honour of Ramón Dionisio José de la Sagra (1798–1871), who was a Spanish anarchist, politician, writer, and botanist who founded the world's first anarchist journal, El Porvenir.

text:
# Ramonia

***Ramonia*** is a genus of lichenized fungi in the family Gyalectaceae. It contains 24 species. The genus was circumscribed by Ernst Stizenberger in 1862.

The genus name of *Ramonia* is in honour of Ramón Dionisio José de la Sagra (1798–1871), who was a Spanish anarchist, politician, writer, and botanist who founded the world's first anarchist journal, *El Porvenir* (Spanish for "The Future").

## Species

## InfoBox

| *Ramonia* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Ramonia microspora* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Lecanoromycetes |
| Order: | Gyalectales |
| Family: | Gyalectaceae |
| Genus: | *Ramonia*
Stizenb. (1862) |
|
| Type species | |
| *Ramonia valenzueliana*
(Mont.) Stizenb. (1862) | |


title: Nakajima Ki-6

abstract: Nakajima Ki-6 The Nakajima Ki-6 was a licensed-produced version of the Fokker Super Universal transport built by Nakajima Aircraft Company in the 1930s. Initially used as an airliner, the militarized version was used by the Imperial Japanese Army in a variety of roles, ranging from medical evacuation to transport and training aircraft. It was used extensively in combat zones in Manchukuo and in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

text:
# Nakajima Ki-6

The **Nakajima Ki-6** (九五式二型練習機, *Kyūgo-shiki nigata renshuki*) was a licensed-produced version of the Fokker Super Universal transport built by Nakajima Aircraft Company in the 1930s. Initially used as an airliner, the militarized version was used by the Imperial Japanese Army in a variety of roles, ranging from medical evacuation to transport and training aircraft. It was used extensively in combat zones in Manchukuo and in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

## Design and development

The Ki-6 originated as the **Model 8 Super Universal**, launched by Fokker in the United States in 1927 as a further development of its successful Fokker Universal. The Super Universal was slightly larger and could carry six passengers rather than four. In addition, the aircraft was equipped with a more powerful engine and a cantilever high-wing. In total, about 200 Super Universals are thought to have been built. Due to its rugged durability, long-range flight ability and large cargo capacity, the Fokker Super Universal was extensively used in bush flying and was well regarded for its versatility. The first flight took place in March 1928. Shortly after, the type entered production at a new factory in Glendale, California. The Super Universal remained in production until January 1931.

The Super Universal caught the attention of a number of civil airlines from 1928 onwards. There was also interest from the United States military, although no order was placed. Fokker received export orders from Colombia, Argentina, South Africa and Japan and a license production agreements were made with the Canadian subsidiary of Vickers and with Nakajima Aircraft Company in Japan.

## Operational history

The first Super Universal was brought to Japan in components and was assembled by Nakajima for Japan Air Transport, the national airline of the Empire of Japan from 1928 to 1938. Under license production, Nakajima replaced the engine with a 336 kW (450 hp) Bristol Jupiter radial engine, also license-built in Japan, and later by its own Nakajima Kotobuki 343 kW (460 hp) engine.

Nakajima's production began in September 1930, with the first aircraft delivered in March 1931. Production ended in October 1936, but the total number of aircraft built is unknown. Nakajima also sub-licensed additional production to its subsidiary Manshūkoku Hikōki Seizo KK in Manchukuo, which also produced an unknown number of units. The first military Super Universals were introduced into service following Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 when the Imperial Japanese Army commandeered seven Super Universals from the Japan Air Transport Company.

In 1932, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force decided to acquire its own transports, which it designated as the **Army Type 95 Training Aircraft** under the former aircraft naming nomenclature system, or **Ki-6** under the new system. The first aircraft was delivered as a flying ambulance fitted with two stretchers and three seats. This was followed by an order for 20 trainers to be used for training pilots, gunners, bombardiers and wireless operators.

The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service also ordered 20 Ki-6s, re-designating the aircraft as the **Navy Fokker Land-Based Reconnaissance Aircraft** or in short **C2N1** when used for land-based operations and an additional 30 **Navy Fokker Reconnaissance Seaplane** or in short **C2N2**, which were fitted with a floatplane. The naval version had a larger cabin and was used on reconnaissance and military transport missions.

The aircraft built in Japan were used for both civil and military roles with some remaining in operation until after World War II.

## Variants

* **Nakajima Super Universal**

Civilian transport * **Ki-6 (Army Type 95 Training Aircraft)**

Military transport for the IJAAF * **C2N1 (Navy land-based reconnaissance aircraft)**

Land-based recon and military transport for the IJN * **C2N2 (Navy reconnaissance seaplane)**

Land-based recon and military transport for the IJN * **Manshū Super Universal**

Civil and military transport built in Manchukuo (Manchuria)

## Operators

### Civilian operators

### Military operators

## Specifications (Ki-6)

*Data from* *Japanese AIrcraft, 1910-1941*

**General characteristics**

* **Crew:** 1
* **Capacity:** 6
* **Length:** 11.25 m (36 ft 11 in)
* **Wingspan:** 15.44 m (50 ft 7.87 in)
* **Height:** 2.79 m (9 ft 2 in)
* **Wing area:** 37.37 m2 (402.26 sq ft)
* **Empty weight:** 1,640 kg (3,616 lb)
* **Gross weight:** 2,820 kg (6,217 lb)
* **Powerplant:** 1 × Nakajima Kotobuki air-cooled radial engine , 336 kW (450 hp)

**Performance**

* **Maximum speed:** 245 km/h (152 mph, 132 kn)
* **Range:** 1,045 km (650 mi, 560 nmi)
* **Service ceiling:** 6,000 m (19,685 ft)

**Related development**

## Bibliography

* Francillon, René J. (1979). *Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War*. London: Putnam & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-370-30251-6.
* Mikesh, Robert C.; Abe, Shorzoe (1990). *Japanese Aircraft, 1910-1941*. London: Putnam & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-85177-840-2.

## InfoBox

| Ki-6 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Civil version of Ki-6 in use by Japan Air Transport | |
| Role | transport, training aircraft |
| Manufacturer | Nakajima Aircraft Company |
| First flight | 1930 |
| Introduction | 1931 |
| Primary users | IJA Air Force
Manchukuo Air Force |
| Developed from | Fokker Super Universal |


title: Moran v. Household International, Inc.

abstract: Moran v. Household International, Inc., 500 A.2d 1346 is a decision of the Delaware Supreme Court that upheld a shareholder rights plan as a legitimate exercise of business judgment by Household International's board of directors. Moran is significant as the first case in which a U.S. state court upheld a shareholder rights plan.

text:
# Moran v. Household International, Inc.

***Moran v. Household International, Inc.***, 500 A.2d 1346 (Del. 1985) is a decision of the Delaware Supreme Court that upheld a shareholder rights plan (also known as a "poison pill") as a legitimate exercise of business judgment by Household International's board of directors. *Moran* is significant as the first case in which a U.S. state court upheld a shareholder rights plan.

## Background

### Facts

Household International, Inc. was a diversified holding company with subsidiaries in the financial services, transportation, and merchandising industries. National Car Rental and Vons Grocery were among its wholly owned entities.

The board of Household International voted in August, 1984 to adopt a shareholder rights plan. This plan was adopted before the board was faced with any specific takeover threat—a significant difference from other takeover defense cases like *Unocal*. The board was concerned about the increasing frequency of "bust up" takeovers involving the break-up of large industrial conglomerates into smaller firms, and worried Household International might be the target of such a takeover.

John Moran was a member of the Household International board who opposed adoption of the Shareholder Rights Plan. Moran was concurrently the chairman of Household International's largest shareholder, Dyson-Kissner-Moran Corporation. D-K-M had been contemplating a leveraged buyout of Household International, but this plan never materialized.

### Court of Chancery

The trial court found that the Household International board's adoption of the shareholder rights plan was a legitimate exercise of business judgment. The defensive tactics adopted by the board need not have been in anticipation of any specific threat and the adoption of a preemptive plan developed before the pressure of a crisis increased the likelihood that the board was acting out of business judgment.

## Judgment

The Delaware Supreme Court upheld the lower court's ruling.

## InfoBox

| Moran v. Household International, Inc. | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Court | Supreme Court of Delaware |
| Full case name | *JOHN A. MORAN and The DYSON-KISSNER-MORAN CORPORATION, Plaintiffs Below-Appellants, and GRETL GOLTER, individually and in a derivative capacity, Plaintiff Intervenor Below-Appellant, v. HOUSEHOLD INTERNATIONAL, INC., a Delaware Corporation, DONALD C. CLARK, THOMAS D. FLYNN, MARY JOHNSTON EVANS, WILLIAM D. HENDRY, JOSEPH W. JAMES, MITCHELL P. KARTALIA, GORDON P. OSLER, ARTHUR E. RASMUSSEN, GEORGE W. RAUCH, JAMES M. TAIT, MILLER UPTON, BERNARD F. BRENNAN and GARY G. DILLON, Defendants Below-Appellees* |
| Decided | November 19, 1985 |
| Citation | 500 A.2d 1346 (Del. 1985) |
| Court membership | |
| Judges sitting | Christie, Chief Justice, and McNeilly and Moore, justices. |


title: Paudash (Paudash Lake) Water Aerodrome

abstract: Paudash Water Aerodrome is an aerodrome located on Lower Paudash Lake, 3 nautical miles southwest of Paudash, Ontario, Canada.

text:
# Paudash (Paudash Lake) Water Aerodrome

**Paudash (Paudash Lake) Water Aerodrome** (TC LID: **CPD5**) is an aerodrome located on Lower Paudash Lake, 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) southwest of Paudash, Ontario, Canada.

## InfoBox

| Paudash (Paudash Lake) Water Aerodrome | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Summary | |
| Airport type | Public |
| Operator | Paudash Lake Marina |
| Serves | Paudash, Ontario |
| Location | Paudash Lake |
| Time zone | EST (UTC−05:00) |
| Summer (DST) | EDT (UTC−04:00) |
| Elevation AMSL | 580 ft / 177 m |
| Coordinates | 44°57′33″N 078°02′14″W / 44.95917°N 78.03722°W / 44.95917; -78.03722 |
| Map | |
| CPD5Location in OntarioCPD5CPD5 (Canada) | |
| Runways | |
| Direction Length Surface  ft m  n/a n/a n/a Water | |
| Source: Water Aerodrome Supplement | |


title: Miguel Abrigo

abstract: Miguel Ángel Abrigo is an Argentine football coach and former player who played as a defender. Abrigo competed in the Primera División Argentina for Newell's Old Boys and Tiro Federal. He also spent some years in the Argentine lower divisions with clubs such as, Argentino de Rosario, Club Atlético Aldosivi and Independiente Rivadavia. Moreover, he played in the Liga de Fútbol Profesional Boliviano for Oriente Petrolero between 2000 and 2004.

text:
# Miguel Abrigo

**Miguel Ángel Abrigo** (born 29 March 1974) is an Argentine football coach and former player who played as a defender.

Abrigo competed in the Primera División Argentina for Newell's Old Boys and Tiro Federal. He also spent some years in the Argentine lower divisions with clubs such as, Argentino de Rosario, Club Atlético Aldosivi and Independiente Rivadavia. Moreover, he played in the Liga de Fútbol Profesional Boliviano for Oriente Petrolero between 2000 and 2004.

## Club titles

| Season | Club | Title |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2001 | Oriente Petrolero | Liga de Fútbol Profesional Boliviano |
|

## InfoBox

Miguel Abrigo
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | Miguel Ángel Abrigo | | |
| Date of birth | (1974-03-29) 29 March 1974 | | |
| Place of birth | Basavilbaso, Argentina | | |
| Height | 1.79 m (5 ft 10 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Defender | | |
| Youth career | | | |
|  | Newell's Old Boys | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 1995–1996 | Newell's Old Boys | 5 | (0) |
| 1996–1998 | Argentino de Rosario | 63 | (3) |
| 1998–1999 | Aldosivi | 25 | (3) |
| 2000–2004 | Oriente Petrolero | 141 | (16) |
| 2004–2006 | Tiro Federal | 17 | (1) |
| 2006–2007 | Aldosivi | 8 | (0) |
| 2007–2008 | Independiente Rivadavia | 6 | (0) |
| Managerial career | | | |
| 2018–2020 | Royal Pari (assistant) | | |
| 2018 | Royal Pari (interim) | | |
| 2019 | Royal Pari (interim) | | |
| 2019 | Royal Pari (interim) | | |
| 2020 | Royal Pari | | |
| 2023 | Real Santa Cruz | | |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals | | | |


title: Richard Gaynor

abstract: Richard B. Gaynor is an American physician specializing in hematology-oncology, educator, drug developer, and business executive. He served as an Associate Professor of Medicine at UCLA School of Medicine for nearly a decade, and subsequently as an endowed Professor of Medicine and Microbiology at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School prior to joining the pharmaceutical industry in 2002. His research on NF-κB, IκB kinase, and other mechanisms regulating viral and cellular gene expression has been covered in leading subject reviews. He has been a top executive at several pharmaceutical companies, with respect to the development and clinical testing of novel anticancer drugs and cell therapies. For over a decade and a half, he worked at Eli Lilly and Company, where he became the Senior Vice President of Oncology Clinical Development and Medical Affairs in 2013. Gaynor was President of R&D at Neon Therapeutics from 2016 to 2020, when he became the President of BioNTech US, both pharmaceutical companies headquartered in Cambridge, MA. His honors include being elected a member of the American Society for Clinical Investigation, and the Association of American Physicians.

text:
# Richard Gaynor

**Richard B. Gaynor** is an American physician specializing in hematology-oncology, educator, drug developer, and business executive. He served as an Associate Professor of Medicine at UCLA School of Medicine (Los Angeles, CA) for nearly a decade, and subsequently as an endowed Professor of Medicine and Microbiology at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School prior to joining the pharmaceutical industry in 2002. His research on NF-κB, IκB kinase, and other mechanisms regulating viral and cellular gene expression has been covered in leading subject reviews. He has been a top executive at several pharmaceutical companies, with respect to the development and clinical testing of novel anticancer drugs and cell therapies. For over a decade and a half, he worked at Eli Lilly and Company, where he became the Senior Vice President of Oncology Clinical Development and Medical Affairs in 2013. Gaynor was President of R&D at Neon Therapeutics from 2016 to 2020, when he became the President of BioNTech US, both pharmaceutical companies headquartered in Cambridge, MA. His honors include being elected a member of the American Society for Clinical Investigation, and the Association of American Physicians.

## Education

In 1971 Gaynor graduated with a BS in Biology from Texas Tech University (Lubbock, TX). In 1975, he graduated with an MD from the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School (Dallas, TX). This was followed by internship (1975-1976) and residency (1976-1978) in internal medicine at Parkland Memorial Hospital (Dallas, TX). From 1978 to 1981 he was a Fellow at the Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine (Los Angeles, CA). TX).

## Career

In 1982 Gaynor became an Assistant Professor of Medicine at the Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine (Los Angeles, CA), where he further became an Associate Professor of Medicine in 1988 to 1991. In 1991 he moved to the UT Southwestern Medical School (Dallas, TX), where he became Associate Professor of Medicine and Microbiology, Andrea L. Simmons Distinguished Chair in Cancer Virology, and Chief of the Division of Molecular Virology. At UT he further became a Full Professor and Chief of the Division of Hematology-Oncology in 1993, then interim Director (1997-1999), and Director of the Harold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center from 1999 to 2002. During his time in Dallas, he was also a staff physician at the Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and an attending physician at Zale Lipshy University Hospital.

In 2002, moved from UT and joined Eli Lilly and Company (Indianapolis, IN), where he remained until 2016, in positions as Vice President of Cancer Research and Clinical Investigation, and Senior Vice President of Global Oncology, Clinical and Product Development and Medical Affairs. During his tenure at Lilly, the firm was involved in FDA approval of Gemcitabine for the treatment of ovarian cancer, and directed clinical trials of Ramucirumab, Pemetrexed, Cetuximab, and Abemaciclib for a number of cancer treatment indications.

He is the author of 140 publications indexed on Scopus (February 2022). His research partly focused on the dysregulation of the nuclear factor NF-κB pathway in inflammation, autoimmunity, immunodeficiency, and neoplasia, and the options for its therapeutic targeting. His discoveries include the identification of IκB kinase as a second site of the anti-inflammatory action of aspirin. His laboratory made noted insights into the regulation of retroviral gene expresión, some of which are referred on current entries on TAF1, MNAT1, and TARBP1. In 2014, he co-authored the AACR Cancer Progress Report.

As a business executive, Gaynor was President of Research and Development at Neon Therapeutics, (Cambridge, MA) from 2016 to 2020. Then, he became the President and Chief of Research and Development at BioNTech US (Cambridge, MA), his current position. He is a member of the Board of Directors at Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation, Alkermes PLC, Infinity Pharmaceuticals, and Zai Labs. He is also a member of the Scientific Advisory Board at Leap Therapeutics. He was also a member of technical boards of NPOs such as Damon Runyon Cancer Foundation, Walther Cancer Foundation the American Association for Cancer Research, and Stand Up to Cancer.

## Works

### Research papers

Some of Gaynor's most cited research papers are:

* Ou, S. H.; Wu, F.; Harrich, D.; García-Martínez, L. F.; Gaynor, R. B. (1995-06-01). "Cloning and characterization of a novel cellular protein, TDP-43, that binds to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 TAR DNA sequence motifs". *Journal of Virology*. **69** (6): 3584–3596. doi:10.1128/JVI.69.6.3584-3596.1995. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 189073. PMID 7745706
* Yin, Min-Jean; Yamamoto, Yumi; Gaynor, Richard B. (1998-11-01). "The anti-inflammatory agents aspirin and salicylate inhibit the activity of IκB kinase-β". *Nature*. **396** (6706): 77–80. doi:10.1038/23948. ISSN 0028-0836.
* Yamamoto, Y.; Gaynor, R. B. (2001-01-01). "Therapeutic potential of inhibition of the NF-kappaB pathway in the treatment of inflammation and cancer". *The Journal of Clinical Investigation*. **107** (2): 135–142. doi:10.1172/JCI11914. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 199180. PMID 11160126
* Yamamoto, Yumi; Gaynor, Richard B. (2004-02-01). "IkappaB kinases: key regulators of the NF-kappaB pathway". *Trends in Biochemical Sciences*. **29** (2): 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2003.12.003. ISSN 0968-0004. PMID 15102433


title: Panhard 178

abstract: The Panhard 178 or "Pan-Pan" was an advanced French reconnaissance 4x4 armoured car that was designed for the French Army Cavalry units before World War II. It had a crew of four and was equipped with an effective 25 mm main armament and a 7.5 mm coaxial machine gun. A number of these vehicles were in 1940 taken over by the Germans after the Fall of France and employed as the Panzerspähwagen P204 (f); for some months after the armistice of June production continued for the benefit of Germany. After the war a derived version, the Panhard 178B, was again taken into production by France.

text:
# Panhard 178

The **Panhard 178** (officially designated as *Automitrailleuse de Découverte Panhard modèle 1935*, 178 being the internal project number at Panhard) or "Pan-Pan" was an advanced French reconnaissance 4x4 armoured car that was designed for the French Army Cavalry units before World War II. It had a crew of four and was equipped with an effective 25 mm main armament and a 7.5 mm coaxial machine gun.

A number of these vehicles were in 1940 taken over by the Germans after the Fall of France and employed as the *Panzerspähwagen P204 (f)*; for some months after the armistice of June production continued for the benefit of Germany. After the war a derived version, the Panhard 178B, was again taken into production by France.

## Development

In December 1931, the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armoured fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an *Automitrailleuse de Découverte* or AMD, a specialised long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed on 18 November 1932 and approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometres (250 mi), a speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 metres (39 ft), 5–8 mm armour, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

In 1933, one of the competing companies — the others being Renault, Berliet and Latil — which had put forward proposals, Panhard, was allowed to build a prototype. The other companies also were ordered to build prototypes: Renault constructed two vehicles of a Renault VZ, including an armoured personnel carrier variant, Berliet constructed a single Berliet VUB and Latil belatedly presented a design in April 1934. The Panhard vehicle was ready in October 1933 and presented to the *Commission de Vincennes* in January 1934 under the name *Panhard voiture spéciale type 178*. It carried a Vincennes workshop (Avis) 13.2 mm machine gun turret, as the intended one was not ready yet. After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 the type, despite having larger dimensions than prescribed and thus being a lot heavier than four tons, was accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. Of all the competing projects it was considered the best: the Berliet VUB e.g. was reliable but too heavy and traditional; the Latil version had no all-terrain capacity. In the autumn the improved prototype, now lacking the bottom tracks of the original type, was tested by the Cavalry. In late 1934 the type was accepted under the name *AMD Panhard Modèle 1935*. The type was now fitted with the APX3B turret.

After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1937 a new test programme took place, resulting in many modifications, including the fitting of a silencer and a ventilator on the turret. The ultimate design was very advanced for its day and still appeared modern in the 1970s. It was the first 4x4 armoured car mass-produced for a major country.

## Production

The final assembly and painting of the armoured cars took place in the Panhard & Levassor factory at the Avenue d'Ivry in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. There however, only the automotive parts and lesser fittings were built in: the armoured hull was in its entirety prefabricated by forges serving as subcontractors. At first the main supplying company was Batignolles-Châtillon at Nantes, that could supply a maximum of about twenty per month; in 1940 the forge at Firminy became dominant. Likewise the turret, fitted with its armament by the *Atelier de construction de Rueil* (ARL) was as such again made by subcontractors, mainly the Société française de constructions mécaniques (or "Cail") at Denain. Production of the turrets tended to trail behind that of the hulls; on 1 September 1939 this order backlog had grown to 35; that there was little hope of solving this problem is shown by the production planned on 28 October 1939 for the spring of 1940: fifty hulls as against forty turrets per month.

At the time of acceptance in 1934, already fifteen had been decided to be ordered on 25 April 1934 and fifteen more on 20 May at a price of  275,000 per hull, more expensive than a French light infantry tank of the period. The actual orders were made on 1 January and 29 April 1935 respectively, and the notification sent on 27 May, with a planned delivery between January and March 1936. Due to strikes, the first vehicles of these orders were only delivered from 2 February 1937 onwards; nineteen had been produced by April, the last delivered in November. The two first orders together can be seen as a separate preseries of thirty, differing slightly in many details from later produced vehicles.

A third order for eighty vehicles was made on 15 September 1935 but only notified on 11 August 1937. They were scheduled to be delivered between January and July 1938, but due to strikes and delays in the production of the turrets, the actual dates were 24 June 1938 and 10 February 1939.

There were another three orders of which deliveries started before the war: one of forty dated 11 January 1938 and delivered between 13 February and 31 July 1939; a fifth of 35 cars made on the same date but delivered between July and December 1939 (six before the war) after a sixth order for eighty vehicles made on 18 January 1938 and delivered between June and November 1939 (57 before 1 September 1939).

On 1 September 1939, 219 vehicles had been delivered including prototypes, 71 behind schedule. However, production increases soon allowed Panhard to reduce the backlog — at least for the hulls. From December vehicles were produced from two later orders: a seventh of forty, made on 18 January 1938 and completed between December 1939 and April 1940; and an eighth of eighty vehicles delivered from January until the middle of May 1940. The monthly deliveries were: nine in September 1939, eleven in October, eighteen in November, twenty-two in December, twenty-five in January 1940, eight in February, sixteen in March, thirty-four in April and a final thirty in May 1940. The total production of completed vehicles of the standard version of the AMD 35 for France was thus 339.

However, the total manufactured of all vehicles of the larger Panhard 178 family was much higher as there were several non-standard versions — and not all production was completed for France. Firstly there was a radio command variant, twelve of which had been ordered in 1937 and again in 1938, the notification of which was issued on 9 December 1938, the 24 vehicles being delivered between October and December 1939. The next variant was a colonial version, eight of which were produced. The most important addendum consisted of an order for 128 modified vehicles destined for North-Africa. Furthermore, there were two last orders of the standard version, one of twelve notified on 22 July 1939, the second for a hundred made on 27 September 1939, of which both only fourteen hulls would be made for France.

Of all these orders, at the time of the armistice in June, 491 had been completed. On 7 June 52 hulls had been in stock for which no turret was as yet available; probably until 22 June another ten hulls were made for a total production of 553: thirty in 1937, 81 in 1938, 236 in 1939 and 206 in 1940. Total hull production of all versions had been: 24 in September 1939, 26 in October, 27 in November, 33 in December, 36 in January 1940, 40 in February, 32 in March, 42 in April, 32 in May and 24 until the interruption in the middle of June. After the armistice another 176 were completed, from prefabricated parts, for the German occupier, for a total of 729.

These actual production numbers can be compared to the production plans. Before the war it had been intended that war manufacture would be thirty per month. When war really broke out, it was soon realised that the need to raise new units, the replacement of older worn out vehicles and the creation of a matériel reserve to compensate the loss of about 20% of the cars of a combat unit per month during a campaign, would necessitate a much higher production level, even when resorting to the expedient of fitting surplus hulls with older turrets. It had been planned on 10 October 1939 to bring production to forty per month in March, fifty in July, fifty-five in September and sixty from November 1940 for the duration of the war. Later projections were even more pessimistic: accordingly on top of the 657 vehicles notified at that date, on 15 April 1940 another 450 were ordered, a third of them of the radio version, bringing total orders to 1107. The desired peak rate of sixty vehicles was put forward with two months to September 1940; on 1 October 1018 vehicles had to be completed. However, the planned production was now limited to March 1941; as supreme commander Maurice Gamelin had concluded on 27 February 1940 from the events during Fall Weiss that lightly armoured vehicles could not survive on the modern battlefield, from the spring of 1941 the Panhard 178 had to be replaced on the production lines by the heavy Panhard AM 40 P armoured car, which was to be much more heavily armoured and armed.

## Description

In order to function as an effective long-range reconnaissance vehicle, the Panhard 178 had been kept as light as possible. The vehicle was thus rather small, only 4.79 m (15 ft 9 in) in length, 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) wide and 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in) in height (1.65 m for the hull per se). Also the tapering engine compartment, where a Panhard ISK 4FII bis V4, 6332 CC, 105 hp at 2000 rpm motor had been installed, was built very low, giving the vehicle its distinctive silhouette, with a protruding fighting compartment. Both compartments were separated by a fireproof bulkhead. The use of a large turret with 26 mm frontal armour and 13 mm side armour, combined with 7 mm (bottom), 9 mm (top and glacis), 13 mm (back, sides and front superstructure) and 20 mm (nose) bolted and riveted armour plate for the hull, had compromised weight considerations however, so the vehicle still weighed 8.2 metric tonnes. However the mobility was rather good for a French AFV of the period: a maximum speed of 72.6 km/h (45.1 mph), a cruising speed of 47 km/h (29 mph) and a practical range of about 300 km (190 mi), made possible by two fuel tanks of 120 and 20 litres, the main one located at the extreme back of the hull.

Rough terrain capacity was somewhat limited however: though all four road wheels were actuated, the leaf spring suspension confined the off-road speed to 42 km/h and the possession of just four wheels allowed for a wading and a trench crossing capacity of only sixty centimetres; it could overcome a thirty cm vertical obstacle, assisted by two small bottom wheels in the front hull.

The driver was in the front, using an eight-speed gear box and a normal steering wheel. Steering could be switched into reverse immediately to allow the assistant-driver, facing the rear and seated to the left of the engine (or, from his point of view: the right), to drive the vehicle backwards in case of an emergency, using all four off-road gears, with a maximum speed of 42 km/h. This "dual drive" capacity is common for reconnaissance vehicles. The second driver had a separate entrance door at the left side of the hull. He doubled as a radio operator in the platoon commander or squadron commander vehicles, operating the short range ER29 or medium range ER26 set respectively. To make long-range communications possible, one out of twelve armoured cars was a special radio vehicle.

The APX3 turret, having a large double hatch on the back, was rather large and could accommodate two men, like with the AMC 35; this was at the time exceptional for French AFVs. In the electrically traversed APX3, the commander on the right and gunner on the left benefited from a rudimentary turret basket, and sufficient vision devices including one periscope (which were of the Gundlach type on late examples) per man and PPL.RX.168 episcopes. Armament was first intended to be a newly developed 20 mm gun; when this failed to materialise it was considered to use a 37 mm Modèle 16 gun, standard for armoured cars, but this was rejected because of its poor anti-armour capacity. Instead the 25 mm SA 35 was chosen, a shortened L/47.2 derivation of the standard French antitank gun, the 25 mm Hotchkiss modèle 34. It was fitted with the L711 sight. To compensate for the shorter barrel, the rounds use heavier charges, giving even a slightly superior muzzle velocity of 950 m/s. The gun had a maximum penetration of about fifty millimetres when using a tungsten round; the light 380 gram projectile was easily deflected by sloped armour though, even a 45° angle giving about 100% extra protection over the armour thickness measured along the horizontal plane. German tanks had many vertical plates however, and were vulnerable up to about 800 metres; on the other hand the light round, even when penetrating, often failed to set fire to an enemy vehicle; it sometimes took fifteen shots to achieve this; 150 rounds of ammunition were stored.

The secondary armament was an optionally coaxial Reibel 7.5 mm machine gun, with 3,750 rounds, 1,500 of which were armour-piercing. A reserve machine gun was carried to the right of the driver that could be mounted on top of the turret for anti-aircraft defence. Its magazines were carried on the inner walls of the fighting compartment, including the large main entrance door on the right.

Experience showed that the type had several shortcomings: a weak clutch, slow turret rotation, a cramped interior, unreliable radio sets, poor cross-country drive and very noisy brakes. On the other hand, it was reliable, easy to drive on roads and the engine as such was rather silent; all desirable qualities for a reconnaissance vehicle.

During the production run several modifications would be made, such as the fitting of lifting hooks. The first thirty vehicles had two more primitive periscopes on the turret roof, a Chrétien diascope on its front and simple vision slits with armoured shutters on its sides; their drivers too had to use vision slits instead of an episcope. They also lacked a silencer and had semi-circular cut-outs at the wheel plate edges. From about the 111th vehicle (or fourth production batch) onward, several changes were introduced, including the fitting of an armoured ventilator covering on top of the turret, a factory plate with the name "Panhard" on the nose and a new softer factory camouflage pattern with the brown and bronze green spots no longer separated by black lines. From the 270th vehicle onwards stowage boxes were constructed on the back fenders, obscuring the pointed form of the engine compartment. The last turrets produced also had a backward pointing episcope for the commander, instead of a vision slit.

## Operational history

The first nineteen vehicles were in April 1937 taken into service by *6e Cuirassiers*. At the outbreak of the Second World War 218 vehicles were fielded with eleven squadrons.

In the spring of 1940, *21e Escadron d'AMD 35* was first destined for Finland and the Winter War but then sent to Narvik to assist Norway during Weserübung. It was in fact the renamed 4e GRDI (that would be replaced by a new unit of the same name in its former parent 15th Mechanised Infantry Division on 5 May) and was equipped with thirteen Panhard 178s.

During the Battle of France from 10 May 1940, on which date about 370 completed vehicles were available, the Panhard 178s were allocated to reconnaissance units of the mechanised and motorised forces. At the time the Panhard 178 represented one of the best armoured cars in its class in the world.

The three armoured divisions of the Cavalry, the *Divisions Légères Mécaniques*, had a nominal organic strength of forty armoured cars, plus four radio vehicles and an organic matériel reserve of four vehicles. This would make for a total of 144 in these mechanised light divisions. The Light (i.e. motorised) Divisions of the Cavalry, the *Divisions Légères de Cavalerie*, had a squadron of twelve Panhards plus a radio car and a matériel reserve of four in their *Régiment de Automitrailleuses* (RAM). The total in the Cavalry Light Divisions would thus be 85.

Not only the Cavalry but the Infantry also employed the type, in the GRDIs or *Groupes de Reconnaissance de Division d'Infanterie*, the reconnaissance units of the *Divisions d'Infanterie Mécaniques*, that despite their name were largely motorised infantry divisions. These were 1er GRDI for 5e DIM, 2e GRDI for 9e DIM, 3e GRDI for 12e DIM, 4e GRDI for 15e DIM, 5e GRDI for 25e DIM, 6e GRDI for 3e DIM and 7e GRDI for 1e DIM. Their organisation was basically identical to the units of the DLCs, but the strength was sixteen, making for a total of 112 vehicles.

The actual strength of above units might differ, but if all were on strength 24 vehicles were present in the matériel reserve or used for driver training, as apart from colonial vehicles, exactly 378 exemplars had been delivered on 10 May 1940. After the start of the invasion several emergency ad hoc units were formed; these included the 32e GRDI for the regular 43e DI, having five Panhards. The 4e DCR, the armoured division of the Infantry hastily assembled in May, got 43 Panhard 178s.

The DLMs used their Panhard units for strategic reconnaissance. In the case of 1DLM this entailed a movement well in advance of the main body of the division as it was supposed to maintain a connection with the Dutch Army during the Battle of the Netherlands. Within 32 hours the armoured cars of the group *Lestoquoi* covered a distance of over 200 kilometres reaching the environment of 's-Hertogenbosch in the afternoon of 11 May. After some successful skirmishes with German armoured cars belonging to the reconnaissance platoons of the German *Infanterie Divisionen*, they withdrew, as the Dutch were already in full retreat. They were asked by the Dutch to assist an infantry attack on the southern bridgehead of the strategic Moerdijk bridges, held by German paratroopers. As the cars were not suitable for such a task the commander hesitated after incorrectly concluding the bridgehead was strongly defended. While thus being immobile, this group of Panhards was surprised in open polder landscape by a Stuka-attack with one vehicle disabled and quickly withdrew to the south.

The other two DLMs hurried forward to stop the advance of 3 and 4PD after the surprisingly swift fall of Fort Eben-Emael, their Panhards fighting a successful delaying battle against their German counterparts until the Battle of Hannut, the largest tank battle of the campaign. In general they had little trouble in dispatching the lightly armoured German armoured cars, whose 20 mm main armament was not very effective against the Panhard frontal armour.

As the type was well-suited to German tactics, at least 190 Panhards, most of them brand-new, were issued to German reconnaissance units for use in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 under the designation of *Panzerspähwagen P204 (f)*; 107 would be lost that year. Among these were some radio vehicles, designated *Panzerspähwagen (Funk) P204 (f)*. Thirty Panhards were listed as in use on the Eastern Front on 31 May 1943. Some of these were fitted with spaced armour.

After the liberation of France, the *1e Groupement Mobile de Reconnaissance* would, among a bewildering variety of types, also use some Panhard 178s, some of these modified.

## Modified Panhards

### Radio vehicles

The Panhard units were intended for deep strategic reconnaissance and thus could be expected to operate well in advance of the main forces. To fulfil their task of relaying information, long range radio connections were necessary. Therefore, one in twelve vehicles had to be of a special radio "command" version (*Poste Commande*) with the turret fixed in place and without armament but equipped with the ER27 set, giving a range of 80 - 150 kilometres, and two ER26ter sets with a range of sixty kilometres for communications within the squadron.

Already in both 1937 and 1938 a dozen each of the "PC vehicle" had been ordered, the number of 24 being notified on 9 December 1938. The first was planned to be delivered in February, but only materialised in October 1939, followed by seventeen in November and six in December. They were rebuilt with the ER 27 set in the Fort d'Issy. As this number was clearly insufficient to equip all units, on 15 April 1940 an additional 150 PCs were ordered, bringing the total to 174; none of the new order had been built before the armistice.

### North African version

From 14 to 29 October 1936, the original Panhard 178 prototype, leaving Bordeaux on 15 September, was tested by the *6e Cuirassiers* in Morocco, successfully negotiating about three thousand kilometres of desert and mountain tracks, resulting in an acceptance of the type for desert use on 15 January 1937, though a suitable modification was advised, including the fitting of a lighter turret.

The North African forces were in need of two reconnaissance armoured car types: a light one, for which role the Laffly S15 TOE was envisaged, and a heavy one, the *automitrailleuse lourde*, for which the Panhard 178 was chosen. Initially it was planned to uparm the vehicle, at first with a 37, then a 47 mm gun, but on 14 January 1939 the quickly deteriorating international situation forced the acceptance of a variant, the  *AMD 35 type Afrique française du Nord*, not very different from the standard version: apart from small internal fittings changes, the main difference was the installation of a heavy duty radiator, better adapted to the hot desert climate of the North African colonies.

Already two orders had been made on 3 June 1938, one of twenty and another of twelve vehicles. A third order of 96 cars was dated 3 February 1939; it was intended to raise eight squadrons in Africa of sixteen vehicles each. The first of these orders was only notified on 26 May 1939. Construction on the vehicles started in December but had to be halted due to a lack of the special radiators, 161 of which had only been ordered on 10 October; eventually they were manufactured from the second week of May 1940, at this time forming the main bulk of Panhard 178 production: 78 were delivered that month. On 7 June of the 128 ordered 71 had been delivered, two were present in a completed form in the factory stock, and 39 hulls were ready lacking a turret. Until the armistice at least another 41 were delivered, for a minimal total of 112 AMD 35 AFNs. None of these vehicles would in fact be shipped to North Africa; they were used by newly raised (especially *10e Cuirassiers*, part of Charles de Gaulle's 4e DCR), reconstituted or ad hoc-units in France.

### Colonial version

On 14 September 1938 an order was notified of four vehicles for colonial use in Indo-China, equipped by ARL with the smaller one-man APX5 turret, as used on the AMR 35 ZT2, armed with a 25 mm gun and 7.5 mm machine-gun. The crew thus consists of three men. Two of these were delivered in June 1939, the other two the next month. These first four left for Indo-China on 12 October; at least one was captured by Japan. A second order of four for colonial Panhard 178s was notified on 10 June 1939; one was delivered in December 1939; the last three in January 1940, bringing the final total for this version to eight. The last four vehicles were still in France at the time of the German invasion, were in June issued to the army lacking their turrets, and some, probably still without their turrets, were after the armistice clandestinely incorporated by the Vichy forces.

### Tank Destroyer variant

Though sufficient at a short range, the effectiveness of the 25 mm gun was far from optimal. On 14 January 1939 it was in principle decided to arm the Panhard with the 47 mm SA 35 gun but as this ordnance was in short supply priority had to be given to uparming tank types still equipped with the SA 34 gun, such as the Char B and the first Char D2 series. Already in the autumn of 1939, the building of a number of tank destroyers was being considered, as too few units had a motorised anti-tank capacity. Panhard in April 1940 proposed its *Voiture spéciale 207*, basically a Panhard 178 fitted in the back with a rearward-facing powerful 47 mm SA 37 gun.

This type was still in development when the crisis in May and the lack of APX3 turrets — *Cail* had been overrun and it had been decided to deliver most vehicles as "turretless AMDs" to the troops — led to an emergency programme to fit the surplus hulls with a new turret type. On 29 May 1940 Renault was contacted and quickly initial ideas of improvising an open-topped turret for a 25 mm gun grew into a new closed turret, a design by Engineer Joseph Restany, capable of holding the much more powerful standard 47 mm SA 35 tank gun, a first version of which was finished on 31 May. To provide enough room to operate the larger gun the back of the new octagonal turret was raised, resulting in an extreme wedge-shaped profile. The armour consisted of welded 25 mm plates all-around, reinforced on the front with a spaced appliqué 13 mm plate. The turret had a single rather narrow top hatch and lacked the rear hatch that had been usual for French designs. The turret had to be rotated by hand, an electrical drive being absent. Also a machine-gun was lacking. A single vehicle was tested on 5 June and completed on 6 June, but plans to build forty vehicles of the type from 11 June at a rate of four a day came to naught, despite an official order on 13 June, and an intention to attain a monthly production of thirty-five from August onwards, as Paris was declared an open city on 10 June and the factory evacuated on 12 June. The single vehicle, provisionally called the *Voiture 47*, was allocated to *1er RAM* on 6 June and defended on 15 June a bridge near Etignie, destroying two German "heavy tanks" (of an unspecified type) and a column trying to force a crossing. On 17 June, 10:00, it was destroyed by its own crew at Cosnes-sur-Loire when their unit was unable to cross the Loire river with its heavy equipment.

It was on 2 June hoped to mount a 47 mm SA 34 or a 25 mm gun on the "turretless AMDs", protected by a superstructure made of 16 to 20 mm armour plate. Photographic evidence proves that at least a single vehicle was fitted with a superstructure but not whether this was armed. Additionally, a few could probably be equipped with a gun shield for a machine gun, most being issued as pure hulls.

### Modifications by Germany, Vichy France and Italy

After 1941 the Germans modified 43 cars as railway-protection vehicles (*Schienenpanzer*); they could drive on the tracks themselves by means of special wheels and were fitted with large radio frame aerials.

Under the armistice conditions the Vichy regime was allowed to use 64 Panhards for police service. These vehicles, mainly taken from the May–June production batches, had their guns removed and replaced with an additional machine gun. On orders of the Army, the *Camouflage du Matériel* branch, Engineer J. Restany, using the false name "J-J. Ramon", from April 1941 clandestinely produced 45 new turrets, fitted with a 47 mm SA 35 (about twenty) or a 25 mm gun in order to equip an equal number of hulls hidden from the Germans; some were eventually combined with the hulls for trial purposes. The turrets were of a new design but strongly resembled Restany's 47 mm turret of June 1940. They used twenty millimetre armour plates for the vertical surfaces and ten millimetre plate for the top. To the top hatch a rear hatch was added. On 28 January 1942 all turrets had been finished. Later, to the right of the main armament a 7.5 mm FM 24/29 machine-gun was fitted. These hulls and cars were partly hidden or dumped in lakes when the whole of France was occupied in November 1942. Some vehicles however, were used by the Germans in the *Sicherungs-Aufklärungs-Abteilung 100*. In the summer of 1944 some were perhaps taken into use by the resistance.

In 1944 some of the 34 Panhards captured by the Germans when they overran Vichy-France in November 1942, were rebuilt with the 50 mm L/42 or L/60 gun in an open-topped turret and used for occupation duty. In November 1942, the Italian Army also captured two Panhards, which would be used by them until September 1943.

## Panhard 178B

In late 1944, a new turret was designed by *Fives Lille*, the **FL1**. It had a cylindrical "camembert" form allowing for more space to install the larger 75 mm SA 45 L/32 gun. The type with the new turret, a new four cylinder engine and the EM3/R61 radio set was named *Panhard 178B* and taken into production at Firminy; a first order of 150 was made on 5 January 1945 and confirmed on 31 July 1945. Before actual manufacture started however, it was decided to fit the smaller 47 mm SA35 gun and a machine gun. In total 414 vehicles were manufactured, making for a grand total of Panhard 178 cars of 1143. In contradistinction to this Panhard 178B, older vehicles are sometimes designated Panhard 178"A", though this designation is not contemporary. The B-version was used in France and the colonies, such as Syria, Tahiti, Madagascar and Vietnam. The last French use was in Djibouti in 1960 by the *15e Escadron Blindé d'Infanterie de Marine*; Syria still used the type in February 1964 during the uprising in Damascus.

## Sources

* White, B.T., 1972, *Tanks and other Armoured Fighting Vehicles of World War II*, Peerage Books, London ISBN 0 907408 35 4
* Pierre Touzin, *Les véhicules blindés français, 1900-1944*, EPA, 1979.
* Pierre Touzin, *Les Engins Blindés Français 1920-1945, Volume 1*, SERA, 1976.
* Leland Ness (2002) *Jane's World War II Tanks and Fighting Vehicles: The Complete Guide*, Harper Collins, London and New York, ISBN 0-00-711228-9
* Pascal Danjou, 2004, *L'Automitrailleuse de Découverte AMD 35 Panhard 178*, Editions du Barbotin, Ballainvilliers
* François Vauvillier, 2008, "Produire l'AMD 35 Panhard: une affaire d'équipe", *Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel*, N° 82, p. 36-45
* Erik Barbanson, 2008, "J'ai piloté le prototype de l'AMD Panhard au Maroc", *Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel*, N° 85, p. 76-80

## InfoBox

| Panhard 178 | |
| --- | --- |
| Preserved AMD Panhard 35 at the Musée des Blindés | |
| Type | Armoured car |
| Place of origin | French Third Republic |
| Service history | |
| In service | April 1937–1964 |
| Used by | France<br>Nazi Germany<br>Syria |
| Wars | World War II<br>First Indochina War<br>Vietnam War |
| Production history | |
| Designer | Panhard |
| Designed | 1933–1937 |
| Manufacturer | Panhard |
| Unit cost | ₣ 275,000 hull |
| Produced | February 1937 — ~October 1940 |
| No. built | 729 "A" versions, 414 B version |
| Variants | Panhard 178B |
| Specifications | |
| Mass | 8.2 metric tonnes |
| Length | 4.79 m with gun |
| Width | 2.01 m |
| Height | 2.31 m |
| Crew | 4 |
| --- | |
| Armor | 20 mm |
| Main<br>armament | 25 mm SA 35 cannon |
| Secondary<br>armament | 7.5 mm Reibel machine gun |
| Engine | Panhard SK<br>105 hp |
| Suspension | leaf spring |
| Ground clearance | 0.35 m |
| Operational<br>range | 300 km |
| Maximum speed | 72 km/h |


title: H. P. Page House

abstract: The H. P. Page House is a historic house located in Newton, Massachusetts.

text:
# H. P. Page House

The **H. P. Page House** is a historic house located in Newton, Massachusetts.

## Description and history

The 1+12-story wood-frame house was built c. 1850, and is a detailed example of a Greek Revival workers' cottage. The gable end is pedimented, and an entablature wraps around the house, supported by corner pilasters. The main entrance is flanked by sidelight windows and panelled pilasters, and topped by antransom window and entablature.

The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 4, 1986.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| H. P. Page House | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | 110 Jewett Street,<br>Newton, Massachusetts |
| Coordinates | 42°21′25″N 71°11′30″W / 42.35694°N 71.19167°W / 42.35694; -71.19167 |
| Built | 1850 |
| Architectural style | Greek Revival |
| MPS | Newton MRA |
| NRHP reference No. | 86001860 |
| Added to NRHP | September 4, 1986 |


title: Jiǎng (state)

abstract: Jiang was a vassal state that existed during the Zhou dynasty until the middle Spring and Autumn period. In 617 BC it was annexed by the state of Chu. The state was established right after Duke of Zhou allocated his fourth son Bo Ling to a piece of land in Gushi County, Henan. Bo Ling later used the state name as his own surname.

text:
# Jiǎng (state)

**Jiang** (Chinese: /Pinyin: *Jiǎng*) was a vassal state that existed during the Zhou dynasty until the middle Spring and Autumn period. In 617 BC it was annexed by the state of Chu.

The state was established right after Duke of Zhou allocated his fourth son Bo Ling to a piece of land in Gushi County, Henan. Bo Ling later used the state name as his own surname.

## InfoBox

| State of Jiang蔣國 | |
| --- | --- |
| 11th century BCE–617 BCE | |
| Map showing states of the Zhou Dynasty (Jiǎng is shown on the map as a small state nearby Zhoulai) | |
| Capital | Gushi County, Henan |
| Government | Monarchy |
| History |  |
|  | |
| Established | 11th century BCE |
| Invaded/annexed by Chu | 617 BCE |
|  | |
| Today part of | China |


title: Nanny Wermuth

abstract: Nanny Wermuth is the Professor emerita of Statistics, Chalmers University of Technology/University of Gothenburg. Her research interests are Multivariate statistical models and their properties, especially graphical Markov models, as well as their applications in the life sciences and in the natural sciences.

text:
# Nanny Wermuth

**Nanny Wermuth** (born 4 December 1943) is the Professor emerita of Statistics, Chalmers University of Technology/University of Gothenburg. Her research interests are Multivariate statistical models and their properties, especially graphical Markov models, as well as their applications in the life sciences and in the natural sciences.

## Academic career

### Education

### Professional positions

* 1972–1978 Research Assistant in Statistics; University of Dortmund, University of Mainz
* since 1978 Professor of Statistics and of Methods in Psychology, University of Mainz
* 1997–2000 Head of Research and Development, Center of Survey Research, Mannheim
* since 2003 Professor of Statistics, Department of Mathematical Sciences at Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg

### Selected services to the profession

### Selected recognitions

### Professional affiliations

She was elected as member of the International Statistical Institute (1982) and of the German Academy of Sciences (2002); as fellow of the American Statistical Association (1989) and of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (2001).

## Personal life

She has four sons with Dr. Dieter Wermuth - Jochen (1969) Martin (1974), Peter (1976) and Ulli (1981)

1. "Academic page at Chalmers/University of Gothenburg".

## InfoBox

| Nanny Wermuth | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1943-12-04) 4 December 1943 |
| Spouse | Dr. Dieter Wermuth |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Statistics |
| Institutions | Chalmers University of Technology<br>University of Gothenburg |
| Thesis | *An empirical comparison of regression methods.*  (1973) |
| Doctoral advisor | Arthur Pentland Dempster |
| Other academic advisors | David C. Hoaglin |
|  | |


title: Mike Saofaiga

abstract: Mike Saofaiga Foai is a Samoan footballer who plays as a forward for the Samoa national football team and Kiwi FC. Saofaiga was born in Vaiala. He played for Vailima Kiwi FC in the 2016 OFC Champions League. He was selected for the Samoa national football team for the 2016 OFC Nations Cup. In June 2019 he was named to the squad for the 2019 Pacific Games.

text:
# Mike Saofaiga

**Mike Saofaiga Foai** (born 12 January 1991) is a Samoan footballer who plays as a forward for the Samoa national football team and Kiwi FC.

Saofaiga was born in Vaiala. He played for Vailima Kiwi FC in the 2016 OFC Champions League.

He was selected for the Samoa national football team for the 2016 OFC Nations Cup. In June 2019 he was named to the squad for the 2019 Pacific Games.

## InfoBox

Mike Saofaiga
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | Mike Saofaiga Foai | | |
| Date of birth | (1991-01-12) January 12, 1991 | | |
| Place of birth | Vaiala, Samoa | | |
| Height | 1.79 m (5 ft 10 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Forward | | |
| Team information | | | |
| Current team | Kiwi FC | | |
| Number | 12 | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2011– | Kiwi FC | 41 | (16) |
| International career | | | |
| 2011– | Samoa | 10 | (0) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals<br>‡ National team caps and goals, correct as of 18 July 2019 | | | |


title: Moran process

abstract:
A Moran process or Moran model is a simple stochastic process used in biology to describe finite populations. The process is named after Patrick Moran, who first proposed the model in 1958. It can be used to model variety-increasing processes such as mutation as well as variety-reducing effects such as genetic drift and natural selection. The process can describe the probabilistic dynamics in a finite population of constant size N in which two alleles A and B are competing for dominance. The two alleles are considered to be true replicators. In each time step a random individual is chosen for reproduction and a random individual is chosen for death; thus ensuring that the population size remains constant. To model selection, one type has to have a higher fitness and is thus more likely to be chosen for reproduction.
The same individual can be chosen for death and for reproduction in the same step.

text:
# Moran process

A **Moran process** or **Moran model** is a simple stochastic process used in biology to describe finite populations. The process is named after Patrick Moran, who first proposed the model in 1958. It can be used to model variety-increasing processes such as mutation as well as variety-reducing effects such as genetic drift and natural selection. The process can describe the probabilistic dynamics in a finite population of constant size *N* in which two alleles A and B are competing for dominance. The two alleles are considered to be true replicators (i.e. entities that make copies of themselves).

In each time step a random individual (which is of either type A or B) is chosen for reproduction and a random individual is chosen for death; thus ensuring that the population size remains constant. To model selection, one type has to have a higher fitness and is thus more likely to be chosen for reproduction. The same individual can be chosen for death and for reproduction in the same step.

## Neutral drift

Neutral drift is the idea that a neutral mutation can spread throughout a population, so that eventually the original allele is lost. A neutral mutation does not bring any fitness advantage or disadvantage to its bearer. The simple case of the Moran process can describe this phenomenon.

The Moran process is defined on the state space *i* = 0, ..., *N* which count the number of A individuals. Since the number of A individuals can change at most by one at each time step, a transition exists only between state *i* and state *i* − 1, *i* and *i* \+ 1. Thus the transition matrix of the stochastic process is tri-diagonal in shape and the transition probabilities are

$$\begin{aligned}P\_{i,i-1}&={\frac {N-i}{N}{\frac {i}{N}\\P\_{i,i}&=1-P\_{i,i-1}-P\_{i,i+1}\\P\_{i,i+1}&={\frac {i}{N}{\frac {N-i}{N}\\\end{aligned}}}}}$$

The entry $P\_{i,j}$ denotes the probability to go from state *i* to state *j*. To understand the formulas for the transition probabilities one has to look at the definition of the process which states that always one individual will be chosen for reproduction and one is chosen for death. Once the A individuals have died out, they will never be reintroduced into the population since the process does not model mutations (A cannot be reintroduced into the population once it has died out and *vice versa*) and thus $P\_{0,0}=1$. For the same reason the population of A individuals will always stay *N* once they have reached that number and taken over the population and thus $P\_{N,N}=1$. The states 0 and *N* are called *absorbing* while the states 1, ..., *N* − 1 are called *transient*. The intermediate transition probabilities can be explained by considering the first term to be the probability to choose the individual whose abundance will increase by one and the second term the probability to choose the other type for death. Obviously, if the same type is chosen for reproduction and for death, then the abundance of one type does not change.

Eventually the population will reach one of the absorbing states and then stay there forever. In the transient states, random fluctuations will occur but eventually the population of A will either go extinct or reach fixation. This is one of the most important differences to deterministic processes which cannot model random events. The expected value and the variance of the number of A individuals *X*(*t*) at timepoint *t* can be computed when an initial state *X*(0) = *i* is given:

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\mid X(0)=i\]&=i\\\operatorname {Var} (X(t)\mid X(0)=i)&={\tfrac {2i}{N}\left(1-{\tfrac {i}{N}\right){\frac {1-\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)^{t}{\frac {2}{N^{2}\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}$$

For a mathematical derivation of the equation above, click on "show" to reveal

For the expected value the calculation runs as follows. Writing *p* = *i*/*N*,

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\mid X(t-1)=i\]&=(i-1)P\_{i,i-1}+iP\_{i,i}+(i+1)P\_{i,i+1}\\\&=2ip(1-p)+i(p^{2}+(1-p)^{2})\\\&=i.\end{aligned}$$

Writing $Y=X(t)$ and $Z=X(t-1)$, and applying the law of total expectation, $\operatorname {E} \[Y\]=\operatorname {E} \[\operatorname {E} \[Y\mid Z\]\]=\operatorname {E} \[Z\].$ Applying the argument repeatedly gives $\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\]=\operatorname {E} \[X(0)\],$ or $\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\mid X(0)=i\]=i.$

For the variance the calculation runs as follows. Writing $V\_{t}=\operatorname {Var} (X(t)\mid X(0)=i),$ we have

$$\begin{aligned}V\_{1}&=E\left\[X(1)^{2}\mid X(0)=i\right\]-\operatorname {E} \[X(1)\mid X(0)=i\]^{2}\\\&=(i-1)^{2}p(1-p)+i^{2}\left(p^{2}+(1-p)^{2}\right)+(i+1)^{2}p(1-p)-i^{2}\\\&=2p(1-p)\end{aligned}$$

For all t, $(X(t)\mid X(t-1)=i)$ and $(X(1)\mid X(0)=i)$ are identically distributed, so their variances are equal. Writing as before $Y=X(t)$ and $Z=X(t-1)$, and applying the law of total variance,

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {Var} (Y)&=\operatorname {E} \[\operatorname {Var} (Y\mid Z)\]+\operatorname {Var} (\operatorname {E} \[Y\mid Z\])\\\&=E\left\[\left({\frac {2Z}{N}\right)\left(1-{\frac {Z}{N}\right)\right\]+\operatorname {Var} (Z)\\\&=\left({\frac {2\operatorname {E} \[Z\]}{N}\right)\left(1-{\frac {\operatorname {E} \[Z\]}{N}\right)+\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)\operatorname {Var} (Z).\end{aligned}}}}}}}$$

If $X(0)=i$, we obtain

$$V\_{t}=V\_{1}+\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)V\_{t-1}.}}$$

Rewriting this equation as

$$V\_{t}-{\frac {V\_{1}{\frac {2}{N^{2}=\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)\left(V\_{t-1}-{\frac {V\_{1}{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)=\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)^{t-1}\left(V\_{1}-{\frac {V\_{1}{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

yields

$$V\_{t}=V\_{1}{\frac {1-\left(1-{\frac {2}{N^{2}\right)^{t}{\frac {2}{N^{2}}}}}}}$$

as desired.

---

The probability that A reaches fixation is called *fixation probability*. For the simple Moran process this probability is *xi* = *i*/*N*.

Since all individuals have the same fitness, they also have the same chance of becoming the ancestor of the whole population; this probability is 1/*N* and thus the sum of all *i* probabilities (for all A individuals) is just *i*/*N*. The mean time to absorption starting in state *i* is given by

$$k\_{i}=N\left\[\sum \_{j=1}^{i}{\frac {N-i}{N-j}+\sum \_{j=i+1}^{N-1}{\frac {i}{j}\right\]}}$$

For a mathematical derivation of the equation above, click on "show" to reveal

The mean time spent in state *j* when starting in state *i* which is given by

$$k\_{i}^{j}=\delta \_{ij}+P\_{i,i-1}k\_{i-1}^{j}+P\_{i,i}k\_{i}^{j}+P\_{i,i+1}k\_{i+1}^{j}$$

Here δij denotes the Kroenecker delta. This recursive equation can be solved using a new variable qi so that $P\_{i,i-1}=P\_{i,i+1}=q\_{i}$ and thus $P\_{i,i}=1-2q\_{i}$ and rewritten

$$k\_{i+1}^{j}=2k\_{i}^{j}-k\_{i-1}^{j}-{\frac {\delta \_{ij}{q\_{i}}}}$$

The variable $y\_{i}^{j}=k\_{i}^{j}-k\_{i-1}^{j}$ is used and the equation becomes

$$\begin{aligned}y\_{i+1}^{j}&=y\_{i}^{j}-{\frac {\delta \_{ij}{q\_{i}\\\\\sum \_{i=1}^{m}y\_{i}^{j}&=(k\_{1}^{j}-k\_{0}^{j})+(k\_{2}^{j}-k\_{1}^{j})+\cdots +(k\_{m-1}^{j}-k\_{m-2}^{j})+(k\_{m}^{j}-k\_{m-1}^{j})\\\&=k\_{m}^{j}-k\_{0}^{j}\\\sum \_{i=1}^{m}y\_{i}^{j}&=k\_{m}^{j}\\\\y\_{1}^{j}&=(k\_{1}^{j}-k\_{0}^{j})=k\_{1}^{j}\\y\_{2}^{j}&=y\_{1}^{j}-{\frac {\delta \_{1j}{q\_{1}=k\_{1}^{j}-{\frac {\delta \_{1j}{q\_{1}\\y\_{3}^{j}&=k\_{1}^{j}-{\frac {\delta \_{1j}{q\_{1}-{\frac {\delta \_{2j}{q\_{2}\\\&\vdots \\y\_{i}^{j}&=k\_{1}^{j}-\sum \_{r=1}^{i-1}{\frac {\delta \_{rj}{q\_{r}={\begin{cases}k\_{1}^{j}&j\geq i\\k\_{1}^{j}-{\frac {1}{q\_{j}&j\leq i\end{cases}\\\\k\_{i}^{j}&=\sum \_{m=1}^{i}y\_{m}^{j}={\begin{cases}i\cdot k\_{1}^{j}&j\geq i\\i\cdot k\_{1}^{j}-{\frac {i-j}{q\_{j}&j\leq i\end{cases}\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

Knowing that $k\_{N}^{j}=0$ and

$$q\_{j}=P\_{j,j+1}={\frac {j}{N}{\frac {N-j}{N}}}$$

we can calculate $k\_{1}^{j}$:

$$\begin{aligned}k\_{N}^{j}=\sum \_{i=1}^{m}y\_{i}^{j}=N\cdot k\_{1}^{j}&-{\frac {N-j}{q\_{j}=0\\k\_{1}^{j}&={\frac {N}{j}\end{aligned}}}}$$

Therefore

$$k\_{i}^{j}={\begin{cases}{\frac {i}{j}\cdot k\_{j}^{j}&j\geq i\\\{\frac {N-i}{N-j}\cdot k\_{j}^{j}&j\leq i\end{cases}}}}$$

with $k\_{j}^{j}=N$. Now ki, the total time until fixation starting from state *i*, can be calculated

$$\begin{aligned}k\_{i}=\sum \_{j=1}^{N-1}k\_{i}^{j}&=\sum \_{j=1}^{i}k\_{i}^{j}+\sum \_{j=i+1}^{N-1}k\_{i}^{j}\\\&=\sum \_{j=1}^{i}N{\frac {N-i}{N-j}+\sum \_{j=i+1}^{N-1}N{\frac {i}{j}\end{aligned}}}$$

---

For large *N* the approximation

$$\lim \_{N\to \infty }k\_{i}\approx -N^{2}\left\[(1-x\_{i})\ln(1-x\_{i})+x\_{i}\ln(x\_{i})\right\]$$

holds.

## Selection

If one allele has a fitness advantage over the other allele, it will be more likely to be chosen for reproduction. This can be incorporated into the model if individuals with allele A have fitness $f\_{i}\>0$ and individuals with allele B have fitness $g\_{i}\>0$ where $i$ is the number of individuals of type A; thus describing a general birth-death process. The transition matrix of the stochastic process is tri-diagonal in shape. Let $r\_{i}:=f\_{i}/g\_{i}$, then the transition probabilities are

$$\begin{aligned}P\_{i,i-1}&={\frac {g\_{i}\cdot (N-i)}{f\_{i}\cdot i+g\_{i}\cdot (N-i)}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}={\frac {\frac {N-i}{N}{r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{N}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}\\P\_{i,i}&=1-P\_{i,i-1}-P\_{i,i+1}\\P\_{i,i+1}&={\frac {f\_{i}\cdot i}{f\_{i}\cdot i+g\_{i}\cdot (N-i)}\cdot {\frac {N-i}{N}={\frac {r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}{r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{N}\cdot {\frac {N-i}{N}\\\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

The entry $P\_{i,j}$ denotes the probability to go from state *i* to state *j*. The difference to neutral selection above is now that a mutant, i.e. an individual with allele B, is selected for procreation with probability

$$\frac {r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}{r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{i},}}}}}$$

and an individual with allele A is chosen with probability

$$\frac {\frac {N-i}{i}{r\_{i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{i},}}}}$$

when the number of individuals with allele B is exactly i.

Also in this case, fixation probabilities when starting in state *i* is defined by the recurrence

$$x\_{i}={\begin{cases}0&i=0\\\beta \_{i}x\_{i-1}+(1-\alpha \_{i}-\beta \_{i})x\_{i}+\alpha \_{i}x\_{i+1}&1\leq i\leq N-1\\1&i=N\end{cases}}$$

And the closed form is given by

$$x\_{i}={\frac 1+\sum \_{j=1}^{i-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}1+\sum \_{j=1}^{N-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}\qquad {\text{(1)}}}$$

where $\gamma \_{i}=P\_{i,i-1}/P\_{i,i+1}$ per definition and will just be $g\_{i}/f\_{i}$ for the general case.

For a mathematical derivation of the equation above, click on "show" to reveal

Also in this case, fixation probabilities can be computed, but the transition probabilities are not symmetric. The notation $P\_{i,i+1}=\alpha \_{i},P\_{i,i-1}=\beta \_{i},P\_{i,i}=1-\alpha \_{i}-\beta \_{i}$ and $\gamma \_{i}=\beta \_{i}/\alpha \_{i}$ is used. The fixation probability can be defined recursively and a new variable $y\_{i}=x\_{i}-x\_{i-1}$ is introduced.

$$\begin{aligned}x\_{i}&=\beta \_{i}x\_{i-1}+(1-\alpha \_{i}-\beta \_{i})x\_{i}+\alpha \_{i}x\_{i+1}\\\beta \_{i}(x\_{i}-x\_{i-1})&=\alpha \_{i}(x\_{i+1}-x\_{i})\\\gamma \_{i}\cdot y\_{i}&=y\_{i+1}\end{aligned}$$

Now two properties from the definition of the variable yi can be used to find a closed form solution for the fixation probabilities:

$$\begin{aligned}\sum \_{i=1}^{m}y\_{i}&=x\_{m}&&1\\y\_{k}&=x\_{1}\cdot \prod \_{l=1}^{k-1}\gamma \_{l}&&2\\\Rightarrow \sum \_{m=1}^{i}y\_{m}&=x\_{1}+x\_{1}\sum \_{j=1}^{i-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}=x\_{i}&&3\end{aligned}$$

Combining (3) and *xN* = 1:

$$x\_{1}\left(1+\sum \_{j=1}^{N-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}\right)=x\_{N}=1.$$

which implies:

$$x\_{1}={\frac {1}{1+\sum \_{j=1}^{N-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}}}$$

This in turn gives us:

$$x\_{i}={\frac 1+\sum \_{j=1}^{i-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}1+\sum \_{j=1}^{N-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{j}\gamma \_{k}}$$

---

This general case where the fitness of A and B depends on the abundance of each type is studied in evolutionary game theory.

Less complex results are obtained if a constant fitness ratio $r=1/\gamma \_{i}$, for all i, is assumed. Individuals of type A reproduce with a constant rate *r* and individuals with allele B reproduce with rate 1. Thus if A has a fitness advantage over B, *r* will be larger than one, otherwise it will be smaller than one. Thus the transition matrix of the stochastic process is tri-diagonal in shape and the transition probabilities are

$$\begin{aligned}P\_{0,0}&=1\\P\_{i,i-1}&={\frac {N-i}{r\cdot i+N-i}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}={\frac {\frac {N-i}{N}{r\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{N}\cdot {\frac {i}{N}\\P\_{i,i}&=1-P\_{i,i-1}-P\_{i,i+1}\\P\_{i,i+1}&={\frac {r\cdot i}{r\cdot i+N-i}\cdot {\frac {N-i}{N}={\frac {r\cdot {\frac {i}{N}{r\cdot {\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {N-i}{N}\cdot {\frac {N-i}{N}\\P\_{N,N}&=1.\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

In this case $\gamma \_{i}=1/r$ is a constant factor for each composition of the population and thus the fixation probability from equation (1) simplifies to

$$x\_{i}={\frac {1-r^{-i}{1-r^{-N}\quad \Rightarrow \quad x\_{1}=\rho ={\frac {1-r^{-1}{1-r^{-N}\qquad {\text{(2)}}}}}}}}$$

where the fixation probability of a single mutant *A* in a population of otherwise all *B* is often of interest and is denoted by ρ.

Also in the case of selection, the expected value and the variance of the number of *A* individuals may be computed

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\mid X(t-1)=i\]&=ps{\dfrac {1-p}{ps+1}+i\\\operatorname {Var} (X(t+1)\mid X(t)=i)&=p(1-p){\dfrac {(s+1)+(ps+1)^{2}{(ps+1)^{2}\end{aligned}}}}}$$

where *p* = *i*/*N*, and *r* = 1 + *s*.

For a mathematical derivation of the equation above, click on "show" to reveal

For the expected value the calculation runs as follows

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (1)\mid X(0)=i\]&=(i-1-i)\cdot P\_{i,i-1}+(i-i)\cdot P\_{i,i}+(i+1-i)\cdot P\_{i,i+1}\\\&=-{\frac {N-i}{ri+N-i}{\frac {i}{N}+{\frac {ri}{ri+N-i}{\frac {N-i}{N}\\\&=-{\frac {(N-i)i}{(ri+N-i)N}+{\frac {i(N-i)}{(ri+N-i)N}+{\frac {si(N-i)}{(ri+N-i)N}\\\&=ps{\dfrac {1-p}{ps+1}\\\operatorname {E} \[X(t)\mid X(t-1)=i\]&=ps{\dfrac {1-p}{ps+1}+i\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}$$

For the variance the calculation runs as follows, using the variance of a single step

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {Var} (X(t+1)\mid X(t)=i)&=\operatorname {Var} (X(t))+\operatorname {Var} (\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i)\\\&=0+E\left\[\Delta (t+1)^{2}\mid X(t)=i\right\]-\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i\]^{2}\\\&=(i-1-i)^{2}\cdot P\_{i,i-1}+(i-i)^{2}\cdot P\_{i,i}+(i+1-i)^{2}\cdot P\_{i,i+1}-\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i\]^{2}\\\&=P\_{i,i-1}+P\_{i,i+1}-\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i\]^{2}\\\&={\frac {(N-i)i}{(ri+N-i)N}+{\frac {(N-i)i(1+s)}{(ri+N-i)N}-\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i\]^{2}\\\&=i(N-i){\frac {2+s}{(ri+N-i)N}-\operatorname {E} \[\Delta (t+1)\mid X(t)=i\]^{2}\\\&=i(N-i){\frac {2+s}{(ri+N-i)N}-\left(ps{\dfrac {1-p}{ps+1}\right)^{2}\\\&=p(1-p){\frac {2+s(ps+1)}{(ps+1)^{2}-p(1-p){\frac {ps^{2}(1-p)}{(ps+1)^{2}\\\&=p(1-p){\dfrac {2+2ps+s+p^{2}s^{2}{(ps+1)^{2}\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

---

## Rate of evolution

In a population of all *B* individuals, a single mutant *A* will take over the whole population with the probability

$$\rho ={\frac {1-r^{-1}{1-r^{-N}.\qquad {\text{(2)}}}}}$$

If the mutation rate (to go from the *B* to the *A* allele) in the population is *u* then the rate with which one member of the population will mutate to *A* is given by *N* × *u* and the rate with which the whole population goes from all *B* to all *A* is the rate that a single mutant *A* arises times the probability that it will take over the population (*fixation probability*):

$$R=N\cdot u\cdot \rho =u\quad {\text{if}\quad \rho ={\frac {1}{N}.}}$$

Thus if the mutation is neutral (i.e. the *fixation probability* is just 1/*N*) then the rate with which an allele arises and takes over a population is independent of the population size and is equal to the mutation rate. This important result is the basis of the neutral theory of evolution and suggests that the number of observed point mutations in the genomes of two different species would simply be given by the mutation rate multiplied by two times the time since divergence. Thus the neutral theory of evolution provides a molecular clock, given that the assumptions are fulfilled which may not be the case in reality.

## Further reading


title: Flakkebjerg

abstract: Flakkebjerg is a village on Zealand, Denmark. It is located in Slagelse Municipality.

text:
# Flakkebjerg

**Flakkebjerg** is a village on Zealand, Denmark. It is located in Slagelse Municipality.

## Flakkebjerg School Museum

Flakkebjerg School Museum (Danish: *Flakkebjerg Skolemuseum*) is a museum located in Flakkebjerg. The museum focuses on schools in the period 1904–1962, and has existed since 1981. It is located in a former school, known as Flakkebjerg Lower Ground School (Danish: *Flakkebjerg Forskole*).

## InfoBox

| Flakkebjerg | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| FlakkebjergLocation in Region Zealand | |
| Coordinates: 55°18′42″N 11°23′47″E / 55.31167°N 11.39639°E / 55.31167; 11.39639 | |
| Country | Denmark |
| Region | Region Zealand |
| Municipality | Slagelse |
| Population (2024) | 448 |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Mike Evgen

abstract: Mike Evgen, alias The Rice Street Rocker, is a retired welterweight professional boxer from Minnesota.

text:
# Mike Evgen

**Mike Evgen**, alias *The Rice Street Rocker*, is a retired welterweight professional boxer from Minnesota.

## Personal life

Mike Evgen, as his nickname implies, is from the Rice Street neighborhood in Saint Paul, Minnesota. At 5'6" tall, Evgen was unusually short for a welterweight fighter.

## Professional career

Evgen made his professional debut in January 1989 with a first round knockout of Rick Caldwell. He won his first 16 professional fights, losing for the first time to Terry Ford in June 1991. Nevertheless, Evgen continued to fight and to win, and by the time he fought for the IBO light welterweight championship in April 1992 he was sporting a 19–1 record. He defeated Louie Lomelli for that vacant title in a twelve-round split decision. Evgen relinquished the IBO title without defending it. Evgen's career continued until July 1997, when he suffered an unexpected third-round knockout loss to Steve Valdez. He retired with a record of 31 wins (13 by knockout) and 6 losses.

In 2012, his life story was featured in an independently produced documentary titled "the Rice Street Rocker." The documentary received favorable reviews, called "beautiful" by one Twin Cities media outlet.

1. "Mike Evgen". Archived from the original on 2012-08-29. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
2. "The Rice Street Rocker on Vimeo". 31 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2014-10-31. Retrieved 2012-08-14.
3. "The Rice Street Rocker: The story of a Saint Paul boxing legend | MinnPost". 14 August 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-08-19. Retrieved 2012-08-14.


title: Richard G. England

abstract: Lieutenant-General Richard G. England of Lifford, County Clare was a British Army officer who became Lieutenant-Governor of Plymouth.

text:
# Richard G. England

Lieutenant-General **Richard G. England** (c. 1750 – 7 November 1812) of Lifford, County Clare was a British Army officer who became Lieutenant-Governor of Plymouth.

## Military career

England was commissioned as an ensign in the 47th Regiment of Foot on 20 November 1765.

He fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Battle of Quebec in December 1775 and the Battles of Saratoga, where he was taken prisoner, in Autumn 1777 during the American Revolutionary War. Promoted to lieutenant-colonel, he became commanding officer of the 24th Regiment of Foot on 20 February 1783.

He became Commandant of Detroit in June 1792 and was one of the first colonists of Western Upper Canada. He went on to be Lieutenant-Governor of Plymouth and General Officer Commanding Western District in August 1803. He was also colonel of the 5th Regiment of Foot.

## InfoBox

| Richard G. England | |
| --- | --- |
| Portrait of Richard England by John Downman | |
| Born | c.1750 |
| Died | 7 November 1812 (aged 62)
London |
| Allegiance | United Kingdom |
| Service/branch | British Army |
| Rank | Lieutenant-General |
| Commands | 24th Regiment of Foot
Western District |
| Battles/wars | American Revolutionary War |


title: Papuan white-eye

abstract: The Papuan white-eye, sometimes known as the New Guinea white-eye, is a species of bird in the family Zosteropidae. It is found in the Aru Islands and New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. The species was first classified in 1878, and has a conservation status of Least Concern.

text:
# Papuan white-eye

The **Papuan white-eye** (***Zosterops novaeguineae***), sometimes known as the **New Guinea white-eye**, is a species of bird in the family Zosteropidae. It is found in the Aru Islands and New Guinea (mainly Huon, Bird's Head and Papuan Peninsula). Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. The species was first classified in 1878, and has a conservation status of Least Concern.

## InfoBox

| Papuan white-eye | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Zosteropidae |
| Genus: | *Zosterops* |
| Species: | ***Z. novaeguineae*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Zosterops novaeguineae***
Salvadori, 1878 | |
|