title: Martello tower

abstract: Martello towers, sometimes known simply as Martellos, are small defensive forts that were built across the British Empire during the 19th century, from the time of the French Revolutionary Wars onwards. Most were coastal forts. They stand up to 40 feet (12 m) high and typically had a garrison of one officer and 15–25 men. Their round structure and thick walls of solid masonry made them resistant to cannon fire, while their height made them an ideal platform for a single heavy artillery piece, mounted on the flat roof and able to traverse, and hence fire, over a complete 360° circle. A few towers had moats or other batteries and works attached for extra defence. The Martello towers were used during the first half of the 19th century, but became obsolete with the introduction of powerful rifled artillery. Many have survived to the present day, often preserved as historic monuments.

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# Martello tower

**Martello towers**, sometimes known simply as **Martellos**, are small defensive forts that were built across the British Empire during the 19th century, from the time of the French Revolutionary Wars onwards. Most were coastal forts.

They stand up to 40 feet (12 m) high (with two floors) and typically had a garrison of one officer and 15–25 men. Their round structure and thick walls of solid masonry made them resistant to cannon fire, while their height made them an ideal platform for a single heavy artillery piece, mounted on the flat roof and able to traverse, and hence fire, over a complete 360° circle. A few towers had moats or other batteries and works attached for extra defence.

The Martello towers were used during the first half of the 19th century, but became obsolete with the introduction of powerful rifled artillery. Many have survived to the present day, often preserved as historic monuments.

## Origins

Martello towers were inspired by a round fortress, part of a larger Genoese defence system, at Mortella (Myrtle) Point in Corsica. The designer was Giovan Giacomo Paleari Fratino (el Fratin), and the tower was completed in 1565.

Since the 15th century, the Corsicans had built similar towers at strategic points around the island to protect coastal villages and shipping from North African pirates. The towers stood one or two storeys high and measured 12–15 m (39–49 ft) in diameter, with a single doorway five metres off the ground that one could access only via a ladder that the occupants could remove.

Local villagers paid for the towers and watchmen, known as *torregiani*, who would signal the approach of unexpected ships by lighting a beacon fire on the tower's roof. The fire would alert the local defence forces to the threat. Although the pirate threat subsequently dwindled, the Genoese built a newer generation of circular towers (the Genoese towers), that warded off later foreign raids.

On 7 February 1794 as part of the siege of Saint-Florent, two British warships, HMS *Fortitude* (74 guns) and *Juno* (32 guns), unsuccessfully attacked the tower at Mortella Point; the tower eventually fell to land-based forces under Sir John Moore after two days of heavy fighting. The British forces were helped by the fact that the tower's two 18-pounder guns fired seaward, while only the one 6-pounder could fire landward.

Vice-Admiral Lord Hood reported:

> The *Fortitude* and *Juno* were ordered against it, without making the least impression by a continued cannonade of two hours and a half; and the former ship being very much damaged by red-hot shot, both hauled off. The walls of the Tower were of a prodigious thickness, and the parapet, where there were two eighteen-pounders, was lined with bass junk, five feet from the walls, and filled up with sand; and although it was cannonaded from the Height for two days, within 150 yards, and appeared in a very shattered state, the enemy still held out; but a few hot shot setting fire to the bass, made them call for quarter. The number of men in the Tower were 33; only two were wounded, and those mortally.

Late in the previous year, the tower's French defenders had abandoned it after HMS *Lowestoffe* (32 guns) had fired two broadsides at it. The British removed the guns to arm a small vessel; consequently, the French were easily able to dislodge the garrison of Corsican patriots that had replaced them. Still, the British were impressed by the effectiveness of the tower when properly supplied and defended, and copied the design. But they got the name wrong, misspelling "Mortella" as "Martello" (which means "hammer" in Italian). When the British withdrew from Corsica in 1803, with great difficulty they blew up the tower, leaving it in an unusable state.

## Design and construction

The towers were about 40 feet (12 m) high with walls about 8 feet (2.4 m) thick. In some towers the rooms were not built in the centre, but more to the landside, leaving the walls thicker on seaside. These were cases where an attack with a cannon from the landside was thought very unlikely. Entry was by ladder to a door about 10 feet (3.0 m) from the base above which was a machicolated (slotted) platform which allowed for downward fire on attackers. The flat roof or *terreplein* had a high parapet and a raised platform in the centre with a pivot (sometimes a converted cannon) for a cannon that would traverse a 360° arc. (Some towers were designed to carry more than one gun, with each having a more limited arc of fire.) The walls had narrow slits for defensive musket fire.

The interior of a classic British Martello tower consisted of two storeys (sometimes with an additional basement). The ground floor served as the magazine and storerooms, where ammunition, water, stores and provisions were kept. The garrison of 24 men and one officer lived in a casemate on the first floor, which was divided into several rooms and had fireplaces built into the walls for cooking and heating. The officer and men lived in separate rooms of almost equal size. A well or cistern within the fort supplied the garrison with water. An internal drainage system linked to the roof enabled rainwater to refill the cistern.

## Martello towers around the world

During the first half of the 19th century, the British government embarked on a large-scale programme of building Martello towers to guard the British and Irish coastlines. Around 140 were built, mostly along the south coast of England. Governments in Australia, Canada, Menorca, South Africa and Sri Lanka also constructed towers. The construction of Martello towers abroad continued until as late as the 1870s but was discontinued after it became clear that they could not withstand the new generation of rifled artillery weapons.

The French built similar towers along their own coastline that they used as platforms for communication by optical telegraphs (using the Chappe Telegraph). The United States government also built a number of Martello towers along the east coast of the US that copied the British design with some modifications.

### United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Great Britain and Ireland were united as a single political entity, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from 1801 to 1922, spanning the time during which most Martello towers were erected (the initial scheme started under the previous entities of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland). Consequently, the Martello towers of Great Britain and Ireland can be considered to have been part of a single defensive system, designed to protect the coastlines of the two main islands of the British Isles as a whole.

This is most clearly visible on the south and east coasts of England and the east coast of Ireland, where chains of Martello towers were built. Elsewhere in the world, individual Martello towers were erected to provide point defence of strategic locations.

#### England

Between 1804 and 1812 the British authorities built a chain of towers based on the original Mortella tower to defend the south and east coast of England, Ireland, Jersey and Guernsey to guard against possible invasion from France, then under the rule of Napoleon I. A total of 103 Martello towers were built in England, set at regular intervals along the coast from Seaford, Sussex, to Aldeburgh, Suffolk. Most were constructed under the direction of General William Twiss (1745–1827) and a Captain Ford. The northernmost tower at Aldeburgh is of quatrefoil design, i.e. four in one. and there are two towers at Clacton-on-Sea, one near the town and the other to the west near the local Golf Course (see the pictures on the right).

Included in the scheme were three much larger circular forts or redoubts that were constructed at Harwich, Dymchurch and Eastbourne; they acted as supply depots for the smaller towers as well as being powerful fortifications in their own right.

The effectiveness of Britain's Martello towers was never actually tested in combat against a Napoleonic invasion fleet. They were, however, effective in hindering smuggling. After the threat had passed, the Martello towers in England met a variety of fates. The Coastguard took over many to aid in the fight against smuggling.

Fifteen towers were demolished to enable the re-use of their masonry. The sea washed thirty away and the military destroyed four in experiments to test the effectiveness of the new rifled artillery. During the Second World War, some Martello towers returned to military service as observation platforms and firing platforms for anti-aircraft artillery.

Forty-seven Martello towers have survived in England, a few of which have been restored and transformed into museums (e.g., the towers at St Osyth and Seaford), visitor centres, and galleries (such as Jaywick Martello Tower). Some are privately owned or are private residences, The remainder are derelict. A survey of the East Coast towers in 2007 found of the 17 remaining, most were in a reasonable condition.

Many remaining Martello Towers are now Listed Buildings.

A fuller list of British towers, with photographs, is available.

#### Scotland

Three Martello towers were built in Scotland, the first on offshore rocks facing the Firth of Forth in 1807–1809 to defend Leith Harbour. The Tally Toor now lies land-locked within the eastern breakwater.

Two towers were then built at Hackness and Crockness, near Longhope in Orkney. They were constructed between 1813 and 1815 to guard against the threat of French and American raiders attacking convoys assembling offshore. Historic Scotland now operates the Hackness tower as a museum.

#### Wales

A small number of Martello towers were also built in Wales, of which few survive. The most notable surviving towers are the two located in Pembroke Dock, which were built between 1848 and 1857 to protect the naval base there. Today, one of the towers is privately owned. The other is located on the town's riverfront, next to the old entrance of the naval base. It was converted into a small museum that focused on the local history of the dock and its defences. The museum has now shut down because of water influx. Recently Pembrokeshire County Council has decided to put the tower up for sale.

#### Ireland

About fifty Martello towers were built around the Irish coastline, especially along the east coast, from Millmount (Drogheda), to Bray, around Dublin Bay (29 installations) but also around Cork Harbour on the south coast. On the east coast, concentrated mainly around Dublin Bay, twenty-six towers were in line of sight of each other, providing the ability to communicate with one another, or warn of any incoming attacks.

Possibly the most famous is the Martello tower in Sandycove, near Dún Laoghaire, in which James Joyce lived for a few days. Joyce shared the tower with Oliver St. John Gogarty, then a medical student but later to become famous in Irish history as a surgeon, politician and writer. In *Ulysses*, the fictional character Stephen Dedalus lives in the tower with a medical student, Malachi "Buck" Mulligan, whom Joyce based on Gogarty. The James Joyce Tower, as the tower is now known, houses a museum dedicated to Joyce.

A number of other Martello towers are extant nearby at Bullock Harbour, Dalkey Island, Williamstown, Seapoint and Sandymount and Martello towers feature in many literary works set in Dublin. During the 1980s, Bono owned the Martello tower in Bray, County Wicklow.

Martello Tower South No.7, on Tara Hill, Killiney Bay, is unique, as is its location as an enfilading tower. The Tower is privately owned and has been fully restored, to include a proofed, working King George 3rd Blomefield 18-pounder cannon mounted on a traversing carriage on the crown of the Tower. There is a three-gun battery below the tower, with a glacis. There is also a coach house, artillery store, tool shed, and gunner's cottage, with resident gunner and gunpowder store. The battery, while restored, remains to be armed and the coach house and artillery store still require some restoration.

On the north side of Dublin, one can find Martello towers in Balbriggan, Shenick Island and Red Island at Skerries, Drumanagh Fort, Rush, Tower Bay in Portrane, Donabate, Malahide (Hicks tower owned by Tony Quinn), Portmarnock, Ireland's Eye, Howth, and Sutton.

There were seven Martello towers in the vicinity of Cork Harbour of which five are extant. During the 19th century Fenian uprising, the famous Captain Mackey briefly captured and held the Monning Martello tower near Fota Island in Cork Harbour; this tower is believed to have been the only Martello tower ever captured, other than the original. The other Cork Harbour towers are at Ringaskiddy, Haulbowline Island (now part of the Irish Naval Service HQ) and at Belvelly and Rossleague on the Great Island (near Cobh). There are also Martello towers at Little Island and Rostellan, though these are no longer intact.

The British built two Martello towers on the Hook Peninsula to protect the fort near Duncannon, County Wexford and the entrance to Waterford Harbour. There is a third tower on the headland at Baginbun Bay in County Wexford.

One of the most interesting Martello towers is Meelick Martello Tower at Clonahenoge, County Offaly, guarding the Shannon river crossing to Meelick, County Galway. As this tower supports three guns (unlike the normal Martello tower which is circular on plan and carries only one gun), it is cam shaped on plan. Currently a rampant growth of ivy covers the tower.

The tower at Seapoint, County Dublin, which was the property of Blackrock Urban District Council, was formerly the clubhouse of the Seapoint Boat Club from 1916 to 1931, and was subsequently the headquarters of the Genealogical Society of Ireland (GSI). The GSI vacated the tower when it found that the atmosphere was not conducive to the preservation of records.

The restored tower at Ilnacullin is a feature of an island garden in Glengarriff, County Cork. Several other towers are still extant, including one at Rathmullan in County Donegal and two in County Clare on the south coast of Galway Bay in the townlands of Finavarra and Aughinish. There is also an extant Martello tower located near the settlement of Magilligan Point in County Londonderry, built between 1812 and 1871 to defend against a possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars; it is now a visitor attraction.

A Martello-like tower was built on Achill Island, according to local memory during the Napoleonic Wars. It is square rather than round, unlike the traditional Martello tower. This tower is known locally as the Gabhla Fhranca ("French Tower") or the Napoleonic Tower. It is marked on an 1838 Ordnance Survey chart and denoted "Signal Tower", suggesting it was used with a series of other stations for communication. The tower's position offers a view of the sea both to the north and south of the island and is therefore well-suited for that purpose. By the 1830s the tower was described as a "watch-house of the coast-guard."

### Elsewhere

#### Antigua and Barbuda

The British originally constructed River Fort Martello Tower in the early 19th century, on the site of a previous fort (presumed to have been built by the Spanish) to guard nearby River Landing, which was Barbuda's original quay. Confusion with the previous fort presumably explains the claims made in Barbudan tourism publications that this was the World's first, and is its oldest, Martello tower, built in 1745. The tower is located on the south coast of the island, a mile or so from River Landing and some seven miles south of the island's main village of Codrington. The tower is 56 feet high, has a raised gun platform and extremely thick walls, but is missing the floors. It the first such tower constructed in the Caribbean, was built in 1745 by Sir William Codrington, and was designed by Commodore Charles Knowles RN, later Admiral Sir Charles Knowles Bt, who was then commanding the Leeward Islands station.

It is attached to what remains of the pre-existing fort. The tower mounted three cannon, and in all the fort mounted ten cannons, none of which remain. The tower is the highest building on Barbuda and serves as a daymark from land or sea. Today the fort is a popular location for weddings.

#### Australia

The last Martello tower built in the British Empire is said to be that which composes a part of the larger Fort Denison, built on a small island, Pinchgut Island, in Sydney Harbour, New South Wales. It is the only Martello tower to have been built in Australia.

Fortification of the island began in 1841 but was not completed. The construction had begun following an 1839 night-time incursion into Sydney Harbour by two American warships. Concern with the threat of foreign attack had caused the government to review the harbour's inner defences, which were found to be inadequate, and the establishment of a fort was recommended to help protect Sydney Harbour from attack by foreign vessels. Construction resumed in 1855 to provide Sydney with protection against the threat of a naval attack by the Russians during the Crimean War of the 1850s. However, construction was completed only in 1857, well after the war had ended. Fort Denison is well preserved and is now a popular tourist attraction.

#### Bermuda

There is a Martello tower located at Ferry Reach in St George's Parish. The tower is the third fortification on the site. Major Thomas Blanshard built it of Bermuda limestone between 1822 and 1823. The tower shows the effect of thirty years of evolution on the design of coastal fortifications, between the 1790s and 1822. The earlier Ferry Island Fort nearby had multiple guns arrayed to cover the water westward, while the Martello tower used a single gun with 360° traverse to cover all of the surrounding area.

Like its predecessors in the UK, it has an ovoid footprint with the thickness of its walls ranging from nine to 11 feet. It is surrounded by a dry moat. The tower's purpose was to defend the Ferry Reach Channel and so impede any attack on St. George's Island from the main island of Bermuda, and attacking vessels from slipping through Castle Harbour and the channel between Ferry Reach and Coney Island. The main channel by which vessels reach most parts of Bermuda west of St. George's, including the Royal Naval Dockyard, on Ireland, the Great Sound, Hamilton Harbour, The Flatts, Murray's Anchorage, and other important sites, carries them around the east ends of St. David's and St. George's Islands, where the coastal artillery was always most heavily concentrated. Two more Martello towers to protect the Dockyard were planned, but never built.

The tower was restored in 2008 and an 18-pounder cannon brought from Fort St. Catherine was mounted on top. The site is open to the public from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. Monday to Friday in the summer and in the winter by appointment only, by calling the Parks Department. It is part of the Bermuda Railway Trail.

#### British Virgin Islands

When the British rebuilt Fort Recovery on the west end of Tortola they added a Martello tower.

#### Canada

Nine of the fourteen Martello towers built in Canada still survive. (In addition, the existing fortifications at Fort Henry received two thin towers between 1845 and 1848. However, these are dry ditch defence towers, rather than true Martello towers.) A common characteristic of Canadian Martello towers was removable cone-shaped roofs to protect against snow. Today, many of the restored towers have permanent roof additions – for ease of upkeep, not historical accuracy.

Quebec City originally had four Martello towers. Tower No. 1 stands on the Plains of Abraham, overlooking the St Lawrence River. It has been restored as a museum and can be visited during the summer months. Tower no. 2 stands close nearby and currently hosts activities for private groups. Tower No. 3 was demolished in 1905 after being used as a residence. The McKenzie Memorial Building of Jeffery Hale Hospital now occupies the site. The fourth surviving Martello Tower in Quebec, No. 4, is located in a residential area on the north side of the Upper City overlooking Lower Town. It is now used as an escape game tourist activity by The National Battlefields Commission.

Halifax, Nova Scotia, had five towers, the oldest of which, the Prince of Wales Tower located in Point Pleasant Park, is the oldest Martello-style tower in North America. It was built in 1796 and was used as a redoubt and a powder magazine. Restored, it is now a National Heritage site. The Duke of York Martello Tower was built in 1798 at York Redoubt. Its lower level still stands, though it has been boarded up for conservation purposes. The Duke of Clarence Martello Tower stood on the Dartmouth shore. Sherbrooke Martello Tower stood opposite York Redoubt on McNabs Island; it was demolished in 1944 and replaced by a concrete lighthouse at Maughers Beach. Another Martello tower stood on Georges Island.

Four Martello towers were built at Kingston, Ontario to defend its harbour and naval shipyards in response to the Oregon Crisis. Their builders intended for the towers to serve as redoubts against marine attacks. Murney Tower and the tower at Point Frederick (at the Royal Military College of Canada) are now museums that are open during the summer.

Fort Frederick has the most elaborate defences as it includes earthen ramparts and a limestone curtain wall. The Shoal Tower, the only tower completely surrounded by water, stands in Kingston's Confederation Basin. Since 2005, it is open to the public as part of Doors Open Ontario for one day only in June each year. Cathcart Tower, the fourth tower, stands unused on Cedar Island near Point Henry.

Carleton Martello Tower, overlooking the harbour of Saint John, New Brunswick, is now a museum and a National Historic Site.

The Canadian Press reported on 16 April 2006 that the Canadian military has named a Forward Operating Base (FOB) in Afghanistan FOB Martello. The logo of the International Hockey Hall of Fame and Museum in Kingston, Ontario, features a Martello tower. Since the amalgamation of the Township of Kingston in 2000, the city's flag has also borne a Martello tower.

#### Guernsey

There are three similar Martello towers in Guernsey, all built in 1804: Fort Grey, Fort Hommet and Fort Saumarez.

In addition, there are a number of earlier towers in Guernsey (the Guernsey loophole towers), that many people refer to as Martello towers, though they are not Martellos. They were built in the late 18th century, i.e., before the Martellos, and differ from them in a number of ways. One may think of them as precursors, like the Genoese towers they resemble.

Lastly, Bréhon Tower, built in 1856, is an oval tower that represents the final evolution of the Martello tower.

#### India

Although European in origin, a primitive form of Martello tower had existed in Punjab by the time it was conquered by the East India Company. There is a Martello Tower that the Portuguese built at the southern tip of the island where the Arnala fort stands. The Portuguese are said to have built many of these towers, but Arnala's is the best surviving specimen. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British erected Martello towers at the British Residency in Hyderabad, which were demolished in 1954. An earlier example of such is the one found in Pakur, a town in the state of Jharakhand. This tower was built in 1856 by Sub District Officer Sir Martin with view to protect the British Raj from the Santhals. It was an important position for the British forces watching fighting the rebellion of the Santhals. This example is reported to still be in good condition, but decaying due to a lack of maintenance.

#### Indonesia

The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa caused a tsunami that damaged Menara Martello, which the Dutch colonial government of the East Indies built in 1850 on Bidadari Island (Pulau Bidadari), one of the Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu), as part of a set of fortifications built between 1850 and 1852 that protected the approaches to Batavia. Photos suggest that Martello Menara was not a true Martello, but rather a circular fort. The tower was operational until 1878, when it became a storage site, and was abandoned in 1908. Bidadari Island was also known as Pulau Sakit (Sick Island) as it housed a leper colony during the 17th century. More recently, the island came to be called "Angel Island", to honour the leprosarium that had been there.

Other towers were built at Onrust, Kuiper (Cipir), and Kerkhof (Kelor) islands. All four were demolished in part or in whole after the advent of rifled guns made them obsolete.

#### Italy

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, during the British "Protectorate" of Sicily after the escape of the Bourbons from Naples, Sicily began to build towers to resist an invasion by Napoleon's armies led by Joachim Murat. The new higher rate of fire of ships' guns led to the choice of the Martello tower as the model.

The Sicilian Martello towers were built around 1810. The estimate rests on the historical context and on the descriptions of the topographer W.H. Smyth, who carried out his research in 1814 and 1815. Of the seven towers built in Sicily, only four remain. One is the Mazzone Tower (or the British Fort) at Faro Point, Messina. The second is the Magnisi tower at Priolo Gargallo, Syracuse. The Italian Navy used this tower as an observation post during the Second World War. Third is the Cariddi tower at Ganzirri in Messina. Lastly, the fourth tower is situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the sea from where it can defend the Castello Maniace in Syracuse.

#### Jamaica

There is a Martello tower located at what was Fort Nugent. In 1709, the Spanish slave agent in Jamaica, James Castillo, built a fort in Harbour View, to guard his home against attack. An English Governor, George Nugent, later strengthened the fort to guard the eastern entrance of the city of Kingston Harbour. The tower was probably built between 1808 and 1811, at a reported cost of £12,000.

#### Japan

#### Jersey

The British built eight true Martello towers in Jersey, three between 1808 and 1814, and five between 1834 and 1837, one of which, L'Etacq, the German occupation forces destroyed during World War II. The three original towers are:

The four surviving, later towers are:

In addition, there are a number of towers in Jersey (the Jersey Round Towers), that are frequently referred to as Martello towers, though they are not Martellos. They were built in the late 18th century, i.e., before the Martellos, and differ from them in a number of ways. One may think of them as precursors, like the Genoese towers they resemble.

#### Malta

The British never built any true Martello Towers in Malta. However, Madliena Tower, which was one of thirteen De Redin towers built in Malta in 1658–1659, began to be used as if it was a Martello Tower and it is sometimes considered as such. Various modifications were made, including mounting a 64-pound rifled muzzle loading (RML) gun on the roof for coastal defence. From the late 19th century onwards it defended part of the Victoria Lines. The tower remained in use until World War II. It still stands today, despite having some minor modifications to its original structure, and it was recently restored.

#### Mauritius

The British built five Martello Towers between 1832 and 1835 at Grand River North West (2), Black River (2), and Port Louis (1), of which three survive. One tower, named Cunningham Tower after Lieutenant-Colonel Cunningham, the commanding Royal Engineer, was constructed as part of Fort George at the northern side of the entrance to Port Louis harbour. Two towers were built at Grand River North West; on the south-west side of the river bay the tower was built at Pointe aux Sables whilst Fort Victoria was built covering the north-eastern flank. The remaining two were built to support existing batteries, which were also improved, at the mouth of the Black River; one to the north at La Preneuse and the other south of Grande-Rivière-Noire at Batterie de l'Harmonie. Cunningham Tower disappeared after 1914. The Tower at Fort Victoria was last mentioned in 1880. In 1865, the *Mauritius Almanac and Civil Service Register* listed "Two Artillery Men, at 1 each per diem", for the towers at Fort George and Grand River. The Friends of the Environment have restored one Martello tower near the La Preneuse public beach, in the Rive Noire/Black River district. The Friends operate it as a museum for visitors. The original entrance to the tower is raised above ground but a new entrance has been constructed at ground level. The other tower in Rive Noire/Black River district *\[L’Harmonie\]* still exists but has remained neglected for many years. The other existing tower is at Pointe aux Sables, Grand River North West.

#### Sierra Leone

A Martello tower was built on Tower Hill at Freetown, Sierra Leone in 1805 to defend the port from attacks by the Temne people. It was significantly modified in 1870 when it was truncated to allow the installation of a water tank to supply Government House (Fort Thornton) with water. The tower has now been incorporated into Sierra Leone's Parliament Buildings.

#### South Africa

The British built three Martello towers in South Africa, one at Simon's Town Naval base near Cape Town, one at Cape Town, and the third at Fort Beaufort. The tower at Simon's Town and Cape Town were both built in 1795. The tower at Cape Town was demolished over 100 years ago, but the tower at Simon's Town now is sometimes claimed as the oldest Martello in the world. It is arguable as to whether one should properly call it a Martello Tower.

That said, Vice Admiral George Elphinstone, who commanded the force that captured the colony and then served briefly as its governor, had served with the Mediterranean fleet off Corsica in 1794. The British built the tower at Fort Beaufort in 1837, and it is probably the only example of an inland Martello tower.

#### Spain

During the last period of British occupation (1798–1802) of Menorca, Sir Charles Stuart, the then British governor, ordered Engineer Captain Robert D'Arcy to build some 12 Martello towers along the coast. These, when added to the three Spanish towers already in place, gave Menorca 15 towers.

The British built five towers to protect Mahón: Phillipet on Lazareto Island, Cala Taulera (St. Clair) and Los Freus (Erskine) on the peninsula of La Mola, Stuart's Tower, and a tower on the Punta de Sant Carlos, which the Spanish destroyed when they took regained possession of Menorca. To the northwest of Mahón the British built two more towers, Sa Torreta and Sa Mezquita.

One tower, the Princess Tower, or the Erskine Tower, was incorporated into the Fortress of Isabel II, built between 1850 and 1875. The tower was converted to a powder magazine, which led to its destruction in 1958, when lightning struck the tower. The explosion destroyed the tower, blowing out large sections of its walls.

The British erected Stuart's Tower in 1798 on Turks Hill or Hangman's Hill to the south of the port of Mahón at San Esteban or Saint Stephen's bay on the southern side of the Fortress of San Felipe. In 1756 and again in 1781, batteries on the hill had supported successful attacks on the Fortress. The tower was built both to secure the hill and protect the entrance to the bay. The tower's name was later changed to Torre d'en Penjat, or Hangman's Tower.

To protect the harbor of Fornells, the British built a tower on the rocky headland overlooking the harbor's mouth, and a small tower on the island of Sargantana. They complemented these two towers with two more small towers nearby, one at Sa Nitsa and one at Addaya.

Lastly, the British built one tower at Santandria to protect the old capital of Ciutadella.

In addition to the 12 towers that they built, the British made use of three towers that the Spanish had built earlier. In 1781, Captain Francisco Fernandez de Angulo had built towers south of Port Mahon at Punta Prima and Alcufar, based on the design of those that the Spanish had built in Gando, Gran Canaria, in 1740. At Ciutadella the British used the St. Nicholas's Tower, built in 1690. The Treaty of Amiens returned Menorca to Spain in 1802. Around 1804, the Spanish built a tower at Punta Na Radona to protect the beach at Son Bou, Menorca. In 1808, Captain Lord Cochrane, commanding the 38-gun fifth-rate frigate HMS *Imperieuse*, sent ashore a landing party that destroyed the unarmed tower. (Frederick Marryat, later a naval captain and author, was serving as a midshipman aboard *Imperieuse* at the time.) (This fort has 17 walls.)

There are also four towers on the island of Formentera, and one on the nearby island of S'Empalmador (38°47′5.28″N 1°25′5.01″E / 38.7848000°N 1.4180583°E / 38.7848000; 1.4180583).

Another tower was erected by English troops stationed in the fortress of Cartagena, during the Peninsular War. The tower was erected in the center of 1799 fort, in mount St. Julian, dominating port and mouth. In the summer of 1812 English engineers destroyed the fort and erected a tower:

> ... the British are working on opening a path from the east coast to the post on Mount St. Julian, where they try to build a six-piece battery held in a tower 24 feet in diameter.
>
> Report by Second Lieutenant Navarro, March 10, 1813.

> Is reduced to a well-built coast tower, but only mounts and is capable of a rotating gun ... The tower contains two floors and the platform. The ground floor is for the warehouse and spare part. The main one for accommodation, and in this one is the door for ladder of hand, and two spans that, besides serving for ventilation, are arranged to receive small caliber guns ... The platform mounts a rotating gun and has a small bench for the fire of rifle. Under the lower floor there is a cistern.
>
> Plano de la plaza de Cartagena, Tebar, Echevarria, Pajares, 1855

The later constructions that gave rise to the present fortress of San Julián is still in good condition and is used as a base for telephone aerials and antennas. The interior, which is only accessible to technicians, is supposedly well preserved.

#### Saint Helena

There is a Martello tower at Saint Helena that was incorporated into High Knoll Fort. The tower was very similar in design to the tower at Simon's Town, with a diameter of about 45 ft (14 m) and a height of approximately 20 ft (6.1 m).

#### Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has one Martello tower, located at Hambantota on the south coast, which was restored in 1999. This tower may have been involved in repelling a French attack though there is nothing more than circumstantial support for the notion. British engineers commenced work on three towers to protect Trincomalee but never completed them.

#### United States

The United States government built several Martello towers at locations along the eastern seaboard. Two are at Key West, Florida; others were built at the harbours of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Charleston, South Carolina and New York City. Two more Martello towers stood at Tybee Island, Georgia and Bayou Dupre, Louisiana.

Although the Americans copied the design from the towers the British erected in Canada, the American Martello towers differed in some significant respects from the British. The Martello tower built at Tybee Island, Georgia was constructed around 1815 utilizing wood and tabby concrete, a common local building material at the time, instead of the brick or stone that the British towers used. Also, unlike the British towers, the Tybee tower featured gun loops on the garrison floor that enabled muskets to be fired through the walls. It was never tested in battle and by the time of the American Civil War was in a state of disrepair. Its unfamiliar design confused local writers, who often said that the Spanish had built the tower when Georgia was Spain's colony.

The Key West towers, though the locals refer to them as Martellos, were square instead of round and had thin walls with long gun loops. In addition, a curtain wall of heavy guns encircled the Key West towers making them, effectively, keeps instead of standalone towers.

A Martello tower figures in the arms of the 41st Infantry Regiment of the United States Army.

### List of Martello towers outside Great Britain

| Country | Location | Tower name | Built | Current status |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Australia | Sydney | Fort Denison | 1856 | Museum, harbour light station. |
| Barbuda | Near Palmetto Point | River Fort Martello Tower |  |  |
| Bermuda | Ferry Reach |  | 1823–1828 | Can be visited |
| British Virgin Islands | Tortola | Fort Recovery |  | Private (hotel) |
| Canada | Point Pleasant Park, Nova Scotia | Prince of Wales's Tower | 1796 | Open to public |
| Canada | Halifax, Nova Scotia | Duke of York's Tower | c.1798 | Lower levels still exist. Site partially boarded off, can be visited |
| Canada | Halifax, Nova Scotia | Duke of Clarence's Tower | c.1798 | Demolished prior to 1900 |
| Canada | Kingston, Ontario | Fort Frederick | 1846/7 | Museum |
| Canada | Kingston, Ontario | Murney Tower | 1846 | Museum |
| Canada | Kingston, Ontario | Shoal Tower | 1846 | Closed to Public |
| Canada | Kingston, Ontario | Cathcart Tower | 1846 | Closed to Public |
| Canada | Quebec City, Quebec | Tower #1 | 1808–1812 | Museum |
| Canada | Quebec City, Quebec | Tower #2 | 1808–1812 | Open for group activities through National Battlefields Commission |
| Canada | Quebec City, Quebec | Tower #3 | 1808–1812 | Destroyed |
| Canada | Quebec City, Quebec | Tower #4 | 1808–1812 | Tourist activity - Escape game |
| Canada | Saint John, New Brunswick | Carleton Martello Tower | 1815 | Museum |
| Croatia | Korčula | Forteca Korčula (Fort Wellington) | 1813 | Deserted, accessible to hikers |
| India | Arnala Island | Hanumant Bastion | c. 1530s | Deserted and Dilapidated. |
| Ireland | Achill Island | Gabhla Fhranca | c. 1803–1815 | Partially collapsed but accessible to hikers |
| Ireland | Aughinish | Aughinish Tower | 1811 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Banagher | Meelick Martello Tower |  | Private residence |
| Ireland | Drogheda | Millmount Fort | c. 1808 | Extant |
| Ireland | Balbriggan | North No. 12 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Skerries, Red Island | North No. 11 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Skerries, Shenick Island | North No. 10 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Drumanagh | North No. 9 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Rush | North No. 8 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Portrane, Tower Bay | North No. 7 | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Donabate, Balcarrick | North No. 6 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Malahide, Robswall | North No. 5, *Hicks Tower* | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Portmarnock, Carrickhill | North No. 4 | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Ireland's Eye | North No. 3 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Howth, Harbour Rd. | North No. 2 | 1804–05 | Ye Olde Hurdy Gurdy Museum of Vintage Radio |
| Ireland | Sutton South | North No. 1 | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Sandymount | South No. 16 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Williamstown | South No. 15 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Seapoint | South No. 14 | 1804–05 | Restored. Exhibition on the history of Dublin's Martello Towers. Guided tours during the summer months |
| Ireland | Kingstown Harbour, West Pier | South No. 13 | 1804–05 | Tower & battery, both demolished 1836 during extension of Dublin & Kingstown Railway |
| Ireland | Dún Laoghaire, site of present-day *Peoples Park* | South No. 12 | 1804–05 |  |
| Ireland | Sandycove | South No. 11, *James Joyce's Martello tower* | 1804–05 | James Joyce Tower and Museum |
| Ireland | Bulloch Harbour | South No. 10 | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Dalkey Island | South No. 9 | 1804–05 | Extant |
| Ireland | Killiney, south end of Strathmore Road | South No. 8 | 1804–05 | Site of battery, not tower |
| Ireland | Killiney, Tara Hill | South No. 7 | 1804–05 | Fully restored |
| Ireland | Killiney, beach | South No. 6, *Enoch's Tower* | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Shanganagh | South No. 5 | 1804–05 | Site of battery, not tower |
| Ireland | Shanganagh, Mahera Point | South No. 4 | 1804–05 | Lost to coastal erosion |
| Ireland | Bray, Corke Abbey | South No. 3 | 1804–05 | Lost to coastal erosion |
| Ireland | Bray harbour | South No. 2 | 1804–05 | Private residence |
| Ireland | Bray beach | South No. 1 | 1804–05 | Demolished 1884, when Esplanade constructed |
| Ireland | Ilnacullin |  |  | Tower and gardens open to public (access by boat from Glengarriff) |
| Ireland | Bere Island, Cloughland |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Bere Island, Ardagh |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Finavarra | Finavarra Tower | 1816 | Open to public |
| Ireland | Ringaskiddy, Cork Harbour |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Haulbowline Island, Cork Harbour |  |  | Museum, owned by Irish Navy |
| Ireland | Fota Island, Cork Harbour | Monning Tower |  |  |
| Ireland | Rossleague, Cobh |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Belvelly, Cobh |  |  | Private residence |
| Ireland | Lough Swilly | Macamish Tower |  |  |
| Ireland | Lough Foyle | Greencastle Tower |  | Extended to a Fort completed in 1812. Restaurant |
| Ireland | Lough Foyle | Magilligan Tower |  | Restored |
| Ireland | Loughshinny |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Rathmullan |  |  |  |
| Ireland | Ros a' Mhíl |  |  |  |
| Italy | Messina | Cariddi's Tower or Tower of Ganzirri | 1810? | Closed to public |
| Italy |  | Mazzone's Tower or Tower of British Fort | 1810? |  |
| Italy | Priolo Gargallo | Torre di Magnisi | 1810? | Can be visited |
| Italy | Syracuse | Castello Maniace | 1810? | Open to public |
| Jamaica | Kingston | Fort Nugent | 1808–11? |  |
| Liberia | Monrovia | Fort Stockton | 1822 | since 1822, August under construction, later named as coast battery *Fort Hill* |
| Malta | Madliena, Pembroke | Madliena Tower | 1658 | Intact, recently restored |
| Mauritius | Grand River North West | Pointe aux Sables | 1832–35 | abandoned but no fences, entrance still on second story |
| Mauritius | Grand River North West | Fort Victoria | 1832–35 | Last mentioned 1880 |
| Mauritius | Grande-Rivière-Noire | L'Harmonie | 1832–35 | Ruined (now a national monument) |
| Mauritius | Black River | La Preneuse | 1832–35 | Museum |
| Mauritius | Fort George, Port Louis | Cunningham Tower | 1832–35 | Disappeared after 1914. |
| Sierra Leone | Freetown | Tower Hill Martello Tower | 1805 | Part of Parliament Buildings |
| South Africa | Fort Beaufort |  | 1839–46 |  |
| South Africa | Simon's Town |  | 1795/6 | At the Naval Base. Houses a small museum. |
| South Africa | Cape Town | Craig's Tower | 1795/6 | Demolished late 19th century |
| Sri Lanka | Hambantota |  | 1801–03 |  |
| Trinidad and Tobago | Port of Spain | Fort Picton | 1801 | Abandoned by 1810. |
| United States | Lake Borgne, Louisiana | Tower Dupre | 1830? | Hexagonal; originally built on shore, 150 ft (46 m) from water, near Bayou Dupre's entrance to Lake Borgne; for much of the twentieth century was private fishing camp; photo at Wikimedia Commons; destroyed in 2005 by Hurricane Katrina |
| United States | Charleston, South Carolina | Fort Johnson |  |  |
| United States | Key West, Florida |  |  | East tower is a museum; West tower converted to a botanical garden; both open to the public |
| United States | New York Harbor |  |  | Destroyed |
| United States | Portsmouth, New Hampshire | Walbach Tower | 1814 | Incorporated into Fort Constitution; ruined |
| United States | Tybee Island, Georgia |  | 1815 | It served as an office of the Georgia Telegraph and Telephone Company and finally as the post office for Fort Screven. In 1913, the building was damaged in a fire and it was finally dismantled the following year to clear the field of fire for the guns of Fort Screven. |

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* Abram, David (2003) *The Rough Guide to Corsica* Rough Guides.
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* Grimsley, E.J. (1988) *The Historical Development of the Martello Tower in the Channel Islands*. (Sarnian Publications). ISBN 978-0-9513868-0-4
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* Rooke, Octavius (1857) *The Channel islands: pictorial, legendary and descriptive*.
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title: OpenFog Consortium

abstract: The OpenFog Consortium was a consortium of high tech industry companies and academic institutions across the world aimed at the standardization and promotion of fog computing in various capacities and fields. The consortium was founded by Cisco Systems, Intel, Microsoft, Princeton University, Dell, and ARM Holdings in 2015 and now has 57 members across the North America, Asia, and Europe, including Forbes 500 companies and noteworthy academic institutions. The OpenFog consortium merged with the Industrial Internet Consortium, now the Industry IoT Consortium, on January 31, 2019.

text:
# OpenFog Consortium

The **OpenFog Consortium** (sometimes stylized as **Open Fog Consortium**) was a consortium of high tech industry companies and academic institutions across the world aimed at the standardization and promotion of fog computing in various capacities and fields.

The consortium was founded by Cisco Systems, Intel, Microsoft, Princeton University, Dell, and ARM Holdings in 2015 and now has 57 members across the North America, Asia, and Europe, including Forbes 500 companies and noteworthy academic institutions.

The OpenFog consortium merged with the Industrial Internet Consortium, now the Industry IoT Consortium, on January 31, 2019.

## History

OpenFog was created on November 19, 2015, by ARM Holdings, Cisco Systems, Dell, Intel, Microsoft, and Princeton University.

The idea for a consortium centered on the advancement and dissemination of fog computing was thought up by Helder Antunes, a Cisco executive with a history in IoT, Mung Chiang, then a Princeton University professor and now President of Purdue University, and Dr. Tao Zhang, a Cisco Distinguished Engineer and CIO for the IEEE Communications Society then and now a manager at the National Institute of Standards and Technologies (NIST). The project was executed from concept to launch by Armando Pereira at PVentures Group, a Silicon Valley–based high-tech consulting firm.

OpenFog released its reference architecture for fog computing on February 13, 2017.

The Fog World Congress 2017, with Dr. Tao Zhang as its General Chair, was hosted in October 2017 by OpenFog, in conjunction with the IEEE Communications Society, as the first congress devoted to fog computing.

## Administration

The OpenFog Consortium is governed by its board of directors, which is chaired by Cisco Senior Director Helder Antunes. The board of directors is made up of 11 seats, each representing one of the following companies and institutions: ARM, AT&T, Cisco, Dell, Intel, Microsoft, Princeton University, IEEE, GE, ZTE and Shanghai Tech University.

The consortium's general membership currently comprises 13 academic members: Aalto University, Arizona State University, California Institute of Technology, Georgia State University, National Chiao Tung University, National Taiwan University, Shanghai Research Centre for Wireless Communication, Chinese University of Hong Kong, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Southern California, University of Pisa, Vanderbilt University, Wayne State University, and 20 additional members: Hitachi, Internet Initiative Japan, Itochu, Kii, Nebbiolo, PrismTech, NEC, NGD Systems, NTT Communications, OSIsoft, Real-time Innovations, relayr, Sakura Internet, Stichting imec Nederland, Toshiba, TTT Tech, Fujitsu, FogHorn Systems, TTTech and MARSEC.

## Published work

The OpenFog Consortium has published the white paper, "OpenFog Reference Architecture". This document outlines the eight pillars of an OpenFog architecture:Security; Scalability; Open; Autonomy; Programmability; RAS (Reliability, Availability, and Serviceability); Agility; and Hierarchy. It also incorporates a glossary for fog computing terms.

In July 2018, the IEEE Standards Association announced it had adopted the OpenFog Reference Architecture as the first standard for fog computing.

## InfoBox

OpenFog Consortium
|
|  |
| Company type | Consortium |
| Industry | Telecommunications |
| Founded | 19 November 2015 |
| Founders |  |
| Headquarters | Fremont, California |
| Key people | Chairman and President
Matt Vasey
Treasurer
Brent Hodges |
| Website | openfogconsortium.org |


title: Yucatán worm snake

abstract: The Yucatán worm snake is a species of snake in the Typhlopidae family.

text:
# Yucatán worm snake

The **Yucatán worm snake** (***Amerotyphlops microstomus***) is a species of snake in the Typhlopidae family.

## InfoBox

| Yucatán worm snake | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Typhlopidae |
| Genus: | *Amerotyphlops* |
| Species: | ***A. microstomus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Amerotyphlops microstomus***
(Cope, 1866) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Typhlops microstomus* | |


title: Self Made (film)

abstract: Self Made is a 2014 Israeli film written and directed by Shira Geffen.

text:
# Self Made (film)

**Self Made** (Hebrew: **Boreg**) is a 2014 Israeli film written and directed by Shira Geffen.

## Synopsis

The film follows an Israeli artist (Michal) and Palestinian DIY store clerk (Nadine) who swap their lives because of a mix-up at a border security checkpoint.

## Cast

* Zidane Awad as Ebrahem
* Sarah Adler as Michal
* Samira Saraya as Nadine
* Omer Perelman Striks as Ido
* Doraid Liddawi
* Na'ama Shoham
* Ziyad Bakri

## Critical reception

The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and at the Jerusalem Film Festival. It was also shown at the opening night of the AICE Israeli Film Festival in Melbourne, Australia.

In a review for *The Hollywood Reporter*, critic Clarence Tsui said the film was full of "black humor" and "surreal episodes to talk about gritty issues in reality." She added, "What Geffen is trying to put across is how an individual's appearance is just a façade." She concluded that it was, "an entertaining and pensive thought about the straitjackets imposed on women or maybe just about everyone else too."

## InfoBox

| Self Made | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Directed by | Shira Geffen |
| Written by | Shira Geffen |
| Produced by | David Mandil
Moshe Edery
Leon Edery |
| Starring | Sarah Adler
Samira Saraya
Doraid Liddawi |
| Release date | * 16 May 2014 (2014-05-16) |
| Country | Israel |
| Languages | Hebrew, Arabic, French with English subtitles |


title: Pleuromeris tridentata

abstract: Pleuromeris tridentata, or the three-toothed cardita, is a species of bivalve mollusc in the family Carditidae. It can be found along the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from North Carolina to Florida.

text:
# Pleuromeris tridentata

***Pleuromeris tridentata***, or the **three-toothed cardita**, is a species of bivalve mollusc in the family Carditidae. It can be found along the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from North Carolina to Florida.

## InfoBox

| *Pleuromeris tridentata* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Bivalvia |
| Order: | Carditida |
| Superfamily: | Carditoidea |
| Family: | Carditidae |
| Genus: | *Pleuromeris* |
| Species: | ***P. tridentata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pleuromeris tridentata***<br>(Say, 1826) | |
|


title: Walter HWK 109-509

abstract: The Walter HWK 109-509 was a German liquid-fuel bipropellant rocket engine that powered the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and Bachem Ba 349 aircraft. It was produced by Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft (HWK) commencing in 1943, with licensed production by the Heinkel firm's facilities in Jenbach, Austria.

text:
# Walter HWK 109-509

The **Walter HWK 109-509** was a German liquid-fuel bipropellant rocket engine that powered the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and Bachem Ba 349 aircraft. It was produced by Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft (HWK) commencing in 1943, with licensed production by the Heinkel firm's facilities in Jenbach, Austria.

## Design and development

Early versions of the Me 163 had been powered by an earlier design running on a "cold engine" fueled with Z-Stoff. This fuel tended to clog the jets in the combustion chamber, causing fluctuations in power and potentially explosions. Worse, however, was the fact that the engine could not be throttled, and when the aircraft leveled off after its climb to altitude it quickly accelerated to speeds that caused serious compressibility issues. The RLM demanded that a version be developed with a throttle.

During this period Walter had also been working with a new fuel known as C-Stoff that gave off significant heat and was thus known as the "hot engine". C-Stoff was a mix of 30% hydrazine hydrate, 57% methanol, and 13% water, with a small amount of potassium-copper-cyanide. The oxidizer, known as T-Stoff, consisted of an 80%-concentration hydrogen peroxide-based formulation. The two reacted violently on contact. The violent combustion process resulted in the formation of water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and a huge amount of heat sending out a superheated stream of steam, nitrogen and air that was drawn in through the hole in the mantle of the engine, thus providing a forward thrust of approximately 17 kN (3,820 lbf).

To address the throttling issue, the new engine included turbopumps with two settings. The pumps were driven by a single turbine, powered by steam created by decomposing the T-Stoff with a wire mesh catalyst. Combined with a mechanical throttle, this provided four power settings from idle to full power for climbing. In practice it was found that throttling the engine dramatically decreased its fuel economy to the point that it did not extend the endurance of the aircraft as expected. This version was put into the Me 163B in spite of this problem.

The ultimate solution to the throttling problem was the B and C series of the engine. These engines used two combustion chambers, the original one (retroactively given the name *Hauptofen*), and a second, smaller *Marschofen* chamber directly beneath the main *Hauptofen* chamber, tuned to provide the cruise power needed for high-speed level flight, about 400 kilograms-force (3,900 N; 880 lbf). This chamber provided that power at peak efficiency, so it did not suffer from the problems found while throttling on the original models. The throttle on the original combustion chamber was removed, and throttling was instead provided by turning the main engine on and off. This new version dramatically improved cruise endurance, with overall flight times improving from eight to twelve minutes, a 50% improvement. It was also mechanically simpler as the turbopumps were no longer throttled.

The engine was an integral design with all components of the drive, with the exception of fuel tanks, locked in a cubical frame — this frame was discarded for the 109-509C dual-chamber design.

## Variants

* **509 A-0**: Pre-production model, manufactured from May 1943. The thrust of this engine was regulated between 300 kp (2.9 kN) and 1500 kp (14.7 kN (3,300 lbf)).
* **509 A-1**: The first series production engine was used in the Messerschmitt Me 163 B from August 1944. The thrust here was adjustable between 100 kp (1 kN) and 1600 kp (15.7 kN (3,500 lbf)).
* **509 A-2**: Version for the Messerschmitt Me 163B-1a. Weighing only 100 kg (220 lb) complete, this engine consisted of two main assemblies, the roughly-cubical shape framed forward assembly comprising the turbine housing, the fuel pumps geared to the turbine shaft, the control box, a pressure-reducing valve and the electric starter motor, with the aft assembly made up of the combustion chamber, connected to the fore unit by a cylindrical "thrust-tube" containing pipes which carried fuel to the combustion chamber's individual injector jets. The thrust was adjustable between 200 kp (2 kN (450 lbf)) and a maximum of 1700 kp (16.7 kN (3,800 lbf)).
* **509 B-1**: Increased performance version of the 509 A-1. This engine was the initial version to feature the twin *Hauptofen* main chamber above, and lower thrust *Marschofen* cruise chamber design directly below the main chamber, with an additional thrust of 300 kp (2.9 kN (650 lbf)). This auxiliary chamber proved necessary due to the actual T-Stoff oxidizer consumption of the main unit, at nearly 5 kg/s, exceeding estimates by 100%. Thrust from main chamber adjustable between 100 kp (1 kN (220 lbf)) and 2000 kp (19.6 kN (4,400 lbf)). Fully restored examples of both the Me 163B's single-chamber rocket motor, as well as the only known example — stated as the third prototype example — in the United States of the experimental twin-chamber Walter "509B" rocket motor, are each on display in front, one each to either side of the NMUSAF's restored Me 163B, bearing *Werknummer* (serial number) 191 095 on its vertical fin.
* **509 C-1**: Dual-chamber motor like the B-series, based on the uprated version of the 509 A-2, but having a main *Hauptofen* chamber with a differing forward shape from that on the 509B, while also discarding the open-structure cubical frame for lighter weight. The main combustion chamber gave between 400 kp (3.9 kN (880 lbf)) and 2000 kp (19.6 kN (4,400 lbf)), the *Marschofen* auxiliary chamber 400 kp (3.9 kN (880 lbf)). To be used in the Me 263 (Ju 248). One surviving example on museum display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford.
* **509 D-1**: Variant of the 509 C-1 for use in the improved B-series airframes of the Bachem Ba 349 *Natter*. Engine designed to be recovered by parachute, along with the entire rear section with empennage.
* **509 S-2** A completely revised lightened version for use as a permanently installed booster rocket on the Messerschmitt Me 262 *Heimatschützer IV* home defence interceptor.
* **HWK RII-211** \- Company designation for prototype engines of the 509A-2 series

## Applications

## Engines on display

## Specifications (509A)

*Data from* *Jane's*.

### General characteristics

* **Type:** Liquid-fuelled rocket engine
* **Length:** 8 ft, 5 1/2 in
* **Diameter:** 8 in
* **Dry weight:** 165.5 kg (365 lb)
* **Fuel:** T-Stoff (Hydrogen peroxide) oxidizer and C-Stoff (hydrazine hydrate/alcohol mix) fuel propellants

### Components

* **Pumps:**

### Performance

**Related lists**

### Notes

### Bibliography

* Gooden, Brett. *Natter: Manned Missile of the Third Reich: Historic Step to Human Spaceflight*. Rundle Mall, Australia: Brett Gooden, 2019. ISBN 978-0646-81213-7
* *Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II*. London. Studio Editions Ltd, 1989. ISBN 0-517-67964-7

## InfoBox

| HWK 509 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| HWK 109-509A on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum, Berlin-Gatow, Germany | |
| Type | Rocket engine |
| Manufacturer | Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft |
| First run | 1943 |
| Major applications | Messerschmitt Me 163<br>Bachem Ba 349 |


title: Piketoprofen

abstract: Piketoprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for topical use in form of a cream. Chemically, it is the 4-picolineamide of the NSAID ketoprofen.

text:
# Piketoprofen

**Piketoprofen** (INN; trade names **Calmatel**, **Picalm**) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for topical use in form of a cream.

Chemically, it is the 4-picolineamide of the NSAID ketoprofen.

## Synthesis

Thionyl chloride reacts with ketoprofen to form its acid chloride (2). Amide formation with 2-amino-4-methylpyridine (3) gives piketoprofen.

## InfoBox

Piketoprofen
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Clinical data | |
| Trade names | Calmatel, Picalm |
| AHFS/Drugs.com | International Drug Names |
| Routes of
administration | Topical (cream) |
| ATC code |  |
| Identifiers | |
| IUPAC name * 2-(3-Benzoylphenyl)-*N*-(4-methyl-2-pyridyl)propionamide | |
| CAS Number |  |
| PubChem CID |  |
| ChemSpider |  |
| UNII |  |
| KEGG |  |
| ChEMBL |  |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) |  |
| Chemical and physical data | |
| Formula | C22H20N2O2 |
| Molar mass | 344.414 g·mol−1 |
| 3D model (JSmol) |  |
| SMILES * Cc1ccnc(c1)NC(=O)C(C)c2cccc(c2)C(=O)c3ccccc3 | |
| InChI * InChI=1S/C22H20N2O2/c1-15-11-12-23-20(13-15)24-22(26)16(2)18-9-6-10-19(14-18)21(25)17-7-4-3-5-8-17/h3-14,16H,1-2H3,(H,23,24,26) * Key:ASFKKFRSMGBFRO-UHFFFAOYSA-N | |


title: Polypogon monspeliensis

abstract: Polypogon monspeliensis, commonly known as annual beard-grass or annual rabbitsfoot grass, is a species of grass. It is native to the Old World, but it can be found today throughout the world as an introduced species and sometimes a noxious weed. It is an annual grass growing to heights between 5 centimeters and one meter. The soft, fluffy inflorescence is a dense, greenish, plumelike panicle, sometimes divided into lobes. The spikelets have long, thin, whitish awns, which give the inflorescence its texture.

text:
# Polypogon monspeliensis

***Polypogon monspeliensis***, commonly known as **annual beard-grass** or **annual rabbitsfoot grass**, is a species of grass. It is native to the Old World, but it can be found today throughout the world as an introduced species and sometimes a noxious weed. It is an annual grass growing to heights between 5 centimeters and one meter. The soft, fluffy inflorescence is a dense, greenish, plumelike panicle, sometimes divided into lobes. The spikelets have long, thin, whitish awns, which give the inflorescence its texture.

## InfoBox

| *Polypogon monspeliensis* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| *Clade*: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Poaceae |
| Subfamily: | Pooideae |
| Genus: | *Polypogon* |
| Species: | ***P. monspeliensis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Polypogon monspeliensis***<br>(L.) Desf. | |
|


abstract: Pinnacle Glacier is in Mount Rainier National Park in the U.S. state of Washington, on the northeast slopes of Pinnacle Peak. Pinnacle Glacier is 6 mi (9.7 km) south of Mount Rainier and is a small remnant glacier that has developed a proglacial lake as it has retreated.

text:
# Pinnacle Glacier (Lewis County, Washington)

**Pinnacle Glacier** is in Mount Rainier National Park in the U.S. state of Washington, on the northeast slopes of Pinnacle Peak. Pinnacle Glacier is 6 mi (9.7 km) south of Mount Rainier and is a small remnant glacier that has developed a proglacial lake as it has retreated.

## InfoBox

| Pinnacle Glacier | |
| --- | --- |
| Pinnacle Glacier | |
| Type | Cirque glacier |
| Location | Lewis County, Washington, U.S. |
| Coordinates | 46°45′27″N 121°43′50″W / 46.75750°N 121.73056°W / 46.75750; -121.73056 |
| Length | 300 ft (91 m) |
| Terminus | Proglacial lake |
| Status | Retreating |


title: Martin Kováč

abstract: Martin Kováč is a Slovak football defender who recently played for the 1. liga club FK Bodva Moldava nad Bodvou.

text:
# Martin Kováč

**Martin Kováč** (born 3 May 1984 in Košice) is a Slovak football defender who recently played for the 1. liga club FK Bodva Moldava nad Bodvou.

## InfoBox

Martin Kováč
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | Martin Kováč | | |
| Date of birth | (1984-05-03) 3 May 1984 | | |
| Place of birth | Košice, Czechoslovakia | | |
| Height | 1.90 m (6 ft 3 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Centre back | | |
| Youth career | | | |
|  | Lokomotíva Košice | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
|  | Lokomotíva Košice |  |  |
| ?–2008 | MFK Košice B |  |  |
| 2008–2009 | Dunajská Streda (loan) | 7 | (1) |
| 2009–2011 | FK Bodva | ? | (4) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 21 July 2011 | | | |


title: Opiona columbiana

abstract: Opiona columbiana is a species of millipede in the family Caseyidae. It is found in North America.

text:
# Opiona columbiana

***Opiona columbiana*** is a species of millipede in the family Caseyidae. It is found in North America.

## Further reading

* Hoffman, Richard L. (1999). *Checklist of the millipeds of North and Middle America*. Virginia Museum of Natural History Special Publications. Vol. 8. ISBN 9781884549120.

## InfoBox

| *Opiona columbiana* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Myriapoda |
| Class: | Diplopoda |
| Order: | Chordeumatida |
| Family: | Caseyidae |
| Genus: | *Opiona* |
| Species: | ***O. columbiana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Opiona columbiana***<br>Chamberlin, 1951 | |
|


title: Nauvoo Temple

abstract: The Nauvoo Temple was the second temple constructed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. The church's first temple was completed in Kirtland, Ohio, United States, in 1836. In the winter of 1846, when the main body of the church was forced out of Nauvoo, the church attempted to sell the building, finally succeeding in 1848. The building was damaged by arson and a tornado before being demolished. In 1937, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints reacquired the lot on which the original temple had stood. In 2000, the church began to build a temple on the original site with an exterior that is a replica of the first temple, but whose interior is laid out like a modern Latter-day Saint temple. On June 27, 2002, a date that coincided with the 158th anniversary of the death of Joseph and Hyrum Smith, the temple was dedicated by the LDS Church as the Nauvoo Illinois Temple.

text:
# Nauvoo Temple

The **Nauvoo Temple** was the second temple constructed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. The church's first temple was completed in Kirtland, Ohio, United States, in 1836. In the winter of 1846, when the main body of the church was forced out of Nauvoo, the church attempted to sell the building, finally succeeding in 1848. The building was damaged by arson and a tornado before being demolished.

In 1937, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) reacquired the lot on which the original temple had stood. In 2000, the church began to build a temple on the original site with an exterior that is a replica of the first temple, but whose interior is laid out like a modern Latter-day Saint temple. On June 27, 2002, a date that coincided with the 158th anniversary of the death of Joseph and Hyrum Smith, the temple was dedicated by the LDS Church as the Nauvoo Illinois Temple.

## History

The Latter Day Saints made preparations to build a temple soon after establishing their headquarters at Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1839. The 4-acre land for the temple was purchased in late 1840, for $1,100. On April 6, 1841, the temple's cornerstone was laid under the direction of Joseph Smith, the church's founder and president; Sidney Rigdon gave the principal oration. At its base the building was 128 feet (39 m) long and 88 feet (27 m) wide with a clock tower and weathervane reaching to a total height of 165 feet (50 m)a 60% increase over the dimensions of the Kirtland Temple. Like Kirtland, the Nauvoo Temple contained two assembly halls, one on the first floor and one on the second, called the lower and upper courts. Both had classrooms and offices in the attic. Unlike Kirtland, the Nauvoo Temple had a full basement which housed a baptismal font. Because the Saints had to abandon Nauvoo, the building was not entirely completed. The basement with its font was finished, as were the first floor assembly hall and the attic. When these parts of the building were completed, they were used for performing ordinances (basement and attic) or for worship services (first floor assembly hall).

The Nauvoo Temple was designed in the Greek Revival style by architect William Weeks, under the direction of Joseph Smith. Weeks became disaffected from the church in 1847 and Truman O. Angell later took his place as the primary architect. His design made use of distinctively Latter Day Saint motifs, including sunstones, moonstones, and starstones. It is often mistakenly thought that these stones represent the three degrees of glory in the Latter Day Saint conception of the afterlife, but the stones appear in the wrong order. Instead, Wandle Mace, foreman for the framework of the Nauvoo Temple, has explained that the design of the temple was meant to be "a representation of the Church, the Bride, the Lamb's wife". In this regard, Mace references John's statement in Revelation 12:1 concerning the "woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars." This explains why the starstones are at the top of the temple ("crown of twelve stars"), the sunstones in the middle ("clothed with the sun") and the moonstones at the bottom ("moon under her feet").

Construction was only half complete at the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. After a succession crisis, Brigham Young was sustained as the church's leader by the majority of Latter Day Saints in Nauvoo. As mob violence increased during the summer of 1845, he encouraged the Latter Day Saints to complete the temple even as they prepared to abandon the city, so portions of it could be used for Latter Day Saint ordinance, such as baptisms for the dead in the basement font. During the winter of 1845–46, the temple began to be used for additional ordinances, including the Nauvoo-era endowment, sealings in marriage, and adoptions. The Nauvoo Temple was in use for less than three months.

Most of the Latter Day Saints left Nauvoo, beginning in February 1846, but a small crew remained to finish the temple's first floor, so that it could be formally dedicated. Once the first floor was finished with pulpits and benches, the building was finally dedicated in private services on April 30, 1846, and in public services on 1 May. In September 1846 the remaining Latter Day Saints were driven from the city and vigilantes from the neighboring region, including Carthage, Illinois, entered the near-empty city and vandalized the temple.

Initially the church's agents tried to lease the structure, first to the Catholic Church, and then to private individuals. When this failed, they attempted to sell the temple, asking up to $200,000, but this effort also met with no success. On March 11, 1848, the LDS Church's agents sold the building to David T. LeBaron, for $5,000. Finally, the New York Home Missionary Society expressed interest in leasing the building as a school, but around midnight on October 8–9, 1848, the temple was set on fire by an unknown arsonist. Nauvoo's residents attempted to put out the fire, but the temple was gutted. James J. Strang, leader of the Strangite faction of Latter Day Saints, accused Young's agents of setting fire to the temple. However, Strang's charges were never proven. On April 2, 1849, LeBaron sold the damaged temple to Étienne Cabet for $2,000. Cabet, whose followers were called Icarians, hoped to establish Nauvoo as a communistic utopia.

### Destruction

After the fire of October 9, 1848, only the four exterior walls remained standing. Cabet and his followers began clearing rubble and trying to reconstruct the interior of the temple; however, on May 27, 1850, Nauvoo was struck by a major tornado which toppled one of the walls onto eight stone masons. One source claimed the storm seemed to "single out the Temple", felling "the walls with a roar that was heard miles away". Cabet ordered the demolition of two more walls in the interests of public safety, leaving only the façade standing. The Icarians used much of the temple's stone to build a new school building on the southwest corner of the temple lot. By 1857, however, most of Cabet's followers had left Nauvoo and over time many of the original stones for the temple were used in the construction of other buildings throughout Hancock County. In February 1865, Nauvoo's City Council ordered the final demolition of the last standing portion of the templeone lone corner of the façade. Soon afterwards, all evidence of the temple disappeared, except for a hand pump over a well that supplied water to the baptismal font. Three of the original sunstones are known to have survived and are on displayone is on loan to LDS Church's Visitor Center in Nauvoo, one is in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C, and the third and only one that has not been restored is displayed, along with the only moonstone on display, at the Joseph Smith Historic Center of the Community of Christ.

Reconstructed LDS Nauvoo Illinois Temple, dedicated 2002Daytime east facing viewNighttime southwest facing view

## Nauvoo Illinois Temple

From 1937 to 1962, the LDS Church reacquired and restored the lot on which the temple stood. The church bought the portion that initially housed the temple in an uncontested public auction on February 19, 1937, for $900, after previously being listed and protected by the bank at auction several times because prices were lower than expected. Wilford C. Wood then bought the majority of the remainder of the temple square in 1940, 1941, and 1951 and transferred it to Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. The Corporation bought the remainder of the property with purchases in 1959, 1961 and 1962.

In 1999, church president Gordon B. Hinckley announced the rebuilding of the temple on its original footprint. After two years of construction, on June 27, 2002, the church dedicated the Nauvoo Illinois Temple, whose exterior is a replica of the first temple, but whose interior is laid out like a modern LDS temple.

## Architecture

At its base the Nauvoo Temple was 128 feet (39 m) long and 88 feet (27 m) wide with a tower and weather vane reaching to 164 feet (50 m). The second temple of the Latter Day Saint movement was built 60 percent larger in dimensions than its predecessor, the Kirtland Temple. Like Kirtland, the temple contained two assembly halls, one on the first floor and one on the second, called the lower and upper courts. Both had classrooms and offices in the attic. Unlike Kirtland, it had a full basement which housed a baptismal font.

### Exterior

The limestone used for the original temple was quarried from a site just west of the temple. Much of that quarry, however, was submerged by rising water behind the Keokuk Dam in 1912. Therefore, Russellville, Alabama, subsidiary of Minnesota's Vetter Stone Company, was chosen by the Church to provide stone for the new temple. Church officials say the quarry was selected because it provided stone that is a close match to the limestone originally used.

### Basement

The basement of the Nauvoo Temple was used as the baptistry, containing a large baptismal font in the center of the main room.

The basement was accessed by spiral staircases at the northwest and southwest corners of the temple. The staircase landing was made of wood and opened to a short hallway heading east, leading to the basement proper. Between the two hallways was an unfinished room sealed off from the rest of the temple, containing an old well that had been dug but never used. The room was discovered by an anti-Mormon mob who broke through the floor of the vestibule above.

The basement proper was one hundred feet long and forty feet wide with six rooms of varying sizes on either side. The sides of the rooms were stone and abutted the massive stone piers that supported the floors above. With the exception of the two rooms at the western end of the basement, reportedly used for clerical purposes, each side room rose two steps in height from the basement floor. The rooms were dressing rooms for those using the font. The floor was made of red brick laid in a herringbone pattern. The walls were painted white. The floor sloped down to the center of the room to allow water to run toward a drain beneath the font.

During an archaeological investigation of the temple site, two highly polished limestone blocks were discovered. Approximately twelve feet east of the entrance to the baptistry and ten feet from either the side of the support piers rested the blocks, roughly fourteen inches square, which projected seven inches (178 mm) above the brick floor. These objects are not mentioned in any account of the basement, and their purpose is unknown. They may have held some type of support columns, dividing the font from the entrance to the basement, or they may simply have been a decorative element beneath a vase or something similar. They may have been part of a feature planned, but not used, in the final construction.

#### The baptismal font

Every visitor who wrote about the temple mentioned the baptismal font. It was clearly the most impressive feature of the temple. There were actually two fonts built during the lifetime of the temple, a temporary wooden one, and a permanent limestone one.

The first font was built out of tongue and grooved white pine and painted white. It was sixteen feet long, twelve feet wide and four feet deep. The lip of the font was seven feet from the floor. The font's cap and base were carved molding in an "antique style" and the sides were finished with panel work. Two railed stairways led to the font from the north and south sides.

The font was held up by twelve oxen as are almost all temple fonts. They were carved from pine planking that was glued together. They were patterned from the most beautiful five-year-old steer that could be found in the region. The head, shoulders and legs protruded beyond the base of the font, and they appeared to have sunk to their knees into the pavement. The most perfect horn that could be found was used to model the animals' horns.

A decision was made to replace the wooden font in 1845, apparently because the water caused a mildew odor, and possibly because the wood had begun to rot. The new limestone font followed the pattern of the wooden one. Twelve oxen held up the basin, four on each side and two at each end. The oxen were solid stone and similarly were placed and appeared sunken into the floor. Where the oxen met the basin, the stone was carved to suggest drapery. The ears of the oxen were made of tin. The stairs were moved to an east/west orientation making access to the font easier.

A well on the east side of the font provided the water supply. There may have been some kind of tank at the eastern end of the baptistry to store and heat water.

### The vestibule

A flight of eight broad steps led to a landing where two more steps entered three archways. These archways led to the vestibule, the formal entrance to the temple. The archways were approximately nine feet wide and twenty-one feet high.

The vestibule itself was forty-three feet by seventeen feet in dimension. It was composed of limestone on all four of its walls. The floor has been speculated to be made of wood, because when the mob occupied the temple briefly in late 1847, they broke through the floor to reach a sealed off room in the basement. Had the floor been limestone, it seems unlikely that they would have dug it up.

Two large double doors on the east wall opened to the first floor assembly hall of the lower court, known as the "Great Hall". Two doors, one on the North wall, and another on the South opened to the landing of two spiral staircases, one in the Northwest corner, and the other in the Southwest corner which led all the way to the attic. These were the only access points to the rest of the building.

One report stated that on the east wall of the vestibule was an entablature, similar to the one in the facade, which read in bright gilded letters, "THE HOUSE OF THE LORD - Built by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints - Commenced April 6th, 1841 - HOLINESS TO THE LORD."

### The stairwells

The two stairwells were constructed of dressed limestone walls. One rose from Northwest corner and the other at the Southwest corner of the temple. They were not true circles but were flatted on four sides. Nor were they symmetrical, being sixteen feet in diameter from East to West and seventeen feet in diameter from North to South. This was done to support landings and other support structures.

The staircases, made of wood, provided access to all of the temple from the basement to the attic with a landing at each floor. They had lamps for illumination at night, and had windows for daytime illumination. William Weeks' elevation of the front facade does not show windows at the basement level of the two stairwells, and photographic evidence is inconclusive. However, Joseph Smith's youngest son, David Smith, rendered a painting of the temple's damaged facade, clearly shows half-circular windows at the basement level in the north and south corners of the facade.

The staircase in the northwest corner was never completed. It was roughed in with temporary boards resting on the risers. Workmen used this staircase to gain access to the building during its construction, especially during the winter of 1845-1846 when persons were using the other staircase to reach the attic for ordinance work. The southwest staircase was completely finished for use. It included lamps for night illumination, and may have been carpeted near the attic landing.

### The Great Hall

Entrance to the first floor assembly hall, called the "Great Hall", was through two large double doors at the east end of the vestibule. The Great Hall occupied the remainder of the floor space East of the vestibule. The room was flanked on either side by seven large, arched windows, with four similar windows along the east wall. An arched ceiling spanned some fifty feet in breadth, in the center. the floor was stained wood and the walls were painted white.

There were two rooms to the north just past the entrance. It has been suggested that these rooms were used initially by William Weeks, because they are referred by Thomas Bullock as the "architect's room." Their eventual intended use is not clear.

#### Pulpits

At the east and west ends of the hall were two sets of similar pulpits. Resembling the pulpits used in the Kirtland Temple, and repeated in later temples, they were arranged with four levels, the top three consisting of a group of three semi-circular stands. The lowest level was a drop-table which was raised for use in the sacrament.

The pulpits to the east, standing between the windows, were reserved for the Melchizedek Priesthood. Accordingly, each pulpit had initials identifying the priesthood office of the occupant. The top most pulpits read *P.H.P.*, which stood for President of the High Priesthood. The next level down had *P.S.Q* for President of the Seventy Quorums. Below that, the labels were *P.H.Q.* which stood for President of the High priests Quorum, and the folding table had the inscription *P.E.Q.* standing for President of the Elders Quorum.

Above the Eastern pulpits, written in gilded letters, along the arch of the ceiling, were the words,"The Lord Has Seen Our Sacrifice - Come After Us."

The pulpits to the West end were reserved for the Aaronic Priesthood. Each pulpit similarly had initials identifying the priesthood officers who occupied that stand. The highest three pulpits bore the initials *P.A.P.*, which stood for President of the Aaronic Priesthood. The next lower pulpits had *P.P.Q.*, for President of the Priests Quorum. Again, the next had *P.T.Q.*, for President of the Teachers Quorum and on the table at the bottom was written *P.D.Q.*, for President of the Deacons Quorum.

#### Pews

Similar to the Kirtland Temple, the hall was fitted with enclosed pews with two aisles running down its length. There were also pews for a band and choir. The room could accommodate up to 3,500 people. Because there were pulpits on both ends of the room, the pews had movable backs which could be swung to face either direction, depending on who was presiding - the Melchizedek Priesthood or the Aaronic Priesthood.

### First floor mezzanine

Access to the first floor mezzanine was directly from landings of the two staircases in the west end of the building. A foyer, corresponding in size to the vestibule below, connected the two stairway landings.

Evidence suggests that this mezzanine had fourteen small rooms, seven along each side of the North and South wall. Each room had a small circular window supplying light. These rooms may never have been completed, except perhaps some kind of partition dividing them.

### Second floor assembly hall

The second floor hall was similar in construction to the Great Hall, except that it included the foyer area where the vestibule would be. This made the room about seventeen feet longer. A 41-foot-long (12 m) stone arch ran north and south between the circular stairwells supporting the massive timbers for the tower above. It had seven large windows along the north and south wide, with four windows along the east wall.

The floor would have a similar configuration as the Great Hall with a set of double pulpits and pews, but the room was never completed. Doors were never hung, the plastering was unfinished, and the floorboards were only rough timber, not the tongue and grove finished hardwoods of the other floors. The room, when used for an occasional meeting, was furnished with wooden benches.

### Second floor mezzanine rooms

The second mezzanine was similar to the first floor mezzanine. It was accessed via the two staircases at the West end of the building. There was no foyer connecting the two stairwells.

The second floor mezzanine is also presumed to have been divided into fourteen small rooms, seven rooms along each side of the North and South walls of the building, between the arched ceiling of the second floor. Circular windows in the entablature of the building allowed for illumination. Just as with the second floor assembly room, there is no evidence that these rooms were ever completed, except perhaps for the partitions dividing each room. There was a staircase in the second room from the Southeast corner leading to a room above, providing another access method to the attic.

### Attic

At the top of the two stairways, opening to a foyer, was the attic floor. The attic was not built of limestone but of wood. It was composed of two sections. The West end of the temple was a flat roofed section that supported the tower. The rest of the attic was a pitched-roof section running the length of the temple.

The flat-room section was further divided into two sections, the foyer on the west side, and a suite of rooms to the east. When the attic was used for ordinance work, they were used as a pantry, wardrobe and storage rooms. The area was illuminated by six windows along the foyer's west wall. Outside windows also provided light along the north and south sides. The roof had four octagonal skylight windows to provide light to the interior rooms, in addition to a twenty-foot arched window.

The incline of the roof prevented a six-foot-tall man from standing erect along the outside wall. The second room from the south-east corner had a stairway leading to a room in the mezzanine below.

### Tower rooms

Rising from the plateau of the attic is an octagonal tower. The tower was divided into three sections, each accessible by a series of stairways leading from the attic to an observation deck at the top. The lowest section was the belfry. The bell was rung for various occasions. Between the observation deck and the belfry was a section containing the four clockwork mechanisms.

## InfoBox

| Nauvoo Temple | |
| --- | --- |
| Destroyed | |
| Photograph of the Nauvoo Temple circa 1847 | |
|  | |
| Dedication | May 1, 1846, by Orson Hyde |
| Floor area | 54,000 sq ft (5,000 m<sup>2</sup>) |
| News & images | |
| Church chronology | |
| <br>Kirtland Temple <br>**Nauvoo Temple** | |
| Additional information | |
| Announced | August 1840 |
| Groundbreaking | February 18, 1841 |
| Designed by | William Weeks |
| Location | Nauvoo, Illinois, United States |
| Geographic coordinates | 40°33′02″N 91°23′04″W / 40.5505°N 91.3844°W / 40.5505; -91.3844 |
| Temple design | Greek revival |
| Visitors' center | Yes |
| Notes | Some sources claim a private dedication on April 30, 1846 by Brigham Young. Abandoned in 1846, destroyed by fire on November 19, 1848, rebuilt in 2002 (see 113) |
| () | |


title: Ichwani Hasanuddin

abstract: Ichwani Hasanuddin is an Indonesian former footballer.

text:
# Ichwani Hasanuddin

**Ichwani Hasanuddin** (born June 6, 1986) is an Indonesian former footballer.

## Club statistics

| Club | Season | Super League | | Premier Division | | Piala Indonesia | | Total | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |
| PSAP Sigli | 2011-12 | 33 | 0 | - | | - | | 33 | 0 |
| Total | | 33 | 0 | - | | - | | 33 | 0 |

## InfoBox

Ichwani Hasan
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | Ichwani Hasanuddin | | |
| Date of birth | (1986-06-06) 6 June 1986 | | |
| Place of birth | Indonesia | | |
| Height | 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Midfielder | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2008–2015 | PSAP Sigli | 117 | (17) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 11 July 2012 | | | |