title: Jack Baymoore & the Bandits

abstract: Jack Baymoore & the Bandits was a Swedish rockabilly group established by Jack Baymoore, a rock vocalist in 1997. Prior to Jack Baymoore & the Bandits, Baymoore (Vikmo) had another band project Blackout where he had released with them Stop That Clock. Baymoore has also made a number of tribute projects. Very notably he was in the Johnny Cash tribute band Tennessee Drifters. He also played tribute gigs singing Elvis Presley song and has appeared in a number of rockabilly compilations.

text:
# Jack Baymoore & the Bandits

**Jack Baymoore & the Bandits** was a Swedish rockabilly group established by **Jack Baymoore** (aka Kent Vikmo), a rock vocalist in 1997. Prior to Jack Baymoore & the Bandits, Baymoore (Vikmo) had another band project Blackout where he had released with them *Stop That Clock*.

Baymoore has also made a number of tribute projects. Very notably he was in the Johnny Cash tribute band Tennessee Drifters. He also played tribute gigs singing Elvis Presley song and has appeared in a number of rockabilly compilations.

## Members

* Jack Baymoore – vocals
* Antti Pihkanen – guitar
* Jyrki "JJ" Juvonen – guitar and steel guitar
* Jan Larsson – double bass
* Tage Pihkanen – drums

## Discography

Jack Baymoore & the Bandits

| Year | Album | Peak positions | Certification |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | SWE | |
| 1997 | *Roarin Down the Track* |  |  |
|
| 1999 | *A-V8 Boogie* |  |  |
| | *Big Boys Rock* |  |  |
| 2003 | *Diggin' Out* |  |  |
| 2003 | *Let's Drag* | 8 |  |
|

Blackout albums * 1993: *Stop That Clock*


title: Rapture (BioShock)

abstract: Rapture is a fictional city-state in the BioShock series published by 2K Games. It is an underwater city that is the main setting for the games BioShock and BioShock 2. The city also briefly appears in BioShock Infinite, and is featured in its downloadable content, Burial at Sea. The game's back-story describes the city as envisioned by business tycoon Andrew Ryan in the mid-late 1940s as a means to create a utopia for mankind's greatest artists and thinkers to prosper in a laissez-faire environment outside of increasing oppression by the world's governments and religion. However, the lack of government led to severe wealth disparity, a powerful black market, and unrestricted genetic modification, which turned the city into a dystopia exacerbated by Ryan's tyrannical methods to maintain control. The masses turned towards political activists like Atlas who advocated an uprising of the poor against Ryan and the elite of Rapture; and on the eve of 1959, a civil war broke out, leaving much of Rapture's population dead. The remaining citizens either became psychotic "Splicers" due to the effects of ADAM, a substance that can alter genetic material, or have barricaded themselves from the Splicers to protect themselves, leaving the city to fail and fall apart around them. The player first experiences Rapture in BioShock, in 1960, a year after the fateful riots, as a man named Jack that has come to Rapture after a plane accident over the mid-Atlantic Ocean where the city was located; during this, the player comes to learn more about Ryan's motives and those that he struggled against to keep the city's ideals until the very end. In BioShock 2, the player takes the role of a "Big Daddy", a heavily modified humanoid in an armored diving suit, designed to maintain the city, and would soon come to serve the purpose of protecting the Little Sisters as they collect ADAM from "Angels", which are dead bodies that harbor significant amounts of ADAM; this takes place eight years after the events of the first game, and while Ryan has been killed, there remain those that vie for the vacuum left in his position of power. Rapture makes a brief appearance near the climax of BioShock Infinite, which is otherwise set in a different dystopian city, Columbia. Downloadable content for Infinite is set in Rapture on New Year's Eve 1959, a year before the events of the first BioShock and on the day of the civil war.

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# Rapture (BioShock)

**Rapture** is a fictional city-state in the *BioShock* series published by 2K Games. It is an underwater city that is the main setting for the games *BioShock* and *BioShock 2*. The city also briefly appears in *BioShock Infinite*, and is featured in its downloadable content, *Burial at Sea*. The game's back-story describes the city as envisioned by business tycoon Andrew Ryan in the mid-late 1940s as a means to create a utopia for mankind's greatest artists and thinkers to prosper in a laissez-faire environment outside of increasing oppression by the world's governments and religion. However, the lack of government led to severe wealth disparity, a powerful black market, and unrestricted genetic modification, which turned the city into a dystopia exacerbated by Ryan's tyrannical methods to maintain control. The masses turned towards political activists like Atlas who advocated an uprising of the poor against Ryan and the elite of Rapture; and on the eve of 1959, a civil war broke out, leaving much of Rapture's population dead. The remaining citizens either became psychotic "Splicers" due to the effects of ADAM, a substance that can alter genetic material, or have barricaded themselves from the Splicers to protect themselves, leaving the city to fail and fall apart around them.

The player first experiences Rapture in *BioShock*, in 1960, a year after the fateful riots, as a man named Jack that has come to Rapture after a plane accident over the mid-Atlantic Ocean where the city was located; during this, the player comes to learn more about Ryan's motives and those that he struggled against to keep the city's ideals until the very end. In *BioShock 2*, the player takes the role of a "Big Daddy", a heavily modified humanoid in an armored diving suit, designed to maintain the city, and would soon come to serve the purpose of protecting the Little Sisters as they collect ADAM from "Angels", which are dead bodies that harbor significant amounts of ADAM; this takes place eight years after the events of the first game, and while Ryan has been killed, there remain those that vie for the vacuum left in his position of power.

Rapture makes a brief appearance near the climax of *BioShock Infinite*, which is otherwise set in a different dystopian city, Columbia. Downloadable content for *Infinite* is set in Rapture on New Year's Eve 1959, a year before the events of the first *BioShock* and on the day of the civil war.

## Concept and creation

The concept of Rapture was the brainchild of Ken Levine, founding member and creative director of Irrational Games, (briefly renamed 2K Boston just prior to *BioShock*'s release, but later returned to their former name). Ken Levine had studied the works of Ayn Rand, George Orwell, and Aldous Huxley and other works of utopian and dystopian societies as part of his liberal arts degree. He had also had fascination with the story of *Logan's Run*. Levine also considered the nature of the horror genre, noting works such as *The Shining* where there is the need for a feeling of loss for the horror to be effective. Rapture's Art Deco architecture was heavily inspired by the locations and buildings of New York City, like the Rockefeller Center. Gotham City from the Batman universe also served as inspiration. Shawn Robertson stated that Art Deco fit really well into *BioShock's* budget, as the finished Art Deco models had large and simple solid shapes and were low poly. Rapture features a vast number of various artwork, and advertisements for businesses within the city, of which many were inspired by real-world vintage advertisements.

### Big Daddy

Conceived of early on as a man encased in a diving suit, the Big Daddy was designed to have "that hulking metal feel of an underwater protector, so solid not even a shotgun blast could knock him off his feet." While the concept remained the same of an AI character that protected the "gatherer" AI characters in the title, many ideas were considered for their mobility and execution, including a wheelchair mounted version. As the designs for the individual types evolved, intricate details of the actual diving suit were worked out piece by piece, using the concept that the suits would be constructed from salvaged parts of the city. Developer Ken Levine noted that with the concept of the gatherers as little girls, it allowed the team to explore the protector role of the character and demonstrate it in a way to appeal to a real-world relationship for the player.

Two versions of the Big Daddy are present in *BioShock*: the 'Rosie' and the 'Bouncer'. Initial drafts of the Rosie model featured it encased in a light atmospheric diving suit with a singular hole for viewing through the helmet, as well as missing its left forearm and hand, replaced with a hook and pulley supported by cables attached to the stump. Later designs restored the arm, adding a rivet gun, heavy oxygen tanks mounted on both shoulders and a squid-like tentacle extending from each shoulder. The completed design remained similar, removing the tentacles and reducing the oxygen tanks to a singular one positioned on its back, angled towards its right shoulder. The Rosie's rivet gun itself went through progressive design improvements, with the intent of making it "more fleshed out and threatening".

The Bouncer model of Big Daddy featured it encased in a heavier diving suit than the Rosie, with the helmet more heavily armored and having multiple smaller holes for viewing. Several ideas were considered for weaponry, originally consisting of a wrist mounted fan-blade on the right arm and a hand-held double hook in the left hand. These were replaced by hand mounted grinders attached to each arm and an added oxygen tank angled over the left shoulder. The weaponry was changed in the finalized design to a heavy drill over the right hand, with an engine and exhaust for it positioned over the right shoulder.

A third model, dubbed "Slow Pro FUM" by the development team, was excluded from the game. Standing for "slow-moving, projectile-shooting, f'ed-up-melee", this Big Daddy was intended as a slow, ranged type that would center itself and fire a heavy projectile at enemies via a large arm-mounted cannon. Despite being designed for range, the developers noted its melee attacks were intended to be just as powerful. In an interview with GameTrailers' "Bonus Round", *BioShock* designers Bill Gardner and Hogarth De La Plante highlighted it as an aspect cut from the game late in development, and one they would have most liked to have kept out of all the cut content for the title. *BioShock 2* formally introduced the opponent as the "Rumbler", its weaponry altered to include a rocket launcher and the ability to deploy mini-turrets around an area.

In *BioShock 2*, players are given control of Subject Delta, the first Big Daddy to be successfully paired with a Little Sister. The designs wanted it to have a rough-draft appearance and look like a "work in progress", while incorporating elements of the later models. As a result, several concepts were considered, combining the parts of the Rosie and Bouncer models, before the developers settled on an appearance more akin to the former, but retaining the heavy drill of the latter. In the *Protector Trials* DLC, the player plays as an unknown Alpha Series Big Daddy and in the *Minerva's Den* DLC the player plays as Subject Sigma.

## Description

Rapture is an underwater city, located in the north Atlantic Ocean somewhere between Greenland and Iceland. It is only accessible by a system of bathyspheres. The city was designed to be self-sufficient, growing and raising its own crops as well as using the surrounding sea life for food, and taking advantage of submarine volcanoes to provide geothermal power to its population. The city consists of many "skyscrapers", inter-linked by walkways and tunnels, with watertight doors between neighboring sections to isolate areas from the rest of the city should they ever become flooded. The buildings, both inside and out, feature a distinctive Art Deco design motif, reflecting the era during which they were built (the mid-late 1940s). In addition to living quarters, Rapture features shopping areas, entertainment venues, laboratories, manufacturing plants, medical facilities, and other common services provided by a functional city.

Though Rapture was built as a utopia for creative individuals to flourish, the city soon became a dystopia. Part of the downfall of Rapture was the discovery of ADAM, stem cells harvested from a previously unknown species of sea slug. Scientists in Rapture found that ADAM could be used to overwrite the human genome, allowing its users to literally "splice" super powers (such as telekinesis) into their DNA. The lead scientist, Dr. Brigid Tenenbaum, discovered that ADAM could be mass-produced by implanting the sea slug in the stomachs of young orphaned girls, who came to be known as "Little Sisters". The implantation process only worked on female children for an unknown reason. As Rapture began to fall into social chaos, in part due to the mental instability that came about from increased ADAM use, the Little Sisters were mentally reconditioned to extract ADAM from the dead and recycle it. In order to protect the girls from ADAM-hungry lunatics, Dr. Suchong generated genetically modified humans in armored diving suits, and assigned them to protect a specific Little Sister. These beings became known as "Big Daddies".

When the player experiences the city, roughly one/ten years after the collapse of its society (one year in *BioShock*, ten years in *BioShock 2*), the majority of Rapture's population is dead; the few that survive have either become psychotic "Splicers", or survivors that have barricaded themselves from the Splicers. While most of the city's automated systems still operate, large swaths of the city have become flooded, while others have been damaged beyond repair, either as a result of the bloody civil war that tore Rapture apart, or as a consequence of the Splicers' ADAM-induced psychotic episodes. ADAM harvesting Little Sisters, accompanied by their Big Daddy protectors, continue to wander Rapture during the player's experiences in the city.

## History

Rapture was formally founded on November 5, 1946.

As described in the games' backstory and through in-game audio recordings, the city of Rapture was envisioned by the Randian business magnate Andrew Ryan, who wanted to create a laissez-faire state with no ties to the rest of the world to escape what he saw as increasingly oppressive political, economic, and religious authority on land. The city was fully completed in 1951. Scientific progress flourished in Rapture, leading to rapid developments in engineering and biotechnology, such as the invention of ADAM, thanks in part to the brilliant scientists that Ryan brought to the city.

Though residents were hand-picked for their success on the surface, as time passed, the gap between rich and poor increased. This was exploited by Frank Fontaine, a businessman in charge of the plasmid industry who secretly established an illegal smuggling ring with the outside world while simultaneously creating charitable organizations to manipulate the underclass. A violent attempt to overthrow Ryan reportedly killed Fontaine, but the player's experience in *BioShock* reveals that Fontaine survived, disguising himself as the proletarian hero 'Atlas'. On New Year's Eve of 1959, Fontaine/Atlas and his ADAM-infused followers began a new revolt against Ryan, targeting a masquerade party hosted by the city-famous Kashmir Restaurant, that spread throughout Rapture. Ryan in turn began splicing his own forces, and his paranoia had reached such a level he was hanging dozens of people, mostly innocent, in Rapture's Apollo Square. As the war disrupted production and supply, every ADAM user in the city eventually went violently insane. By the end of the 1959 revolt, Ryan's utopia had become a dystopia, and only a handful of non-mutated humans survive in barricaded hideouts.

In the events of *BioShock*, Jack, the player-controlled protagonist, ends up in Rapture after a plane crash in the middle of the ocean leaves him close to the city's bathysphere surface terminus. In the course of the game, it is learned that Jack is Ryan's illegitimate son, and was purposely brought to Rapture to be used as a cat's paw against the founder by Fontaine/Atlas. When Jack finally meets Ryan, the latter is well aware of Jack's identity and mental conditioning, and orders Jack to kill him, ending his life on his own terms and rejecting the control Fontaine has over his son. Fontaine leaves Jack to die, but he is rescued by Tenenbaum and her Little Sisters, and together they attack and kill Fontaine.

In the power void left by the deaths of Ryan's and Fontaine, a previously disgraced public figure named Sofia Lamb seizes power in the following decade. In contrast to Ryan's belief of empowering the individual, Lamb's ideals are favoring the collective, and she is able to build "The Family", a cult-like following of the remaining citizens of Rapture to achieve her goals. During the events of *BioShock 2* (which takes place ten years after the events of the first game), the player takes the role of the first prototype Big Daddy, Subject Delta, as Lamb's plans progress to their final completion to extend The Family to the surface. The destinies of Delta, Lamb, and Eleanor, Lamb's daughter and Delta's original Little Sister, are determined by the player's action during the game, though the endings involve escaping a section of Rapture flooded by Lamb. The fate of Rapture is left open after the completion of the game.

More details about the origins of Rapture are provided in the novel *BioShock: Rapture*, a prequel novel by John Shirley, released in 2011. The novel tells the backstory of the creation of Rapture, the underwater city's deterioration, and the civil war following the coming of plasmids. The novel ends shortly before the story in the first BioShock game begins. The novel was originally called *BioShock: the Rise and Fall of the Ryan Empire*.

The *Burial at Sea* downloadable content expansion for *Bioshock Infinite* explores a series of events that lead to the Rapture civil war. The story follows Elizabeth as she approaches Booker DeWitt, who works as a private investigator in Rapture, to investigate the disappearance of a young girl named Sally. Elizabeth claims that Sally is alive, and that a local artist named Sander Cohen may have information regarding her whereabouts. Throughout the course of the DLC, many details surrounding Atlas' rebellion, the link between Rapture and the floating city of Columbia, and the origin of the bond between Big Daddies and Little Sisters are revealed.

In *BioShock*, which took place in 1960 (a mere year after the civil war began), extensive internal damage from the war and flooding is seen. In 1968, as seen in *BioShock 2*, the damage is far more widespread, and many buildings have been fully flooded and collapsed. Without Sofia Lamb following the events of *BioShock 2*, the lack of sane people left in the city indicates that the power vacuum left by her was never filled, and the remaining Splicers likely lived in a state of anarchy and chaos before dying. By the time of the investigative report in *There's Something in the Sea* (the 1980s) it is unlikely anything was left of Rapture. Though it was never explicitly stated, the Splicers had likely all died and Rapture's buildings had fully collapsed by the 21st century, leaving nothing but a ruined heap of aluminum on the ocean floor where the once shining utopian city stood.

## Reception

In reviews for *BioShock*, many reviewers praised the representation of Rapture. Charles Herold of *The New York Times* wrote that the city was "a fascinating creation" and that there was something "both wonderful and disturbing" in exploring the ruins of Andrew Ryan's creation.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Rapture | |
| --- | --- |
| *BioShock* location | |
| Screenshot from the 2007 video game *BioShock* | |
| First appearance | *BioShock* |
| Created by | Irrational Games |
| Genre | First-person shooter |
| In-universe information | |
| Type | Underwater city |
| Location | Mid-Atlantic Ocean |


title: Morayfield Plantation

abstract: Morayfield Plantation is a heritage-listed ruins of a sugarcane plantation at 34 Nolan Drive, Morayfield, City of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. It was built in circa 1860s. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 13 May 2011.

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# Morayfield Plantation

**Morayfield Plantation** is a heritage-listed ruins of a sugarcane plantation at 34 Nolan Drive, Morayfield, City of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. It was built in circa 1860s. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 13 May 2011.

## History

In 1866, the Morayfield Plantation was established on the southern bank of the Caboolture River, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of Brisbane. The plantation was owned by George Raff, a former member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, prominent Brisbane businessman and supporter of the use of indentured South Sea Islander labour in the sugar industry. Cane was grown at Morayfield for the production of sugar, rum and molasses between 1866 and 1889. Raff employed many South Sea Islander labourers in the cane fields during this period. Cane cultivation (and all related production) ceased around 1885-6. Raff died in 1889, with the plantation eventually sold for conversion to dairying in 1901.

In 1861 the Cabulture Cotton Company was formed by a group of settlers including George Raff, William Hobbs, Shepherd Smith, Robert Douglas and John Bramston. Raff was a prominent business identity in mid to late 19th century Queensland and was very active in public affairs. Born in Morayshire, Scotland in 1815, he emigrated to Australia in 1839 arriving in Sydney aboard the *Earl Durham*. In the 1840s he worked in the pastoral industry and as a merchant before moving to Brisbane in 1851. In Brisbane he soon established George Raff & Co., a shipping company with wharves on the Brisbane River situated adjacent to Customs House. Raff also founded the Queensland Mercantile and Agency Co., and became a director of the Queensland Steam Navigation Company in 1861. He strongly believed in separation from New South Wales and was one of the 26 members of Sir Robert Herbert's first Queensland Parliament. In 1860 Raff was appointed as a member of the Board of Education. He handed in his resignation as Member of the Legislative Assembly to the speaker of parliament in April 1864. He was re-elected and served again from November 1865, including a period as minister without portfolio in the Herbert and later Macalister ministries until November 1866. He again resigned from parliament in June 1867, only to go on and unsuccessfully contest the seat of Moreton in 1870.

In June 1861, the founders of the Cabulture Cotton Company sailed in the Breadalbane to explore the shores and rivers of Moreton Bay with the intention of selecting land for the purpose of growing cotton. The land selected became Portions 10 and 26, Parish of Caboolture, County of Stanley. After three unsuccessful seasons growing cotton, the Cabulture Cotton Company put the property up for sale. George Raff purchased Portion 10 in 1866 for 1000. Raff purchased additional land immediately adjacent to Portion 10. Portions 24 and 25 to the east were purchased in April 1867, and Portion 26 to the west in May 1868. Raff named his new property "Morayfields", which was later referred to as Morayfield in the early 1870s. Raff switched primary production to sugar cane, but between 1865 and 1868, the plantation continued producing some cotton. In 1868 it was reported that 5 bales of "New Orleans" variety cotton were shipped from Morayfield Plantation to London. By 1867 Raff's sugar cultivating, processing and distilling operations were well established. On 19 October of that year, the Brisbane Courier reported in detail the size and scope of his endeavours. Morayfield Plantation then consisted of 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) of land, the soil being described as "pretty deep" black alluvial, with cultivation on "one great plateau". The whole cultivation of sugar took up an area of 150 acres (61 ha) (60 acres (24 ha) more than on the adjacent Oaklands operation of Claudius Whish), and was chiefly of the "Bourbon" variety of cane. Living quarters were described as:

> *...consisting of a large mansion, manager's house, house for married workmen and their families, laborers' \[sic\] huts, stockyards, stables, sheds, carpenters' shops, blacksmiths' shop, stores, saw mill, and an innumerable number of other buildings*

Additional housing for workers was also provided a little distance from the homestead complex.

A substantial sugar processing works is also described at this time. The works was situated about 200 yards (180 m) from the river and close to a large reservoir. The main building measured *"120 feet square, 20 feet to the eaves, with a pyramidal roof rather than steep"*. The works were centred around a 30-horse beam engine worked from a large "multitubular boiler, fitted with a patented injector".

A distillery was also operating by 1867. It was described as being situated on one side of the main sugar processing works building, and being of "Shears" patent, 600 imperial gallons (2,700 L; 720 US gal), with three rectifying or condensing boxes above the still head, producing a strong spirit by one operation.

In 1866, Raff constructed a 3-foot (0.91 m) gauge private tramway to transport cane harvested from nearby fields to the mill, and sugar to the wharf. Cane was loaded by hand onto railway trucks, which held, on average 1 long ton (1.0 t) each. Two trucks formed a train. In October 1867, all hauling was performed by horse, though a small Aveling and Porter locomotive was in use in the saw mill. At that time, the railway was measured at ? mile in length from the fields to the sugar works, and described as *"very well formed"*, on cross heavy logs, with longitudinal sleepers under the plates, and the gauge was three feet.

Another visit was made to the plantation one year later by John Dunmore Lang and published in the Brisbane Courier in 1868. He described the total land under cultivation as being 160 acres (65 ha), though this could have been increased to 300 acres (120 ha) if desired. The majority of cane was still of the "Bourbon" variety though 60 acres (24 ha) of "Rattoon" cane (stems or shoots from the second years' growth of a sugar cane plant) and an unknown quantity of "Ribbon" cane (a subtropical type of cane) was noted. Lang described the tramway as being "an eccentric elipse \[sic\], traversing the whole plantation." The railway measured 2 miles (3.2 km) in length, had cost 2,000 to build, but still relied on animal power. By 1870, the line was described as 2 to 3 miles (3.2 to 4.8 km) in length and Raff had run his 8-ton locomotive engine over it. Raff is believed to be the first to use a locomotive driven tramway on a Queensland sugar plantation.

Lang notes the presence of South Sea Islander labourers at Morayfield Plantation in 1868. South Sea Islanders (also referred to as Kanakas at the time) made a major contribution to Queensland's early sugar industry, with between 55,000 and 62,000 individuals being brought here between 1863 and 1904 as indentured labourers usually bound to a three-year contract. George Raff was a prominent supporter of the use of an Islander labour force, as was his immediate neighbour at Oaklands, Claudius Buchanan Whish. Raff was considered one of the "masters" of the trade and a very large employer of Islander labour. He became prominent as one of the abettors of the system in his testimony before a Parliamentary Committee. Islanders provided cheap manual labour, but were also considered essential in a climate considered too harsh for white manual labourers. Most came from eighty islands in Melanesia, mainly those included in present-day Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands. The method of recruitment involved some instances of kidnap and deception, while the numbers of Islander people brought to Queensland by these illegal means is a matter for debate.

It is unclear how many Islanders were present at Morayfield Plantation or when Raff first employed them. Lang noted during his 1868 visit the presence of 65 Islanders speaking 5 different languages, working and living on the plantation. Other sources claim about 70 people in total employed on Morayfield Plantation in 1868, of which 15 to 20 were Islanders.

Lang provides descriptions of the contrasting European workers' accommodation and that of the South Sea Islander labourers. The European workmen and their families were provided with "a row of comfortable brick cottages", while the Islander labourers were supplied with a large single timber structure with corrugated iron roof measuring "upwards of eighty feet by forty" and painted on the outside. Sleeping accommodation was described as consisting of

> *...a raised platform stretching along each side of the building, like the berths in the steerage of a ship, each of the inmates sleeping on his blanket on the boards, the fire for cooking their provisions being on the floor in the centre of the building, around which they congregate in the evening, after the labors\[sic\] of the day, as in their native isles.*

One other description of the Islander accommodation was that it consisted of a *"circular structure"* located close to the river bank. By 1925 this structure was used by share farmers for housing and feeding young calves.

Lang also notes the presence of an additional brick building on the plantation, a "commodious wharf" on the river for landing or embarking goods and people, and a schoolhouse which doubled as a church. Lang described the conduct of a Presbyterian service at the schoolhouse, at which a number of the South Sea Islanders attended, were literate, and read a portion of scripture in their own language. These Islanders were described as being from the Island of Mare, the southernmost island of the Loyalty Island Group (New Caledonia).

It was not uncommon for Islander labourers to abscond from their employers when conditions were poor. They were commonly provided with insufficient and poor quality food and inadequate clothing. This was particularly the case on those properties located in the more temperate areas of southern Queensland where the cooler temperatures in winter were completely foreign to many of the Islander labourers. In early 1869, eighteen men, originally from the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) and then employed at Morayfield Plantation, fled the plantation for Brisbane. Raff sought a court order in an attempt to force them back to work, which they refused. At their court appearance in January 1869, three Mare men by the names of Tarbucket (alias Kichelho), John Bull and Louis, claimed the reason they left was that Mr Raff was not providing them with enough food or "ki-ki". They also expressed the belief that their agreements had expired after one year, even though Raff explained that they had agreed to three year work agreements, and that they wanted to return to Mare. The court ruled in Raff's favour and forced the men to return to Morayfield.

Lang, however, reports that Raff treated his Islander labour force "well", paying them at the rate of 10 shillings a month with rations, and under engagements of 3 years. Each man received a pound of beef per day and worked until 6pm. Raff purchased much of this beef from the local area, particularly from the McConnels of Durundur station, near Woodford.

At the end of 1868, the Chief Inspector of Distilleries reported that the Morayfield Plantation had 190 acres (77 ha) of land under cultivation with cane, of which 60 acres (24 ha) had been crushed. The total amount of rum distilled since the commencement of operation in October 1867 was 18,431 imperial gallons (83,790 L; 22,135 US gal). The amount of sugar manufactured in 1868 was 100 long tons (100 t), and molasses 12,000 imperial gallons (55,000 L; 14,000 US gal).

On 10 October 1869, Levi Walker, a labourer from Heap, near Bury in Lancashire, England, drowned in the Caboolture River. Walker arrived in Australia just 5 weeks earlier on 6 September 1869 aboard the *Star Queen*. No additional information on Levi Walker has been located and his grave is marked with a headstone erected on the southern bank of the Caboolture River.

Sugar cane cultivation and processing continued on Morayfield Plantation throughout the 1870s. In the 1870s, sugar was being regularly shipped from its wharf to Brisbane via small steamers such as the Tadorna Radjah and the Gneering, both owned by William Pettigrew. In 1877, it was reported that 60 acres (24 ha) of cane was present, about 40 acres (16 ha) under prairie grass, and the remainder of the estate (3,000 - 4,000 acres (1,600 ha)), in pasture for cattle and horses.

It is unclear, however, the amount of time Raff and his family actually spent on the plantation, as he maintained a separate residence in New Farm, Brisbane, called "Moray Bank".

During the 1870s, South Sea Islander workers were progressively returned to their home islands as their work agreement expired, and were replaced with others from different islands, including three boys from the Island of Sandwich. From 1884 the use of Islanders as labourers was progressively restricted through legislation, starting with an amendment to the Pacific Islanders Labourers Act 1880, which banned them from a range of work and constrained their employment to menial agricultural jobs. Concerns had been and were being voiced by humanitarian and church groups, as well as unions regarding the use and conditions of this labour force. Further legislation sought to end their employment entirely; however this was not finally achieved until after Federation with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 and the Pacific Islander Labourers Act 1901, the latter of which required deportation of Islanders to begin after December 1906. Of the more than 9000 Islanders in Queensland in 1901, only 1654 were given permission to stay. The last deportation took place in July 1908.

The valuation register of 1880 noted a number of improvements to Morayfield Plantation though there is no indication as to where on the property such improvements were made. The improvements listed include a dwelling, mill house, two bonded stores, bone house, carpenters' shop, cotton shed, stable, octagon building, Kanakas' outhouse, bakery, managers' dwellings, store, Kanakas' house, eight cottages, hayshed, schoolhouse, kitchen and stables.

The Morayfield Plantation continued cultivating cane and producing rum until the mid-1880s. The Chief Inspector of Distilleries, in his annual report of 1885, noted that there was no work at the Morayfield Plantation distillery that year. The Inspector of Distilleries in Morayfield during 1887 reported a flood on the Caboolture River, but no damage to distillery. In August 1889 however, it was noted that the Morayfield distillery had closed and in May 1891 tenders were invited for the purchase and removal of the sugar mill.

George Raff died on 28 August 1889 at his "Moray Bank" home in New Farm. Ownership of the Morayfield Plantation transferred to three of his surviving sons - Alexander, Robert and Harry.

The land on which the Morayfield Plantation was built has changed ownership several times since Raff's death. Subsequent owners of the property used the land mainly for dairying purposes, including share farming. William Henry Jackson purchased the land from the Raff family and trustees in 1901. A 1903 description of the former plantation area states:

> *"traces of the old sugar mill, Kanakas" huts, rum bonds and the miles of furrows and drains still show here and there and the great sheet of water known as "the Dam" still exists; but since the "sixties" the old place has seen so many changes that what may be termed relics of those way-back times only remain.*

By 1903, the property was divided into 19 paddocks, 6 of which were cultivated, with the rest used for dairy cattle. A dip had been built and 400 head of cattle (250 for dairying) were being grazed. A dairy shed was also erected on the site of the plantation-period horse stables, close to the Caboolture River. Associated dairying infrastructure was also installed, including a turbine steam engine and "de Laval" 150 imperial gallons (680 L; 180 US gal) separator.

The property was sold again in 1909 to James Buchanan, in 1947 to William George Currant, to Douglas Ashe and James Rowe in 1948, and in 1951 the whole of Portion 10 was sold to Charles Thomas Williams.

In 1960, Portion 10 was again sold to the A.P.M. Forests Pty Ltd and a pine plantation established across the property. Much of the surviving infrastructure from the plantation period is believed to have been removed during that period of ownership. Some equipment, particularly several boilers dating from the plantation-period are allegedly still buried on the site. A.P.M. later sold the land and most of the pine was sold to a local mill or chipped on site. The land has since been sold to Northeast Business Park Pty Ltd for redevelopment as a commercial centre.

## Description

The boundaries of Lot 10 have remained intact since it was originally surveyed as Portion 10 in the 1860s. While use of the area has changed over time (cotton - sugar - dairying - pine plantation - proposed business park), the nature of these activities may have had limited impact on the integrity of the archaeological record. While the visible, above ground archaeological artefacts lack integrity as evidenced by their ruinous state, the soil profile of the former plantation area (i.e. deep alluvial soils) suggests that the area has potential to contain subsurface archaeological deposits with the possibility of some stratification, especially due to proximity to the Caboolture River, the low-lying nature of the surrounding lands, and a history of flooding. Soils closest to the river are generally sands and mud and areas close to the river generally have a deep alluvial soil profile, while those areas on higher ridgelines are likely to be shallower.

Archaeological remains which relate to Raff's occupation and use of the area are located in the northern portion of Lot 10, close to the Caboolture River and around the margin of a lagoon. While information on the full layout of the complex is incomplete, it is possible to identify several key elements from the results of previous field investigations and historical and aerial photograph interpretation, including the location of Raff's residence, exotic gardens and plantings, two wells, stores, stables, a fence line, the sawmill site, and part of the tramway formation.

A set of 13 steps (rendered stone base with later brick additions) and the remains of a brick and sandstone wall with patches of render still visible are found at approximately (MGA94 Zone 56) 499685E, 7001805N. These steps are associated with the Morayfield Plantation homestead. The site is approached from the south-west by an indistinct roadway at 499585E, 7001789N whose furthest extent is marked by a camphor laurel tree at 499485E, 7001737N. Unmarked and handmade bricks, sandstone pieces and blocks with render are scattered in the vicinity of the steps. A brick-lined well is also found behind the house site and connected by a brick-paved floor. Exotic plantings, including two groves of bamboo and two palm trees, evenly spaced to either side of the set of stairs, as well as bunya trees are located in the immediate vicinity.

A timber post and rail yard is located close to the Caboolture River and the north-east extent of the lagoon. The yard is likely related to the dairying activities on the property in the early 20th century. The site is known to have featured a tin and timber dairy building up to 1960. However the yard remains do overlie earlier structures. This is evidenced by the presence of a closely packed brick surface underneath cracked sections of concrete.

A second brick-lined well, filled with sediment, is located on the north-eastern side of the yards. It is not known when this well was constructed, but size and construction pattern are similar to the well located near the former Morayfield Plantation homestead. The well is also located in close proximity to the location of the former bond stores, stable, wharf and tramway which are known to have been constructed sometime before 1873.

Possible remains of the "commodious wharf" noted by Lang in 1868 are found above the waterline include a single large in situ timber post at 499893E, 7002031N and numerous metal artefacts, including horseshoes, circular collars, heavy straps and bolts, which are eroding out of the river bank at 499886E, 7002022N. Based on an 1873 historical photograph of this area and aerial photography, the wharf is thought to be located adjacent to these finds. Archaeological investigations at other historic wharf sites in Queensland and interstate have revealed rich archaeological deposits at such locations, even in the absence of structural remains above the waterline, and also significant archaeological deposits in maritime zones where dredging has occurred. There is therefore good potential for archaeological artefacts that were lost overboard or discarded from ships, or the wharf deck itself, to be situated in the vicinity of the former wharf area and within the riverbed out to the mid-channel of the Caboolture River.

The remains of a post and rail fence line cross the lagoon immediately east of the main house ruins. This fence line is also visible in the 1873 photograph and therefore is considered to be physical evidence of Raff's operations on the site. Adjacent to this is a vehicle access track located near the southeast extent of the lagoon. Handmade bricks and a rusting boiler (unknown make) which is located in the vicinity of the former sawmill site and tramway are located adjacent the track. A slightly raised and linear area immediately east of the track is interpreted as remnants of the tramway line that once ran from the mill to the wharf area. The area around the former sawmill site and this tramway formation is considered an area of high archaeological potential.

To the north and northeast of the former sawmill site in the vicinity of the cattle yards at 499892E, 7001981N and in a nearby small grove of bunya pines at 499955E, 702058N are two metal rails which may have formed part of the former tramway. Also concealed within the bunya pine grove is a rendered brick machinery foundation and a rusted metal tank - similar to a ship or steam engine's water tank, but also possibly an artefact relating to the early sugar manufacturing processes at the site. Nearby, a feature of unknown function is set into the ground and is partially filled with concrete, forming a bowl with a surrounding metal rim.

The lone grave of Levi Walker is located on the southern bank of the Caboolture River at 499218E, 7001824N. The headstone reads "Sacred to the memory of Levi Walker, son of James and Rachel Walker, who was drowned whilst bathing in the River Caboolture, October 10th 1869, in the 28th year of his age." While it is not impossible that additional graves exist on the property, no physical evidence of such graves survives though any unmarked graves would be of archaeological potential and importance.

Potential exists across the area for archaeological evidence associated with the Morayfield Plantation. It is reasonable to assume that archaeological potential also exists for evidence relating to Islander and white labourer accommodation, the remains of the sugar mill and distillery and additional tramway infrastructure.

## Heritage listing

Morayfield Plantation was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 13 May 2011 having satisfied the following criteria.

The Morayfield Plantation is representative of one of the earliest developments in Queensland's influential sugar industry, dating from the earliest phase in southern Queensland.

The Morayfield Plantation contains important archaeological artefacts associated with George Raff's ownership of the property, beginning in 1866 until his death in 1889. George Raff was a prominent early citizen in Queensland who made a major contribution to the development of the sugar industry and notably used South Sea Islanders as indentured labourers.

Several artefacts and ruins have been located above ground and are considered important in-situ elements - i.e. remnant stairs, wells, handmade bricks, brick-paved floors, exotic plantings, structural foundations and remnant wall features. There exists potential for subsurface deposits of archaeological artefacts, especially additional building foundations, footings and domestic refuse, to be located in the locality of these above-ground elements. Any archaeological artefacts found at this place have potential to provide important information on key aspects of Queensland history, particularly the development of early sugar growing, cultivation, processing and distilling operations, and the role of South Sea Islander peoples in Queensland's sugar industry. The identification of domestic refuse has potential to provide important insights into the everyday lives of those people who lived and worked on the plantation; lives that are not well documented elsewhere. Archaeological investigations of such artefacts would help illustrate the differences in living conditions between Islanders and other labourers who worked in Queensland's early sugar industry.

Archaeological investigations at the place could provide important comparative material culture evidence about the processes, practices and techniques of early sugar production. Archaeological evidence may reveal important insights into methods that are undocumented and no longer practiced. Evidence of this nature has potential to provide an important insight into early sugar practice in southeast Queensland and provide rare comparative information for our understanding of other early sugar producing places, particularly the nearby Oaklands Sugar Mill remnants.

Archaeological investigations around the plantation wharf area and within the adjacent riverbed may reveal structural elements and archaeological artefacts relating to plantation operations, the working life of the wharf and the economic development of the region. Remains may consist of materials associated with the construction, repair and maintenance of the wharf itself. As objects were often deliberately or accidentally dropped from wharves during loading and unloading operations, archaeological artefacts relating to the shipping of cargo to and from the plantation and the greater Caboolture area have potential to survive submerged in the vicinity. The study of such archaeological artefacts may reveal important information on primary production in the area, consumption choices and patterns in material culture, distribution networks for goods coming to and going from the plantation, and the nutrition and diet of the people living on the plantation and in the broader region at the time.

Few places associated with early indentured labourers from the South Sea Islands have survived in Southern Queensland (see particularly Oaklands Sugar Mill at Morayfield and Ormiston House Estate in Ormiston, Redland City). The potential for archaeological artefacts associated with these labourers makes the Morayfield Plantation an important source of information about the use of indentured labour in Queensland and an important comparative place for the analysis of South Sea Islander heritage places found in Southern Queensland and across the state. Potential for archaeological artefacts belonging to plantation owners, managers, and the South Sea Islander labour force exists, enabling important research questions to be posited, particularly in relation to status and class, the use of power, control and resistance to that control, the exploitation and organisation of labour, and adaptation to new environments.

* Australia, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, (2003) A history of South Sea Islanders in Australia, Contributing Authors, Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie & Susanna Iuliano, viewed April 2011
* Leighton, Stanley (1837-1901) Sketches in Australia with journal extracts, Vol.1-2, manuscript held by the National Library of Australia
* Timeline Heritage Consultants (2010) DRAFT Morayfields Archaeological Management Plan MAMP for North East Business Park Pty Ltd, November 2010, Unpublished report for North East Business Park Pty Ltd.

### Attribution

This Wikipedia article was originally based on *"The Queensland heritage register"* published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 7 July 2014, archived on 8 October 2014). The geo-coordinates were originally computed from the *"Queensland heritage register boundaries"* published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 5 September 2014, archived on 15 October 2014).

Media related to Morayfield Plantation at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Morayfield Plantation | |
| --- | --- |
| Main house foundation remnants, 2009 | |
| Location | 34 Nolan Drive, Morayfield, City of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia |
| Coordinates | 27°06′20″S 153°00′05″E / 27.1055°S 153.0015°E / -27.1055; 153.0015 |
| Design period | 1840s - 1860s (mid-19th century) |
| Built | c.1860s |
|  | |
| Queensland Heritage Register | |
| Official name | Morayfield Plantation |
| Type | archaeological |
| Designated | 13 May 2011 |
| Reference no. | 645614 |
| Significant period | 1865-1886 |
| Significant components | building foundations/ruins, well, fence/wall - perimeter, artefact field, brick scatter/deposit, grave marker |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Morayfield Plantation in QueenslandMorayfield Plantation (Australia) | |


title: Random sequence

abstract: The concept of a random sequence is essential in probability theory and statistics. The concept generally relies on the notion of a sequence of random variables and many statistical discussions begin with the words "let X1,...,Xn be independent random variables...". Yet as D. H. Lehmer stated in 1951: "A random sequence is a vague notion... in which each term is unpredictable to the uninitiated and whose digits pass a certain number of tests traditional with statisticians". Axiomatic probability theory deliberately avoids a definition of a random sequence. Traditional probability theory does not state if a specific sequence is random, but generally proceeds to discuss the properties of random variables and stochastic sequences assuming some definition of randomness. The Bourbaki school considered the statement "let us consider a random sequence" an abuse of language.

text:
# Random sequence

The concept of a **random sequence** is essential in probability theory and statistics. The concept generally relies on the notion of a sequence of random variables and many statistical discussions begin with the words "let *X*1,...,*Xn* be independent random variables...". Yet as D. H. Lehmer stated in 1951: "A random sequence is a vague notion... in which each term is unpredictable to the uninitiated and whose digits pass a certain number of tests traditional with statisticians".

Axiomatic probability theory *deliberately* avoids a definition of a random sequence. Traditional probability theory does not state if a specific sequence is random, but generally proceeds to discuss the properties of random variables and stochastic sequences assuming some definition of randomness. The Bourbaki school considered the statement "let us consider a random sequence" an abuse of language.

## Early history

Émile Borel was one of the first mathematicians to formally address randomness in 1909. In 1919 Richard von Mises gave the first definition of algorithmic randomness, which was inspired by the law of large numbers, although he used the term *collective* rather than random sequence. Using the concept of the impossibility of a gambling system, von Mises defined an infinite sequence of zeros and ones as random if it is not biased by having the *frequency stability property* i.e. the frequency of zeros goes to 1/2 and every sub-sequence we can select from it by a "proper" method of selection is also not biased.

The sub-sequence selection criterion imposed by von Mises is important, because although 0101010101... is not biased, by selecting the odd positions, we get 000000... which is not random. Von Mises never totally formalized his definition of a proper selection rule for sub-sequences, but in 1940 Alonzo Church defined it as any recursive function which having read the first N elements of the sequence decides if it wants to select element number *N* + 1. Church was a pioneer in the field of computable functions, and the definition he made relied on the Church Turing Thesis for computability. This definition is often called *Mises–Church randomness*.

## Modern approaches

During the 20th century various technical approaches to defining random sequences were developed and now three distinct paradigms can be identified. In the mid 1960s, A. N. Kolmogorov and D. W. Loveland independently proposed a more permissive selection rule. In their view Church's recursive function definition was too restrictive in that it read the elements in order. Instead they proposed a rule based on a partially computable process which having read *any* *N* elements of the sequence, decides if it wants to select another element which has not been read yet. This definition is often called *Kolmogorov–Loveland stochasticity*. But this method was considered too weak by Alexander Shen who showed that there is a Kolmogorov–Loveland stochastic sequence which does not conform to the general notion of randomness.

In 1966 Per Martin-Löf introduced a new notion which is now generally considered the most satisfactory notion of algorithmic randomness. His original definition involved measure theory, but it was later shown that it can be expressed in terms of Kolmogorov complexity. Kolmogorov's definition of a random string was that it is random if it has no description shorter than itself via a universal Turing machine.

Three basic paradigms for dealing with random sequences have now emerged:

* The *frequency / measure-theoretic* approach. This approach started with the work of Richard von Mises and Alonzo Church. In the 1960s Per Martin-Löf noticed that the sets coding such frequency-based stochastic properties are a special kind of measure zero sets, and that a more general and smooth definition can be obtained by considering all effectively measure zero sets.
* The *complexity / compressibility* approach. This paradigm was championed by A. N. Kolmogorov along with contributions from Leonid Levin and Gregory Chaitin. For finite sequences, Kolmogorov defines randomness of a binary string of length *n* as the entropy (or Kolmogorov complexity) normalized by the length *n*. In other words, if the Kolmogorov complexity of the string is close to *n*, it is very random; if the complexity is far below *n*, it is not so random. The dual concept of randomness is compressibility ‒ the more random a sequence is, the less compressible, and vice versa.
* The *predictability* approach. This paradigm is due to Claus P. Schnorr and uses a slightly different definition of constructive martingales than martingales used in traditional probability theory. Schnorr showed how the existence of a selective betting strategy implied the existence of a selection rule for a biased sub-sequence. If one only requires a recursive martingale to succeed on a sequence instead of constructively succeed on a sequence, then one gets the concept of recursive randomness. Yongge Wang showed that recursive randomness concept is different from Schnorr's randomness concept.

In most cases, theorems relating the three paradigms (often equivalence) have been proven.


title: War savings stamps of the United States

abstract: War savings stamps were issued by the United States Treasury Department to help fund participation in World War I and World War II. Although these stamps were distinct from the postal savings stamps issued by the United States Post Office Department, the Post Office nevertheless played a major role in promoting and distributing war savings stamps. In contrast to Liberty Bonds, which were purchased primarily by financial institutions, war savings stamps were principally aimed at common citizens. During World War I, 25-cent Thrift stamps were offered to allow individuals to accumulate enough over time to purchase the standard 5-dollar War Savings Certificate stamp. When the Treasury began issuing war savings stamps during World War II, the lowest denomination was a 10-cent stamp, enabling ordinary citizens to purchase them. In many cases, collections of war savings stamps could be redeemed for Treasury Certificates or War Bonds.

text:
# War savings stamps of the United States

**War savings stamps** were issued by the United States Treasury Department to help fund participation in World War I and World War II. Although these stamps were distinct from the postal savings stamps issued by the United States Post Office Department, the Post Office nevertheless played a major role in promoting and distributing war savings stamps. In contrast to Liberty Bonds, which were purchased primarily by financial institutions, war savings stamps were principally aimed at common citizens. During World War I, 25-cent Thrift stamps were offered to allow individuals to accumulate enough over time to purchase the standard 5-dollar War Savings Certificate stamp. When the Treasury began issuing war savings stamps during World War II, the lowest denomination was a 10-cent stamp, enabling ordinary citizens to purchase them. In many cases, collections of war savings stamps could be redeemed for Treasury Certificates or War Bonds.

## World War I era

The United States Treasury Department issued its first war savings stamps in late 1917 in order to help pay for the costs incurred through involvement in World War I. The estimated cost of World War I for the United States was approximately $32 billion, and by the end of the war, the United States government had issued a total of $26.4 billion in debt. Although national campaigns had aimed to sell $2 billion in war savings stamps, they ultimately accounted for about $0.93 billion, or 3.5 percent, of the total debt issued. Despite the low proportion of total debt purchased as war savings stamps, they represented real additional savings whereas other issues were at least partly monetized already. In addition, government and society leaders utilized the war savings stamps program as a vehicle to teach the importance of saving and thrift.

### War Savings Certificate stamps

The primary, interest-earning stamp issued was the War Savings Certificate stamp, which was worth 5 dollars at maturity on January 1, 1923. These stamps needed to be affixed to an engraved folder called the War Savings Certificate, which carried the name of the purchaser, and could only be redeemed by that individual. Between December 3, 1917, and January 31, 1918, each stamp could be purchased at the price of $4.12. If purchased on January 2, 1918, the return on the investment would be 4 percent, compounded quarterly. The price of the stamp increased by one cent for each month after January 1918 until sales ended in December 1918. Owners of these stamps could also redeem them for cash prior to the maturity date and receive the amount paid plus one cent for every month after the original purchase. The Treasury issued a new series of War Savings Certificate stamps in subsequent years, with the same interest rate and time to maturity. The final series of War Savings Certificate stamps were issued on December 21, 1920, maturing on January 1, 1926.

### Thrift stamps

Along with the War Savings Certificate stamps, the Treasury also issued a set of 25-cent Thrift stamps, which bore no interest. The purpose of the Thrift stamps was to allow individuals without the means to purchase a War Savings Certificate stamp outright to gradually accumulate enough Thrift stamps to exchange for one later. The Treasury supplied Thrift cards, to which a total of sixteen Thrift stamps could be affixed. A full Thrift card was worth four dollars and could be combined with the appropriate number of cents to purchase a War Savings Certificate stamp.

### Promotional efforts

Promotion of war savings stamps pervaded American culture during World War I. The Treasury Department established the War Savings Organization in order to coordinate marketing efforts throughout the nation. A wide variety of posters were produced to promote war savings stamps, often invoking a sense of patriotic duty to purchase them to support war efforts. President Woodrow Wilson called upon “every man, woman and child” to save for the war and designated June 28, 1918 as National War Savings Day. Governors, mayors, and other political leaders led by example by purchasing war savings stamps and encouraged their constituents to do the same. The Four Minute Men organization, authorized by President Wilson, also developed a series of speech outlines related to war savings stamps for its volunteers to deliver.

Support for war savings stamps also came from a variety of non-government sources. Advertisements were often donated by local newspapers in order to inform people of how war savings stamps worked and to encourage their purchase. War savings societies formed within communities across the country to promote the value of thrift and to collect funds for war savings stamps. Children were also recruited to the war saving efforts primarily through their schools. Children received school kits, which included penny and nickel savings booklets so that children could save up for a 25-cent Thrift stamp a few cents at a time.

## World War II era

The United States Treasury Department began to issue a series of war savings stamps in late 1942. Unlike the War Savings Certificate stamps from World War I, these war savings stamps earned no interest. Instead, their sole purpose was to facilitate saving toward the purchase of Series E war bonds.

### Minuteman stamps

The war savings stamps introduced during World War II were released in five different denominations – 10 cents, 25 cents, 50 cents, one dollar, and five dollars, all featuring a Minuteman statue. These stamps were purchased at face value and earned no interest. Individuals accumulated their war savings stamps in various collection booklets provided with the purchase of a stamp. Filled collection booklets could later be used to purchase Series E war bonds. For example, a full 25-cent booklet contained 75 stamps and was worth $18.75, which was the initial price of a $25 war bond. Thus, a full 25-cent booklet would be exchanged for a $25 war bond with a time to maturity of ten years.

### Promotional efforts

The promotion of war savings stamps during World War II was closely tied with the promotion of the Series E war bonds. In order to mobilize the home front to support the war efforts ideologically and financially, the Treasury Department's primary message revolved around patriotism. With support from the advertising industry, which donated $250 million worth of advertising during the first three years of the campaign, war bonds and stamps permeated everyday life. Advertisements appeared as posters on trolley cars, songs on the radio, and movies featuring Hollywood stars like Frank Sinatra and Bob Hope. Utilizing the concept of market segmentation, numerous campaigns were developed to target different populations such as women, immigrants, and children. The Treasury developed classroom material that highlighted the positive impact of war savings stamps while enforcing math skills.

## Similar schemes

During World War II, the Mennonite Central Committee offered red Civilian Public Service stamps and blue War Sufferers' Relief stamps for ten cents each to help fund peaceful programs and offer an alternative for children from families who could not conscientiously fund the Red Cross. The Brethren in Christ had a similar program for their members.


title: Nina Armagno

abstract: Nina Marion Armagno is a retired United States Space Force lieutenant general who served as the first director of staff of the United States Space Force from 2020 to 2023. She is the service's first female general officer and the only officer to have commanded both the 30th Space Wing and the 45th Space Wing. Before transferring to the Space Force, she was a major general in the United States Air Force, where she served for over 32 years. After retiring from active duty, Armagno joined Rocket Lab's board of directors.

text:
# Nina Armagno

**Nina Marion Armagno** (born March 20, 1966) is a retired United States Space Force lieutenant general who served as the first director of staff of the United States Space Force from 2020 to 2023. She is the service's first female general officer and the only officer to have commanded both the 30th Space Wing and the 45th Space Wing. Before transferring to the Space Force, she was a major general in the United States Air Force, where she served for over 32 years.

After retiring from active duty, Armagno joined Rocket Lab's board of directors.

## Early life and education

Armagno was born in 1966 to Anthony and Naida Armagno. A native of Dundee, Illinois, she graduated from Dundee-Crown High School in 1984 where she was the class valedictorian and class president. She grew up in suburban Chicago.

Wanting to become an astronaut, Armagno received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado in 1988. She graduated Squadron Officer School in 1992, at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama. She received a Master of Arts degree in 1999, in Education Administration and Management, from Chapman University in California. She graduated from the Air Command and Staff College in 2000, by correspondence. In 2002, she participated in an Air Force Legislative Fellowship in Washington, D.C. In 2003, she received a certificate in Legislative Studies from Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. She graduated from the Air War College in 2003, by correspondence. In 2007, she received a Master of Science degree, in National Security Studies, from the National War College in Washington, D.C. In 2010, she attended the United States Air Force Enterprise Leadership Seminar at the University of Virginia, Darden School of Business, in Virginia. Also in 2010, she attended the Leadership Development Program at the Center for Creative Leadership in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

## Military service

Armagno entered the Air Force after graduating from the United States Air Force Academy, Colorado, in June 1988. Her experience in space systems operations includes combat mission ready operator, instructor, evaluator and flight commander in strategic missile warning, space surveillance, space control, space launch and theater missile warning mission areas. She was the operations officer at the 1st Space Launch Squadron, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida.

Armagno served as second Commander, 30th Space Wing, Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, responsible for space lift and range operations, and support of operational and developmental missile system testing for the Department of Defense from the West Coast of the United States. She has served as the installation commander of the 6th Space Warning Squadron at Cape Cod Air Force Station, Massachusetts, the commander and deputy commander, 21st Operations Group, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado, as the Department of Defense senior military assistant and chief of staff to the director, Operational Test and Evaluation, Office of the Secretary of Defense. In addition, she has held staff assignments at Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Headquarters Air Force Space Command, Headquarters 14th Air Force and the 381st Training Group and served as an Air Force Legislative Fellow in the office of Congresswoman Ellen Tauscher.

On June 12, 2013, Armagno was promoted to brigadier general and took command of the 45th Space Wing and director of the Eastern Range at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida. She also became the first officer to command both the 30th Space Wing and the 45th Space Wing. There, she was responsible for the processing and launching of U.S. government and commercial satellites from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. She was also the final approval authority for all launches on the Eastern Range, a 15-million-square-mile area which supports an average of 15 launches per year aboard Delta, Atlas, Falcon, Navy, and emerging launch vehicles. In addition, she managed wing launch and range infrastructure supporting NASA, commercial, and missile test missions.

Armagno relinquished command of the 45th Space Wing to Wayne Monteith on August 4, 2015, and was assigned as the director of strategic plans, programs, requirements, and analysis of the Air Force Space Command, where she was responsible for developing strategy, doctrine, and policy for the command's space and cyberspace operations, defining the future of space and cyberspace systems through requirements definition, mission area architectures, analysis, science and technology development in support of the joint warfighter, Department of Defense, civil, and national users.

In June 2017, Armagno was reassigned as director of plans and policy at the United States Strategic Command. She stayed there for a year before getting reassigned to the Pentagon to serve as the director for space programs at the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Acquisition.

When the Space Force was established in 2019, Armagno was tapped by then-Lieutenant General David D. Thompson to help stand-up the new service, working as the S2/3/4/6/8/9/10 while still officially assigned as the director of space programs. She was nominated on July 28, 2020, for transfer to the United States Space Force and promotion to lieutenant general. She was also assigned to serve as its first director of staff. She transferred and was promoted on August 17, 2020, becoming the first female general officer in the Space Force.

Armagno retired from active duty on July 7, 2023.

After retiring from active duty, Armagno joined Rocket Lab's board of directors.

## Personal life

Armagno's husband is Eddie Papczun, a retired Air Force officer whom she met when they were both captains.

## Awards and decorations

|  | Command Space Operations Badge |
| --- | --- |
|  | Office of the Secretary of Defense Badge |
|  | Space Staff Badge |

## Dates of promotion

| Rank | Branch | Date |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Second Lieutenant | Air Force | June 1, 1988 |
| First Lieutenant | | June 1, 1990 |
| Captain | | June 1, 1992 |
| Major | | October 1, 1999 |
| Lieutenant Colonel | | March 1, 2003 |
| Colonel | | September 1, 2007 |
| Brigadier General | | June 12, 2013 |
| Major General | | June 15, 2016 |
| Lieutenant General | Space Force | August 7, 2020 |

## Writings

## InfoBox

| Nina Armagno | |
| --- | --- |
| Official portrait, 2021 | |
| Born | (1966-03-20) March 20, 1966<br>Dundee, Illinois, U.S. |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Branch | United States Air Force |
| Years of service | 1988–2020 (Air Force) * 2020–2023 (Space Force) |
| Rank | Lieutenant General |
| Commands | 45th Space Wing |
| Awards | Defense Distinguished Service Medal |
| Alma mater | United States Air Force Academy (BS) |
| Spouse(s) | Eddie Papczun |
| Signature |  |


title: Order unit

abstract: An order unit is an element of an ordered vector space which can be used to bound all elements from above. In this way the order unit generalizes the unit element in the reals. According to H. H. Schaefer, "most of the ordered vector spaces occurring in analysis do not have order units."

text:
# Order unit

An **order unit** is an element of an ordered vector space which can be used to bound all elements from above. In this way (as seen in the first example below) the order unit generalizes the unit element in the reals.

According to H. H. Schaefer, "most of the ordered vector spaces occurring in analysis do not have order units."

## Definition

For the ordering cone $K\subseteq X$ in the vector space $X$, the element $e\in K$ is an order unit (more precisely a $K$-order unit) if for every $x\in X$ there exists a $\lambda \_{x}\>0$ such that $\lambda \_{x}e-x\in K$ (that is, $x\leq \_{K}\lambda \_{x}e$).

### Equivalent definition

The order units of an ordering cone $K\subseteq X$ are those elements in the algebraic interior of $K;$ that is, given by $\operatorname {core} (K).$

## Examples

Let $X=\mathbb {R} $ be the real numbers and $K=\mathbb {R} \_{+}=\\{x\in \mathbb {R} :x\geq 0\\},$ then the unit element $1$ is an *order unit*.

Let $X=\mathbb {R} ^{n}$ and $K=\mathbb {R} \_{+}^{n}=\left\\{x\_{i}\in \mathbb {R} :{\text{ for all }i=1,\ldots ,n:x\_{i}\geq 0\right\\},}$ then the unit element $\vec {1}=(1,\ldots ,1)$ is an *order unit*.

Each interior point of the positive cone of an ordered topological vector space is an order unit.

## Properties

Each order unit of an ordered TVS is interior to the positive cone for the order topology.

If $(X,\leq )$ is a preordered vector space over the reals with order unit $u,$ then the map $p(x):=\inf\\{t\in \mathbb {R} :x\leq tu\\}$ is a sublinear functional.

## Order unit norm

Suppose $(X,\leq )$ is an ordered vector space over the reals with order unit $u$ whose order is Archimedean and let $U=\[-u,u\].$ Then the Minkowski functional $p\_{U}$ of $U,$ defined by $p\_{U}(x):=\inf\\{r\>0:x\in r\[-u,u\]\\},$ is a norm called the **order unit norm**. It satisfies $p\_{U}(u)=1$ and the closed unit ball determined by $p\_{U}$ is equal to $\[-u,u\];$ that is, $\[-u,u\]=\left\\{x\in X:p\_{U}(x)\leq 1\right\\}.$

1. Fuchssteiner, Benno; Lusky, Wolfgang (1981). *Convex Cones*. Elsevier. ISBN 9780444862907.
2. Schaefer & Wolff 1999, pp. 230–234.
3. Charalambos D. Aliprantis; Rabee Tourky (2007). *Cones and Duality*. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 9780821841464.
4. Narici & Beckenstein 2011, pp. 139–153.

## Bibliography


abstract: Grace Lutheran Church is a historic Evangelical Lutheran Church in America church at 1124 N. 3rd Street in Phoenix, Arizona, United States. The church as a congregation has been in existence since 1914, making it one of the oldest Lutheran churches in Arizona. Its building was built in 1928, in the Gothic Revival style. It is a two-story stone building 80 by 100 feet in plan. It is divided into bays by buttressed pilasters. It has a rose window, stained glass and lancet windows at the rear, and crenulated parapets. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1993. Its listing was in accordance with a study of historic church architecture in Phoenix.

text:
# Grace Lutheran Church (Phoenix, Arizona)

**Grace Lutheran Church** is a historic Evangelical Lutheran Church in America church at 1124 N. 3rd Street in Phoenix, Arizona, United States.

The church as a congregation has been in existence since 1914, making it one of the oldest Lutheran churches in Arizona.

Its building was built in 1928, in the Gothic Revival style.

It is a two-story stone building 80 by 100 feet (24 m × 30 m) in plan. It is divided into bays by buttressed pilasters. It has a rose window, stained glass and lancet windows at the rear, and crenulated parapets.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1993. Its listing was in accordance with a study of historic church architecture in Phoenix.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Grace Lutheran Church | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | 1124 N. 3rd St., Phoenix, Arizona |
| Coordinates | 33°27′39″N 112°4′9″W / 33.46083°N 112.06917°W / 33.46083; -112.06917 |
| Area | less than one acre |
| Built | 1928 |
| Architectural style | Late Gothic Revival |
| MPS | Religious Architecture in Phoenix MPS |
| NRHP reference No. | 93000835 |
| Added to NRHP | August 12, 1993 |


title: Glasgow Central Railway

abstract: The Glasgow Central Railway was a railway line built in Glasgow, Scotland by the Caledonian Railway, running in tunnel east to west through the city centre. It was opened in stages from 1894 and opened up new journey opportunities for passengers and enabled the Caledonian Railway to access docks and industrial locations on the north bank of the River Clyde. An intensive and popular train service was operated, but the long tunnel sections with frequent steam trains were smoky and heartily disliked. The network paralleled the North British Railway routes in the area, and after nationalisation of the railways the line declined and was closed in stages from 1959 to 1964. In 1979 the central part of the route was reopened as an electrically operated passenger railway, the Argyle Line; this was greatly popular and enhanced connecting routes to west and east made this a valuable link through the city once more. The Argyle Line section is in heavy use today, but the other parts remain closed.

text:
# Glasgow Central Railway

The **Glasgow Central Railway** was a railway line built in Glasgow, Scotland by the Caledonian Railway, running in tunnel east to west through the city centre. It was opened in stages from 1894 and opened up new journey opportunities for passengers and enabled the Caledonian Railway to access docks and industrial locations on the north bank of the River Clyde. An intensive and popular train service was operated, but the long tunnel sections with frequent steam trains were smoky and heartily disliked.

The network paralleled the North British Railway routes in the area, and after nationalisation of the railways the line declined and was closed in stages from 1959 to 1964.

In 1979 the central part of the route was reopened as an electrically operated passenger railway, the *Argyle Line*; this was greatly popular and enhanced connecting routes to west and east made this a valuable link through the city once more. The Argyle Line section is in heavy use today, but the other parts remain closed.

## History

### First main lines in Glasgow

In 1845 the Caledonian Railway was authorised to build its line from Glasgow and Edinburgh to Carlisle. This was a main line railway, with no thought of local travel within the cities. By acquiring interests in other lines, the Caledonian soon had three terminal stations in Glasgow: Buchanan Street, South Side, and Bridge Street. None of these was very convenient to the city centre for passengers, and goods to and from shipping on the River Clyde was carted through the streets.

The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) terminated at Queen Street, a cramped terminal convenient for the city but with no access to the quays.

The Caledonian set about getting access to the Clyde at Broomielaw by sponsoring the nominally independent General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway which constructed berthing a short distance downstream from Glasgow Bridge on the south side, and built a railway to it from Gushetfaulds (Larkfield Junction). The construction was finished by December 1848 but it connected to the Clydesdale Junction Railway which was only completed the following year. The General Terminus represented considerable progress in bulk handling of minerals, but it was still limited in capacity, as the vessels had to lie alongside the bank, and the improvements to the navigation of the Clyde had not yet been completed. Nonetheless the General Terminus had an effective monopoly of rail-borne export of minerals for many years.

At this period the rapid industrialisation of Glasgow led to an influx of workers into the city centre: Glasgow became "the second city of the British Empire" and the more affluent moved to suburbs: Charing Cross, Hillhead and the Botanic Gardens area. There was still no recognisable suburban railway.

In 1858 the Glasgow, Dumbarton and Helensburgh Railway (GD&HR) opened its line from the E&GR at Cowlairs, on the north-east of Glasgow, looping round to the north and running north of the Clyde to Dumbarton and on to Helensburgh. The circuit round the north of Glasgow was a roundabout route but it succeeded in connecting Dunbartonshire into the railway network. The company was absorbed by the E&GR in 1862 and the E&GR was itself absorbed to form the North British Railway in 1865. Accordingly, the Caledonian was losing out to a bitter competitor.

In 1870 the City of Glasgow Union Railway bridged the Clyde and the so-called "bus trains", frequent services with closely spaced stops, were instituted. The City Union Line was a joint scheme between the NBR and the Glasgow and South Western Railway, another competitor.

### North Clyde developments

From 1872 the Clyde Trustees undertook an ambitious project to build a large dock at Stobcross, on marshland on the north bank downstream. This became the Queen's Dock, and it opened in 1874.

The North British Railway built a connecting line to it, leaving the GD&HR line at Maryhill and running south and then east. It took a wide circuit to reach Stobcross because of contours and housing development. This was the Stobcross Railway. Traffic started on 20 October 1870, and it formed an important goods artery for NBR. The Caledonian Railway were granted running powers to reach the dock from Sighthill, a long and difficult transit over NBR tracks, and the NBR placed every obstacle in the way of the Caledonian.

Next the NBR sponsored another nominally independent company, the Glasgow, Yoker and Clydebank Railway, which left the GD&HR line near Jordanhill and ran to industrial locations, especially shipyards, on the Clyde. It opened in 1882. Finally the Glasgow City and District Railway was promoted, also by the NBR, to build a through east to west sub-surface line connecting the Coatbridge line and the Dumbarton line. It opened in 1886 and although expensive to construct, it was an immediate success. The North British Railway now had a decent suburban network in Glasgow and on the North bank of the Clyde, and the Caledonian had almost nothing.

### The Glasgow Central Railway

The Caledonian clearly had to do something, and an independent engineer, Charles Forman, proposed a solution: a *Glasgow Central Railway* should be built on an east-west axis, connecting Maryhill in the north west of the city with Dalmarnock, on a short branch from Rutherglen on the main line, in the south east. It would run through the city centre south of the NBR line and have station facilities at the Caledonian's Glasgow Central terminal, as well as giving direct access to Stobcross and the Queen's Dock, still an important dock area. The Caledonian thought this was a good idea, and encouraged the development of the scheme. At this time the line that became the Liverpool Overhead Railway was being designed. The solution of building an urban railway over the streets in the central area seemed attractive and relatively cheap, and on that basis the Glasgow Central Railway obtained parliamentary authorisation on 10 August 1888.

Business interests and public opinion in Glasgow only now realised what was being proposed, and a considerable outcry; so vehement was it that the Caledonian reconsidered, and a further Act was sought and obtained the following year, altering the plan to a sub-surface line like the NBR line. Getting the Act was one thing, but the detailed engineering of a sub-surface railway through the centre of the city, with large buildings that could not be disturbed, was daunting. The Caledonian decided to take the work into its own hands, still employing the engineering firm that conceived the scheme, and the company was absorbed on 31 May 1890. No physical work had started at that time.

Notwithstanding the difficulties, the idea of the line was so attractive that a branch was proposed, running from Bridgeton Cross via Tollcross to Carmyle (on the Caledonian's Rutherglen and Coatbridge line and on to Newton on the main line. This extension, often informally referred to as *the Tollcross line*, was authorised by Act of Parliament on 25 July 1890.

The first sod was cut on 11 June 1890 by Master J. B. Montgomerie Fleming, son of J. B. Fleming of Kelvinside. Construction was prodigiously difficult: five out of seven miles were underground; and the city authorities were now alerted to the need to demand proper respect for the aesthetics of the city streets, and they paid close attention to the plans and practices of the company. The new Botanic Gardens was of especial architectural interest as a result. The Caledonian issued £950,000 of special stock to fund the construction.

### Opening

In the final stages of construction the section from Maryhill to Stobcross opened to mineral traffic (to Queens Dock) on 26 November 1894. (The Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire opened from Maryhill to Balornock Junction on the same day.) Passenger trains started to run from Rutherglen to Glasgow Cross on 1 November 1895, and the entire line opened to all traffic on 10 August 1896. 130 trains passed through the line each way. Central Station had two island platforms, and four through tracks. The Tollcross section opened throughout on 1 February 1897.

Goods traffic was hugely important at the time, and was considerably simplified: instead of using running powers over the NBR from Sighthill to Stobcross, the trains could now run through the Central line, or alternatively via the Possil line of the L&DR.

### Early electrification proposals

Except at the extremities, the line ran through continuous tunnels and was operated by steam trains. (Some locomotives were fitted with condensing equipment.) 130 passenger trains ran each way daily, and heavy mineral traffic to Stobcross used the route. The ventilation and lighting of the subsurface stations were poor, and the environment attracted much criticism. At this time technical development suggested that electric traction might be feasible. The Central London Railway was being constructed on that system (it opened in 1900) and of course street tramcars had been using electricity, not without problems at first.

The Caledonian decided to electrify the line, and electrification of the Glasgow Central Railway, the Tollcross line, and other railways was authorised by Parliament on 2 August 1898. As well as the immaturity of the technology there were some practical problems, chiefly the heavy mineral traffic which would have required an engine change on approaching the line and again at Stobcross. Having secured the powers, the Caledonian did not proceed with the idea, and the powers lapsed.

### Connections at the west end

The eastern end of the proposed railway fed into the Caledonian network towards Hamilton, Motherwell and Coatbridge. At the western end, it fed to the Queen's Dock at Stobcross, and to the important suburb at Maryhill, and also to nearby Dawsholm. Dawsholm was almost entirely industrial; for many years there had been an important textile printing works there and a large corporation gasworks had been established there in 1871 and much extended later. Much supplementary industry, including a chemical works, was being established there.

Dawsholm only lasted until 1908 as a passenger station, but it developed in its industrial significance, and the Caledonian built a six-road engine shed there which serviced most of the Central Railway's traction needs.

Concurrently with the construction of the Glasgow Central Railway, the Caledonian was encouraging the promotion and building of the *Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire Railway*. (The company used the spelling Dumbartonshire, although later usage for the county adopted a spelling with the letter "n".)

This was to link Balloch and Dumbarton with the north shore of the River Clyde to the Central line. The connection was at Stobcross, and also to a new through station at Maryhill continuing on to Possil and a junction at Balornock on the Caledonian main line from Buchanan Street. The route taken by the L&DR incorporated a large area of newly established heavy industry on North Clydeside and served rapidly developing residential areas.

The Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire line opened progressively in the years 1894 to 1896, and with the Central line was operated as an integral part of the Caledonian Railway: at last the Caledonian had secured a suburban network in the north and west of Glasgow.

### Post-war decline

From the outset, the Central Railway was found to be unattractive for passengers; the smoky atmosphere, and the dirty condition of the station and the trains were constantly commented upon. Street tramcars by contrast were frequent, clean, and had stops close to city destinations that the railway could not always match. The railways were nationalised in 1948, and the duplication of lines for passengers and goods was a disadvantage, now that competition was irrelevant. Some individual stations had already been closed. The line was closed to passengers between Maryhill and Stobcross on 2 November 1959, although goods and mineral traffic continued from the Possil line via Maryhill to the Queen's Dock until 14 August 1960; after that date a service to Kelvinbridge continued until 6 July 1964.

The NBR route to Helensburgh was selected for modernisation, and the route was electrified in 1960, causing a revolution in passenger convenience. This only exaggerated the negative perception of the Central Railway, and on 5 October 1964 the Central Railway network was closed to passenger traffic. The Possil line lost its goods traffic as well, as it simply paralleled the NBR route. A short section serving Tollcross from Carmyle was the only remnant, for goods trains, lasting until 4 April 1966.

### Argyle Line

For some years, therefore, the line lay unused. Then in the 1970s the Glasgow political mood shifted in favour of rail transport. The Greater Glasgow Passenger Transport Authority decided to fund reopening of part of the Central Railway, as a passenger link line from a junction near Partick on the NBR electric line to Rutherglen. Financial authority was given in 1974, and on 1 November 1979 the new Argyle Line, as it was named, was opened. Public services started on 5 November 1979. The diverging junction at Partick leading to the Argyle Line was made a grade-separated junction: eastbound trains dived under the NBR line and converged with the westbound line at Stobcross, renamed Finnieston (and later renamed Exhibition Centre.)

A new station was provided at Argyle Street; the platforms are below the centre of the street, and at the time it had not been pedestrianised. Accordingly, the access from the island platform descends to cross under the track, before rising to a street level building at the side of the street.

The Argyle line was a considerable success, and trains ran through from the Hamilton Circle and from Lanark, although the Lanark train was re-diverted to its previous route from Rutherglen to Glasgow Central high level station in 2013. There is a frequency of typically eight trains an hour through the line each way, operated by ScotRail.

## Signalling

The signalling in the long and difficult tunnel section was conventional, using the Tyers Lock and Block system, but the signals themselves had no semaphore arms; instead they had a rising spectacle plate that exhibited the usual night time oil lamp colours to drivers. This subjected the Caledonian and its successor railway to criticism, as the smoky tunnel conditions, coupled with commonplace bunker-first running, led to difficulty for drivers. The intensive train service and the occasional failure of the lock and block system seems to have encouraged signalmen to adopt irregular practices to deal with the failures. The purpose of the lock and block system is to prevent signalmen from accepting a train until a preceding train has passed and the signals restored to danger. Collisions resulted from the irregular practice when a train failed in section and signalmen assumed that it had passed unnoticed, and irregularly released the system.

A remarkable innovation with a form of power signalling was installed at Stobcross. The station was in a very cramped site already heavily built up. At the east end, where the line emerged from the tunnel section, there was a sharp curve and a signal box had to be located there: "Stobcross East". At the location where the signal box had to be located to allow the signalman to observe the passage and location of trains, there was inadequate space for a conventional box. The solution adopted was to build a master-and-slave system: a staffed signal box was placed where visibility of trains was convenient, and a dependent box with full interlocking was placed in a convenient space, but where visibility was poor. The latter box was normally unstaffed, and it was operated by hydraulic power from the staffed box, which contained the block instruments.

The innovation was not a success, and in 1909 it was replaced by a conventional signalbox arrangement.

Some of the signals in the tunnel section were disc signals and some semaphore signals at stations between the tunnels had foreshortened arms.

In 1956 modern colour light signalling was installed on the line, controlled from Stobcross and Bridgeton, with track circuit control in between. This enabled the closure of boxes at Dalmarnock, Glasgow Green, Glasgow Cross, Glasgow Central, Anderston Cross and Partick Central No.2. Each signal had an electric detonator placer.

## Accidents

The special conditions of intensive working in the tunnel sections made the task difficult. Signalmen and drivers were under pressure to work the heavy train service efficiently, in the most challenging of conditions.

To avoid stopping passenger trains in tunnel sections, a relaxation of the rules was in force permitting the clearance of the home signal (protecting entry to a station area) without bringing the train quite or nearly to a stand. The consequence of this was that drivers rarely encountered any home signal at danger, and some were accustomed to fail to look out for it. Many of the signals were of miniature arm or disc type, and the tunnel signals were oil lamps of inconsistent performance. Bunker-first or tender first running and the smoky tunnel conditions made signal spotting difficult. Out of sequence running and the heavy running of special goods and excursion trains added to the signalmen's load.

A rear-end collision took place near Anderston Cross in 1900. A signalman irregularly used a cancelling key, which negated the controls of the lock-and-block system, and he allowed a second train into the section.

In 1939 a side-swiping collision took place at Stobcross. Two trains had been simultaneously accepted up to the converging junction from the west; this was improper as there was no overlap available. One of the trains overran the home signal which was at danger.

In 1949 a rear-end collision took place at Glasgow Cross; a passenger train driven by an experienced driver ran through several stop signals standing at danger; low standards of attention to signalling equipment maintenance were exposed, and it was clear that drivers were used to running through the line without being able to see many of the signals.

In 1951 a rear-end collision took place at Stobcross; a signalman worked the block instruments irregularly, and there were two wrong-side defects in the lock and block system that enabled this.

In 1952 a rear-end collision took place at Bridgeton Cross; a train stalled in the section and a signalman thought the train had passed and that the Lock-and-Block apparatus had failed; he improperly released the lock and signalled a following train through.

## Topography

### Original line

For much of its route the line was in a shallow cut-and-cover tunnel, and gradients were imposed by the road levels. Glasgow Central station was in a dip to enable the footbridge between platforms to cross the line, below the main station above.

Location list:

#### Dawsholm branch

* Dawsholm; opened 1 October 1896; closed 1 May 1908;
* *Kirklee Junction*;

#### Main line

* Maryhill; opened 10 August 1896; renamed Maryhill Central 1952; closed 5 October 1964;
* *Kirklee Junction*; see above;
* Kirklee; opened 10 August 1896; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; closed 1 May 1939;
* Botanic Gardens; opened 10 August 1896; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; closed 6 February 1939;
* Kelvin Bridge; opened 10 August 1896; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; closed 4 August 1952;
* Stobcross; opened 1 May 1896; closed 3 August 1959;
* Anderston Cross; opened 10 August 1896; closed 3 August 1959;
* Glasgow Central; opened 10 August 1896; closed 5 October 1964;
* Glasgow Cross; opened 1 November 1895; closed 5 October 1964;
* Glasgow Green; opened 1 November 1895; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 June 1919; closed 2 November 1953;
* Bridgeton Cross; opened 1 November 1895; closed 5 October 1964;
* Dalmarnock; opened 1 November 1895; closed 5 October 1964.

#### Tollcross line

* Bridgeton Cross; see above;
* Parkhead; opened 23 November 1870; renamed Parkhead Stadium 1952; closed 5 October 1964;
* Tollcross; opened 1 February 1897; closed 5 October 1964;
* Carmyle; station on Rutherglen and Coatbridge line; closed 5 October 1964;
* *Carmyle Junction*;
* Newton; station on main line.

The line continued to Rutherglen using the London Road branch.

### 1979 line

* *Partick Junction*; on Queen Street line;
* Finnieston; renamed Exhibition Centre 1986;
* Anderston;
* Glasgow Central;
* Argyle Street;
* Bridgeton;
* Dalmarnock;
* Rutherglen.

## Images

1. At the time the common spelling was *Dumbartonshire* and some railways used that spelling in their titles.

## Sources

## InfoBox

Glasgow Central Railway
| Overview | |
| --- | --- |
| Headquarters | Glasgow |
| Locale | Scotland |
| Dates of operation | 10 August 188831 May 1889 |
| Successor | Caledonian Railway |
| Technical | |
| Track gauge | 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+12 in) |
| Route map | |