title: Poultry microbiome

text:
# Poultry microbiome

The poultry microbiome is an understudied, yet extremely impactful part of the poultry industry. Poultry is defined as any avian species used for production purposes such as food or down feathers. The United States consumes more poultry, specifically broiler meat, than any other type of protein. Worldwide, poultry makes up 33% of consumed meat. This makes poultry extremely valuable and the impact of the poultry microbiome on health and production even more valuable. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to notice microbes inside animals through stool samples giving light to further research into the gut microbiome. His discovery lead to the ever evolving study of the microbiota and microbiome. The microbiota is the entirety of living organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea in an environment. The microbiome is the combination of the microbiota and the additional activities in that system including metabolites and chemicals in a habitat. Much of the work done to characterize the poultry microbiome has been accomplished over the past decade and was done through the use of 16s rRNA sequencing.

## Production impacts

The poultry microbiome includes all living microbes found in and on the bird as well as in the environment. However, studies of the microbes that are important to production have concentrated heavily within the digestive tract. Increased amounts of *Lactobacillus, Cornyebacterium, Coprobacillus* and *Slakia* found in the ceca of chickens has been shown to increase feed conversion ratios in broiler chickens. The opposite can be said for Akkermansia muciniphila and cecal Parabacteriocides which have been shown to have negative effects on feed conversation. In addition, correlations in gut microbiota variance and feed conversion rates have been shown in laying hens. The study on laying hens found that *Anaerosporobacter, Candidatus Stoquefichus*, and *Fournierella* are negatively associated with feed conversion in regards to egg production and body weight maintenance. Although understudied, turkeys and ducks are assumed to have very similar feed conversion correlations to microbiome.

Alternatively, the importance of the microbiome in regards to duck hatching egg production has been studied. Evidence shows that ducks with more diverse microbiota in their bedding or litter, specifically containing large amounts of *Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium*, and *Brevibacterium* have worse egg quality and hatching rates. The environment that poultry are raised in can have a significant impact on their production because it can significantly impact the microbes that they are exposed to and that ultimately colonize inside and on the birds.

## Pathogen colonization

Pathogen colonization is one of the most important parts of the poultry microbiome because it affects both the birds health as well as consumers health. The most well known bacterial pathogen in regards to poultry in *Salmonella* because of its risk to human health and high prevalence. *Salmonella* can easily colonize in the intestines of poultry, however some studies are working with targeted phages to remove salmonella from the microbiome of broiler chickens. *Salmonella* Typhimurium is a human pathogen, that poses a risk to consumers because of its ability to colonize the poultry digestive tract without harming the bird. Fortunately, researchers are studying different microbial interactions, such as probiotics, and metabolite influences on preventing Salmonella colonization and restoring healthy gut microbiota after infection. Another pathogen that can colonize the gut of poultry is *Clostridium perfringens**. T*ypes A and C of this bacterium can cause necrotic enteritis, characterized by decaying and inflamed intestinal tissue. However this is only under certain dietary conditions and in combination with the parasite coccidia. In a study conducted in 2021 where researchers worked to characterize the bacterial make-up of the turkey respiratory tract they found that the presence of *Ornithobacterium* and *Mycoplasma,* puts turkeys at a higher risk for respiratory infections. It has also been shown in turkeys that domesticated turkeys have less microbial diversity and more pathogenic and antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria persistent in their gut than their wild counterparts.

## Anatomical areas

### Feathers and skin

The exterior of poultry is covered in some combination of feathers and skin that has a unique microbiome based on its metabolites and exposure to the environment. Skin and feather bacteria are often aerobic due to the exposer to oxygen. There appears to be no difference in flagellated vs non flagellated bacteria being present on or attaching to the exterior of the chicken. The microbiome of the exterior of the chicken is of extreme concern to the poultry processing industry because of avoiding pathogen presence for food consumption.

### Digestive tract

The digestive tract of the avian species is different than all other animals. The avian digestive system includes the esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, duodenal loop, jejunum, ileum, ceca, large intestine and cloaca. Each on these sections has a unique pH and microbiota living inside it. In ducks Bacteroidetes have been found to be the prominent phyla found in the ceca. Where as, the other regions of the digestive tract were more diverse supporting Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, and Actinobacteria. It is also noted that the digestive tract increases in abundance and diversity of bacteria as you move from the proventriculus to the cloaca or rectum of the bird.

### Reproductive tract

The reproductive tract, also known as the oviduct, is equally as diverse as the digestive tract in differentiated areas and differences in chemical and physiological properties. The female poultry reproductive tract consists of the ovary, infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, shell gland, vagina, and cloaca. Meanwhile, the male chicken and turkeys reproductive tract consists of the testis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and cloaca. In ducks the male anatomy is slightly different due to the presence of a penis. The microbiome in the oviduct of turkeys has been characterized with 19 phyla, including several pathogenic species and has been linked to juvenile turkey health. In addition, researchers have found that there is a strong correlation between *Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides salanitronis, Bacteroides barnesiae*, and *Clostridium leptum* being present in the vagina and reproductive tract of a laying hen and her producing a higher quantity and quality of eggs.


title: Poultry farming in the United States

text:
# Poultry farming in the United States

Poultry farming is a part of the United States's agricultural economy.

## History

In the United States, chickens were raised primarily on family farms or in some cases, in poultry colonies, such as Judge Emery's Poultry Colony until about 1960. Originally, the primary value in poultry keeping was eggs, and meat was considered a byproduct of egg production. A United States Department of the Interior census in 1840 found American farmers had a total combined poultry flock valued at approximately $12 million ($366 million in today's dollars).

Following the Treaty of Wanghia between the US and China in 1844, oriental poultry breeds were imported to New England, and Rhode Island became the nation's first major poultry center. Cross-breeding between English and Asian birds created new breeds still common today, like the Barred Plymouth Rock. Chickens remained primarily to provide eggs, mostly to the farmer (subsistence agriculture), with commercialization still largely unexplored. Farm flocks tended to be small because the hens largely fed themselves through foraging, with some supplementation of grain, scraps, and waste products from other farm ventures. Such feedstuffs were in limited supply, especially in the winter, and this tended to regulate the size of the farm flocks. Soon after poultry keeping gained the attention of agricultural researchers (around 1896), improvements in nutrition and management made poultry keeping more profitable and businesslike.

In 1896, farmer Nettie Metcalf created the Buckeye chicken breed in Warren, Ohio. In 1905, Buckeyes became an official breed under the American Poultry Association. The Buckeye breed is the first recorded chicken breed to be created and developed by a woman.

Poultry shows spread interest and understanding, with 88% of all farmers having chickens by 1910.

As the United States urbanized, demand for eggs grew. Eggs were sold into urban markets, where residents did not have chickens to provide eggs for themselves. Except in hot weather, eggs can be shipped and stored without refrigeration for some time before going bad; this was important in the days before widespread refrigeration. With a steady demand for eggs, efforts to create a poultry egg industry began in earnest, but raising poultry remained challenging; early efforts at industrial-scale indoor poultry houses led to problems with diseases like coccidiosis, Marek's disease, and vitamin D deficiency were not well understood. Egg production was largely increased by scientific breeding rather than industrial scale. After a few false starts, such as the Maine Experiment Station's failure at improving egg production, success was shown by Professor James Dryden at the Oregon Experiment Station.

The culling and slaughter of non-egg laying chickens created a source of poultry meat. However, poultry meat supply continued to lag demand, and poultry was expensive. Prior to about 1910, chicken was served primarily on special occasions or Sunday dinner. For example, Herbert Hoover's campaign used the slogan "A chicken in every pot" during the 1928 United States presidential election, appealing to a middle-class sense of affluence in the Post WWI years. Poultry was shipped live or killed, plucked, and packed on ice (but not eviscerated). Two kinds of poultry were generally offered: broilers or "spring chickens", young male chickens, a byproduct of the egg industry, which were sold when still young and tender (generally under 3 pounds live weight); and "fowls" or "stewing hens", also a byproduct of the egg industry, which were old hens past their prime for laying. This is no longer practiced; modern meat chickens are a different breed. Egg-type chicken carcasses no longer appear in stores. In 1942, the country had its first government-approved chicken evisceration plant. The "whole, ready-to-cook broiler" was not popular until the 1950s, when end-to-end refrigeration and sanitary practices gave consumers more confidence. Before this, poultry were often cleaned by the neighborhood butcher, though cleaning poultry at home was a commonplace kitchen skill.

### Industrialization

The major milestone in 20th century poultry production was the discovery of vitamin D (named in 1922), which made it possible to keep chickens in confinement year-round. Before this, chickens did not thrive during the winter due to lack of sunlight, and egg production, incubation, and meat production in the off-season were all very difficult, making poultry a seasonal and expensive proposition. Year-round production lowered costs, especially for broilers. Artificial daylight supplementation also started being used.

Improvements in production and quality were accompanied by lower labor requirements. In the 1930s through the early 1950s, 1,500 hens was considered to be a full-time job for a farm family. In the late 1950s, egg prices had fallen so dramatically that farmers typically tripled the number of hens they kept, putting three hens into what had been a single-bird cage or converting their floor-confinement houses from a single deck of roosts to triple-decker roosts. Not long after this, prices fell still further and large numbers of egg farmers left the business. This marked the beginning of the transition from family farms to larger, vertically integrated operations.

This fall in profitability was accompanied by a general fall in prices to the consumer, allowing poultry and eggs to lose their status as luxury foods.

The vertical integration of the egg and poultry industries was a late development, occurring after all the major technological changes had been in place for years (including the development of modern broiler rearing techniques, the adoption of the Cornish Cross broiler, the use of laying cages, etc.).

By the late 1950s, poultry production had changed dramatically. Large farms and packing plants could grow birds by the tens of thousands, radically impacting labor practices alongside farming techniques. Chickens could be sent to slaughterhouses for butchering and processing into prepackaged commercial products to be frozen or shipped fresh to markets or wholesalers. Meat-type chickens currently grow to market weight in six to seven weeks whereas only fifty years ago it took three times as long. This is due to genetic selection and nutritional modifications and not the use of growth hormones, which are illegal for use in poultry in the US and many other countries. Once a meat consumed only occasionally, the common availability and lower cost has made chicken a common meat product within developed nations. Growing concerns over the cholesterol content of red meat in the 1980s and 1990s further resulted in increased consumption of chicken.

## Current status

Today, eggs are produced on large egg ranches on which environmental parameters are controlled. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, it is a common practice to induce molting through manipulation of light and the amount of food they receive in order to further increase egg size and production.

On average, a chicken lays one egg a day for a number of days (a "clutch"), then does not lay for one or more days, then lays another clutch. Originally, the hen presumably laid one clutch, became broody, and incubated the eggs. Selective breeding over the centuries has produced hens that lay more eggs than they can hatch. Some of this progress was ancient, but most occurred after 1900. In 1900, average egg production was 83 eggs per hen per year. In 2000, it was well over 300.

In the United States, laying hens are butchered after their second egg laying season. In Europe, they are generally butchered after a single season. The laying period begins when the hen is about 18–20 weeks old (depending on breed and season). Males of the egg-type breeds have little commercial value at any age, and all those not used for breeding (roughly fifty percent of all egg-type chickens) are killed soon after hatching. Such "day-old chicks" are sometimes sold as food for captive and falconers birds of prey. The old hens also have little commercial value. Thus, the main sources of poultry meat a hundred years ago (spring chickens and stewing hens) have both been entirely supplanted by meat-type broiler chickens.

Traditionally, chicken production was distributed across the entire agricultural sector. In the 20th century, it gradually moved closer to major cities to take advantage of lower shipping costs. This had the undesirable side effect of turning the chicken manure from a valuable fertilizer that could be used profitably on local farms to an unwanted byproduct. This trend may be reversing itself due to higher disposal costs on the one hand and higher fertilizer prices on the other, making farm regions attractive once more.

From the farmer's point of view, eggs used to be practically the same as currency, with general stores buying eggs for a stated price per dozen. Egg production peaks in the early spring, when farm expenses are high and income is low. On many farms, the flock was the most important source of income, though this was often not appreciated by the farmers, since the money arrived in many small payments. Eggs were a farm operation where even small children could make a valuable contribution.

In 2015, the national flock suffered due to the spread of bird flu, affecting birds in fourteen states, leading to layoffs. A May 2015 report by the *Associated Press* reported that 10% of egg laying chickens were dead or dying due to bird flu. Beginning in June 2015, rationing of eggs had begun, leading to increased egg prices.

## Production statistics

### Eggs

Between 2007 and 2010 a total of about 90 billion eggs were produced per year.

#### Individual states

Production of individual states

Egg production by state, 2010
| State | Eggs produced (millions) |
| --- | --- |
| AL | 2,182 |
| AR | 2,894 |
| CA | 5,390 |
| CO | 1,066 |
| CT | 695 |
| FL | 2,592 |
| GA | 4,419 |
| HI | 69.5 |
| IL | 1,272 |
| IN | 6,493 |
| IA | 14,614 |
| KY | 1,119 |
| LA | 462 |
| ME | 1,034 |
| MD | 616 |
| MA | 36 |
| MI | 2,912 |
| MN | 2,869 |
| MS | 1,467 |
| MO | 1,949 |
| MT | 119 |
| NE | 2,751 |
| NY | 1,161 |
| NC | 3,251 |
| OH | 7,535 |

| State | Eggs produced (millions) |
| --- | --- |
| OK | 769 |
| OR | 715 |
| PA | 6,976 |
| SC | 1,102 |
| SD | 672 |
| TN | 308 |
| TX | 4,811 |
| UT | 929 |
| VT | 59 |
| VA | 729 |
| WA | 1,739 |
| WV | 267 |
| WI | 1,312 |
| WY | 2.4 |
| AK, AZ, DE, ID, KS, ND, NH, NJ, NM, NV, RI | 2,042 |

### Meat

In 2008, 9.08 billion chickens were slaughtered in the United States according to United States Department of Agriculture data.

The American Veterinary Medical Association recommends cervical dislocation and asphyxiation by carbon dioxide as the best options, but has recently amended their guidelines to include maceration, putting non-anesthetized chicks through a grinder.

The 2005–2006 American Veterinary Medical Association Executive Board held its final meeting July 13 in Honolulu, prior to the 2006 session of the House of Delegates and the AVMA Annual Convention. It proposed a policy change, which was recommended by the Animal Welfare Committee on disposal of unwanted chicks, poults, and pipped eggs. The new policy states, in part, "Unwanted chicks, poults, and pipped eggs should be killed by an acceptable humane method, such as use of a commercially designed macerator that results in instantaneous death. Smothering unwanted chicks or poults in bags or containers is not acceptable. Pips, unwanted chicks, or poults should be killed prior to disposal. A pipped egg, or pip, is one where the chick or poult has not been successful in escaping the egg shell during the hatching process."

## Negative effects on poultry workers

In 2010, Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime. In a report by Oxfam America, slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage. Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and undocumented immigrants. American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker. The Guardian reports that on average there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the United States. On average, one employee of Tyson Foods, the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month.

The act of slaughtering animals, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender psychological stress or trauma in the people involved. A 2016 study in *Organization* indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior." A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries."

## Safety issues

Poultry production is regulated by the FDA, UL and OSHA. Due to the potential safety hazards of broken glass and chemicals like mercury and phosphors in consumable products, all lights within poultry production facilities must be safety coated. The USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service performs frequent checks on production facilities to ensure poultry is safe, wholesome and correctly labelled.

### *Salmonella*

According to ProPublica, the food safety system for poultry in the United States is "ill-equipped to protect consumers or rebuff industry influence." The U.S. poultry industry is regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which has been characterized as toothless and beholden to business interests. The USDA does not stop companies from selling poultry contaminated with dangerous strains of *Salmonella*, does not have the power to suspend operations in contaminated plants, and does not have power to order recalls. As a consequence, *Salmonella* outbreaks are frequent in the U.S. whereas they have dramatically reduced in comparable European countries over time.

### Chlorinated chicken

In the United States it is common practice for chicken carcasses to be washed with antimicrobial rinses in order to remove harmful bacteria.

These rinses, containing chlorine dioxide solution, acidified sodium chlorite, trisodium phosphate or peroxyacids, are often referred to as Pathogen Reduction Treatments. The process is said to reduce the prevalence of *Salmonella* from 14% to 2%. Since 1997, the European Union has refused to permit the import of chicken treated in this way, claiming that it compensates for poor hygiene behavior earlier in the supply chain and disincentivises the poultry industry to adopt proper hygiene practices. American producers claimed that this was protectionism.

### Antibiotic resistance

The use of human antibiotics in chickens created antibiotic resistance that has spread to human pathogens and been documented in outbreaks.

## Environmental issues

The Illinois River, which flows between Arkansas and Oklahoma, has had a high level of pollution due to water runoff contaminated with chicken manure. The incineration of poultry wastes has been shown to have dangerous levels of a number of airborne pollutants, including heavy metals, arsenic, and halogens such as chlorine.

* Strausberg, Stephen F. (1995). *From Hills and Hollers: Rise of the Poultry Industry in Arkansas*. Fayetteville: Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. ISBN 0962285811. OCLC 32922427. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)


title: Power for Living

abstract: Power for Living is a Christian evangelistic book distributed free of charge by the Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation in various countries around the world. It was heavily advertised in the US in the mid-1990s as a seemingly secular self-help book.

text:
# Power for Living

***Power for Living*** is a Christian evangelistic book distributed free of charge by the Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation in various countries around the world. It was heavily advertised in the US in the mid-1990s as a seemingly secular self-help book.

## Overview

*Power for Living* was originally commissioned by the Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation to celebrate "The Year of the Bible". The first printing was produced by American Vision, Atlanta, Georgia in October 1983 under copyright to the Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation. The writers were the noted Christian authors David Chilton, Gary DeMar, Victoria T. deVries, Michael Gilstrap and Ray Sutton. This version was revised in November 1983 by non-denominational pastor and writer Jamie Buckingham. Both versions of *Power for Living* contain testimonials from celebrities who became Christians and other content aimed at arguing for the Christian faith.

The revised edition was released because the DeMoss Foundation wanted the book to be less about practical issues of Christian living and to focus more on a Christian evangelistic message. As such, the original edition contained chapters on "God's Perspective" detailing the reformed "Biblical world and life view". The revised edition was decidedly more Arminian in its theology, omitting much of the text coming from a reformed Christian perspective.

The Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation is an American evangelical foundation. *Power for Living* is credited for having introduced thousands of so-called "seekers" to Christ, with the added aim of having them then begin attending a local Christian church of their choice to further their relationship with Jesus.

### Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation

The Foundation has used its abundant financial resources to promote *Power for Living* in the United States, Germany, Mexico (*Fuerza para Vivir*) and, most recently, Japan.

In Japan, television advertisements related to religion are generally considered to be taboo, although Buddhist temples, Shintō shrines, Souka Gakkai, etc., have all produced advertisements for television. The Foundation's advertisements were declared "religious propaganda" by Germany's Federal Broadcasting Council in January, 2002, and as such their broadcast is prohibited in Germany.

### David Chilton

David Chilton (19511997) was a pastor, Christian Reconstructionist, and author of several books on eschatology and preterism. He contributed three books on eschatology: *Paradise Restored* (1985), *Days of Vengeance* (1987), and *The Great Tribulation* (1987).

### Gary DeMar

Gary DeMar is an American writer, lecturer and the president of American Vision, an American Christian nonprofit organization. The think-tank has a vision of "an America that recognizes the sovereignty of God over all of life and where Christians are engaged in every facet of society."

### Jamie Buckingham

Jamie Buckingham (19321992) was the founder of the Tabernacle Church in Melbourne, Florida. He was the author of *Run, Baby, Run* (with Nickey Cruz), *Shout it From the Housetops* (with Pat Robertson), *Ben Israel* (with Arthur Katz) and 34 other books. Buckingham was editor for *Charisma Magazine* until his death in 1992. More about Jamie can be found at www.JamieBuckinghamMinistries.com.

## Controversies

### In Japan

Advertisements for a free copy of the book have appeared in Japan on TV Asahi, TV Tokyo, Tokyo Broadcasting System and Nippon Television, but Fuji Television refused to broadcast the ads because of the controversy surrounding them. The advertisements have generated suspicion about the Foundation's origins, activities and purposes, perhaps by the Foundation's failure to declare them to the public precisely.

### In Germany

In Germany, TV advertisings for the book were banned because they were considered as "advertising a worldview or religion", which is forbidden by § 7 section 8 of the German state treaty on broadcasting (Rundfunkstaatsvertrag) and European laws on media. For its posters, newspaper adverts and leaflets, however, there was no such problem.

## History

* 1955 - The National Liberty Foundation is established by Arthur S. DeMoss.
* 1979 - DeMoss dies at age 53.
* His wife, Nancy S. DeMoss, inherits 200 million dollars and changes the Foundation's name to the Arthur S. DeMoss Foundation.
* 1983 - *Power for living* first distributed in the United States.
* 1999 - Television advertisements for the book are aired in the United States.
* 2001 - Distribution begins in Germany.
* 2004 - Distribution begins in Thailand.
* 2007 - Distribution begins in Japan.

## Celebrity endorsements

Japanese American German

All are known evangelical Christians.

1. Acknowledgments, Power For Living, American Vision, Atlanta, Georgia, October, 1983, pg. 132
2. Between the Covers of *Power for Living*. *Biblical Economics Today*, Vol. VII, No. 2, Feb/Mar 1984
3. from American Vision's About Us page. Archived 2006-04-22 at the Wayback Machine American Vision web site URL accessed 05/10/2006
4. Strang, Stephen (2002). "Buckingham, James William II ("Jamie")". In Stanley M. Burgess (ed.). *The new international dictionary of Pentecostal and charismatic movements* (Rev. and expanded ed.). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House. p. 448. ISBN 0310224810.
5. Religiöse TV-Werbung ist in Deutschland verboten TV-Werbung für "Kraft zum Leben" durch Landesmedienanstalten gestoppt (*tr. "Religious TV advertisements are illegal in Germany – "Power for Living" ads banned by the state media authorities"*) *www.aref.de* accessed 14 August 2022


title: Pre-colonial Timor

abstract: Timor is an island in South East Asia. Geologically considered a continental crustal fragment, it lies alongside the Sunda shelf, and is the largest in a cluster of islands between Java and New Guinea. European colonialism has shaped Timorese history since 1515, a period when it was divided between the Dutch in the west of the island and the Portuguese in the east.

text:
# Pre-colonial Timor

Timor is an island in South East Asia. Geologically considered a continental crustal fragment, it lies alongside the Sunda shelf, and is the largest in a cluster of islands between Java and New Guinea. European colonialism has shaped Timorese history since 1515, a period when it was divided between the Dutch in the west of the island (now Indonesian West Timor) and the Portuguese in the east (now the independent state of East Timor).

## Early history

The island of Timor was populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. It is believed that survivors from three waves of migration still live in the country. The first is described by anthropologists as Vedda people who arrived from the north and west at least 42,000 years ago. In 2011 evidence was uncovered, at the Jerimalai cave site, showing that these early settlers had high-level maritime skills at this time, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna. These excavations also discovered one of the world's earliest recorded fish hooks, between 16,000 and 23,000 years old.

Around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Vedda peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior. Finally, proto-Malays from 2500 BC arrived from south China and north Indochina. Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau Highlands of Sumatra.

## The Timorese in their region

The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, sandalwood, deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.

### Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (3rd century – 16th century)

#### Earlier Buddhist era (3rd century BCE – 7th century)

#### Indianised Javanese Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire (7th – 12th century)

Oral traditions of people of the Wehali principality of East Timor mention their migration from Sina Mutin Malaka or *"Chinese White Malacca"* (part of Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire) in ancient times.

#### Relations with Indianised Javanese Hindu empire of Majapahit (12th – 16th century)

Majapahit empire's Nagarakretagama chronicles called Timor a tributary, but as Portuguese chronologist Tomé Pires wrote in the sixteenth century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor". Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as part of Indonesia.

##### Chiefdoms or polities

Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early sixteenth century. One of the most significant is the Wehali or Wehale kingdom in central Timor, to which the Tetum, Bunak and Kemak ethnic groups were aligned.

The account of Antonio Pigafetta of the Magellan expedition, who visited Timor in 1522, confirms the importance of the Wewiku-Wehali kingdom. In the seventeenth century the ruler of Wehali was described as "an emperor, whom all the kings on the island adhere to with tribute, as being their sovereign". He entertained friendly contacts with the Muslim kingdom of Makassar, but his power was checked by devastating invasions by the Portuguese in 1642 and 1665. Wehali was now brought inside the Portuguese sphere of power but appears to have had limited contact with its colonial suzerain.

##### Trade with China

Timor is mentioned in the thirteenth-century Chinese *Zhu Fan Zhi*, where it is called *Ti-wu* and is noted for its sandalwood. It is called *Ti-men* in the *History of Song* of 1345. Writing towards 1350, Wang Dayuan refers to a *Ku-li Ti-men*, which is a corruption of *Giri Timor*, meaning island of Timor. Giri from "mountain" in Sanskrit, thus "mountainous island of Timor".

##### Trade with the Philippines

Filipinos, known as Luções among Portuguese sailors, were recorded to have visited and settled in East Timor before Spanish colonization of the Philippines. The Magellan expedition recorded that when they anchored on the island, they witnessed Luções merchants who traded Philippine gold for East Timorese sandalwood.

### European colonisation and Christianisation (16th century onward)

Beginning in the early sixteenth century, European colonialists—the Dutch in the island's west, and Portuguese in the east—would divide the island, isolating the East Timorese from the histories of the surrounding archipelago.


title: Pramod Bhasin

abstract: Pramod Bhasin stepped down as President and CEO of Genpact, one of the largest IT and software consultancy company, becoming non-executive Vice Chairman in 2011.

text:
# Pramod Bhasin

**Pramod Bhasin** stepped down as President and CEO of Genpact, one of the largest IT and software consultancy company, becoming non-executive Vice Chairman in 2011.

## Career

Pramod is a British Chartered Accountant from McLintock & Co, London, and holds a Bachelor of Commerce degree from Shri Ram College of Commerce.

He became an officer of GE. His career with GE and RCA spanned 25 years across the US, Europe and Asia. He was the head of GE Capital in India and in Asia, having earlier worked with GE Capital's Corporate and Finance Group in Stamford, Connecticut, US.

Pramod started GE Capital International Services (GECIS) in 1997 as the in-house BPO division of General Electric (GE) when he convinced the senior stakeholders at GE to outsource certain simple non-IT services to India at Gurgaon. Under Pramod GE hired Raman Roy, pioneered business process outsourcing in India, and expanded its operations from India to countries including China, Hungary, Guatemala, Poland, Mexico, Morocco, the Philippines, Romania, South Africa and the United States.

In 2007, the International Quality and Productivity Center at the Shared Services and Outsourcing Global Conclave named Genpact the Global Shared Services Leader of the Year and awarded Pramod Bhasin their Lifetime Contribution Award.

A consultant and advisor in the domain, Pramod Bhasin served as the Chairman of India's National Association of Software & Services Companies (NASSCOM) for the year 2009-10, and became a member of the Board of Trustees of NASSCOM Foundation. He is also currently serving as President at TiE Delhi-NCR.

Pramod Bhasin appointed as chairman of ICRIER (Indian Council For Research On International Economic Relations).

## Personal life

Pramod Bhasin completed his MBA from Faculty of Management Studies, Delhi University (popularly known as FMS Delhi). He completed his Indian School Certificate (ISC, equivalent to the then English GCE O Levels) at Cathedral and John Connon School, Bombay (now Mumbai), in Class of 1967. As of 2016, he lives in New Delhi.


title: Prestin Ryan

abstract: Prestin Ryan is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman who played one game for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL).

text:
# Prestin Ryan

**Prestin Ryan** (born June 29, 1980) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman who played one game for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL).

## Playing career

### Amateur

Born in Arcola, Saskatchewan, Prestin Ryan played for the Yorkton Mallers in the SMAAAHL. He spent three seasons with the Estevan Bruins of the SJHL. While playing in the SJHL, he was recruited to play hockey at the University of Maine. Ryan spent four seasons playing for the Black Bears in the Hockey East conference. He picked up several NCAA and conference honours while there. After playing his senior season, Ryan turned pro for the 2004–05 season.

### Professional

He started his professional career with the Syracuse Crunch of the AHL. He was initially signed by the Columbus Blue Jackets. In the 2005–06 season, Ryan made his NHL debut, playing in one game, for the Vancouver Canucks. After his second season within the Canucks organization he joined the Chicago Blackhawks and played the 2007–08 season in the AHL with affiliate, the Rockford IceHogs.

A free agent, on November 21, 2008 he signed a contract with Adler Mannheim of the DEL. Ryan left after just six months on May 3, 2009 and signed with League rival ERC Ingolstadt. In the 2009–10 season, Ryan produced his highest totals in the DEL with 7 goals and 27 points in 47 games. On August 26, 2010, the Canadian was on the move again and signed with the Iserlohn Roosters, where he replaced the tryout player David Walker.

After one season away, on April 4, 2011, Ryan returned to sign a one-year contract with Ingolstadt.

## Career statistics

|  | | |  | Regular season | | | | |  | Playoffs | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | Team | League | | GP |  |  | Pts | PIM | | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM |
| 2001–02 | University of Maine | HE | | 39 | 6 | 9 | 15 | 91 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2002–03 | University of Maine | HE | | 37 | 1 | 8 | 9 | 120 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2003–04 | University of Maine | HE | | 43 | 4 | 18 | 22 | 148 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2003–04 | Syracuse Crunch | AHL | |  |  |  |  |  | | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| 2004–05 | Syracuse Crunch | AHL | | 59 | 3 | 6 | 9 | 161 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2005–06 | Manitoba Moose | AHL | | 64 | 11 | 12 | 23 | 63 | | 13 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 25 |
| 2005–06 | Vancouver Canucks | NHL | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2006–07 | Manitoba Moose | AHL | | 58 | 5 | 16 | 21 | 125 | | 13 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 33 |
| 2007–08 | Rockford IceHogs | AHL | | 44 | 7 | 17 | 24 | 117 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2008–09 | Adler Mannheim | DEL | | 16 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 18 | | 9 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 18 |
| 2009–10 | ERC Ingolstadt | DEL | | 47 | 7 | 20 | 27 | 56 | | 10 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 24 |
| 2010–11 | Iserlohn Roosters | DEL | | 51 | 2 | 16 | 18 | 124 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2011–12 | ERC Ingolstadt | DEL | | 48 | 2 | 9 | 11 | 64 | | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 20 |
| 2012–13 | Mora IK | Allsvenskan | | 11 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 36 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| NHL totals | | | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |  |  |  |  |  |

## Awards and honours

| Award | Year |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| All-Hockey East Second Team | 2003–04 |  |
| AHCA East Second-Team All-American | 2003–04 |  |
| Hockey East All-Tournament Team | 2004 |  |
| All-NCAA All-Tournament Team | 2004 |  |
|

* 1998 - SJHL All Rookie Team
* 2004 - Hockey East Best Defensive Defenseman (co-winner w/ Andrew Alberts)

## InfoBox

| Prestin Ryan | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ryan with the Rockford IceHogs in 2007 | | | |
| Born | (1980-06-29) June 29, 1980
Arcola, Saskatchewan, Canada | | |
| Height | 6 ft 0 in (183 cm) | | |
| Weight | 190 lb (86 kg; 13 st 8 lb) | | |
| Position | Defence | | |
| Shot | Left | | |
| Played for | Vancouver Canucks
Adler Mannheim
Iserlohn Roosters
ERC Ingolstadt | | |
| NHL draft | Undrafted | | |
| Playing career | 20042013 | | |


title: Premeća

abstract: Premeća is a village in the municipality of Čačak, Serbia. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 238 people.

text:
# Premeća

**Premeća** is a village in the municipality of Čačak, Serbia. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 238 people.

## InfoBox

| Premeća | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
|  | |
| Premeća | |
| Coordinates: 43°46′33″N 20°25′34″E / 43.77583°N 20.42611°E / 43.77583; 20.42611 | |
| Country | Serbia |
| District | Moravica District |
| Municipality | Čačak |
| Area | |
| Total | 10.04 km2 (3.88 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 387 m (1,270 ft) |
| Population (2011) | |
| Total | 238 |
| Density | 24/km2 (61/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Presumptive

abstract:
Presumptive may refer to:
  - Heir presumptive, a person who is expected to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honor, but their position can be displaced by the birth of another person with a better claim to the position.
  - Presumptive nominee, a person who is candidate for president who has not yet received a party nomination, but is expected to receive that nomination in the near future.
  - Presumptive US president, a person who is expected to receive the majority of the Electoral College votes, but the appointed electors in each state have not yet met to cast their votes on the Monday after the second Wednesday in December.
  - Speaker-presumptive, a person who is not yet the speaker of a parliament, but is expected to become the speaker in the near future.
  - The Presumptive Tax Regime in Pakistan.
  - Presumptive mood, or irrealis mood, a grammatical mood.

text:
# Presumptive

**Presumptive** may refer to:

* Heir presumptive, a person who is expected to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honor, but their position can be displaced by the birth of another person with a better claim to the position.
* Presumptive nominee, a person who is candidate for president who has not yet received a party nomination, but is expected to receive that nomination in the near future.
* Presumptive US president, a person who is expected to receive the majority of the Electoral College votes, but the appointed electors in each state have not yet met to cast their votes on the Monday after the second Wednesday in December.
* Speaker-presumptive, a person who is not yet the speaker of a parliament, but is expected to become the speaker in the near future.
* The Presumptive Tax Regime in Pakistan.
* Presumptive mood, or irrealis mood, a grammatical mood.


title: Pretkovec

abstract: Pretkovec is a village near Krapina, in Krapina-Zagorje County, Croatia.

text:
# Pretkovec

**Pretkovec** is a village near Krapina, in Krapina-Zagorje County, Croatia.

## InfoBox

| Pretkovec | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Pretkovec | |
| Coordinates: 46°8′35″N 15°50′49″E / 46.14306°N 15.84694°E / 46.14306; 15.84694 | |
| Country | Croatia |
| Region | Hrvatsko Zagorje |
| County | Krapina-Zagorje County |
| Municipality | Krapina |
| Area | |
| Total | 1.0 km2 (0.4 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | |
| Total | 52 |
| Density | 52/km2 (130/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Preston Patrick

abstract: Preston Patrick is a village and civil parish in South Lakeland, Cumbria, England. It has junction 36 of the M6 motorway in its south west corner and extends north east on both sides of the motorway until just beyond the B2564 road. In the 2001 census the parish had a population of 438, decreasing at the 2011 census to 426. It is set in the drumlin landscape south of Kendal. The neighbouring parishes are Old Hutton and Holmescales to the north, Lupton to the east, Beetham to the south and Preston Richard to the west.

text:
# Preston Patrick

**Preston Patrick** is a village and civil parish in South Lakeland, Cumbria, England. It has junction 36 of the M6 motorway in its south west corner and extends north east on both sides of the motorway until just beyond the B2564 road. In the 2001 census the parish had a population of 438, decreasing at the 2011 census to 426.

It is set in the drumlin landscape south of Kendal. The neighbouring parishes are Old Hutton and Holmescales to the north, Lupton to the east, Beetham to the south and Preston Richard to the west.

## Buildings

There are 27 buildings or structures in the parish which are listed. The building with the highest listing is Preston Patrick Hall which is Grade II\* listed. It dates probably from the late 14th century, comprising the remains of a medieval tower house altered in the 17th century. It is now a private house. The other listed buildings, which include several milestones, are Grade II.

The former primary school, built in 1775, closed in 1949 and is now an art gallery.

Preston Patrick Memorial Hall, built in the 1920s, is a community hall used for a range of events including meetings of the local Women's Institute.

### Places of worship

There are two places of worship, each built in the 19th century and now listed Grade II.

* The Friends' Meeting house was built in 1869 on the site of a previous meeting house built in 1691 which had fallen into disrepair after 1833.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Preston Patrick | |
| --- | --- |
| St Patrick's Church | |
| Preston PatrickLocation in South LakelandPreston PatrickLocation within Cumbria | |
| Population | 426 *(2011 census)* |
| Civil parish | * Preston Patrick |
| District |  |
| Shire county |  |
| Region |  |
| Country | England |
| Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
| Post town | Milnthorpe |
| Postcode district | LA7 |
| UK Parliament |  |
|


title: Preston Park Velodrome

abstract: The Preston Park Velodrome is an outdoor velodrome in the north-east corner of Preston Park in Brighton, United Kingdom. It is the oldest velodrome in the United Kingdom having been opened on 30 May 1887. It is also thought to be the oldest, working velodrome in the world that still uses its original track design. The only known older working velodrome is the Andreasried Velodrome in Erfurt, Germany which originally opened in 1885 but was later reconfigured from 333m to 250m in 2006-07.

text:
# Preston Park Velodrome

The **Preston Park Velodrome** is an outdoor velodrome in the north-east corner of Preston Park in Brighton, United Kingdom. It is the oldest velodrome in the United Kingdom having been opened on 30 May 1887. It is also thought to be the oldest, working velodrome in the world that still uses its original track design. The only known older working velodrome is the Andreasried Velodrome in Erfurt, Germany which originally opened in 1885 but was later reconfigured from 333m to 250m in 2006-07.

## Characteristics

As well as being the first track in the UK, Preston Park is also the longest at 579m (1900 feet). It is one of the few velodromes which is not the normal oval shape, instead comprising four straights and two slightly banked corners. This is because there were no international velodrome standards until after Olympic track cycling grew in popularity after 1900, so early velodromes from the late 1800s came in all shapes and sizes.

## Site of Special Historic Interest

The velodrome and cricket ground are included in land registered under the Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act 1953 within the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens by Historic England for its special historic interest. The site was listed within the Register as a Grade II Park and Garden on 25 March 1987.

## Construction and improvements

### 1884: Land purchase

The velodrome is situated within Preston Park, Brighton, which was opened in 1884 following the purchase by Brighton Corporation of land from V F Bennett-Stanford in 1883 for £50,000. The entire park was laid out by the Corporation's Head Gardener, James Shrives and the Borough Engineer, Philip Lockwood, in 1883-4 and formally opened to the public on 8 November 1884.

### 1885: Cricket pitch and cinder track laid

Construction then moved onto the velodrome and cricket ground site, which was previously a polo ground during the Stanfords' ownership, this use being transferred to the park's playing fields upon purchase by Brighton Corporation. A retaining bank in the north-east corner of the park was constructed to level the site in 1885. The entire arena was dug out by hand by the British Army, the cricket pitch being surrounded by a cinder path.

### 1887: Cycle track formally opened

The cinder path was converted to a cycle track in Spring 1887. The original 'Preston Park Bicycle Track' plans dated March 1887 show where the race start lines were to be placed for the quarter mile, half mile, 1 mile, 5 mile and 10 mile races.

Upon opening in 1887 the sports arena comprised a cricket pitch, surrounding cycle track, pavilion and open air, flint-edged seating for thousands of people. The velodrome was formally opened at a Whit Monday race meeting on 30 May 1887 with races including a 1 mile handicap, 3 mile handicap, half-mile scratch and a 1 mile tricycle handicap, with a 2 shilling entry fee and prizes of up to £7 for first places.

### 1893: Banking added on final corner

In 1893 a concrete retaining wall was erected to support the embankment on the North West corner of the track at a cost of £50.

### 1930: Wooden grandstand constructed

A wooden grandstand with seating for 500 people was opened by mayor Horace Aldrich on 18 October 1930, paid for partly by a gift of Benjamin Saunders.

### 1936: Cinder track resurfaced with tarmac

In 1936 a tarmac surface was added, with the two banked corners added at the same time for safety reasons.

### 2015: Save Preston Park Cycle Track campaign

In 2015 racing was forced to stop following a period when the track fell into general disrepair. Following rider concerns about safety issues it was deemed unsafe for racing by British Cycling in 2015 with the quality of track fencing being the main issue. While this didn't prevent recreational use of the track, it did mean that official racing had to stop, such as the Sussex Cycle Racing League. A successful Save Preston Park Cycle Track campaign was started by cyclist and local Brighton photographer Rupert Rivett, which was supported by former Tour de France cyclist and Team Sky sporting director Sean Yates. This was attended by many riders along with hundreds of supporters from the wider cycling community, demonstrating the value of this important amenity not just to cycling clubs and racing leagues but to local families and recreational cyclists who all use the velodrome regularly.

### 2016: Track fencing replaced and racing restarts

In January 2016 British Cycling announced that it would contribute £110,000 of the £160,000 needed to repair and reopen the track, with the remainder of the required funding coming from Section 106 financial contributions made by developers as part of planning applications. The track reopened for racing in May 2016.

### Today

The arena remains in use for both cricket and cycling to this day, the original Pavilion is still standing and the flint edged seating can still be seen around the North and Eastern sides of the track.

## Tenants

### 1948 to 1967: Prestonville Nomads

Prestonville Nomads, a cycling club founded in 1933 were based at the track from 1948 to 1967 and used the Park View Hotel, adjacent to the velodrome on Preston Drove, as their club room.

### 1998 to present: Preston Park Youth Cycling Club (PPYCC)

PPYCC has used the site since its formation in 1998, catering for over 100 young members aged 8 to 18 and meeting between March and October every Saturday morning.

### 2000 to present: Sussex Cycle Racing League (SCRL)

SCRL has used the site since circa 2000, running a Wednesday night track league between April and August every year. This usually attracts between 60 and 80 competitors weekly and includes all types of events from scratch races, handicaps and points races to the more unusual keirins and devil-take-the-hindmost contests.

### 2013 to present: Brighton Tri Club

Brighton Tri Club use the velodrome on Saturday mornings before attending ParkRun, also at Preston Park.

A number of other regional cycling clubs regularly hire the velodrome for coaching sessions including Brighton Mitre Cycling Club, East Grinstead Cycling Club and Crawley Wheelers.

## Notable users

Geraint Thomas (double Olympic champion, triple world champion and 2018 Tour de France champion) writes about Preston Park Velodrome in his book, The World According to G (2015): "As a kid it was all outdoor tracks, each of them with their own idiosyncrasies... The old stager in Brighton's Preston Park runs noticeably downhill in the last 100 metres. It also has a ten meter section where there is no barrier at the top of the track, just a two-metre drop-off to the walkway below."

Laura Kenny (four times Olympic champion and seven times World Champion) won the Preston Park Youth Omnium in 2007 in the Under 16 age category, having placed 2nd the previous year and later went on to win consecutive Omnium gold medals at the Summer Olympics of 2012 and 2016 .

Reg Harris (five times World Sprint champion and double Olympic silver medallist) raced at the track in the 1950s. On 7 August 1950 Harris rode his last race there before defending his World Sprint title in Belgium the following week. He was reportedly in fine form, beating Belgian sprint champion Franz van Looveren and American sprint champion Jack Heid in each of five encounters and recorded a time of 1 min 15.4 secs in the 1,000 metre, standing-start time trial. He also competed at the track on 4 August 1952, comfortably winning all three of his races against Arie van Vliet (Holland) and Sid Patterson (Australia). Harris returned to Brighton in 1957 in different circumstances as the driver of a 1904 Raleighette vintage car in the annual London to Brighton vintage car run.

## Events

The velodrome hosts a full calendar of regional racing events organised via the Sussex Cycle Racing League. At the heart of this are weekly racing events throughout the season from March to August, including the Sussex Cycle Racing League on Wednesday nights, Vets and Women's racing on Friday nights and women's racing on Sunday mornings.

The velodrome is also used for National-level racing and regularly hosts rounds of the National Youth Omnium series, as part of the British Cycling National Track Series, providing opportunities for the country's most promising youth riders. Notable, Laura Kenny (née Trott) placed 1st at Preston Park in 2007 before going on to win consecutive Summer Olympics gold medals in 2012 and 2016.

Historically, attendees of 3000-5000 spectators were a regular occurrence with the largest recorded attendance reaching 8,000 on August 4, 1952 to see world champion Reg Harris in action. Bank Holiday open race meetings were a regular occurrence, typically organised by Brighton Cyclist Club, Brighton Stanley Wanderers Cycling Club or Brighton Mitre Cycling Club, which would feature handicaps and scratch races over half mile, 1 mile and 3 mile distances, often with some athletics races alongside. Some sources put bank holiday race attendances as high as 10,000 spectators.

## Other uses

St Peters Cricket Club, formed in 1883, has been using the arena since moving to Preston Park in 1889. In 2013 the club agreed a 20 year lease with Brighton and Hove City Council for both the clubhouse and the upkeep of the two cricket squares. The arena has also been used for athletics meetings, including an England versus France international on 25 July 1925.

Brighton Spike Community Club (BSCC) have been using the arena since establishing at Preston Park in 2023. In early 2024 the club renewed its membership for a second year.

## InfoBox

Preston Park Velodrome
| Preston Park Velodrome | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Address | The Ride, Brighton, BN1 6LA |
| Coordinates | 50°50′35.54″N 0°08′56.45″W / 50.8432056°N 0.1490139°W / 50.8432056; -0.1490139 |
| Owner | Brighton and Hove City Council |
| Type | Velodrome |
| Genre(s) | Sporting events |
| Seating type | Open air grandstand, flint-edged stone seating |
| Record attendance | 10,000 |
| Field size | 579m length (1900 feet) |
| Surface | Tarmacadam |
| Construction | |
| Opened | 30 May 1887 (1887-05-30) |
| Renovated | 1936, 2015 |
| Tenants | |
| Preston Park Youth Cycling Club <br>Sussex Cycle Racing League | |


title: Preston Parsons

abstract: Preston Thomas Parsons is a former American football quarterback. He was signed by the Arizona Cardinals as an undrafted free agent in 2002. He played college football at Northern Arizona. Parsons has also been a member of the Houston Texans, Denver Broncos and Tennessee Titans. His attempts to make the Broncos roster in 2006 was chronicled in Stefan Fatsis's book A Few Seconds of Panic.

text:
# Preston Parsons

**Preston Thomas Parsons** (born February 19, 1979) is a former American football quarterback. He was signed by the Arizona Cardinals as an undrafted free agent in 2002. He played college football at Northern Arizona.

Parsons has also been a member of the Houston Texans, Denver Broncos and Tennessee Titans. His attempts to make the Broncos roster in 2006 was chronicled in Stefan Fatsis's book *A Few Seconds of Panic*.

## Early life

Preston Parsons attended Jesuit High School in Portland, Oregon, graduating in 1997. While there he earned three varsity letters in football, two in basketball, and one each in baseball and golf. In football, he was a *USA Today* All-USA selection.

## InfoBox

Preston Parsons
| Parsons in 2006 | |
| --- | --- |
| No. 15, 5 | |
| Position: | Quarterback |
| Personal information | |
| Born: | (1979-02-19) February 19, 1979<br>Portland, Oregon, U.S. |
| Height: | 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m) |
| Weight: | 235 lb (107 kg) |
| Career information | |
| High school: | Jesuit (Beaverton, Oregon) |
| College: | Northern Arizona |
| Undrafted: | 2002 |
| Career history | |
|  | |
| * Offseason and/or practice squad member only | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Preston Passion

abstract: The Preston Passion was a live performance televised by BBC One on 6 April 2012 from Preston, Lancashire, England, retelling the Gospel accounts of the Crucifixion of Jesus through a filter of local history. Organized by the Preston Guild, the performance utilized professional performers, local volunteers and audience members.

text:
# Preston Passion

The ***Preston Passion*** was a live performance televised by BBC One on 6 April 2012 from Preston, Lancashire, England, retelling the Gospel accounts of the Crucifixion of Jesus through a filter of local history. Organized by the Preston Guild, the performance utilized professional performers, local volunteers and audience members.

## Background

The Preston Passion takes its name from the Passion of Christ, a term widely used to encapsulate the events of the capture, trial and death of Jesus of Nazareth as described in the Gospels and celebrated by Christians at Easter. It follows a tradition of Passion plays that are performed in many parts of the world over Easter.

## Performance

In the dramas, three aspects of the Biblical narratives are retold through three events from the history of Preston, with the story of Pontius Pilate being related to the events of the Preston Strike of 1842, the story of Mary, the mother of Jesus related to the experiences of a local soldier in World War I, and that of Jesus being to related the sacrifice of a local school-girl caring for her younger siblings.

Singer Jamelia sang in the finale, replacing Heather Small who had to withdraw because of illness. The hymns and songs were sung by a large choir made up from parishes in and around Preston and UCLAN Chamber Choir. The pieces included William Horsley's *There is a Green Hill Far Away*, *Jerusalem*, *Surely He Hath Borne Our Griefs* (from Handel's Messiah), *When I Survey the Wondrous Cross*, *Were You There* and *You've Got the Love*.

## Awards

In November 2012 the Preston Passion won the award for "Best Live Event" at the Royal Television Society's North West Awards.

## Programme credits

* Executive Producer – Aaqil Ahmed
* Development Executive – Pat Connor
* Development Producer – Steve Rawling

### Drama

* Mrs Melling – Samantha Bond
* Samuel Horrocks – Tom Ellis
* Amy Cummins – Christine Bottomley
* Bishop Crowther – Ronald Pickup
* Betty Cleasby – Pooky Quesne
* Simon – Paul Barber
* Bella's Mother – Julia Haworth
* Scott – Lucas Burridge
* Presenter – Fern Britton
* Performer – Jamelia
* Writers – Colin Heber-Percy and Lyall Watson
* Director – Daniel Wilson
* Producer – Sandra Maciver
* Executive Producer – Hilary Martin
* Bella – Aimie Leach

### Live Event

* Live Event Director – Mark Murphy
* Outside Broadcast Producer and Director – Pamela Hossick
* Creative Producer – Mike Smith
* Production – Walk the Plank

## InfoBox

| *Preston Passion* | |
| --- | --- |
| Starring | Fern Britton (host) |
| Country of origin | United Kingdom |
| Production | |
| Producer | BBC |
| Running time | 59 minutes |
| Original release | |
| Network | BBC One |
| Release | 6 April 2012 (2012-04-06) |


title: Precision Monolithics

abstract: Precision Monolithics, Inc. also known as PMI, was an American company based in Santa Clara, California, that developed and produced mixed signal and linear integrated circuits (ICs). It was a pioneer in the fields of digital-to-analog converters and operational amplifiers. The company was founded in 1969 by Marv Rudin and Garth Wilson, who had both left Fairchild Semiconductor at the end of 1968. Wilson was circuit design manager under Rudin, who managed linear circuit R&D at the Fairchild Semiconductor R&D Laboratory in Palo Alto from 1966 to 1968. At the beginning, Wilson was vice president responsible for engineering and production, and reported to Rudin, who was president and marketing manager. Jim Grugan from Fairchild joined shortly after incorporation as vice president of administration, responsible for finance, facilities and purchasing. Immediately after financing and incorporation, they offered founder stock and hired IC designers George Erdi from Fairchild and Dan Dooley from TRW Microelectronics. They also hired Jerry Bresee, a chief process engineer from Tektronix, who developed a semiconductor process far superior to what they were able to access from the Fairchild R&D processing services department, with the exception of nitride passivation for low 1/f noise, a technology known by the founders from Fairchild. In 1969 Dooley designed the first fully integrated D/A converter (DAC), the 6-bit DAC01, using diffused resistors. He recruited his thin film technician with precision resistor fabrication skills that were essential for improving the accuracy of DACs, which became the biggest-selling type of product that helped launch the company. Semiconductor and materials engineer Wadie Khadder was hired with founder stock from Fairchild to support Bresee in both semiconductor process engineering and also the critical precision thin film technology initially needed for producing high accuracy 2-chip D/A converters. PMI pioneered the design and manufacture of the first 10-bit semiconductor IC DACs on the market. In March 1970, during the IEEE Annual Convention in New York, PMI caused a major stir in engineering circles by introducing the aimDac100, the first 10-bit 2-chip DAC in a DIP semiconductor package. Not only was it far more compact and reliable than the modules that were state of the art at that time, but it provided 10-bit accuracy over the full military temperature range. The MonoDac01 was used by Jet Propulsion Laboratory for their first Moon probe. By 1972 Dooley and Bresee, PMI's chief process engineer who developed process uniformity never before seen in the semiconductor industry, combined to design and produce a full 10 bit D/A converter on a single chip, the monoDac02. At that point PMI's linear process uniformity and products capitalizing on that uniformity put PMI in a class by itself. It would be several years before any other company could match the Dac-02. Bresee's superior processes, and George Erdi's outstanding design expertise enabled PMI to establish itself as a superior source of linear amplifiers, including operational amplifiers, some of which garnered U.S. patents. By superior layout and circuit design made possible by Bresee's and Khadders superior process uniformity, transistor performance, and surface passivation, Erdi was able to design and achieve breakthrough advances in micro-power amplifiers with both low input offset and 1/f noise voltage, rivaling many chopper amplifiers formerly used exclusively for microvolt input amplifiers. An industry milestone was the OP07, which was the first internally compensated, three-stage operational amplifier. It pioneered active base current cancellation and offset trimming, using Erdi's patented Zener-zapping technique. Erdi and other PMI engineers later expanded their efforts to include high-precision voltage references and additional mixed-signal semiconductors for data acquisition, data conversion, and telecommunications. PMI also bought Solid State Micro Technology. Erdi and Khadder left PMI in 1981 to co-found Linear Technology. PMI was founded with financing from Bourns, Inc., which held 70% of the shares and 30% was stock purchased at a nominal price by the founders. Ultimately, all shares were purchased by Bourns to make PMI a wholly owned subsidiary, PMI was finally bought by Analog Devices in August 1990. Many of PMI's converters, amplifiers, voltage references, and other linear ICs continue to be manufactured and marketed by Analog Devices, which currently maintain the largest share of the precision linear market.

text:
# Precision Monolithics

**Precision Monolithics, Inc.** also known as **PMI**, was an American company based in Santa Clara, California, that developed and produced mixed signal and linear integrated circuits (ICs). It was a pioneer in the fields of digital-to-analog converters and operational amplifiers.

The company was founded in 1969 by Marv Rudin and Garth Wilson, who had both left Fairchild Semiconductor at the end of 1968. Wilson was circuit design manager under Rudin, who managed linear circuit R&D at the Fairchild Semiconductor R&D Laboratory in Palo Alto from 1966 to 1968. At the beginning, Wilson was vice president responsible for engineering and production, and reported to Rudin, who was president and marketing manager. Jim Grugan from Fairchild joined shortly after incorporation as vice president of administration, responsible for finance, facilities and purchasing.

Immediately after financing and incorporation, they offered founder stock and hired IC designers George Erdi from Fairchild and Dan Dooley from TRW Microelectronics. They also hired Jerry Bresee, a chief process engineer from Tektronix, who developed a semiconductor process far superior to what they were able to access from the Fairchild R&D processing services department, with the exception of nitride passivation for low 1/f noise, a technology known by the founders from Fairchild. In 1969 Dooley designed the first fully integrated D/A converter (DAC), the 6-bit DAC01, using diffused resistors. He recruited his thin film technician with precision resistor fabrication skills that were essential for improving the accuracy of DACs, which became the biggest-selling type of product that helped launch the company. Semiconductor and materials engineer Wadie Khadder was hired with founder stock from Fairchild to support Bresee in both semiconductor process engineering and also the critical precision thin film technology initially needed for producing high accuracy 2-chip D/A converters.

PMI pioneered the design and manufacture of the first 10-bit semiconductor IC DACs on the market. In March 1970, during the IEEE Annual Convention in New York, PMI caused a major stir in engineering circles by introducing the aimDac100, the first 10-bit 2-chip DAC in a DIP semiconductor package. Not only was it far more compact and reliable than the modules that were state of the art at that time, but it provided 10-bit accuracy over the full military temperature range. The MonoDac01 was used by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (priced at $200 each) for their first Moon probe. By 1972 Dooley and Bresee, PMI's chief process engineer who developed process uniformity never before seen in the semiconductor industry, combined to design and produce a full 10 bit D/A converter on a single chip, the monoDac02. At that point PMI's linear process uniformity and products capitalizing on that uniformity put PMI in a class by itself. It would be several years before any other company could match the Dac-02.

Bresee's superior processes, and George Erdi's outstanding design expertise enabled PMI to establish itself as a superior source of linear amplifiers, including operational amplifiers, some of which garnered U.S. patents. By superior layout and circuit design made possible by Bresee's and Khadders superior process uniformity, transistor performance, and surface passivation, Erdi was able to design and achieve breakthrough advances in micro-power amplifiers with both low input offset and 1/f noise voltage, rivaling many chopper amplifiers formerly used exclusively for microvolt input amplifiers. An industry milestone was the OP07, which was the first internally compensated, three-stage operational amplifier. It pioneered active base current cancellation and offset trimming, using Erdi's patented Zener-zapping technique. Erdi and other PMI engineers later expanded their efforts to include high-precision voltage references and additional mixed-signal semiconductors for data acquisition, data conversion, and telecommunications.

PMI also bought Solid State Micro Technology. Erdi and Khadder left PMI in 1981 to co-found Linear Technology. PMI was founded with financing from Bourns, Inc., which held 70% of the shares and 30% was stock purchased at a nominal price by the founders. Ultimately, all shares were purchased by Bourns to make PMI a wholly owned subsidiary, PMI was finally bought by Analog Devices in August 1990.

Many of PMI's converters, amplifiers, voltage references, and other linear ICs (including the REF0x and OP0x series) continue to be manufactured and marketed by Analog Devices, which currently maintain the largest share of the precision linear market (ADI sales = $2.5B, Maxim = $2.1B, Linear Technology = $1.1B).

## InfoBox

Precision Monolithics, Inc.
|
|  |
| Industry | Semiconductors |
| Founded | 1969 (1969) |
| Founders | * Marv Rudin * Garth Wilson |
| Defunct | 1990 (1990) |
| Fate | Acquired by Analog Devices |
| Successor | Analog Devices |
| Headquarters | Santa Clara, California, U.S. |
| Products | Linear integrated circuits |


title: Premio Elena e Sergio Cumani

abstract: The Premio Elena e Sergio Cumani is a Group 3 flat horse race in Italy open to thoroughbred fillies and mares aged three years or older. It is run at Milan over a distance of 1,600 metres, and it is scheduled to take place each year in September or October. The event is named in memory of Sergio Cumani, a ten-time champion trainer in Italy, and his wife Elena. It was formerly known as the Premio Bagutta, and for several years it was called the Premio Bagutta Memorial Sergio Cumani before being renamed the Premio Sergio Cumani. Elena Cumani's name was added to the title from the 2015 running.

text:
# Premio Elena e Sergio Cumani

The **Premio Elena e Sergio Cumani** is a Group 3 flat horse race in Italy open to thoroughbred fillies and mares aged three years or older. It is run at Milan over a distance of 1,600 metres (about 1 mile), and it is scheduled to take place each year in September or October.

The event is named in memory of Sergio Cumani, a ten-time champion trainer in Italy, and his wife Elena. It was formerly known as the Premio Bagutta, and for several years it was called the Premio Bagutta Memorial Sergio Cumani before being renamed the Premio Sergio Cumani. Elena Cumani's name was added to the title from the 2015 running.

## Records

**Most successful horse since 1979:**

* *no horse has won this race more than once since 1979*

---

**Leading jockey since 1988 (2 wins):**

* Richard Quinn*Buckwig (1988), Welsh Diva (2002)*
* Stefano Landi – *Senebrova (1995), Desert Quiet (2006)*
* Mirco Demuro*Marbye (2003), Khor Sheed (2011)*
* Cristian Demuro*Nova Hawk (2012), Silver Step (2016)*

---

**Leading trainer since 1989 (2 wins):**

## Winners since 1989

| Year | Winner | Age | Jockey | Trainer | Time |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1989 | Rosa de Caerleon | 3 | Sergio Dettori | Ubaldo Pandolfi | 1:40.50 |
| 1990 | Evening Kiss | 3 | Éric Legrix | Robert Collet | 1:47.40 |
| 1991 | Blue Daisy | 3 | Johnny Murtagh | John Oxx | 1:41.50 |
| 1992 | Siddharta | 4 | Santiago Soto | Gianfranco Verricelli | 1:47.80 |
| 1993 | Penny Drops | 4 | David Harrison | Lord Huntingdon | 1:52.50 |
| 1994 | Ardana | 3 | Armando Corniani | Armando Renzoni | 1:46.60 |
| 1995 | Senebrova | 4 | Stefano Landi | Valfredo Valiani | 1:39.10 |
| 1996 | Lara | 4 | Andrasch Starke | Bruno Schütz | 1:43.30 |
| 1997 | She Bat | 3 | Carlo Fiocchi | Vittorio Caruso | 1:37.40 |
| 1998 | Miss Carolina | 4 | Vincenzo Mezzatesta | Luigi Camici | 1:44.90 |
| 1999 | Alabaq | 3 | Michael Hills | John Dunlop | 1:37.50 |
| 2000 | Proudwings | 4 | Andreas Helfenbein | Ralf Suerland | 1:45.40 |
| 2001 | Toroca | 3 | Michael Kinane | Aidan O'Brien | 1:47.60 |
| 2002 | Welsh Diva | 3 | Richard Quinn | Amanda Perrett | 1:42.80 |
| 2003 | Marbye | 3 | Mirco Demuro | Bruno Grizzetti | 1:38.80 |
| 2004 | Snow Goose | 3 | Jimmy Fortune | John Dunlop | 1:40.80 |
| 2005 | Needlecraft | 3 | Frankie Dettori | Henri-Alex Pantall | 1:42.00 |
| 2006 | Desert Quiet | 4 | Stefano Landi | Pierluigi Giannotti | 1:39.90 |
| 2007 | Whazzis | 3 | Ryan Moore | William Haggas | 1:39.60 |
| 2008 | *no race* \[a\] |  |  |  |  |
| 2009 | Ravenel | 3 | Mario Esposito | Ralf Rohne | 1:39.40 |
| 2010 | Sajjhaa | 3 | Neil Callan | Michael Jarvis | 1:38.20 |
| 2011 | Khor Sheed | 3 | Mirco Demuro | Luca Cumani | 1:35.30 |
| 2012 | Nova Hawk | 4 | Cristian Demuro | Rod Collet | 1:38.90 |
| 2013 | Killachy Loose | 4 | Dario Vargiu | Bruno Grizzetti | 1:35.80 |
| 2014 | Ming Zhi Cosmos | 3 | Thierry Thulliez | Nicolas Clément | 1:40.50 |
| 2015 | Victoria Regina | 4 | Gregory Benoist | Henri-François Devin | 1:37.70 |
| 2016 | Silver Step | 3 | Cristian Demuro | Pia Brandt | 1:34.60 |
| 2017 | Candy Store | 3 | Dario Vargiu | Stefano Botti | 1:36.10 |
| 2018 | Binti Al Nar | 3 | Alexis Badel | Peter Schiergen | 1:36.10 |
| 2019 | Style Presa | 4 | Cristian Demuro | Rod Collet | 1:34.00 |
| 2020 | Party Goer | 5 | Antonio Fresu | Endo Botti | 1:36.20 |
| 2021 | Flamingo Girl\[b\] | 4 | Fabio Branca | Henk Grewe | 1:38.20 |
| 2022 | Random Harvest | 4 | Saffie Osborne | Ed Walker | 1:39.90 |

**a**  The 2008 running was cancelled because of a strike.
**b**  The 2021 races took place at Capannelle.

## Earlier winners

* 1979: Luisa Morales
* 1980: La Vreeland
* 1981: Holga
* 1982: Dewanadance
* 1983: Lina Cavalieri
* 1984: Royal Lorna
* 1985: English Spring
* 1986: Saint Samba
* 1987: Russian Lady
* 1988: Buckwig

---

## InfoBox

Premio Elena e Sergio Cumani
| Group 3 race | |
| --- | --- |
| Location | San Siro Racecourse
Milan, Italy |
| Race type | Flat / Thoroughbred |
| Website | San Siro |
| Race information | |
| Distance | 1,600 metres (1 mile) |
| Surface | Turf |
| Track | Right-handed |
| Qualification | Three-years-old and up
fillies and mares |
| Weight | 55 kg (3yo); 57 kg (4yo+)
**Penalties**
3 kg for Group 1 winners *
2 kg for Group 2 winners *
1 kg for Group 3 winners *
* *since January 1* |
| Purse | €77,000 *(2016)*
**1st:** €23,800 |


title: Premio Gardel for Album of the Year

abstract: The Premio Gardel for Album of the Year is an award given to the best Argentine albums recorded during the previous year within the scope of the Premios Gardel, a ceremony established in 1999 and originally known as the Carlos Gardel Awards. It is awarded in an annual celebration of Argentine music organized by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF), and "includes albums corresponding to solo artists, duos or groups, vocal or instrumental that were nominated in the categories". The winning album receives the Gardel de Oro award, a golden version of the trophy. Initially, the Album of the Year category and the Gardel de Oro distinction were awarded separately. Later, since the 2003 edition, the golden version of the trophy is awarded to the winner of the album of the year. Until then, it was awarded by a specialized jury for the musical excellence of the artist, but since that year journalists from all musical genres, producers, musicians and specialists participate by voting in the election of the winner, for which they take as a point of evaluation the album.

text:
# Premio Gardel for Album of the Year

The **Premio Gardel for Album of the Year** is an award given to the best Argentine albums recorded during the previous year within the scope of the Premios Gardel, a ceremony established in 1999 and originally known as the Carlos Gardel Awards. It is awarded in an annual celebration of Argentine music organized by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF), and "includes albums corresponding to solo artists, duos or groups, vocal or instrumental that were nominated in the categories".

The winning album receives the **Gardel de Oro** award, a golden version of the trophy. Initially, the Album of the Year category and the Gardel de Oro distinction were awarded separately. Later, since the 2003 edition, the golden version of the trophy is awarded to the winner of the album of the year. Until then, it was awarded by a specialized jury for the musical excellence of the artist, but since that year journalists from all musical genres, producers, musicians and specialists participate by voting in the election of the winner, for which they take as a point of evaluation the album.

## Recipients

| Year | Winner(s) | Album | Nominees | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1999 | Mercedes Sosa | *Al despertar* |  |  |
| 2000 | Los Nocheros | *Signos* |  |  |
| 2001 | Divididos | *Narigón del siglo* |  |  |
| 2002 | Diego Torres | *Un Mundo Diferente* |  |  |
| 2003 | Charly García | *Influencia* |  |  |
| 2004 | Babasónicos | *Infame* |  |  |
| 2005 | Bersuit Vergarabat | *La Argentinidad al Palo* |  |  |
| 2006 | Andrés Calamaro | *El regreso* |  |  |
| 2007 | Gustavo Cerati | *Ahí vamos* |  |  |
| 2008 | Andrés Calamaro | *La lengua popular* |  |  |
| 2009 | Luis Alberto Spinetta | *Un mañana* |  |  |
| 2010 | Gustavo Cerati | *Fuerza natural* |  |  |
| 2011 | Divididos | *Amapola del 66* |  |  |
| 2012 | Escalandrum | *Piazzolla Plays Piazzolla* |  |  |
| 2013 | Abel Pintos | *Sueño dorado* |  |  |
| 2014 | Abel Pintos | *Abel* |  |  |
| 2015 | Axel | *Tus ojos, mis ojos* |  |  |
| 2016 | Luis Alberto Spinetta | *Los amigo* |  |  |
| 2017 | Abel Pintos | *11* |  |  |
| 2018 | Charly García | *Random* |  |  |
| 2019 | Marilina Bertoldi | *Prender un fuego* |  |  |
| 2020 | David Lebón | *Lebón & Co.* |  |  |
| 2021 | Fito Páez | *La conquista del espacio* |  |  |
| 2022 | Wos | *Oscuro éxtasis* |  |  |
| 2023 | Trueno | *Bien o mal* |  |  |
|

## InfoBox

| Premio Gardel<br>for Album of the Year | |
| --- | --- |
| Awarded for | Albums |
| Country | Argentina |
| Presented by | Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers |
| First awarded | 1999 |
| Currently held by | *Bien o Mal* by Trueno |
| Most awards |  |
| Most nominations | Babasónicos (8) |
| Website | Official website |


title: PrimeWay Federal Credit Union

abstract: PrimeWay Federal Credit Union is an American credit union based in Houston, Texas. It is federally insured, federally chartered, and member-owned, not-for-profit financial cooperative. As of 2020, PrimeWay Federal Credit Union served over 48,000 members and managed assets of more than $655 million. PrimeWay Federal Credit Union operates 8 locations in the Houston area. PrimeWay Federal Credit Union is insured by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), is an Equal Housing Lender and a member of the Better Business Bureau.

text:
# PrimeWay Federal Credit Union

**PrimeWay Federal Credit Union** is an American credit union based in Houston, Texas. It is federally insured, federally chartered, and member-owned, not-for-profit financial cooperative.

As of 2020, PrimeWay Federal Credit Union served over 48,000 members and managed assets of more than $655 million. PrimeWay Federal Credit Union operates 8 locations in the Houston area .

PrimeWay Federal Credit Union is insured by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), is an Equal Housing Lender and a member of the Better Business Bureau.

## History

The credit union was organized in April 1937 as *Houston Telephone Federal Credit Union* to serve the employees of Southwestern Bell in the Houston area. In April 2003, the name was officially changed to PrimeWay Federal Credit Union. The name change was prompted by credit union growth and diversification of membership.

In 2004, PrimeWay Federal Credit Union was granted a community charter under the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA).

## Community Involvement

### Educator and Student Scholarships

Each year, PrimeWay Federal Credit Union awards $10,500 in scholarship money to deserving students who have excelled in the classroom. PrimeWay offers a $1,500 Student Scholarship to a PrimeWay Student Account member applicant. In addition, four additional scholarships are awarded to exceptional students in Houston, Harris, Fort Bend or Washington County: 1) One student is awarded the Dale Roberts scholarship worth $2,500 2) One student is awarded the Luker Leadership scholarship worth $2500 3) One student is awarded the PrimeWay Foundation Community scholarship worth $2,500 and 4) One student is award the PrimeWay Art scholarship worth $1,500. To learn more, visit https://www.primewayfcu.com/youth-banking-accounts/student-scholarships.

### PrimeWay Foundation

The PrimeWay Foundation provides scholarships and grants to 501(c)(3) organizations that provide resources to improve health and education. Founded in November 2019, the PrimeWay Foundation places a priority on those organizations that help provide for children and preparing them for their future. To learn more, visit primewayfoundation.org.

### The Houston SPCA

In 2013, PrimeWay Federal Credit Union teamed up with The Houston SPCA to help give orphaned, abused and neglected animals a second chance at life. To further promote the cause, PrimeWay donated over $2,500 to help with the organization’s mission of freeing animals from suffering, abuse and exploitation. PrimeWay also paid the adoption fee for each animal that was adopted during the Adoption Day.

## InfoBox

PrimeWay Federal Credit Union
|
|  |
| Company type | Credit union |
| Industry | Financial services |
| Predecessor | Houston Telephone Federal Credit Union |
| Founded | 1937 (1937) |
| Headquarters | Houston, Texas, United States |
| Number of locations | 6 branches |
| Services | Auto Loans, Business Loans, Checking, Consumer Loans, Credit Cards, Direct Deposit, Financial Planning, Home Equity Loans, Investments, Mortgage Loans, Online Banking, Overdraft Protection, Personal and Business Account Services, Savings, Secured Loans, Personal Loans |
| Website | www.primewayfcu.com |


title: Pretoria FM

abstract: Pretoria FM, formerly Radio Pretoria is an Afrikaans community-based radio station in Pretoria, South Africa. It broadcasts 24 hours a day in stereo on 104.2 FM in the greater Pretoria area. Various other transmitters in South Africa broadcast the station's content further afield, while the station is also available on Sentech's digital satellite platform. The station was founded seven months before the 1994 elections. From the start, it identified itself as a radio station for the Afrikaans speaking community. For a brief period, it broadcast informally from a makeshift studio east of Pretoria. Broadcasts were made possible with the help of among others, retired SABC employees. Post-1994, Radio Pretoria struggled for years to secure a permanent broadcasting license from the ANC government.

text:
# Pretoria FM

**Pretoria FM**, formerly *Radio Pretoria* is an Afrikaans community-based radio station in Pretoria, South Africa. It broadcasts 24 hours a day in stereo on 104.2 FM in the greater Pretoria area. Various other transmitters (with their own frequencies) in South Africa broadcast the station's content further afield, while the station is also available on Sentech's digital satellite platform. The station was founded seven months before the 1994 elections. From the start, it identified itself as a radio station for the Afrikaans speaking community. For a brief period, it broadcast informally from a makeshift studio east of Pretoria. Broadcasts were made possible with the help of among others, retired SABC employees. Post-1994, Radio Pretoria struggled for years to secure a permanent broadcasting license from the ANC government.

## History

### Pretoria FM's history and background (1993–2021)

(Established in 1994, available in 6 out of 9 provinces)

Pretoria FM is an Afrikaans community radio station in Pretoria and was established on 18 September 1993. Pretoria FM has 12 board members who are appointed annually by members of the company. Any member of the public can apply for membership and thus also have a say in what happens over the air. A turnaround strategy was launched by the board of directors in 2011 with the aim of expanding Pretoria FM to a professional Afrikaans station in all areas and the outcome of this was very successful. Pretoria FM has one of the largest and strongest non-state broadcasting networks, which is further complemented by internet and satellite technology and which makes it a radio station with great potential.

## Rebranding to Pretoria FM

In May 2013 at the MTN Radio Awards, Radio Pretoria was crowned as the radio station with the most loyal listeners. This achievement was repeated in and once again in 2021. On 9 May 2015, it was reported that, following 17 months of negotiations between the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) and Pretoria FM, ICASA agreed to issue new community radio licences to Pretoria FM and eight other community radio stations which broadcast under the Pretoria banner in the five northern provinces of South Africa, being Radio Drakensberg, Radio Dagbreek, Radio Magaliesberg, Radio Tafelkop, Radio Naboom, Radio Kransberg, Radio Ysterberg and Radio Wolkberg.

On 20 July 2015, the erstwhile Radio Pretoria announced its renaming as **Pretoria FM**. The aforesaid eight community radio stations would also be broadcasting under the Pretoria FM brand. On 6 March 2021, Pretoria FM introduced a new transmitter on the frequency 107.9FM, servicing Rustenburg, Brits, Marikana, Mooinooi, Kroondal, Broederstroom and parts of Hartbeespoort.

The station's acting chief executive officer is Hennie Koortzen.

## Transmitters

Pretoria FM operates 8 transmitters in towns in Gauteng, Limpopo, Free State, Mpumalanga, North West and KwaZulu-Natal. On the farm Kleinfontein just east of Pretoria, there is a 100m mast transmitting on 104.2 MHz.

## Broadcast languages

## Broadcast time

## Coverage areas

* Gauteng
* Limpopo
* Free State
* Mpumalanga
* North West
* Parts of KZN
* Also countrywide via satellite

## Target audience

* Educated
* Working class
* LSM 6–10
* Age Group 25 to 50+
* Female 56%, Male 44%

## Format

## InfoBox

Pretoria FM
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| * Pretoria | |
| Broadcast area | Gauteng, North West, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal |
| Frequency | 104.2 FM |
| Programming | |
| Language(s) | Afrikaans |
| Links | |
| Website |  |


title: Presbyterian Chapel, Rossett

abstract: The Presbyterian Chapel, Rossett, is on Station Road, in Rossett, Wrexham County Borough, Wales. It continues to be active as a Welsh Presbyterian church. The church was built in 1875 to a design by the Chester architect John Douglas. It has lancet windows and a flèche which is tiered at its base. At the end of the gable is a timber porch.

text:
# Presbyterian Chapel, Rossett

The **Presbyterian Chapel, Rossett**, is on Station Road, in Rossett, Wrexham County Borough, Wales. It continues to be active as a Welsh Presbyterian church.

The church was built in 1875 to a design by the Chester architect John Douglas. It has lancet windows and a flèche which is tiered at its base. At the end of the gable is a timber porch.

## InfoBox

| Presbyterian Chapel, Rossett | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 53°06′27″N 2°57′09″W / 53.1076°N 2.9524°W / 53.1076; -2.9524 | |
| OS grid reference | SJ 363 571 |
| Location | Station Road, Rossett,<br>Wrexham County Borough |
| Country | Wales |
| Denomination | Presbyterian Church of Wales |
| Architecture | |
| Architect(s) | John Douglas |
| Architectural type | Chapel |
| Style | Gothic Revival |
| Completed | 1875 |