title: Problem of universals

abstract: The problem of universals is an ancient question from metaphysics that has inspired a range of philosophical topics and disputes: "Should the properties an object has in common with other objects, such as color and shape, be considered to exist beyond those objects? And if a property exists separately from objects, what is the nature of that existence?" The problem of universals relates to various inquiries closely related to metaphysics, logic, and epistemology, as far back as Plato and Aristotle, in efforts to define the mental connections a human makes when they understand a property such as shape or color to be the same in nonidentical objects. Universals are qualities or relations found in two or more entities. As an example, if all cup holders are circular in some way, circularity may be considered a universal property of cup holders. Further, if two daughters can be considered female offspring of Frank, the qualities of being female, offspring, and of Frank, are universal properties of the two daughters. Many properties can be universal: being human, red, male or female, liquid or solid, big or small, etc. Philosophers agree that human beings can talk and think about universals, but disagree on whether universals exist in reality beyond mere thought and speech.

text:
# Problem of universals

The **problem of universals** is an ancient question from metaphysics that has inspired a range of philosophical topics and disputes: "Should the properties an object has in common with other objects, such as color and shape, be considered to exist beyond those objects? And if a property exists separately from objects, what is the nature of that existence?"

The problem of universals relates to various inquiries closely related to metaphysics, logic, and epistemology, as far back as Plato and Aristotle, in efforts to define the mental connections a human makes when they understand a property such as shape or color to be the same in nonidentical objects.

Universals are qualities or relations found in two or more entities. As an example, if all cup holders are *circular* in some way, *circularity* may be considered a universal property of cup holders. Further, if two daughters can be considered *female offspring of Frank*, the qualities of being *female*, *offspring*, and *of Frank*, are universal properties of the two daughters. Many properties can be universal: being human, red, male or female, liquid or solid, big or small, etc.

Philosophers agree that human beings can talk and think about universals, but disagree on whether universals exist in reality beyond mere thought and speech.

## Ancient philosophy

The problem of universals is considered a central issue in traditional metaphysics and can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle's philosophy, particularly in their attempt to explain the nature and status of forms. These philosophers explored the problem through predication.

### Plato

Plato believed that there was a sharp distinction between the world of perceivable objects and the world of universals or forms (eidos): one can only have mere opinions about the former, but one can have knowledge about the latter. For Plato it was not possible to have knowledge of anything that could change or was particular, since knowledge had to be forever unfailing and general. For that reason, the world of the forms is the real world, like sunlight, while the sensible world is only imperfectly or partially real, like shadows. This Platonic realism, however, in denying that the eternal Forms are mental artifacts, differs sharply with modern forms of idealism.

One of the first nominalist critiques of Plato's realism was that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said "I've seen Plato's cups and table, but not his cupness and tableness."

### Aristotle

Plato's student Aristotle disagreed with his tutor. Aristotle transformed Plato's forms into "formal causes", the blueprints or essences of individual things. Whereas Plato idealized geometry, Aristotle emphasized nature and related disciplines and therefore much of his thinking concerns living beings and their properties. The nature of universals in Aristotle's philosophy therefore hinges on his view of natural kinds. Instead of categorizing *being* according to the structure of thought, he proposed that the categorical analysis be directed upon the structure of the natural world. He used the principle of predication in *Categories*, where he established that universal terms are involved in a relation of predication if some facts expressed by ordinary sentences hold.

In his work *On Interpretation*, he maintained that the concept of "universal" is apt to be predicated of many and that singular is not. For instance, *man* is a universal while *Callias* is a singular. The philosopher distinguished highest genera like animal and species like man but he maintained that both are predicated of individual men. This was considered part of an approach to the principle of things, which adheres to the criterion that what is most universal is also most real. Consider for example a particular oak tree. This is a member of a species and it has much in common with other oak trees, past, present and future. Its universal, its oakness, is a part of it. A biologist can study oak trees and learn about oakness and more generally the intelligible order within the sensible world. Accordingly, Aristotle was more confident than Plato about coming to know the sensible world; he was a prototypical empiricist and a founder of induction. Aristotle was a new, moderate sort of realist about universals.

## Medieval philosophy

### Boethius

The problem was introduced to the medieval world by Boethius, by his translation of Porphyry's Isagoge. It begins:

"I shall omit to speak about genera and species, as to whether they subsist (in the nature of things) or in mere conceptions only; whether also if subsistent, they are bodies or incorporeal, and whether they are separate from, or in, sensibles, and subsist about these, for such a treatise is most profound, and requires another more extensive investigation".

Boethius, in his commentaries on the aforementioned translation, says that a universal, if it were to exist, has to apply to several particulars entirely. He also specifies that they apply simultaneously at once and not in a temporal succession. He reasons that they cannot be mind-independent, i.e. they do not have a real existence, because a quality cannot be both one thing and common to many particulars in such a way that it forms part of a particular's substance, as it would then be partaking of universality and particularity. However, he also says that universals can't also be of the mind since a mental construct of a quality is an abstraction and understanding of something outside of the mind. He concludes that either this representation is a true understanding of the quality, in which case we revert to the earlier problem faced by those who believe universals are real; or, if the mental abstractions were not a true understanding, then 'what is understood otherwise than the thing is false'.

His solution to this problem was to state that the mind is able to separate in thought what is not necessarily separable in reality. He cites the human mind's ability to abstract from concrete particulars as an instance of this. This, according to Boethius, avoids the problem of Platonic universals being out there in the real world, but also the problem of them being purely constructs of the mind in that universals are simply the mind thinking of particulars in an abstract, universal way. His assumption focuses on the problems that language create. Boethius maintained that the structure of language corresponds to the structure of things and that language creates what he regarded as philosophical babble of confused and contradictory accounts of the nature of things. To illustrate his view, suppose that although the mind cannot think of 2 or 4 as an odd number, as this would be a false representation, it can think of an even number that is neither 2 nor 4.

### Medieval realism

Boethius mostly stayed close to Aristotle in his thinking about universals. Realism's biggest proponents in the Middle Ages, however, came to be Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. Aquinas argued that both the essence of a thing and its existence were clearly distinct; in this regard he is also Aristotelian.

Duns Scotus argues that in a thing there is no real distinction between the essence and the existence; instead, there is only a formal distinction. Scotus believed that universals exist only inside the things that they exemplify, and that they "contract" with the haecceity of the thing to create the individual. As a result of his realist position, he argued strongly against both nominalism and conceptualism, arguing instead for Scotist realism, a medieval response to the conceptualism of Abelard. That is to say, Scotus believed that such properties as 'redness' and 'roundness' exist in reality and are mind-independent entities.

Furthermore, Duns Scotus wrote about this problem in his own commentary (*Quaestiones*) on Porphyry's *Isagoge*, as Boethius had done. Scotus was interested in how the mind forms universals, and he believed this to be 'caused by the intellect'. This intellect acts on the basis that the nature of, say, 'humanity' that is found in other humans and also that the quality is attributable to other individual humans.

### Medieval nominalism

The opposing view to realism is one called nominalism, which at its strongest maintains that universals are verbal constructs and that they do not inhere in objects or pre-exist them. Therefore, universals in this view are something which are peculiar to human cognition and language. The French philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (1050–1125) was an early, prominent proponent of this view. His particular view was that universals are little more than vocal utterances (*voces*).

William of Ockham (1285–1347) wrote extensively on this topic. He argued strongly that universals are a product of abstract human thought. According to Ockham, universals are just words or concepts (at best) that only exist in the mind and have no real place in the external world. His opposition to universals was not based on his eponymous Razor, but rather he found that regarding them as real was contradictory in some sense. An early work has Ockham stating that 'no thing outside the soul is universal, either through itself or through anything real or rational added on, no matter how it is considered or understood'. Nevertheless, his position did shift away from an outright opposition to accommodating them in his later works such as the *Summae Logicae* (albeit in a modified way that would not classify him as a complete realist).

## Modern and contemporary philosophy

### Hegel

The 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel discussed the relation of universals and particulars throughout his works. Hegel posited that both exist in a dialectical relationship to one another; that is, one exists only in relation and in reference to the other.

He stated the following on the issue:

> The parts are diverse and independent of each other. They are, however, only parts in their identical relation to each other, or insofar as they, taken together, constitute the whole. But this togetherness is the opposite of the part.
>
> G.W.F. Hegel, *Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences* (1830)

### Mill

The 19th-century British philosopher John Stuart Mill discussed the problem of universals in the course of a book that eviscerated the philosophy of Sir William Hamilton. Mill wrote, "The formation of a concept does not consist in separating the attributes which are said to compose it from all other attributes of the same object and enabling us to conceive those attributes, disjoined from any others. We neither conceive them, nor think them, nor cognize them in any way, as a thing apart, but solely as forming, in combination with numerous other attributes, the idea of an individual object".

However, he then proceeds to state that Berkeley's position is factually wrong by stating the following:

> But, though meaning them only as part of a larger agglomeration, we have the power of fixing our attention on them, to the neglect of the other attributes with which we think them combined. While the concentration of attention lasts, if it is sufficiently intense, we may be temporarily unconscious of any of the other attributes and may really, for a brief interval, have nothing present to our mind but the attributes constituent of the concept.
>
> as quoted in William James, *The Principles of Psychology* (1890)

In other words, we may be "temporarily unconscious" of whether an image is white, black, yellow or purple and concentrate our attention on the fact that it is a man and on just those attributes necessary to identify it as a man (but not as any particular one). It may then have the significance of a universal of manhood.

### Peirce

The 19th-century American logician Charles Sanders Peirce, known as the father of pragmatism, developed his own views on the problem of universals in the course of a review of an edition of the writings of George Berkeley. Peirce begins with the observation that "Berkeley's metaphysical theories have at first sight an air of paradox and levity very unbecoming to a bishop". He includes among these paradoxical doctrines Berkeley's denial of "the possibility of forming the simplest general conception". He wrote that if there is some mental fact that works *in practice* the way that a universal would, that fact is a universal. "If I have learned a formula in gibberish which in any way jogs my memory so as to enable me in each single case to act as though I had a general idea, what possible utility is there in distinguishing between such a gibberish... and an idea?" Peirce also held as a matter of ontology that what he called "thirdness", the more general facts about the world, are extra-mental realities.

### James

William James learned about pragmatism. Though James certainly agreed with Peirce and against Berkeley that general ideas exist as a psychological fact, he was a nominalist in his ontology:

> From every point of view, the overwhelming and portentous character ascribed to universal conceptions is surprising. Why, from Plato and Aristotle, philosophers should have vied with each other in scorn of the knowledge of the particular and in adoration of that of the general, is hard to understand, seeing that the more adorable knowledge ought to be that of the more adorable things and that the things of worth are all concretes and singulars. The only value of universal characters is that they help us, by reasoning, to know new truths about individual things.
>
> William James, *The Principles of Psychology* (1890)

There are at least three ways in which a realist might try to answer James' challenge of explaining the reason why universal conceptions are more lofty than those of particulars: the moral–political answer, the mathematical–scientific answer, and the anti-paradoxical answer. Each has contemporary or near-contemporary advocates.

### Weaver

The moral or political response is given by the conservative philosopher Richard M. Weaver in *Ideas Have Consequences* (1948), where he describes how the acceptance of "the fateful doctrine of nominalism" was "the crucial event in the history of Western culture; from this flowed those acts which issue now in modern decadence".

### Quine

The noted American philosopher, W. V. O. Quine addressed the problem of universals throughout his career. In his paper, 'On Universals', from 1947, he states the problem of universals is chiefly understood as being concerned with entities and not the linguistic aspect of naming a universal. He says that Platonists believe that our ability to form general conceptions of things is incomprehensible unless universals exist outside of the mind, whereas nominalists believe that such ideas are 'empty verbalism'. Quine himself does not propose to resolve this particular debate. What he does say however is that certain types of 'discourse' presuppose universals: nominalists therefore must give these up. Quine's approach is therefore more an epistemological one, i.e. what can be known, rather than a metaphysical one, i.e. what is real.

### Cocchiarella

Nino Cocchiarella put forward the idea that realism is the best response to certain logical paradoxes to which nominalism leads ("Nominalism and Conceptualism as Predicative Second Order Theories of Predication", *Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic*, vol. 21 (1980)). It is noted that in a sense Cocchiarella has adopted Platonism for anti-Platonic reasons. Plato, as seen in the dialogue *Parmenides*, was willing to accept a certain amount of paradox with his forms. Cocchiarella adopts the forms to avoid paradox.

### Armstrong

The Australian philosopher David Malet Armstrong has been one of the leading realists in the twentieth century, and has used a concept of universals to build a naturalistic and scientifically realist ontology. In both *Universals and Scientific Realism* (1978) and *Universals: An Opinionated Introduction* (1989), Armstrong describes the relative merits of a number of nominalist theories which appeal either to "natural classes" (a view he ascribes to Anthony Quinton), concepts, resemblance relations or predicates, and also discusses non-realist "trope" accounts (which he describes in the *Universals and Scientific Realism* volumes as "particularism"). He gives a number of reasons to reject all of these, but also dismisses a number of realist accounts.

### Penrose

Roger Penrose contends that the foundations of mathematics can't be understood without the Platonic view that "mathematical truth is absolute, external and eternal, and not based on man-made criteria ... mathematical objects have a timeless existence of their own..."

## Indian philosophy

### Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika (Realist position)

Indian philosophers raise the problem of universals in relation to semantics. Universals are postulated as referents for the meanings of general terms.

The Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school conceives of universals as perceptible eternal entities, existing independently of our minds. Nyāya postulates the existence of universals based on our experience of a common characteristic among particulars. Thus, the meaning of a word is understood as a particular further characterized by a universal. For example, the meaning of the term 'cow' refers to a particular cow characterized by the universal of 'cowness'. Nyāya holds that although universals are apprehended differently from particulars, they are not separate, given their inherence in the particulars.

Not every term, however, corresponds to a universal. Udāyana puts forward six conditions for identifying genuine universals.

### Mīmaṃsã (Realist position)

Like the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school, Mīmaṃsã characterizes universals as referents for words. The fundamental difference between Bhāṭṭa Mīmaṃsā's and Nyāya is that Bhāṭṭa Mīmaṃsa rejects the Nyāya understanding of the universals' relation of inherence to the particulars. The Hindu philosopher Kumārila Bhaṭṭa argues that if inherence is different from the terms of the relation, it would continuously require another common relation, and if the inherence is non-different, it would be superfluous.

### Buddhist Nominalism

Buddhist ontology regards the world as consisting of momentary particulars and mentally constructed universals. In contrast to the realist schools of Indian philosophy, Buddhist logicians put forward a positive theory of nominalism, known as the apoha theory, which denies the existence of universals.

The apoha theory identifies particulars through double negation, not requiring for a general shared essence between terms. For instance, the term 'cow' can be understood as referring to every entity of its exclusion class 'non-cow'.

## Positions

There are many philosophical positions regarding universals.

1. Platonic realism (also called **extreme realism**" or **exaggerated realism**) is the view that universals or forms in this sense, are the causal explanation behind the notion of what things exactly are; (the view that universals are real entities existing independent of particulars).
2. Aristotelian realism (also called **strong realism** or moderate realism) is the rejection of extreme realism. This position establishes the view of a universal as being that of the quality within a thing and every other thing individual to it; (the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them).
3. Anti-realism is the objection to both positions. Anti-realism is divided into two subcategories; (1) Nominalism and (2) Conceptualism.

Taking "beauty" as example, each of these positions will state the following:

* Beauty is a property that exists in an ideal form independently of any mind or description.
* Beauty is a property that exists only when beautiful things exist.
* Beauty is a property constructed in the mind, so exists only in descriptions of things.

### Realism

The school of realism makes the claim that universals are real and that they exist distinctly, apart from the particulars that instantiate them. Two major forms of metaphysical realism are Platonic realism (*universalia ante res*), meaning "'universals before things'" and Aristotelian realism (*universalia in rebus*), meaning "'universals in things'". *Platonic realism* is the view that universals are real entities existing independent of particulars. *Aristotelian realism*, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.

Realists tend to argue that universals must be posited as distinct entities in order to account for various phenomena. A common realist argument said to be found in Plato's writings, is that universals are required for certain general words to have meaning and for the sentences in which they occur to be true or false. Take the sentence "Djivan Gasparyan is a musician" for instance. The realist may claim that this sentence is only meaningful and expresses a truth because there is an individual, Djivan Gasparyan, who possesses a certain quality: musicianship. Therefore, it is assumed that the property is a universal which is distinct from the particular individual who has the property.

### Nominalism

Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings; *universalia post res*). The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin *nomen* ("name"). Four major forms of nominalism are predicate nominalism, resemblance nominalism, trope nominalism, and conceptualism. One with a nominalist view claims that we predicate the same property of/to multiple entities, but argues that the entities only share a name and do not have a real quality in common.

Nominalists often argue this view by claiming that nominalism can account for all the relevant phenomena, and therefore—by Occam's razor, and its principle of simplicity—nominalism is preferable, since it posits fewer entities. Different variants and versions of nominalism have been endorsed or defended by many, including Chrysippus, Ibn Taymiyyah, William of Ockham, Ibn Khaldun, Rudolf Carnap, Nelson Goodman, David Lewis, H. H. Price, and D. C. Williams.

### Conceptualism

Conceptualism is a position that is meshed between realism and nominalism. Conceptualists believe that universals can indeed be real, but only existing as concepts within the mind. Conceptualists argue that the "concept" of universals are not mere "inventions but are reflections of similarities among particular things themselves." For example, the concept of 'man' ultimately reflects a similarity amongst Socrates and Kant.

## References and further reading

Historical studies * Klima, Gyula (2008). "The Medieval Problem of Universals", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
* Pinzani, Roberto (2018). *The Problem of Universals from Boethius to John of Salisbury*, Leiden: Brill.
* Spade, Paul Vincent. (1994, ed., transl.), "Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals: Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham", Hackett Pub Co Inc.

Contemporary studies * Armstrong, David (1989). *Universals*, Westview Press.
* Bacon, John (2008). "Tropes", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
* Cocchiarella, Nino (1975). "Logical Atomism, Nominalism, and Modal Logic", *Synthese*.
* Feldman, Fred (2005). "The Open Question Argument: What It Isn't; and What It Is", *Philosophical Issues* vol. 15. The Open Question Argument: What it Isn’t; and What it Is 1
* Lewis, David (1983). "New Work for a Theory of Universals", *Australasian Journal of Philosophy*.
* Loux, Michael J. (1998). *Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction*, N.Y.: Routledge.
* Loux, Michael J. (2001). "The Problem of Universals" in *Metaphysics: Contemporary Readings*, Michael J. Loux (ed.), N.Y.: Routledge, pp. 3–13.
* MacLeod, M. & Rubenstein, E. (2006). "Universals", *The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (link)
* Moreland, JP. (2001). "Universals." Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.
* Price, H. H. (1953). "Universals and Resemblance", Ch. 1 of *Thinking and Experience*, Hutchinson's University Library.
* Quine, W. V. O. (1961). "On What There is," in *From a Logical Point of View*, 2nd/ed. N.Y: Harper and Row.
* Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo (2008). "Nominalism in Metaphysics", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
* Russell, Bertrand (1912). "The World of Universals," in *The Problems of Philosophy*, Oxford University Press.
* Swoyer, Chris (2000). "Properties", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
* Williams, D. C. (1953). "On the Elements of Being", *Review of Metaphysics*, vol. 17.


title: Poznań '56

abstract: Poznań '56 is a Polish historical film directed by Filip Bajon about the Poznań 1956 protests. It was released in 1996. Premiered at the 1996 Polish Film Festival, the film won seven awards including Special Jury Prize. Despite this, Poznań '56 was controversial for audience.

text:
# Poznań '56

***Poznań '56*** is a Polish historical film directed by Filip Bajon about the Poznań 1956 protests. It was released in 1996. Premiered at the 1996 Polish Film Festival, the film won seven awards including Special Jury Prize. Despite this, *Poznań '56* was controversial for audience.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| Poznań '56 | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Filip Bajon |
| Screenplay by | Filip Bajon,
Andrzej Górny |
| Produced by | Filip Bajon |
| Starring | Michał Żebrowski,
Tadeusz Szymków,
Mateusz Hornung,
Arkadiusz Walkowiak |
| Music by | Michał Lorenc |
| Production
companies | Studio Filmowe Dom,
Telewizja Polska,
Fundacja Poznań 56 |
| Release dates | * 22 November 1996 (1996-11-22) * 19 November 1999 (1999-11-19) (France) |
| Running time | 106 minutes |
| Country | Poland |
| Language | Polish |


title: Zestaponi Municipality

abstract:
Zestaponi or Zestafoni is a municipality of Georgia, in the region of Imereti. The municipality covers a total area of 423 square kilometres and as of 2014 it had a population total of 57,628 people.
Its main town is Zestaponi which is an important industrial center, with a large ferro-alloy plant processing manganese ore from nearby Chiatura. The municipality is a notable wine-growing region.

text:
# Zestaponi Municipality

**Zestaponi** or **Zestafoni** (Georgian: ზესტაფონის მუნიციპალიტეტი) is a municipality of Georgia, in the region of Imereti. The municipality covers a total area of 423 square kilometres and as of 2014 it had a population total of 57,628 people. Its main town is Zestaponi which is an important industrial center, with a large ferro-alloy plant processing manganese ore from nearby Chiatura. The municipality is a notable wine-growing region.

## Geography

The municipality to the west of the town of Zestaponi is part of the Kolkheti lowlands at a height of 90-200 m, with the land rising to the east to the Imereti plateau at 500 m through a hilly zone with narrow rocky gorges. The region is bounded to the south with a low range of mountains rising to about 1,000 m. The lowland zone has relatively cold winters averaging -4 °C in January, with hot summers averaging 24 °C in August. Precipitation is about 1190 mm annually. In the higher areas the temperature is lower and there is more rainfall. The Kvirila River runs through the region from east to west, fed by many smaller rivers. Flooding is common in the spring.

The municipality is forested with hornbeam, oak, beech, chestnut, alder and many other tree species. The southern range has beech, maple, lime and Imeretian oak. The land has been partly cleared for agriculture in the lowlands and hilly areas, but is more densely forested in the southern mountain range. The forests are home to wolf, fox, jackal, badger, rabbit and smaller animals.

## Settlements

### Towns

The town of Zestaponi and the smaller neighboring town of Shorapani are industrial centers. The Zestaponi ferro-alloy plant processes raw manganese ore shipped by rail down the Kvirila valley from Chiatura, supplying 6% of world demand. It is the largest ferroalloy plant in the country. There were more factories in the Soviet era, but many have closed down.

### Rural areas

The rural areas include the communities of Boslevi, Dilikauri, Dzirula, Ilemi, Kldeeti, Kvaliti, Kveda Sakara, Kveda Sazano, Meore Sviri, Puti, Pirveli Sviri, Rodinauli, Sanakhshire, Shrosha, Tskhratskaro, Zeda Sakara and Zovreti. Each community typically includes two or three villages. There are medieval castles in several villages, notably the Shorapani and Sviri castles in the historical village of Argveti and a castle from the 6th-7th centuries in Tabakini. There are old churches, ancient wine cellars and other points of interest for tourism.

The Zestaponi Municipality has 5,000 hectares of vineyards accounting for 80% of all farmland. The Sakara Viticulture and Winemaking Scientific-Research Station plays an important role in developing viticulture in the Zestaponi Region. Other crops include maize and vegetables, cattle breeding and swine production.

**The district's main settlements are:**

| Rank | Settlement | Population |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Zestaponi | 20 814 |
| 2 | Zeda Sakara | 2 099 |
| 3 | Kveda Sakara | 1 989 |
| 4 | Puti | 1 564 |
| 5 | Zovreti | 1 513 |
| 6 | Shorapani | 1 258 |
|

## Politics

**Zestaponi Municipal Assembly** (Georgian: ზესტაფონის საკრებულო, *Zestaponis Sakrebulo*) is a representative body in Zestaponi Municipality, consisting of 39 members which are elected every four years. The last election was held in October 2021.

| Party | | 2017 | 2021 | Current Municipal Assembly | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Georgian Dream | **29** | **27** |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | United National Movement | **3** | **10** |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | For Georgia |  | **2** |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | European Georgia | **2** |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | Alliance of Patriots | **2** |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| Total | | 36 | 39 |  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

42°06′20″N 43°02′09″E / 42.10556°N 43.03583°E / 42.10556; 43.03583

## InfoBox

| Zestaponi Municipality ზესტაფონის მუნიციპალიტეტი | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
| Tabakini Church near Argveti | |
|  | |
| Location of the municipality within Georgia | |
| Country | Georgia |
| Region | Imereti |
| Capital | Zestaponi |
| Government | |
| Type | Mayor–Council |
| Body | Zestaponi Municipal Assembly |
| Mayor | Giorgi Goglichidze (Georgian Dream) |
| Area | |
| Total | 423 km2 (163 sq mi) |
| Population (2014) | |
| Total | 57,628 |
| Population by ethnicity | |
| Georgians | 99.5 % |
| Russians | 0.2 % |
| Armenians | 0.1 % |
| Ukrainians | 0.1 % |
| Time zone | UTC+4 (Georgian Standard Time) |
|  | |


title: Matlwang

abstract: Matlwang Village is a small rural village west of Potchefstroom, North West province in South Africa.

text:
# Matlwang

**Matlwang** **Village** is a small rural village west of Potchefstroom, North West province in South Africa.

## InfoBox

| Matlwang Village | |
| --- | --- |
| Matlwang VillageMatlwang Village | |
| Coordinates: 26°44′42″S 26°55′52″E / 26.745°S 26.931°E / -26.745; 26.931 | |
| Country | South Africa |
| Province | North West |
| District | Dr Kenneth Kaunda |
| Municipality | JB Marks |
| Area | |
| Total | 6.06 km2 (2.34 sq mi) |
| Population (2011) | |
| Total | 782 |
| Density | 130/km2 (330/sq mi) |
| Racial makeup (2011) | |
| Black African | 98.7% |
| Coloured | 0.8% |
| Indian/Asian | 0.3% |
| White | 0.3% |
| First languages (2011) | |
| Tswana | 65.9% |
| Xhosa | 16.6% |
| Sotho | 10.6% |
| Zulu | 3.7% |
| Other | 3.2% |
| Time zone | UTC+2 (SAST) |


title: Postplatyptilia paraglyptis

abstract: Postplatyptilia paraglyptis is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from Argentina. The wingspan is about 14 mm.

text:
# Postplatyptilia paraglyptis

***Postplatyptilia paraglyptis*** is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from Argentina.

The wingspan is about 14 mm.

## InfoBox

| *Postplatyptilia paraglyptis* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Pterophoridae |
| Genus: | *Postplatyptilia* |
| Species: | ***P. paraglyptis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Postplatyptilia paraglyptis***<br>(Meyrick, 1908) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Platyptilia paraglyptis* Meyrick, 1908 | |


title: New Zealand one-dollar coin

abstract: The New Zealand one-dollar coin ($1) is a coin of the New Zealand dollar. The current circulating coin was introduced on 11 February 1991 to replace the existing $1 note. There had previously been occasional issues of commemorative "silver dollars", but they are rarely seen in circulation. The depiction of a kiwi on the reverse helps give the New Zealand dollar the colloquial name "Kiwi (dollar)", although the term was in use before the $1 coin was introduced. Both the $1 and $2 coins are gold-coloured, and requests for a Koha, donation or entry fee sometimes say gold coin please.

text:
# New Zealand one-dollar coin

The **New Zealand one-dollar coin** ($1) is a coin of the New Zealand dollar. The current circulating coin was introduced on 11 February 1991 to replace the existing $1 note. There had previously been occasional issues of commemorative "silver dollars", but they are rarely seen in circulation.

The depiction of a kiwi on the reverse helps give the New Zealand dollar the colloquial name "Kiwi (dollar)", although the term was in use before the $1 coin was introduced.

Both the $1 and $2 coins are gold-coloured, and requests for a Koha, donation or entry fee sometimes say *gold coin please.*

## Current circulating coin (1991–present)

The current coin replaced the New Zealand one dollar note in use since New Zealand's currency was decimalised on 10 July 1967. The reason for replacing the note was due to inflation making the note more expensive to produce, and notes had to be replaced regularly due to wear and tear. The $1 coins, and $2 coins, were first minted in 1990 but circulated in 1991. The $1 notes were withdrawn later that year.

The new $1 coin was made of aluminium bronze, and was 23.0 mm in diameter, 2.74 mm thick, and 8.0 g in weight. The edge of the coin consisted of eight sections, alternating between milling and plain sections. The reverse of the coin was designed by Robert Maurice Conly, and depicted two symbols of New Zealand: a kiwi facing left in the centre, surrounded by four fronds of the silver fern *(Cyathea dealbata)*. Both the kiwi and the silver ferns sat above the legend reading the denomination "ONE DOLLAR". The obverse consisted of Raphael Maklouf's portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, the Queen of New Zealand, with the legend reading "ELIZABETH II NEW ZEALAND \[year of minting\]".

In 1999, the obverse of all new $1 coins was changed with the addition of Ian Rank-Broadley's portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, and the legend was rearranged to read "NEW ZEALAND ELIZABETH II \[year of minting\]".

In 2006 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand replaced the 10c, 20c and 50c coins in circulation with smaller, lighter ones, and removed the 5c coin from circulation. The $1 remained the same as it was relatively new (the oldest $1 coins were only 14 years old), they circulated well, and the extra expense of adapting machines that only took $1 coins. Another reason for the change in size was that the 10c and $1 coin were very similar in size, being only 0.62 mm different in diameter.

Due to a similar design, it was sometimes possible to pass the $1 coin as a £1 coin in the United Kingdom, in shops and vending machines. However, since the new 2017 £1 coin release this is no longer possible.

### Mintages

| Year | Coins minted |
| --- | --- |
| 1990 | 40,000,000 |
| 1991 | 10,000,000 |
| 2000 | 5,000,000 |
| 2002 | 8,000,000 |
| 2003 | 4,000,000 |
| 2004 | 2,700,000 |
| 2005 | 2,000,000 |
| 2008 | 11,000,000 |
| 2010 | 10,000,000 |
| 2013 | 10,080,000 |
| 2015 | 10,000,000 |
| 2019 | 12,200,000 |
| **Total** | **125,740,000** |

Total value: $125,740,000

## Future

After the death of Queen Elizabeth II in September 2022, the Reserve Bank said it would exhaust its existing coin stocks before introducing new coins featuring King Charles III. Based on current stock levels, this would likely be several years away.

## InfoBox

One dollar
| New Zealand | |
| --- | --- |
| Value | 1.00 New Zealand dollars |
| Mass | 8.00 g |
| Diameter | 23.00 mm |
| Thickness | 2.74 mm |
| Edge | Intermittently milled |
| Composition | Copper-Aluminium-Nickel (Cu 92%, Al 6%, Ni 2%) |
| Years of minting | 1990–present |
| Catalog number |  |
| Obverse | |
|  | |
| Design | Elizabeth II, Queen of New Zealand |
| Designer | Raphael David Maklouf
Ian Rank-Broadley |
| Design date | 1986 (RDM)
1999 (IRB) |
| Reverse | |
|  | |
| Design | A kiwi surrounded by silver fern fronds |
| Designer | Robert Maurice Conly |
| Design date | 1990 |


title: Pachybrachis bullatus

abstract: Pachybrachis bullatus, the bubble-banded pachy, is a species of case-bearing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is found in North America.

text:
# Pachybrachis bullatus

***Pachybrachis bullatus***, the **bubble-banded pachy**, is a species of case-bearing leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. It is found in North America.

## Further reading

* Lobl, I.; Smetana, A., eds. (2013). *Catalogue of Palaearctic Coleoptera, Volume 6: Chrysomeloidea*. Apollo Books. ISBN 978-90-04-26091-7.

## InfoBox

| *Pachybrachis bullatus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Chrysomelidae |
| Genus: | *Pachybrachis* |
| Species: | ***P. bullatus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pachybrachis bullatus***<br>Fall, 1915 | |
|


title: Popcorn (2023 film)

abstract: Popcorn is a 2023 Indian Telugu-language romantic survival film written and directed by Murali Gandham. The film stars Avika Gor and Sai Ronak. The film's soundtrack album and background score were composed by Shravan Bharadwaj. The film was released on 10 February 2023.

text:
# Popcorn (2023 film)

***Popcorn*** is a 2023 Indian Telugu-language romantic survival film written and directed by Murali Gandham. The film stars Avika Gor and Sai Ronak. The film's soundtrack album and background score were composed by Shravan Bharadwaj.

The film was released on 10 February 2023.

## Plot

## Cast

## Production

The film was produced by Bhogendra Gupta under the banner of Acharya Creations and co-produced by Avika Gor, MS Chalapathi Raju, and Seshubabu Peddinti. Avika Gor makes her debut as a producer with this film. The cinematography of the film was done by MN Bal Reddy, and the editing of the film was done by KSR. The trailer for the film was released on 4 January 2023.

## Music

The film's soundtrack album and background score were composed by Shravan Bharadwaj, while the song "Ringu Ringu Mantu" was composed by Sreejo.

All lyrics are written by Sreejo.

Track listing
| No. | Title | Music | Singer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Siri Siri Muvva" | Shravan Bharadwaj | Lalitha Kavya | 4:07 |
| 2. | "Madhi Vihangamayye" | Shravan Bharadwaj | Benny Dayal, Ramya Behara | 4:10 |
| 3. | "Ringu Ringu Mantu" | Sreejo | Sreejo | 0:58 |
| 4. | "Hey Kandireega Kalla" | Shravan Bharadwaj | Karthik | 2:24 |
| 5. | "Kalale Kannerai" | Shravan Bharadwaj | Kaala Bhairava | 4:06 |
| Total length: | | | | 15:45 |

## Release

### Theatrical

The film was released on 10 February 2023.

### Home Media

The online streaming rights to the film were sold to Amazon Prime Video.

## Reception

Abhilasha Cherukuri of *Cinema Express* gave the film a rating of 2/5, stating, "Avika and Sai Ronak fail to elicit any interest in this barely persuasive story with dated treatment." Paul Nicodemus of *The Times of India* gave the film a rating of 2/5 and wrote, "This romantic drama featuring Avika Gor and Sai Ronak in the lead has an experimental tone; while the actors impress, it begs for better writing and screenplay. The corn kernel did not pop."

Avad Mohammad of *OTTplay* gave the film a rating of 2/5, stating, "Avika Gor and Sai Ronak try too hard to save the film but the narration is so bland and silly that you are forced to start looking toward the exit door." A critic from *ABP Live Telugu* gave the film a rating of 1.5/5 and criticized the writing and performances of the actors. A critic from *The Hans India* gave the film a rating of 2/5, stating, "Despite decent performances by the lead actors, the film falls short as a below-par experience."

## InfoBox

| Popcorn | |
| --- | --- |
| Theatrical release poster | |
| Directed by | Murali Gandham |
| Written by | Murali Gandham |
| Produced by | * Bhogendra Gupta * Avika Gor * MS Chalapathi Raju * Seshubabu Peddinti |
| Starring |  |
| Cinematography | M. N. Balreddy |
| Edited by | KSR |
| Music by | Shravan Bharadwaj |
| Production<br>companies | * Acharya Creations * Avika Screen Creations |
| Distributed by | MS Chalapathi Raju |
| Release date | * 10 February 2023 (2023-02-10) |
| Running time | 112 minutes |
| Country | India |
| Language | Telugu |


title: Microbacterium agarici

abstract: Microbacterium agarici is a Gram-positive and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus Microbacterium which has been isolated from the mushroom Agaricus blazei in Taiwan.

text:
# Microbacterium agarici

***Microbacterium agarici*** is a Gram-positive and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus *Microbacterium* which has been isolated from the mushroom *Agaricus blazei* in Taiwan.

## Further reading

* George M., Garrity (2012). *Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology* (2nd ed.). New York: Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-68233-4.

## InfoBox

| *Microbacterium agarici* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Actinomycetota |
| Class: | Actinomycetia |
| Order: | Micrococcales |
| Family: | Microbacteriaceae |
| Genus: | *Microbacterium* |
| Species: | ***M. agarici*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Microbacterium agarici***
Young et al. 2010 | |
|
| Type strain | |
| CC-SBCK-209
CCM 7686
DSM 21798 | |


title: Gerhard Klammer

abstract: Gerhard Klammer was a German geologist who informed authorities that Adolf Eichmann was hiding in Argentina, which led to his capture by Mossad. Klammer and Eichmann, under the alias 'Ricardo Klement', both worked for CAPRI Construction in Tucumán Province. Klammer recognized 'Klement' as Eichmann, and, when he returned to Germany, attempted to report him, but German authorities did not take action. He confided in his friend Giselher Pohl, a priest, who told his bishop of Klammer's sighting. This led to Mossad's investigation and kidnapping of Eichmann. Klammer attended university in Göttingen, as did his future wife Ilse and their friends, Rosemarie and Giselher Pohl; Klammer studied geology, history, and philosophy. Klammer applied in 1939 to join the SS, but his application was rejected, as his father had had tuberculosis. After seeing images of concentration camps, Klammer left Germany. Klammer died in 1982, wishing for his role as an informant to be hidden. His family gave permission for his role to be revealed in 2021.

text:
# Gerhard Klammer

**Gerhard Klammer** was a German geologist who informed authorities that Adolf Eichmann was hiding in Argentina, which led to his capture by Mossad. Klammer and Eichmann, under the alias 'Ricardo Klement', both worked for CAPRI Construction in Tucumán Province. Klammer recognized 'Klement' as Eichmann, and, when he returned to Germany, attempted to report him, but German authorities did not take action. He confided in his friend Giselher Pohl, a priest, who told his bishop of Klammer's sighting. This led to Mossad's investigation and kidnapping of Eichmann.

Klammer attended university in Göttingen, as did his future wife Ilse and their friends, Rosemarie and Giselher Pohl; Klammer studied geology, history, and philosophy. Klammer applied in 1939 to join the SS, but his application was rejected, as his father had had tuberculosis. After seeing images of concentration camps, Klammer left Germany.

Klammer died in 1982, wishing for his role as an informant to be hidden. His family gave permission for his role to be revealed in 2021.

## InfoBox

| Gerhard Klammer | |
| --- | --- |
| Died | 1982 |
| Spouse | Ilse |


title: Prairie Street station

abstract: Prairie Street is one of four Metra railroad stations in Blue Island, Illinois along the Beverly Branch of the Rock Island District Line, and one of five total within the town of Blue Island. It is 15.8 miles (25.4 km) from LaSalle Street Station, the northern terminus of the line, and is both located on and named after Prairie Street. In Metra's zone-based fare system, Prairie Street is in zone 2. As of 2018, Prairie Street is the 220th busiest of Metra's 236 non-downtown stations, with an average of 30 weekday boardings. As of 2022, Prairie Street is served as a flag stop by 40 trains on weekdays, by 21 trains on Saturdays, and by 16 trains on Sundays and holidays. Parking is available on both sides of the tracks at a dead end at Prairie Street, south of the Burr Oak Avenue Bridge, which also crosses the main line and the freight yards between the two lines, the Burr Oak Yard on the north side of the bridge and the Iowa Interstate Railroad-Chicago Rail Link. Though a station house exists it contains no agent, and the station is a flag stop. No bus connections are available.

text:
# Prairie Street station

**Prairie Street** is one of four Metra railroad stations in Blue Island, Illinois along the Beverly Branch of the Rock Island District Line, and one of five total within the town of Blue Island. It is 15.8 miles (25.4 km) from LaSalle Street Station, the northern terminus of the line, and is both located on and named after Prairie Street. In Metra's zone-based fare system, Prairie Street is in zone 2. As of 2018, Prairie Street is the 220th busiest of Metra's 236 non-downtown stations, with an average of 30 weekday boardings.

As of 2022, Prairie Street is served as a flag stop by 40 trains (20 in each direction) on weekdays, by 21 trains (10 inbound, 11 outbound) on Saturdays, and by 16 trains (eight in each direction) on Sundays and holidays.

Parking is available on both sides of the tracks at a dead end at Prairie Street, south of the Burr Oak Avenue Bridge, which also crosses the main line and the freight yards between the two lines, the **Burr Oak Yard** on the north side of the bridge and the **Iowa Interstate Railroad-Chicago Rail Link**. Though a station house exists it contains no agent, and the station is a flag stop. No bus connections are available.

* Metra – Stations – Prairie Street station
* Station from Google Maps Street View

## InfoBox

| Prairie Street | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Location | 2100 West Prairie Street<br>Blue Island, Illinois |
| Coordinates | 41°39′43″N 87°40′31″W / 41.6620°N 87.6752°W / 41.6620; -87.6752 |
| Owned by | Metra |
| Line(s) | Beverly Subdistrict |
| Platforms | 1 side platform |
| Tracks | 2 |
| Construction | |
| Parking | Yes |
| Accessible | No |
| Other information | |
| Fare zone | 2 |
| Passengers | |
|  | |
| 2018 | 30 (average weekday) 50% |
| Rank | 220 out of 236 |
|  | |
|  | |
| Services | |
| Preceding station  Metra Following station  Blue Island–Vermont Streettoward Joliet  Rock IslandBeverly Branch  123rd Streettoward LaSalle Street | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Former services   Preceding station Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad Following station  Blue Island Vermont Streettoward Joliet  Suburban Servicevia Beverly  Blue Island 123rd Streettoward Chicago | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | |


title: Zest Of

abstract: Zest Of is a 2008 album recorded by French pop singer Zazie. It was her first best of and her tenth album overall. It was released on 17 November 2008 digitally and under physical formats and achieved success in francophone countries. It provided a sole single, "FM Air", which was #8 in France and #19 in Belgium (Wallonia).

text:
# Zest Of

***Zest Of*** is a 2008 album recorded by French pop singer Zazie. It was her first best of and her tenth album overall. It was released on 17 November 2008 digitally and under physical formats and achieved success in francophone countries. It provided a sole single, "FM Air" (a pun in French-language with "éphémère"), which was #8 in France and #19 in Belgium (Wallonia).

## Description and chart performance

It contains 36 songs from Zazie's six studio albums, *Je, tu, ils*, *Zen*, *Made in Love*, *La Zizanie*, *Rodéo* and *Totem*. It includes in live a song from *Made in Live* and four others from the singer's later tour, Totem Tour, plus the duets with Axel Bauer and Pascal Obispo which didn't appear on Zazie's studio albums.

It also contains two new songs, "FM Air", available in six versions released on collector-edition vinyl (limited edition) and the song "Un peu beaucoup".

The best-of was available in two versions : standard editions (two CD), and the collector edition (2 CD + DVD, in a set box).

The album went straight to number-one in France (compilations chart) and remained at this position for seven weeks. It also debuted atop in Belgium and remained for 14 weeks in the top ten. It was much less successful in Switzerland, staying for only nine weeks on the chart.

## Track listings

### CD 1

| Title | Length | From album |
| --- | --- | --- |
| "FM Air" | 3:27 | *Zest Of* |
| "Je suis un homme" | 4:08 | *Totem* |
| "Des rails" | 3:04 | *Totem* |
| "Duo" (duet with Paolo Nutini) | 3:10 | *Totem* |
| "Flower Power" | 2:51 | *Totem* |
| "Ça" | 3:16 | *Totem* |
| "J'étais là" (2007 live, duet with Diam's) | 3:36 | *Totem* |
| "Rodéo" | 3:31 | *Rodéo* |
| "Toc toc toc" | 3:28 | *Rodéo* |
| "La dolce vita" | 4:32 | *Rodéo* |
| "Un peu beaucoup" | 2:55 | *Zest Of* |
| "J'arrive" | 4:32 | *Rodéo* |
| "Oui" (2007 live) | 5:05 | *Rodéo* |
| "On éteint" (2007 live) | 4:43 | *La Zizanie* |
| "Aux armes citoyennes" | 4:41 | *La Zizanie* |
| "Adam & Yves" | 4:38 | *La Zizanie* |
| "Si j'étais moi" (2007 live) | 5:55 | *La Zizanie* |
| "Rue de la paix" | 4:16 | *La Zizanie* |
| "Sur toi" | 4:06 | *La Zizanie* |

### CD 2

| Title | Length | From album |
| --- | --- | --- |
| "À ma place" (with Axel Bauer) | 5:49 | *Personne n'est parfait* |
| "Chanson d'ami" | 4:33 | *Made in Love* |
| "Tout le monde" (replicant remix) | 4:46 | *Made in Love* |
| "La preuve par trois" | 5:29 | *Made in Love* |
| "Cyber" (live Tour des Anges) | 4:24 | "Made in Live" |
| "Tous des anges" | 5:17 | *Made in Love* |
| "Ça fait mal et ça fait rien" | 4:27 | *Made in Love* |
| "Les meilleurs ennemis" (duet with Pascal Obispo) | 3:31 | *Superflu* |
| "J'envoie valser" | 3:28 | *Zen* |
| "Au diable nos adieux" | 4:38 | *Zen* |
| "Zen" | 3:53 | *Zen* |
| "Un point c'est toi" (new version) | 4:31 | *Zen* |
| "Larsen" | 4:36 | *Zen* |
| "Homme sweet homme" remix | 3:54 | *Zen* |
| "Je tue ils" | 3:48 | *Je, tu, ils* |
| "Sucré salé" | 3:32 | *Je, tu, ils* |
| "Snowball" | 4:10 | *Je, tu, ils* |
|

### DVD (collector edition)

| Title | From album | Producer |
| --- | --- | --- |
| "FM Air" | *Zest Of* | Julien Reymond |
| "J'étais là" | *Totem* | Denis Thybaud |
| "Je suis un homme" | *Totem* | Yvan Attal |
| "Des rails" | *Totem* | Gilles Porte |
| "La pluie et le beau temps" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Doolididom" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Excuse-moi" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "La dolce vita" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Toc toc toc" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Lola majeure" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Slow" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Rodéo" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "J'arrive" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Oui" | *Rodéo* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Danse avec les loops" | *La Zizanie* | Julien Trousselier |
| "Sur toi" | *La Zizanie* | Spe6men |
| "Adam & Yves" | *La Zizanie* | Mathieu Salliva |
| "Rue de la paix" | *La Zizanie* | Spe6men |
| "À ma place" | *Personne n'est parfait* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Cyber" | *Made in Love* | Gilbert Namiand |
| "Chanson d'ami" | *Made in Love* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Tout le monde" | *Made in Love* | Jean-Baptiste Mondino |
| "Ça fait mal et ça fait rien" | *Made in Love* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Tous des anges" | *Made in Love* | Philippe André |
| "Les meilleurs ennemis" | *Superflu* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Homme sweet homme" | *Zen* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Un point c'est toi" | *Zen* | Didier Le Pêcheur |
| "Zen" | *Zen* | Philippe André |
| "Larsen" | *Zen* | Philippe André |
| "Un petit peu amoureux" | *Je, tu, ils* | Philippe Gautier |
| "Je tue ils" | *Je, tu, ils* | Philippe Gautier |
| "Sucré salé" | *Je, tu, ils* | Pascal d'Hoeraene |

## Charts and sales

## Certifications and sales

| Region | Certification | Certified units/sales |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Belgium (BEA) | Gold | 15,000* |
| * Sales figures based on certification alone.
 | | |

## InfoBox

| Zest Of | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Greatest hits album by Zazie | |
| Released | 17 November 2008 |
| Recorded | 1992–2008 |
| Genre | Pop |
| Length | 150:43 |
| Label | Mercury, Universal Music |
| Zazie chronology | |
| *Totem*
(2007) ***Zest Of***
(2008) *Za7ie*
(2010) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *Zest Of* | |
| 1. "FM Air"
Released: 2008 | |
|  | |


title: Vilma Espín

abstract: Vilma Lucila Espín Guillois was a Cuban revolutionary, feminist, and chemical engineer. She helped supply and organize the 26th of July Movement as an underground spy, and took an active role in many branches of the Cuban government from the conclusion of the revolution to her death. Espín helped found the Federation of Cuban Women and promoted equal rights for Cuban women in all spheres of life.

text:
# Vilma Espín

**Vilma Lucila Espín Guillois** (7 April 1930 – 18 June 2007) was a Cuban revolutionary, feminist, and chemical engineer. She helped supply and organize the 26th of July Movement as an underground spy, and took an active role in many branches of the Cuban government from the conclusion of the revolution to her death. Espín helped found the Federation of Cuban Women and promoted equal rights for Cuban women in all spheres of life.

## Early life and education

Vilma Espín Guillois was born on 7 April 1930, in Santiago de Cuba. She was the daughter of a wealthy Cuban lawyer, Jose Espín and wife Margarita Guillois. She had four siblings, Nilsa, Iván, Sonia and José. Espín attended Academia Pérez-Peña for primary school and studied ballet and singing at the Asociación Pro-Arte Cubano during the 1940s. In the 1950s, she studied chemical engineering at Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba (one of the first women in Cuba to study this subject). While attending Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba, she played volleyball, tennis, and was a soprano in the University Choir. In university, Espin met her mentor Frank Pais in a university group called Oriente Revolutionary Action (ARO), which was responsible for the assault on the Moncada barracks. After graduating, her father encouraged her to attend MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts to complete her post-graduate studies in the hopes that visiting America would dissuade her from becoming involved in socialist activity. When she finally acquiesced, her brief academic career at MIT left her with even more animosity toward the United States, as she officially joined the 26th of July Movement on her way back to Cuba through Mexico. Espin only completed one semester at MIT.

## Role in the Cuban revolution

Returning home, she became more involved with the opposition to the dictator Fulgencio Batista. A meeting with revolutionary leader Frank País led her to become a leader of the revolutionary movement in Oriente province. Espín met the Castro brothers who had relocated to Mexico after their failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks in July 1953 and release from prison in 1955. Espin acted as a messenger between the Julio 26 Movement in Mexico and Pais back in Cuba. She then went on to assist the revolutionaries in the Sierra Maestra mountains after the 26th of July Movement's return to Cuba on the Granma yacht in November 1956.

Espín's ability to speak both Spanish and English allowed her to represent the revolutionary movement on an international scale. Pepín Bosch, an executive of the Bacardi Corporation, arranged a meeting between CIA Inspector General Lyman Kirkpatrick and representatives of the 26th of July Movement in 1957. Espín, as both a revolutionary leader and the daughter of a Bacardi executive, told Kirkpatrick that the revolutionaries only wanted "what you Americans have: clean politics and a clean police system." She also acted as an interpreter for an interview between New York Times reporter Herbert Matthews and Fidel Castro in 1957, which served the dual purpose of spreading news of the revolution and assuring Cubans and the international community that Batista's claims of Castro's death were false.

## Role in the Federation of Cuban Women

Vilma Espín was an outspoken supporter of gender equality in Cuba, but distinctly separated herself and the goals of the Federation of Cuban Women from traditional feminism, insisting advocacy for 'feminine' not 'feminist'. Her involvement in the revolution helped transform the role of women in Cuba and in 1960, Espín became the president of the Federation of Cuban Women, and remained in that position until her death in 2007. The organization's primary goals were educating women, giving them the necessary skills to seek gainful employment, and above all encouraging them to participate in politics and support the revolutionary government. In 1960, when sugar mills and cane fields were under attack across Cuba shortly before the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Federation of Cuban Women created the Emergency Medical Response Brigades to mobilize women against counter-revolution. The Cuban government and the Federation encouraged women to join the labor force, even going so far as to pass the Cuban Family Code in 1975, a law mandating that men must help with household chores and childcare to lighten the workload for working mothers.

## Role in the Cuban government

Espín served as a member of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party from 1965 to 1989. She also held many other roles in the Cuban government, including chair of the Commission for Social Prevention from 1967 to 1971, director of Industrial Development in the Ministry of Food in 1969, president of the Institute of Childcare in 1971, and member of the Cuban Council of State in 1976. In addition to her roles within Cuba, Espín also served as Cuba's representative at the United Nations General Assembly.

Espín took on the role of Cuba's First Lady for 45 years, initially taking on the role as the sister-in-law to Fidel Castro, who was divorced at the time he came to power. She officially became the First Lady in 2006 when her husband, Raúl Castro, became president. Additionally, she was granted the title of "Secretary of State" in the Government of Cuba.

Espín headed the Cuban Delegation to the Congress of the International Federation of Democratic Women in Chile in September 1959. She also headed the Cuban delegations to subsequent Conferences on Women, praising them as "invaluable to women in developing countries."

## Family

Espín was married to Raúl Castro, the former First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, who is the brother to former First Secretary Fidel Castro. Their wedding took place in 1959, only weeks after the 26th of July Movement had successfully overthrown dictator Fulgencio Batista. She had four children (Deborah, Mariela, Nilsa, and Alejandro Castro Espín) and eight grandchildren. Her daughter, Mariela Castro, currently heads the Cuban National Center for Sex Education, and her son, Alejandro Castro Espín, is a Colonel in the Ministry of Interior.

## Death and legacy

Espín died in Havana at 4:14 p.m. EDT on 18 June 2007, following a long illness. An official mourning-period was declared from 8 p.m. on 18 June until 10 p.m. on 19 June. A funeral ceremony was held at the Karl Marx Theatre in Havana the day after her death. Thousands of Cubans paid their respects in a receiving line at the Plaza of the Revolution in Havana. Raúl Castro was in the receiving line, but Fidel Castro was not present. The Cuban government released a statement praising her as "one of the most relevant fighters for women's emancipation in our country and in the world." Her body was cremated, and her remains rest in the Frank País Mausoleum, Municipio II Frente in the province of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. The Vilma Espín elementary school was opened in Havana in April 2013. Espin founded the Frente Continental de Mujeres Contra la Intervención (Continental Women’s Front Against Intervention, FCMCI) and the Regional Center of the International Democratic Federation of Women for the Americas and Caribbean.

* de Haan, Francisca (2023). *The Palgrave Handbook of Communist Women Activists around the World*. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-031-13126-4.
* Espín, Vilma; de los Santos, Asela; Ferrer, Yolanda (2012). *Women in Cuba: The Making of a Revolution Within the Revolution*. New York: Pathfinder. ISBN 978-1604880366.
* Ferrer Gómez, Yolanda; Aguilar Ayerra, Carolina (2015). *Vilma Espín Guillois: El Fuego de la Libertad* (in Spanish). Havana: Editorial de la Mujer. ISBN 9789597217800.
* Gott, Richard (2005). *Cuba: A New History*. Yale Nota Bene. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300111142.

## InfoBox

| Vilma Espín Guillois | |
| --- | --- |
| Espín c. 1958 | |
|  | |
| First Lady of Cuba | |
| **In role**
2 December 1976  18 June 2007
**De facto**
16 February 1959 – 2 December 1976 | |
| Leader | Fidel Castro
Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by | María de la Caridad Molina |
| Succeeded by | Lis Cuesta Peraza (2018) |
| President of the Federation of Cuban Women | |
| **In office**
23 August 1960  18 June 2007 | |
| Succeeded by | Yolanda Ferrer Gómez
*as General Secretary* |
| Other office held | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Vilma Lucila Espín Guillois
(1930-04-07)7 April 1930
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba |
| Died | 18 June 2007(2007-06-18) (aged 77)
Havana, Cuba |
| Spouse | Raúl Castro (m. 1959) |
| Children | 4, including Mariela and Alejandro |
| Education | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
| Awards | Lenin Peace Prize (1977–78) |
|  | |


title: Prashant Tamang

abstract: Prashant Tamang is an Indian singer and film actor based in Kathmandu. He was the winner of Indian Idol Season 3 in 2007.

text:
# Prashant Tamang

**Prashant Tamang** (born 4 January 1983) is an Indian singer and film actor based in Kathmandu. He was the winner of *Indian Idol Season 3* in 2007.

## Personal life

Prashant Tamang was born in Darjeeling, West Bengal, India to Rupa Tamang and Madan Tamang and studied at St Robert School. After the demise of his father in an accident, Tamang left school and joined Kolkata Police as a constable in his father's place. In Kolkata Police, he sang for the police orchestra. His family includes his grandmother, mother and his sister, Archana. He married Geeta Thapa (Martha Alley), who is a flight attendant, on 16 February 2011 in Nagaland, India.

## Indian Idol

According to the Indian Idol programme commentary, Tamang auditioned for Indian Idol 3 (2007) because his friends and his seniors, especially Mr. Zulfiqar Hasan, Special Additional Commissioner of Police (who incidentally also got Tamang's leave sanctioned for the competition) told him that his voice was very good. He auditioned for Indian Idol in Kolkata and was subsequently chosen for the next rounds. He received mixed comments from judges for his performances. He is the only contestant to have never been in the bottom three or four of the gala round. Tamang made it to the top two of Indian Idol 3 along with Amit Paul. Tamang got about 10 times more votes (70 million votes) than Amit in the final and went on to win the Indian Idol contest. He won 10 million Indian rupees cash prize & a Maruti Suzuki SX4 as the winner of Indian Idol.

### Voting for Indian Idol

After entering the Indian Idol contest, Tamang became a celebrity in West Bengal, Sikkim and particularly in the Darjeeling hills. People from Kolkata, Sikkim and Nepalese population living all around the world voted overwhelmingly for Tamang in the contest. The mayor of Mirik vowed to spend Rs. 10,000 and his staff vowed to spend a month's salary in SMS voting for Prashant Tamang. People of Nepalese origin working in Brunei, UK, Hong Kong, UAE and other countries sent money to vote for him in India.

Travel was organised in Howrah, Kolkata in his support, some of which were attended by his sister, mother, and grandmother. In Pokhara, Nepal, Radio Annapurna (93.4 MHz) campaigned for collecting donation and the collected sum of NRs. Seventy-thousand donations were sent to Darjeeling through its representative to vote for Tamang. A signature campaign for his support was organised by Himalaya Darpan (a Nepali newspaper) in Kolkata. Schools, clubs and other organisations asked people to support and vote for Tamang, who was named "पहाडको गौरव" (Pahad Ko Gaurav) meaning "Pride of the Hills". Two cabinet ministers from Sikkim, G.M. Gurung and S.B. Subedi, planted tree saplings at Singtam to pledge the Sikkimese support for Tamang and to show the unity of the Nepalese community in Sikkim and Kolkata. The Minister of Sports & Youth Affairs of Sikkim, P.S. Golay, also supported the statewide voting for Tamang.

### Support from Kolkata Police

Tamang, a constable in Kolkata Police, was supported by the officials of his department. Zulfiqar Hasan (Special ACP), visibly ecstatic with Tamang's triumph, in his interview after the announcement of the result, told that he was confident that Tamang would win and he and his team supported Tamang at every stage of the competition. According to reports, a couple of policemen even stayed awake through the nights to vote for Tamang. Hasan said, "Given the hard worker he is, Tamang deserved this title. He has no formal training in music, but he has been chosen the new Indian Idol. This proves how dedicated he is towards whatever he does."

### Bimal Gurung and Gorkhaland movement

Bimal Gurung, a former councillor of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council, led a successful campaign for voting for Tamang in Indian Idol 3. His campaign gained huge support and popularity from the people of Darjeeling. Riding on the wave of this mass support, Bimal was able to move the campaign to a political angle and overthrow Subhash Ghisingh, the GNLF leader and caretaker of DGHC, from power. Bimal Gurung went on to found a new party called Gorkha Janmukti Morcha that renewed the demand for a state of Gorkhaland in India.

### Red FM controversy

A radio jockey Jonathan Brady (also known as Nitin) of Red FM, an FM radio channel in Delhi, commented in a live broadcast in his show that "shopkeepers will now have to make their own security arrangements as Gorkhas have taken to singing" when referring to Tamang, who is a Gorkhali, singing in the Indian Idol 3 contest. This led to massive protests from Gorkhas all over and especially in Darjeeling district, where violent clashes erupted between supporters of Tamang and local residents of Siliguri. The Gorkhas demanded that the RJ be taken off the FM channel. The Government of India issued a show-cause notice to Red FM for the racial slur. Red FM issued a clarification stating that "We have not intentionally caused hurt to the sentiments of any person or any particular community, caste or creed. However in the event an inadvertent slight or offence has been caused to the sentiments of any person or community we tender our apology for the same".

## After Indian Idol

After winning *Indian Idol 3*, Tamang launched his maiden album *Dhanyavad* (meaning "Thank You"), consisting of Nepali and Hindi songs, with Sony BMG. Prashant toured all over the world, including the USA, performing in concerts. He also sang for a few Nepali films such as *Himmat 2* (along with fellow Indian Idol contestant Charu Semwal).

## Films

In 2009, Tamang started his acting career in Nepali films. His first film *Gorkha Paltan* was released in 2010. *Gorkha Paltan* did very well at the box office. His second film *Angalo Yo Maya Ko*, produced in Sikkim, was released on 31 March 2011. *Kina Maya Ma*, Prashant's third film, was released in 2011. His fourth Nepali film *Nishani*, based on the bravery of the Gorkhas in the Kargil War, was released in 2014.

## Filmography

| Year | Title | Role | Other notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2010 | *Gorkha Paltan* |  | Also did playback singing in the film |
| 2011 | *Angalo Yo Maya Ko* |  | Also did playback singing in the film |
| 2011 | *Kina Maya Ma* |  |  |
| 2014 | *Nishani* |  | Hit |
| 2015 | *Pardesi* |  | Blockbuster |
| 2016 | *Ye Maya Hanaima* |  |  |
|

### Television

| Year | Title | Role | Other notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2007 | *Amber Dhara* |  | Guest appearance as celebrity himself |
|

## InfoBox

| Prashant Tamang | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Background information | |
| Born | (1983-01-04) 4 January 1983<br>Darjeeling, West Bengal, India |
| Origin | India |
| Genres | Pop |
| Occupation(s) | Singer, actor |
| Instrument(s) | Vocals, guitar, drums |
| Years active | 2007—present |


abstract: The Newport and Caerleon Bridges over Usk Act 1597 was an act of the Parliament of England. It was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948.

text:
# Newport and Caerleon Bridges over Usk Act 1597

The **Newport and Caerleon Bridges over Usk Act 1597** (39 Eliz. 1. c. 23) was an act of the Parliament of England. It was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1948.

## Full text of the act

> At the Parliament begun and holden at Westminster the four and twentieth Day of October in the nine and thirtieth Year of the Reign of our most gracious Sovereign Lady Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, of England, France and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, &c. and there continued until the Dissolution thereof, being the ninth of February next following, one thousand five hundred ninety-seven: To the high Pleasure of Almighty God, and the Weal publick of this Realm, were enacted as followeth.
>
> The Inhabitants of the County of Monmouth shall stand chargeable for the Making and repairing of Newport and Carlion Bridges over the River of Usk, as need shall require: And such Order shall be observed for the Assessment, Gathering and Imployment of the Money thereupon to be spent, as is appointed by the Statute of 22 H. 8. c. 5. But no Town Corporate shall be chargeable to be contributory thereunto, which is bound by any Law to make or repair any Bridge over any main River.

## InfoBox

Newport and Caerleon Bridges over Usk Act 1597
| Act of Parliament | |
| --- | --- |
| Parliament of England | |
| Citation | 39 Eliz. 1. c. 23 |
| Dates | |
| Royal assent | 9 February 1598 |
| Commencement | 24 October 1597 |
| Other legislation | |
| Repealed by | Statute Law Revision Act 1948 |
| Relates to | Bridges Act 1530 |
| Status: Repealed | |


title: PFL Europe 1 (2024)

abstract: PFL Europe 1 was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Professional Fighters League that took place on March 7, 2024, at the Accor Arena in Paris, France.

text:
# PFL Europe 1 (2024)

***PFL Europe 1*** was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Professional Fighters League that took place on March 7, 2024, at the Accor Arena in Paris, France.

## Background

The event marked the promotion's second visit to Paris and first since PFL Europe 3 (2023) in September 2023.

A welterweight bout between former two-time Glory Welterweight Champion Cédric Doumbé and Baissangour Chamsoudinov headlined the event.

## Results

| Main card (DAZN) | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Weight class |  |  |  | Method | Round | Time | Notes |
| Welterweight | Baissangour Chamsoudinov | def. | Cédric Doumbé | TKO (toe injury) | 3 | 1:21 |  |
| Welterweight | Abdoul Abdouraguimov | def. | Jack Grant | Decision (split) (30–27, 28–29, 29–28) | 3 | 5:00 |  |
| Welterweight | Ibrahim Mané | def. | Chequina Noso Pedro | Decision (split) (29–28, 28–29, 29–28) | 3 | 5:00 |  |
| Lightweight | Ignacio Capella | def. | Yazid Chouchane | KO (punch) | 2 | 2:31 |  |
| Lightweight | Jakub Kaszuba | def. | Kane Mousah | Decision (unanimous) (29–28, 29–28, 29–28) | 3 | 5:00 |  |
| Preliminary card (DAZN) | | | | | | | |
| Welterweight | Daniele Miceli | def. | Yassin Najid | Technical Submission (Von Flue choke) | 1 | 0:27 |  |
| Heavyweight | Islem Masraf | def. | Mickaël Groguhe | KO (head kick and punches) | 1 | 0:10 |  |
| Lightweight | Patrick Habirora | def. | Claudio Pacella | Decision (unanimous) (30–27, 30–27, 29–28) | 3 | 5:00 |  |
| Lightweight | Connor Hughes | def. | Anatolij Baal | KO (punches) | 1 | 1:31 |  |
| Lightweight | Daniele Scatizzi | def. | Aleksandr Chizov | Submission (heel hook) | 1 | 1:59 |  |
| Welterweight | Florim Zendeli | def. | Tomasz Łangowski | Technical Submission (rear-naked choke) | 1 | 4:11 |  |
| Middleweight | Kevin Del | def. | Younes Najid | Submission (kneebar) | 1 | 1:10 |  |

## Brackets

### Welterweight

### Lightweight

1. "Cedric Doumbe to headline PFL Europe 1 against fellow unbeaten Baissangour Chamsoudinov". *MMA Junkie*. January 18, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
2. "PFL Europe: Cedric Doumbe to headline latest Paris event against unbeaten contender". *Planet Sport*. January 19, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
3. "MMA: Cedric Doumbe kicks off PFL Europe season on 7 March in Paris". *BBC Sport*. January 18, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
4. "Professional Fighters League announces the 2024 season of PFL Europe". *PFL*. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
5. "PFL Europe 1 2024". *PFL*. Retrieved February 9, 2024.

## InfoBox

| PFL Europe 1 | |
| --- | --- |
| The poster for PFL Europe 1 | |
| Promotion | Professional Fighters League |
| Date | March 7, 2024 (2024-March-07) |
| Venue | Accor Arena |
| City | Paris, France |
| Event chronology | |
| PFL vs. Bellator PFL Europe 1 PFL 1 | |


title: Indiana big school football champions

text:
# Indiana big school football champions

Better known for its high school basketball, Indiana high school football has also been a staple of Hoosier weekends for more than 100 years. In 1930, more than 30,000 people jammed Notre Dame Stadium to watch Mishawaka beat undefeated South Bend Central, 6-0. At the time, it was one of the largest crowds to witness a high school football game in the United States. Indiana high school football is still immensely popular, with tens of thousands now packing Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis to watch six state championship games over two days in November. The following is a history of Indiana's big school state football championship.

## 1920-1936: The North and mythical state champions

From the late 1800s through 1919, Indiana high school football teams often played fewer than five games per year and many times skipped entire seasons. Pre-1920 games often featured high school teams playing semi-pro club teams, college teams, and even intramural scrimmages. Various teams made state championship claims, but most were unfounded until organized leagues and verified games became commonplace beginning with the 1920 season. By that year, as many as 26 high schools in northern Indiana — stretching from Fort Wayne to East Chicago — were annually compiling standings and functioning as the state’s first organized football conference. These northern football teams frequently defeated powerhouse teams from other states and were rarely defeated by Indiana teams from outside the league. For example, From 1921 to 1926, Gary Emerson never lost a game to an in-state team. The winner of this early super conference usually claimed the "mythical" state football championship prior to 1928. Indeed, when an Indiana mythical state championship game was played between the best teams of northern and southern Indiana (in 1923, 1924, 1927, 1929, and 1930) the northern league champion won every time.

In 1926, for one year, the league standings included power teams from around the state, including Evansville Central, Richmond, Indianapolis Tech, Marion, and Muncie, all of whom finished behind league leaders Mishawaka and Gary Emerson. In 1927, many of these same northern teams – from Elkhart to East Chicago – officially formed the Northern Indiana Conference (NIC), with its champion going on to dominate the #1 final ranking in the AP and UPI polls well into the 1960s.

By the early 1930s, the Evansville and Terre Haute areas were also well established as Indiana high school football hotbeds. Clinton (north of Terre Haute) won three titles between 1928 and 1933, and Evansville Memorial, best in the south in 1937, defeated McKeesport, champions of Western Pennsylvania, 21-0, in what some newspapers called the mythical national championship.

The following teams were widely considered the state football champions: *Schools in italics are now consolidated or defunct.*

* 1920 - Wabash4 and Mishawaka1
* 1921 - *Gary Emerson*1 and *Gary Froebel*1
* 1922 - *Gary Emerson*1 (2)
* 1923 - *Gary Emerson*² (3)
* 1924 - Elkhart (Central)²
* 1925 - Mishawaka1,4 (2)
* 1926 - Mishawaka1 (3)
* 1927 - *Gary Froebel*² (2)
* 1928 - *Clinton*³
* 1929 - *Gary Mann*²,³
* 1930 - *Gary Emerson*²,³ (4)
* 1931 - *South Bend Central*4
* 1932 - *Clinton*³ (2)
* 1933 - *Clinton*²,³ (3)
* 1934 - *South Bend Central*1,4 (2) and *Terre Haute Garfield*4
* 1935 - Evansville Memorial²,³
* 1936 - *Gary Mann*5 (2)

1 **NIC Champion**

2 **Winner of arranged post-season North-South Mythical State Championship Game**

* 1923 - *Gary Emerson* 7, Muncie Central 0
* 1924 - Elkhart (Central) 28, *Bicknell* 6
* 1927 - *Gary Froebel* 70, *Indianapolis Shortridge* 0
* 1929 - *Gary Mann* 38, *Fort Wayne Central* 0
* 1930 - *Gary Emerson* 21, Logansport 7
* 1933 - *Clinton* 6, *East Chicago Washington* 6, tie
* 1935 - Evansville Memorial 13, *Fort Wayne Central* 0

3 **Winner of *Indianapolis Times* & IHSAA ‘Most Outstanding Team in Indiana’ Trophy** – 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933, and 1935

4 **Mythical State Champions named by “various Indiana newspapers,” according to AlmanacSports.com** – 1920, 1925, 1931 and 1934

5 **NIC East-West Playoff Champion - 1936** (no other claims found)

( ) Total State Championships

## 1937-1972: The polls rule

The AP and UP(I) Polls awarded Mythical State Football Championships from 1937 to 1972. Many schools went on to play postseason games after the final polls were released and many schools subsequently and rightly disputed these AP/UPI mythical championships.

* 1937 - Hammond
* 1938 - Evansville Memorial (2)
* 1939 - South Bend Washington
* 1940 - Fort Wayne North
* 1941 - *Gary Wallace*
* 1942 - *East Chicago Washington* (2)
* 1943 - South Bend Washington (2)
* 1944 - Muncie Central
* 1945 - *East Chicago Roosevelt*
* 1946 - *East Chicago Roosevelt* (2)
* 1947 - *East Chicago Roosevelt* (3)
* 1948 - Evansville Reitz
* 1949 - *East Chicago Roosevelt* (4)
* 1950 - Lafayette Jefferson
* 1951 - Hammond Bishop Noll\*
* 1952 - Richmond
* 1953 - South Bend Washington (3)
* 1954 - Whiting
* 1955 - *East Chicago Roosevelt* (5)
* 1956 - Richmond (2)
* 1957 - Evansville Reitz (2) & *East Chicago Roosevelt* (6)
* 1958 - *South Bend Central* (3)
* 1959 - *South Bend Central* (4)
* 1960 - Evansville Reitz (3) & Hammond (2)
* 1961 - Evansville Reitz (4)
* 1962 - Hammond (3)
* 1963 - Elkhart (Central) (2)
* 1964 - South Bend St. Joseph\*
* 1965 - Hammond Morton
* 1966 - Indianapolis Washington
* 1967 - Richmond (3)
* 1968 - Bloomington (South) & Elkhart (Central) (3)
* 1969 - South Bend Washington (4)
* 1970 - Elkhart (Central) (4)
* 1971 - Evansville Reitz (5)\*
* 1972 - Bloomington South (2)

( ) Total State Championships

** Evansville Reitz also went on to win a 4A smaller school state championships in 2007 and 2009, as did South Bend St. Joseph (3A) in 1995, and Hammond Bishop Noll (3A) in 1989. See Indiana High School Football Champions - Smaller Schools.*

## 1973-present: Settling it on the field - the rise of Indianapolis football

IHSAA State Tournament Champions. Over the years the largest enrollment classification has moved from 3A, to 4A, to 5A, and now to 6A. For a listing of smaller school state champions see Indiana High School Football Champions - Smaller Schools.

* 1973 - South Bend Washington (5)
* 1974 - Indianapolis Washington (2)
* 1975 - Valparaiso
* 1976 - Merrillville
* 1977 - Portage
* 1978 - Carmel
* 1979 - Columbus East
* 1980 - Carmel (2)
* 1981 - Carmel (3)
* 1982 - (Evansville) Castle
* 1983 - (Mishawaka) Penn
* 1984 - Indianapolis Warren Central
* 1985 - Indianapolis Warren Central (2)
* 1986 - Carmel (4)
* 1987 - Indianapolis Ben Davis
* 1988 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (2)
* 1989 - Carmel (5)
* 1990 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (3)
* 1991 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (4)
* 1992 - Fort Wayne Snider
* 1993 - Bloomington South (3)
* 1994 - (Evansville) Castle (2)
* 1995 - (Mishawaka) Penn (2)
* 1996 - (Mishawaka) Penn (3)
* 1997 - (Mishawaka) Penn (4)
* 1998 - Bloomington South (4)
* 1999 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (5)
* 2000 - (Mishawaka) Penn (5)
* 2001 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (6)
* 2002 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (7)
* 2003 - Indianapolis Warren Central (3)
* 2004 - Indianapolis Warren Central (4)
* 2005 - Indianapolis Warren Central (5)
* 2006 - Indianapolis Warren Central (6)
* 2007 - Carmel (6)
* 2008 - Center Grove
* 2009 - Warren Central (7)
* 2010 - Fishers
* 2011 - Carmel (7)
* 2012 - Indianapolis Lawrence Central
* 2013 - Indianapolis Warren Central (8)
* 2014 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (8)
* 2015 - Center Grove (2)
* 2016 - Carmel (8)
* 2017 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (9)
* 2018 - Indianapolis Warren Central (9)
* 2019 - Carmel (9)
* 2020 - Center Grove (3)
* 2021 - Center Grove (4)
* 2022 - Center Grove (5)
* 2023 - Indianapolis Ben Davis (10)

( ) Total State Championships

## Big school state championships by school

* 1. Ben Davis - 10
* 2. Warren Central - 9
* 2. Carmel - 9
* 4. *East Chicago Roosevelt* \- 6
* 5. Penn - 5
* 5. South Bend Washington - 5
* 5. Evansville Reitz - 5
* 5. Center Grove - 5
* 9. Bloomington South - 4
* 9. Elkhart Central - 4
* 9. *South Bend Central* \- 4
* 9. *Gary Emerson* \- 4
* 13. Richmond - 3
* 13. Mishawaka - 3
* 13. *Clinton* \- 3
* 13. Columbus East - 3
* 17. (Evansville) Castle - 2
* 17. Fort Wayne Snider - 2
* 17. Indianapolis Washington - 2
* 17. Hammond - 2
* 17. Evansville Memorial - 2
* 17. *Gary Mann* \- 2
* 17. *Gary Froebel* \- 2
* 24. Lawrence Central - 1
* 24. Fishers - 1
* 24. Portage - 1
* 24. Merrillville - 1
* 24. Valparaiso - 1
* 24. Hammond Morton - 1
* 24. South Bend St. Joseph's - 1
* 24. Whiting - 1
* 24. Hammond Noll - 1
* 24. Lafayette Jefferson - 1
* 24. Muncie Central - 1
* 24. *Gary Wallace* \- 1
* 24. Fort Wayne Dwenger - 1
* 24. Fort Wayne North - 1
* 24. *Terre Haute Garfield* \- 1
* 24. Wabash - 1

## Big school state championships by region

* Indianapolis Metro - 37
* Northwest Indiana: The Region - 24
* South Bend/Mishawaka/Elkhart - 22
* Evansville - 9
* Bloomington - 4
* Fort Wayne - 4
* Terre Haute/Clinton - 4
* Richmond - 3
* Other - 3


title: Popcorn (Arashi album)

abstract: Popcorn is the eleventh studio album of the Japanese boy band Arashi. The album was released on October 31, 2012 under their record label J Storm in two editions: a first press/limited edition and a regular edition. Though both versions contains a single CD and the same track list, the first press edition features special packaging of 24P photo booklet Until The Popcorn Pops and bonus stickers. With more than 750,000 units sold, the album was certified for Triple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). It was released digitally on February 7, 2020.

text:
# Popcorn (Arashi album)

***Popcorn*** is the eleventh studio album of the Japanese boy band Arashi. The album was released on October 31, 2012 under their record label J Storm in two editions: a first press/limited edition and a regular edition. Though both versions contains a single CD and the same track list, the first press edition features special packaging of 24P photo booklet *Until The Popcorn Pops* and bonus stickers. With more than 750,000 units sold, the album was certified for Triple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). It was released digitally on February 7, 2020.

## Album information

Both the first press and regular versions contain a CD with sixteen tracks. However, the first press edition comes with a 36P lyrics booklet while the regular edition comes with only a 32P lyrics booklet. The album jacket cover for both versions are also different.

### Songs

"Popcorn" includes four of the group's previously released singles: "Meikyū Love Song", "Wild at Heart", "Face Down" and "Your Eyes". This album also includes seven new songs plus five of each member's solo songs.

"Kakenukero!", the second track of this album was used as the "Nissan Serena" CM song. Track 15, "Akashi" was used as the theme song for London Nippon Television 2012.

Four tracks of this album were used as the theme song for dramas starred by the Arashi members. These songs are "Wild at Heart", "Face Down", "Meikyū Love Song", and "Your Eyes", used in dramas *Lucky Seven*, *Kagi no Kakatta Heya*, *Nazotoki wa Dinner no Ato de*, and *Mikeneko Holmes no Suiri*, respectively.

## Promotion

To support their new album, Arashi performed a live tour "Arashi LIVE TOUR Popcorn" hitting all the major dome stadiums in Japan. They had 16 performances beginning on November 16 at the Kyocera Osaka Dome, followed by Sapporo Dome on November 30, Fukuoka Dome on December 7, Tokyo Dome on December 13, and Nagoya Dome on January 11, 2013.

## Track listing

| No. | Title | Lyrics | Music | Arrangement | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Welcome to Our Party" |  | * Stephan Elfgren * Conor Edwards * Junior Jokinen | Taku Yoshioka | 3:58 |
| 2. | "Kakenukero!" (駆け抜けろ！, "Run Through") | S-Tnk |  | Tomoki Ishizuka | 4:31 |
| 3. | "Wild at Heart" | Soluna | * Chris Janey * Jokinen | Trevor Ingram | 4:08 |
| 4. | "Face Down" | * Eltvo * Sakurai | * Albi Albertsson * Royce. H * Vincent Stein * Konstantin Scherer | * Metropolitan Digital Clique * Stein * Scherer | 3:58 |
| 5. | "We Wanna Funk, We Need a Funk" (Jun Matsumoto solo) | * Shigeo * Bruce R. F. Smith * John World | * Smith * Mats Ymell | Metropolitan Digital Clique | 4:36 |
| 6. | "Two" (Satoshi Ohno solo) | Soluna | * Erik Lidbom * R.P.P. | Lidbom | 3:56 |
| 7. | "Waiting for You" | Soluna | * Octobar * IiSAK | * Yoshioka * Sachiko Miyano | 3:58 |
| 8. | "Rakuen" (楽園, "Paradise", Masaki Aiba solo) | S-Tnk | Tomoyoshi Suzuki | * Slice Of Life * Tatsuya K. | 3:38 |
| 9. | "Tabi wa Tsuzuku yo" (旅は続くよ, "The Journey Will Continue") | * Furaha * Sakurai | * Curly * Youwhich | Youwhich | 4:59 |
| 10. | "Sore wa Yappari Kimi deshita" (それはやっぱり君でした, "It Was You, After All", Kazunari Ninomiya solo) | Kazunari Ninomiya | Masahiro Oochi | * Ha-j * Ninomiya | 5:02 |
| 11. | "Meikyū Love Song" (迷宮ラブソング, "Labyrinth Love Song") | Iori | * IiSAK * Dyce Taylor | Ingram | 4:38 |
| 12. | "Your Eyes" | Hs | * Janey * Max Grant | Ishizuka | 4:40 |
| 13. | "Fly on Friday" (Sho Sakurai solo) | * Eltvo * Sakurai | Eltvo | Kz | 4:20 |
| 14. | "Cosmos" | * Pause * Eltvo * Sakurai | Lidbom | Hirofumi Sasaki | 4:51 |
| 15. | "Akashi" (, "Proof") | QQ | QQ | Ha-j | 4:56 |
| 16. | "Up to You" | * Iori * 100+ * Sakurai |  | Metropolitan Digital Clique | 4:18 |
| Total length: | | | | | 70:27 |

## InfoBox

| Popcorn | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Arashi | |
| Released | October 31, 2012 (2012-10-31) |
| Genre | Pop, R&B |
| Language | Japanese, English |
| Label | J Storm |
| Arashi chronology | |
| *Ura Ara Mania*
(2011) ***Popcorn***
(2012) *Love*
(2013) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *Popcorn* | |
| 1. "Meikyū Love Song"
Released: November 2, 2011 2. "Wild at Heart"
Released: March 7, 2012 3. "Face Down"
Released: May 9, 2012 4. "Your Eyes"
Released: June 6, 2012 | |
|  | |


title: Geyser Crest

abstract: Geyser Crest is a residential neighborhood in the southwest section of the city of Saratoga Springs and the east part of the town of Milton, New York, in the United States. It is separated from downtown Saratoga Springs by Geyser Road and Route 50. Most of the neighborhood homes were built in the 1970s. Most children attend Geyser Road Elementary School, Maple Avenue Middle School, and Saratoga Springs High School; a small number who live in the far west section attend Ballston Spa Central Schools. Geyser Crest has an elevation of 351 feet (107 m). Geyser Crest appears on the Saratoga Springs U.S. Geological Survey Map and is in the Eastern Time Zone. Geyser Crest also observes daylight saving time.

text:
# Geyser Crest

**Geyser Crest** is a residential neighborhood in the southwest section of the city of Saratoga Springs and the east part of the town of Milton, New York, in the United States. It is separated from downtown Saratoga Springs by Geyser Road and Route 50. Most of the neighborhood homes were built in the 1970s. Most children attend Geyser Road Elementary School, Maple Avenue Middle School, and Saratoga Springs High School; a small number who live in the far west section attend Ballston Spa Central Schools.

Geyser Crest has an elevation of 351 feet (107 m). Geyser Crest appears on the Saratoga Springs U.S. Geological Survey Map and is in the Eastern Time Zone (UTC -5 hours). Geyser Crest also observes daylight saving time.

43°02′49″N 73°49′52″W / 43.047°N 73.831°W / 43.047; -73.831


title: Postplatyptilia palmeri

abstract: Postplatyptilia palmeri is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from Mexico. The wingspan is about 14 mm. Adults are on wing in December.

text:
# Postplatyptilia palmeri

***Postplatyptilia palmeri*** is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from Mexico.

The wingspan is about 14 mm. Adults are on wing in December.

## InfoBox

| *Postplatyptilia palmeri* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Pterophoridae |
| Genus: | *Postplatyptilia* |
| Species: | ***P. palmeri*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Postplatyptilia palmeri***<br>Gielis, 1996 | |
|


title: National Justice Party (Peru)

abstract: The National Justice Party was a Peruvian political party. At the legislative elections held on 9 April 2006, the party won 1.4% of the popular vote but no seats in the Congress of the Republic. The party subsequently lost its registration. Currently, the party is not registered in the National Jury of Elections, therefore it is not officially considered a political party and cannot participate in any election. Therefore, the party is considered as defunct since 2007.

text:
# National Justice Party (Peru)

The **National Justice Party** (Spanish: *Partido Justicia Nacional*) was a Peruvian political party. At the legislative elections held on 9 April 2006, the party won 1.4% of the popular vote but no seats in the Congress of the Republic. The party subsequently lost its registration.

Currently, the party is not registered in the National Jury of Elections, therefore it is not officially considered a political party and cannot participate in any election. Therefore, the party is considered as defunct since 2007.

## InfoBox

| National Justice Party Partido Justicia Nacional | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Abbreviation | PJN |
| Leader | Jaime Salinas |
| Founded | 2004 |
| Dissolved | 2006 |
| Headquarters | Lima |
| Ideology | Liberalism |
| Political position | Centre |
|  | |


title: Vincent Oppong Asamoah

abstract: Vincent Oppong Asamoah is a Ghanaian politician and member of the Eight Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana. He represented the Dormaa West Constituency in the Brong-Ahafo Region on the ticket of the National Democratic Congress. He is the Former Deputy Minister for Youth and Sports of Ghana.

text:
# Vincent Oppong Asamoah

**Vincent Oppong Asamoah** (born January 13, 1966) is a Ghanaian politician and member of the Eight Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana. He represented the Dormaa West Constituency in the Brong-Ahafo Region on the ticket of the National Democratic Congress. He is the Former Deputy Minister for Youth and Sports of Ghana.

## Personal life

Asamoah is a Christian (Catholic). He is married with three children.

## Politics

Asamoah is a member of the National Democratic Congress (NDC). In 2012, he contested for the Dormaa West seat on the ticket of the NDC sixth parliament of the fourth republic and won.

### Committees

Asamoah is the Ranking Member of the Works and Housing Committee and also a member of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Committee.

## Early life and education

Asamoah was born on January 13, 1966. He hails from Nsoatre in the Bono Region in Ghana. He also holds an MBA in Public Administration from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, and a BA from the University of Cape Coast.

## Career

Asamoah was a social worker before running for political office in 2012. He worked at OLAM Ghana limited in the Asawinso in the Western Region. He was appointed the Municipal Chief Executive for the Dormaa Municipality from 29 April 2009, until he was sworn in as an MP in the Sixth Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana on 7 January 2013.

## InfoBox

| Hon.Vincent Oppong AsamoahMP | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Member of Parliament for Dormaa West Constituency | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
7 January 2021 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Vincent Oppong Asamoah
(1966-01-13) 13 January 1966
Nsoatre, Ghana |
| Political party | National Democratic Congress |
| Occupation | Politician |
| Profession | Municipal Chief Executive |
| Committees | Works and Housing Committee (Ranking Member); Poverty Reduction Strategy Committee |
|  | |