title: Neuroanatomy

abstract: Neuroanatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord and the series of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. Breaking down and identifying specific parts of the nervous system has been crucial for figuring out how it operates. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions. For information about the composition of non-human animal nervous systems, see nervous system. For information about the typical structure of the Homo sapiens nervous system, see human brain or peripheral nervous system. This article discusses information pertinent to the study of neuroanatomy.

text:
# Neuroanatomy

**Neuroanatomy** is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord (together called the central nervous system, or CNS) and the series of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (known as the peripheral nervous system, or PNS). Breaking down and identifying specific parts of the nervous system has been crucial for figuring out how it operates. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions.

For information about the composition of non-human animal nervous systems, see nervous system. For information about the typical structure of the Homo sapiens nervous system, see human brain or peripheral nervous system. This article discusses information pertinent to the *study* of neuroanatomy.

## History

The first known written record of a study of the anatomy of the human brain is an ancient Egyptian document, the Edwin Smith Papyrus. In Ancient Greece, interest in the brain began with the work of Alcmaeon, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the *hegemonikon*) and that the senses were dependent on the brain.

The debate regarding the *hegemonikon* persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time. Those who argued for the brain often contributed to the understanding of neuroanatomy as well. Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria were perhaps the most influential with their studies involving dissecting human brains, affirming the distinction between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and identifying the ventricles and the *dura mater*. The Greek physician and philosopher Galen, likewise, argued strongly for the brain as the organ responsible for sensation and voluntary motion, as evidenced by his research on the neuroanatomy of oxen, Barbary apes, and other animals.

The cultural taboo on human dissection continued for several hundred years afterward, which brought no major progress in the understanding of the anatomy of the brain or of the nervous system. However, Pope Sixtus IV effectively revitalized the study of neuroanatomy by altering the papal policy and allowing human dissection. This resulted in a flush of new activity by artists and scientists of the Renaissance, such as Mondino de Luzzi, Berengario da Carpi, and Jacques Dubois, and culminating in the work of Andreas Vesalius.

In 1664, Thomas Willis, a physician and professor at Oxford University, coined the term neurology when he published his text *Cerebri Anatome* which is considered the foundation of modern neuroanatomy. The subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural system.

## Composition

At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of neurons, glial cells, and extracellular matrix. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the list of distinct cell types in the adult human body). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters which generally act across synapses (close contacts between two neurons, or between a neuron and a muscle cell; note also extrasynaptic effects are possible, as well as release of neurotransmitters into the neural extracellular space), and produce our memories, thoughts, and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin (oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells), and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (astrocytes) can even propagate intercellular calcium waves over long distances in response to stimulation, and release gliotransmitters in response to changes in calcium concentration. Wound scars in the brain largely contain astrocytes. The extracellular matrix also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells, vehiculating substances to and from the blood vessels.

At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the hippocampus in mammals or the mushroom bodies of the fruit fly. These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general systemic pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories in connection with many other cerebral regions. The peripheral nervous system also contains afferent or efferent nerves, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, or from sensory or motor sorts of peripheral ganglia, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are made primarily of the axons or dendrites of neurons (axons in case of efferent motor fibres, and dendrites in case of afferent sensory fibres of the nerves), along with a variety of membranes that wrap around and segregate them into nerve fascicles.

The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves and ganglia (packets of peripheral neurons) outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the somatic (body) sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the voluntary muscles of the body. The autonomic nervous system can work with or without the control of the CNS (that's why it is called 'autonomous'), and also has two subdivisions, called sympathetic and parasympathetic, which are important for transmitting motor orders to the body's basic internal organs, thus controlling functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, unlike somatic nerves, contain only efferent fibers. Sensory signals coming from the viscera course into the CNS through the somatic sensory nerves (e.g., visceral pain), or through some particular cranial nerves (e.g., chemosensitive or mechanic signals).

### Orientation in neuroanatomy

In anatomy in general and neuroanatomy in particular, several sets of topographic terms are used to denote orientation and location, which are generally referred to the body or brain axis (see Anatomical terms of location). The axis of the CNS is often wrongly assumed to be more or less straight, but it actually shows always two ventral flexures (cervical and cephalic flexures) and a dorsal flexure (pontine flexure), all due to differential growth during embryogenesis. The pairs of terms used most commonly in neuroanatomy are:

* Dorsal and ventral: Dorsal refers more or less to the top or upper side of the brain, which is symbolized by the floor plate, and ventral to the bottom or lower side. These descriptors originally were used for *dorsum* and *ventrum* – back and belly – of the body; the belly of most animals is oriented towards the ground; the erect posture of humans places our ventral aspect anteriorly, and the dorsal aspect becomes posterior. The case of the head and the brain is peculiar, since the belly does not properly extend into the head, unless we assume that the mouth represents an extended belly element. Therefore, in common use, those brain parts that lie close to the base of the cranium, and through it to the mouth cavity, are called ventral – i.e., at its bottom or lower side, as defined above – whereas dorsal parts are closer to the enclosing cranial vault. Reference to the roof and floor plates of the brain is less prone to confusion, also allow us to keep an eye on the axial flexures mentioned above. Dorsal and ventral are thus relative terms in the brain, whose exact meaning depends on the specific location.
* Rostral and caudal: *rostral* refers in general anatomy to the front of the body (towards the nose, or *rostrum* in Latin), and *caudal* refers to the tail end of the body (towards the tail; *cauda* in Latin). The rostrocaudal dimension of the brain corresponds to its length axis, which runs across the cited flexures from the caudal tip of the spinal cord into a rostral end roughly at the optic chiasma. In the erect Man, the directional terms "superior" and "inferior" essentially refer to this rostrocaudal dimension, because our body and brain axes are roughly oriented vertically in the erect position. However, all vertebrates develop a very marked ventral kink in the neural tube that is still detectable in the adult central nervous system, known as the cephalic flexure. The latter bends the rostral part of the CNS at a 180-degree angle relative to the caudal part, at the transition between the forebrain (axis ending rostrally at the optic chiasma) and the brainstem and spinal cord (axis roughly vertical, but including additional minor kinks at the pontine and cervical flexures) These flexural changes in axial dimension are problematic when trying to describe relative position and sectioning planes in the brain. There is abundant literature that wrongly disregards the axial flexures and assumes a relatively straight brain axis.
* Medial and lateral: *medial* refers to being close, or relatively closer, to the midline (the descriptor *median* means a position precisely at the midline). *Lateral* is the opposite (a position more or less separated away from the midline).

Note that such descriptors (dorsal/ventral, rostral/caudal; medial/lateral) are relative rather than absolute (e.g., a lateral structure may be said to lie medial to something else that lies even more laterally).

Commonly used terms for planes of orientation or planes of section in neuroanatomy are "sagittal", "transverse" or "coronal", and "axial" or "horizontal". Again in this case, the situation is different for swimming, creeping or quadrupedal (prone) animals than for Man, or other erect species, due to the changed position of the axis. Due to the axial brain flexures, no section plane ever achieves a complete section series in a selected plane, because some sections inevitably result cut oblique or even perpendicular to it, as they pass through the flexures. Experience allows to discern the portions that result cut as desired.

* A mid-sagittal plane divides the body and brain into left and right halves; sagittal sections, in general, are parallel to this median plane, moving along the medial-lateral dimension (see the image above). The term *sagittal* refers etymologically to the median suture between the right and left parietal bones of the cranium, known classically as sagittal suture, because it looks roughly like an arrow by its confluence with other sutures (*sagitta*; arrow in Latin).
* A section plane orthogonal to the axis of any elongated form in principle is held to be transverse (e.g., a transverse section of a finger or of the vertebral column); if there is no length axis, there is no way to define such sections, or there are infinite possibilities. Therefore, transverse body sections in vertebrates are parallel to the ribs, which are orthogonal to the vertebral column, which represents the body axis both in animals and man. The brain also has an intrinsic longitudinal axis – that of the primordial elongated neural tube – which becomes largely vertical with the erect posture of Man, similarly as the body axis, except at its rostral end, as commented above. This explains that transverse spinal cord sections are roughly parallel to our ribs, or to the ground. However, this is only true for the spinal cord and the brainstem, since the forebrain end of the neural axis bends crook-like during early morphogenesis into the chiasmatic hypothalamus, where it ends; the orientation of true transverse sections accordingly changes, and is no longer parallel to the ribs and ground, but perpendicular to them; lack of awareness of this morphologic brain peculiarity (present in all vertebrate brains without exceptions) has caused and still causes much erroneous thinking on forebrain brain parts. Acknowledging the singularity of rostral transverse sections, tradition has introduced a different descriptor for them, namely *coronal* sections. Coronal sections divide the forebrain from rostral (front) to caudal (back), forming a series orthogonal (transverse) to the local bent axis. The concept cannot be applied meaningfully to the brainstem and spinal cord, since there the coronal sections become horizontal to the axial dimension, being parallel to the axis. In any case, the concept of 'coronal' sections is less precise than that of 'transverse', since often coronal section planes are used which are not truly orthogonal to the rostral end of the brain axis. The term is etymologically related to the *coronal suture* of the craneum and this to the position where crowns are worn (Latin *corona* means crown). It is not clear what sort of crown was meant originally (maybe just a diadema), and this leads unfortunately to ambiguity in the section plane defined merely as coronal.
* A coronal plane across the human head and brain is modernly conceived to be parallel to the face (the plane in which a king's crown sits on his head is not exactly parallel to the face, and exportation of the concept to less frontally endowed animals than us is obviously even more conflictive, but there is an implicit reference to the *coronal suture* of the cranium, which forms between the frontal and temporal/parietal bones, giving a sort of diadema configuration which is roughly parallel to the face). Coronal section planes thus essentially refer only to the head and brain, where a diadema makes sense, and not to the neck and body below.
* Horizontal sections by definition are aligned (parallel) with the horizon. In swimming, creeping and quadrupedal animals the body axis itself is horizontal, and, thus, horizontal sections run along the length of the spinal cord, separating ventral from dorsal parts. Horizontal sections are orthogonal to both transverse and sagittal sections, and in theory, are parallel to the length axis. Due to the axial bend in the brain (forebrain), true horizontal sections in that region are orthogonal to coronal (transverse) sections (as is the horizon relative to the face).

According to these considerations, the three directions of space are represented precisely by the sagittal, transverse and horizontal planes, whereas coronal sections can be transverse, oblique or horizontal, depending on how they relate to the brain axis and its incurvations.

## Tools

Modern developments in neuroanatomy are directly correlated to the technologies used to perform research. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the various tools that are available. Many of the histological techniques used to study other tissues can be applied to the nervous system as well. However, there are some techniques that have been developed especially for the study of neuroanatomy.

### Cell staining

In biological systems, staining is a technique used to enhance the contrast of particular features in microscopic images.

Nissl staining uses aniline basic dyes to intensely stain the acidic polyribosomes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, which is abundant in neurons. This allows researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and glia), and neuronal shapes and sizes, in various regions of the nervous system cytoarchitecture.

The classic Golgi stain uses potassium dichromate and silver nitrate to fill selectively with a silver chromate precipitate a few neural cells (neurons or glia, but in principle, any cells can react similarly). This so-called silver chromate impregnation procedure stains entirely or partially the cell bodies and neurites of some neurons -dendrites, axon\- in brown and black, allowing researchers to trace their paths up to their thinnest terminal branches in a slice of nervous tissue, thanks to the transparency consequent to the lack of staining in the majority of surrounding cells. Modernly, Golgi-impregnated material has been adapted for electron-microscopic visualization of the unstained elements surrounding the stained processes and cell bodies, thus adding further resolutive power.

### Histochemistry

Histochemistry uses knowledge about biochemical reaction properties of the chemical constituents of the brain (including notably enzymes) to apply selective methods of reaction to visualize where they occur in the brain and any functional or pathological changes. This applies importantly to molecules related to neurotransmitter production and metabolism, but applies likewise in many other directions chemoarchitecture, or chemical neuroanatomy.

Immunocytochemistry is a special case of histochemistry that uses selective antibodies against a variety of chemical epitopes of the nervous system to selectively stain particular cell types, axonal fascicles, neuropiles, glial processes or blood vessels, or specific intracytoplasmic or intranuclear proteins and other immunogenetic molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters. Immunoreacted transcription factor proteins reveal genomic readout in terms of translated protein. This immensely increases the capacity of researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and glia) in various regions of the nervous system.

In situ hybridization uses synthetic RNA probes that attach (hybridize) selectively to complementary mRNA transcripts of DNA exons in the cytoplasm, to visualize genomic readout, that is, distinguish active gene expression, in terms of mRNA rather than protein. This allows identification histologically (in situ) of the cells involved in the production of genetically-coded molecules, which often represent differentiation or functional traits, as well as the molecular boundaries separating distinct brain domains or cell populations.

### Genetically encoded markers

By expressing variable amounts of red, green, and blue fluorescent proteins in the brain, the so-called "brainbow" mutant mouse allows the combinatorial visualization of many different colors in neurons. This tags neurons with enough unique colors that they can often be distinguished from their neighbors with fluorescence microscopy, enabling researchers to map the local connections or mutual arrangement (tiling) between neurons.

Optogenetics uses transgenic constitutive and site-specific expression (normally in mice) of blocked markers that can be activated selectively by illumination with a light beam. This allows researchers to study axonal connectivity in the nervous system in a very discriminative way.

### Non-invasive brain imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging has been used extensively to investigate brain structure and function non-invasively in healthy human subjects. An important example is diffusion tensor imaging, which relies on the restricted diffusion of water in tissue in order to produce axon images. In particular, water moves more quickly along the direction aligned with the axons, permitting the inference of their structure.

### Viral-based methods

Certain viruses can replicate in brain cells and cross synapses. So, viruses modified to express markers (such as fluorescent proteins) can be used to trace connectivity between brain regions across multiple synapses. Two tracer viruses which replicate and spread transneuronal/transsynaptic are the Herpes simplex virus type1 (HSV) and the Rhabdoviruses. Herpes simplex virus was used to trace the connections between the brain and the stomach, in order to examine the brain areas involved in viscero-sensory processing. Another study injected herpes simplex virus into the eye, thus allowing the visualization of the optical pathway from the retina into the visual system. An example of a tracer virus which replicates from the synapse to the soma is the pseudorabies virus. By using pseudorabies viruses with different fluorescent reporters, dual infection models can parse complex synaptic architecture.

### Dye-based methods

Axonal transport methods use a variety of dyes (horseradish peroxidase variants, fluorescent or radioactive markers, lectins, dextrans) that are more or less avidly absorbed by neurons or their processes. These molecules are selectively transported anterogradely (from soma to axon terminals) or retrogradely (from axon terminals to soma), thus providing evidence of primary and collateral connections in the brain. These 'physiologic' methods (because properties of living, unlesioned cells are used) can be combined with other procedures, and have essentially superseded the earlier procedures studying degeneration of lesioned neurons or axons. Detailed synaptic connections can be determined by correlative electron microscopy.

### Connectomics

Serial section electron microscopy has been extensively developed for use in studying nervous systems. For example, the first application of serial block-face scanning electron microscopy was on rodent cortical tissue. Circuit reconstruction from data produced by this high-throughput method is challenging, and the Citizen science game EyeWire has been developed to aid research in that area.

### Computational neuroanatomy

Is a field that utilizes various imaging modalities and computational techniques to model and quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of neuroanatomical structures in both normal and clinical populations.

## Model systems

Aside from the human brain, there are many other animals whose brains and nervous systems have received extensive study as model systems, including mice, zebrafish, fruit fly, and a species of roundworm called *C. elegans*. Each of these has its own advantages and disadvantages as a model system. For example, the *C. elegans* nervous system is extremely stereotyped from one individual worm to the next. This has allowed researchers using electron microscopy to map the paths and connections of all of the 302 neurons in this species. The fruit fly is widely studied in part because its genetics is very well understood and easily manipulated. The mouse is used because, as a mammal, its brain is more similar in structure to our own (e.g., it has a six-layered cortex, yet its genes can be easily modified and its reproductive cycle is relatively fast).

### *Caenorhabditis elegans*

The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the nematode worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The nematode *Caenorhabditis elegans* has been studied because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s, Sydney Brenner chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development. One advantage of working with this worm is that the nervous system of the hermaphrodite contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body, to give a complete connectome of the nematode. Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it.

### *Drosophila melanogaster*

*Drosophila melanogaster* is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse from the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable.

Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. The brain of a fruit fly contains several million synapses, compared to at least 100 billion in the human brain. Approximately two-thirds of the *Drosophila* brain is dedicated to visual processing.

Thomas Hunt Morgan started to work with *Drosophila* in 1906, and this work earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Because of the large array of tools available for studying *Drosophila* genetics, they have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in the nervous system. The genome has been sequenced and published in 2000. About 75% of known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genome of fruit flies. *Drosophila* is being used as a genetic model for several human neurological diseases including the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's, Huntington's, spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer's disease. In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many basic aspects of *Drosophila* neurogenetics have turned out to be relevant to humans. For instance, the first biological clock genes were identified by examining *Drosophila* mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles.

## Citations

## Sources


title: Microschismus sterkfontein

abstract: Microschismus sterkfontein is a species of moth of the family Alucitidae. It is found in South Africa.

text:
# Microschismus sterkfontein

***Microschismus sterkfontein*** is a species of moth of the family Alucitidae. It is found in South Africa.

## InfoBox

| *Microschismus sterkfontein* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Alucitidae |
| Genus: | *Microschismus* |
| Species: | ***M. sterkfontein*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Microschismus sterkfontein***<br>Ustjuzhanin & Kovtunovich, 2011 | |
|


title: North East Green Belt

abstract: The North East Green Belt, also known as the Tyne & Wear Green Belt, is a non-statutory green belt environmental and planning policy that regulates the rural space in part of the North East region of England. It is centred on the county of Tyne and Wear, with areas of green belt extending into Northumberland and County Durham. It functions to protect surrounding towns and villages outside the Tyneside/Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Wearside/Sunderland conurbations from further convergence. This is managed by local planning authorities on guidance from central government.

text:
# North East Green Belt

North East England green belt showing extents, districts and counties '"\`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000003-QINU\`"'  North East green belt '"\`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000004-QINU\`"'  County borders '"\`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000005-QINU\`"'  District/unitary council borders

The **North East Green Belt**, also known as the **Tyne & Wear Green Belt**, is a non-statutory green belt environmental and planning policy that regulates the rural space in part of the North East region of England. It is centred on the county of Tyne and Wear, with areas of green belt extending into Northumberland and County Durham. It functions to protect surrounding towns and villages outside the Tyneside/Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Wearside/Sunderland conurbations from further convergence. This is managed by local planning authorities on guidance from central government.

## Geography

The green belt's area is 98,550 hectares (985.5 km2; 380.5 sq mi) as of 2023, and is on the fringes of the Tyne & Wear conurbations, with a line of protected area separating South Tyneside from Sunderland. The main coverage of the area however, is within Northumberland, with tracts in northern County Durham, notably surrounding the city of Durham completely. A large increase to its present extent was made in 2022 when Northumberland added 26,790 hectares (267.9 km2; 103.4 sq mi).

Much of the boundary is formed by local roads and land features such as rivers. The western extent reaches 25 miles away from Newcastle, beyond Hexham and towards Haydon Bridge, becoming contiguous with the North Pennines AONB and close to the Northumberland National Park. Due to the green belt lying across county borders, responsibility and co-ordination lies with several unitary councils as these are the local planning authorities.


title: Valerie Kinloch

abstract: Valerie Kinloch is an American writer, educator, and academic administrator. She is the president of the Johnson C. Smith University starting in August 2023. She also served as the Renée and Richard Goldman Dean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Education.

text:
# Valerie Kinloch

**Valerie Kinloch** (born 1974) is an American writer, educator, and academic administrator. She is the president of the Johnson C. Smith University starting in August 2023. She also served as the Renée and Richard Goldman Dean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Education.

## Life

Kinloch is from Charleston, South Carolina. She earned a bachelor's degree in English and literature from the Johnson C. Smith University (JCSU) in 1996. She earned a master's degree (December 1998) in English and African-American literature and a Ph.D. in English from Wayne State University.

For three and a half years, Klinoch was an assistant professor of English focusing on composition and rhetoric at the University of Houston–Downtown. She later worked as an associate professor of English education at the Teachers College, Columbia University. She was an associate dean and professor at the Ohio State University. In July 2017, Kinloch became the Renée and Richard Goldman Dean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Education.

In June 2023, she was named the 15th president of JCSU, effective August 1. She succeeds Clarence D. Armbrister.

## Selected works

* Kinloch, Valerie (2006). *June Jordan: Her Life and Letters*. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-275-98241-6.
* Kinloch, Valerie (2010). *Harlem on Our Minds: Place, Race, and the Literacies of Urban Youth*. Teachers College Press. ISBN 978-0-8077-5023-0.
* Kinloch, Valerie (2012). *Crossing Boundaries-teaching and Learning with Urban Youth*. Teachers College Press. ISBN 978-0-8077-5294-4.

## InfoBox

| Valerie Kinloch | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| 15th President of Johnson C. Smith University | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
August 1, 2023 | |
| Preceded by | Clarence D. Armbrister |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1974-01-30) January 30, 1974 |
| Alma mater | Johnson C. Smith University
Wayne State University (PhD) |
| Occupation | Writer, educator, academic administrator |
|  | |


title: Nelima elegans

abstract: Nelima elegans is a species of harvestman in the family Sclerosomatidae. It is found in North America.

text:
# Nelima elegans

***Nelima elegans*** is a species of harvestman in the family Sclerosomatidae. It is found in North America.

## InfoBox

| *Nelima elegans* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Opiliones |
| Family: | Sclerosomatidae |
| Genus: | *Nelima* |
| Species: | ***N. elegans*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Nelima elegans***<br>(Weed, 1889) | |
|


title: Quintanilla Vivar

abstract: Quintanilla Vivar is a municipality and town located in the province of Burgos, Castile and León, Spain. The village of Vivar del Cid, reputed birthplace of El Cid, is included in the municipality.

text:
# Quintanilla Vivar

**Quintanilla Vivar** (formerly known as **Quintanilla Morocisla**) is a municipality and town located in the province of Burgos, Castile and León, Spain.

The village of Vivar del Cid, reputed birthplace of El Cid, is included in the municipality.

## Demography

According to the 2009 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 741 inhabitants.

Historical population
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1991 | 306 |  |
| 1996 | 369 | +3.82% |
| 2001 | 554 | +8.47% |
| 2004 | 581 | +1.60% |
| 2007 | 679 | +5.33% |
| 2009 | 741 | +4.47% |

## People from Quintanilla Vivar

## InfoBox

| Quintanilla Vivar | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality and town | |
|  | |
| Quintanilla Vivar | |
| Coordinates: 42°24′52″N 3°41′22″W / 42.41444°N 3.68944°W / 42.41444; -3.68944 | |
| Country | Spain |
| Autonomous community | Castile and León |
| Province | Burgos |
| Comarca | Alfoz de Burgos |
| Area | |
| Total | 13.38 km2 (5.17 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 849 m (2,785 ft) |
| Population (2018) | |
| Total | 803 |
| Density | 60/km2 (160/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 09140 |
| Website | www.quintanillavivar.es |


title: RARRES1

abstract: Retinoic acid receptor responder protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RARRES1 gene. This gene was identified as a retinoid acid (RA) receptor-responsive gene. It encodes a type 1 membrane protein. The expression of this gene is upregulated by tazarotene as well as by retinoic acid receptors. The expression of this gene is found to be downregulated in prostate cancer, which is caused by the methylation of its promoter and CpG island. Alternatively spliced transcript variant encoding distinct isoforms have been observed.

text:
# RARRES1

**Retinoic acid receptor responder protein 1** is a protein that in humans is encoded by the *RARRES1* gene.

This gene was identified as a retinoid acid (RA) receptor-responsive gene. It encodes a type 1 membrane protein. The expression of this gene is upregulated by tazarotene as well as by retinoic acid receptors. The expression of this gene is found to be downregulated in prostate cancer, which is caused by the methylation of its promoter and CpG island. Alternatively spliced transcript variant encoding distinct isoforms have been observed.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| RARRES1 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | | | |
| Identifiers | | | |
| Aliases | RARRES1, LXNL, TIG1, PERG-1, retinoic acid receptor responder 1 | | |
| External IDs | OMIM: 605090; MGI: 1924461; HomoloGene: 2166; GeneCards: RARRES1; OMA:RARRES1 - orthologs | | |
|  | | | |
|  | | | |
|  | | | |
|  | | | |
| Orthologs  Species **Human** **Mouse**  Entrez   Ensembl   UniProt   RefSeq (mRNA)     NM\_002888
NM\_206963   NM\_001164763   RefSeq (protein)     NP\_002879
NP\_996846   n/a   Location (UCSC) Chr 3: 158.7 – 158.73 Mb Chr 3: 67.39 – 67.42 Mb  PubMed search | | | |
| Wikidata | | | |
| View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse | | | |


title: Gmina Obrazów

abstract: Gmina Obrazów is a rural gmina in Sandomierz County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. Its seat is the village of Obrazów, which lies approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) west of Sandomierz and 75 km (47 mi) east of the regional capital Kielce. The gmina covers an area of 71.86 square kilometres (27.7 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 6,715.

text:
# Gmina Obrazów

**Gmina Obrazów** is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Sandomierz County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. Its seat is the village of Obrazów, which lies approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) west of Sandomierz and 75 km (47 mi) east of the regional capital Kielce.

The gmina covers an area of 71.86 square kilometres (27.7 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 6,715 (6,591 in 2013).

## Villages

Gmina Obrazów contains the villages and settlements of Bilcza, Chwałki, Dębiany, Głazów, Jugoszów, Kleczanów, Komorna, Lenarczyce, Malice, Obrazów, Piekary, Rożki, Sucharzów, Świątniki, Święcica, Węgrce Panieńskie, Wierzbiny, Zdanów and Żurawica.

## Neighbouring gminas

Gmina Obrazów is bordered by the town of Sandomierz and by the gminas of Dwikozy, Klimontów, Lipnik, Samborzec and Wilczyce.

## InfoBox

| Gmina Obrazów Obrazów Commune | |
| --- | --- |
| Gmina | |
|  | |
| Gmina Obrazów | |
| Coordinates (Obrazów): 50°41′35″N 21°38′13″E / 50.69306°N 21.63694°E / 50.69306; 21.63694 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Świętokrzyskie |
| County | Sandomierz |
| Seat | Obrazów |
| Area | |
| Total | 71.86 km2 (27.75 sq mi) |
| Population (2013) | |
| Total | 6,591 |
| Density | 92/km2 (240/sq mi) |
| Website | http://www.obrazow.asi.pl |


title: Goda Mountains

abstract: The Goda Mountains lie northwest of the Gulf of Tadjoura, Tadjoura Region in Djibouti. They rise to 1,750 metres (5,740 ft) above sea level and are the nation's largest heavily vegetated area and is the second highest point in Djibouti. The name Goda in Afar means "twisted" or "devoured" and refers to a ridge. A part of the mountains is protected within the Day Forest National Park, Djibouti's only national park. The ecology of this landform is considered an isolated outlier of the Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands ecoregion, an important island of forest in a sea of semi-desert.

text:
# Goda Mountains

The **Goda Mountains** lie northwest of the Gulf of Tadjoura, Tadjoura Region in Djibouti. They rise to 1,750 metres (5,740 ft) above sea level and are the nation's largest heavily vegetated area and is the second highest point in Djibouti. The name Goda in Afar means "twisted" or "devoured" and refers to a ridge. A part of the mountains is protected within the Day Forest National Park, Djibouti's only national park. The ecology of this landform is considered an isolated outlier of the Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands ecoregion, an important island of forest in a sea of semi-desert.

## Ecology

The Goda Mountains and the nearby Mabla Mountains are the last remaining refuge for the Djibouti spurfowl. It is also one of the few remaining habitats of the East African juniper, which was once the dominant tree species of the forest. The population of juniper trees in the area has sharply declined, with approximately 50% of the trees dying even in the healthiest regions. Instead, boxwood has become more common. Subsequently, the antelope population is seeing a rapid decline, desert warthogs have all but disappeared, and leopards have not been sighted since the 1980s. Climate change is one of the main factors contributing to this loss of species. The Goda Mountains continue to see longer periods of heat and drought in the region, compounded by grazing (especially of seedlings) and trampling by cattle. Hunting and the cutting of trees also play a subordinate role.

The inhabitants of the nine surrounding villages consists of five different clans of the Afar. Once a nomadic population, they now mostly lead sedentary lifestyles. Their pastoral livelihoods are highly dependent on the regularity of rainfall. In 2003, wells with pumps were introduced to the village to ensure a consistent, though limited water supply. The cutting of live trees for firewood is traditionally prohibited; thus only dead wood may be used. Drought is largely held responsible for the forest degradation, with only 4% attributing this to cattle grazing. With the initiative of the local organization Djibouti Nature, residents have built stone walls and fences out of dead wood to help protect areas of the forest from cattle. This initiative has had a visible, positive impact on the condition of the forest. According to the same survey, nearly a quarter of the residents believe that nothing can be done about the damage to the forest, 15% are unsure, 23% believe the wooden fences would further the preservation of the forest, 8% suggest the planting of trees, and 29% believe in a combination of both tree planting and fencing. The establishment of a tree nursery in the village Day is just one of the efforts the organization has made to help combat the further depletion of the forest.

## Climate

The climate of Goda Mountains is a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification: *Cwb*), with the influence of mountain climate, with hot and dry summers and cold winters. This is attributed to the fact that Goda Mountains is located on a plain surrounded by mountains and to its distance to the sea and its effects. In the presence of fog, condensation is sometimes considerable. Ground moisture allows plants and trees to survive despite irregular rainfall. Elevation is the major factor affecting temperature levels, with the higher elevated areas being on average 11°C (20°F) cooler than the lower areas. Overnight temperatures can drop as low as 50–54 °F (10–12.2 °C), especially during the December to March winter months.

| Climate data for Goda Mountains | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 24.1
(75.4) | 24.4
(75.9) | 25.1
(77.2) | 26.2
(79.2) | 27.4
(81.3) | 29.8
(85.6) | 30.9
(87.6) | 30.5
(86.9) | 29.2
(84.6) | 26.7
(80.1) | 25.3
(77.5) | 24.0
(75.2) | 27.0
(80.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 9.3
(48.7) | 10.3
(50.5) | 11.6
(52.8) | 13.2
(55.7) | 14.8
(58.6) | 17.1
(62.7) | 18.9
(66.0) | 18.4
(65.1) | 16.7
(62.0) | 13.4
(56.1) | 10.9
(51.6) | 9.4
(48.9) | 13.7
(56.6) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 35
(1.4) | 37
(1.5) | 33
(1.3) | 45
(1.8) | 24
(0.9) | 13
(0.5) | 50
(2.0) | 70
(2.8) | 57
(2.2) | 16
(0.6) | 32
(1.3) | 22
(0.9) | 434
(17.2) |
| Source: *Climate-Data.org* | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| Goda Mountains | |
| --- | --- |
| Day Forest National Park in the Goda Mountains | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 1,783 m (5,850 ft)at Abeyda |
| Coordinates | 11°52′N 42°47′E / 11.86°N 42.79°E / 11.86; 42.79 |
| Dimensions | |
| Length | 24 km (15 mi) |
| Width | 31 km (19 mi) |
| Area | 901 km2 (348 sq mi) |
| Geography | |
|  | |
| Country | Djibouti |
| Region | Tadjourah Region |


title: Quotient module

abstract:
In algebra, given a module and a submodule, one can construct their quotient module. This construction, described below, is very similar to that of a quotient vector space. It differs from analogous quotient constructions of rings and groups by the fact that in these cases, the subspace that is used for defining the quotient is not of the same nature as the ambient space. Given a module A over a ring R, and a submodule B of A, the quotient space A/B is defined by the equivalence relation
  - a ∼ b if and only if b − a ∈ B, for any a, b in A. The elements of A/B are the equivalence classes [ a ] = a + B = { a + b : b ∈ B }. The function π : A → A / B sending a in A to its equivalence class a + B is called the quotient map or the projection map, and is a module homomorphism. The addition operation on A/B is defined for two equivalence classes as the equivalence class of the sum of two representatives from these classes; and scalar multiplication of elements of A/B by elements of R is defined similarly. Note that it has to be shown that these operations are well-defined. Then A/B becomes itself an R-module, called the quotient module. In symbols, for all a, b in A and r in R:
  - + := + B, r ⋅ := + B.

text:
# Quotient module

In algebra, given a module and a submodule, one can construct their **quotient module**. This construction, described below, is very similar to that of a quotient vector space. It differs from analogous quotient constructions of rings and groups by the fact that in these cases, the subspace that is used for defining the quotient is not of the same nature as the ambient space (that is, a quotient ring is the quotient of a ring by an ideal, not a subring, and a quotient group is the quotient of a group by a normal subgroup, not by a general subgroup).

Given a module A over a ring R, and a submodule B of A, the quotient space *A*/*B* is defined by the equivalence relation

$a\sim b$ if and only if $b-a\in B,$

for any a, b in A. The elements of *A*/*B* are the equivalence classes $\[a\]=a+B=\\{a+b:b\in B\\}.$ The function $\pi :A\to A/B$ sending a in A to its equivalence class *a* \+ *B* is called the *quotient map* or the *projection map*, and is a module homomorphism.

The addition operation on *A*/*B* is defined for two equivalence classes as the equivalence class of the sum of two representatives from these classes; and scalar multiplication of elements of *A*/*B* by elements of R is defined similarly. Note that it has to be shown that these operations are well-defined. Then *A*/*B* becomes itself an R-module, called the *quotient module*. In symbols, for all a, b in A and r in R:

$$\begin{aligned}&(a+B)+(b+B):=(a+b)+B,\\\&r\cdot (a+B):=(r\cdot a)+B.\end{aligned}$$

## Examples

Consider the polynomial ring,  $\mathbb {R} \[X\]$ with real coefficients, and the  $\mathbb {R} \[X\]$-module $A=\mathbb {R} \[X\],$ . Consider the submodule

$$B=(X^{2}+1)\mathbb {R} \[X\]$$

of A, that is, the submodule of all polynomials divisible by *X* 2 \+ 1. It follows that the equivalence relation determined by this module will be

*P*(*X*) ~ *Q*(*X*) if and only if *P*(*X*) and *Q*(*X*) give the same remainder when divided by *X* 2 \+ 1.

Therefore, in the quotient module *A*/*B*, *X* 2 \+ 1 is the same as 0; so one can view *A*/*B* as obtained from  $\mathbb {R} \[X\]$ by setting *X* 2 \+ 1 = 0. This quotient module is isomorphic to the complex numbers, viewed as a module over the real numbers  $\mathbb {R} .$


title: Goddert

abstract: Goddert is an Ortsgemeinde – a community belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde – in the Westerwaldkreis in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde of Selters, a kind of collective municipality. Its seat is in the like-named town.

text:
# Goddert

**Goddert** is an *Ortsgemeinde* – a community belonging to a *Verbandsgemeinde* – in the Westerwaldkreis in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the *Verbandsgemeinde* of Selters, a kind of collective municipality. Its seat is in the like-named town.

## Geography

The rural residential community of Goddert lies three km (1.9 mi) north of Selters in the centre of the Westerwald.

## History

In 1476, Goddert had its first documentary mention under the names *Gonderode* und *Goderoth*. In 1972, in the course of municipal restructuring, the *Verbandsgemeinde* of Selters, to which Goddert belongs, was founded.

## Politics

The municipal council is made up of eight council members, as well as the honorary and presiding mayor (*Ortsbürgermeister*), who were elected in a municipal election on 7 June 2009.

*Seat apportionment at community council:*

|  | WG Kohlenberg | Grüne | **Total** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2004 | 7 | 1 | 8 seats |

## Economy and infrastructure

Northwest of the community runs *Bundesstraße* 413 leading from Bendorf to Hachenburg. The nearest Autobahn interchange is *Mogendorf* on the A 3 (CologneFrankfurt). The nearest InterCityExpress stop is the railway station at Montabaur on the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line.

## InfoBox

| Goddert | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Goddert within Westerwaldkreis district | |
| Goddert Goddert | |
| Coordinates: 50°32′57″N 7°44′49″E / 50.54917°N 7.74694°E / 50.54917; 7.74694 | |
| Country | Germany |
| State | Rhineland-Palatinate |
| District | Westerwaldkreis |
| Municipal assoc. | Selters (Westerwald) |
| Government | |
| Mayor (201924) | Peter Aller |
| Area | |
| Total | 2.39 km2 (0.92 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 270 m (890 ft) |
| Population (2022-12-31) | |
| Total | 449 |
| Density | 190/km2 (490/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| Postal codes | 56244 |
| Dialling codes | 02626 |
| Vehicle registration | WW |
| Website | www.selters-ww.de |


title: RM-38

abstract: The RM-38 was a Soviet 50 mm light infantry mortar. The barrel was clamped at two elevation angles only - 45 and 75 degrees. Range variations were made by altering a sleeve round the base of the barrel. This sleeve opened a series of gas ports which bled off exhaust gases and so determined the range. The project was deemed overly complex and expensive, and was only produced for a short time, before being replaced by the Model 1939. Despite the small number produced, some fell into German hands in 1941, who introduced them as the 5 cm Granatwerfer 205/1(r).

text:
# RM-38

The **RM-38** was a Soviet 50 mm light infantry mortar. The barrel was clamped at two elevation angles only - 45 and 75 degrees. Range variations were made by altering a sleeve round the base of the barrel. This sleeve opened a series of gas ports which bled off exhaust gases and so determined the range.

The project was deemed overly complex and expensive, and was only produced for a short time, before being replaced by the Model 1939. Despite the small number produced, some fell into German hands in 1941, who introduced them as the 5 cm Granatwerfer 205/1(r).

## Development

The RM-38 or 50-RM 38 (50-mm company mortar model 1938) was based on the British Stokes mortar. It was further developed as the RM-39 and RM40.

The Red Army of the USSR divided mortars into company (RM *Rotnyy Minomet*) battalion (BM *Batalonnyy Minomet*) and regimental (PM *Polkovoy Minomet*) mortars. Development of a light 50mm company mortar started in 1937. The RM-38 was approved for use in 1938 and entered production in 1939. In the space of just over a year RM-39, RM-40 and RM-41 replaced each other in succession. RM-41 remained in production until 1943, when the USSR decided to cease making 50mm mortars. Only the RM-41 was a new design with the others being incremental improvements of the original RM-38.

### Design Improvements

The problem of having only two fixed elevations and thus needing to adjust the range with the complex adjustment of gas escape made for inaccurate ranging and was dangerous to the mortar crew as well. The minimum shooting range of 200 m was felt to be impractical in Red Army use as well.

RM-39 added a protective shield which directed the escaping hot gases away from the operator.

Barrels got shorter with each new model.

### Variants

* RM39
    + Barrel Length: 77.5 cm
    + Weight: 14 or 17 kg
* RM40
    + Barrel Length: 63 cm
    + Weight: 12.1 kg

## 50mm RM-41

Essentially a new design, influenced by German 50mm mortars, which was continued in use until 50mm mortars were removed from Soviet Army service. This mortar was without a tripod but instead relied on its barrel yoke which contained traverse and elevation adjustments. The gases now vented under the muzzle via a tube.

## Use

All models saw widespread use by the USSR in World War II. Captured in large numbers, they were also re-used by the Finns and Germans. After World War II the USSR supplied them to North Korea and Vietnam.

The Finns were apparently not impressed with these Russian 50mm mortars, giving them mildly derogatory nicknames - "Naku" and "Tiltu", and not being over-zealous about re-issuing them.

The Finns found the RM-39 relatively accurate in use and getting the mortar ready to fire took only about one minute. The mortar was no substitute for the 80-82mm mortars however, perhaps due to only having 100g of TNT in the shell, less than some hand grenades.

## InfoBox

| RM-38 | |
| --- | --- |
| Company Mortar M1938 | |
| Type | Infantry mortar |
| Place of origin | Soviet Union |
| Service history | |
| Used by | Soviet Union |
| Wars | World War II |
| Specifications | |
| Mass | combat: 12.1 kg (27 lb) |
| Barrel length | bore: 50 mm (2 in)
overall: 78 cm (2 ft 7 in) |
| --- | |
| Shell | 0.85 kg (1 lb 14 oz) |
| Caliber | 50 mm (1.97 in) |
| Breech | muzzle loaded |
| Elevation | 45° or 75°. 82° on some models |
| Traverse |  |
| Muzzle velocity | 96 m/s (310 ft/s) |
| Maximum firing range | 45°: 800 m (870 yd)
75°: 402 m (440 yd)
82°: 100 m (110 yd) |


title: R v Burgess

abstract: R v Burgess [1991] 2 QB 92 was an appeal in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales that adjudged sleepwalking entailing violence from an internal, organic cause amounts to insane automatism. At first instance Burgess was likewise found not guilty by reason of insanity as his case fell under the M'Naghten Rules. This would entail a possible stigma and a treatment plan. His defence team appealed arguing such automatism was no form of 'insanity' but fell within the class of automatism such as a spiked drink which could show a complete lack of mens rea, outside the realms of normal mental health, to make him guilty. The court ruled that violent sleepwalking with no external triggers was considered insane automatism. Thus the appeal was heard, argued, the law and its consequences judicially considered. The appeal was dismissed.

text:
# R v Burgess

**R v Burgess** \[1991\] 2 QB 92 was an appeal in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales that adjudged sleepwalking entailing violence from an internal, organic cause amounts to insane automatism. At first instance Burgess was likewise found not guilty *by reason of insanity* as his case fell under the M'Naghten Rules. This would entail a possible stigma and a treatment plan. His defence team appealed arguing such automatism was no form of 'insanity' but fell within the class of automatism such as a spiked drink which could show a complete lack of *mens rea*, outside the realms of normal mental health, to make him guilty. The court ruled that violent sleepwalking with no external triggers was considered insane automatism. Thus the appeal was heard, argued, the law and its consequences judicially considered. The appeal was dismissed.

## Facts

On 2 June 1988 Burgess attacked his friend Miss Katrina Curtis. She had fallen asleep on a sofa and woke up when Burgess, while allegedly sleepwalking, hit her over the head with a bottle. He subsequently picked up a video tape recorder and hit her on the head with it, giving her cuts and bruises. He put his hands around her throat, and when she said, "I love you Bar," it appeared that he came to his senses, and he called for an ambulance.

## Judgement

On 20 July 1989 the Crown Court found Burgess not guilty by reason of insanity on a charge of wounding with intent. He was ordered to be detained at a psychiatric hospital. Under section 12 of the Criminal Appeal Act 1968, Burgess appealed the decision.

## Appeal

The defendant brought in psychiatrist Dr. d’Orban and neuropsychiatrist Dr. Eames for medical evidence. The prosecution called in neuropsychiatrist Dr. Fenwick who contended that the incident was not run-of-the-mill sleepwalking, but perhaps a hysterical dissociative state.

The judge, Lord Lane said, "We accept of course that sleep is a normal condition, but the evidence in the instant case indicates that sleep walking, and particularly violence in sleep, is not normal."

It was found that the violent action was due to an internal, organic cause, rather than an external one. Thus, the appeal was dismissed.

## Implications

The sleepwalking in this case was violent and had a possibility of recurrence, so it could be considered a form of insanity.

## InfoBox

| R v Burgess | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Court | Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) |
| Full case name | *Regina v. Barry Douglas Burgess* |
| Decided | 27 March 1991 |
| Citations | * 2 QB 92 * WLR 1206 * All ER 769 * 93 Cr App R 41 |
| Cases cited | Reg. v. Kemp \[1957\] 1 Q.B. 399, 407
Bratty v Attorney-General for Northern Ireland \[1963\] AC 386
Rabey v. The Queen \[1980\] 2 S.C.R. 513, 519, 520
Reg. v. Sullivan \[1984\] A.C. 156
Reg. v. Parks (1990) 56 C.C.C. (3d) 449
M'Naghten Rules (1843) 10 Cl. & Fin. 200 |
| Legislation cited |
Trial of Lunatics Act 1883 |
| Case history | |
| Prior actions | Insanity found (and thus not guilty of offence) at Bristol Crown Court, before Judge Sir Ian Lewis and a jury (not reported) |
| Subsequent action | None |
| Court membership | |
| Judges sitting | Lord Lane CJ, Roch J and Morland J |
| Keywords | |
| * sleepwalking * parasomnia * violence * internal, organic source * insanity | |


title: Gomontia

abstract: Gomontia is a genus of green algae, in the family Gomontiaceae. The genus name of Gomontia is in honour of Maurice-Augustin Gomont, who was a French phycologist. The genus was circumscribed by Jean-Baptiste Édouard Bornet and Charles Henri Marie Flahault in J. Bot. (Morot) vol.2 on page 164 in 1888.

text:
# Gomontia

***Gomontia*** is a genus of green algae, in the family Gomontiaceae.

The genus name of *Gomontia* is in honour of Maurice-Augustin Gomont (1839 - 1909), who was a French phycologist.

The genus was circumscribed by Jean-Baptiste Édouard Bornet and Charles Henri Marie Flahault in J. Bot. (Morot) vol.2 on page 164 in 1888.

## InfoBox

| *Gomontia* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Gomontia polyrhiza* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| *Clade*: | Viridiplantae |
| Division: | Chlorophyta |
| Class: | UTC clade |
| Order: | Ulotrichales |
| Family: | Gomontiaceae |
| Genus: | *Gomontia*
Bornet & Flahault, 1888 |
|
| Type species | |
| *Gomontia polyrhiza*
(Lagerheim) Bornet & Flahault | |
| Species | |
|  | |


title: Gomontiellaceae

abstract: The Gomontiellaceae are a family of cyanobacteria. The genus name of Gomontiella is in honour of Maurice-Augustin Gomont, who was a French phycologist. The genus was circumscribed by Emanoil Constantin Teodoresco in Verh. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien vol.52 on page 760 in 1901.

text:
# Gomontiellaceae

The **Gomontiellaceae** are a family of cyanobacteria.

The genus name of *Gomontiella* is in honour of Maurice-Augustin Gomont (1839 - 1909), who was a French phycologist.

The genus was circumscribed by Emanoil Constantin Teodoresco in Verh. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien vol.52 on page 760 in 1901.

## InfoBox

| Gomontiellaceae | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Cyanobacteria |
| Class: | Cyanophyceae |
| Order: | Oscillatoriales |
| Family: | Gomontiellaceae<br>Elenkin |
|
| Genera | |
|  | |


title: R.B. Outhwaite

abstract: R.B. (Brian) Outhwaite (1935–2005) was a social, legal and economic historian. For the last 31 years of his life, he was a member of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he was, latterly, Director of Studies.

text:
# R.B. Outhwaite

**R.B. (Brian) Outhwaite** (1935–2005) was a social, legal and economic historian. For the last 31 years of his life, he was a member of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he was, latterly, Director of Studies.

## Publications

* *Clandestine Marriage in England, 1500–1850*
* *Inflation in Tudor and Early Stuart England*
* *Dearth, Public Policy and Social Disturbance in England 1550–1800*
* *Scandal in the Church: Dr Edward Drax Free, 1764–1843*
* *The Rise and Fall of the English Ecclesiastical Courts, 1500–1860*


title: R.B. Swift

abstract: R.B. Swift is an American journalist, working as the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania bureau chief for the Times-Shamrock Communications newspapers. The Pennsylvania Report named him to the 2009 "The Pennsylvania Report 100" list of influential figures in Pennsylvania politics, calling him a "pre-eminent Harrisburg political journalist." He is a frequent guest on Pennsylvania Cable Network's "Journalists Roundtable" television program.

text:
# R.B. Swift

**R.B. Swift** is an American journalist, working as the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania bureau chief for the Times-Shamrock Communications newspapers.

The *Pennsylvania Report* named him to the 2009 "The Pennsylvania Report 100" list of influential figures in Pennsylvania politics, calling him a "pre-eminent Harrisburg political journalist." He is a frequent guest on Pennsylvania Cable Network's "Journalists Roundtable" television program.

## InfoBox

| R.B. Swift | |
| --- | --- |
| Occupation | Journalist |
| Notable credit | Times-Shamrock Communications |


title: Rabbit Lake mine

abstract:
Rabbit Lake is the second largest uranium milling facility in the western world, and is the longest-operating uranium production facility in Saskatchewan. The facility is located approximately 800 km north of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, on the northeast edge of the uranium rich Athabasca Basin. The closest community is Wollaston Lake, about 40 kilometers by lake or air. Rabbit Lake was the first Canadian mine to offer a seven-days-in/seven-days-out commuter system of staffing.
Access is provided by Highway 905. Production at Rabbit Lake was suspended in April 2016.

text:
# Rabbit Lake mine

**Rabbit Lake** is the second largest uranium milling facility in the western world, and is the longest-operating uranium production facility in Saskatchewan. The facility is located approximately 800 km north of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, on the northeast edge of the uranium rich Athabasca Basin. The closest community is Wollaston Lake, about 40 kilometers by lake or air. Rabbit Lake was the first Canadian mine to offer a seven-days-in/seven-days-out commuter system of staffing. Access is provided by Highway 905. Production at Rabbit Lake was suspended in April 2016.

## Operations

The Rabbit Lake deposit was discovered in 1968 and production started in 1975 using open-pit mining methods. The Rabbit Lake pit was mined out in 1984. Exploration resulted in the discovery of additional deposits in the area.

| Rabbit Lake Deposits | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Name | Discovered | Commenced | Depleted | Comments |
| Rabbit Lake | 1968 | 1975 | 1984 |  |
| Collins Bay A-zone | 1971 | 1995 | 1997 |  |
| Collins Bay B-zone | 1977 | 1985 | 1991 |  |
| Collins Bay D-zone | 1979 | 1995 | 1996 |  |
| Eagle Point | 1980 | 1994 | - | Production hiatus from 1998 to 2002
due to depressed uranium prices.
Production halted again in 2016. |

The Eagle Point deposit is being mined using underground mining methods. Between 1975 and 2011, Rabbit Lake has produced 186.3 million pounds U3O8. Recent exploration drilling has extended mine life to 2017.

When the current refurbishments are complete, Rabbit Lake Mill will be positioned to undertake toll milling for future uranium mines in the area. Since an agreement was signed between AREVA and Cameco in late 2011, Rabbit Lake is no longer planned to process Cigar Lake Mine ore when it begins production in 2013, the McClean Lake mill will process all of the ore from that mine.

## Reserves

As of December 31, 2013, proven and probable reserves are 1,642,100 tonnes at 0.56% U3O8. (20.3 Million pounds U3O8)

## Awards

The Rabbit Lake mine has been awarded the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum's John T. Ryan Trophy for the best safety record for metal mines several times. This award is given to the metal mine with the best safety record for the previous year.

National Trophy

* 1989
* 2001

Regional Trophy - Prairies and Northwest Territories

* 2003

## Ownership

100% owned and operated by Cameco Corporation.

"Rabbit Lake". Cameco Corporation.

## InfoBox

Rabbit Lake Mine
| Location | |
| --- | --- |
| Rabbit Lake MineLocation in Saskatchewan | |
| Location | Athabasca Basin |
| Province | Saskatchewan |
| Country | Canada |
| Coordinates | 58°11′52″N 103°42′49″W / 58.19778°N 103.71361°W / 58.19778; -103.71361 |
| Production | |
| Products | Uranium |
| History | |
| Discovered | 1968 |
| Opened | 1975 |
| Active | 1975–1991
1994–1998
2002–2016 |
| Owner | |
| Company | Cameco |
| Year of acquisition | 1988 |


title: Rabbit Lake (Number One Creek)

abstract: Rabbit Lake is a small lake in the municipality of West Nipissing, Nipissing District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is part of the Great Lakes Basin and lies in geographic Latchford Township. The lake flows via an unnamed creek through Number Two Lake to Number One Lake, which empties via Number One Creek to the West Bay of Lake Nipissing, and then via the French River to Lake Huron.

text:
# Rabbit Lake (Number One Creek)

**Rabbit Lake** is a small lake in the municipality of West Nipissing, Nipissing District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is part of the Great Lakes Basin and lies in geographic Latchford Township. The lake flows via an unnamed creek through Number Two Lake to Number One Lake, which empties via Number One Creek to the West Bay of Lake Nipissing, and then via the French River to Lake Huron.

Other map sources:

## InfoBox

| Rabbit Lake | |
| --- | --- |
| Rabbit Lake | |
| Location | West Nipissing, Nipissing District, Ontario |
| Coordinates | 46°11′23″N 80°09′26″W / 46.18972°N 80.15722°W / 46.18972; -80.15722 |
| Basin countries | Canada |
|  | |
| Max. length | 1,370 metres (4,490 ft) |
| Max. width | 250 metres (820 ft) |
| Surface elevation | 208 metres (682 ft) |
|  | |
| References |  |


title: Rabbit Maranville

abstract: Walter James Vincent "Rabbit" Maranville was an American professional baseball shortstop, second baseman and manager. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs, Brooklyn Robins, and St. Louis Cardinals between 1912 and 1934. At the time of his retirement in 1935, he had played in a record 23 seasons in the National League, a mark which was not broken until 1986 by Pete Rose. Maranville was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1954, mainly on the strength of his defensive abilities.

text:
# Rabbit Maranville

**Walter James Vincent** "**Rabbit**" **Maranville** (November 11, 1891 – January 6, 1954) was an American professional baseball shortstop, second baseman and manager. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs, Brooklyn Robins, and St. Louis Cardinals between 1912 and 1934. At the time of his retirement in 1935, he had played in a record 23 seasons in the National League, a mark which was not broken until 1986 by Pete Rose.

Maranville was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1954, mainly on the strength of his defensive abilities.

## Career

Maranville finished third in the MVP voting in his first full season, playing for the Boston Braves as a 21-year-old in 1913 even though his batting average was just .247 in 143 games with two homers. The following year, Maranville was the runner-up in the MVP voting to teammate Johnny Evers as the Braves won the National League pennant and then went on to sweep the powerful Philadelphia A's in the World Series. That year, Maranville was the Braves' cleanup hitter, despite batting just .246 and hitting four home runs. Following the series, he and several of his teammates went on a vaudeville tour, reenacting plays from the World Series while also singing and telling stories. Maranville was demonstrating a stolen base to an audience in Lewiston, Maine, when he accidentally slid off the edge of the stage and fell onto a drum in the orchestra pit, suffering a broken leg. Maranville played only 11 games in 1918, spending most of the year in the United States Navy during World War I.

Maranville threw and batted right-handed; he stood 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) tall and weighed 155 lb (70 kg). Over a lengthy career which spanned both the dead ball and live-ball era, he played for the Boston Braves (1912–1920, 1929–1933, 1935), Pittsburgh Pirates (1921–1924), Chicago Cubs (1925), Brooklyn Robins (1926) and St. Louis Cardinals (1927–1928). He retired having compiled a .258 batting average, 2,605 hits, 1,255 runs, 28 home runs, 884 RBI and 291 stolen bases. As a shortstop, he finished his career with a positional record 5,139 putouts. He moved to second base in 1924 after the Pirates installed Glenn Wright at the shortstop position. He won his only World Series championship in 1914 as a member of the Braves, and won his only other National League championship in 1928 as a member of the Cardinals.

Maranville was known as one of "baseball's most famous clowns" due to his practical jokes and lack of inhibitions. He used to don a pair of glasses to make fun of umpires and mimic the actions of hitters or pitchers who took an especially long time to get ready. Other stunts he pulled included throwing firecrackers, stepping out on hotel ledges, and swallowing goldfish. On a road trip to New York, Maranville had teammate Jack Scott cry "Stop, thief!" as Scott chased him through Times Square. Another time, his concerned teammates broke into his hotel room after hearing screams, breaking glass, and gunshots emanating from within, as well as Maranville groaning, "Eddie, you're killing me!" An unharmed Maranville and two friends greeted the players like nothing was wrong as they wandered out of the room. When Maranville was appointed manager of the Chicago Cubs in 1925—one of their worst seasons ever—he continued to demonstrate his wild behavior. His only rule with the team was that none of the players could go to bed before he did. One night he walked through a Pullman car, dumping water on sleeping players' heads, saying, "No sleeping under Maranville management, especially at night." After 53 games with him as the manager, the Cubs were in last place with a 23–30 record. Not long after that, he was out on the street outside Ebbets Field in Brooklyn mimicking a newsboy hawking papers. He cried out, "Read all about it! Maranville fired!" And so he was—the next day.

1926 was a struggle for Maranville. Having been claimed off waivers by the Brooklyn Robins, he spent the first half of the season with them but was released halfway through the year. The Cardinals signed him that November but assigned him to the Rochester Tribe of the International League in 1927. Maranville realized he would have to make a change in his lifestyle if he wanted to continue playing in the major leagues. "Either I had to lay off the booze and get serious with the game or it would be the end of me."

On May 24, 1927, Maranville resolved to stop drinking. Later that year, Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey stated, "Walter is a changed man ... it is apparent that he has seen the light ... his change in attitude is remarkable." Called up by St. Louis at the end of the year, he played in nine games for them in late September before spending all of 1928 on their roster.

Even at age 41, when Maranville batted .218 in 143 games and hit no homers, he finished in a tie for 12th in the 1933 NL MVP voting. He missed the entire 1934 season after breaking his left fibula and tibia in a collision at home plate during an exhibition game. Maranville attempted a comeback in 1935 but was unable to play like he used to.

Following the end of his major league career, Maranville turned to managing, including stints as a minor league manager for Montreal Royals, at Albany, Elmira, and Springfield, Massachusetts. With Elmira in 1936, he served as a player-manager, batting .323 in 123 games.

After managing in the minor leagues, Maranville was employed by youth baseball programs in Detroit and Rochester. Then, he directed a baseball school sponsored by the *New York Journal-American* newspaper. He enjoyed working with children and always cautioned them against adopting the same wild lifestyle he had pursued during his earlier career.

## Death and legacy

Maranville died as the result of a severe heart attack shortly after midnight on January 6, 1954, at his home in Woodside, New York, where death was nearly instantaneous. He was 62 years old.

Maranville was interred in the Holy Family Section B, Lot 206, Grave 5, of the St. Michael's Cemetery in Springfield, Massachusetts.

Maranville was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1954, six months after his death, along with Bill Terry and Bill Dickey, in his 14th year of eligibility.

## Further reading

* Russo, Frank (2014). *The Cooperstown Chronicles: Baseball's Colorful Characters, Unusual Lives, and Strange Demises*. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-3639-4.

## InfoBox

| Rabbit Maranville | |
| --- | --- |
| Maranville in 1914 | |
| **Shortstop / Second baseman / Manager** | |
| **Born:** (1891-11-11)November 11, 1891
Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S. | |
| **Died:** January 6, 1954(1954-01-06) (aged 62)
Woodside, New York, U.S. | |
| **Batted:** Right**Threw:** Right | |
| MLB debut | |
| September 10, 1912, for the Boston Braves | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| September 29, 1935, for the Boston Braves | |
| MLB statistics | |
| Batting average | .258 |
| Hits | 2,605 |
| Home runs | 28 |
| Runs batted in | 884 |
|  | |
| Teams | |
| **As player** **As manager** | |
| Career highlights and awards | |
|  | |
| Member of the National | |
| Baseball Hall of Fame | |
| Induction | 1954 |
| Vote | 82.9% (14th ballot) |
|  | |


title: Gonzalo Pérez Jácome

abstract: Gonzalo Pérez Jácome is a Spanish politician who is the founder and leader of the party Ourensan Democracy (DO). He was elected to Ourense's city council in 2011 and has served as its mayor since 2019.

text:
# Gonzalo Pérez Jácome

**Gonzalo Pérez Jácome** (born 2 August 1969) is a Spanish politician who is the founder and leader of the party Ourensan Democracy (DO). He was elected to Ourense's city council in 2011 and has served as its mayor since 2019.

## Biography

Jácome's father and sister died in a traffic accident when he was 8 years old. He was expelled from two schools. A pianist from the age of seven he inherited his father's musical instrument shop, Jolper; the name came from his father's, José Luis Pérez. Jácome has taken part in races up the stairs of the Empire State Building and the Gran Hotel Bali in Benidorm.

In 2001, Jácome founded the political party Ourensan Democracy (DO), which he promoted with the local television channel Auria TV featuring the populist character "Miño Man". After failed attempts in 2003 and 2007, the party entered the city council in 2011 with two seats; he was frequently expelled from sessions for insulting others. His fellow member Susana Gómez Valencia resigned shortly before the 2015 election due to disagreements with him, while the party grew to eight seats and became the second largest in the council. DO voted for Jácome to be mayor instead of taking up the offer to form a coalition government with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), that would see that party take the mayor's office. Jácome said that the PSOE had the choice of being in government with him as mayor, or having the People's Party (PP) rule.

In April 2015, after proposing cuts to Ourense's municipal band, Jácome was struck with an egg by a man from Pontevedra. In November 2018, the man began a one-year prison sentence due to his previous convictions, in addition to a €1,060 fine.

Jácome was elected mayor of Ourense in 2019 as his party and the PP totalled 14 seats on the council. The PP did not applaud his inauguration, which had been part of a deal for that party to lead the provincial deputation of the Province of Ourense. In 2023, his party was the most voted for, taking ten seats. The PP (7), PSOE (6) and the Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG; 4) could not conclude a pact to oust him, so the PP voted for themselves and again allowed him to govern in exchange for keeping the provincial government.

Jácome's party entered the Parliament of Galicia in the 2024 election, though due to regional laws preventing mayors for running for that body, his long-term right-hand man Armando Ojea was the one elected. Jácome said that his party would cooperate with any other that would defend the wellbeing of his native province.


title: Golf Queensland

abstract: Golf Queensland is the organisation responsible for the governance, delivery and direction of golf in Queensland, Australia.

text:
# Golf Queensland

**Golf Queensland** is the organisation responsible for the governance, delivery and direction of golf in Queensland, Australia.

## History

The first golf known to be played in Queensland involved Francis Ivory (Member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly for Burnett from 1873 to 1878) and his brother Alexander Ivory, who laid out a few holes on their Eidsvold pastoral station in the 1880s.

The first golf club formed in Queensland was the North Queensland Golf Club which was established on 2 August 1893 at Kissing Point in North Ward, Townsville, but was renamed the Townsville Golf Club in 1894. The next were Toowoomba Golf Club in August 1896 and a few months later Brisbane Golf Club in November 1896. Other clubs quickly followed: Ipswich in 1897; Bundaberg, Rockhampton and Victoria Park (in Brisbane) in 1898, and Gladstone in 1899.

The Queensland Golf Union was formed in 1914. Golf Queensland was established in July 2007 from the merger of Queensland Golf Union and Women's Golf Queensland.


title: List of municipalities in Segovia

text:
# List of municipalities in Segovia

This is a list of the municipalities in the province of Segovia in the autonomous community of Castile-Leon, Spain.

| Name | Population (2002) |
| --- | --- |
| Abades | 856 |
| Adrada de Pirón | 56 |
| Adrados | 197 |
| Aguilafuente | 817 |
| Alconada de Maderuelo | 49 |
| Aldea Real | 396 |
| Aldealcorvo | 25 |
| Aldealengua de Pedraza | 90 |
| Aldealengua de Santa María | 80 |
| Aldeanueva de la Serrezuela | 44 |
| Aldeanueva del Codonal | 203 |
| Aldeasoña | 97 |
| Aldehorno | 73 |
| Aldehuela del Codonal | 47 |
| Aldeonte | 93 |
| Anaya | 129 |
| Añe | 131 |
| Arahuetes | 46 |
| Arcones | 251 |
| Arevalillo de Cega | 41 |
| Armuña | 261 |
| Ayllón | 1,240 |
| Barbolla | 203 |
| Basardilla | 106 |
| Bercial | 130 |
| Bercimuel | 90 |
| Bernardos | 707 |
| Bernuy de Porreros | 362 |
| Boceguillas | 614 |
| Brieva | 73 |
| Caballar | 96 |
| Cabañas de Polendos | 122 |
| Cabezuela | 706 |
| Calabazas de Fuentidueña | 68 |
| Campo de San Pedro | 370 |
| Cantalejo | 3,542 |
| Cantimpalos | 1,269 |
| Carabias | 69 |
| Carbonero el Mayor | 2,370 |
| Carrascal del Río | 201 |
| Casla | 157 |
| Castillejo de Mesleón | 116 |
| Castro de Fuentidueña | 85 |
| Castrojimeno | 46 |
| Castroserna de Abajo | 53 |
| Castroserracín | 45 |
| Cedillo de la Torre | 120 |
| Cerezo de Abajo | 185 |
| Cerezo de Arriba | 196 |
| Cilleruelo de San Mamés | 47 |
| Cobos de Fuentidueña | 61 |
| Coca | 1,944 |
| Codorniz | 458 |
| Collado Hermoso | 157 |
| Condado de Castilnovo | 116 |
| Corral de Ayllón | 106 |
| Cozuelos de Fuentidueña | 174 |
| Cubillo | 62 |
| Cuéllar | 9,288 |
| Cuevas de Provanco | 196 |
| Chañe | 717 |
| Domingo García | 52 |
| Donhierro | 102 |
| Duruelo | 147 |
| Encinas | 70 |
| Encinillas | 79 |
| Escalona del Prado | 585 |
| Escarabajosa de Cabezas | 375 |
| Escobar de Polendos | 252 |
| El Espinar | 6,543 |
| Espirdo | 291 |
| Fresneda de Cuéllar | 232 |
| Fresno de Cantespino | 282 |
| Fresno de la Fuente | 69 |
| Frumales | 196 |
| Fuente de Santa Cruz | 188 |
| Fuente el Olmo de Fuentidueña | 146 |
| Fuente el Olmo de Íscar | 100 |
| Fuentepelayo | 977 |
| Fuentepiñel | 166 |
| Fuenterrebollo | 418 |
| Fuentesaúco de Fuentidueña | 315 |
| Fuentesoto | 166 |
| Fuentidueña | 153 |
| Gallegos | 102 |
| Garcillán | 371 |
| Gomezserracín | 711 |
| Grajera | 92 |
| Honrubia de la Cuesta | 68 |
| Hontalbilla | 409 |
| Hontanares de Eresma | 181 |
| Los Huertos | 157 |
| Ituero y Lama | 100 |
| Juarros de Riomoros | 71 |
| Juarros de Voltoya | 290 |
| Labajos | 143 |
| Laguna de Contreras | 168 |
| Languilla | 129 |
| Lastras de Cuéllar | 540 |
| Lastras del Pozo | 80 |
| La Lastrilla | 1,916 |
| La Losa | 378 |
| Maderuelo | 151 |
| Marazoleja | 160 |
| Marazuela | 72 |
| Martín Miguel | 196 |
| Martín Muñoz de la Dehesa | 196 |
| Martín Muñoz de las Posadas | 494 |
| Marugán | 382 |
| Mata de Cuéllar | 316 |
| Matabuena | 226 |
| La Matilla | 111 |
| Melque de Cercos | 119 |
| Membibre de la Hoz | 69 |
| Migueláñez | 178 |
| Montejo de Arévalo | 276 |
| Montejo de la Vega de la Serrezuela | 193 |
| Monterrubio | 74 |
| Moral de Hornuez | 102 |
| Mozoncillo | 1,050 |
| Muñopedro | 387 |
| Muñoveros | 208 |
| Nava de la Asunción | 2,638 |
| Navafría | 353 |
| Navalilla | 136 |
| Navalmanzano | 1,100 |
| Navares de Ayuso | 80 |
| Navares de Enmedio | 157 |
| Navares de las Cuevas | 28 |
| Navas de Oro | 1,465 |
| Navas de Riofrío | 272 |
| Navas de San Antonio | 299 |
| Nieva | 359 |
| Olombrada | 782 |
| Orejana | 105 |
| Ortigosa de Pestaño | 96 |
| Ortigosa del Monte | 367 |
| Otero de Herreros | 870 |
| Pajarejos | 47 |
| Palazuelos de Eresma | 1,776 |
| Pedraza | 469 |
| Pelayos del Arroyo | 44 |
| Perosillo | 31 |
| Pinarejos | 188 |
| Pinarnegrillo | 176 |
| Prádena | 533 |
| Puebla de Pedraza | 92 |
| Rapariegos | 255 |
| Rebollo | 126 |
| Remondo | 349 |
| Riaguas de San Bartolomé | 102 |
| Riaza | 1,935 |
| Ribota | 37 |
| Riofrío de Riaza | 59 |
| Roda de Eresma | 100 |
| Sacramenia | 538 |
| Samboal | 583 |
| San Cristóbal de Cuéllar | 209 |
| San Cristóbal de la Vega | 156 |
| San Cristóbal de Segovia | 2,455 |
| Real Sitio de San Ildefonso | 5,178 |
| San Martín y Mudrián | 276 |
| San Miguel de Bernuy | 182 |
| San Pedro de Gaíllos | 320 |
| Sanchonuño | 810 |
| Sangarcía | 480 |
| Santa María la Real de Nieva | 1,377 |
| Santa Marta del Cerro | 51 |
| Santiuste de Pedraza | 109 |
| Santiuste de San Juan Bautista | 768 |
| Santo Domingo de Pirón | 64 |
| Santo Tomé del Puerto | 330 |
| Sauquillo de Cabezas | 246 |
| Sebúlcor | 269 |
| Segovia | 54,945 |
| Sepúlveda | 1,324 |
| Sequera de Fresno | 46 |
| Sotillo | 36 |
| Sotosalbos | 131 |
| Tabanera la Luenga | 68 |
| Tolocirio | 58 |
| Torre Val de San Pedro | 177 |
| Torreadrada | 119 |
| Torrecaballeros | 598 |
| Torrecilla del Pinar | 296 |
| Torreiglesias | 397 |
| Trescasas | 1,074 |
| Turégano | 1,137 |
| Urueñas | 112 |
| Valdeprados | 51 |
| Valdevacas de Montejo | 33 |
| Valdevacas y Guijar | 146 |
| Valseca | 276 |
| Valtiendas | 184 |
| Valverde del Majano | 531 |
| Valle de Tabladillo | 160 |
| Vallelado | 840 |
| Valleruela de Pedraza | 70 |
| Valleruela de Sepúlveda | 74 |
| Veganzones | 299 |
| Vegas de Matute | 246 |
| Ventosilla y Tejadilla | 28 |
| Villacastín | 1,535 |
| Villaverde de Íscar | 716 |
| Villaverde de Montejo | 62 |
| Villeguillo | 142 |
| Yanguas de Eresma | 198 |
| Zarzuela del Monte | 542 |
| Zarzuela del Pinar | 583 |


title: Muscavirus

abstract: Muscavirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Hytrosaviridae. The fly Musca domestica is the natural host. There is only one species in this genus: Musca hytrosavirus. Diseases associated with this genus include: salivary gland hypertrophy, and complete sterility of infected female flies by inhibiting eggs development.

text:
# Muscavirus

***Muscavirus*** is a genus of viruses, in the family *Hytrosaviridae*. The fly *Musca domestica* is the natural host. There is only one species in this genus: *Musca hytrosavirus*. Diseases associated with this genus include: salivary gland hypertrophy, and complete sterility of infected female flies by inhibiting eggs development.

## Structure

Viruses in the genus *Muscavirus* are enveloped, with rod-shaped geometries. The diameter is around 50 nm. Genomes are circular, around 124kb in length. The genome has 108 open reading frames.

| Genus | Structure | Symmetry | Capsid | Genomic arrangement | Genomic segmentation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Muscavirus* | Rod-shaped |  | Enveloped | Circular | Monopartite |

## Life cycle

Viral replication is nuclear. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. *Musca domestica* serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are parental and contamination.

| Genus | Host details | Tissue tropism | Entry details | Release details | Replication site | Assembly site | Transmission |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Muscavirus* | Insects: house flies | Epithelium: secretory salivary glands; ovarioles; gonads | Contact: food; horizontal; vertical | Budding; horizontal; vertical | Nucleus | Nucleus | Contact: food; horizontal; vertical |

## InfoBox

| *Muscavirus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Virus classification | |
| (unranked): | Virus |
| Class: | *Naldaviricetes* |
| Order: | *Lefavirales* |
| Family: | *Hytrosaviridae* |
| Genus: | ***Muscavirus*** |
|