title: Promiscuous (disambiguation)

abstract:
Promiscuous may refer to behavior that is indiscriminate. In a social context it usually refers to sexual behavior but it may also be used for any indiscriminate action:
  - "Promiscuous" (song), a 2006 song by Nelly Furtado featuring Timbaland
  - Enzyme promiscuity, the catalysis of more than one reaction by an enzyme
  - Promiscuity, promiscuous sexual behaviour
  - Promiscuous Judge, a type of judicial officer in Colombia
  - Promiscuous mode, a network interface controller mode that eavesdrops on messages intended for others

text:
# Promiscuous (disambiguation)

**Promiscuous** may refer to behavior that is indiscriminate. In a social context it usually refers to sexual behavior but it may also be used for any indiscriminate action:

* "Promiscuous" (song), a 2006 song by Nelly Furtado featuring Timbaland (also known as both "Promiscuous Girl" and/or "Promiscuous Boy")
* Enzyme promiscuity, the catalysis of more than one reaction by an enzyme
* Promiscuity, promiscuous sexual behaviour
* Promiscuous Judge, a type of judicial officer in Colombia
* Promiscuous mode, a network interface controller mode that eavesdrops on messages intended for others


title: Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe

abstract: Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe of Pine Ridge Reservation, 231 F.2d 89, was a case where the plaintiffs challenged the authority of Indian tribal courts. The case, involving both adultery and tax assessment, was heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

text:
# Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe

***Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe*** of Pine Ridge Reservation, 231 F.2d 89 (8th Cir.1956), was a case where the plaintiffs challenged the authority of Indian tribal courts. The case, involving both adultery and tax assessment, was heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

## Background

Two of the plaintiffs, both enrolled members of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, Marie Little Finger and David Black Cat were tried and convicted in the Oglala Sioux Tribal court of the crime of adultery, under the Revised Code of the Oglala Sioux Tribe. The third plaintiff in the case Thomas Iron Crow, also an enrolled member of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, challenged the jurisdiction of the tribal court to enforce the collection of a tax assessed against parties who were non-members of the tribe who leased grazing rights from him on his allocated land on the reservation.

## Arguments and ruling

The Tribal Court claimed jurisdiction over the matter based on the fact that both Little Finger and Black Cat were enrolled members of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, and that their alleged indiscretion occurred on the Pine Ridge Reservation. Little Finger and Black Cat filed for an injunction in Federal District Court, on the grounds that the Tribal Court did not have the jurisdiction to try the case and that the subsequent conviction and enforcement of the sentences were in violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

The appellate court held that

> Indian tribes such as the defendant Oglala Sioux Tribe of the Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota still possess their inherent sovereignty excepting only when it has been specifically taken from them by treaty or Congressional Act.


title: Wieluń denar

abstract: The Wieluń denar was 14th century silver coin minted in Wieluń. It served as a currency of the Duchy of Wieluń, that existed between 1370 and 1391.

text:
# Wieluń denar

The **Wieluń denar** was 14th century silver coin minted in Wieluń. It served as a currency of the Duchy of Wieluń, that existed between 1370 and 1391.

## Description

The coin was made out of silver and weighed around 0.25 g (0.009 oz). Its diameter was between 12 and 14 mm.

On the obverse, the coin had an image of the battlemented tower with a pointy roof and the ball at the top, which was located between two crosses. The side had an inscription that read: "MONETA VELUNES", which meant literally *minted in Wieluń*. On the reverse it had the moon and an eagle without a crown, faced to the right. The inscription of that said read: "DUCI\[S\] \[LADIS\]LAI" indicating that it was minted from the orders of the duke Vladislaus II of Opole.

## Explanatory notes

1. "Wieluń". *it-jura.pl*. Archived from the original on 2013-12-28.
2. "O Wieluniu". *um.wielun.pl*.
3. "Wieluńskie skarby". *historiawielunia.uni.lodz.pl*.

## InfoBox

| Duchy of Wieluń | |
| --- | --- |
| Mass | c. 0.25 g (0.009 oz) |
| Diameter | 12/14 mm |
| Years of minting | 14th cenutury |
| Mintage | Wieluń |
| Obverse | |
| Design | 2 crosses and a tower with the inscription "MONETA VELUNES" |
| Reverse | |
| Design | A moon and an eagle with the inscription "DUCI\[S\] \[LADIS\]LAI" |


title: Of Beauty and Rage

abstract: of Beauty and Rage is the fifth studio album by American Christian rock band Red. It was released on February 24, 2015 through Essential Records. It was produced by Rob Graves. The album was included through a PledgeMusic campaign. "Darkest Part" and "Yours Again" were available pre-release to backers. The album's first single "Darkest Part" was released on December 8, 2014. The album's second single, "Yours Again", was released on March 19, 2015. The album received highly positive reviews, with many citing it as the band's best album ever.

text:
# Of Beauty and Rage

***of Beauty and Rage*** is the fifth studio album by American Christian rock band Red. It was released on February 24, 2015 through Essential Records. It was produced by Rob Graves. The album was included through a PledgeMusic campaign. "Darkest Part" and "Yours Again" were available pre-release to backers. The album's first single "Darkest Part" was released on December 8, 2014. The album's second single, "Yours Again", was released on March 19, 2015. The album received highly positive reviews, with many citing it as the band's best album ever.

## Background

According to one of the twins, Anthony Armstrong, Red's guitarist, the song, "Darkest Part", is "simply about being vulnerable. When you trust someone and show the demons you have hidden away in your life, there is a fear and likelihood of scaring someone away." The story depicted in the music video ties in with past songs "Feed the Machine" and "Perfect Life". Together they form a larger storyline. At 60 minutes, it is the band's longest album to date.

## Critical reception

Professional ratings
| Aggregate scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| Album of The Year | 74/100 |
| Review scores | |
| Source | Rating |
| AllMusic | Positive |
| Indie Vision Music |  |
| Jesus Freak Hideout |
 |
| New Release Tuesday |  |
| Sputnikmusic |
 |
| Christian Review |  |
| Cryptic Rock |  |
| Front Row Report | 9/10 |
| *CCM Magazine* |  |

*Of Beauty and Rage* received widespread acclaim; many critics have described it as the band's best album to date.

Lee Brown of *Indie Vision Music* praised the album, rating it four out of five stars, saying: "Red brings to the table their best album so far. *of Beauty and Rage* is subtle, yet powerful. It is heavy, yet tender. It weaves an eternal story of darkness to light that perfectly encapsulates both beauty and brutality. And, as with all of their work, the level of polish, skill, and craftsmanship is undeniable. Although I do not think it has quite overtaken Lil’ Dre’s amazing and personal *Homework* as best album so far this year… *of Beauty and Rage* is an album that will hold firm as one of the best albums of 2015."

Some critics believed the formulaic production would only be able to satisfy the band's fans, rather than being an innovative release. Writing for *Jesus Freak Hideout,* Michael Weaver also gave the album four out of five stars, although he claimed the album to be "formulaic", he concluded: "On the upside, some of the hardest music RED have written to date is present on this album. Also, Michael Barnes' screams are more on point, and more fully featured, than ever before. Sonically, *of Beauty and Rage* could be the band's finest work, but it seems the band needs to get away from the "go to" tracks to create some truly creative art. Long time RED listeners will likely fall in love with this one, but it's doubtful to sway anyone who has disregarded them in the past. It's a mixed bag of good music and frustration, but from the low start of "Descent" to the high of "Ascent," the story and concept here is worth at least one listen."

## Track listing

| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Descent" | Rob Graves | 1:11 |
| 2. | "Impostor" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, Blue Stahli | 4:18 |
| 3. | "Shadow and Soul" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves | 5:44 |
| 4. | "Darkest Part" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, J. Baker, Mark Holman | 4:02 |
| 5. | "Fight to Forget" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, McArthur | 3:28 |
| 6. | "Of These Chains" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves | 3:53 |
| 7. | "Falling Sky" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, J. Baker, Holman | 5:26 |
| 8. | "The Forest" | Graves | 0:55 |
| 9. | "Yours Again" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, McArthur, C. Flury, A. Niceforo | 4:49 |
| 10. | "What You Keep Alive" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, Stahli | 5:22 |
| 11. | "Gravity Lies" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves | 4:33 |
| 12. | "Take Me Over" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, McArthur, Baker, Johnny Andrews | 3:51 |
| 13. | "The Ever" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, McArthur, Baker | 4:10 |
| 14. | "Part That's Holding On" | A. Armstrong, R. Armstrong, Barnes, Graves, Baker | 4:45 |
| 15. | "Ascent" | Graves | 3:58 |
| Total length: | | | 60:34 |

## Personnel

**Red**

* Michael Barnes – vocals
* Anthony Armstrong – guitars, programming
* Randy Armstrong – bass, piano, vocals

**Additional musicians**

* Dan Johnson – drums
* David Davidson – violins
* David Angell – violins
* Conni Ellisor – violins
* Karen Winkelmann – violins
* Janet Darnall – violins
* Alicia Enstrom – violins
* Monisa Angell – violas
* Elizabeth Lamb – violas
* Seanad Dunigan Chang – violas
* Anthony LaMarchina – cellos
* Sarighani Reist – cellos
* Carole Rabinowitz – cellos
* Julie Tanner – cellos

**Additional personnel**

* Rob Graves – producer, piano, programming
* Jason McArthur – executive producer
* Jason Root – A&R Production
* Ben Grosse – mixing
* Paul Pavao – mix assistant
* Tom Baker at Baker Mastering – mastering
* Justin Spotswood – engineering
* Cason Pratt – engineering
* Bret Autrey (as Blue Stahli) – programming
* Josh Baker – programming
* Bobby "Baeho" Shin – orchestral engineer

## Charts

*of Beauty and Rage* debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart at No. 14 with first week sales of over 34,000.

| Chart (2015) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| US *Billboard* 200 | 14 |
| US Top Alternative Albums (*Billboard*) | 2 |
| US Christian Albums (*Billboard*) | 1 |
| US Digital Albums (*Billboard*) | 8 |
| US Top Hard Rock Albums (*Billboard*) | 1 |
| US Independent Albums (*Billboard*) | 1 |
| US Top Rock Albums (*Billboard*) | 3 |

## InfoBox

| of Beauty and Rage | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Red | |
| Released | February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24) |
| Studio |  |
| Genre | Alternative metal, alternative rock, Christian rock, symphonic metal |
| Length | 60:34 |
| Label | Essential |
| Producer | Rob Graves |
| Red chronology | |
| *Release the Panic*
(2013) ***of Beauty and Rage***
(2015) *Gone*
(2017) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *of Beauty and Rage* | |
| 1. "Darkest Part"
Released: December 8, 2014 2. "Yours Again"
Released: March 19, 2015 | |
|  | |


title: Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge

abstract: Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is a United States National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), and part of the Everglades Headwaters NWR complex, located just off the western coast of North Hutchinson Island in the Indian River Lagoon east of Sebastian, Florida. The refuge consists of a 3-acre (12,000 m⁲) island that includes an additional 2.5 acres (10,000 m⁲) of surrounding water and is located off the east coast of Florida of the Indian River Lagoon. Established by an executive order of President Theodore Roosevelt on March 14, 1903, Pelican Island was the first National wildlife refuge in the United States. It was created to protect egrets and other birds from extinction through plume hunting. The oldest government wildlife refuge of any kind in North America is the Lake Merritt Bird Refuge in Oakland, California. Oakland Mayor Samuel Merritt declared it a wildlife refuge for migrating birds in 1869. In 1870, the state of California designated Lake Merritt a state game refuge.

text:
# Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. National Historic Landmark | |
|  | |
| Aerial view | |
|  | |
| Location | Indian River County, Florida, United States |
| Nearest city | Sebastian, Florida |
| Coordinates | 27°48′36″N 80°26′28″W / 27.81000°N 80.44111°W / 27.81000; -80.44111 |
| Area | 5,376 acres (2,176 ha) |
| Built | 1903 |
| NRHP reference No. | 66000265 |
| Significant dates | |
| Added to NRHP | October 15, 1966 |
| Designated NHL | May 23, 1963 |

**Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge** is a United States National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), and part of the Everglades Headwaters NWR complex, located just off the western coast of North Hutchinson Island in the Indian River Lagoon east of Sebastian, Florida. The refuge consists of a 3-acre (12,000 m2) island that includes an additional 2.5 acres (10,000 m2) of surrounding water and is located off the east coast of Florida of the Indian River Lagoon. Established by an executive order of President Theodore Roosevelt on March 14, 1903, Pelican Island was the first National wildlife refuge in the United States. It was created to protect egrets and other birds from extinction through plume hunting. The oldest government wildlife refuge of any kind in North America is the Lake Merritt Bird Refuge in Oakland, California. Oakland Mayor Samuel Merritt declared it a wildlife refuge for migrating birds in 1869. In 1870, the state of California designated Lake Merritt a state game refuge.

## Management

Pelican Island is administered as part of the 8,000-acre (3,200 ha) *Everglades Headwaters NWR complex* along with Archie Carr NWR, Lake Wales Ridge NWR, and the Everglades Headwaters NWR and Conservation Area, created in 2012 (556th unit of the National Wildlife Refuge System) with a 10-acre (4.0 ha) donation and other lands covering approximately 150,000 acres (61,000 ha) north of Lake Okeechobee. 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) will be held under "conservation easement"s through the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This allows landowners the right to retain ownership of the land, with the ability to continue farming or ranching, ensuring that the land can't be subdivided or developed.

Pelican Island NWR has been placed on the List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance along with other areas of wetlands in the United States.

## History

In 1860 census listed population of two people and in the 1880 census listed that less than 30 individuals lived in the St. Sebastian River area. Pelican Island's bird populations were threatened because of increased American settlement around the area in the mid-19th century. Many of the exotic birds were killed for their feathers, used in the fashion industry. Plumes from the birds were used to adorn ladies' hats of the day and at the time were worth more than their weight in gold.

Paul Kroegel, a German immigrant, moved to Florida in 1881 and lived on the west bank of Indian River Lagoon. He was fascinated with the pelicans on the island. Being able to see the island from his home, Paul would watch the pelicans and other water birds. He eventually took an interest in the island and its protection. However, there was not any state or federal law to help him so he took control of the situation himself. Kroegel sailed to the island to stand guard and protect the birds and the island.

A few naturalists visited Kroegel at Pelican Island. A curator at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, Frank Chapman, was one of the naturalists showing interest in the island as well. He discovered that Pelican Island was one of the last rookeries of Brown pelicans on the eastern coast of Florida.

The American Ornithologists' Union and the Florida Audubon Society led a campaign to pass legislation for protection of non-game birds in 1901. Knowing that the protection of Pelican Island would require more legislation, Chapman and his fellow advocate, William Dutcher went to President Theodore Roosevelt at his home in New York. The two appealed their case to Roosevelt's conservative ethics. On 14 March 1903, President Roosevelt signed an executive order that established Pelican Island as the first federal bird reservation. This was the first time that the federal government put land aside for the sake of wildlife. The area, however, was open for big game hunters. Kroegel was hired as the first national wildlife refuge manager until 1926. He was paid $1 per month by the Audubon Society, as Congress had not made financial provisions for the refuge.

### Recent threats

During the 1960s, Pelican Island was threatened by attempts to sell the surrounding wetlands and islands to developers. Local citizens led a fight to protect Pelican Island by stopping the sale of the wetlands. The Indian River Area Preservation League, formed by local citrus growers, commercial fishermen, and sportsmen, joined with Florida Audubon Society to convince the State to include the islands as a part of the refuge. "Later in 1963, Pelican Island was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior because of its status as the first federal area set aside specifically to protect wildlife." In 1968, Florida agreed to expand to include nearly 5000 acres (20 km2) of mangrove islands and other submerged lands. In 1970, Pelican Island became the smallest wilderness area in the National Wilderness Preservation System at 3 acres. Since, the refuge has gained over 500 acres (2 km2) through purchases, management agreements, and conservation easements to provide a buffer against encroaching development and also to be a link to the Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge. Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge was added to the list of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971.

Today, Pelican Island is also threatened by shoreline development. Shoreline development has many negative impacts associated with it. Shoreline development can reduce the water quality by increasing the runoff of sediments, fertilizers, and pesticides. These runoffs will cause decline in water quality, and this can directly affect the food base that sustains the island's nesting bird colonies. Waterfront development will also lead to more boat traffic. This extra boat traffic will also negatively affect the birds on the coast. Not only this, development of the shorelines of Pelican Island will permanently flaw the pristine character of this unique National Historic Landmark.

### Budget cuts

Pelican Island, along with many other wildlife refuges, has been experiencing budget cuts. Many problems arise from the stagnant budget and lack of maintenance in the wildlife refuges. These are vital to preserve the habitat and the wildlife and to provide public education and recreation. This situation worsened further because of the failure of congress to timely pass federal funding bills.

Staffing at Pelican Island is made up of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The staff members have recently fallen from six to two which has had many negative consequences. The cuts have led to limiting refuge work and restricting public visitation. Another consequence is the end of 14-year tradition of the wildlife festival. Pelican Island will be losing its only public-use staff and eliminating all active outreach at the nation's first wildlife refuge. Pelican Island Refuge manager and project leader Paul Tritaik said in 2006 that reductions to a full-time staff would lead to the end of some refuge activities and the loss of several trails.

## Physical environment

The environment of Pelican Island consists of climate, topography, geology, air quality, and waterways.

### Climate

The climate at Pelican Island NWR is subtropical and temperate and experiences an average temperate of 67 °F (19 °C). Pelican Island has long, warm, and humid summers and short, mild winters and has an average rainfall of about 55 to 60 inches (140 to 150 cm) annually. Pelican Island may experience tropical storms in the period from May to November.

### Topography

The elevation of Pelican Island changes from east to west. It rises sharply from sea level to about 15 feet (5 m) and then drops back down more slowly to below sea level in the Indian River Lagoon. The land between the Indian River Lagoon and St. Sebastian River is 20 feet (6 m). Even further west, there is an ancient dune that rises in elevation from 20 feet (6 m) to 30 feet (9 m).

### Geology

The landscape of Pelican Island area is made of Pleistocene (glacial) and Holocene (recent) origin. Submerged lands were exposed during the late Pleistocene period, allowing for the spread of flora and fauna from the peninsula. Wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves, and other swampy formations make up the uplands and submerged lands.

#### Soil

"The general soils in the Pelican Island Refuge are Canaveral-Captiva-Palm Beach, which is characterized by the gently sloping, somewhat poorly drained to moderately drained sandy soils with shell fragments, and McKee-Quartzipsamments-St. Augustine, which is characterized by level, somewhat poorly drained soils mixed with sand and shell fragments." Other soils include Canaveral Fine Sand, Quartzipsamments, Captiva Fine Sand, McKee Mucky Clay Loam, and Kesson Muck.

### Air quality

Good air quality is vital for the refuge to maintain itself. A few problems dealing with air pollution are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. The primary producers of these pollutants are vehicle emissions, power plants, and industrial activities. The Indian River Lagoon area is said to have good air quality. Sometimes occasional temperate increases can temporarily degrade the air quality below the accepted levels.

### Waterways

The Indian River Lagoon stretches from Ponce de Leon south of Daytona Beach to Jupiter Inlet near West Palm Beach, a distance of about 155 miles (249 km), and contains a number of small rivers, creeks, and canals. The Intracoastal Waterway is the deepest part of the Lagoon. St. Sebastian River and Turkey Creek provide freshwater to the Lagoon. Water quality is also a concern in the refuge: cadmium, lead, mercury, nutrients, selenium, thallium, and dissolved oxygen. The water circulation is affected by the Intracoastal Waterway, winds, inlets, and causeways. Within the refuge boundary, the water quality is generally better compared to portions of the Lagoon.

## Wildlife

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge holds hundreds of species of animals including birds, fish, plants, and mammals. The wetlands of Pelican Island are a major ecological system supporting the huge biological diversity. Fifteen federally listed threatened and endangered species live in Pelican Island NWR and around Indian River Lagoon. Of the endangered species, West Indian manatees and sea turtles occupy parts of the lagoon. Around the lagoon in the refuge are two wood stork refuges. These birds along with other wading birds that nest on the island thrive on the tremendous fish population. Pelican Island is home to many nesting birds including brown pelicans, great egrets, snowy egrets, reddish egrets, great blue heron, little blue heron, tricolored heron, black-crowned night heron, American white ibis, glossy ibis, double-crested cormorant, anhinga, and American oystercatcher.

### Visiting

Pelican Island is only accessible by boat or chartered tours. Nesting birds are easily disturbed, so people are not allowed to get too close or to disembark. Visiting during nesting season (late November through late July), one can expect to see brown pelican, wood storks, white ibises, black-crowned night herons, double-crested cormorants, reddish, snowy, and great egrets, and great blue, little blue and tricolored herons. Traveling in the winter, look for lesser scaup, blue-winged teal, mottled ducks, great northern divers, laughing gulls, American white pelicans, and red-breasted mergansers. Summer visitors should watch for roseate spoonbills, magnificent frigatebirds and least terns. Pelican Island also features some marine life in the Indian River including sea turtles, dolphins, and manatees.

New public facilities were opened and dedicated on March 14, 2003, in ceremonies marking the centennial of Pelican Island and the National Wildlife Refuge System. A 37¢ US Commemorative Stamp in honor of the NWR Centennial was issued as part of the celebration. The new facilities include a 1/4 mile boardwalk and 18-foot (5.5 m) observation tower to view Pelican Island, two 2.5-mile (4.0 km) salt marsh impoundment foot trails, interpretive signs, informational kiosks, restrooms and parking areas. The facilities are west of Highway A1A on the north end of Historic Jungle Trail. They were produced through a partnership with Indian River County, St. Johns River Water Management District, Florida Inland Navigation District, Florida Power and Light, ConocoPhillips, Wild Birds Unlimited, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and many others. Future plans include additional boardwalks, an overlook, a photo blind and a wildlife drive.

### Jungle Trail

The historic Jungle Trail is a 7.8 mile sandy road with a section that goes through the refuge. Citrus growers originally built this road in the 1920s and it is now on the National Register of Historic Places.

## InfoBox

| Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge | |
| --- | --- |
| IUCN category IV (habitat/species management area) | |
| View from Centennial Trail, Orchid, Florida | |
|  | |
| Area | 5,376 acres (21.76 km2) |
| Established | March 14, 1903 |
| Website | Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge |
|  | |
| Ramsar Wetland | |
| Designated | 14 March 1993 |
| Reference no. | 590 |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Quantum cognition

abstract: Quantum cognition uses the mathematical formalism of quantum probability theory to model psychology phenomena when classical probability theory fails. The field focuses on modeling phenomena in cognitive science that have resisted traditional techniques or where traditional models seem to have reached a barrier, and modeling preferences in decision theory that seem paradoxical from a traditional rational point of view. Since the use of a quantum-theoretic framework is for modeling purposes, the identification of quantum structures in cognitive phenomena does not presuppose the existence of microscopic quantum processes in the human brain. Quantum cognition can be applied to model cognitive phenomena such as information processing by the human brain, language, decision making, human memory, concepts and conceptual reasoning, human judgment, and perception.

text:
# Quantum cognition

**Quantum cognition** uses the mathematical formalism of quantum probability theory to model psychology phenomena when classical probability theory fails. The field focuses on modeling phenomena in cognitive science that have resisted traditional techniques or where traditional models seem to have reached a barrier (e.g., human memory), and modeling preferences in decision theory that seem paradoxical from a traditional rational point of view (e.g., preference reversals). Since the use of a quantum-theoretic framework is for modeling purposes, the identification of quantum structures in cognitive phenomena does not presuppose the existence of microscopic quantum processes in the human brain.

Quantum cognition can be applied to model cognitive phenomena such as information processing by the human brain, language, decision making, human memory, concepts and conceptual reasoning, human judgment, and perception.

## Challenges for classical probability theory

Classical probability theory is a rational approach to inference which does not easily explain some observations of human inference in psychology. Some cases where quantum probability theory has advantages include the conjunction fallacy, the disjunction fallacy, the failures of the sure-thing principle, and question-order bias in judgement.

### Conjunction fallacy

If participants in a psychology experiment are told about "Linda", described as looking like a feminist but not like a bank teller, then asked to rank the probability, $P$ that Linda is feminist, a bank teller or a feminist and a bank teller, they respond with values that indicate: $P({\text{feminist})\>P({\text{feminist}\ \\&\ {\text{bank teller})\>P({\text{bank teller})}}}}$ Rational classical probability theory makes the incorrect prediction: it expects humans to rank the conjunction less probable than the bank teller option. Many variations of this experiment demonstrate that the fallacy represents human cognition in this case and not an artifact of one presentation.

Quantum cognition models this probability-estimation scenario with quantum probability theory which always ranks sequential probability, $P({\text{feminist}\ \\&\ {\text{bank teller})}}$, greater than the direct probability, $P({\text{bank teller})}$. The idea is that a person's understanding of "bank teller" is affected by the context of the question involving "feminist". The two questions are "incompatible": to treat them with classical theory would require separate reasoning steps.

## Main subjects of research

### Quantum-like models of information processing

The quantum cognition concept is based on the observation that various cognitive phenomena are more adequately described by quantum probability theory than by the classical probability theory (see examples below). Thus, the quantum formalism is considered an operational formalism that describes non-classical processing of probabilistic data.

Here, contextuality is the key word (see the monograph of Khrennikov for detailed representation of this viewpoint). Quantum mechanics is fundamentally contextual. Quantum systems do not have objective properties which can be defined independently of measurement context. As has been pointed out by Niels Bohr, the whole experimental arrangement must be taken into account. Contextuality implies existence of incompatible mental variables, violation of the classical law of total probability, and constructive or destructive interference effects. Thus, the quantum cognition approach can be considered an attempt to formalize contextuality of mental processes, by using the mathematical apparatus of quantum mechanics.

### Decision making

Suppose a person is given an opportunity to play two rounds of the following gamble: a coin toss will determine whether the subject wins $200 or loses $100. Suppose the subject has decided to play the first round, and does so. Some subjects are then given the result (win or lose) of the first round, while other subjects are not yet given any information about the results. The experimenter then asks whether the subject wishes to play the second round. Performing this experiment with real subjects gives the following results:

1. When subjects believe they won the first round, the majority of subjects choose to play again on the second round.
2. When subjects believe they lost the first round, the majority of subjects choose to play again on the second round.

Given these two separate choices, according to the *sure thing* principle of rational decision theory, they should also play the second round even if they don't know or think about the outcome of the first round. But, experimentally, when subjects are not told the results of the first round, the majority of them decline to play a second round. This finding violates the law of total probability, yet it can be explained as a quantum interference effect in a manner similar to the explanation for the results from double-slit experiment in quantum physics. Similar violations of the sure-thing principle are seen in empirical studies of the Prisoner's Dilemma and have likewise been modeled in terms of quantum interference.

The above deviations from classical rational expectations in agents’ decisions under uncertainty produce well known paradoxes in behavioral economics, that is, the Allais, Ellsberg and Machina paradoxes. These deviations can be explained if one assumes that the overall conceptual landscape influences the subject's choice in a neither predictable nor controllable way. A decision process is thus an intrinsically contextual process, hence it cannot be modeled in a single Kolmogorovian probability space, which justifies the employment of quantum probability models in decision theory. More explicitly, the paradoxical situations above can be represented in a unified Hilbert space formalism where human behavior under uncertainty is explained in terms of genuine quantum aspects, namely, superposition, interference, contextuality and incompatibility.

Considering automated decision making, quantum decision trees have different structure compared to classical decision trees. Data can be analyzed to see if a quantum decision tree model fits the data better.

### Human probability judgments

Quantum probability provides a new way to explain human probability judgment errors including the conjunction and disjunction errors. A conjunction error occurs when a person judges the probability of a likely event L *and* an unlikely event U to be greater than the unlikely event U; a disjunction error occurs when a person judges the probability of a likely event L to be greater than the probability of the likely event L *or* an unlikely event U. Quantum probability theory is a generalization of Bayesian probability theory because it is based on a set of von Neumann axioms that relax some of the classic Kolmogorov axioms. The quantum model introduces a new fundamental concept to cognition—the compatibility versus incompatibility of questions and the effect this can have on the sequential order of judgments. Quantum probability provides a simple account of conjunction and disjunction errors as well as many other findings such as order effects on probability judgments.

The liar paradox - The contextual influence of a human subject on the truth behavior of a cognitive entity is explicitly exhibited by the so-called liar paradox, that is, the truth value of a sentence like "this sentence is false". One can show that the true-false state of this paradox is represented in a complex Hilbert space, while the typical oscillations between true and false are dynamically described by the Schrödinger equation.

### Knowledge representation

Concepts are basic cognitive phenomena, which provide the content for inference, explanation, and language understanding. Cognitive psychology has researched different approaches for understanding concepts including exemplars, prototypes, and neural networks, and different fundamental problems have been identified, such as the experimentally tested non classical behavior for the conjunction and disjunction of concepts, more specifically the Pet-Fish problem or guppy effect, and the overextension and underextension of typicality and membership weight for conjunction and disjunction. By and large, quantum cognition has drawn on quantum theory in three ways to model concepts.

1. Exploit the contextuality of quantum theory to account for the contextuality of concepts in cognition and language and the phenomenon of emergent properties when concepts combine
2. Use quantum entanglement to model the semantics of concept combinations in a non-decompositional way, and to account for the emergent properties/associates/inferences in relation to concept combinations
3. Use quantum superposition to account for the emergence of a new concept when concepts are combined, and as a consequence put forward an explanatory model for the Pet-Fish problem situation, and the overextension and underextension of membership weights for the conjunction and disjunction of concepts.

The large amount of data collected by Hampton on the combination of two concepts can be modeled in a specific quantum-theoretic framework in Fock space where the observed deviations from classical set (fuzzy set) theory, the above-mentioned over- and under- extension of membership weights, are explained in terms of contextual interactions, superposition, interference, entanglement and emergence. And, more, a cognitive test on a specific concept combination has been performed which directly reveals, through the violation of Bell's inequalities, quantum entanglement between the component concepts.

### Semantic analysis and information retrieval

The research in (iv) had a deep impact on the understanding and initial development of a formalism to obtain semantic information when dealing with concepts, their combinations and variable contexts in a corpus of unstructured documents. This conundrum of natural language processing (NLP) and information retrieval (IR) on the web – and data bases in general – can be addressed using the mathematical formalism of quantum theory. As basic steps, (a) K. Van Rijsbergen introduced a quantum structure approach to IR, (b) Widdows and Peters utilised a quantum logical negation for a concrete search system, and Aerts and Czachor identified quantum structure in semantic space theories, such as latent semantic analysis. Since then, the employment of techniques and procedures induced from the mathematical formalisms of quantum theory – Hilbert space, quantum logic and probability, non-commutative algebras, etc. – in fields such as IR and NLP, has produced significant results.

## History

Ideas for applying the formalisms of quantum theory to cognition first appeared in the 1990s by Diederik Aerts and his collaborators Jan Broekaert, Sonja Smets and Liane Gabora, by Harald Atmanspacher, Robert Bordley, and Andrei Khrennikov. A special issue on *Quantum Cognition and Decision* appeared in the *Journal of Mathematical Psychology* (2009, vol 53.), which planted a flag for the field. A few books related to quantum cognition have been published including those by Khrennikov (2004, 2010), Ivancivic and Ivancivic (2010), Busemeyer and Bruza (2012), E. Conte (2012). The first Quantum Interaction workshop was held at Stanford in 2007 organized by Peter Bruza, William Lawless, C. J. van Rijsbergen, and Don Sofge as part of the 2007 AAAI Spring Symposium Series. This was followed by workshops at Oxford in 2008, Saarbrücken in 2009, at the 2010 AAAI Fall Symposium Series held in Washington, D.C., 2011 in Aberdeen, 2012 in Paris, and 2013 in Leicester. Tutorials also were presented annually beginning in 2007 until 2013 at the annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. A *Special Issue on Quantum models of Cognition* appeared in 2013 in the journal *Topics in Cognitive Science*.

## Further reading


title: Melanie Paxson

abstract: Melanie Moore Paxson is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Jaclyn in Cupid, Sara Brennan in Happy Family and as Julie in Notes from the Underbelly. Paxson also appeared in a number of Gladware television commercials in the early 2000s.

text:
# Melanie Paxson

**Melanie Moore Paxson** (née **Moore**; born September 26, 1972) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Jaclyn in *Cupid*, Sara Brennan in *Happy Family* and as Julie in *Notes from the Underbelly*. Paxson also appeared in a number of Gladware television commercials in the early 2000s.

## Life and career

Paxson was born in Champaign, Illinois, and grew up in Mahomet, Illinois. She graduated from the University of Missouri with a bachelor's degree in Theatre. She received training in acting at Second City Chicago and performed with the Steppenwolf Theatre Company.

Paxson later became involved with "The Crew on the U" on Chicago's WCIU-TV. The Crew was made up of a group of young actors (including WCIU personality George Blaise) that appeared in promos for the station shortly after WCIU became a full-time general English language station after Univision (its former affiliate) bought WGBO-TV. Paxson also appeared as Velma in promos for WCIU's Scooby-Doo episodes the station aired on weekday mornings. Paxson was still seen on WCIU and WFBT (The Chicago low power station that was first home to MeTV in 2003) in disclaimers for E/I Children's programming as late as the mid 2000s. Paxson by that time had become relatively famous on a national level.

She pursued a screen career. In 1997, she had an uncredited role in the series *Early Edition*. Her first notable screen role was a recurring role as Jaclyn in the ABC series *Cupid* from 1998 to 1999. She went on guest star in the series *The Drew Carey Show*, *Quintuplets*, *Joey*, *Related*, *Kitchen Confidential*, *CSI: Crime Scene Investigation*, *Surviving Suburbia*, *Rules of Engagement*, *Medium* and *The Exes*. From 2003 to 2004, Paxson had a regular role in the NBC sitcom *Happy Family* as Sara Brennan. From 2007 to 2008, she co-starred as Julie in the ABC sitcom *Notes from the Underbelly*, the series aired for two seasons. From 2009 to 2010, she had a recurring role as Doris Madigan (née Aidem) on the Nickelodeon sitcom *True Jackson, VP*. She is also the spokeswoman in Red Robin's burger commercials.

Paxson's film credits include *Ready to Rumble* (2000), *Slackers* (2002), *Saving Mr. Banks* as Dolly (Dolores Vought), Disney's secretary (2013), and starring as Joyce DeWitt in the television film *Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Three's Company* (2003). She has appeared in television commercials for Fiber One, Target, Yoplait, Red Robin, Glad Trash Bags, Hotels.com and Serta mattresses. From 2015 to 2019 she starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie franchise *Descendants* with its sequels, *Descendants 2* and *Descendants 3*. She played the Fairy Godmother from *Cinderella* now serving as the Headmistress for the school, Auradon Prep. She also played a mother of a schoolchild in a second season episode of the ABC comedy *Speechless*, which played on October 4, 2017.

## Personal life

Paxson is married to Andy Paxson, co-owner of Los Angeles restaurants Sushi Note and Melanie Wine Bar. They have a son Miller and daughter Winifred.

## Filmography

### Film

| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1999 | *The Opera Lover* | Bibi |  |
| 2000 | *Ready to Rumble* | Wendy |  |
| 2013 | *Ending Up* | Blair | Short film |
| | *Saving Mr. Banks* | Dolly |  |
| 2015 | *Come Simi* | Lucy |  |
| | *The Outfield* | Judith Meola |  |
| 2017 | *The Magnificent Room* | Stacy |  |
| 2018 | *Chicken Girls: The Movie* | Principal Anthony |  |

### Television

| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1997 | *Early Edition* | Candace | Episode: "A Regular Joe" |
| 1998–1999 | *Cupid* | Jaclyn | Recurring role |
| 2001 | *Kristin* | Madeline | Episode: "The Escort" |
| 2002 | *Dexter Prep* | Meg | Television film |
| 2003 | *Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Three's Company* | Joyce DeWitt | |
| | *The Drew Carey Show* | Teri | Episode: "Two Girls for Every Boy" |
| 2003–2004 | *Happy Family* | Sara Brennan | Main role |
| 2004 | *Quintuplets* | Lisa | Episode: "Quint Con" |
| 2005 | *Related* | Kathy | Episode: "Cry Me a Sister" |
| | *Kitchen Confidential* | Jessica | Episode: "You Lose, I Win" |
| 2005–2006 | *Joey* | Marci | 2 episodes |
| 2007 | *CSI: Crime Scene Investigation* | Nancy Katz | Episode: "A La Cart" |
| 2007–2008 | *Notes from the Underbelly* | Julie | Main role |
| 2009 | *Surviving Suburbia* | Carla | Episode: "Project Run Away" |
| | *Rules of Engagement* | Deirdre | Episode: "Twice" |
| | *Medium* | Miss Colletto | Episode: "Bite Me" |
| 2009–2010 | *True Jackson, VP* | Doris Aden | Recurring role |
| 2011 | *The Exes* | Rebecca | Episode: "Lutz and the Real Girl" |
| 2012 | *Last Man Standing* | Liz | Episode: "The Spotlight" |
| 2013–2014 | *American Dad!* | Harper (voice) | 3 episodes |
| 2014 | *Masters of Sex* | Mrs. Turnsworth | Episode: "Giants" |
| 2015 | *Cougar Town* | Mary | 2 episodes |
| | *Descendants* | Fairy Godmother | Television film |
| | *Truth Be Told* | Linda | 3 episodes |
| 2016 | *The Real O'Neals* | Nancy | 2 episodes |
| | *Trollhunters* | Gladys (voice) | |
| 2017 | *Bones* | Patty | Episode: "The Brain in the Bot" |
| | *Trial & Error* | Gail | Episode: "A Hostile Jury" |
| | *Descendants 2* | Fairy Godmother | Television film |
| | *Speechless* | Carla | Episode: "F-I-- FIRST S-E-- SECOND F-- FIRST DAY" |
| 2019 | *Descendants 3* | Fairy Godmother | Television film |
| 2024 | *Descendants 4* | Fairy Godmother | Television film |

## InfoBox

| Melanie Paxson | |
| --- | --- |
| Paxson in 2007 | |
| Born | Melanie Deanne Moore
(1972-09-26) September 26, 1972
Champaign, Illinois, U.S. |
| Occupation | Actress |
| Years active | 1997–present |
| Spouse | Andy Paxson |
| Children | 2 |


title: İsmet Yılmaz

abstract: İsmet Yılmaz is a Turkish politician who was a member of the Grand National Assembly from 2011 to 2023. Previously he was Minister of National Defense and Minister of National Education. Yılmaz also briefly served as the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly. Prior to entering politics, he worked as a law consultant and mechanical engineer.

text:
# İsmet Yılmaz

**İsmet Yılmaz** (born 10 December 1961) is a Turkish politician who was a member of the Grand National Assembly from 2011 to 2023.

Previously he was Minister of National Defense and Minister of National Education. Yılmaz also briefly served as the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly. Prior to entering politics, he worked as a law consultant and mechanical engineer.

## Early life and education

İsmet Yılmaz was born in Gürün, Sivas Province. Following his primary education in his hometown, he enrolled in Haydarpaşa High School in Istanbul. Then, he studied mechanical engineering at the School of Maritime in Istanbul Technical University, graduating in 1982 with a bachelor's degree. Yılmaz attended then Istanbul University's Faculty of Law for education in maritime law and finished in 1987. He continued his further studies in "technical management in maritime" at the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden earning a master's degree. He received another master's degree in law from the Institute of Social Sciences in Marmara University, Istanbul. Finally, İsmet Yılmaz received a Doctor of Law degree from the Institute of Social Sciences at Ankara University.

## Career

### Government

After serving twenty years as an engineer and a law consultant, he became Undersecretary of Maritime Affairs at the Ministry of Transport and Communication on December 31, 2002. In accordance with Article 114 of the Constitution of Turkey, he was appointed neutral Minister of Transport and Communication on May 8, 2007, as placeholder for Binali Yıldırım until the 2007 general elections. Yılmaz was appointed Undersecretary at the Ministry of Culture and Tourism on November 1, 2007.

He entered politics as a member of the AK Party and became deputy for Sivas Province following the 2011 general elections. On July 6, 2011, Yılmaz was appointed Minister of National Defence in the Cabinet Erdoğan III. During his first term as Minister of Defense, he praised Turkey's affiliation to NATO and saw its membership as the result of values like democracy and human rights that Turkey was defending.

### Speaker of Parliament

Yılmaz was put forward as the AKP's candidate for Speaker of the Grand National Assembly for the June–July 2015 speaker elections. Since the AKP did not have a majority (276 seats) in Parliament, the election went into a fourth and final round where Yılmaz managed to win a simple majority of the vote on 1 July 2015. He was thus elected as the Speaker with 258 votes (exactly the same number of votes as AKP MPs) to rival Deniz Baykal's 182 votes.

## Personal life

İsmet Yılmaz is married and has three children.

## InfoBox

| İsmet YılmazMP | |
| --- | --- |
| Yılmaz in 2011 | |
|  | |
| Parliamentary Leader of the Justice and Development Party | |
| **In office**
17 November 2021  2 June 2023 | |
| Preceded by | Naci Bostancı |
| Succeeded by | Abdullah Güler |
| Minister of National Education | |
| **In office**
24 May 2016  10 July 2018 | |
| Prime Minister | Binali Yıldırım |
| Preceded by | Nabi Avcı |
| Succeeded by | Ziya Selçuk |
| Minister of National Defense | |
| **In office**
24 November 2015  24 May 2016 | |
| Prime Minister | Ahmet Davutoğlu |
| Preceded by | Vecdi Gönül |
| Succeeded by | Fikri Işık |
| **In office**
6 July 2011  29 August 2014 | |
| Preceded by | Vecdi Gönül |
| Succeeded by | Vecdi Gönül |
| 26th Speaker of the Grand National Assembly | |
| **In office**
1 July 2015  17 November 2015 | |
| President | Recep Tayyip Erdoğan |
| Prime Minister | Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Ahmet Davutoğlu |
| Deputy | Naci Bostancı
Şafak Pavey
Koray Aydın
Yurdusev Özsökmenler |
| Preceded by | Cemil Çiçek |
| Succeeded by | İsmail Kahraman |
| Member of the Grand National Assembly | |
| **In office**
12 June 2011  2 June 2023 | |
| Constituency | Sivas (2011, June 2015, Nov 2015, 2018) |
| Minister of Transport and Communication | |
| **In office**
8 May 2007  29 August 2007 | |
| Prime Minister | Recep Tayyip Erdoğan |
| Preceded by | Binali Yıldırım |
| Succeeded by | Binali Yıldırım |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1961-12-10) 10 December 1961
Gürün, Sivas Province, Turkey |
| Political party | Justice and Development Party |
| Education | Haydarpaşa High School |
| Alma mater |  |
| Profession | Mechanical engineer, law consultant, civil servant, politician |
| Cabinet | 59th, 61st, 62nd, 64th, 65th |
|  | |


title: Glowworm Tunnel

abstract: The Glowworm Tunnel is a disused railway tunnel between Lithgow, New South Wales and Newnes, New South Wales, Australia. It is notable for its resident glow-worms, the bioluminescent larvae of Arachnocampa richardsae, a type of fungus gnat.

text:
# Glowworm Tunnel

The **Glowworm Tunnel** is a disused railway tunnel between Lithgow, New South Wales and Newnes, New South Wales, Australia. It is notable for its resident glow-worms, the bioluminescent larvae of *Arachnocampa richardsae*, a type of fungus gnat.

## Description and history

The 20 chains (1,320.0 ft; 402.3 m) tunnel was bored through the sandstone in 1907 as part of the Newnes railway line that served the Newnes oil shale mines that operated during the early 20th century. The railway was closed in 1932 and the rails were pulled out of the tunnel.

The tunnel is now contained within the Wollemi National Park and is a popular attraction for bushwalkers and tourists. Outside the tunnel, the area features spectacular gorges, caves and scenery. The site is maintained by the National Parks and Wildlife Service. On the south side of the tunnel, a large gap in the road prevents vehicular access. According to some sources, this gap was created deliberately to keep cars out of the tunnel, because the exhaust fumes would have killed the glow-worms. On the north side of the tunnel, a track leads to Newnes.

## Access

Access to the tunnel is via several routes:

* 11 km walk each way: Walk along the route of the old railway line from Newnes
* 9 km return walk: Drive to the weir over the Wolgan River 7 km before Newnes. Walk up the nearby fire trail to the railway line to the right
* Walk or cycle in from Newnes State forest
* Drive from Lithgow or Clarence (both roads eventually join up), about 25 km along good unsealed road, and walk 1 km to the tunnel. (note: drive through first tunnel and park at the end of Glowworm Tunnel Road).

## Further reading

## InfoBox

Glowworm Tunnel
| Entrance to the tunnel | |
| --- | --- |
| Overview | |
| Official name | Tunnel No 2 |
| Line | Newnes railway line |
| Location | Newnes plateau |
| Coordinates | 33°14′19″S 150°13′36″E / 33.238727°S 150.226593°E / -33.238727; 150.226593 (Newnes glow worm tunnel) |
| Operation | |
| Work begun | 1906 |
| Constructed | June 1907 |
| Closed | 1932 |
| Operator | Commonwealth Oil Corporation |
| Traffic | train |
| Technical | |
| Length | 20 chains (1,320.0 ft; 402.3 m) |
| No. of tracks | single |
| Track gauge | 4 ft 8+12 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge |
| Grade | 1:25 |


title: Ghost Shark 2: Urban Jaws

abstract: Ghost Shark 2: Urban Jaws is a 2015 New Zealand supernatural horror film directed by Andrew Todd and Johnny Hall. It was shot in Auckland, New Zealand, with additional shooting taking place in Christchurch and Los Angeles.

text:
# Ghost Shark 2: Urban Jaws

***Ghost Shark 2: Urban Jaws*** is a 2015 New Zealand supernatural horror film directed by Andrew Todd and Johnny Hall. It was shot in Auckland, New Zealand, with additional shooting taking place in Christchurch and Los Angeles.

## Plot

The plot concerns the mayor of Auckland and an "expert ghost shark hunter" as they fight to save the city from a supernatural beast known as Ghost Shark. Despite being labelled "*Ghost Shark 2*", it is not related to SyFy's *Ghost Shark*, and the decision to make it a sequel was made for narrative reasons. The tone of the film is that of a serious drama, despite the seemingly parodic subject material.

## Cast

* Campbell Cooley as Mayor Jack Broody
* Johnny Hall as Tom Logan
* Steve Austin as Tony Palantine
* Kathleen Burns as Emily Morgan
* Roberto Nascimento as Marco Guerra
* Isabella Burt as Martina Guerra
* Stig Eldred as Sean Logan
* Juliette Danielle as Elsie Grey
* David Farrier as himself

## Production

*Ghost Shark 2* originated as a faux trailer in the vein of *Hobo with a Shotgun*, released on YouTube on 14 August 2010. Several websites and blogs took notice, and the trailer got posted on many websites like Cinefantastique, SlashFilm, Premiere.fr., and CBSSports.com.The online attention prompted the directors to turn the faux trailer into a feature film, and production on this feature version began in Auckland in October 2010, with further shooting taking place in Christchurch. A second teaser was released on Christmas Day 2010 along with behind-the-scenes photos and information on the official website. A third trailer was released on 14 August 2013. One scene in the film features actors George Hardy (*Troll 2*), Juliette Danielle (*The Room*), and Alan Bagh (*Birdemic: Shock and Terror*) in small roles. It represents the first time actors from these three so-called "Best Worst" movies have performed together. The scene was filmed in Los Angeles by second-unit director Doug Dillaman. However, the scene was eventually deleted, with only a separate cameo scene with Danielle left in the film.

## InfoBox

| Ghost Shark 2: Urban Jaws | |
| --- | --- |
| Release date | * 27 June 2015 (2015-06-27) |
| Running time | 70 minutes |
| Country | New Zealand |
| Language | English |


title: 53 Lorong 5 Toa Payoh

abstract: Block 53 Lorong 5 Toa Payoh, also known as the VIP Block, is a HDB block in Toa Payoh, Singapore. The building is the only block in Toa Payoh with a Y-shaped design.

text:
# 53 Lorong 5 Toa Payoh

**Block 53 Lorong 5 Toa Payoh**, also known as the **VIP Block**, is a HDB block in Toa Payoh, Singapore. The building is the only block in Toa Payoh with a Y-shaped design.

## History

Constructed somewhere before 1968, Block 53, located along Lorong 5 Toa Payoh, is the only block in the town of Toa Payoh with the unique Y-shape design. The building is 19-stories tall, and has a rooftop gallery which is inaccessible to the public. The building has been the site of at least four deaths due to falling between 1971 and 1978, two of which occurred within the same week.

The building was visited by Queen Elizabeth II on her visit to Singapore, when she was visiting Toa Payoh in 1972. The building was also visited by General Bulsak Wanamas, the former under-secretary of defense of Thailand, during his visit to Singapore in 1973. The building has also been visited by John Gorton, Princess Anne, Prince Philip, Benjamin Sheares, and Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The building is included in the Toa Payoh Heritage Trail by the National Heritage Board.

1°20′16″N 103°50′55″E / 1.3377°N 103.8486°E / 1.3377; 103.8486


title: Modimolle Local Municipality

abstract: Modimolle Local Municipality was a municipality located in the Waterberg District Municipality of Limpopo province, South Africa. The seat of Modimolle Local Municipality was Modimolle. After municipal elections on 3 August 2016 it was merged into the new and larger Modimolle–Mookgophong Local Municipality.

text:
# Modimolle Local Municipality

**Modimolle Local Municipality** was a municipality located in the Waterberg District Municipality of Limpopo province, South Africa. The seat of Modimolle Local Municipality was Modimolle.

After municipal elections on 3 August 2016 it was merged into the new and larger Modimolle–Mookgophong Local Municipality.

## Main places

The 2001 census divided the municipality into the following main places:

| Place | Code | Area (km2) | Population | Most spoken language |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Nylstroom | 91702 | 15.37 | 8,727 | Afrikaans |
| Phagameng | 91703 | 4.26 | 25,078 | Sepedi |
| Vaalwater | 91704 | 2.67 | 8,337 | Sepedi |
| *Remainder of the municipality* | 91701 | 6,205.57 | 30,642 | Sepedi |

## Politics

The municipal council consisted of eighteen members elected by mixed-member proportional representation. Nine councillors were elected by first-past-the-post voting in nine wards, while the remaining nine were chosen from party lists so that the total number of party representatives was proportional to the number of votes received. In the election of 18 May 2011 the African National Congress (ANC) won a majority of thirteen seats on the council. The following table shows the results of the election.

| Party | | Votes | | | | Seats | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Ward | List | Total | % | Ward | List | Total |
|  | ANC | 10,369 | 11,670 | 22,039 | 66.2 | 7 | 6 | 13 |
|  | DA | 3,483 | 3,633 | 7,116 | 21.4 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
|  | VF+ | 932 | 835 | 1,767 | 5.3 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
|  | Independent | 1,515 |  | 1,515 | 4.6 | 0 |  | 0 |
|  | COPE | 159 | 307 | 466 | 1.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | ACDP | 97 | 100 | 197 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | APC | 50 | 128 | 178 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| **Total** | | **16,605** | **16,673** | **33,278** | **100.0** | **9** | **9** | **18** |
| Spoilt votes | | 417 | 456 | 873 |

## InfoBox

| Modimolle | |
| --- | --- |
| Local municipality | |
|  | |
| Location in Limpopo | |
| Coordinates: 24°25′S 28°15′E / 24.417°S 28.250°E / -24.417; 28.250 | |
| Country | South Africa |
| Province | Limpopo |
| District | Waterberg |
| Seat | Modimolle |
| Wards | 9 |
| Government | |
| Type | Municipal council |
| Mayor | Marlene van Staden |
| Area | |
| Total | 4,678 km2 (1,806 sq mi) |
| Population (2011) | |
| Total | 68,513 |
| Density | 15/km2 (38/sq mi) |
| Racial makeup (2011) | |
| Black African | 88.1% |
| Coloured | 0.4% |
| Indian/Asian | 0.4% |
| White | 10.8% |
| First languages (2011) | |
| Northern Sotho | 62.6% |
| Afrikaans | 10.7% |
| Tsonga | 9.3% |
| Tswana | 5.0% |
| Other | 12.4% |
| Time zone | UTC+2 (SAST) |
| Municipal code | LIM365 |


title: Quantum chromodynamics binding energy

abstract: Quantum chromodynamics binding energy, gluon binding energy or chromodynamic binding energy is the energy binding quarks together into hadrons. It is the energy of the field of the strong force, which is mediated by gluons. Motion-energy and interaction-energy contribute most of the hadron's mass.

text:
# Quantum chromodynamics binding energy

**Quantum chromodynamics binding energy** (**QCD binding energy**), **gluon binding energy** or **chromodynamic binding energy** is the energy binding quarks together into hadrons. It is the energy of the field of the strong force, which is mediated by gluons. Motion-energy and interaction-energy contribute most of the hadron's mass.

## Source of mass

Most of the mass of hadrons is actually QCD binding energy, through mass–energy equivalence. This phenomenon is related to chiral symmetry breaking. In the case of nucleonsprotons and neutrons— QCD binding energy forms about 99% of the nucleon's mass.

The kinetic energy of the hadron's constituents, moving at near the speed of light, contributes greatly to the hadron mass; otherwise most of the rest is actual QCD binding energy, which emerges in a complex way from the potential-like terms in the QCD Lagrangian.

For protons, the sum of the rest masses of the three valence quarks (two up quarks and one down quark) is approximately 9.4 MeV/*c*2, while the proton's total mass is about 938.3 MeV/*c*2. In the standard model, this "quark current mass" can nominally be attributed to the Higgs interaction. For neutrons, the sum of the rest masses of the three valence quarks (two down quarks and one up quark) is approximately 11.9 MeV/*c*2, while the neutron's total mass is about 939.6 MeV/*c*2. Considering that nearly all of the atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleons, this means that about 99% of the mass of everyday matter (baryonic matter) is, in fact, chromodynamic binding energy.

## Gluon energy

While gluons are massless, they still possess energy — chromodynamic binding energy. In this way, they are similar to photons, which are also massless particles carrying energy — photon energy. The amount of energy per single gluon, or "gluon energy", cannot be directly measured, though a distribution can by inferred from deep inelastic scattering (DIS) experiments (see ref \[4\] for an old but still valid introduction.) Unlike photon energy, which is quantifiable, described by the Planck–Einstein relation and depends on a single variable (the photon's frequency), no simple formula exists for the quantity of energy carried by each gluon. While the effects of a single photon can be observed, single gluons have not been observed outside of a hadron. A hadron is in totality composed of gluons, valence quarks, sea quarks and other virtual particles.

The gluon content of a hadron can be inferred from DIS measurements. Again, not all of the QCD binding energy is gluon interaction energy, but rather, some of it comes from the kinetic energy of the hadron's constituents. Currently, the total QCD binding energy per hadron can be estimated through a combination of the factors mentioned. In the future, studies into quark–gluon plasma will better complement the DIS studies and improve our understanding of the situation.

° Halzen, Francis and Martin, John, "Quarks and Leptons:An Introductory Course in Modem Particle Physics", John Wiley & Sons (1984).


title: Pellegrini Chapel (San Bernardino)

abstract: The Pellegrini Chapel, initially named "Guaresco," is a religious building commissioned by Countess Margherita Pellegrini to the famous architect Michele Sanmicheli and built between 1528 and 1559. It occupies a prominent place in Renaissance architecture. It is located within the Franciscan complex of San Bernardino in Verona, which consists of a Gothic-style church and a series of valuable cloisters and became a coveted place for Verona's noble families to build their aristocratic chapels between the 15th and 16th centuries.

text:
# Pellegrini Chapel (San Bernardino)

The **Pellegrini Chapel** (Italian: *Cappella Pellegrini*), initially named "Guaresco," is a religious building commissioned by Countess Margherita Pellegrini to the famous architect Michele Sanmicheli and built between 1528 and 1559. It occupies a prominent place in Renaissance architecture.

It is located within the Franciscan complex of San Bernardino in Verona, which consists of a Gothic-style church and a series of valuable cloisters and became a coveted place for Verona's noble families to build their aristocratic chapels between the 15th and 16th centuries.

## History

### Sanmicheli's design and direction

Around 1527, having finished his stay in Rome and before being commissioned to build important fortifications for the Venetian Republic, Michele Sanmicheli resided in Verona with his cousin Paolo, with whom he collaborated on numerous construction sites. During that period he had the opportunity to associate with several noble families, befriending Guaresco Raimondi, father-in-law of Countess Margherita Pellegrini. The life of the Veronese noblewoman was ravaged by serious family bereavements, including the death of her husband Benedetto Raimondi, two children, Nicola and Anna, her father-in-law and finally, in 1528, her 18-year-old son Niccolò, with whom the line of descent of the Raimondi-Pellegrini family was permanently interrupted.

This chapel, originally dedicated to St. Anne, was thus desired by Pellegrini to commemorate the death of her son but equally to celebrate herself and the family to which she belonged: the building was to serve as a funerary monument to contain the remains of the patron and her family members, although the final result betrayed this project. The idea of building a chapel, rather than a simpler tomb, probably came to her after she learned of the construction of the Emilei chapel at the church of San Michele in Isola, while the decision to have such a monumental work erected certainly contributed to the fact that it took on the significance of wanting to hand down to posterity the importance of the family, which was destined to disappear.

The design of the work was entrusted to Sanmicheli, who created a space endowed with a great harmony of parts and a clear distribution of light, with an architecture reminiscent of ancient buildings, particularly the Pantheon in Rome, Porta Borsari and the Gavi Arch in Verona. Construction began between the second half of 1528, after Niccolò's death, and October 15, 1529, the date of one of Margherita Pellegrini's wills, in which it is confirmed that work had already begun.

### Controversy and completion by the Marastoni

Initially Sanmicheli personally directed the work, but in 1534 he had to abandon it to go to Venice for further assignments, so his cousin Paolo took over the direction of the building site. Disagreeing over some contractual issues, on July 8, 1538 Margherita obtained from the podestà of Verona the cancellation of the contract and compensation for damages. From then on, the architect and his collaborators no longer worked on the building.

The countess's dislike of Paolo Sanmicheli's management of the building site was due to her eagerness to see the chapel completed, given her precarious health condition: seeing that the work was proceeding very slowly caused her anxiety and concern. In addition, among the reasons that led to the dismissal of the Sanmicheli cousins was probably the high cost of the work, which was characterized (like Michele's other early works) by a rich and articulate decorative apparatus, combining elements and themes from Verona's Roman monuments with the proportions and modules of Renaissance architecture.

The workshop assigned to continue the work turned out to be that of the Marastoni stonemasons, who found the chapel already completed up to the height of the balcony with parapet. Despite the changes made during the work, which included the use of less noble materials and a decidedly simpler style, the new artisans were unable to speed up the work. The Marastoni, in fact, took nineteen years to complete the work, which the client did not manage to see completed. Pellegrini's last will is dated September 24, 1557, and reports that the monument was still being completed, which is why she requested that the construction of the chapel continue after her death and that the building be kept in good condition. The noblewoman passed away shortly after the document was drafted while the work was completed in 1559.

### Giuliari's restoration work

After two centuries of neglect, in 1793, Abbot Giuseppe Luigi Pellegrini became interested in the work and decided to restore it with the approval of his brother Carlo Pellegrini, marshal of the Austrian Empire. The work was directed by architect Bartolomeo Giuliari, who had previously been involved in restorations of Sanmichelian works, and who preliminarily carried out an accurate survey of the state of the monument. This made it possible to note how in the continuation of the work the Marastoni no longer used the so-called "bronze," a refined white Veronese stone so called because of the sound it emits during its working, employed particularly for ornaments, but rather exploited less noble material. Moreover, the stonemasons reduced the quantity and quality of decoration, so that the walls were bare, the columns and pilasters lacked fluting and the capitals lacked carvings.

Giuliari's project thus went on to add, to the portion of the chapel built by the Marastoni, a rich decorative apparatus in stone and stucco, so as to bring the appearance of the monument closer to Sanmicheli's original design. In particular, on the dome the opening of the lantern was restored through the removal of the rose window that decorated the top, while the coffers were rearranged with better proportions, according to those suggested by Piranesi, with dimensions sloping upward and defining each coffer with a series of three cornices and a flower in the center. In the second order, however, they carved some decorations on the cornice and leaves on the capitals, fluted the columns and pilasters, and introduced raised festoons under the architrave, similar to what had already been done in the first order.

The work, completed in 1795, thus went on to re-establish a decorative and stylistic continuity between the first and second orders, where the work of the Marastoni had impoverished the Sanmichelian architecture, even if it meant designing and executing a rather invasive intervention.

### Conservation interventions

During the twentieth century, the monument was the subject of several restorations, mainly aimed at solving problems of infiltration and humidity, financed partly by the religious order and partly with contributions from the state, banks and various foundations, but always conducted under the supervision of the local Superintendence.

After years of poor maintenance that had resulted in a certain level of deterioration inside the aristocratic chapel, at the urging of the owners, represented by engineer Ottorino Pellegrini, in 1925 action was taken with the restoration of the dome and lantern: the roofing was redone, the window frames and decorations of the cupola were restored, and the stained glass windows of the lantern were replaced. The construction site was supervised by the Royal Superintendence of Monuments of Verona, headed by engineer Alessandro Da Lisca.

In the decades following World War II, the roof and the stained glass windows were repaired on several occasions: in the early 1960s, when the Superintendence contributed an expenditure of 1,200,000 liras; in 1971, with Superintendent Piero Gazzola overseeing the work of re-roofing, with replacement of purlins, planking and brick tiles, for an amount of about 600,000 liras; finally between 1987 and 1993, when with a state grant of 150,000,000 liras, the restoration of the roof (consolidation of the wooden ribs, restoration of the brick eave cornice and insertion of eaves channels) and the lantern (lead lining of the canopy and recomposition and plumbing of the windows) continued.

Considerable conservation work finally took place between 1987 and 2000, supervised by the Superintendence official Pietro Maria Cevese. During the work, efforts were made to solve problems related to rising damp in the perimeter walls of the structure, as well as water infiltration from the glass windows of the drum. The opportunity was taken to carry out work to clean the stone surfaces of the chapel and vestibule, as well as to restore the plaster, stucco and coloring; in particular, the original colors of the dome were recovered, with the reappearance of the blue background in the coffers.

## Description

Plan of the first level of the chapel, with the entrance vestibulePlan of the second level of the chapel, with the projection of the lanternThe Pellegrini Chapel (G) inside the church of San Bernardino

The presence of Michele Sanmicheli's preliminary designs in the Uffizi Gallery has made it possible to learn about the evolutionary stages of the work: the Veronese architect, in fact, at first planned to build a chapel with a Greek-cross plan larger than the one actually realized; externally, then, the surface was to be more articulated and decorated thanks to the presence of tall pilasters, of Corinthian order placed on pedestals, and the dome, visible even from outside. A monumental project, taking inspiration from the Pantheon in Rome and Raphael's Chigi Chapel in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo. The final design underwent numerous changes, yet the work retained a solemn appearance, especially inside.

The chapel is accessible exclusively from the church hall through a monumental entrance portal, from which one is first ushered into a square vestibule, covered by a coffered barrel vault, and then into the building proper, through a second portal. The monumental vestibule is a rather original solution and a result of the need to prevent the structure from interfering with the Avanzi and Medici chapels already present in San Bernardino. The building has a circular plan with a diameter of 12 meters and a height of 20.5 meters, divided into two orders by a balcony with parapet and covered by a coffered dome crowned by a lantern; the diameter of the first order is smaller than that of the upper one, a feature that distinguishes this chapel from others, where, moreover, the dome often stands directly on the first order.

While the exterior is devoid of decoration and the dome is adorned by a lantern, a style that is well suited to the sobriety of the Franciscan spirit, the interior, on the other hand, is distinguished by a compact and rigorous articulation of space and by the presence of an elegant decorative apparatus, which clearly echoes that of Porta Borsari, such as the alternation of vertical and twisted fluting, the rhythm of projections and recesses, and the giant tabernacles.

The first level, of Corinthian order, has four large aediculae surmounted by round arches, three of which are occupied by altars while one houses the wide entrance door; each aedicula is then set in a frame formed by a giant tabernacle composed of fluted half-columns above which the entablature with triangular pediment is set. The keystones of the arches bear the heraldic symbols of the Pellegrini family, a pilgrim, and of the Raimondi family, a crowned eagle, while on either side are carved female figures, angelic and allegorical representations of victory and Christian virtues. Interspersed with the tabernacles are empty niches that would have housed statues, decorated on the sides with candelabras carved in the lesenes, by shells in the basins and garlands at the base of the top entablature.

The first order is surmounted by a balcony with parapet, at the height of which begins the second, larger-diameter level, also of Corinthian order, which serves as the drum on which the dome is set; it is distinguished by the presence of four aediculae and four large tripartite windows with coupled columns that are located at the tabernacles of the lower level. A peculiarity, compared to the first order, is that only the columns and entablature are made of stone, while the rest is in lime plaster and marble dust, although the resulting surface has been bush-hammered and scraped as if it had been stone.

The coffered dome with rosettes on a blue background, surmounted by a lantern, covers the chapel; the effect given by the color makes the interior space look majestic while the plasticity of the decorations is enhanced by the light that penetrates from the lantern and the stained-glass windows of the drum, giving the monument as a whole a striking elegance. The dome with drum, present here for the first time, became a Sanmichelian stylistic feature, as can be seen in the domes of the church of Madonna di Campagna, San Giorgio in Braida and the temple of Lazzaretto.

The chapel abounds with sculptural decorations whose elegance of execution finds few other examples in 16th-century architecture, and although the final result of the work turns out to be different from the initial plan drawn up by Sanmicheli, it recalls the style of the Veronese architect in many respects. The plan itself turns out to be very similar to that of the Petrucci chapel, built between 1516 and 1523 at the church of San Domenico in Orvieto.

On the chapel's high altar, in front of the entrance, there is a painting by Bernardino India from 1579 depicting the Madonna and Child with St. Anne; in the crescent a painting by Pasquale Ottini depicts the Eternal Father, while on either side of India's altarpiece there are two other paintings by Ottini depicting St. Joseph and St. Joachim. Ottini's paintings were probably made between 1619 and 1623. The building was intended to house other paintings, as evidenced by blank panels in the walls, which, however, were never made.

1. Davis & Hemsoll (2004, p. 87)
2. Vecchiato (2010, p. 29)
3. Giuliari (1816, p. 2)
4. Bisognin & Guastella (2009, p. 42)
5. Giuliari (1816, p. 3)
6. Vecchiato (2010, p. 30)
7. Davis & Hemsoll (2004, p. 90)
8. Davis & Hemsoll (2004, p. 88)
9. Bisognin & Guastella (2009, p. 44)
10. Viviani (2002, p. 103)
11. Davis & Hemsoll (2004, p. 91)
12. Vecchiato (2010, p. 32)
13. Giuliari (1816, p. 4)
14. Vecchiato (2010, pp. 38–40)
15. Vecchiato (2010, p. 38)
16. Vecchiato (2010, p. 40)
17. Vecchiato (2010, p. 34)
18. Vecchiato (2010, p. 36)
19. Bisognin & Guastella (2009, p. 43)
20. Ronzani & Luciolli (1831, p. 13)
21. Bisognin & Guastella (2009, p. 45)
22. Viviani (2002, p. 104)
23. Brugnoli (1980, p. 406)
24. Breve notizia storica (1845, p. 7)
25. Dianin (1985)

## Bibliography

* Bisognin, Davide; Guastella, Giuseppe (2009). *La chiesa di San Bernardino: visita guidata*. Verona: Ottaviani.
* Brugnoli, Pierpaolo (1980). "Architettura sacra a Verona dal secolo XV al secolo XVIII". In Giorgio Borelli (ed.). *Chiese e monasteri a Verona*. Verona: Banca Popolare di Verona.
* Davis, Paul; Hemsoll, David (2004). *Michele Sanmicheli*. Milano: Mondadori Electa.
* Dianin, Gian Maria (1985). *San Bernardino, Verona: guida storico-artistica*. Verona: Banca Popolare di Verona.
* Giuliari, Bartolomeo (1816). *Cappella della famiglia Pellegrini esistente nella Chiesa di San Bernardino di Verona*. Verona: Tipografia Giuliari.
* Ronzani, Francesco; Luciolli, Gerolamo (1831). *Le fabbriche civili, ecclesiastiche e militari di Michele Sanmicheli*. Vol. II. Venezia: Giuseppe Antonelli.
* Vecchiato, Maristella, ed. (2010). *Itinerari sanmicheliani nella provincia di Verona*. Verona: MIBAC.
* Viviani, Giuseppe Franco, ed. (2002). *Chiese di Verona*. Verona: Società Cattolica di Assicurazioni.
* *Breve notizia storica della chiesa di S. Bernardino di Verona dei P.P. minori osservanti di San Francesco*. Verona: Tommasi. 1845.

45°26′20″N 10°58′53″E / 45.43894°N 10.98139°E / 45.43894; 10.98139

## InfoBox

| Pellegrini Chapel | |
| --- | --- |
| The interior of the Pellegrini Chapel, formerly Guaresco, designed by Renaissance architect Michele Sanmicheli | |
|  | |
| Location | Verona, Veneto, Italy |
| Denomination | Catholic |
| Architecture | |
| Architect(s) | Michele Sanmicheli |
| Style | Renaissance architecture |
| Groundbreaking | 1528 |
| Completed | 1559 |
| Administration | |
| Diocese | Roman Catholic Diocese of Verona |


title: Quarter railway station

abstract: Quarter railway station served the village of Quarter, South Lanarkshire, Scotland, from 1863 to 1945 on the Hamilton and Strathaven Railway.

text:
# Quarter railway station

**Quarter railway station** served the village of Quarter, South Lanarkshire, Scotland, from 1863 to 1945 on the Hamilton and Strathaven Railway.

## History

The station was opened on 2 February 1863 by the Hamilton and Strathaven Railway. On the east side was the goods yard and at the south end was the signal box. There was a siding to the west which served a quarry and a siding to the east, called Fairholm Siding, which served Fairholm Colliery. A new signal box opened to the north in 1907. The station closed on 1 October 1945.

| Preceding station |  | Disused railways |  | Following station |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Meikle Earnock Halt
Line and station closed |  | Hamilton and Strathaven Railway |  | Glassford
Line and station closed |

## InfoBox

| Quarter | |
| --- | --- |
| The station cottage in 2020 | |
| General information | |
| Location | Quarter, South Lanarkshire
Scotland |
| Coordinates | 55°44′09″N 4°02′34″W / 55.7357°N 4.0429°W / 55.7357; -4.0429 |
| Grid reference | NS718510 |
| Platforms | 1 |
| Other information | |
| Status | Disused |
| History | |
| Original company | Hamilton and Strathaven Railway |
| Pre-grouping | Caledonian Railway |
| Post-grouping | London, Midland and Scottish Railway |
| Key dates | |
| 2 February 1863 (1863-02-02) | Opened |
| 1 May 1909 | Name changed to Quarter Road |
| 1 October 1945 (1945-10-01) | Closed |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Melanie Oppenheimer

abstract: Melanie Nivison Oppenheimer, is an Australian historian, who specialises in the history of volunteering, and a former actress.

text:
# Melanie Oppenheimer

**Melanie Nivison Oppenheimer**, FASSA (born 9 November 1957) is an Australian historian, who specialises in the history of volunteering, and a former actress.

## Early life and acting

Oppenheimer was born in Sydney, New South Wales, and studied for a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of New England (UNE). When UNE opened a drama department, she "fell in love with acting" and went on to enrol at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London before starting a career as an actress on Australian television. She played Sarah Carson, the daughter of lead character Jennifer Carson (played by Lorraine Bayly), on the television series *Carson's Law* from 1984 to 1986.

## Academic career

Oppenheimer returned to UNE to complete a Master of Letters, and then a Doctor of Philosophy at Macquarie University. She worked as a research assistant in the history department of the University of Sydney, then held associate professor positions at the University of Western Sydney and the University of New England.

The Australian Red Cross commissioned Oppenheimer to write an official history of the organisation in 2010, its centennial year. The book, *The Power of Humanity: 100 Years of Australian Red Cross*, was published by HarperCollins and launched by the Governor-General of Australia, Sir Peter Cosgrove, in August 2014. She has written several biographical articles for the *Australian Dictionary of Biography*.

On 1 July 2013, Oppenheimer took up a professorship as Chair of History at Flinders University in South Australia. She was elected a Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (FASSA) in 2017.

## Selected works

* Oppenheimer, Melanie Nivison (1999). *Red Cross VAs: A history of the VAD movement in New South Wales*. Walcha, N.S.W.: Ohio Productions. ISBN 0-9585751-1-8.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie (2002). *All Work No Pay: Australian civilian volunteers in war*. Walcha, N.S.W.: Ohio Productions. ISBN 0-9585751-5-0.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie (2006). *Oceans of Love: Narrelle, an Australian nurse in World War I*. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Sydney, NSW: ABC Books. ISBN 978-0-7333-1710-1.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie (2008). *Volunteering: Why we can't survive without it*. Sydney: UNSW Press. ISBN 978-1-74223-070-2.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie (2008). *Australian Women and War*. Canberra, Australia: Department of Veteran's Affairs. ISBN 978-1-877007-28-6.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie; Deakin, Nicholas, eds. (2011). *Beveridge and Voluntary Action in Britain and the Wider British World*. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-8381-5.
* Scates, Bruce; Oppenheimer, Melanie (2016). *The Last Battle: Soldier settlement in Australia, 1916–1939*. Australia: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-87029-7.
* Oppenheimer, Melanie; Anderson, Margaret; Paul, Mandy, eds. (2017). *South Australia on the Eve of War*. Mile End, South Australia: Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-74305-474-1.

### As historical consultant

## InfoBox

| Melanie OppenheimerFASSA | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1957-11-09) 9 November 1957
Sydney, New South Wales |
| Nationality | Australian |
| Occupation(s) | Historian and academic |
| Title | Professor |
| Awards | Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (2017) |
|  | |
| Academic background | |
| Education | University of New England (BA, DipEd, MLitt)
Macquarie University (PhD) |
| Thesis | *Volunteers in Action: Voluntary Work in Australia, 1939–1945* (1997) |
| Academic work | |
| Discipline | History |
| Sub-discipline | Volunteering
Gender and war
Biography |
| Institutions | Flinders University
University of New England
University of Western Sydney |
|  | |


title: New Meadows, Idaho

abstract: New Meadows is a rural city in Adams County, Idaho, United States, at the southern and upper end of the Meadows Valley, on the Little Salmon River. Located in the west central part of the state, just south of the 45th parallel, the population was 496 at the 2010 census, down from 533 in 2000. New Meadows is located at the junction of the primary north–south highway in the state, U.S. Route 95, and State Highway 55, which connects it with McCall and Boise.

text:
# New Meadows, Idaho

**New Meadows** is a rural city in Adams County, Idaho, United States, at the southern and upper end of the Meadows Valley, on the Little Salmon River. Located in the west central part of the state, just south of the 45th parallel, the population was 496 at the 2010 census, down from 533 in 2000. New Meadows is located at the junction of the primary north–south highway in the state, U.S. Route 95, and State Highway 55, which connects it with McCall and Boise.

## History

Prior to the establishment of Adams County in 1911, Meadows was in Washington County; *The Meadows Eagle* newspaper served the community, and C. A. Hackney was the publisher.

The Pacific and Idaho Northern (PIN) Railroad ran from Weiser to an area about two miles (3.2 km) from Meadows, the site of modern-day New Meadows founded in 1911. The city of New Meadows hosts the last surviving remnants of the PIN; without the railroad, New Meadows would arguably not have existed.

The depot was built in 1910 and served as the northern end of the PIN Railroad. It is a significant cultural and historical resource in the Payette River Scenic Byway corridor in the city of New Meadows, at the junction of US-95 and state highway 55. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The depot is an asset for the community of New Meadows and currently functions as a community center for the local area. It hosted the Barn Again! Smithsonian Institution traveling exhibition in 2005, and represents early twentieth century efforts to create a north–south railroad for Idaho. Though the efforts ultimately failed, the PIN Railroad served an important function as a "farm-to-market" railroad until 1940, and then as a timber railroad for local timber outfits.

The Union Pacific acquired the line in 1936 and in 1979 abandoned the northern end of the line, from the Tamarack sawmill site north of Council to New Meadows, along US-95. The depot was a functioning facility until 1972. In 1978, ACHS acquired the title to the PIN Depot to preserve it as a repository for the history of Adams County. Since 2000, the building has been preserved from immediate deterioration; the foundation has been restored and the building has a new roof.

## Education

The only school in New Meadows is the Meadows Valley School, which houses all thirteen grades, K-12. The school mascot is the mountaineer, and the school colors are orange and black.

## Recreation

Two established alpine ski areas, Brundage Mountain and the Little Ski Hill are less than ten miles (16 km) to the east, both on the west side of the Valley/Adams county line. The MeadowCreek golf resort (originally "Kimberland Meadows") is a few miles northwest of town. Payette Lake and the surrounding areas in McCall offer numerous recreational opportunities, and further north along US-95 is Riggins, the gateway to the Salmon River and the Seven Devils Mountains. Five miles (8.0 km) north of New Meadows is Zim's Hot Springs.

## Highways

New Meadows is approximately 115 miles (185 km) north of Boise, accessed via State Highway 55, the *Payette River Scenic Byway,* a designated national scenic byway. It heads north from Eagle in Ada County to Horseshoe Bend in Boise County, and climbs the whitewater of the Payette River to Cascade and McCall in Valley County. The route turns west at Payette Lake in McCall and ends at New Meadows at the junction with U.S. Route 95.

## Geography

New Meadows is located at 44°58′13″N 116°17′7″W / 44.97028°N 116.28528°W / 44.97028; -116.28528 (44.970405, -116.285283), at an elevation of 3,868 feet (1,179 m) above sea level.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.53 square miles (1.37 km2), of which, 0.52 square miles (1.35 km2) is land and 0.01 square miles (0.026 km2) is water.

## Climate

According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, New Meadows has a warm-summer mediterranean continental climate, abbreviated "Dsb" on climate maps. The hottest temperature recorded in New Meadows was 104 °F (40.0 °C) on August 9, 1906, July 19, 1960, and July 13, 2002, while the coldest temperature recorded was −49 °F (−45.0 °C) on December 13, 1919.

| Climate data for New Meadows, Idaho, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1905–2020 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 56
(13) | 62
(17) | 73
(23) | 87
(31) | 93
(34) | 101
(38) | 104
(40) | 104
(40) | 97
(36) | 89
(32) | 72
(22) | 64
(18) | 104
(40) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 42.0
(5.6) | 47.5
(8.6) | 60.4
(15.8) | 72.5
(22.5) | 81.3
(27.4) | 88.9
(31.6) | 95.9
(35.5) | 95.4
(35.2) | 89.8
(32.1) | 77.7
(25.4) | 58.5
(14.7) | 44.1
(6.7) | 96.9
(36.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 30.0
(−1.1) | 36.2
(2.3) | 45.1
(7.3) | 54.6
(12.6) | 63.8
(17.7) | 72.2
(22.3) | 84.8
(29.3) | 84.6
(29.2) | 74.7
(23.7) | 57.9
(14.4) | 41.9
(5.5) | 30.7
(−0.7) | 56.4
(13.5) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 19.7
(−6.8) | 24.1
(−4.4) | 33.0
(0.6) | 40.9
(4.9) | 48.6
(9.2) | 55.7
(13.2) | 64.0
(17.8) | 62.7
(17.1) | 53.8
(12.1) | 42.0
(5.6) | 30.6
(−0.8) | 21.7
(−5.7) | 41.4
(5.2) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 9.4
(−12.6) | 12.1
(−11.1) | 20.8
(−6.2) | 27.2
(−2.7) | 33.4
(0.8) | 39.1
(3.9) | 43.3
(6.3) | 40.7
(4.8) | 32.9
(0.5) | 25.2
(−3.8) | 19.3
(−7.1) | 12.6
(−10.8) | 26.3
(−3.2) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | −16.1
(−26.7) | −10.4
(−23.6) | 1.8
(−16.8) | 16.1
(−8.8) | 20.9
(−6.2) | 28.3
(−2.1) | 33.2
(0.7) | 30.5
(−0.8) | 21.9
(−5.6) | 12.3
(−10.9) | 1.0
(−17.2) | −13.1
(−25.1) | −22.2
(−30.1) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −43
(−42) | −44
(−42) | −29
(−34) | −2
(−19) | 12
(−11) | 19
(−7) | 20
(−7) | 18
(−8) | 11
(−12) | −7
(−22) | −34
(−37) | −49
(−45) | −49
(−45) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 2.85
(72) | 2.00
(51) | 2.51
(64) | 2.01
(51) | 2.35
(60) | 2.08
(53) | 0.70
(18) | 0.56
(14) | 1.01
(26) | 1.83
(46) | 2.55
(65) | 4.05
(103) | 24.50
(622) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 18.0
(46) | 10.5
(27) | 3.9
(9.9) | 0.9
(2.3) | 0.1
(0.25) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.2
(0.51) | 4.4
(11) | 18.6
(47) | 56.6
(143.96) |
| Source 1: NOAA | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Source 2: National Weather Service | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1920 | 141 |  |  |
| 1930 | 220 |  | 56.0% |
| 1940 | 264 |  | 20.0% |
| 1950 | 621 |  | 135.2% |
| 1960 | 647 |  | 4.2% |
| 1970 | 605 |  | −6.5% |
| 1980 | 576 |  | −4.8% |
| 1990 | 534 |  | −7.3% |
| 2000 | 533 |  | −0.2% |
| 2010 | 496 |  | −6.9% |
| 2019 (est.) | 537 |  | 8.3% |
| U.S. Decennial Census | | | |

### 2010 census

As of the census of 2010, there were 496 people, 201 households, and 136 families residing in the city. The population density was 953.8 inhabitants per square mile (368.3/km2). There were 264 housing units at an average density of 507.7 per square mile (196.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.4% White, 0.4% Native American, 3.2% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.8% of the population.

There were 201 households, of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.2% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32.3% were non-families. 24.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.91.

The median age in the city was 35.9 years. 27.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.5% were from 45 to 64; and 10.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.2% male and 48.8% female.

### 2000 census

As of the census of 2000, there were 533 people, 208 households, and 143 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,089.1 inhabitants per square mile (420.5/km2). There were 262 housing units at an average density of 535.4 per square mile (206.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.19% White, 0.19% African American, 1.31% Native American, 0.38% from other races, and 0.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.75% of the population.

There were 208 households, out of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.7% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% were non-families. 24.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.08.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.1% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 9.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 159.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 140.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $28,500, and the median income for a family was $31,042. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $14,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,884. About 16.2% of families and 16.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 5.0% of those age 65 or over.

## Residents

## InfoBox

| New Meadows, Idaho | |
| --- | --- |
| City | |
| PIN Railroad Depot in 2007 | |
| Location of New Meadows in Adams County, Idaho. | |
| Coordinates: 44°58′13″N 116°17′7″W / 44.97028°N 116.28528°W / 44.97028; -116.28528 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Idaho |
| County | Adams |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Julie Good |
| Area | |
| Total | 0.59 sq mi (1.54 km2) |
| Land | 0.58 sq mi (1.51 km2) |
| Water | 0.01 sq mi (0.03 km2) |
| Elevation | 3,868 ft (1,179 m) |
| Population (2010) | |
| Total | 496 |
| Estimate (2019) | 537 |
| Density | 919.52/sq mi (354.78/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-7 (Mountain (MST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-6 (MDT) |
| ZIP code | 83654 |
| Area code(s) | 208, 986 |
| FIPS code | 16-56890 |
| GNIS feature ID | 0387535 |
| Website | www.newmeadowsidaho.us |


title: Oecomys flavicans

abstract: Oecomys flavicans, also known as the tawny oecomys or yellow arboreal rice rat, is a species of rodent in the genus Oecomys of family Cricetidae. It is found in the mountains of northwestern Venezuela and nearby Colombia.

text:
# Oecomys flavicans

***Oecomys flavicans***, also known as the **tawny oecomys** or **yellow arboreal rice rat**, is a species of rodent in the genus *Oecomys* of family Cricetidae. It is found in the mountains of northwestern Venezuela and nearby Colombia.

## Literature cited

## InfoBox

| *Oecomys flavicans* | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Rodentia |
| Family: | Cricetidae |
| Subfamily: | Sigmodontinae |
| Genus: | *Oecomys* |
| Species: | ***O. flavicans*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Oecomys flavicans***
(Thomas, 1894) | |
|