title: Muisca Confederation

abstract: The Muisca Confederation was a loose confederation of different Muisca rulers in the central Andean highlands of what is today Colombia before the Spanish conquest of northern South America. The area, presently called Altiplano Cundiboyacense, comprised the current departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and minor parts of Santander. According to some Muisca scholars the Muisca Confederation was one of the best-organized confederations of tribes on the South American continent. Modern anthropologists, such as Jorge Gamboa Mendoza, attribute the present-day knowledge about the confederation and its organization more to a reflection by Spanish chroniclers who predominantly wrote about it a century or more after the Muisca were conquered and proposed the idea of a loose collection of different people with slightly different languages and backgrounds.

text:
# Muisca Confederation

The **Muisca Confederation** was a loose confederation of different Muisca rulers (*zaques*, *zipas*, *iraca*, and *tundama*) in the central Andean highlands of what is today Colombia before the Spanish conquest of northern South America. The area, presently called Altiplano Cundiboyacense, comprised the current departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and minor parts of Santander.

According to some Muisca scholars the Muisca Confederation was one of the best-organized confederations of tribes on the South American continent. Modern anthropologists, such as Jorge Gamboa Mendoza, attribute the present-day knowledge about the confederation and its organization more to a reflection by Spanish chroniclers who predominantly wrote about it a century or more after the Muisca were conquered and proposed the idea of a loose collection of different people with slightly different languages and backgrounds.

## Geography

### Climate

| **Climate charts for the extremes and four most important settlements of the Muisca Confederation** | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| NW: Vélez – 2050 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  1.3     67 45       1.8     67 46       2.6     67 47       4.4     66 49       4     65 49       2.5     64 48       1.9     64 48       1.9     64 47       2.2     65 47       4.7     65 47       4.4     65 47       2.4     66 46   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | Lowest: Charalá – 1290 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  2.8     83 59       3.8     83 60       6.2     84 60       11     82 61       11     82 61       6.9     81 61       6.9     84 60       7.6     83 59       8.8     82 60       12     81 61       9.6     81 61       4.1     82 60   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | Highest: Aquitania – 3030 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  0.4     62 43       0.9     62 44       1.9     63 45       5.5     61 46       8.6     59 46       4.4     57 45       4.3     56 45       3.7     57 45       3.3     58 44       4.3     60 45       3     61 45       0.9     61 44   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | NE: Soatá – 1950 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  1.6     76 54       2.3     77 54       3.5     77 55       11     75 56       9.5     74 56       5     73 55       4     74 54       4.1     74 55       6.1     74 55       10     74 55       6.4     74 55       3.3     75 54   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches |
| SW: Tibacuy – 1647 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  2.8     75 59       3.5     76 60       4.3     76 61       6.7     75 61       6.1     74 61       3.5     74 60       2.2     75 60       2     75 60       3.1     76 59       8.4     74 59       8.5     73 59       3.9     74 59   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches |  |  | SE: Ubalá – 1949 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  1.9     74 52       3.7     74 54       5.4     74 56       8.5     73 57       11     72 57       14     70 56       13     70 55       11     70 55       8.1     71 54       7.4     72 55       5.2     73 55       2.8     73 54   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches |
| Bacatá – 2700 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  1.3     67 40       1.8     67 38       2.6     67 44       4.4     66 45       4     65 47       2.5     64 48       1.9     64 46       1.9     64 46       2.2     65 45       4.7     65 44       4.4     65 46       2.4     66 41   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | Hunza – 2820 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  0.9     66 44       1.2     66 45       2.5     67 47       4.6     65 48       4.3     64 48       3.6     61 47       2.8     61 46       2.7     62 46       2.8     63 46       4.8     63 47       4.3     64 47       1.7     65 45   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | Suamox – 2569 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  0.7     71 47       1.2     72 47       2.3     72 48       4.5     69 50       4.2     68 50       2.6     67 49       1.9     66 47       2     67 48       2.5     68 48       4.6     68 49       3.5     69 49       1.4     70 47   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches | Tundama – 2590 m  Climate chart (explanation)   Imperial conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  0.8     70 45       1.7     71 46       2.6     71 46       4.8     69 49       5     67 49       3     66 47       2.1     66 46       2.1     67 46       2.9     67 46       5.6     67 48       3.6     68 47       1.7     69 45   Average max. and min. temperatures in °F  Precipitation totals in inches |
| The climates (Af-Cfb-Cwb) of the geographic (NW, NE, SW and SE) and topographic extremes and for the four main settlements of the Muisca Confederation situated on the Altiplano,
from SW to NE; **Bacatá, Hunza, Suamox** and **Tundama** are rather constant over the year with wetter periods in April–May and October–November | | | |
|

## Muisca Confederation

In the times before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca, the central part of present-day Colombia; the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes was inhabited by the Muisca people who were organised in a loose confederation of rulers. The central authorities of Bacatá in the south and Hunza in the north were called *zipa* and *zaque* respectively. Other rulers were the *iraca* priest in sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi, the *Tundama* of Tundama and various other *caciques* (chiefs). The Muisca spoke Chibcha, in their own language called *Muysccubun*; "language of the people".

The Muisca people, different from the other three great civilisations of the Americas; the Maya, Aztec and Inca, did not build grand stone architecture. Their settlements were relatively small and consisted of *bohíos*; circular houses of wood and clay, organised around a central market square with the house of the *cacique* in the centre. Roads were present to connect the settlements with each other and with the surrounding indigenous groups, of which the Guane and Lache to the north, the Panche and Muzo to the west and Guayupe, Achagua and Tegua to the east were the most important.

### History

#### Prehistory

Early Amerindian settlers led a hunter-gatherer life among still extant megafauna living in cool habitats around Pleistocene lakes, of which the humedales in Bogotá, Lake Suesca, Lake Fúquene and Lake Herrera are notable examples. Multiple evidences of late Pleistocene to middle Holocene population of the Bogotá savanna, the high plateau in the Colombian Andes, have been found to date. As is common with caves and rock shelters, Tequendama was inhabited from around 11,000 years BP, and continuing into the prehistorical, Herrera and Muisca periods, making it the oldest site of Colombia, together with El Abra (12,500 BP), located north of Zipaquirá and Tibitó, located within the boundaries of Tocancipá (11,740 BP). The oldest human remains and the oldest complete skeleton were discovered at Tequendama and has been named "Hombre del Tequendama" or *Homo Tequendama*. Other artefacts have been found in Gachalá (9100 BP), Sueva (Junín) and Zipacón. Just west of the Altiplano, the oldest archaeological remains were found; in Pubenza, part of Tocaima and have been dated at 16,000 years Before Present.

#### Pre-Columbian era

##### Herrera Period

| Period
name | Start
age | End
age |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Herrera | 800 BCE | 800 |
| Early Muisca | 800 | 1200 |
| Late Muisca | 1200 | 1537 |
| Kruschek, 2003 | | |
|

The Herrera Period is a phase in the history of Colombia. It is part of the Andean preceramic and ceramic, time equivalent of the North American pre-Columbian formative and classic stages and age dated by various archaeologists. The Herrera Period predates the age of the Muisca people, who inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca and postdates the lithic formative stage and prehistory of the eastern Andean region in Colombia. The Herrera Period is usually defined as ranging from 800 BCE to 800 AD, although some scholars date it as early as 1500 BCE, considered as the "Early Herrera Period".

Ample evidence of the Herrera Period has been uncovered on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense and main archaeologists contributing to the present knowledge about the Herrera Period are scholars Ana María Groot, Gonzalo Correal Urrego, Thomas van der Hammen, Carl Henrik Langebaek Rueda, Sylvia M. Broadbent, Marianne Cardale de Schrimpff and others.

##### Muisca

The Muisca were polytheistic and their religion and mythology was closely connected with the natural area they were inhabiting. They had a thorough understanding of astronomical parameters and developed a complex luni-solar calendar; the Muisca calendar. According to the calendar they had specific times for sowing, harvest and the organisation of festivals where they sang, danced and played music and drank their national drink chicha in great quantities.

The most respected members of the community were mummified and the mummies were not buried, yet displayed in their temples, in natural locations such as caves and even carried on their backs during warfare to impress their enemies.

Their art is the most famous remnant of their culture, as living spaces, temples and other existing structures have been destroyed by the Spanish who colonised the Muisca territories. A primary example of their fine goldworking is the Muisca raft, together with more objects made of gold, *tumbaga*, ceramics and cotton displayed in the Museo del Oro in Bogotá, the ancient capital of the southern Muisca.

The Muisca were a predominantly agricultural society with small-scale farmfields, part of more extensive terrains. To diversify their diet, they traded mantles, gold, emeralds and salt for fruits, vegetables, coca, yopo and cotton cultivated in lower altitude warmer terrains populated by their neighbours, the Muzo, Panche, Yarigui, Guane, Guayupe, Achagua, Tegua, Lache, Sutagao and U'wa. Trade of products grown farther away happened with the Calima, Pijao and Caribbean coastal communities around the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Muisca economy was self-sufficient regarding the basic supplies, thanks to the advanced technologies of the agriculture on raised terraces by the people. The system of trade was well established providing both the higher social classes and the general population abundances of gold, feathers, marine snails, coca, yopo and other luxury goods. Markets were held every four to eight days in various settlements throughout the Muisca Confederation and special markets were organised around festivities where merchants from far outside the Andes were trading their goods with the Muisca.

Apart from agriculture, the Muisca were well developed in the production of different crafts, using the raw materials traded with surrounding indigenous peoples. Famous are the golden and *tumbaga* objects made by the Muisca people. Cotton mantles, cloths and nets were made by the Muisca women and traded for valuable goods, tropical fruits and small cotton cloths were used as money. The Muisca were unique in South America for having real coins of gold, called *tejuelos*.

Mining was an important source of income for the Muisca, who were called "Salt People" because of their salt mines in Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. Like their western neighbours, the Muzo—who were called "The Emerald People"—they mined emeralds in their territories, mainly in Somondoco. Carbon was found throughout the region of the Muisca in Eocene sediments and used for the fires for cooking and the production of salt and golden ornaments.

The people used a decimal counting system, based on the digits of the hand. Their system went from 1 to 10 and for higher numerations they used the prefix *quihicha* or *qhicha*, which means "foot" in their Chibcha language *Muysccubun*. Eleven became thus "foot one", twelve "foot two", etc. As in the other pre-Columbian civilizations, the number 20 was special. It was the total number of all body extremities; fingers and toes. The Muisca used two forms to express twenty: "foot ten"; *quihícha ubchihica* or their exclusive word *gueta*, derived from *gue*, which means "house". Numbers between 20 and 30 were counted *gueta asaqui ata* ("twenty plus one"; 21), *gueta asaqui ubchihica* ("twenty plus ten"; 30). Larger numbers were counted as multiples of twenty; *gue-bosa* ("20 times 2"; 40), *gue-hisca* ("20 times 5"; 100). The Muisca script consisted of hieroglyphs, only used for numerals.

## Territorial organization

### Bacatá

| Municipality | Department
bold is capital | Ruler(s)
bold is seat | Altitude
urban centre (m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Bacatá** | **Cundinamarca** | ***zipa*** | 2640 | 1587 | Muisca mummy found
Important market town
Petrographs found |  |
| Bojacá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2598 | 109 | Lake Herrera
Petrographs found |  |
| Cajicá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2558 | 50.4 |  |  |
| La Calera | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2718 | 317 | Petrographs found |  |
| Cáqueza | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 1746 | 38 |  |  |
| Chía | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2564 | 80 | Moon Temple
Herrera site
Petrographs found |  |
| Choachí | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 1923 | 223 | Choachí Stone found |  |
| Chocontá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2655 | 301.1 | Important market town
Battle of Chocontá (~1490)
Fortification between *zipa* & *zaque* |  |
| Cogua | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2600 | 113 | Muisca ceramics production
Petrographs found |  |
| Cota | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2566 | 55 | Petrographs found
Still Muisca people living |  |
| Cucunubá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2590 | 112 | Petrographs found |  |
| Facatativá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2586 | 158 | Piedras del Tunjo |  |
| Funza | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2548 | 70 | Important market town |  |
| Gachancipá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2568 | 44 | Muisca mummy found
Muisca ceramics production |  |
| Guasca | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2710 | 346 | Siecha Lakes
Muisca ceramics production
Petrographs found |  |
| Madrid | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2554 | 120.5 | Lake Herrera
Petrographs found |  |
| Mosquera | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2516 | 107 | Lake Herrera
Petrographs found |  |
| Nemocón | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2585 | 98.1 | Muisca salt mines
Preceramic site Checua
Petrographs found |  |
| Pacho | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2136 | 403.3 | Important market town |  |
| Pasca | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2180 | 246.24 | Battle of Pasca (~1470)
Muisca raft found |  |
| El Rosal | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2685 | 86.48 |  |  |
| San Antonio
del Tequendama | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 1540 | 82 | Tequendama Falls
Fortification against Panche
Petrographs found |  |
| Sesquilé | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2595 | 141 | Lake Guatavita
Minor Muisca salt mines |  |
| Sibaté | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2700 | 125.6 | Petrographs found |  |
| Soacha | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2565 | 184.45 | Preceramic site Tequendama
Herrera site
Muisca ceramics production
Petrographs found |  |
| Sopó | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2650 | 111.5 | Herrera site |  |
| Subachoque | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2663 | 211.53 | Petrographs found |  |
| Suesca | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2584 | 177 | 150 Muisca mummies found
Lake Suesca
Muisca ceramics production
Important market town
Petrographs found |  |
| Sutatausa | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2550 | 67 | Petrographs found |  |
| Tabio | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2569 | 74.5 | Hot springs used by the Muisca |  |
| Tausa | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2931 | 204 | Muisca salt mines
Petrographs found |  |
| Tena | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 1384 | 55 | Fortification against Panche
Petrographs found |  |
| Tenjo | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2587 | 108 | Petrographs found |  |
| Tibacuy | Cundinamarca | *zipa* & Panche | 1647 | 84.4 | Border with Panche
Fortification against Panche & Sutagao
Petrographs found |  |
| Tocancipá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2605 | 73.51 | Preceramic site Tibitó
Muisca ceramics production
Important market town
Petrographs found |  |
| Zipaquirá | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2650 | 197 | El Abra
Muisca salt mines
Important market town
Petrographs and petroglyphs found |  |
| Fúquene | Cundinamarca | *zipa*
*zaque* | 2750 | 90 | Lake Fúquene |  |
| Simijaca | Cundinamarca | *zipa* (1490–1537) | 2559 | 107 | Conquered by *zipa* Saguamanchica
upon *zaque* Michuá (~1490) |  |
| Susa | Cundinamarca | *zipa* (1490–1537) | 2655 | 86 | Conquered by *zipa* Saguamanchica
upon *zaque* Michuá (~1490)
Lake Fúquene |  |
| Ubaté | Cundinamarca | *zipa* (1490–1537) | 2556 | 102 | Conquered by *zipa* Saguamanchica
upon *zaque* Michuá (~1490)
Muisca mummy found |  |
| Zipacón | Cundinamarca | *zipa* | 2550 | 70 | Agriculture
Place of meditation for the *zipa*
Petrographs found |  |
|

### Chipazaque

| Municipality
 | Department | Ruler(s) | Altitude
(m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Junín | Cundinamarca | *chipazaque* | 2300 | 337 | Shared between
*zipa* and *zaque*
Petrographs found |  |
|

### Hunza

| Municipality
 | Department
bold is capital | Ruler(s)
bold is seat | Altitude
(m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Hunza** | **Boyacá** | ***zaque*** | 2820 | 121.4 | Hunzahúa Well
Cojines del Zaque
Goranchacha Temple
Muisca mummy found
Important market town
Petrographs found |  |
| Boyacá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2420 | 48 |  |  |
| Buenavista | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2100 | 125 | Border with Muzo
Nose piece and pectoral found,
dated at 620 and 990 AD respectively |  |
| Chinavita | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1763 | 148 |  |  |
| Chíquiza | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2900 | 119.52 | Lake Iguaque |  |
| Chitaraque | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1575 | 157.65 |  |  |
| Chivatá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2903 | 56 |  |  |
| Ciénega | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2460 | 73 |  |  |
| Cucaita | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2650 | 43.58 |  |  |
| Gachantivá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2450 | 66 | Muisca mummy found
Muisca copper mines |  |
| Garagoa | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1650 | 191.75 |  |  |
| Macanal | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1680 | 199.5 | Border with Tegua |  |
| Motavita | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2690 | 62 | Coca market town
Petrographs found |  |
| Oicatá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2815 | 59 |  |  |
| Pachavita | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1985 | 68 |  |  |
| Ramiriquí | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2325 | 146.5 | Place of death of Quemuenchatocha
Important ceramics production
Petrographs found |  |
| Sáchica | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2150 | 62.4 | Petrographs found |  |
| Samacá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2660 | 172.9 |  |  |
| San Miguel de Sema | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2615 | 90 | Lake Fúquene |  |
| Siachoque | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2760 | 125 |  |  |
| Somondoco | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1670 | 58.7 | Muisca emerald mines
Important market town |  |
| Sutamarchán | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1800 | 102 | Muisca ceramics production |  |
| Tinjacá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2175 | 79.3 | Muisca ceramics production |  |
| Tipacoque | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1850 | 72.1 | Chicamocha Canyon |  |
| Turmequé | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2389 | 106 | Important market town
Fortification between *zipa* & *zaque* |  |
| Villa de Leyva | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2149 | 128 | *El Infiernito*
Lake Iguaque
Muisca mummy found
Important market town |  |
| Sora | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2650 | 42 |  |  |
| Soracá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2942 | 57 |  |  |
| Sotaquirá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2860 | 288.65 |  |  |
| Sutatenza | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1890 | 41.26 |  |  |
| Tibaná | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2115 | 121.76 | Petrographs found |  |
| Togüí | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1650 | 118 |  |  |
| Tuta | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2600 | 165 |  |  |
| Ventaquemada | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2630 | 159.3 |  |  |
| Viracachá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2520 | 68 |  |  |
| Zetaquirá | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1665 | 262 |  |  |
| Almeida | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1925 | 57.98 |  |  |
| La Capilla | Boyacá | *zaque* | 1750 | 57.26 |  |  |
| Jenesano | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2076 | 59 |  |  |
| Nuevo Colón | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2500 | 51 |  |  |
| Rondón | Boyacá | *zaque* | 2075 | 158 |  |  |
| Lenguazaque | Cundinamarca | *zaque* | 2589 | 15.36 |  |  |
| Machetá | Cundinamarca | *zaque* | 2094 | 229.35 | Petrographs found |  |
| Tibiritá | Cundinamarca | *zaque* | 1980 | 57.2 | Petrographs found |  |
| Villapinzón | Cundinamarca | *zaque* | 2715 | 249 |  |  |
|

### Iraca

| Municipality | Department | Ruler(s)
bold is seat | Altitude
(m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Suamox** | Boyacá | ***iraca***
Nompanim
Sugamuxi | 2569 | 208.54 | Sun Temple
Muisca mummy found
Muisca carbon mines |  |
| Aquitania | Boyacá | *iraca* | 3030 | 943 | Lake Tota |  |
| Busbanzá | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2472 | 22.5 | Elector of new *iraca* |  |
| Cuítiva | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2750 | 43 | Lake Tota
Statue of Bochica |  |
| Firavitoba | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2500 | 109.9 | Elector of new *iraca* |  |
| Gámeza | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2750 | 88 | Herrera site
Muisca mummy found
Minor Muisca salt mines
Muisca carbon mines
Petrographs found |  |
| Iza | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2560 | 34 | Herrera site
Lake Tota
Petrographs found |  |
| Mongua | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2975 | 365.5 | Petrographs found |  |
| Monguí | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2900 | 81 | Petroglyphs
Birthplaces (*Tortolitas*) |  |
| Pesca | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2858 | 282 |  |  |
| Tasco | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2530 | 167 | Muisca mummy found |  |
| Toca | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2810 | 165 |  |  |
| Tota | Boyacá | *iraca* | 2870 | 314 | Lake Tota |  |
| Socotá | Boyacá | *iraca*
Tundama | 2443 | 600.11 | Muisca mummy found |  |
| Tibasosa | Boyacá | Tundama
*iraca* | 2538 | 94.3 |  |  |
|

### Tundama

* Capital – Tundama
* Area – 2,920 square kilometres (1,130 sq mi)
* Average elevation – 2,470 metres (8,100 ft)
* Last ruler – Tundama
* Date of conquest – Late December 1539 (Duitama) – Baltasar Maldonado
* Important settlements – Tundama, Onzaga, Soatá, *Chitagoto* (now Paz de Río)

| Municipality | Department | Ruler(s)
bold is seat | Altitude
(m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Tundama** | Boyacá | **Tundama** | 2590 | 266.93 | Seat of Tundama
In ancient lake |  |
| Onzaga | Santander | Tundama | 1960 | 486.76 | Important for wool and cotton production |  |
| Cerinza | Boyacá | Tundama | 2750 | 61.63 | Monument to the Muisca |  |
| Paz de Río | Boyacá | Tundama | 2200 | 116 | Coca market town |  |
| Paipa | Boyacá | Tundama | 2525 | 305.924 | Thermal springs |  |
| Sativanorte | Boyacá | Tundama | 2600 | 184 | Herrera site |  |
| Sativasur | Boyacá | Tundama | 2600 | 81 | Muisca mummy SO10-IX found
Herrera site |  |
| Soatá | Boyacá | Tundama | 1950 | 136 | Herrera site
Coca market town |  |
| Belén | Boyacá | Tundama | 2650 | 83.6 | Petrographs found |  |
| Corrales | Boyacá | Tundama | 2470 | 60.85 |  |  |
| Floresta | Boyacá | Tundama | 2506 | 86 |  |  |
| Nobsa | Boyacá | Tundama | 2510 | 55.39 |  |  |
| Santa Rosa de Viterbo | Boyacá | Tundama | 2753 | 107 |  |  |
| Susacón | Boyacá | Tundama | 2480 | 191 |  |  |
| Tibasosa | Boyacá | Tundama
*iraca* | 2538 | 94.3 |  |  |
| Socotá | Boyacá | *iraca*
Tundama | 2443 | 600.11 | Muisca mummy found |  |
|

### Independent *caciques*

* Capital – *none*
* Area – 3,080 square kilometres (1,190 sq mi)
* Average elevation – 2,140 metres (7,020 ft)
* Important *caciques* – Guatavita, Ubaté, Chiquinquirá, Ubaque, Tenza, Vélez

| Municipality
bold is major *cacique* | Department | Ruler(s) | Altitude
(m) | Surface area
(km2) | Remarks | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Vélez** | Santander | *cacique* | 2050 | 271.34 |  |  |
| Chipatá | Santander | *cacique* | 1820 | 94.17 | First town conquered by the Spanish |  |
| Güepsa | Santander | *cacique* | 1540 | 33.08 | Border with Guane
Border with Yarigui |  |
| Charalá | Santander | *cacique* | 1290 | 411 | Border with Guane |  |
| Arcabuco | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2739 | 155 | Statue honouring the Muisca warriors |  |
| Betéitiva | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2575 | 123 |  |  |
| Boavita | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2114 | 159 | Muisca mummy found |  |
| **Chiquinquirá** | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2556 | 133 |  |  |
| Cómbita | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2825 | 149 |  |  |
| Covarachía | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2320 | 103 | Herrera site |  |
| Guateque | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1815 | 36.04 | Religious rituals at *Guatoc* hill |  |
| Guayatá | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1767 | 112 | Muisca money (*tejuelo*) found |  |
| Moniquirá | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1669 | 220 | Muisca mummy found
Muisca copper mines |  |
| Pisba | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2400 | 469.12 | Muisca mummy found |  |
| Ráquira | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2150 | 233 | Muisca ceramics production |  |
| Saboyá | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2600 | 246.9 | Petrographs found |  |
| Tópaga | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2900 | 37 | Muisca mummy found
Muisca carbon mines |  |
| Tutazá | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1890 | 135 | Muisca ceramics production |  |
| **Tenza** | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1600 | 51 | Tenza Valley |  |
| Chivor | Boyacá | *cacique* | 1800 | 108.36 | Muisca emerald mines |  |
| Úmbita | Boyacá | *cacique* | 2480 | 148.17 |  |  |
| Carmen de Carupa | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2600 | 228 | *Tunjo* found |  |
| **Guatavita** | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2680 | 247.3 | Muisca ceramics production
Main goldworking town
Petrographs found |  |
| Gachetá | Cundinamarca | *cacique* Guatavita | 1745 | 262.2 |  |  |
| Guachetá | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2688 | 177.45 | Minor Muisca salt mines
Petrographs found |  |
| Manta | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 1924 | 105 |  |  |
| **Ubaque** | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 1867 | 104.96 | Last public religious ritual (1563)
Lake Ubaque |  |
| Ubalá | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 1949 | 505 | Muisca emerald mines |  |
| Chipaque | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2400 | 139.45 | Petrographs found |  |
| Fómeque | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 1895 | 555.7 |  |  |
| Quetame | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 1496 | 138.47 |  |  |
| Une | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2376 | 221 |  |  |
| Fosca | Cundinamarca | *cacique* | 2080 | 126.02 | Fortification against Guayupe |  |
|

## Neighbouring indigenous groups

| Yarigui | **Guane** | | Lache | | U'wa |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Muzo** |  | |  | | |
| **Panche** | | Achagua | |
| Sutagao | | | Guayupe | | Tegua |
| Cariban languages • Chibchan languages • Arawakan languages | | | | | |
| *Yarigui and Lache not shown on map • Tegua shown as Tecua • U'wa shown as Tunebo* | | | | | |
|  | | | | | |
|

## Sacred sites

The sacred sites of the Muisca Confederation were based in the Muisca religion and mythology. The Muisca were a highly religious people with their own beliefs on the origin of the Earth and life and human sacrifices were no exception to please the gods for good harvests and prosperity.

**Lake Guatavita**, Guatavita, was the location where the new *zipa* would be inaugurated. It became known with the Spanish conquerors as the site of *El Dorado* where the new zipa was covered in gold dust and installed as the new ruler of the southern Muisca.

In the legends of the Muisca, humankind originated in **Lake Iguaque**, Monquirá, when the goddess Bachué came out from the lake with a boy in her arms. When the boy grew, they populated the Earth. They are considered the ancestors of the human race. Finally, they disappeared unto the lake in the shape of snakes.

According to Muisca myths, the **Tequendama Falls**, outside Soacha, was the site where the first *zipa* Meicuchuca lost his lover who turned in a snake and disappeared in the waters of the Bogotá River.

***El Infiernito***, close to the present town of Villa de Leyva was a sacred site where the Muisca erected structures based on astronomical parameters.

### Other sacred sites

## Spanish conquests

Sierra Nevada de Santa MartaTopography CesarTopography SantanderThe harsh expedition through the jungles of Magdalena, La Guajira, Cesar and Santander cost the lives of more than 80% of the troops and they hadn't found *El Dorado*... **Tisquesusa**
(† 1537)**Sagipa**
(† 1540)Sagipa, or Saquesazipa, was the last ruler of Bacatá, as successor of Tisquesusa, defeated near Funza, on April 20, 1537, and died, as the prophecy said, "bathing in his own blood", due to attacks by the Spanish. His body was not found a year after. His defeat meant a new reign over the savanna and the foundation of Bogotá on August 6, 1538

### Conquest and early colonial period

**Quemuenchatocha**
(† 1537)**Aquiminzaque**
(† 1539)**Túpac Amaru**
(† 1572)Aquiminzaque, as successor of Quemuenchatocha, defeated in his home in Hunza, on August 20, 1537, was the last souvereign ruler of the Muisca and was decapitated by the Spanish, as would happen to Túpac Amaru of the Inca, 34 years later

The conquest of the Muisca was the heaviest of all four Spanish expeditions to the great American civilisations. More than 80 percent of the soldiers and horses that started the journey of a year to the northern Muisca Confederation did not survive it. Various settlements were founded by the Spanish between 1537 and 1539.

A delegation of more than 900 men left the tropical city of Santa Marta and went on a harsh expedition through the heartlands of Colombia in search of *El Dorado* and the civilisation that produced all this precious gold. The leader of the first and main expedition under Spanish flag was Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, with his brother Hernán second in command. Several other soldiers were participating in the journey, who would later become encomenderos and taking part in the conquest of other parts of Colombia. Other contemporaneous expeditions into the unknown interior of the Andes, all searching for the mythical land of gold, were starting from later Venezuela, led by Bavarian and other German conquistadors and from the south, starting in the previously founded Kingdom of Quito in later Ecuador.

The first phase of the conquest was ended by the victory of the few conquistadors left over Tisquesusa, the last *zipa* of Bacatá, who fell and died after the battle at Funza, on the Bogotá savanna, April 20, 1537. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors was revealed to Tisquesusa by the mohan Popón, from the village of Ubaque. He told the Muisca ruler that foreigners were coming and Tisquesusa would die "bathing in his own blood". When Tisquesusa was informed of the advancing invasion of the Spanish soldiers, he sent a spy to Suesca to find out more about their army strength, weapons and with how many warriors they could be beaten. The *zipa* left the capital Bacatá and took shelter in Nemocón which directed the Spanish troops to there, during this march attacked by more than 600 Muisca warriors.

When Tisquesusa retreated in his fort in Cajicá he allegedly told his men he would not be able to combat against the strong Spanish army in possession of weapons that produced "thunder and lightning". He chose to return to Bacatá and ordered the capital to be evacuated, resulting in an abandoned site when the Spanish arrived. In search for the Muisca ruler the conquistadores went north to find Tisquesusa in the surroundings of Facatativá where they attacked him at night.

Tisquesusa was thrusted by the sword of one of De Quesada's soldiers but without knowing he was the *zipa* he let him go, after taking the expensive mantle of the ruler. Tisquesusa fled hurt into the mountains and died of his wounds there. His body was only discovered a year later because of the black vultures circling over it.

When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada found out the *caciques* were conspiring against him, he sent out several expeditions of soldiers. His captain Juan de Céspedes went south to found Pasca on July 15, 1537. Hernán was sent north and Gonzalo himself went northeast, to search for the mythical Land of Gold *El Dorado*. There he did not find golden cities, but emeralds, the Muisca were extracting in Chivor and Somondoco. First foundation was Engativá, presently a locality of Bogotá, on May 22, 1537. Passing through Suba, Chía, Cajicá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, Guatavita and Sesquilé, he arrived in Chocontá, founding the modern town on June 9. The journey went eastward into the Tenza Valley through Machetá, Tibiritá, Guateque, Sutatenza and Tenza, founded on San Juan; June 24. On the same day, Hernán founded Sutatausa. Gonzalo continued northwest through La Capilla and Úmbita. He arrived in Turmequé that he founded on July 20.

In August 1537 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada entered the territories of the *zaque*, who ruled from Hunza. When the Spanish conquerors entered the outskirts of Hunza and found a hill with poles were bodies were dangling, they named it *Cerro de la Horca* ("Gallow Hill"). At the time of the conquest Quemuenchatocha was the *zaque* and he ordered his men to not submit to the European invaders or show them the way to his *bohío*. He sent messengers to the Spanish conquistadors with valuable peace offers. While this was happening, Quemuenchatocha had hidden his treasures from the Spanish. Hunza was located in a valley not as green as the Bogotá savanna. The advantage of the Spanish weaponry and the use of the horses quickly beat the Muisca warriors.

When Gonzalo arrived at the main *bohío* of Quemuenchatocha, he found the Muisca ruler sitting in his throne and surrounded by his closest companions. All men were dressed in expensive mantles and adorned with golden crowns. On August 20, 1537, the Spanish beat the *zaque* and the big and strong Muisca ruler was taken captive to Suesca. There he was tortured and the Spanish soldiers hoped he would reveal where he hid his precious properties. The absence of Quemuenchatocha paved the route for his nephew Aquiminzaque to succeed him as ruler of the northern Muisca, a practice common in Muisca traditions. When Quemuenchatocha was finally released from captivity in Suesca, he fled to Ramiriquí, where he died shortly after. The Spanish soldiers found gold, emeralds, silver, mantles and other valuables in Tunja. They were not able to take all the precious pieces and many were secretly taken away by the Muisca, using folded deer skins. They hid the valuables in nearby hills.

|  | | Feb 1537 | First contact @ Chipatá | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Mar–Apr 1537 | Expedition into Muisca Confederation | |
| | **20 Apr 1537** | Conquest of **Funza** upon *zipa* Tisquesusa | |
| | May–Aug 1537 | Expedition & conquest in Tenza Valley | |
| | **20 Aug 1537** | Conquest **Hunza**, *zaque* Quemuenchatocha | |
| | Early Sep 1537 | Conquest **Sugamuxi**, *iraca* Sugamuxi | |
|  | | Oct 1537 – Feb 1538 | Other foundations on Altiplano & valleys | |
| | **6 Aug 1538** | Foundation **Santafé de Bogotá**, by Gonzalo | |
| | **20 Aug 1538** | B. of Tocarema; Spanish & *zipa* beat Panche | |
| | **6 Aug 1539** | Foundation **Tunja**, by Gonzalo Suárez | |
| | **15 Dec 1539** | Conquest **Tundama**, by Baltasar Maldonado | |
| | Early 1540 | Decapitation last *zaque* **Aquiminzaque**, Hernán | |
|

**I – Soldiers of the main expedition – Santa Marta-Funza and on – February – April 20, 1537**

| Name
leader in **bold** | Nationality | Years
active | Encountered
bold is conquered | Year
of
death | Image | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Gonzalo Jiménez
de Quesada** | Granadian | 1536–39
1569–72 | ***zipa***
***zaque*** | 1579 |  |  |
| Juan Maldonado | Castilian | 1536–39
1569–72 | Muisca |  |  |  |
| Gonzalo Macías | Castilian | 1536–39
1569–71 | Muisca | 1571~ |  |  |
| **Hernán Pérez
de Quesada** | Granadian | 1536–39
1540–42 | **Muisca** | 1544 |  |  |
| **Gonzalo Suárez Rendón** | Castilian | 1536–39 | *zipa*, ***zaque*** | 1590 |  |  |
| Martín Galeano | Castilian | 1536–39
1540–45 | Muisca | 1554~ |  |  |
| Lázaro Fonte | Castilian | 1536–39
1540–42 | Muisca | 1542 |  |  |
| Juan de Céspedes | Castilian | 1525–43 | **Muisca** | 1573 or 1576 |  |  |
| Juan de San Martín | Castilian | 1536–39
1540–45 | Muisca |  |  |  |
| Antonio de Lebrija | Castilian | 1536–39 | Muisca | 1540 |  |  |
| Ortún Velázquez de Velasco | Castilian | 1536–39 | Muisca | 1584 |  |  |
| Bartolomé Camacho Zambrano | Castilian | 1536–39 | Muisca |  |  |  |
| Antonio Díaz de Cardoso | Castilian | 1536–39 | Muisca |  |  |  |
| Pedro Fernández de Valenzuela | Castilian | 1536–39 | Muisca |  |  |  |
| **640+ conquistadors**
~80% | mostly Castilian | April 1536
-
April 1537 | Diseases, jaguars, crocodiles, climate,
**various indigenous warfare** | 1536
1537 |  |  |
|

**II & III – Soldiers of the expeditions De Belalcázar & Federmann (1535–1539)**

| Name
leader in **bold** | Nationality | Years
active | Encountered
bold is conquered | Year
of
death | Image | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Sebastián de Belalcázar** | Castilian | 1514–39 | Muisca | 1551 |  |  |
| Baltasar Maldonado | Castilian | 1543–52 | **Muisca** | 1552 |  |  |
| **Nikolaus Federmann** | Bavarian | 1535–39 | Muisca | 1542 |  |  |
| Miguel Holguín y Figueroa | Castilian | 1535–39 | Muisca | 1576\> |  |  |
|

**I – 1 – Main expedition – inland and up from Chipatá to Funza – March – April 1537**

| Settlement
bold is founded | Department | Date | Year | Altitude (m)
urban centre | Notes | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Chipatá** | Santander | 8 March | 1537 | 1820 |  |  |
| Barbosa | Santander | March | 1537 | 1610 |  |  |
| **Moniquirá** | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 1669 |  |  |
| Santa Sofía | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 2387 |  |  |
| Sutamarchán | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 1800 |  |  |
| Ráquira | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 2150 |  |  |
| Simijaca | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2559 |  |  |
| Susa | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2655 |  |  |
| Fúquene | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2750 |  |  |
| **Guachetá** | Cundinamarca | 12 March | 1537 | 2688 |  |  |
| **Lenguazaque** | Cundinamarca | 13 March | 1537 | 2589 |  |  |
| Cucunubá | Cundinamarca | 13–14 March | 1537 | 2590 |  |  |
| **Suesca** | Cundinamarca | 14 March | 1537 | 2584 |  |  |
| Nemocón | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2585 |  |  |
| Zipaquirá | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2650 |  |  |
| **Cajicá** | Cundinamarca | 23 March | 1537 | 2558 |  |  |
| **Chía** | Cundinamarca | 24 March | 1537 | 2564 |  |  |
| Cota | Cundinamarca | March–April | 1537 | 2566 |  |  |
| **Funza** | Cundinamarca | 20 April | 1537 | 2548 |  |  |
|

**I – 2 – Gonzalo – Tenza Valley – Conquest of Hunza & Sugamuxi – May – August 20 & September, 1537**

| Settlement
bold is founded | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Engativá** | Cundinamarca | 22 May | 1537 |  |  |
| Suba | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 |  |  |
| Chía | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 |  |  |
| Cajicá | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 |  |  |
| Tocancipá | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  |  |
| Gachancipá | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  |  |
| Guatavita | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  |  |
| Sesquilé
Lake Guatavita
*El Dorado* | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  |  |
| **Chocontá** | Cundinamarca | 9 June | 1537 |  |  |
| Machetá | Cundinamarca | June | 1537 |  |  |
| Tibiritá | Cundinamarca | June | 1537 |  |  |
| Guateque | Boyacá | June | 1537 |  |  |
| Sutatenza | Boyacá | June | 1537 |  |  |
| **Tenza** | Boyacá | 24 June | 1537 |  |  |
| La Capilla | Boyacá | June–July | 1537 |  |  |
| Chivor | Boyacá | July | 1537 |  |  |
| Úmbita | Boyacá | July | 1537 |  |  |
| **Turmequé** | Boyacá | 20 July | 1537 |  |  |
| **Boyacá** | Boyacá | 8 August | 1537 |  |  |
| Ciénega | Boyacá | August | 1537 |  |  |
| Soracá | Boyacá | 20 August ~15:00 | 1537 |  |  |
| Hunza | Boyacá | 20 August | 1537 |  |  |
|

**3 – Hernán – Foundation of Sutatausa – June 24, 1537**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Sutatausa** | Cundinamarca | 24 June | 1537 |  |  |
|

**4 – Juan de Céspedes – Southern savanna – 1537**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Pasca** | Cundinamarca | 15 July | 1537 |  |  |
| San Antonio del Tequendama | Cundinamarca |  | 1539 |  |  |
|

**5 – Juan de San Martín – 1537–1550**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| El Colegio | Cundinamarca |  | 1537 |  |  |
| **Cuítiva** | Boyacá | 19 January | 1550 |  |  |
|

**6 – Gonzalo et al. – Foundations of Bogotá and savanna**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Bojacá** | Cundinamarca | 16 October | 1537 |  |  |
| **Somondoco** | Boyacá | 1 November | 1537 |  |  |
| Une | Cundinamarca | 23 February | 1538 |  |  |
|

**7 – Gonzalo Suárez Rendón – Foundation of Tunja – August 6, 1539**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Tunja** | Boyacá | 6 August | 1539 |  |  |
|

**8 – Baltasar Maldonado – Conquest of Tundama – December 1539**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Duitama | Boyacá | 15 December | 1539 |  |  |
|

**9 – Hernán & Lázaro Fonte a.o. – 1540**

| Name | Department | Date | Year | Note(s) | Map |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Motavita | Boyacá |  | 1540 |  |  |
| Nevado del Sumapaz | Cundinamarca |  | 1540 |  |  |
|

## Early colonial period

| Year(s) | Epidemic |
| --- | --- |
| **1537** | Tunja Province: **~250,000** est. inh. |
| 1558\< | *no data* |
| 1558–60 | smallpox, measles |
| 1568–69 | influenza |
| 1587–90 | influenza (or typhus) |
| 1607 | smallpox |
| 1617–18 | measles (after food shortages) |
| 1621 | smallpox |
| 1633 | typhus |
| **1636** | Tunja Province: **~50,000** est. inh.
***-80%*** |
|

Not only the Spanish settlers had lost large percentages of their men due to warfare and diseases. The assessed corregimientos of the province of Tunja between 1537 and 1636 shows a decline of the total Muisca population between 65 and 85%. Epidemics were the main cause of the rapid reduction in population. Various have been reported and many undescribed in the first twenty years of contact.

After the foundation of Bogotá and the installation of the new dependency of the Spanish Crown, several strategies were important to the Spanish conquerors. The rich mineral resources of the Altiplano had to be extracted, the agriculture was quickly reformed, a system of encomiendas was installed and a main concern of the Spanish was the evangelisation of the Muisca. On October 9, 1549, Carlos V sent a royal letter to the New Kingdom directed at the priests about the necessity of population reduction of the Muisca. The indigenous people were working in the encomiendas which limited their religious conversion. To speed up the process of submittance to the Spanish reign, the mobility of the indigenous people was prohibited and the people gathered in resguardos. The formerly celebrated festivities in their religion disappeared. Specific times for the catechesis were controlled by laws, as executed in royal dictates in 1537, 1538 and 1551. The first bishop of Santafé, Juan de los Barrios, ordered to destroy the temples of the Muisca and replace them with Catholic churches. The last public religious ceremony of the Muisca religion was held in Ubaque on December 27, 1563. The second bishop of Santafé, Luis Zapata de Cárdenas, intensified the aggressive policies against the Muisca religion and the burnings of their sacred sites. This formed the final nail in the coffin of the former polytheistic society.

The transition to a mixed agriculture with Old World crops was remarkably fast, mainly to do with the fertility of the lands of the Altiplano permitting European crops to grow there, while in the more tropical areas the soil was not so much suited for the foreign crops. In 1555, the Muisca of Toca were growing European crops as wheat and barley and sugarcane was grown in other areas. The previously self-sustaining economy was quickly transformed into one based on intensive agriculture and mining that produced changes in the landscape and culture of the Muisca.

1. (in Spanish) Herrera PeriodUniversidad Nacional de Colombia
2. Juan Friede (1966). Invasión del país de los chibchas. Santa Fe de Bogotá: Ediciones Tercer Mundo, pp. 19, in Spanish
3. (in Spanish) Muisca culture – Historia Universal – accessed 21-04-2016
4. Gamboa Mendoza, 2016
5. (in Spanish) Nivel Paleoindio. Abrigos rocosos del Tequendama Archived 2016-04-29 at archive.today
6. Gómez Mejía, 2012, p.153
7. Ocampo López, 2007, p.27
8. Ocampo López, 2007, p.26
9. (in Spanish) Chronology of pre-Columbian periods: Herrera and Muisca
10. Kruschek, 2003
11. Langebaek, 1995, Ch.4, p.70
12. Izquierdo Peña, 2009
13. (in Spanish) Official website Buenavista
14. (in Spanish) Reconstruction of the Guane peopleEl Espectador
15. (in Spanish) Las Tribus Indígenas en Colombia
16. Chibcha-speaking U'wa
17. Achagua in Encyclopædia Britannica
18. (in Spanish) Official website Miraflores
19. (in Spanish) Description Guayupe
20. (in Spanish) Indios Sutagaos
21. The lost Panches
22. (in Spanish) El vocabulario Muzo-Colima de la relación de Juan Suárez de Cepeda (1582)
23. (in Spanish) Apuntes para el análisis de la situación de la lengua Carare
24. (in Spanish) Legend of *El Dorado* on the shores of Lake Guatavita Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine – Casa Cultural Colombiana – accessed 21-04-2016
25. (in Spanish) Birth of mankind from Lake Iguaque – Cultura, Recreación y Deporte – accessed 21-04-2016
26. (in Spanish) Legend of the lover of Meicuchuca turning into a snake in the Tequendama Fallas – Pueblos Originarios – accessed 21-04-2016
27. Ocampo López, 2013, Ch.18, p.99
28. (in Spanish) *El Infiernito*; astronomical site – Pueblos Originarios
29. Langebaek, 2005b, p.282
30. Izquierdo, 2014
31. (in Spanish) Personajes de la Conquista a AméricaBanco de la República
32. (in Spanish) List of conquistadors led by Gonzalo Jiménez de QuesadaBanco de la República
33. (in Spanish) Biography Hernán Pérez de QuesadaBanco de la República
34. (in Spanish) Conquista rápida y saqueo cuantioso de Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
35. (in Spanish) Official website Chipatá Archived 2015-06-07 at archive.today
36. (in Spanish) Official website Guachetá Archived 2017-07-09 at the Wayback Machine
37. (in Spanish) Official website Lenguazaque
38. (in Spanish) Official website Suesca
39. (in Spanish) Official website Funza Archived 2015-12-21 at the Wayback Machine
40. (in Spanish) Engativá celebra hoy sus 458 añosEl Tiempo
41. (in Spanish) Official website Chocontá
42. (in Spanish) Official website Tenza Archived 2015-06-02 at archive.today
43. (in Spanish) Official website Sutatausa Archived 2016-02-12 at the Wayback Machine
44. (in Spanish) Official website Turmequé Archived 2016-01-12 at the Wayback Machine
45. (in Spanish) Tisquesusa would die bathing in his own blood – Pueblos Originarios
46. (in Spanish) Zipa TisquesusaBanco de la República
47. (in Spanish) Official website Pasca Archived 2015-05-22 at archive.today
48. (in Spanish) Biography Quemuenchatocha – Pueblos Originarios
49. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.173
50. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.84
51. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.144
52. (in Spanish) Biography Juan de CéspedesBanco de la República
53. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.69
54. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.xii
55. (in Spanish) Baltasar MaldonadoSoledad Acosta SamperBanco de la República
56. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.88
57. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.93
58. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.94
59. Rodríguez Freyle, 1979 (1638), p.153
60. (in Spanish) Official website Moniquirá
61. (in Spanish) Official website Ráquira
62. (in Spanish) History Cajicá
63. (in Spanish) De Quesada celebrated the Holy Week in Chia
64. (in Spanish) History Chivor Archived 2016-03-02 at the Wayback Machine
65. (in Spanish) Official website Boyacá
66. (in Spanish) Official website Soracá
67. (in Spanish) Official website San Antonio del Tequendama
68. (in Spanish) Official website El Colegio
69. (in Spanish) Official website Cuítiva
70. (in Spanish) Official website Bojacá Archived 2017-10-11 at the Wayback Machine
71. (in Spanish) Official website Somondoco Archived 2015-06-02 at archive.today
72. (in Spanish) Official website Une
73. (in Spanish) Biography Cacique Tundama – Pueblos Originarios
74. (in Spanish) Official website Motavita Archived 2014-03-10 at archive.today
75. Francis, 2002, p.59
76. Francis, 2002, p.42
77. Suárez, 2015, p.128
78. Segura Calderón, 2014, p.38
79. Suárez, 2015, p.125
80. Suárez, 2015, p.129
81. Londoño, 2001, p.4
82. Francis, 1993, p.60
83. Martínez & Manrique, 2014, p.102

## Bibliography and further reading

### Spanish chroniclers

## InfoBox

| Muisca Confederation*Muysc Muyquyguamox* (Chibcha) | |
| --- | --- |
| c.800–1540 | |
| Flag of the Muisca Confederation | |
| Location of the Muisca Confederation circa 1500; **Zipa**, **Zaque**, and **Independent territory** labelled | |
| Capital | Bacatá (Bogotá), Hunza, and Suamox, Tundama
(800–1540) |
| Common languages | Muysccubun |
| Religion | Muisca religion |
| *Zaque* and *zipa* |  |
|  | |
| ~1450–1470 | *zaque* Hunzahúa
*zipa* Meicuchuca |
| 1470–1490 | *zaque* Saguamanchica
*zipa* Michuá |
| 1490–1537

1490–1514 | *zaque* Quemuenchatocha
*zipa* Nemequene |
| 1514–1537 | *zipa* Tisquesusa |
| 1537–1540
1537–1539 | *zaque* Aquiminzaque
*zipa* Sagipa |
|  | |
| Historical era | Pre-Columbian |
|  | |
| Established | c.800 |
| Spanish conquest begins | March 1537 |
| Conquest of Funza (Bacatá) | 20 April 1537 |
| Conquest of Hunza | 20 August 1537 |
| Destruction of the Sun Temple | September 1537 |
| Foundation of Bogotá
Battle of Tocarema | 6 August 1538
20 August 1538 |
| Foundation of Tunja
Death of Tundama | 6 August 1539
December 1539 |
| Execution of Aquiminzaque | 1540 |
|  | |
| Area | |
| 1537 | 46,972 km2 (18,136 sq mi) |
| Population | |
|  | |
| Early 16th century | 2 million |
|  | |
| Density | 42.58/km2 (110.3/sq mi) |
|  | |
| Today part of | Colombia
- Cundinamarca
- Boyacá
- Santander |


title: Uncle Moishy and the Mitzvah Men

abstract: Uncle Moishy and the Mitzvah Men is a Jewish American children's educational entertainment group based in New York City, featured in audio and video releases, as well as appearing live in concert. Their tapes, CDs and videos are sold in most Jewish music and Judaica stores. Uncle Moishy has traveled internationally, giving shows in Israel, Canada, England, Austria, South Africa and Hong Kong. Lead musicians and singers Moshe Tanenbaum and Yossi Berktin are Hasidic Orthodox Jews who play "Uncle Moishy" and lead the "Mitzvah Men" in song and verse that expresses the observant religious lifestyle of Orthodox Judaism. They focus on the religious aspects of Judaism that most easily relate to young children, such as the laws of Shabbat, kashrut and the giving of charity, as well as the good deeds of Pirkei Avot, such as helping others and being nice.

text:
# Uncle Moishy and the Mitzvah Men

**Uncle Moishy and the Mitzvah Men** is a Jewish American children's educational entertainment group based in New York City, featured in audio and video releases, as well as appearing live in concert. Their tapes, CDs and videos are sold in most Jewish music and Judaica stores.

Uncle Moishy has traveled internationally, giving shows in Israel, Canada, England, Austria, South Africa and Hong Kong.

Lead musicians and singers Moshe Tanenbaum and Yossi Berktin are Hasidic Orthodox Jews who play "Uncle Moishy" and lead the "Mitzvah Men" in song and verse that expresses the observant religious lifestyle of Orthodox Judaism. They focus on the religious aspects of Judaism that most easily relate to young children, such as the laws of *Shabbat*, *kashrut* and the giving of charity, as well as the good deeds of *Pirkei Avot* (Ethics of Our Fathers), such as helping others and being nice.

## Origins

Milton Tanenbaum was born and grew up in East End, Toronto. His parents owned a grocery store. Tanenbaum went to Jewish school during his childhood. He started using the title Uncle in 1967 when his rabbi started referring to him as Uncle Milty, referencing the comedian Milton Berle who went by the same nickname. He started going by his Hebrew name, Moishy, at the suggestion of the Lubavitcher Rebbe during a farbrengen in 1975. There the Rebbe encouraged Jews to publicly go by their Jewish names. Despite not being Lubavitch, he heeded the advice and started going by Uncle Moishy.

In 1979 his first album appeared in conjunction with the Jewish Education Program. The original band members were Tanenbaum, Zale Newman, and Chaim Shainhouse; Shainhouse left early on, though he composed for and sang on the first few albums. Uncle Moishy is produced and managed by the Suki and Ding company. The group has produced 22 audio albums and 14 videos to date.

## Currently

In 2017, Moshe Tanenbaum under new management, producers known as Sonic Duo, released his first solo album titled 'Welcome'. In 2018, the 'All New Uncle Moishy' Yossi Berktin, with producers Suki and Ding released the character's 19th album.

In 2021, Moshe Tanenbaum in collaboration with Artscroll and Doni Gross released an 11-song album entitled We Are So Special and a children's book.

## InfoBox

| Uncle Moishy and the Mitzvah Men | |
| --- | --- |
| Origin | Toronto, Ontario, Canada |
| Years active | 1979 (1979)–present |
|  | |
| Website | www.unclemoishy.com www.unclemoishyworld.com |


title: Prince Edward Island Route 7

abstract: Prince Edward Island Route 7 is a secondary highway in central Prince Edward Island. The short connecting route begins at an intersection with Route 2 west of Charlottetown, and runs north to Oyster Bed Bridge, where the road continues as Route 6. It is an uncontrolled, paved two-lane road for its entire length.

text:
# Prince Edward Island Route 7

**Prince Edward Island Route 7** is a secondary highway in central Prince Edward Island. The short connecting route begins at an intersection with Route 2 west of Charlottetown, and runs north to Oyster Bed Bridge, where the road continues as Route 6. It is an uncontrolled, paved two-lane road for its entire length.

## Major intersections

The entire route is in Queens County.

| Location | km | mi | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Milton Station | 0.0 | 0.0 | Route 2 Summerside, Charlottetown | Southern terminus |
| North Milton | 2.0 | 1.2 | Route 256 (Crabbe Road / MacKenzie Road) |  |
| | 2.5 | 1.6 | Route 224 west (New Glasgow Road) New Glasgow |  |
| Oyster Bed Bridge | 9.9 | 6.2 | Route 6 / Route 251 west (Crooked Creek Road) North Rustico, Cavendish, Brackley Beach, Wheatley River | Roundabout; northern terminus |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi<br> | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| Route 7 | |
| --- | --- |
| Rustico Road | |
|  | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by Prince Edward Island Transportation and Public Works | |
| Length | 9.9 km (6.2 mi) |
| Major junctions | |
| South end | Route 2 near Charlottetown |
| North end | Route 6 at Oyster Bed Bridge |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | Canada |
| Province | Prince Edward Island |
| Counties | Queens |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| Route 6   Route 8 | |


title: Wilhelm Hilse

abstract: Wilhelm Heinrich Hilse was a German chess master. He tied for 12/13th at Coburg 1904, shared 1st at Bremen 1906 (Quadrangular), took 4th at Hannover 1907 (Quadrangular), won at Barmbek 1911 (Quadrangular), and took 13th at Mannheim 1914. After World War I, he shared 1st at Hamburg 1921, took 7th at Kiel 1922, took 11th at Bad Oeynhausen 1922, tied for 4/5th at Frankfurt 1923, tied for 3rd–5th at Vienna 1926, tied for 10/11th at Magdeburg 1927, and shared 3rd at Bremen 1927. He played for Germany in a match against Austria at Vienna 1926, and in the 2nd Chess Olympiad at The Hague 1928.

text:
# Wilhelm Hilse

**Wilhelm Heinrich Hilse** (26 June 1878 – 30 November 1940) was a German chess master.

He tied for 12/13th at Coburg 1904 (DSB Congress, *Hauptturnier A*, Augustin Neumann won), shared 1st at Bremen 1906 (*Quadrangular*), took 4th at Hannover 1907 (*Quadrangular*), won at Barmbek 1911 (*Quadrangular*), and took 13th at Mannheim 1914 (DSB-Congress, *Hauptturnier A*, B. Hallegua won).

After World War I, he shared 1st at Hamburg 1921, took 7th at Kiel 1922, took 11th at Bad Oeynhausen 1922 (DSB-Congress, Ehrhardt Post won), tied for 4/5th at Frankfurt 1923 (DSB-Congress, Ernst Grünfeld won), tied for 3rd–5th at Vienna 1926 (DSV Kongress, Karl Gilg and Heinrich Wagner won), tied for 10/11th at Magdeburg 1927 (DSB-Congress, Rudolf Spielmann won), and shared 3rd at Bremen 1927 (Efim Bogoljubow won).

He played for Germany in a match against Austria at Vienna 1926, and in the 2nd Chess Olympiad at The Hague 1928.


title: Wands (EP)

abstract: Wands is the debut EP by Japanese rock band Wands. The album was released on June 17, 1992 under B-Gram Records label.

text:
# Wands (EP)

***Wands*** is the debut EP by Japanese rock band Wands. The album was released on June 17, 1992 under B-Gram Records label.

## Background

The album includes two previously released singles, *Sabishisa wa Aki no Iro* and *Furimuite Dakishimete*. The composer of debut single, Seiichirou Kuribayashi later self-covered Wands debut single on his fifth studio album *Awanakutemo I Love You.* Fifteen years later, vocalist Show self-covered debut single on his cover album "Spoils".

## Promotion

*Sabishisa wa Aki no Iro* was used as an insert song for japanese television drama series *Hotel Women*. Two weeks later after single release it was included in drama soundtrack before Wands debut album.

*Furimuite Dakishimete* was used as an opening theme for TV Asahi information program *Oh! L Club*.

## Commercial performance

It reached #10 rank on the Oricon Weekly charts with 4,910 sold copies. It charted for 37 weeks and sold over 349,420 copies. It was 48th best sold album in 1993.

## Track listing

All lyrics are written by Show Uesugi

| No. | Title | Music | Arranger(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Furimuite Dakishimete" (ふりむいて抱きしめて) | Kousuke Ohshima | Ohshima | 4:04 |
| 2. | "Cloudy Sky" | Ohshima | Ohshima | 4:26 |
| 3. | "Sabishisa wa Aki no Iro" (寂しさは秋の色) | Seiichiro Kuribayashi | Masao Akashi | 4:44 |
| 4. | "Mou Jibun shika Aisenai" (もう 自分しか愛せない) | Ohshima | Ohshima | 3:47 |
| 5. | "Good Sensation" | Ohshima, Hiroshi Shibasaki | Ohshima | 4:53 |
| 6. | "Kono Yume Dake wo..." (この夢だけを…) | Ohshima | Ohshima | 4:13 |

## InfoBox

| Wands | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| EP by Wands | |
| Released | June 17, 1992 (1992-06-17) |
| Recorded | 1991–1992 |
| Genre |  |
| Length | 27:54 |
| Label | B-Gram Records |
| Producer | Daiko Nagato |
| Wands chronology | |
| ***Wands***
(1992) *Toki no Tobira*
(1993) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *Wands* | |
| 1. "Sabishisa wa Aki no Iro"
Released: December 4, 1991 2. "Furimuite Dakishimete"
Released: May 13, 1992 | |
|  | |


title: Wang Taihua

abstract: Wang Taihua is a politician of the People's Republic of China, between 2004 and 2011, he served as director of the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT).

text:
# Wang Taihua

**Wang Taihua** (Chinese: 王太华; born October 1945) is a politician of the People's Republic of China, between 2004 and 2011, he served as director of the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT).

## Biography

Born in Xingguo, Jiangxi Province, Wang started working in September 1969, and joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in June 1973. He obtained a postgraduate degree at the CCP Central Party School.

Wang served in Jiangxi for years. In March 1992, he became the secretary of the CCP Hefei municipal committee and a standing member of the CCP Anhui committee. In May of the same year, he was elevated to vice secretary of the CCP Anhui committee while still holding the position of Party chief of Hefei. In October 1998, Wang was appointed vice governor and acting governor of Anhui, and was confirmed as governor in February 1999. In January 2000, he was elevated to secretary of the CCP Anhui committee. In January 2003, Wang was elected chairman of the Anhui provincial People's Congress. He has served as director of the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television since December 2004.

Wang was an alternate member of the 14th and 15th Central Committees of the Chinese Communist Party, and a full member of the 16th Central Committee. He was a member of the 17th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.

He joined the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference after he left his position at SARFT.


title: Wang Ping (filmmaker)

abstract: Wang Ping was a Chinese film director and actress. She is considered to be the first female director in the People's Republic of China.

text:
# Wang Ping (filmmaker)

**Wang Ping** (simplified Chinese: 王苹; traditional Chinese: 王蘋; pinyin: *Wáng Píng*; September 2, 1916 – December 1, 1990) was a Chinese film director and actress. She is considered to be the first female director in the People's Republic of China.

## Biography

Wang Ping was born and grew up in Nanjing, China. She moved to Taiyuan in 1935. Wang moved again in 1937 following the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which motivated her to engage in leftist activism. She toured the country performing in politically oriented plays that supported Chinese resistance before settling in Shanghai after the war ended in 1945. Leftist feminism became a major influence for Wang early in her life and she was a long time supporter of the communist revolution. She worked closely with the Communist Party both leading up to the revolution and after the establishment of the People's Republic of China.

## Career

Wang first became interested in the theatre and acting while working as a teacher in her hometown of Nanjing. Her first prominent role as an actress came in 1935 when she took on the leading role in a Chinese adaption of the play *A Doll’s House* by Henrik Ibsen. Wang's involvement in the play was controversial as the play's major themes clashed with the conservative values of the New Life Movement, which had been launched a year earlier. The New Life Movement, which was created in support by the Chinese Nationalist Party, advocated for the renewal of *li*, *I*, *Lien*, and *Chih*, the ancient Chinese virtues that guided regular life. The movement rejected individualism, liberalism, socialism and communism. *A Doll’s House,* which ultimately ends with the lead woman leaving her husband and children to find herself, was considered to be antagonistic to the virtues that the New Life Movement was promoting. Wang was subsequently fired from teaching in 1935 by the Education Bureau of Nanjing Municipal Government and was banned from teaching anywhere in Nanjing.

In 1935 she moved to Taiyuan where she briefly worked for the Northeast Film Company as an actress before joining the Shanghai Amateur Dramatists Association, a leftist theatre group, in 1937. Wang toured the country with the Association, performing in politically oriented plays that supported the Chinese resistance during the Second Sino-Japanese War. She would continue to act in patriotic plays across the country up until the end of the war in 1945. After the war she found work as a supporting actress with the Kunlun Film Company, a Shanghai-based company which produced several important leftists films in the late 40s.

As an actress Wang became well known as a leftist and communist advocate. She was a strong supporter of the Communist Party and operated as an underground worker for the Party while living in Shanghai before the communist revolution and establishment of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Her support and work for the communist cause was rewarded in 1951 when the August First Film Studio appointed her as a film director. Despite having no previous directorial experience, her appointment was widely supported and she became a successful mainstream socialist filmmaker. It was not unusual in the years following the revolution to appoint novice film directors, partly because there were few professional directors working at that time, and partly because the new Communist government significantly financed the film industry. The film industry was seen as an art form that could reach the masses and could be used to effectively spread the party's political message. Accordingly, Wang's work fit into the mainstream socialist cinema and had an explicit pro-communist message. Her work was not particularly associated with women's film. Although some of her films featured leading women, the narrative focused on class struggle and the communist revolution. When gender struggles were depicted, it was often to reinforce communism as a solution. Her work was financially supported by the state, which provided her with significant access to filmic resources, allowing her to learn the techniques of filmmaking through practice and experiment with film form. She became a respected and influential director.

Wang is considered to be the first female director since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, however she was not the only woman working as a filmmaker in the early communist era. Because gender equality was a significant part of the Communist Party's plan for economic reform, the following two decades would see a rise in the number of female directors in China, although the industry would continue to be overrepresented by men. Wang made her directorial debut in 1952 with an instructional film for the army. Her first feature film, *Darkness Before Dawn*, was released in 1956. In 1963, Zhou Enlai, the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, appointed Wang to co-direct the film adaption of the popular play *Sentinels under the Neon Lights*. She remained active until 1985, during her career she directed feature films, musical stage plays, and military instructional videos. She died at the age of 74 on December 2, 1990.

## Filmography

**As an actress**

| Year | English Title | Chinese Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1947 | *The Spring River Flows East* | 一江春水向東流 |  |  |
| 1947 | *Eight Thousand Li of Cloud and Moon* | 八千里路雲和月 | Jiangxi neighbour |  |
| 1948 | *Myriad of Lights* | 萬家燈火 | Mrs. Chen | Also known as *The Lights of Ten Thousand Homes* |
| 1948 | *Caged Spring* | 关不住的春光 | Miss Li | Also known as *Spring Light that Cannot be Shut Out* |
| 1949 | *Women Side by Side* | 麗人行 |  | Also known as *Three Women* |

**As a director**

| Year | English Title | Chinese Title | Genre | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1953 | *Héchuān jìngōng* | 河川进攻 | Instructional military film |  |
| 1953 | *Qí jiànhuá sùchéng shìzì fǎ* | 祁建华速成识字法 | Instructional military film |  |
| 1956 | *Darkness before Dawn* | 冲破黎明前的黑暗 | Feature film | Wang's first feature film Co-directed with Liu Peiran |
| 1957 | *Story of Liubao Village* | 柳堡的故事 | Feature film |  |
| 1958 | *Eternal Wave* | 永不消逝的电波 | Feature film; revolutionary, war | Also known as *The Everlasting Radio Signals* or *The Undying Transmission* |
| 1960 | *Měng lóng shā* | 勐胧纱 | Feature film; revolutionary, war | Co-directed with Yuan Xian |
| 1962 | *Locust Tree Village* | 槐树庄 | Feature film; revolutionary, drama | 1963 2nd Hundred Flowers Award for Best Director |
| 1964 | *Sentinels under the Neon Lights* | 霓虹灯下的哨兵 | Feature film; revolutionary, drama |  |
| 1965 | *The East is Red* | 東方紅 | Feature film; stage performance; musical |  |
| 1966 | *Youth Red as Fire* | 青春红似火 | Feature film; art film, revolutionary |  |
| 1974 | *Sparking Red Star* | 闪闪的红星 | Feature film; revolutionary, war |  |
| 1976 | *Long March Suit* | 长征组歌——红军不怕远征难 | Feature film; revolutionary | Also known as *The Red Army is not afraid of Difficult Expedition – Long March Suite* |
| 1978 | *We are the Eighth Route Army* | 我们是八路军 | Feature film; revolutionary |  |
| 1985 | *The Song of the Chinese Revolution* | 中国革命之歌 | Stage performance; musical | 1968 6th Golden Rooster Awards Special Award |

## Awards

In 1963, Wang Ping won the award for Best Director for her film, *Locust Tree Village,* at the 2nd Hundred Flowers Awards. In 1968, Wang was presented with a Special Award at the 6th Golden Rooster Awards for her film, *The Song of the Chinese Revolution*.

1. Ye, Tan; Zhu, Yun (2012). *Historical Dictionary of Chinese Cinema*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780810867796.
2. Xiao, Zhiwei; Zhang, Yingjin (2002). *Encyclopedia of Chinese Film*. Routledge. ISBN 9781134745548.
3. Wang, Lingzhen (2015). "Wang Ping and Women's Cinema in Socialist China: Institutional Practice, Feminist Cultures, and Embedded Authorship". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **40** (3): 589–622. doi:10.1086/679522. S2CID 146479073.
4. Lawrance, Alan (2004). *China Since 1919: Revolution and Reform : a Sourcebook*. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415251426.
5. Ye, Tan; Zhu, Yun (2012). *Historical Dictionary of Chinese Cinema*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780810867796.
6. Jr, Kevin J. Wetmore; Liu, Siyuan; Mee, Erin B. (2014). *Modern Asian Theatre and Performance 1900-2000*. A&C Black. ISBN 9781408177204.
7. Xiao, Zhiwei; Zhang, Yingjin (2002). *Encyclopedia of Chinese Film*. Routledge. ISBN 9781134745548.
8. Zhang, Yingjin (2012). *A Companion to Chinese Cinema*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444355970.
9. "Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema". *www.uhpress.hawaii.edu*. Archived from the original on 2018-05-03.
10. Zhang, Yingjin (2012). *A Companion to Chinese Cinema*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444355970.
11. Wang, Lingzhen (2015). "Wang Ping and Women's Cinema in Socialist China: Institutional Practice, Feminist Cultures, and Embedded Authorship". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **40** (3): 589–622. doi:10.1086/679522. S2CID 146479073.
12. Braester, Yomi (2010). *Painting the City Red: Chinese Cinema and the Urban Contract*. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822392750.
13. Xiao, Zhiwei; Zhang, Yingjin (2002-06-01). *Encyclopedia of Chinese Film*. Routledge. ISBN 9781134745548.

## InfoBox

| Wang Ping | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Wang Guangzhen
September 2, 1916
Nanjing, China |
| Died | December 2, 1990 |
| Occupation(s) | Film director, actress |
|  | |
|  | |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 王蘋 |
| Simplified Chinese | 王苹 |
| Transcriptions | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Mes Sungun–Azad

abstract: Mes Sungun–Azad is an Iranian UCI Continental cycling team based in Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; the team was founded in 2007 and disbanded in 2013, before restarting in 2021.

text:
# Mes Sungun–Azad

**Mes Sungun–Azad** (*UCI team code:* **UAT**) is an Iranian UCI Continental cycling team based in Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; the team was founded in 2007 and disbanded in 2013, before restarting in 2021.

## Major wins

2007 Stage 4 Kerman Tour, Hassan Maleki Stage 6 Kerman Tour, Seyed Moezeddin Seyed Stage 1 Azerbaijan Tour, Farshad Salehian Stage 7 Azerbaijan Tour, Seyed Moezeddin Seyed Stage 1 Tour of East Java, Mehdi Sohrabi Stage 1, 6 & 7 Tour of Milad du Nour, Mehdi Sohrabi Stage 2 Tour of Milad du Nour, Amir Zargari Stage 6 Tour de Hokkaido, Mehdi Sohrabi 2008 Stage 1 President Tour of Iran, Abbas Saeidi Stage 2 President Tour of Iran, Mehdi Sohrabi Stage 1, 5 & 6 Azerbaijan Tour, Mehdi Sohrabi Prologue Kerman Tour, Seyed Mostafa Seyed Stage 1 Kerman Tour, Abbas Saeidi 2009 Stage 6 Tour of Thailand, Hossein Nateghi Stage 3 & 8 Jelajah Malaysia, Hossein Nateghi Stage 4 & 5 Jelajah Malaysia, Anuar Manan Stage 4 Tour de Singkarak, Hossein Nateghi Stage 4 President Tour of Iran, Evgeny Vakker Stage 5 President Tour of Iran, Hossein Nateghi  Kyrgyzstan Road Race Championship, Evgeny Vakker  Kyrgyzstan Time Trial Championship, Evgeny Vakker Overall Perlis Open, Anuar Manan Stage 1, Anuar Manan Stage 1 Azerbaijan Tour, Rasoul Barati Stage 3 Azerbaijan Tour, Hossein Nateghi Stage 5 Tour d'Indonesia, Abbas Saeidi 2010 Overall Kerman Tour, Abbas Saeidi Stage 1, Team Time Trial Stage 2, Abbas Saeidi Stage 5, Hossein Nateghi Stage 2 Azerbaijan Tour, Amir Zargari Stage 5 President Tour of Iran, Abbas Saeidi Stage 2b & 4 Tour of Singkarak, Amir Zargari Overall Tour of Milad du Nour, Ramin Mehrabani Stage 1, Hossein Nateghi Stage 2, Ramin Mehrabani 2011 Overall Tour de Filipinas, Rahim Ememi Stages 1 & 4, Rahim Ememi Stage 3, Mirsamad Pourseyedi Overall Tour of Singkarak, Amir Zargari Stages 2 & 5, Amir Zargari Stages 3, 6b & 7a, Mirsamad Pourseyedi  Iran Road Race Championships, Abbas Saeidi 2012  Iran Time Trial Championships, Alireza Haghi Stage 6 Tour de Taiwan, Victor Niño Overall Tour de Singkarak, Óscar Pujol Stage 3, Óscar Pujol 2013  Iran Time Trial Championships, Behnam Khalili U23 Asian Cycling Championship Road Race, Ali Khademi 2021  Iran Road Race Championships, BBehnam Khalilikhosroshahi

## Team roster

As of 23 January 2013.

| Rider Date of birth  Ali Asgari (IRI)  (1993-04-05) 5 April 1993  Mohammad Daneshvarkhourram (IRI)  (1993-12-18) 18 December 1993  Hamed Jannat (IRI)  (1989-11-02) 2 November 1989  Ali Khademi (IRI)  (1992-01-01) 1 January 1992  Ehsan Khademi (IRI)  (1992-06-08) 8 June 1992 |  | Rider Date of birth  Behnam Khalili (IRI)  (1989-02-07) 7 February 1989  Ramin Maleki (IRI)  (1987-03-18) 18 March 1987  Arvin Moazzemi (IRI)  (1990-03-26) 26 March 1990  Abbas Saeidi (IRI)  (1981-01-04) 4 January 1981  Amir Zargari (IRI)  (1980-07-31) 31 July 1980 |
| --- | --- | --- |

## InfoBox

Mes Sungun–Azad
| Team information | |
| --- | --- |
| UCI code | UAT |
| Registered | Iran |
| Founded | 2007 (2007) |
| Discipline(s) | Road |
| Status | **Cont** |
| Team name history | |
| 2007–2008
2009–2011
2012
2013
2021–2022
2023 | Islamic Azad University Cycling Team
Azad University Iran
Azad University Cross Team
Azad University Giant Team
Azad University Team
Mes Sungun–Azad |


abstract: Warren School of Articulation and Expression-Reading was an American school for deaf education. Founded in New York City in 1893 by Lillie Eginton Warren, it focused upon: defects of speech in children and adults; Instruction in articulation to children and adults who have artificial palates, or who have had operations upon the palate or nose; and adults who are growing deaf taught by a new method to read speech in the facial expressions of persons about them.

text:
# Warren School of Articulation and Expression-Reading

**Warren School of Articulation and Expression-Reading** (preceded by the Warren Articulation School, 1890–93) was an American school for deaf education. Founded in New York City in 1893 by Lillie Eginton Warren, it focused upon: defects of speech in children and adults; Instruction in articulation to children and adults who have artificial palates, or who have had operations upon the palate or nose; and adults who are growing deaf taught by a new method to read speech in the facial expressions of persons about them.

## History

The Warren School of Articulation and Expression-Reading was preceded by the Warren Articulation School (1890–93). The Warren Articulation School was opened in October, 1890. It grew out of an increased number of private pupils under Warren. The aim of the School was to develop the voice and give as exact articulation as possible. Children were admitted at the age of three years and even younger. Lessons of half an hour daily or every other day were given first, and the time was gradually lengthened. Six pupils formed a morning class, with a session of three hours. Each pupil received as much individual attention as would be given by a visiting governess, while the presence of other scholars imparted stimulus in no other way obtainable. All the pupils had special vocal and articulative exercises daily to give inflexions to the voice and ease of movement to the organs of speech. Effort was made to forget the pupils were deaf, with the view of making them appear as much as possible like hearing children. All the work of the Warren Articulation School was based on Bell's Visible Speech. Private instruction was given to adults who had become more or less deaf, and to hearing adults and children with stammer, stutter, lisp, nasalize, or other defects in speech.

The Warren School of Articulation and Expression-Reading was founded in 1893 by Lillie Eginton Warren. It was a private school, whose teaching method was patented. It was located in Manhattan at The Delaware, 243 West 2lst Street, later moving to 124 East 28th Street. Branch schools were established in Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington D.C. Hundreds were taught this new method of speech-reading in the first eight years.

Warren was assisted by Edward B. Nitchie, who, having become deaf at the age of fifteen, had been her pupil. Warren claimed that Nitchie plagiarized her methods after he published his first book, *Self-Instruction in Lip-Reading*. By 1903, they had gone separate ways, Nitchie founding his own school for deaf education in New York City.

### Attribution

* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Cauldwell, William (1902). William Cauldwell (ed.). *The Successful American*. Vol. 5–6 (Public domain ed.). The Writers' Press Association.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Educational aid society (1909). *American College and Private School Directory*. Vol. 3 (Public domain ed.). Educational aid society.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Mackenzie, Sir Morell (1899). *The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs: A Practical Handbook for Singers and Speakers. Together with a List of American Singers and Singing-teachers* (Public domain ed.). Edgar S. Werner. p. 316.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: United States. Patent Office (1903). *Official gazette of the United States Patent Office* (Public domain ed.). Patent Office.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Volta Bureau (1893). *Histories of American Schools for the Deaf, 1817-1893: Denominational and private schools in the United States. Schools in Canada and Mexico. Schools which have been discontinued. Supplement* (Public domain ed.). Volta bureau (U.S.).

### Bibliography


title: Water Witch (1835 steamer)

abstract: Water Witch was an early British wood-hulled paddle steamer, built in 1835 at Harwich, England for steam packet services from Dover to London and to Boulogne. A successful fast ship, she was later operated on services on the South Coast of England and in the Bristol Channel

text:
# Water Witch (1835 steamer)

***Water Witch*** (or ***Waterwitch***) was an early British wood-hulled paddle steamer, built in 1835 at Harwich, England for steam packet services from Dover to London and to Boulogne. A successful fast ship, she was later operated on services on the South Coast of England and in the Bristol Channel

## Description

*Water Witch* was launched on 6 August 1835 by George Graham in the former Royal Naval Dockyard at Harwich, Essex, completed her final outfitting on the River Thames, and arrived at Dover on 24 September 1835. She initially measured 89 tons burthen and the hull was 105 ft 9 in (32.23 m) long, 16 ft 10 in (5.13 m) in beam and 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) deep. She was engined with a 2-cylinder beam engine, made by Maudslay, Sons and Field at Lambeth, of 80 horse power and driving two side paddle wheels.

## Service from Kent ports

The steamer was owned by John Hayward of Dover and others, including her builder George Graham, and captained by William Hayward. The Haywards were the first private operator of steam vessels from Dover, beginning with *Sovereign* in 1822. Built specifically for the steam packet services from Dover to London and to Boulogne, *Water Witch* proved to be a fast vessel, beating both British Post Office packet steamers and French state vessels in speed trials.

Initially she was partnered on the London service by the steamer *Dover Castle* under Capt. Luckhurst, and on sailings to Boulogne by *Royal George* under Capt. Swaffer, but by 1837 was fully dedicated to the Boulogne route.

On 24 June 1843, with the South Eastern Railway Company's line from London having reached Folkestone, *Water Witch* was specially chartered from Capt. Hayward for a trial trip by its directors and engineer, together with their guests, of a steam ferry service from Folkestone Harbour (which the company had purchased) to Boulogne. The voyage was successful, and demonstrated that a day trip to France from London was possible. Although the subsequent public services were run by ships of the New Commercial Steam Packet Company, when that company withdrew its ships in February 1844, Haywards' *Water Witch* and *Royal George* were chartered to fill the gap for ten months.

## Poole-Portsmouth steam packet

In early 1845 Haywards sold *Water Witch* to the short-lived Poole, Isle of Purbeck, Isle of Wight and Portsmouth Steam Packet Company, and she was re-registered at Poole on 31 May 1845. She was put on a twice-weekly service between Poole and Portsmouth, with calls at Brownsea Island, South Haven, Yarmouth and Cowes. In addition to the packet service, she was used as a tug to assist larger vessels entering and leaving Poole. The opening of the Southampton and Dorchester Railway in 1847 had an adverse effect on demand from passengers and for freight and they consequently looked for alternative trades for *Water Witch*, their only vessel; one possibility was a service between Poole and the Channel Islands. By mid-1848 other possibilities had not materialised and *Water Witch* was offered for sale, though a buyer was not found until the end of the year.

## Bristol Channel services

*Water Witch* began a new service for the Bideford-based North Devon Steam Packet Company in February 1849, connecting Bideford and Barnstaple with Bristol through separate weekly services to each Devon port; calls were also made at Ilfracombe and Lynmouth, and the sailings were timed to connect with the Liverpool steamers at Bristol. In September 1851, after a period offering free return passages to customers making their way to the Great Exhibition in London, the ship was advertised for sale by auction, and then again in December when her North Devon sailings had ended. She was next offered for sale in early 1853, still at Bideford, but with no indication that she had been active in 1852.

On 12 January 1857 *Water Witch*, after extensive repairs and with new boilers, commenced a freight service between Gloucester and Bideford, via Swansea as well as offering towage services to Bristol Channel ports.

1. Hasenson, Alec (1980). *The History of Dover Harbour*. London: Arum Special Editions. pp. 150–154, 404. ISBN 9780906053171.
2. "The New Steamers/Ramsgate/Shipping Intelligence". *Dover Telegraph*. Vol. II, no. 98. 26 September 1835. p. 8. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
3. "Dover". *Oxford Journal*. No. 4352. 24 September 1836. p. 4. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
4. "Passage to the Continent". *Dover Telegraph*. Vol. III, no. 127. 16 April 1836. p. 8. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
5. "Steam Conveyance between Dover and London". *Dover Telegraph*. Vol. III, no. 127. 16 April 1836. p. 1. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
6. "Dover Steam Packets". *Dover Telegraph*. Vol. III, no. 142. 30 July 1836. p. 1. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
7. "Dover Steam Packets". *The Times*. No. 16250. London. 2 November 1836. p. 1.
8. "London and Dover, by Steam direct". *Dover Telegraph*. Vol. IV, no. 204. 7 October 1837. p. 1. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
9. "A trip to Boulogne and back in one day". *The Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal - Scientific and Railway Gazette*. Vol. VI. London. July 1843. p. 253. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
10. O'Brien, F T O (1973). *Early Solent Steamers : a history of local steam navigation*. Newton Abbot: David and Charles. pp. 128–129. ISBN 0-7153-5654-2.
11. "Expeditious travelling". *Salisbury and Winchester Journal*. No. 6410. 31 May 1845. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
12. "Poole". *Dorset County Chronicle*. No. 1309. 8 January 1846. p. 4. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
13. "Poole and Portsmouth Steam Packet Company". *Hampshire Advertiser*. No. 1247. Southampton. 10 July 1847. p. 5. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
14. "Steam Packet Company". *Hampshire Advertiser*. No. 1264. Southampton. 6 November 1847. p. 5. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
15. "Private sales". *Shipping and Mercantile Gazette*. No. 3236. London. 25 July 1848. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
16. "North Devon Steam Packet Company". *North Devon Journal*. No. 1289. Barnstaple. 15 February 1849. p. 2. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
17. "Great Exhibition: Free Return Passage". *North Devon Journal*. No. 1463. Barnstaple. 3 July 1851. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
18. "Sales by Auction". *Shipping and Mercantile Gazette*. No. 4209. London. 2 September 1851. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
19. "Sales by Auction". *Bristol Mercury*. No. 3222. 20 December 1851. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
20. "At Bideford". *Shipping and Mercantile Gazette*. No. 4660. London. 7 February 1853. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
21. "Steam Communication". *Shipping and Mercantile Gazette*. No. 5881. London. 1 January 1857. p. 1. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| History | |
| United Kingdom | |
| Name | *Water Witch* |
| Operator | * 1835–1845 John Hayward, Dover * 1845–1849 Poole, Isle of Purbeck, Isle of Wight and Portsmouth Steam Packet Company, Poole * 1849–1863 North Devon Steam Packet Company, Bideford |
| Builder | George Graham, Harwich |
| Launched | 6 August 1835 |
| Fate | Broken up by 1863 |
| General characteristics | |
| Tonnage | 89 tons burthen |
| Length | 105 ft 9 in (32.23 m) |
| Beam | 16 ft 10 in (5.13 m) |
| Depth of hold | 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) |
| Installed power | 80 horsepower (60 kW) |
| Propulsion | 2-cylinder beam engine driving side paddle wheels |


title: Metasia empelioptera

abstract: Metasia empelioptera is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by John Frederick Gates Clarke in 1971. It is found in French Polynesia, where it has been recorded from the island Rapa Iti.

text:
# Metasia empelioptera

***Metasia empelioptera*** is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by John Frederick Gates Clarke in 1971. It is found in French Polynesia, where it has been recorded from the island Rapa Iti.

## InfoBox

| *Metasia empelioptera* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Crambidae |
| Subfamily: | Spilomelinae |
| Genus: | *Metasia* |
| Species: | ***M. empelioptera*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Metasia empelioptera***<br>J. F. G. Clarke, 1971 | |
|


title: Water gel explosive

abstract: A water-gel explosive is a fuel-sensitized explosive mixture consisting of an aqueous ammonium nitrate solution that acts as the oxidizer. Water gels that are cap-insensitive are referred to under United States safety regulations as blasting agents. Water gel explosives have a jelly-like consistency and come in sausage-like packing stapled shut on both sides. Water-gel explosives have almost completely displaced dynamite, becoming the most-used civil blasting agents.

text:
# Water gel explosive

A **water-gel explosive** is a fuel-sensitized explosive mixture consisting of an aqueous ammonium nitrate solution that acts as the oxidizer. Water gels that are cap-insensitive are referred to under United States safety regulations as blasting agents. Water gel explosives have a jelly-like consistency and come in sausage-like packing stapled shut on both sides.

Water-gel explosives have almost completely displaced dynamite, becoming the most-used civil blasting agents.

## Composition

Water gels usually have many different ingredients. They contain a gelatinizing agent, also known as a thickener, that modifies their consistency, ranging from easily pourable gels to hard solids. Polyvinyl alcohol, guar gum, dextran gums, and urea-formaldehyde resins are the typical gelling agents. Guar, specifically, is a gelling agent used for the aqueous portion of the water gel explosives. The primary component of water gels is methylamine nitrate. Methylamine nitrate is the salt formed by the neutralization of methylamine with nitric acid. Water gel explosives are also made of ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate, aluminum, ethylene glycol and TNT. The proportions of these components vary depending on the desired explosiveness of the water gel.

## Preparation

Water gel explosives are produced by combining nitroparaffins, usually nitromethane, with an aqueous salt solution and a gelling agent. These nitroparaffins typically make up most of the water gel explosive. Different types of gelling agents are used to create the water gel explosive. One agent is insoluble in water, but able to gel with nitromethane. The gel used for nitromethane is cyanoethylether, a derivative of galactomannan gum. Other agents are water-soluble and are used for the aqueous salt solution. As mentioned above, water-soluble gums and gel modifiers (like guar) can be used for the gelling of aqueous solutions. When the salt solution and nitroparaffin are gelled, the entire mixture is combined and mixed together until the desired consistency is achieved. One characteristic that allows the explosive to work so well is the insoluble nature of the nitroparaffin. The effectiveness of the water gels is dependent on the dissemination of salts in the salt solution. The particles need to be very small and fine so that they can be dispersed well throughout the solution. Some salts that are commonly used include: ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium perchlorate and potassium chlorate. The sensitivity of the explosive must be increased in order to improve the initiation of the detonation of the explosive. There are different techniques for increasing the sensitivity. Aluminum or other powdered metals can help increase the sensitivity of the water gel, but increasing the sensitivity also means that the explosives are more combustible. Powdered metals have not proven to be completely effective in increasing the sensitivity of the explosive because they do not uniformly mix through the solution. They also lose sensitivity as storage time increases. Liquid non-self-explosive sensitizers like nitrobenzene and liquid nitrotoluene have not worked well either because they are difficult to hold in suspension. Liquid aliphatic mononitrates have been found to work very effectively as sensitizers when they are well mixed in the water gel.

## Advantages and uses

Water gel explosives tend to be less toxic and are less hazardous than dynamite to manufacture, transport, and store. Water gels are also less expensive than conventional explosives. Because they are relatively safe and easy to use, they are often used in the mining industry. There are many different types of water gel explosives for use in different situations. One type, a small diameter slurry explosive, can be used specifically for blasting in coal undercut, midcut, and depillaring areas. They are preferable to nitroglycerin-based explosives like dynamite because they produce less noxious fumes. Detagel, which is very high in strength, is a specific example of a small diameter water gel explosive that is used for mining activities.

Water gel explosives are frequently used as cartridge explosives because they are much easier to load into large casings. With water gel explosives, the slurry material can simply be poured into the casing. Traditional explosives are cast into the casing. This process is laborious and the charge may begin to shrink, creating multiple voids. A final advantage of slurry is that it can be stored in non-explosive component form and sensitized into field-manufactured explosive as it is needed. The explosive may be sensitized by the addition of gas, metal powder, or another explosive such as TNT, RDX, HMX, or PETN. The water in water gel explosives is converted into a reactant by the addition of large amounts of aluminum.


title: Methomyl

abstract:
Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide introduced in 1966. It is highly toxic to humans, livestock, pets, and wildlife.
The EU imposed a pesticide residue limit of 0,01 mg/kg for all fruit and vegetables. Methomyl is a common active ingredient in commercial fly bait, for which the label instructions in the United States warn that "It is a violation of Federal Law to use this product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling." "Off-label" uses and other uses not specifically targeted at problem insects are illegal, dangerous, and ill-advised.

text:
# Methomyl

**Methomyl** is a carbamate insecticide introduced in 1966. It is highly toxic to humans, livestock, pets, and wildlife. The EU imposed a pesticide residue limit of 0,01 mg/kg for all fruit and vegetables.

Methomyl is a common active ingredient in commercial fly bait, for which the label instructions in the United States warn that "It is a violation of Federal Law to use this product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling." "Off-label" uses and other uses not specifically targeted at problem insects are illegal, dangerous, and ill-advised.

## Use

Methomyl is a broad-spectrum insecticide that is used to kill insect pests. Methomyl is registered for commercial/professional use under certain conditions on sites including field, vegetable, and orchard crops; turf (sod farms only); livestock quarters; commercial premises; and refuse containers. Products containing 1% Methomyl are available to the general public for retail sale, but more potent formulations are classified as restricted-use pesticides: not registered for homeowner or non-professional application. However, *Heliothis virescens* developed a resistance to methomyl within 5 years. Other species like Helicoverpa assulta also developed resistance after exposure.

## Toxicity

In acute toxicity testing, methomyl is placed in EPA Toxicity Category I (the highest toxicity category out of four) via the oral route and in eye irritation studies. It is in lower Toxicity Categories for inhalation (Category II), acute dermal effects (Category III), and acute skin irritation (Category IV). Methomyl is not likely to be a carcinogen (EPA carcinogen Category E).

## Ecotoxicity

Methomyl has low persistence in the soil environment, with a reported half-life of approximately 14 days. Because of its high solubility in water, and low affinity for soil binding methomyl may have potential for groundwater contamination. The estimated aqueous half-life for the insecticide is 6 days in surface water and over 25 weeks in groundwater.

## Synthesis

First prepare thioester:

Second prepare oxime from thioester:

Third prepare product from methyl isocyanate and the finished oxime:

## Trade names

Common names for methomyl include metomil and mesomile. Trade names include Acinate, Agrinate, DuPont 1179, Flytek, Kipsin, Lannate, Lanox, Memilene, Methavin, Methomex, Nudrin, NuBait, Pillarmate and SD 14999

* *Methomyl* in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)

## InfoBox

Methomyl
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Names | |
| IUPAC name (*E*,*Z*)-methyl *N*-{\[(methylamino)carbonyl\]oxy}ethanimidothioate | |
| Other names Lannate, Mesomile, Methomex, Nudrin | |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number |  |
| 3D model (JSmol) |  |
| ChEBI |  |
| ChEMBL |  |
| ChemSpider |  |
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.037.089 |
| PubChem CID |  |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) |  |
| InChI * InChI=1S/C5H10N2O2S/c1-4(10-3)7-9-5(8)6-2/h1-3H3,(H,6,8) NKey: UHXUZOCRWCRNSJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N N * InChI=1/C5H10N2O2S/c1-4(10-3)7-9-5(8)6-2/h1-3H3,(H,6,8)Key: UHXUZOCRWCRNSJ-UHFFFAOYAU | |
| SMILES * CNC(=O)ON=C(C)SC | |
| Properties | |
| Chemical formula | C5H10N2O2S |
| Molar mass | 162.20 |
| Appearance | White crystalline solid |
| Odor | Slight, sulfur-like |
| Density | 1.2946 g/cm3 |
| Melting point | 78 to 79 °C (172 to 174 °F; 351 to 352 K) |
| Solubility in water | 58 g/L |
| Vapor pressure | 0.00005 mmHg (25°C) |
| Hazards | |
| Flash point | Noncombustible |
| **NIOSH** (US health exposure limits): | |
| PEL (Permissible) | none |
| REL (Recommended) | TWA 2.5 mg/m3 |
| IDLH (Immediate danger) | N.D. |
| Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C \[77 °F\], 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?)  Infobox references | |


title: Metagyndes innata

abstract: Metagyndes innata is a harvestman of the family Gonyleptidae found in Chile.

text:
# Metagyndes innata

***Metagyndes innata*** is a harvestman of the family Gonyleptidae found in Chile.

## InfoBox

| *Metagyndes innata* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Opiliones |
| Family: | Gonyleptidae |
| Genus: | *Metagyndes* |
| Species: | ***M. innata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Metagyndes innata***<br>(Roewer, 1929) | |
|


title: Warchlinko

abstract: Warchlinko is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Stargard, within Stargard County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland. It lies approximately 12 kilometres (7 mi) north of Stargard and 27 km (17 mi) east of the regional capital Szczecin. For the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.

text:
# Warchlinko

**Warchlinko** \[varˈxlinkɔ\] (formerly German *Klein Wachlin*) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Stargard, within Stargard County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland. It lies approximately 12 kilometres (7 mi) north of Stargard and 27 km (17 mi) east of the regional capital Szczecin.

For the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.

## InfoBox

| Warchlinko | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Warchlinko | |
| Coordinates: 53°26′N 14°59′E / 53.433°N 14.983°E / 53.433; 14.983 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | West Pomeranian |
| County | Stargard |
| Gmina | Stargard |