title: Ahom people

abstract: The Ahom, or Tai Ahom is an ethnic group from the Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The members of this group are admixed descendants of the Tai people who reached the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in 1228 and the local indigenous people who joined them over the course of history. Sukaphaa, the leader of the Tai group and his 9,000 followers established the Ahom kingdom, which controlled much of the Brahmaputra Valley in modern Assam until 1826. The modern Ahom people and their culture are a syncretism of the original Tai and their culture and local Tibeto-Burman people and their cultures they absorbed in Assam. The local people of different ethnic groups of Assam that took to the Tai way of life and polity were incorporated into their fold which came to be known as Ahom as in the process known as Ahomisation. Many local ethnic groups that came in contact with the Tai settlers, including the Borahis who were of Tibeto-Burman origin, were completely subsumed into the Ahom community; while members of other communities, based on their allegiance to the Ahom kingdom or the usefulness of their talents, too were accepted as Ahoms. Currently, they represent the largest Tai group in India, with a population of nearly 4.6 million in Assam. Ahom people are found mostly in Upper Assam in the districts of Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Charaideo, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia; and in Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Bishwanath,and Dhemaji (north) as well as some area of Nagaon, Guwahati. Even though the already admixed group Ahom made up a relatively small portion of the kingdom's population, they maintained their original Ahom language and practised their traditional religion till the 17th century, when the Ahom court as well as the commoners adopted the Assamese language.

text:
# Ahom people

The **Ahom** (/ˈɑːhɒm/) (Ahom: 𑜒𑜑𑜪𑜨, *ahüm*), or **Tai Ahom** (Ahom: 𑜄𑜩 𑜒𑜑𑜪𑜨, *tái ahüm*) is an ethnic group from the Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The members of this group are admixed descendants of the Tai people who reached the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in 1228 and the local indigenous people who joined them over the course of history. Sukaphaa, the leader of the Tai group and his 9,000 followers established the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826 CE), which controlled much of the Brahmaputra Valley in modern Assam until 1826.

The modern Ahom people and their culture are a syncretism of the original Tai and their culture and local Tibeto-Burman people and their cultures they absorbed in Assam. The local people of different ethnic groups of Assam that took to the Tai way of life and polity were incorporated into their fold which came to be known as Ahom as in the process known as Ahomisation.

Many local ethnic groups that came in contact with the Tai settlers, including the Borahis who were of Tibeto-Burman origin, were completely subsumed into the Ahom community; while members of other communities, based on their allegiance to the Ahom kingdom or the usefulness of their talents, too were accepted as Ahoms. Currently, they represent the largest Tai group in India, with a population of nearly 4.6 million in Assam. Ahom people are found mostly in Upper Assam in the districts of Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Charaideo, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia (south of Brahmaputra River); and in Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Bishwanath,and Dhemaji (north) as well as some area of Nagaon, Guwahati.

Even though the already admixed group Ahom made up a relatively small portion of the kingdom's population, they maintained their original Ahom language and practised their traditional religion till the 17th century, when the Ahom court as well as the commoners adopted the Assamese language.

## History

### Origins

The Tai speaking people came into prominence first in the Guangxi region, in China, from where they moved to mainland Southeast Asia in the middle of the 11th century after a long and fierce battle with the Northern Han Chinese. The Tai-Ahoms are traced to either Mong Mao of South China (present-day Dehong, Yunnan province of China) or to the Hukawng Valley in Myanmar.

Sukaphaa, a Tai prince of Mong Mao, and a band of followers reached Assam in 1228 with an intention of settling there. They came with a higher technology of wet-rice cultivation then extant and a tradition of writing, record keeping, and state formation. They settled in the region south of the Brahmaputra River and to the east of the Dikhow River; the Ahoms today are found concentrated in this region. Sukaphaa, the leader of the Tai group and his 9,000 followers established the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826 CE), which controlled much of the Bramhaputra valley until 1826.

### Initial formation in Assam

In the initial phase, the band of followers of Sukaphaa moved about for nearly thirty years and mixed with the local population. He moved from place to place, searching for a seat. He made peace with the Borahi and Moran ethnic groups, and he and his mostly male followers married into them, creating an admixed population identified as Ahoms and initiating the process of Ahomisation. The Borahis, a Tibeto-Burman people, were completely subsumed into the Ahom fold, though the Moran maintained their independent ethnicity. Sukaphaa established his capital at Charaideo near present-day Sivasagar in 1253 and began the task of state formation.

### Ahomisation

The Ahoms held the belief that they were destined by a divine force to cultivate fallow land using their wet-rice farming methods and to assimilate stateless shifting cultivators into their society. They were also conscious of their numerical minority. As a result, the Ahom polity initially absorbed Naga, Borahi and Moran, and later large sections of the Chutia and the Dimasa-Kachari peoples. This process of Ahomisation went on until the mid-16th century, when the Ahom society itself came under the direct Hindu influence. That many indigenous peoples were ceremonially adopted into Ahom clans are recorded in the chronicles. Since the Ahoms married liberally outside their own exogamous clans and since their own traditional religion resembled the religious practices of the indigenous peoples the assimilation under Ahomisation had little impediment.

### Localisation and Loss

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the small Ahom community expanded their rule dramatically toward the west and they successfully saw off challenges from Mughal and other invaders, gaining them recognition in world history. The rapid expansion resulted in the Ahom people becoming a small minority in their own kingdom, of which they kept control. Eventually, the Ahom court, as well as the Ahom peasants took to Ekasarana dharma, Shaktism and Saivism over the traditional Ahom religion; and adopted Assamese over the Ahom language for secular purposes. The modern Ahom people and their culture are a syncretism of the original Tai and their culture and local Tibeto-Burman peoples and their cultures they absorbed in Assam.

The everyday usage of Ahom language ceased completely by the early 19th-century. The loss of religions is also nearly complete, with only a few priestly families practising some aspects of it. While the written language (and ritualistic chants) survive in a vast number of written manuscripts, much of the spoken language is lost because the Ahom script does not mark tone and under-specifies vowel contrasts.

### Revivalism

Though the first political organisation (All Assam Ahom Association) was created in 1893 it was in 1954 when Ahom connection to other Tai groups in Assam was formally established.

## Society

### *Ban-Mong* Social system

The Tai-Ahom people's traditional social structure, called Ban-Mong, revolved around agriculture and centered on irrigation methods. The *Ban* or *Ban Na* is a unit composed of families that settled by the side of the rivers. While many *Bans* together forms a *Mong* which refers state.

### Ahom clans

Ahom clans, called *phoid*s, formed socio-political entities. At the time of ingress into Assam, or soon thereafter, there were seven important clans, called *Satghariya Ahoms* (Ahoms of the Seven Houses). There were Su/Tsu (Tiger) clan to which the Chao-Pha (Sukaphaa) belonged; his two chief counselors Burhagohain (*Chao-Phrung-Mung*) and Borgohain (*Chao-Thao-Mung*); and three priestly clans: Bailung (*Mo-plang*), Deodhai (*Mo-sham*), Mohan (*Mo-hang*) and Siring. Soon the *Satghariya* group was expanded—four additional clans began to be associated with nobility: Dihingia, Sandikoi, Lahon and Duarah. In the 16th-century Suhungmung added another great counselor, the Borpatrogohain and a new clan was established. Over time sub-clans began appearing. Thus during the Suhungmung's reign, the Chao-Pha's clan were divided into seven sub-clansSaringiya, Tipamiya, Dihingiya, Samuguriya, Tungkhungiya, Parvatiya, and Namrupiya. Similarly, Burhagohain clan were divided into eight, Borgohain sixteen, Deodhai twelve, Mohan seven, and Bailung and Siring eight each. The rest of the Ahom gentry belonged to clans such as *Chaodangs*, *Gharphalias*, *Likchows* etc. In general, the secular aristocratic clans, the priestly class, and the gentry clans did not intermarry.

Some clans admitted people from other ethnic groups as well. For example, Miri-Sandikoi and Moran-Patar were Sandikoi and Patar from the Mising and Moran communities, while the founders of Chetias and Lahons were from the Chutia community. This was true even for the priestly clans: Naga-Bailung, Miri-Bailung and Nara-Bailung.

## Literature

The Ahoms were literate with a writing system based on the Ahom script, which fell into disuse along with the language. The Ahom script evolved from an earlier script of the Tai Nuea language which developed further under the present Chinese Government. There exists today a large corpus of manuscripts in this script on history, society, astrology, rituals, etc. Ahom people used to write their chronicles known as *Buranji*. The priestly classes (Mo'sam, Mo'hung, Mo'Plong) are the custodians of these manuscripts.

### Calendar

The Ahom people used to use a sexagenary cycle known as *Lak-Ni Tao-Si-Nga* with its origins in the middle kingdoms (Chung-Kuo). It has 12 months and an additional leap month with a ten days weekly cycle. The first month is called *Duin-Shing* which gregorian equivalent is November-December and the new year festival is known as *Pi-Mau Tai*. It is still in vogue in Chinese and Tai people. The events in Buranji was counted with *Lak-ni*.

## Culture

### Festivals

#### Me-dam-me-phi

Me-dam-me-phi is the communal ancestor worship festival of Tai-Ahom. It's observed in the month of Duin-Ha (March-April)in the ancient times but now it's celebrated in the 31st January.

#### Poi cheng ken

Poi cheng ken is the traditional spring festival of the Tai-Ahom people, celebrated during the Ahom month of Duin-Ha in the Sexagenary cycle. The festival includes rituals such as washing, particularly bathing household cattle, honoring ancestors, and worshipping the insignia *Chum Pha Rueng Sheng Mueang*. The customs of Cheng Ken are documented in the ancient manuscript *Khyek Lai Bet*. As stated:

> Duin ha jao pai ka duin ruk Poi cheng ken ao ma, hu ap nam, khai ap nam...., lit.'‘the month of Duin-ha is over. Poi cheng ken arrives in Duin-ruk. Cows and buffaloes are bathed in water.'

### Housing

Like the rural Thai people of Thailand, the house rural Ahom families have been made of wood and bamboo, and two roofs are typically thatched. Families' orchards and ploughed fields are situated near their house. Houses are built in a scattered fashion within bamboo groves. At one time, the Ahom built their house on stilts called Rwan Huan about two meters above ground level.

### Culinary traditions

Food is one of the important variables of the culture of Tai-Ahom. Most Ahoms, particularly in rural areas, are non-vegetarian, still maintaining a traditional cuisine similar to other Tai people. Rice is a staple food. Typical dishes are pork, chicken, duck, slices of beef, frogs, many kinds of fishes, *hukoti maas* (dry preserved fish mixture), *muga lota* (cocoon seeds of endi and muga worms), and eggs of red ants. Certain insects are also popular foods for the Ahoms. *Luk-Lao* or *Nam-Lao* (rice beer, undiluted or diluted) are traditional drinks. They consume "Khar" (a form of alkaline liquid extracted from the ashes of burned banana peels/bark), "Betgaaj" (tender cane shoots), and many other naturally grown herbs with medicinal properties. However beef for the general hindus and, pork for the Vaisnavites are avoided During Siva Singha's reign, the people abandoned the free usage of meat and drinks.

Ahom food specialties resemble Thai cuisine. Like the Thais, the Ahoms prefer boiled food that have little spices and directly burnt fish, meat and vegetables like brinjal, tomato, etc. Some of them are *Thu–dam* (black lentil), *Khao–Moon* (Rice Frumenty), *Xandohguri* (a powder made from dry roasted rice), *ChewaKhao* (steamed rice), *Chunga Chaul* (sticky rice cooked in tender bamboo tubes), *Til pitha* (sesame rice rolls prepared from sticky rice powder), and *Khao-tyek* (rice flakes). The process of preparation of this item was quite unknown to population other than the Ahoms and the Thais. Khao (unboiled soft rice prepared from a special variety of sticky rice with a unique technique), Tupula Khao (a kind of rice cooked and packed with a particular kind of plant leaf with good smell called 'tora pat' and preserved bamboo sauce are some of the favourite food items of the Ahoms, which are similar to their traditional diet.

### Wedding

*Chaklong* is the main marriage ritual among the twenty marriage rituals of Tai Ahom people. The name Cho Klong is derived from the Tai Ahom language \[Cho=to combine, klong=ritual\]. The ritual is described in an ancient Tai Ahom script *Lai Lit nang Hoon Pha*. 101 ban-phai-s (earthen lamps) or lights are lit. The bride offers the groom a *heng-dan* (sword) to protect her, their children, family, race and country. Sum of twenty rituals are performed in ahom wedding along with cho klong, including:

* Ju-ron
* Rik-Khwan
* Aap-Tang \[Aap=Bath, Tang=devine\]
* Chow Ban \[worshipping sun\]
* Jon-ming \[Blessing given by Moloung priests\]

## Religion

The majority of present-day Ahoms profess Hinduism as their religion, yet there's a movement aiming to rejuvenate the ancient Ahom faith. The Ahom religion started to decline since the days of Jayadhwaj Singha, he was the first Ahom king to adopt Ekasarana Dharma and to take initiation of the Auniati Mahanta. From Jayadhawaj Singha to Rantadhwaj Singha all were followers of Ekasarana Dharma. From Gadadhar Singha onwards the kings veered towards Shaktism. Siva Singha made the Shaktism the state religion, Suremphaa Rajeswar Singha (1751–1769) ordered Sanskritisation. All funerals were to be practised under the Hindu cremation rites, conducted by a Maithil Brahmin priest and a traditional priest. Nevertheless, Me-Dam-Me-Phi is widely celebrated.

## Language

The Ahoms today use the Assamese language after the traditional language, the Ahom language, fell into complete disuse. The Ahom language, a member of the Tai branch of the Kra–Dai languages is now dead, with its tone system completely lost. Nevertheless, it is being revived by some Tai Ahom organisations.

From the latter part of the 20th century through the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence of interest among the Ahoms in their culture and language, resulting in heightened scholarly focus and efforts towards revival. The 1901 census of India enumerated approximately 179,000 people identifying as Ahom. The latest available census records slightly over 2 million Ahom individuals, however, estimates of the total number of people descended from the original Tai-Ahom settlers are as high as eight million. The Ahom script also finds a place in the Unicode Consortium and the script declared the topmost in the South-East Asia category.

## Ahom people today

Ahom people today are categorised in the other backward classes (OBC) caste category; there is longstanding discussion and demand for Scheduled Tribe status. The term "ethnic Assamese" is now associated by the Indian government with the various indigenous Assamese people. According to Anthony Van Nostrand Diller, possibly eight million speakers of Assamese can claim genetic descent from the Ahoms. Historian Yasmin Saikia contends that during pre-colonial eras, the Ahoms didn't constitute an ethnic community; instead, they formed a relatively inclusive social group. Any group entering the socio-economic framework of the Ahom state could acquire Ahom status, subject to the explicit approval of the king.

## Notable people

## Further reading

## InfoBox

Tai Ahom
| 𑜄𑜩 𑜒𑜑𑜪𑜨
tái ahüm | |
| --- | --- |
| Ahom Cultural Ethnic Flag | |
| Total population | |
| 1,600,000+ | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Assam | 1,464,000 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 100,000 |
| Languages | |
| Assamese (dominance), and Ahom (only used mainly in religious and educational purposes.) | |
| Religion | |
| **Majority**:
Hinduism
**Minority**:
Ahom religion | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Other Tai peoples | |


title: Zager and Evans

abstract: Zager and Evans was an American rock-pop duo active during the late 1960s and early 1970s, comprising Denny Zager and Rick Evans. They are best known for their 1969 No. 1 hit single "In the Year 2525", which earned them one-hit wonder status.

text:
# Zager and Evans

**Zager and Evans** was an American rock-pop duo active during the late 1960s and early 1970s, comprising Denny Zager (born February 14, 1944, Wymore, Nebraska) and Rick Evans (born January 20, 1943, Lincoln, Nebraska; died February 2018, Santa Fe, New Mexico). They are best known for their 1969 No. 1 hit single "In the Year 2525", which earned them one-hit wonder status.

## History

Denny Zager and Rick Evans met at Nebraska Wesleyan University in 1962. They were joined by drummer Danny Schindler (later of the Benders) in the Nebraska band the Eccentrics until Schindler's tour of Vietnam in 1965. Evans also left in 1965 and reunited with Zager in 1968.

As Zager and Evans, the duo were backed by another Nebraska native, Mark Dalton, on bass. Their first drummer, Paul Maher, was later replaced by another Nebraskan, Dave Trupp. Trupp and Dalton were also the rhythm section in the Liberation Blues Band and backed Evans on some solo demo material prior to Zager and Evans's recording of "In the Year 2525" in 1968.

## "In the Year 2525"

Written by Evans, "In the Year 2525 (Exordium & Terminus)" warned of the dangers of technology, portraying a future in which the human race was destroyed by its own technological and medical innovations. The last stanzas of the song suggest mankind undergoes a continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

"In the Year 2525" hit number one on the *Billboard* Hot 100 in 1969, ultimately claiming the top spot for six weeks. It also hit #1 in the UK and #2 in Australia. The song topped the charts at the time of two major cultural events: the first Moon landing on July 20, 1969 and the Woodstock Music Festival a month later. The record sold over four million copies by 1970 and was awarded a gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in July 1969.

"2525" was originally written in 1964, but not recorded or released until 1968 on the Truth Records label. After radio stations in Lincoln and Omaha made "2525" a regional "break-out" hit record, RCA Records signed the duo and released the song with "Little Kids", also written by Evans, as the B-side nationwide. Zager and Evans also immediately recorded an album of the same name, again using Trupp and Dalton as the primary rhythm section. Sales of the original hit recording, including singles sales, album usage and compilation inclusions, are estimated at over ten million worldwide. In Italy, the duo released an Italian version on RCA Victor 1583: "Nell'anno 2033" b/w "Donna" ("Woman").

## Later recordings

Zager and Evans are considered to be the archetypal one-hit wonder artists. Despite the success of "2525", the follow-up single, "Mr. Turnkey", failed to chart in the US and UK, as did subsequent releases. For many years, the duo was the only act to have a chart-topping hit on both sides of the Atlantic and never have another chart single in *Billboard* or the UK (until the Canadian band Magic! in 2013). Their third single, "Listen to the People", appeared on the Cashbox chart at #100, while "Mr. Turnkey"/"Cary Lynn Javes" (double A-side) and "Help One Man Today" both charted in Australia, at #86 and #94 respectively.

After the success of "2525", White Whale Records released an LP titled *The Early Writings of Zager & Evans and Others* featuring recordings of the Eccentrics on side one and a band called J.K. and Co., who had no connection to Zager and Evans, on side two. After releasing two albums on RCA, Zager and Evans moved to Vanguard Records in 1971 for a final record, titled *Food for the Mind*.

Evans later released an album for Truth Records titled *I Need This Song,* a duet with Pam Herbert. In the late 1970s, he formed his own label, Fun Records, and released an album titled *Fun Songs, Think Songs* containing both new material and re-recordings of Zager and Evans material.

## Today

Zager now builds custom guitars at Zager Guitars in Lincoln, Nebraska.

Evans largely retired from public life but he continued to chat online with Dalton and his best friend, Nashville producer Gary Earl, until his death in February 2018.

Drummer Dave Trupp died in November 2015 at the age of 72.

Mark Dalton still performs on bass in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.

## Discography

### Albums

| Year | Album | Peak chart positions | | Record Label |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | US
 | CAN
 | |
| 1969 | *2525 (Exordium & Terminus)* | 30 | 7 | RCA Victor |
| | *The Early Writings of Zager & Evans and Others* |  |  | White Whale Records |
| 1970 | *Zager & Evans* |  |  | RCA Victor |
| 1971 | *Food for the Mind* |  |  | Vanguard Records |
| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory. | | | | |

### Singles

| Year | Title | Peak chart positions | | | | | | Record Label | B-side | Album |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | US
 | US A/C
 | UK
 | AUS
 | CAN
 | CAN A/C
 | | | |
| 1969 | "In the Year 2525 (Exordium & Terminus)" | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | RCA Victor | "Little Kids" | *2525 (Exordium & Terminus)* |
| | "Mr. Turnkey" | 106 |  |  | 86 | 48 | 41 | | "Cary Lynn Javes" | *Zager & Evans* |
| | "Listen to the People" |  |  |  |  | 96 |  | | "She Never Sleeps Beside Me" |
| 1970 | "Help One Man Today" |  |  |  | 94 |  |  | | "Yeah 32" |  |
| | "Crutches" |  |  |  |  |  |  | | "Plastic Park" | *Zager & Evans* |
| 1971 | "Hydra 15,000" |  |  |  |  |  |  | Vanguard Records | "I Am" | *Food for the Mind* |
| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory. | | | | | | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| Zager and Evans | |
| --- | --- |
| Origin | Lincoln, Nebraska, U.S. |
| Genres |  |
| Years active | 1962–1971 |
| Labels |  |
|  | |
| Past members | * Denny Zager * Rick Evans * Danny Schindler * Mark Dalton * Paul Maher * Dave Trupp |


title: Milhem Cortaz

abstract: Milhem Avance Cortas is a Brazilian actor.

text:
# Milhem Cortaz

**Milhem Avance Cortas** (born 6 December 1971) is a Brazilian actor.

## Career

Cortaz' first role came on the 2000 film *Mater Dei*, written by Diogo Mainardi, where he portrayed a security guard. On 2002, he premiered on the television with a minor character on Rede Globo's unsuccessful telenovela *Desejos de Mulher*. On the following year, he started gaining some notoriety after starring on the critically acclaimed Hector Babenco film *Carandiru*, about the massacre on the prison of the same name.

On 2005, Cortaz starred on Rede Record's telenovela *Essas Mulheres* and acted on the controversial independent film *A Concepção*, in which he appears fully naked a considerable number of times. On the following year, he acted on Record's successful telenovela *Cidadão Brasileiro* and on the American-Brazilian film *Journey to the End of the Night*.

It was not until José Padilha's 2007 film *Elite Squad*, in which he portrays a corrupt police officer, that he gained notoriety of the major public. In 2009 he starred as Cazé on Record's *Chamas da Vida* and played the deceased father of former Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in Fábio Barreto's *Lula, o filho do Brasil*.

## Filmography

### Film

### Television

## InfoBox

| Milhem Cortaz | |
| --- | --- |
| Cortaz in 2009 | |
| Born | Milhem Avance Cortas
(1971-12-06) 6 December 1971
São Paulo, Brazil |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Years active | 1983–present |
| Spouse | Ziza Brisola (m. 1999) |
| Children | 1 |


abstract:
Fishermen's Competency Certificates Convention, 1966 is an International Labour Organization Convention. It was established in 1966, with the preamble stating:
Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to fishermen's certificates of competency,...

text:
# Fishermen's Competency Certificates Convention, 1966

**Fishermen's Competency Certificates Convention, 1966** is an International Labour Organization Convention.

It was established in 1966, with the preamble stating:

> Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to fishermen's certificates of competency,...

## Ratifications

As of 2022, the convention had been ratified by 10 states.

| Belgium | 22 Jul 1969 | In Force |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Brazil | 21 Aug 1970 | In Force |
| Djibouti | 03 Aug 1978 | In Force |
| France | 02 Apr 1970 | In Force |
| Germany | 18 Nov 1988 | In Force |
| Panama | 19 Jun 1970 | In Force |
| Senegal | 15 Jul 1968 | In Force |
| Sierra Leone | 06 Nov 1967 | In Force |
| Syrian Arab Republic | 6 May 1969 | In Force |
| Trinidad and Tobago | 14 Dec 1972 | In Force |

## InfoBox

Fishermen's Competency Certificates Convention, 1966
| C125 | |
| --- | --- |
| ILO Convention | |
| Date of adoption | June 21, 1966 |
| Date in force | July 16, 1969 |
| Classification | Fishermen |
| Subject | Fishermen |
| Previous | Medical Examination of Young Persons (Underground Work) Convention, 1965 |
| Next | Accommodation of Crews (Fishermen) Convention, 1966 |


title: Mihály Bodosi

abstract: Mihály Bodosi was a Hungarian athlete. He competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics.

text:
# Mihály Bodosi

**Mihály Bodosi** (13 December 1909  21 March 2005) was a Hungarian athlete. He competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics.

## InfoBox

Mihály Bodosi
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Hungarian |
| Born | (1909-12-13)13 December 1909
Barót, Austria-Hungary |
| Died | 21 March 2005(2005-03-21) (aged 95)
Kaposvár, Hungary |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Athletics |
| Event | High jump |


title: Richard Solomon (barrister)

abstract: Sir Richard Solomon, was a South African attorney and legislator. He was a member of Parliament and the Attorney General of the Cape Colony and Attorney General, Lieutenant-Governor, and Agent-General of the Transvaal Colony. After serving as Agent-General of the Transvaal from 1907 to the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Solomon was the first High Commissioner of South Africa to the United Kingdom to his death in 1913.

text:
# Richard Solomon (barrister)

**Sir Richard Solomon**, GCMG, KCB, KCVO, KC (18 October 1850 – 10 November 1913) was a South African attorney and legislator. He was a member of Parliament and the Attorney General of the Cape Colony and Attorney General, Lieutenant-Governor, and Agent-General of the Transvaal Colony. After serving as Agent-General of the Transvaal from 1907 to the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Solomon was the first High Commissioner of South Africa to the United Kingdom to his death in 1913.

## Early life

Richard Solomon was born in 1850 in Cape Town, the third son of Rev. Edward Solomon and his wife, Jessie Matthews. His father was a missionary for the native population.

Solomon was part of a large and influential Cape family, originally of St Helenan Jewish descent, but who had converted to Anglicanism. He was baptised at one month old in Cape Town.

Members of the Solomon family were heavily involved in Southern African politics: Saul Solomon was his uncle, and his brothers were the Transvaal politician Edward Phillip Solomon, and judge and later Chief Justice of South Africa, Sir William Henry Solomon. He married Elizabeth Mary Walton in 1881 and they had one daughter.

Solomon was educated at the Bedford Public School in Cape Town and South African College. He furthered his studies at Peterhouse, Cambridge and was mathematical lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich (1876–1879), before being called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1879. Solomon was also adviser to Lord Rosmead's Royal Commission on the Administration of the Governor of Mauritius, Sir John Pope Hennessy in 1886, a member of the Native Law Commission and Chairman of the Mining Commission.

## Political and government career

Upon his return to the Cape Colony, Solomon was appointed legal adviser to the then newly formed De Beers Consolidated Mines and Cecil Rhodes in Kimberley. He was elected to the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope for Kimberley in 1893, and was appointed Attorney-General of the Cape Colony from 1898 to 1900. He was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in 1901, on the occasion of the visit to the Cape of Good Hope of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (later King George V and Queen Mary).

From 1900, Solomon resigned as an MP and served as legal advisor to Lord Kitchener during the Second Boer War, and then to the Transvaal Administration of Lord Milner from 22 March 1901 as Attorney General. In a despatch from June 1902, Lord Kitchener wrote how *"His quickness and his ability, joined to his intimate knowledge of South Africa and its people, have always been fully and loyally placed at my disposal."* Following the peace treaty on 31 May 1902, on 21 June he was appointed Attorney General in the Transvaal Colony, and thus a member of the executive council of the governor, Lord Milner. Recruited by Milner to join a team of young administrators – known as "Milner's Kindergarten", Solomon was part of the work to govern and anglicise the British-occupied Transvaal. He represented the Transvaal at the Delhi Durbar in 1903 and on 10 July 1903 was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB).

As Attorney General Solomon was the third-highest-ranking official in the colony, and in the absence of the Governor and the Lieutenant-Governor, Solomon was Administrator of the Government in 1904 and from 4 December 1905 to 2 October 1906. On 9 November 1905 he was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath (KCB). On 23 March 1906, Solomon was appointed to succeed Sir Arthur Lawley as Lieutenant-Governor, with the Attorney General of the Orange River Colony, Herbert Francis Blaine, succeeding Solomon as Attorney General. On 17 August 1906, Solomon was appointed to be King's Counsel (KC) for the Transvaal Colony.

With Transvaal having been granted responsible self-government by letters patent on 6 December 1906, in early 1907 Solomon resigned his position in the colonial administration in order to run for election to the Transvaal Legislative Assembly at its first election on 20 February 1907. Solomon was aligned to the Transvaal National Association, of which his brother Edward was president, but also had ties to the Het Volk Party led by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts. Standing for the seat of South Central Pretoria, Solomon was unsuccessful against the Progressive Party candidate Sir Percy FitzPatrick, and his political career was over before it had begun.

Solomon's defeat was a disappointment to many liberals in the colony who had hoped to see a cabinet led by him, and the Governor, The Earl of Selbourne, wrote to the Colonial Office: "The clear majority which Het Volk has won over all other parties combined, together with the defeat of Sir Richard Solomon by Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, has of course made it necessary for me to send for General Botha, and I have very little doubt that he will form a Ministry consisting mainly, if not entirely, of members of his own party". With Het Volk and the Nationalists successful at the election, Solomon subsequently assisted with the formation of the first Transvaal Cabinet by way of a coalition between the Het Volk and Nationalist parties under Prime Minister Louis Botha.

## Later life

After having declined to serve in the cabinet, Solomon was appointed by Botha to be Agent-General of the Colony in London and accompanied Botha to the Imperial Conference in London in April–May 1907. As Agent-General Solomon was responsible to advocating for financial loans, and presented the Cullinan Diamond to King Edward VII which had been purchased by the Transvaal Government to present to the King for his 66th birthday, and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) by the King as a result.

With the creation of the Union of South Africa on 31 May 1910, the Transvaal Colony ceased to exist and the first Prime Minister of South Africa, Louis Botha, appointed Solomon to serve as the first High Commissioner for South Africa in London from 1910. In commemoration of his service in the Cape Colony legislature and the establishment of South Africa, he was granted the use of the title *"The Honourable"* for life and on 19 June 1911, Solomon was appointed as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG). He was a member of the Reform Club and Athenaeum Club. Solomon served as High Commissioner until his death aged 63 on 10 November 1913, and was buried in Brookwood Cemetery.


title: Paquita la del Barrio (TV series)

abstract: Paquita la del Barrio is a Mexican drama developed by Sony Pictures Television and Imagen Televisión. It premiered on April 25, 2017 and ended on August 4, 2017. The series tells the story of the life of the singer Paquita la del Barrio during her childhood and adulthood.

text:
# Paquita la del Barrio (TV series)

***Paquita la del Barrio*** (stylized *Las verdades bien cantadas, Paquita la del Barrio*) is a Mexican drama developed by Sony Pictures Television and Imagen Televisión. It premiered on April 25, 2017 and ended on August 4, 2017. The series tells the story of the life of the singer Paquita la del Barrio during her childhood and adulthood.

## Plot

It tells the story of a woman born in poverty who, with effort and after suffering disappointments and failures, finally achieved musical success and fame to become one of the most known singers in all of Mexico or, as some call her, *La Reina del Pueblo* (The Queen of the People).

## Cast

## Awards and nominations

| Year | Award | Category | Nominated | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2018 | International Emmy Award | Best Telenovela | Paquita la del Barrio | Nominated |
|

## InfoBox

| *Paquita la del Barrio* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Genre | Drama |
| Starring |  |
| Country of origin | Mexico |
| Original language | Spanish |
| No. of episodes | 74 |
| Production | |
| Camera setup | Multi-camera |
| Original release | |
| Network | Imagen Televisión |
| Release | April 25 (2017-04-25) <br>August 4, 2017 (2017-08-04) |


title: Revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers

abstract:
The Revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers was a mass movement in 1907 in Languedoc and the Pyrénées-Orientales of France that was repressed by the government of Georges Clemenceau.
It was caused by a serious crisis in winemaking at the start of the 20th century.
The movement was also called the "paupers revolt" of the Midi.
It was marked by the fraternization of the 17th line infantry regiment with the demonstrators in Béziers.

text:
# Revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers

The **Revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers** was a mass movement in 1907 in Languedoc and the Pyrénées-Orientales of France that was repressed by the government of Georges Clemenceau. It was caused by a serious crisis in winemaking at the start of the 20th century. The movement was also called the "paupers revolt" of the Midi. It was marked by the fraternization of the 17th line infantry regiment with the demonstrators in Béziers.

## Languedoc vineyards before the 1907 crisis

### Mass viticulture

Wine making in Languedoc developed in the 18th century with the construction of the port of Sète and completion of the Canal du Midi. Wine, for which the preservation techniques had been improved, could be transported to new markets. The vineyards were extended and on the eve of the French Revolution about half the land around Béziers was covered with vines.

In 1853 railway lines began to serve Languedoc, which opened new markets to regional viticulture, particularly in the north of the country and its industrial regions. The biggest consumers were the workers, a large part of whose salary was devoted to the purchase of wine. The French Third Republic by the law of 17 July 1880 facilitated the massive opening of drinking places. They were mainly in the working-class districts of large cities, with an average of three outlets for five buildings. Wine and alcohol consumption skyrocketed. The beverages sold in these places under the name of wine were extremely poor quality and were often not wine at all. The damage was such that in the 1890s an anti-alcoholic, syndicalist and socialist movement was born.

### A catastrophic half-century

In 1856 the *Moniteur vinicole*, the press organ of the Parisian wine merchants Entrepôts de Bercy, published a "Classification of viticulture departments in order of importance relative to the extent of the vineyards and the quality of the products". Except for Bordeaux, Burgundy and Champagne, ignorance was total. Almost all the wines of France were ignored by the Parisian trade and the large drinking places. To mitigate this lack of knowledge, Achille Larive, director of the newspaper, launches a "call to owners of unknown wines". On 10 September 1856 he published the results of his inquiry. In the next issue a reader pointed out that the wines of small proprietors were ignored.

In the second half of the 19th century French viticulture also faced several crises: powdery mildew, which spread around 1850 by attacking the leaves of the vine and the fruit, then phylloxera in 1863 and at the end of 19th century downy mildew, another fungus that attaches to the back of the leaves. It produces oily layers on the leaf surface that cause them to fall early and weaken the vine. Thanks to Bordeaux mixture, a compound of Copper(II) sulfate and slaked lime, and the introduction of American plants used as rootstocks naturally resistant to phylloxera, the vines completely recovered.

This did not end the manufacture of fake wines. In *Le Monde illustré* of 12 March 1870 an article by Leo de Bernard denounced falsified wine, "petit bordeaux ... made in Bercy, where the tasting service always has its eye and nose open. The containers of this mixture, made of unknown ingredients, are confiscated and placed in a special cell. Their detention does not last long because there is no doubt of their guilt. On the day of execution, the condemned barrels are brought to the bank of the quai d'Austerlitz. A police commissioner ensures that prompt justice is done. When the signal is given the executioner of the high hygienic works opens the flanks of the victim, and from the deep wound a large black flow escapes into the Seine whose hue vaguely recalls logwood, litharge and other harmful drugs."

While everywhere else, especially in the North-West, the area planted with vines was decreasing, it increased in the departments of Aude, Gard, Hérault and Pyrénées-Orientales. These four provided 40% of French wine production, rising to almost 45% in the first half of the 20th century. Production in Haut Languedoc grew rapidly, particularly in the Biterrois and Béziers, self-proclaimed "World Capital of Wine". Great fortunes were made. Large landowners from industry, finance or the liberal professions had vast estates of several tens of hectares.

Tampered wines appeared on the market to cope with foreign competition. Exposed fraudsters were not punished. In 1892 the winemakers of the South demanded official suppression of sugaring and reestablishment of customs duties. But the market continued to be partly supplied by wines made from imported dried grapes, wines diluted with water, chaptalized wines and even "wines" made without grapes. However, although vintners gave great prominence to this unfair competition, it did not represent more than 5% of the market.

A demonstration was held in Montpelier on 12 December 1893 and a petition circulated that gathered thousands of signatures opposing fraud and falsified wines. The first calls for tax strikes were launched with the support of elected representatives who threatened to resign from their mandates. The radical government opposed them with the argument that the wine crisis was caused by overproduction of wine in the South.

### Winemaking cooperation, symbol of the Red Midi

At the start of the 20th century the idea of a winemakers union to improve sales of Hérault wines grew in some communes of the Biterrois. The first two to set up a cooperative to sell their wines without intermediaries were Maraussan and Mudaison in 1901. The Maraussan sales cooperative was created on 23 December 1901 by 128 winemakers. The initiative proved effective and was copied by Marseillan (1903), Siran (1907) and then Marsillargues and Frontignan (1910).

In 1905 the Maraussan cooperative was the first to set up a joint wine making operation by erecting a building for that purpose. Elie Cathala, a distiller who was used to distribution channels, and Maurice Blayac, president of the agricultural and mutual credit union, were instrumental in achieving this goal. The combination of control over grape production and wine making made it possible to offer a range of wines at diverse prices according to quality.

Jean Jaurès came to salute the initiative on the spot. On 1 May 1905, during his visit to the new buildings, the socialist leader explained that the peasants had to unite instead of refusing to help each other, using this allegory: "In a vineyard, contrary and mad grapes said that they did not want to go with their brothers who let themselves be picked. They did what they wanted, and what happened was that they rotted on stump, while the others went to the vat, where they made the good wine that rejoices hearts. Peasants, do not stay away. Put together your wishes, and, in the vat of the Republic, prepare the wine of the Social Revolution!".

A large majority of the small cooperating wine growers in Languedoc and Roussillon held socialist or even communist views (pooling of production tools and profits from sales, the basic principle of cooperative cellars), thus forming a Midi Rouge (Red South of France). The majority of elected local officials from rural towns or wine-growing areas were the political representatives of the Midi Rouge and in the beginning of 20th century adopted the slogan of Jaurès "Dins la tina de la Republica, preparatz lo vin de la Revolucion sociala!".

Construction of a building dedicated to wine making in Maraussan was decided by the general assembly of 19 February 1905. Its production capacity was 2,000,000 liters and it had 29 cement tanks of 50,000 liters each for vinification and storage. The Free Winemakers of Maraussan became the symbol of wine cooperation and the hope it had aroused. The facade of the cellar was always adorned with the motto "All for everyone, everyone for all". It was inscribed on the list of historical monuments by decree of 25 May 2001.

### Overproduction crisis

Algerian wine and foreign competition made the overproduction crisis worse, since Spain and Italy also had surplus wine to sell. Harvests were poor in 1902 and 1903 due to bad weather, and France produced 3,500 to 4,000 million liters. The prices of wine in these years were 16 francs, then 24 francs per hundred litres. In this context in 1903 the government allowed chaptalization of imported wines.

In 1904 and 1905, again because of the weather, harvests were abundant throughout Europe. The increase in production in the three main European producers was 96% in France, 48% in Spain and 16% in Italy. The threshold for a price collapse was 5,000 million liters, and production was 6,900 million. From 1900 to 1906 the viticulture of Languedoc produced from 1,600 to 2,100 million liters. Total French production remained at a high level in the following years: 5,800 million liters in 1905, 5,200 in 1906 and 6,600 in 1907. The price of 100 litres of wine dropped to 6 or 7 francs.

Languedoc wine sales deteriorated steadily. Abundant harvests inflated stocks that were impossible to sell. Some drinking places even sold wine "by time": the customer paid a fixed price and then drank all the wine they wanted ... or that they could drink.

The wine growers reacted to the slump. A regional committee was formed for defense of the wine-growing interests of the Midi on 20 January 1905. But in Parliament Gaston Doumergue, deputy of Gard, and Félix Aldy, deputy of the Aude, could not make their colleagues take the viticultural issue seriously, and their proposals for defense of natural wine were rejected by the parliamentarians.

In 1905 a demonstration of 15,000 people was staged in Béziers. A certain Marcelin Albert then launched his "petition of 1905", which collected four hundred signatures. It read, "The undersigned have decided to pursue their just claims to the end, to go on strike against the tax, to demand the resignation of all the elected bodies and commit all the communes of the south and Algeria to follow their example with shouts of 'Long live natural wine! Down with the poisoners!'".

## The events of 1907

There was a crisis in 1907. The winemakers of Languedoc felt themselves increasingly threatened by wines imported from Algeria through the port of Sète and by chaptalization (adding sugar before fermentation to increase alcohol content). The country had not experienced such misery since the outbreak of phylloxera. The crisis had been building for three years. Winemakers could not sell their product, people were unemployed and there was general distress.

Wine was still needed after the phylloxera crisis. The vineyards of the Île-de-France had disappeared but southern vineyards could replace them thanks to the railways. There was no hesitation over adulterating the wine. The state favored importing Algerian wines, which were mixed with poor quality wines of metropolitan France. This practice created a glut of wine that caused the slump in the Languedoc-Roussillon viticulture. Apart from its role as a distribution center, the port of Sète acted as a catalyst for the crisis. Its presence at the center of a large production area created the risk of overproduction by encouraging use of aramon grapes and large vineyards. This created volume. The need to cut these wines to increase strength caused increased demand for Algerian wines, whose production rose from 500,000,000 liters in 1900 to 800,000,000 in 1904.

Strong local production together with the production of fake wines and blends with Algerian wines saturated the consumer market. Wine imports, far from diminishing, increased in 1907, aggravating the imbalance between supply and demand. This caused the fall of prices and the economic crisis.

As early as January 1907 a warning was given by a report published by the *Revue de la Societe des Viticulteurs de France*: "The sweetening of grape harvests was authorized by law only in view of chaptalization, that is to say that is to say, as a means of improving the quality of the wine, and not as a method of increasing its quantity by means of dilution. It is therefore legitimate to establish a proportional tax on the natural product thus enhanced. The wine associations and oenology committee have long recommended that all regulation of sugaring the grape harvest should include a tax on the sugar used in the harvest".

The small wine growers were ruined and agricultural workers were unemployed. There was a domino effect on the whole population, since the ruin of the winemakers entails that of shopkeepers and other trades. There was misery throughout the region, and the 1906 harvest did not sell.

In February 1907 a tax strike began in Baixas. Joseph Tarrius, winemaker and pharmacist, circulated a petition to be signed by his fellow citizens entitled: "The municipality of Baixas, unable to pay the tax, is under mass expropriation. It is a tax we can pay and pay again: The tax on blood."

On 18 February 1907 Marcelin Albert took the initiative to send a telegram to Georges Clemenceau. One historian described Albert as follows: "A small peasant from Argeliers, who looked like a Spanish Christ, Marcelin Albert was a jack of all trades: director of a theatrical troupe, a café owner and a winemaker. In his village he was called "lo Cigal" (the Cicada), because of his whimsical and carefree spirit. Since 1900 he had been fighting for the defense of natural wine against fake wine. He was the initiator of the revolt of winemakers that started on 11 March 1907."

### Argeliers Committee

On 11 March 1907 the signal for the revolt was given by a group of Minervois vine growers in the village of Argeliers. They were led by Marcelin Albert and Elie Bernard, who founded the Comité de defense viticole (Committee of Viticulture Defense), known as the Comité d'Argeliers (Argeliers Committee). They organized a march to Narbonne of 87 vine growers for an interview with a parliamentary commission. After their testimony the committee made a tour of the city, for the first time singing *La Vigneronne*, which from that day became the anthem of the revolt of the paupers. The Committee was composed of President Marcelin Albert, Vice-President Édouard Bourges and Secretaries Cathala, Richard and Bernard.

Elie Bernard was later named Secretary General of the General Confederation of Midi Winegrowers<sup>(fr)</sup>. The Argeliers committee, which included all the producers, prepared the response to the crisis. On 14 March 1907 Albert Sarraut, a native of Bordeaux, senator of Aude and under-secretary of state for the Interior, was ridiculed by Clemenceau for trying to plead the case of his electorate. Clemenceau, President of the Council and Minister of the Interior, told Sarraut, "I know the South, it will all end with a banquet".

In this region, where the Socialists had a strong presence, no well-known elected representative joined the Committee at the beginning. This allowed Marcellin Albert to present only corporatist claims. The one and only fight he considered worthwhile was for natural wines. He refused to engage in the debate on the divergent interests of the workers and the owners, did not question the presence of royalists who openly wanted to claim the movement, and did not appreciate that on the pretext that the Occitan language is the mother tongue of the Midi wine growers, the regionalists want to make the fight into a separatist movement.

On 24 March the first meeting organized by the Committee of Argeliers was held in front of 300 people in Sallèles-d'Aude. Marcelin Albert stood out for his gifts as an orator and his charisma. For the winegrowers present he became the apostle, the king of the paupers, the redeemer. It was agreed to hold a meeting every Sunday in a different city.

### Major demonstrations

The movement gained momentum. Rallies were organized every Sunday. The events mobilized tens of thousands of people, and grew until 9 June 1907. On 31 March 1907 there were 500–600 protesters in Bize-Minervois. On 7 April there 1,000 people in Ouveillan. The meeting on 14 April mobilized more than 5,000 demonstrators in Coursan. On 21 April ten to fifteen thousand winegrowers met in Capestang. On this day the first issue of *Le Tocsin* was published by the Argeliers Committee. It as a weekly directed by Marcelin Albert and written by Louis Blanc. The first issue contained a request to parliament to pass a law against wine fraud. On 28 April the rally in Lézignan-Corbières brought together between 20,000 and 25,000 people.

In the month of May there were large gatherings in the prefectures and sub-prefectures of Languedoc-Roussillon. The first took place at Narbonne, where on 5 May a rally mobilized between 80,000 and 100,000 people. The mayor Ernest Ferroul took a stand for the struggle of the Midi winemakers and stigmatized the state. He told the crowd, "For a long time you have given credit to the state. The time has come where your debt is to be repaid ". All the viticultural defense committees of the four departments federated and adopted the oath of the federations: "Constituted as a committee of public safety for the defense of viticulture, we all swear to unite for viticultural defense, which we will defend by all means. Anyone who, for reasons of interest, ambition or political will, would prejudice the original motion and thereby render us unable to win will be tried, convicted and executed on the spot ". The separatist speeches in the Occitan language worried the government.

On 12 May 1907 these were 150,000 demonstrators at the Béziers rally in the de the Allées Paul Riquet and the Champ-de-Mars. Slogans on the banners read in French or Occitan, "Victory or death!"; "Enough of speech, deeds"; "Death to fraudsters"; "Bread or death"; "Live working or die fighting"; "To have so much good wine and not be able to eat bread!". The demonstrators, who came from more than 200 communes, were joined by many employees and traders from Béziers. The event was closed by speeches on the Place de la Citadelle. Jean-Jaurès spoke and then Marcelin Albert launched an ultimatum to the government asking it to raise the price of wine. Ernest Ferroul set this ultimatum to expire on 10 June and advocated a tax strike, "If by June 10, the government has not found a solution to the crisis then there will be resignation of the town halls of the South! There will be a tax strike!". Emile Suchon, Mayor of Béziers and close to Clemenceau, supported the winemakers' fight. There were some slight incidents between the appeal and the dispersal of the demonstrators.

That day some demonstrators who could not reach Béziers for lack of a train built barricades on the railway track at the Marcorignan station and blocked all traffic. Four days later on 16 May 1907 some winemakers found out the position of the Mayor of Béziers, started a riot and forced him to resign. The sub-prefect, on the orders of Clemenceau, called for the army to restore order. The same day the City Council of Beziers, socialists with a radical tendency, resigned in turn. The street pressure continued. The police station and the facade of the town hall were set on fire. On 19 May in Perpignan 170,000 to 200,000 people marched in the city. The demonstration took place without serious incidents.

Clemenceau counter-attacked at the political level. On 22 May his Minister of Finance Joseph Caillaux tabled a bill on wine fraud. The text submitted to Parliament provided for an annual declaration of their harvest by wine growers, prohibition of second-cycle sweetening and control and taxation of purchases of sugar.

On 26 May from 220,000 to 250,000 people demonstrated in Carcassonne. From the station avenue they passed under a triumphal arch on which was written "Solute to our brothers in misery". The speeches to the gathering tried to channel the revolutionary tone of slogans and claims towards the Cathar past of the Occitans, which Ferroul and Albert evoked in turn. Marcelin Albert said, "The Albigenses were once gathered under these walls, they fell there in defense of their freedom. We will do like them! Forward for the defense of our rights! The Midi wants it, the Midi will have it!" Ernest Ferroul, a great speaker, played on the secular opposition between North and South, "A memory haunts me, a memory of misery like yours! When the feudal barons invaded the South and sacked it, a troubadour cried like this: 'Ah! Toulouse and Provence, and the land of Argence, Beziers and Carcassonne, who saw you and who sees you!' Since then, the barons of northern industry have invaded and ruined us. We do not want to support them anymore. Forward! Stand up to repel them and their accomplices. Speak up, unite your voice, your prayer will take the tone of a command."

On 2 June 1907 an unprecedented mobilization took place at Nîmes. The 250,000 to 300 000 protesters arrived in the prefecture of Gard by special trains with reduced rates. On the square, out of solidarity a famous confectioner had posted on his facade "Grapes for wine, sugar for candy!".

### The Montpellier demonstration

On 9 June 1907 a gigantic gathering in Montpellier marked the climax of the vineyard challenge in the Midi. The Place de la Comédie was invaded by a crowd estimated to number from 600,000 to 800,000 people. In 1907 lower Languedoc had about a million inhabitants, so one of every two Languedocans was demonstrating. The mass mobilization transcended political or ideological views, since sympathizers of the socialist left and the royalist right stood side by side. This was the largest demonstration of the French Third Republic. In his speech Ernest Ferroul, mayor of Narbonne, called for the resignation of all his colleagues from Languedoc-Roussillon. He openly advocated civic disobedience. Marcelin Albert delivered such a speech that the journalist for *Le Figaro* wrote, "It was mad, sublime, terrifying".

The winegrowers' revolt received the endorsement of all political movements. From royalists to radicals, all actively supported the movement. All of Languedoc is allied against Georges Clemenceau, president of the Council. The Catholic Church even opened the doors of its cathedral and its churches. A statement from Bishop Anatole de Cabrieres said that women, children and striking winemakers would be welcomed to spend the night there. The same day, on the other side of the Mediterranean, about 50 000 people lined the streets of Algiers to support their colleagues in metropolitan France. A rumor began that the army was ready to intervene. Pierre Le Roy de Boiseaumarié, a legal student and future president of the Institut national de l'origine et de la qualité (INAO) and the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) whose family was in Vendargues, set fire to the door of the courthouse of Montpellier to prevent the troops who had been confined inside from shooting at the demonstrators.

The deadline for the ultimatum to the government came on 10 June 1907. While Clemenceau counted on a weak and short revolt, the parliamentary commission submitted its report to the Parliament which began to examine Caillaux's bill. Faced with deliberate delays in the legislature, Ernest Ferroul decided to announce publicly in Narbonne his resignation as mayor. In front of 10,000 people he said from the balcony of the City Hall, "Citizens, citizens I hold my power from you, I return it! The municipal strike begins". This position taken in the absence of a government solution was approved by 442 municipalities of Languedoc Roussillon who resigned in the week. Black flags adorned the facades of town halls and civic disobedience was declared, the weapon of the elected officials. Meanwhile clashes between protesters and law enforcers were becoming commonplace.

On 11 June Jean Jaurès, who defended the vine growers cause in the Chamber of Deputies, filed a counter-bill with Jules Guesde. The two socialist deputies proposed nationalization of the wine estates. The next day, Clemenceau addressed a half-threatening, half-ironic missive to all the mayors of the wine-growing towns of Languedoc and Roussillon. This earned him a scathing reply from Ernest Ferroul: "Monsieur Clemenceau, since the beginning of our demonstrations, has considered us as big children, good boys, but unaware of our actions. He is one of those who think that in the Midi everything ends with songs or farandoles. He is very wrong, he does not know us." The head of government then asked Albert Sarraut to bring Ferroul to the negotiating table. The former mayor told him: "When we have three million men behind us, we do not negotiate".

### Suppression of the revolt

So far the Sunday demonstrations had been calm and disciplined, and the protesters wanted to remain peaceful. However, Clemenceau judged that the law must show strength and appealed to the army to restore order. From 17 June 1907 the Midi was occupied by 22 regiments of infantry and 12 regiments of cavalry, with 25,000 infantry and 8,000 horsemen. The gendarmerie was ordered to imprison the leaders of the demonstrations. Sarraut refused to endorse this policy and resigned from the government. On 19 June Ernest Ferroul was arrested at dawn at his home in Narbonne by troops of the 139th Infantry Regiment and imprisoned in Montpellier. Three other members of the viticultural defense committee gave themselves up to the gendarmes at Argeliers. News of the planned arrest of all members of the Committee of Argeliers caused an explosion.

The crowd hindered the progress of the gendarmes by lying on the ground. Narbonne was in a state of siege. A spontaneous demonstration began that called for liberation of the members of the Committee and for revenge. There were incidents throughout the day. The sub-prefecture was stormed and barricades blocked the streets. In the evening, in the general confusion, the cavalry fired on the crowd. There were two deaths, including a 14-year-old. Marcelin Albert, who had not been arrested, was hidden in the belfry of Argeliers. A new underground defense committee was formed immediately, with Louis Blanc as leader. In the departments of Gard, Hérault, Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales municipal councils resigned collectively – up to 600 councilors – and some called for a tax strike. The situation became more and more tense, with the furious winegrowers attacking official buildings.

The next day, 20 June, tension rose further and the Midi ignited. In Perpignan the prefecture was looted and burned. The prefect David Dautresme had to take refuge on the roof. In Montpellier the crowd clashed with the armed forces. In Narbonne the police inspector Grossot, one of those responsible for the arrest of Ferroul, was taken to task and hurt by the crowd. To clear it, the troops were ordered to fire on the demonstrators. Five were killed including a girl aged 20, Julie (called Cecile) Bourrel, who had come to Narbonne by chance on the market day. Nearly 33 were injured and lying on the ground. In the Café Paincourt, which was strafed, the worker Louis Ramon died in agony.

On 22 June 1907 in Narbonne 10,000 people attend the funeral of Cecile. This burial was the last great demonstration of the Midi winegrowers. In the meantime, Parliament having renewed its confidence in the government, *L'Humanité* of Jaurès carried the headline, "The House acquits the mass killers of the Midi".

### 17th regiment mutiny

The 17th line infantry regiment was composed of reservists and conscripts from the region. It was transferred from Béziers to Agde on 18 June 1907. When they heard the gunfire on the evening of 20 June about 500 soldiers from the 6th company of the regiment mutinied. They looted the armory and moved back towards Béziers. After a night march of about 20 kilometres (12 mi) they arrived in Béziers early in the morning of 21 June, where they were warmly welcomed. They fraternized with the demonstrators, occupied the Allées Paul Riquet and peacefully opposed the armed forces already in the city. The soldiers then peacefully settled in the Allées Paul Riquet. The population offered them wine and food.

The Midi was on the verge of insurrection. In Paulhan the railway was put out of action by demonstrators who stopped a military convoy sent to check the mutineers. In Lodève the sub-prefect was taken hostage. The military authorities could not accept the mutiny which could spread to other regiments of the region.

There was alarm in Paris, and Clemenceau faced a vote of no confidence. He played his trump card by telling the military command to hunt down the mutineers in daylight. Negotiations followed and in the afternoon, after obtaining a guarantee that they would not be punished, the soldiers of the 17th laid down their arms and went under escort and without any major incident to the station. On 22 June they returned to their barracks in Agde by train. Clemenceau announced the end of the mutiny and won a vote of confidence by 327 votes against 223. On 23 June a law was finally passed that stopped massive chaptalization of wine.

After the negotiation and the agreement to move to avoid collective punishment, the mutineers of the 17th were assigned to Gafsa in Tunisia. They were not assigned to a disciplinary cantonment but retained ordinary military status, so contrary to legend there were no immediate penalties. However, during World War I (1914–18) because of their reputation as deserters they were likely to be sent to the front line, particularly in the bloody assaults of 1914. After these events the army ensured that conscripts performed military service far from home.

The mutiny of the soldiers of 17th is still known by the song by Montéhus, *Glory to the 17th*. The chorus proclaims: "Salute, salute to you, brave soldiers of the seventeenth ...".

Georges Clemenceau was disturbed by the mobilization of the Midi winemakers and the mutiny of 17th that followed. The revolt intensified each week and threatened to reach other wine regions. Solidarity of local and national elected officials threatened to undermine the government majority. But the most disturbing aspect remained the mutiny of the soldiers. Governments of the Third Republic used the army to impose their will, and the mutiny threatened to leave them without the force needed to confront a mobilized working class and peasantry.

## End of the 1907 crisis

### Marcelin Albert meets Clemenceau

Unexpected help came from Argeliers. Chased by the police, Marcelin Albert was forced to hide and then flee to Paris where he arrived on 22 June 1907. The National Assembly, in full debate over the bill against fraud, refused to receive him. Georges Clemenceau heard of his presence and agreed to grant him a hearing. The premier received him in his role of Minister of the Interior at Place Beauvau. During their interview he promised to repress fraud if, in return, Albert returned to Languedoc to calm the rebellion. Albert even agreed to be a prisoner. Clemenceau signed a safe-conduct for his return to the Aude and gave him one hundred francs to pay for his return by train. Albert was naive enough to accept it.

Clemenceau took the opportunity to give his version to the political journalists and stressed the history of the payment. The national dailies took this up and Albert's status changed from redeemer to sell-out. On 24 June Albert was back in Narbonne. He met the members of the new defense committee and tried to convince them to suspend the movement. However, the interview with Clemenceau had totally discredited him in their eyes. On 26 June Albert went to Montpellier to become a prisoner. On his release, no longer wanted in the Aude, he moved to Algeria. There the winemakers clubbed together to support someone who had defended their profession, but Albert died in poverty.

### Anti-fraud law

On 29 June 1907 parliament came together to deal with the pressure of events. Jean Jaurès warned his colleagues: "The event that is developing down there, and which has not exhausted its consequences, is one of the greatest social events that have occurred in thirty-five years. At first we were not careful; it was in the South, and there is a myth about the South. One imagines that it is the land of vain promises. We forget that the Midi has a long serious, passionate and tragic history." The law protecting natural wine against tampered wine was adopted. It prohibited manufacture and sale of falsified or manufactured wines. All owners must now declare the area of their vineyards. The legislature also required declarations of harvests and stocks, and gave trade unions the right to raise charges of fraud for civil trial.

On the same day the deputies enacted a law "to prevent the watering of wines and the abuse of sugar by a surtax on the sugar and the obligation of traders to declare sales of sugar higher than 25 kilograms (55 lb)." The law of 15 July 1907 completed that of 29 June 1907 by regulating the circulation of wines and spirits.

On 31 August 1907 the government agreed to exempt wine growers from taxes on their crops of 1904, 1905 and 1906. On 3 September 1907 a new decree was issued stating that: "No drink may be owned or transported for sale or sold under the name of wine unless it comes exclusively from the alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes or grape juice" . As a result fraud became almost impossible. On 21 October 1907 another decree established the "Fraud Repression Service" and defined its functions, authority and resources.

### General Confederation of Midi Winemakers

On 15 September 1907 the last issue of the *Tocsin* came out, and the paper became the *Vendémiaire*. The time of Marcelin Albert was definitely over. A week later, on 22 September, the Wine Defense Committee was dissolved and the General Confederation of vine growers of the South (CGV) was constituted. Its main mission was to fight against fraud and to protect the social and economic interests of producers. The first president of the CGV was Ernest Ferroul and Elie Bernard became its Secretary General.

All the imprisoned leaders and members of the Argeliers committee had been released since 2 August 1907 as a gesture of reconciliation. On 5 October 1907 those considered responsible for the demonstrations and riots were declared liable by the court of assize. But after appeals were lodged the trials were never held and all were pardoned in 1988.

## End of the overproduction crisis

### Pinard of the poilus

The chronic overproduction was first absorbed by the *poilus* (common soldiers) of World War I (1914–18). Until then, wine was not part of the soldier's routine in time of peace or war. Army regulations said, "Water is the normal drink of soldiers". In October 1914 the *Intendance militaire*<sup>(fr)</sup> warned that in the long war that was expected a ration of wine should be added to improve life of the ordinary soldier in the trenches. This was the origin of *Père Pinard*, a very mediocre wine with little or no taste". Since this was the army the pinard of the poillu was a blend of low-grade red wines such as Maconnais, Beaujolais or Charentes with large amounts of wine from Languedoc-Roussillon, Algeria and Tunisia. The only goal was to reach 9° alcohol.

Every soldier received a quarter of a liter of wine each day, which was relatively easy to supply given the abundant harvest of 1914. In January 1916 Parliament recognized that this ration was not enough, and doubled it. That year, after the Battle of Verdun, Jean Richepin wrote, "In the glasses of peasants, as well as in chalices touched with a trembling hand, let them drink the pinard of the poilus, poured by our silent canteens and paid as much as possible for the benefit of widows and orphans in France". The pinard was therefore invested with a triple mission, sustain morale while contributing to victory and national unity. The half-liter ration was increased in January 1918 to three quarters of a liter per day.

The demand from the army was therefore enormous, and in 1918 it requisitioned a third of the French harvest, including colonies. The requisitioned wine was left with the producers for storage and withdrawn according to military needs. In return, the winemaker or wine cooperative received a bonus of twenty centimes per 100 liters per month. From the cellars the wine was sent to large regional warehouses in Béziers, Sète, Carcassonne, Lunel and Bordeaux. From there it was sent to the storage tanks in the rear of the front, replenished every two days. Each convoy carried an average of 400,000 liters. Immediately packaged in barrels, the pinard was then shipped by train and truck to the front.

The massive supply of wine to the troops had the effect of increasing alcoholism in this generation of men. After 1918 there was again overproduction in the vineyards. It was partly offset by an increase in wine consumption that lasted until June 1940, when wartime restrictions enforced national abstinence.

### Partial conversion of the vineyard

NarbonneMontpellierclass=notpageimage|Locations in France

A solution to the endemic causes of the viticultural crisis was long delayed. From the 1920s to the 1970s Languedoc continued to experience successive crises of overproduction and slump. It was assumed that the crises were inevitable due to the vine monoculture. It was not resolved until the 1960s, when agricultural change was made possible by the Canal du Bas-Rhône Languedoc<sup>(fr)</sup>, an irrigation canal that brings water from the Rhone to the south of the department of Gard and the east of the department of Héraultin. This work was spearheaded by Philippe Lamour, "father" of the policy of regional planning in France and in 1955 president of the National Planning Company of the Bas-Rhône and Languedoc region. In southern Gard and the east of Hérault water was distributed by the BRL Group. It was supplied by the National Development Company of the Lower Rhône and Languedoc.

### Wines of the pays d'Oc

The real solution to the crisis was through wine production under the "*vin de pays*" label. The bulk of Languedoc wine production received this label by the decree of 15 October 1987, defended by the Union of Pays d'Oc Wine Producers. Today "Pays-d'oc (IGP)", until 2009 "Vin de pays d'Oc", is a French regional wine of *Indication géographique protégée* (protected geographical indication, the new name for vin de pays) produced throughout the wine region of Languedoc-Roussillon. It is one of the most important of French wines, and accounts for almost half of Languedoc vineyard production, 60% of the volume of all French PGIs with 530 million liters produced in 2009, the equivalent of 760 million bottles. It is also the most exported wine, with 210 million liters shipped abroad in 2009, 18% of French wine exports.

The IGP region also contains areas with more restricted terroir: Aude, Pays-d'Hérault, Gard, Pyrenees-Orientales and 57 IGPs with zone denominations.

## Centenary of the revolt

The centennial of the winemakers' revolt of 1907 was included in the list of national celebrations in the year 2007. During the celebration of the hundredth anniversary of the revolt of the paupers many exhibitions and cultural events took place in the department of Aude, including Argeliers, birthplace of the movement of 1907, Sallèles-d'Aude and Coursan as well as in Gard and Pyrénées Orientales, and in Herault, Capestang and Béziers. At the Museum of Cruzy, in the department of Herault, four banners are exhibited that were used during the events of 1907. They are classified as Historical Monuments.

1. Lo beret liure 2011.
2. Castillon 2007.
3. Lalouette 1997.
4. Saltarelli 2000, p. 39.
5. Saltarelli 2000, pp. 39–40.
6. Tosti.
7. DGCCFR 2008.
8. Le Roy Ladurie 2007, p. 64.
9. Marres 1939, pp. 427–430.
10. Coulondou.
11. Le Roy Ladurie 2007, p. 65.
12. Gavignaud-Fontaine 2007.
13. Vignerons coopérateurs de l'Hérault.
14. La cave de Maraussan.
15. Théobald 2014, p. 70.
16. Diemer.
17. Zola.
18. Le Roy Ladurie 2007, p. 66.
19. Pouget.
20. Sommières.
21. Tartakowsky.
22. Massé 1984, p. 189.
23. Coquelicots.
24. Clavel 2006.
25. Histoire du Roussillon.
26. Bassagana 2009.
27. Ferré 1997, p. 97.
28. Tenaguillo y Cortázar.
29. Bon 2010.
30. Lamiral 2007.
31. Trinquier (b).
32. Ferré 2007.
33. Clavel 2006b.
34. Maurin & Pech 2007.
35. Pénet 1998, p. 1049.
36. Trinquier.
37. Deroubaix, Le Puill & Raynal 2007.
38. Phélip 1917.
39. BRL (a).
40. BRL (b).
41. BRL (c).
42. Poids économique des vins ...
43. Célébration des événements de 1907.
44. Cruzy.

## Sources

## Further reading

* Baissette, Gaston (1956), *Ces grappes de ma vigne* (in French)
* Barrot, J. (1975), "La Crise dans la viticulture languedocienne", *Revue Économie politique* (in French)
* Betchel, Guy (1976), *1907, la grande révolte du midi* (in French), Robert Laffont
* Betchel, Guy (1985), *Languedoc-Roussillon, au temps des vignerons en colère* (in French), Editions Milan
* Calas, Raoul; Marty, André (1947), *À la gloire des lutteurs de 1907. Grandeur et puissance des travailleurs de la terre Pour la renaissance de la viticulture* (in French), preface by Marcel Cachin, Montpellier: Imprimerie Causse, Graille et Castelnau
* Ecken, Claude; Lacou, Benoît (2007), *1907, La longue marche des vignerons du Midi* (in French), Béziers: Editions Aldacom
* Haberbusch (capitaine), Benoît (June 2008), "La gendarmerie et les raisins de la colère, un monde en crise", *Le Trèfle* (in French) (115): 62–68
* Johnson, Hugh (2002), *Une histoire mondiale du vin* (in French), Paris: Éd. Hachette Pratique, ISBN 2012367585
* Jouffroy-Schaeffer, M. (1972), "La Crise vinicole de 1907 en Languedoc", *Revue Économie méridionale* (in French), Montpellier
* Lachiver, Marcel (1988), *Vins, vignes et vignerons. Histoire du vignoble français* (in French), Paris: É. Fayard, ISBN 221302202X
* Leroy Ladurie, Emmanuel (1967), *Histoire du Languedoc* (in French), PUF
* Magnon, Jean-Louis (1991), *Les Larmes de la vigne* (in French), Seghers
* Martel, Pierre-Étienne (1925), *Le Vin rouge* (in French)
* Moraton, Gilles (22 March 2007), *la révolte des gueux* (in French), illustrated by Max Cabanes
* Napo, Félix (March 2007), *1907, la révolte des vignerons* (in French), éditions E&C
* Nique, Christian; Limouzin, Jacques (2007), *Précis d'histoire du Languedoc-Roussillon* (in French), CRDP Académie de Montpellier
* Pech, Rémy (2007), *Les Mutins de la République* (in French), avec la collaboration de Jules Maurin, Editions Privat
* Pinheiro, Nicolaï (2007), *1907, Les Vendanges Rouges* (in French), bande-dessinée
* Ros, Raymond (1941), *Pages d'histoire biterroise* (in French), Librairie Clareton
* Sagnes, Jean, ed. (2008), *La révolte du Midi viticole cent ans après, 1907-2007* (in French), Perpignan: Presses universitaires de Perpignan
* Sagnes, Jean (1982), *Le Midi Rouge* (in French)
* Sagnes, Jean; Séguéla, Jean-Claude (2007), *1907, la Révolte du Midi de A à Z* (in French), Béziers: éditions Aldacom
* Vieu, Ernest; Raissiguier, Adrien, *Argelliers, huit siècles d'histoire* (in French)
* Vieux, Michel, *Les événements viticoles dans le Midi mars juin 1907* (in French), vol. 1, Lavelanet: R Latour, ISBN 2-916467-04-1
* Vieux, Michel, *Les événements viticoles De la lumière à l'ombre* (in French), vol. 2, Lavelanet: R Latour, ISBN 2-916467-16-5

## InfoBox

Revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers
| Meeting of winemakers addressed by Ernest Ferroul, Mayor of Narbonne, and Marcelin Albert | |
| --- | --- |
| Native name | Révolte des vignerons du Languedoc |
| Date | 11 March – 22 September 1907 (1907-03-11 1907-09-22) |
| Location | Midi of France |
| Also known as | Révolte des gueux du Midi |
| Type | Peasant revolt |
| Cause | Falling wine prices |
| Motive | Eliminate unfair competition |
| Organised by | Marcelin Albert |
| Outcome | Demands met by revised laws |
| Deaths | 7 deaths (19–20 June 1907) |


title: Ahmed Dine

abstract: Ahmed Dine is an Algerian boxer. He competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics and the 1992 Summer Olympics.

text:
# Ahmed Dine

**Ahmed Dine** (born 22 January 1965) is an Algerian boxer. He competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics and the 1992 Summer Olympics.

## InfoBox

Ahmed Dine
| Ahmed Dine (right) fighting East Germany's Henry Maske | |
| --- | --- |
| Personal information | |
| Nationality | Algerian |
| Born | (1965-01-22) 22 January 1965<br>Bouharoun, Algeria |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Boxing |


title: Rapolas Skipitis

abstract: Rapolas Skipitis was a Lithuanian attorney and politician. In 1920–1922, he was Minister of the Interior and was later elected to the Second and Third Seimas. After the 1926 coup d'état, he chaired the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union (1927–1928), Society for the Support of Lithuanians Abroad (1932–1940), and several other Lithuanian organizations. He also edited several newspapers, including Ūkininko balsas (1925–1928), Trimitas (1927–1928), Namų savininkas and Pasaulio lietuvis (1937–1940). At the start of World War II, he retreated to Germany and joined the Lithuanian Activist Front. He was reserved the seat of Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Provisional Government of Lithuania. After the war, he settled in Chicago where he was active in Lithuanian American cultural life.

text:
# Rapolas Skipitis

**Rapolas Skipitis** (31 January 1887 – 23 February 1976) was a Lithuanian attorney and politician. In 1920–1922, he was Minister of the Interior and was later elected to the Second and Third Seimas. After the 1926 coup d'état, he chaired the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union (1927–1928), Society for the Support of Lithuanians Abroad (1932–1940), and several other Lithuanian organizations. He also edited several newspapers, including *Ūkininko balsas* (1925–1928), *Trimitas* (1927–1928), *Namų savininkas* and *Pasaulio lietuvis* (1937–1940). At the start of World War II, he retreated to Germany and joined the Lithuanian Activist Front. He was reserved the seat of Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Provisional Government of Lithuania. After the war, he settled in Chicago where he was active in Lithuanian American cultural life.

## Biography

### Education and World War I

Skipitis was born in 1887 to a family of peasants in Baukai. His parents decided to educate him hoping that he would become a priest. He graduated from Palanga Progymnasium in 1904 and Šiauliai Gymnasium in 1909. In Palanga, he met the priest Julijonas Jasienskis, who introduced him to the banned Lithuanian-language press. Already as a school student, he participated in public life by taking part in the protests of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and joining various student activities. He organized aid to political prisoners by forging Russian passports. For these activities he was arrested for a few days in 1908, but released. He continued his studies at the University of Moscow in medicine (1909–1910) and law (1910–1916). Skipitis joined *aušrininkai* (socialist-leaning student organization) and contributed articles to its magazine *Aušrinė*. From 1911 to 1915, he chaired the Lithuanian Student Society of Moscow.

In March 1917, he was one of the founders of the Democratic National Freedom League (known as *Santara*), a moderate liberal party, and became its secretary and editor of its newspaper *Santara*. He was elected to the Council of the Lithuanian Nation and later the Supreme Lithuanian Council in Russia. In January 1918, together with Augustinas Voldemaras, he was sent as a Lithuanian representative to the Ukrainian People's Republic in Kiev. It was a dangerous journey as it took him across the Soviet–Ukrainian front, and the mission was brief as the Red Army captured Kiev in February 1918. He returned to Voronezh, but learned that many members of the Supreme Lithuanian Council were arrested. He then bribed a Russian official for a permit to return to Lithuania.

### Political career

Skipitis returned to Lithuania in May 1918 and took up teaching in Šiauliai. However, by the end of the year he became a judge in the newly formed Lithuanian judiciary system first in Šiauliai and, when the city was captured by the Soviets during the Lithuanian–Soviet War, in Kaunas. From 6 March 1919 to becoming Minister of the Interior in June 1920, he worked as a public prosecutor. Once, when due to financial difficulties, the Lithuanian government did not pay wages to court officials, Skipitis personally borrowed 12,000 German Papiermarks to pay the wages. He was active in organizing the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, which sent him to Šiauliai in November 1919 to organize the partisan staff for combat with the West Russian Volunteer Army (Bermontians) during the Lithuanian Wars of Independence.

In fall 1919, he was sent as an official investigator into reports that Povilas Plechavičius' partisans executed Communist civilians near Skuodas and Seda. According to the report of Steponas Kairys to the Lithuanian government, Plechavičius' men killed about 50 Bolsheviks in January–April 1919. Skipitis did not deny the executions but concluded that Plechavičius served Lithuanian interests. He was one of the drafters of the election law to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania.

At the time, there were very few Lithuanians with a legal education (later, in his memoirs, Skipitis claimed that there were no more than 20). As such, Prime Minister Kazys Grinius invited him to become the Minister of the Interior on 19 June 1920. At the time, the ministry was in charge of numerous areas, including civil administration, local self-government, public security, border protection, infrastructure maintenance and development, social services, taxes, citizenship, health services, etc. All of these areas had to be built and organized in the difficult and chaotic post-war years.

In the 1923 election, Skipitis was elected to the Second Seimas (parliament) as a candidate of the Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union. In 1925, *Santara* was reorganized as the Farmers' Party and Skipitis became its chairman and editor of its weekly newspaper *Ūkininkų balsas* (Voice of Farmers). He was elected in the 1926 elections to the Third Seimas as a candidate of the Farmers' Party. During the 1926 coup d'état, Skipitis and Vaclovas Sidzikauskas mediated between the deposed government and the new regime of Antanas Smetona, taking care to observe constitutional formalities. In the new government of Augustinas Voldemaras, Skipitis was offered the post of Minister of the Interior, but refused. After the coup, Seimas was dissolved in 1927 and the Farmer's Party was banned in 1928.

### Work with Lithuanians abroad

From 1922, Skipitis had a private attorney practice. From April 1927 to June 1928, he was chairman of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union. He was also active in other societies such as the Society for the Support of Higher Education Students (*Aukštųjų mokyklų lietuviams moksleiviams šelpti draugija*), which he chaired in 1927–1928, the Union of Lithuanian Homeowners' Associations (*Lietuvos namų savininkų draugijų sąjunga*), and the Council of Attorneys, of which he was a member in 1932–1940. In April 1933, Skipitis organized electricity boycott in Kaunas to force the local electricity producer, a monopoly controlled by a Belgian corporation, to lower the prices from up to 1.35 Lt/kWh to 0.82 Lt/kWh. He edited weekly magazine *Namų savininkas* (*Homeowner*) in 1937–1940.

In February 1932, he was one of the co-founders of the Society for the Support of Lithuanians Abroad (*Draugija užsienio lietuviams remti*) and became its chairman. Thousands of Lithuanians had emigrated to United States and South America mostly due to economic reasons. The society sought to encourage the emigrants to maintain their Lithuanian traditions and increase their economic ties with Lithuania by supporting Lithuanian-language schools, libraries, press. The society also wanted to establish a unifying global Lithuanian organization and Skipitis raised an idea to organize the first Lithuanian World Congress. To that end, in early 1935, he visited Lithuanian communities in United States and South America advertising the congress which was held on 11–17 August 1935 in Kaunas. The congress was accompanied by various sport competitions, concerts, exhibitions, etc. Two Lithuanian American basketball players, Konstantinas "Connie" Savickas and Juozas Knašas, remained in Lithuania and trained the fledgling Lithuania men's national basketball team. During the congress, delegates from eight countries established the Union of World's Lithuanians (*Pasaulio lietuvių sąjunga*), chaired by Skipitis, to develop cultural and economic ties between Lithuania and the communities abroad. The union published, and Skipitis edited, 63 issues of *Pasaulio lietuvis* magazine (*The World's Lithuanian*) in 1937–1940. Skipitis visited Lithuanian communities in South America in 1939.

### World War II and after

Skipitis work and activities were interrupted by the Soviet occupation in June 1940. Fearing an arrest by the NKVD, he fled to Nazi Germany in fall 1940. He left his wife and two daughters in Lithuania and they were deported to Siberia during the June deportation. In Berlin, he joined Kazys Škirpa and became one of the co-founders of the Lithuanian Activist Front (LAF) in November 1940. He was appointed chairman of the LAF commission on Lithuanians abroad. In April 1941, when plans were drawn for the June Uprising, Skipitis was reserved the seat of the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Provisional Government of Lithuania. However, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Gestapo did not allow Skipitis to leave Berlin and he never joined the uprising in Lithuania. In July 1941, Skipitis, Ernestas Galvanauskas, and Petras Kalvelis petitioned Škirpa to close LAF in Berlin. Škirpa responded by officially dismissing the three from LAF.

Skipitis continued to be involved with anti-Soviet resistance. In 1942, he briefly and secretly visited Kaunas to discuss creation of a unified resistance organization (such organization, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania or VLIK, was established in November 1943). In July 1943, he delivered a petition to the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories asking to release Lithuanian intellectuals imprisoned at the Stutthof concentration camp as reprisal for the failure to raise a Lithuanian *Waffen-SS* legion. In May 1944, when the Gestapo arrested most of the leaders of VLIK in Lithuania, it was decided to establish VLIK section in Berlin. Its members were Mykolas Krupavičius, Skipitis, and Vaclovas Sidzikauskas.

In 1946, Skipitis emigrated to United States and settled in Chicago, where he worked as a clerk in a department store. There he continued active public life. He worked at *Naujienos* newspaper, chaired the Society of Lithuanian Attorneys (*Lietuvos teisininkų draugija*) in 1949–1955, re-joined VLIK and Lithuanian Riflemen's Union when they moved to United States in 1955 and 1956, respectively. He contributed articles to Lithuanian American press and to the *Lithuanian Encyclopedia*. He published two volumes of memoirs, *Building Independent Lithuania* (*Nepriklausomą Lietuvą statant*, 1961) and *Independent Lithuania* (*Nepriklausoma Lietuva*, 1967).

## InfoBox

| Rapolas Skipitis | |
| --- | --- |
| Portrait of Skipitis in *Lithuania Album* (1921) | |
|  | |
| Minister of the Interior | |
| **In office**
19 June 1920  18 January 1922 | |
| Prime Minister | Kazys Grinius |
| Preceded by | Eliziejus Draugelis |
| Succeeded by | Kazimieras Oleka |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1887-01-31)31 January 1887
Baukai, Smilgiai, Kovno Governorate, Russian Empire |
| Died | 23 February 1976(1976-02-23) (aged 89)
Chicago, United States |
| Resting place | Lithuanian National Cemetery |
| Political party | Democratic National Freedom League (*Santara*)
Farmers' Party |
| Alma mater | Moscow State University |
|  | |


title: Nam Tae-hi

abstract: Nam Tae-hi was a pioneering South Korean master of taekwondo and is known as the "Father of Vietnamese Taekwondo". With Choi Hong-hi, he co-founded the "Oh Do Kwan" and led the twelve original masters of taekwondo of the Korea Taekwon-Do Association (KTA).

text:
# Nam Tae-hi

**Nam Tae-hi** (Korean: 남태희; Hanja: 南太熙; 19 March 1929 – 7 November 2013) was a pioneering South Korean master of taekwondo and is known as the "Father of Vietnamese Taekwondo". With Choi Hong-hi, he co-founded the "Oh Do Kwan" and led the twelve original masters of taekwondo of the Korea Taekwon-Do Association (KTA).

## Early life

Nam was born in March 1929 in Keijō (Seoul), Korea, Empire of Japan. He began training in the martial arts in 1946, training after school for five nights each week. Nam's training continued in the Chung Do Kwan under Lee Won-kuk. It has been claimed that Nam introduced Bok-man Kim (a pioneering master and one of the technical founders of taekwondo, working with Choi) to taekkyeon in 1948, but other sources indicate Nam did not meet Bok-man Kim until 1954.

## Career

While a captain in the South Korean military forces, Nam met Choi, and acted as Choi's second-in-command in the early days of taekwondo. Nam was pivotal in the development of taekwondo, and was called Choi's "right hand man" in the latter's official biography. In 1954, at the rank of 2nd *dan*, Nam participated in a military demonstration of martial arts for the president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, and broke 13 roof tiles with a downward punch; Rhee was reportedly so impressed that he subsequently ordered all Korean military personnel to undergo training in martial arts.

In March 1959, Nam was a member of the first Korean taekwondo demonstration team to travel overseas, demonstrating his martial art in Vietnam and Taiwan. Around this time, he was appointed president of the Asia Taekwon-Do Federation, and was also one of the founding directors of the KTA. In 1962, Nam was appointed as Chief Instructor of taekwondo for the Vietnamese army, and came to be known as the Father of Taekwondo in Vietnam. Nam designed the Chang Hon taekwondo patterns Hwa-Rang *hyung*, Chung-Mu *hyung*, and UI-Ji *hyung*.

## Later life

Nam moved to the Chicago area in 1972, opened a *dojang* in 1973, and then later lived in Los Angeles. He appears on Chang-keun Choi's list of taekwondo pioneers. In 2007, he was inducted into the Taekwondo Hall of Fame.

After being admitted to hospital due to pneumonia, Nam died on 7 November 2013 in Garden Grove, California, USA.

## InfoBox

| Nam Tae-hi | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 19 March 1929
Keijō, Keiki-dō, Korea, Empire of Japan |
| Died | 7 November 2013(2013-11-07) (aged 84)
Garden Grove, California, United States |
| Style | Taekwondo |
| Teacher(s) | Won-kuk Lee |
| Rank | 9th *dan* taekwondo |
| Notable students | Han Cha-kyo, Jhoon-goo Rhee |