title: Premetro (Buenos Aires)

abstract: The Premetro is a 7.4-kilometer long (4.6 mi) light rail line that runs along the outskirts of Buenos Aires, connecting with the Buenos Aires Underground line E, at Plaza de los Virreyes station and then to General Savio, with a short branch to Centro Cívico. It opened in 1987 and is operated by Metrovías. Originally, the Premetro was to include many more lines, but shortly after the privatisation of the railways the projects were postponed and never materialised and only "Premetro E2" was built.

text:
# Premetro (Buenos Aires)

The **Premetro** is a 7.4-kilometer long (4.6 mi) light rail line that runs along the outskirts of Buenos Aires, connecting with the Buenos Aires Underground line E, at Plaza de los Virreyes station and then to General Savio, with a short branch to Centro Cívico. It opened in 1987 and is operated by Metrovías. Originally, the Premetro was to include many more lines, but shortly after the privatisation of the railways the projects were postponed and never materialised and only "Premetro E2" was built.

## History

### Line E2

The line opened in stages. The first section was opened for service on 28 April 1987. This was the 2 km section between the Plaza de los Virreyes metro station and Ana Maria Janer, near the line's carhouse. The service was extended to Villa Soldati in June and to General Savio on 25 August. A formal inauguration ceremony was held two days later.

The cost of constructing the line was US$5.4 million, and an additional $4.6 million was allocated to the acquisition of a fleet of 25 trams. A contract for the latter was awarded around the end of 1985 to a consortium led by the Argentine company Materfer (*Fábrica de Material Ferroviario*), of Córdoba, some of which were for a planned second line that was to be built later.

Delivery of the Materfer cars was originally due to begin in mid-1987, but it soon became apparent that they would not be ready until mid-1988 or later, which was well after construction of the line was completed. In order to avoid a long delay in the opening of the line, officials decided to create a temporary fleet by converting some 1913 metro cars into trams. They were double-truck (four-axle), non-articulated, double-ended (bidirectional) trams. A total of eight such cars were built, using new metal bodies manufactured in Buenos Aires by EMEPA S.A., mounted on the original 1913 Belgian-built La Brugeoise underframes. They were painted in a livery of all-over green. The first three of these inaugurated service on the first section of line E2 in April 1987.

The Materfer trams began to arrive in mid-1988, with six delivered by the end of the year. Their electrical equipment was supplied by Siemens. Like the temporary cars rebuilt from metro cars, the Materfer/Siemens trams are double-truck, double-ended cars. They have seating for 24 passengers and room for around 115 standees. They have three doors on each side. The low-platform stops along the line are long enough to accommodate only one car at a time, and multiple-unit operation is not planned, so the tramcars are not equipped with couplers.

The first Materfer cars entered service on 14 October 1988. In 1989, both types of car were still in service, but eventually the Materfer cars replaced all of the rebodied metro cars. By April 1991, 20 of the 25 cars had been delivered (fleet numbers PM 1–20), and the last five were reported as being completed but still at the factory in Córdoba. However, the scheduled service needed only six cars. As of 2001, normal peak service still required only six to eight cars.Metrovías became the line's operator on 1 July 1993, under a franchise agreement.

### Other planned lines

The original PreMetro plan developed in the late 1980s included the building of two or three more additional lines, however due to the timing of these projects having coincided with railway privatisation in Argentina, only PreMetro E2 materialised before the Buenos Aires Underground network was privatised and investment ground to a halt for the following two decades. Much like PreMetro E2, the naming of the PreMetro lines would have shared the letter of their corresponding Underground line along with a number depending on how many PreMetro lines corresponded to that Underground line.

With Line E of the Underground, PreMetro E2 was the first phase of the project with the construction of PreMetro E1 being the second phase. This line would have extended out from the end of Line E eastwards to the limits of the city proper with Greater Buenos Aires. However, this never materialised following privatisation and the building of the Metrobus Sur in 2013 rendered the building of the line obsolete since it covered the same area and route, with the added benefit of going directly to the city centre without needing to transfer to Line E.

While the Metrobus Sur was still in the planning stages, it had been proposed in 2012 to create a Premetro H1 line extending from the terminus of Underground Line H to the edge of the city proper, connecting with Premetro E2 at its General Savio terminus, giving the benefit over the originally planned E1 line in that it would create a loop between Underground lines E and H. In the end though, the Metrobus was established instead of Premetro H.

Plans for other lines included PreMetro D1 in the 1980s, which would have departed from the final station of Line D to the limits of the city proper. In 2015, this became a reality with the opening of Metrobus Cabildo rather than a tram service.

There would also have been a PreMetro C1 which would have connected with Line C and the Roca Line at Constitución railway station and headed northwards to Retiro railway station (parallel to Line C, but further east) and eastwards to Puerto Madero. The current extension of Line E northwards to Retiro replaced this, but not the Puerto Madero section, which was briefly covered by the experimental Tranvia del Este.

### Recent developments

In 2015 SBASE, along with the City of Buenos Aires, began making plans to refurbish and rebuild many of the Line E2 stations, including a brand new terminal at Plaza de los Virreyes, as part of a plan to modernise the network which also intends to increase the amount of rolling stock in circulation. In October 2015 the refurbishment of the Intendente Saguier terminal was completed, followed by the refurbishment of Fátima station in April 2016.

## Description and service

Line E2 passes through many poorer areas, but travel on the line is generally safe. As of 2001, service was being provided from 7:00 to 22:00, matching the hours of the line E underground service, on a headway varying between 5 and 10 minutes depending on the time of day. Most of the line is double-track, but the short branch to Centro Cívico is single-track. The line includes sections of private right-of-way, sections of reserved track (in the median of streets, but separated from other traffic) and street-running in mixed traffic. The carhouse (maintenance facility) for the line is located along Avenida Mariano Acosta, adjacent to the Somellera stop.

## InfoBox

| <br>Premetro | |
| --- | --- |
| Materfer tram at General Savio station. | |
| Overview | |
| Termini | * Intendente Saguier * General Savio and Centro Cívico |
| Stations | 17 |
| Service | |
| Type | Light rail |
| Operator(s) | Metrovías |
| Daily ridership | 2,300 |
| History | |
| Opened | 28 April 1987 |
| Technical | |
| Line length | 7.4 km (4.6 mi) |
| Character | Surface level |
| Track gauge | 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+12 in) standard gauge |
| Electrification | Catenary, 750  DC |
| Route diagram | |


title: Wangchuck dynasty

abstract: The Wangchuck dynasty have held the hereditary position of Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan since 1907. Prior to reunification, the Wangchuck family had governed the district of Trongsa as descendants of Dungkar Choji. They eventually overpowered other regional lords and earned the favour of the British Empire. After consolidating power, the 12th Penlop of Trongsa Gongsar Ugyen Wangchuck was elected Druk Gyalpo, thus founding the dynasty. The position of Druk Gyalpo – who heads the royal family of Bhutan – is more commonly known in English as the King of Bhutan, however "Druk Gyalpo" would be translated literally as "Dragon King" The Wangchuck dynasty ruled government power in Bhutan and established relations with the British Empire and India under its first two monarchs. The third, fourth, and fifth (current) monarchs have put the kingdom on its path toward democratization, decentralization, and development.

text:
# Wangchuck dynasty

The **Wangchuck dynasty** (Tibetan: དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་བརྒྱུད་, Wylie: *Dbang-phyug Rgyal-brgyud*) have held the hereditary position of Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King") of Bhutan since 1907. Prior to reunification, the Wangchuck family had governed the district of Trongsa as descendants of Dungkar Choji. They eventually overpowered other regional lords and earned the favour of the British Empire. After consolidating power, the 12th Penlop of Trongsa *Gongsar* Ugyen Wangchuck was elected Druk Gyalpo, thus founding the dynasty. The position of Druk Gyalpo – who heads the royal family of Bhutan – is more commonly known in English as the King of Bhutan, however "Druk Gyalpo" would be translated literally as "Dragon King" (or less commonly, "King of the Dragons", or "Thunder Dragon King")

The Wangchuck dynasty ruled government power in Bhutan and established relations with the British Empire and India under its first two monarchs. The third, fourth, and fifth (current) monarchs have put the kingdom on its path toward democratization, decentralization, and development.

## History

There have been five Wangchuck kings of Bhutan, namely:

1. Ugyen Wangchuck (*b.*1861–*d.*1926) "First King"; reigned 17 December 1907 – 21 August 1926.
2. Jigme Wangchuck (*b.*1905–*d.*1952) "Second King"; *r.* 21 August 1926 – 24 March 1952.
3. Jigme Dorji Wangchuck (*b.*1929–*d.*1972) "Third King"; *r.* 24 March 1952 – 24 July 1972.
4. Jigme Singye Wangchuck (*b.*1955) "Fourth King"; *r.* 24 July 1972 – 9 December 2006.
5. Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (*b.*1980) "Fifth King"; *r.* 9 December 2006 – present.

The ascendency of the Wangchuck family is deeply rooted in the historical politics of Bhutan. Between 1616 and 1907, varying administrative, religious, and regional powers vied for control within Bhutan. During this period, factions were influenced and supported by Tibet and the British Empire. Ultimately, the hereditary Penlop of Trongsa, Ugyen Wangchuck, was elected the first Druk Gyalpo by an assembly of his subjects in 1907, marking the ascendency of his dynasty.

### Origins

Under Bhutan's early theocratic Tibetan dual system of government, decreasingly effective central government control resulted in the *de facto* disintegration of the office of *Shabdrung* after the death of *Shabdrung* Ngawang Namgyal in 1651. Under the dual system of the government, Desi or the temporal rulers took control of civil administration and Je Khenpos took control of religious affairs. Two successor *Shabdrungs* – the son (1651) and stepbrother (1680) of Ngawang Namgyal – were effectively controlled by the Druk Desi and Je Khenpo until power was further splintered through the innovation of multiple *Shabdrung* incarnations, reflecting speech, mind, and body. Increasingly secular regional lords (penlops and dzongpons) competed for power amid a backdrop of civil war over the *Shabdrung* and invasions from Tibet, and the Mongol Empire. The penlops of Trongsa and Paro, and the dzongpons of Punakha, Thimphu, and Wangdue Phodrang were particularly notable figures in the competition for regional dominance.

Chogyal Minjur Tenpa (1613–1680; *r.* 1667–1680) was the first Penlop of Trongsa (*Tongsab*), appointed by *Shabdrung* Ngawang Namgyal. He was born Damchho Lhundrub in Min-Chhud, Tibet, and led a monastic life from childhood. Before his appointment as *Tongsab*, he held the appointed post of *Umzey* (Chant Master). A trusted follower of the *Shabdrung*, Minjur Tenpa was sent to subdue kings of Bumthang, Lhuntse, Trashigang, Zhemgang, and other lords from Trongsa Dzong. After doing so, the Tongsab divided his control in the east among eight regions (Shachho Khorlo Tsegay), overseen by Dungpas and Kutshabs (civil servants). He went on to build Jakar, Lhuntse, Trashigang, and Zhemgang Dzongs.

Within this political landscape, the Wangchuck family originated in the Bumthang region of central Bhutan. The family belongs to the Nyö clan, and is descended from Pema Lingpa, a Bhutanese Nyingmapa saint. The Nyö clan emerged as a local aristocracy, supplanting many older aristocratic families of Tibetan origin that sided with Tibet during invasions of Bhutan. In doing so, the clan came to occupy the hereditary position of Penlop of Trongsa, as well as significant national and local government positions.

The Penlop of Trongsa managed central Bhutan; the rival Penlop of Paro controlled western Bhutan; and dzongpons controlled areas surrounding their respective dzongs. The Penlop of Paro, unlike Trongsa, was an office appointed by the Druk Desi's central government. Because western regions controlled by the Penlop of Paro contained lucrative trade routes, it became the object of competition among aristocratic families.

Although Bhutan generally enjoyed favorable relations with both Tibet and British India through the 19th century, extension of British power at Bhutan's borders as well as Tibetan incursions in British Sikkim defined politically opposed pro-Tibet and pro-Britain forces. This period of intense rivalry between and within western and central Bhutan, coupled with external forces from Tibet and especially the British Empire, provided the conditions for the ascendancy of the Penlop of Trongsa.

After the Duar War with Britain (1864–65) as well as substantial territorial losses (Cooch Behar 1835; Assam Duars 1841), armed conflict turned inward. In 1870, amid the continuing civil wars, the 10th Penlop of Trongsa, Jigme Namgyal ascended to the office of 48th Druk Desi. In 1879, he appointed his 17-year-old son Ugyen Wangchuck as the 23rd Penlop of Paro. Jigme Namgyal reigned through his death 1881, punctuated by periods of retirement during which he retained effective control of the country.

The pro-Britain Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck ultimately prevailed against the pro-Tibet and anti-Britain Penlop of Paro after a series of civil wars and rebellions between 1882 and 1885. After his father's death in 1881, Ugyen Wangchuck entered a feud over the post of Penlop of Trongsa. In 1882, at the age of 20, he marched on Bumthang and Trongsa, winning the post of Penlop of Trongsa in addition to Paro. In 1885, Ugyen Wangchuck intervened in a conflict between the Dzongpens of Punakha and Thimphu, sacking both sides and seizing Simtokha Dzong. From this time forward, the office of Desi became purely ceremonial.

### Nationhood under the Wangchucks

The 12th Trongsa Penlop, Ugyen Wangchuck, firmly in power and advised by *Kazi* Ugyen Dorji, accompanied the British expedition to Tibet as an invaluable intermediary, earning his first British knighthood. Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck further garnered knighthood in the KCIE in 1905. Meanwhile, the last officially recognized Shabdrung and Druk Desi had died in 1903 and 1904, respectively. As a result, a power vacuum formed within the already dysfunctional dual system of government. Civil administration had fallen to the hands of Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck, and in November 1907 he was unanimously elected hereditary monarch by an assembly of the leading members of the clergy, officials, and aristocratic families. His ascendency to the throne ended the traditional dual system of government in place for nearly 300 years. The title Penlop of Trongsa – or Penlop of Chötse, another name for Trongsa – continued to be held by crown princes.

As King of Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck secured the Treaty of Punakha (1910), under which Britain guaranteed Bhutan's independence, granted Bhutanese Royal Government a stipend, and took control of Bhutanese foreign relations. After his coronation, Uygen further merited the British Delhi Durbar Gold Medal in 1911; the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI) in 1911; and the Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) in 1921. King Ugyen Wangchuck died in 1926.

The reign of the Second King Jigme Wangchuck (1926–1952) was characterized by an increasingly powerful central government and the beginnings of infrastructure development. Bhutan also established its first diplomatic relations with India under the bilateral Treaty of Friendship, largely patterned after the prior Treaty of Punakha.

The Third King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck (*r.* 1952–1972) ascended the throne at the age of 23, having been educated in England and India. During the reign of the Third King, Bhutan began further political and legal reforms and started to open to the outside world. Notably, the Third King was responsible for establishing a unicameral National Assembly in 1953 and establishing relations with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1958. Under Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, Bhutan also modernized its legal codes.

### Democratization under the Wangchucks

The Third King died in 1972, and the Raven Crown passed to the 16-year-old Jigme Singye Wangchuck. The Fourth King was, like his father, educated in England and India, and had also attended Ugyen Wangchuck Academy at Satsham Choten in Paro. Reigning until 2006, the Fourth King was responsible for the development of the tourism industry, Gross National Happiness as a concept, and strides in democratization including the draft Constitution of Bhutan. The later years of his reign, however, also marked the departure of Bhutanese refugees in the 1990s amid the government's driglam namzha policy (official behaviour and dress code) and citizenship laws that were overzealously enforced by some district officials. To the surprise of the Bhutanese public, the Fourth King announced his abdication in 2005 and retired in 2006, handing the crown to his son Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck.

Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck assumed the throne as the Fifth King in 2008 as the kingdom adopted its first democratic Constitution.

## Genealogy

Below is an extended patrilineal genealogy through the present monarch.

| Name | | | Birth | Death | Reign
start | Reign
end |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Romanization | Wylie transliteration | Dzongkha | | | | |
| Nyoton Dechog Thrulzhig Choeji | gnyos-ston bde-mchog 'krhul-gzhig chos-rje | གཉོས་སཏོན་བདེ་མཆོག་འཁྲུལ་གཞིག་ཆོས་རྗེ། | 1179 | 1265 |  |  |
| Zhigpo Tashi Sengye | Zhig-po bKra-shis Seng-ge | ཞིག་པོ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་སེང་གེ་ | 1237 | 1322 |  |  |
| Bajra Duepa | Bajra 'Dus-pa | བཇ་ར་འདུས་པ་ | 1262 | 1296 |  |  |
| Depa Paljor | bDe-pa'i dPal-'byor | བདེ་པའི་དཔལ་འབྱོར་ | 1291 | 1359 |  |  |
| Palden Sengye | dPal-den Seng-ge | དཔལ་དེན་སེང་གེ་ | 1332 | 1384 |  |  |
| Tenpa Nyima | bsTan-pa'i Nyi-ma | བསྟན་པའི་ཉི་མ་ | 1382 |  |  |  |
| Dongrub Zangpo | Don-grub bZang-po | དོན་གྲུབ་བཟང་པ་ |  |  |  |  |
| **Pema Lingpa** | Padma Gling-pa | པདྨ་གླིང་པ་ | 1450 | 1521 |  |  |
| Khochun Chorji | mKho-chun Chos-rje | མཁོ་ཆུན་ཆོས་རྗེ་ | 1505 |  |  |  |
| Ngawang | Ngag-dbang | ངག་དབང་ | 1539 |  |  |  |
| Gyalba | rGyal-ba | རྒྱལ་བ་ | 1562 |  |  |  |
| **Dungkar Choji** | Dun-dkar Chos-rje | དུན་དྐར་ཆོས་རྗེ་ | 1578 |  |  |  |
| Tenpa Gyalchen | bsTan-pa'i rGyal-mchan | བསྟན་པའི་རྒྱལ་མཆན་ | 1598 | 1694 |  |  |
| Tenpa Nyima | bsTan-pa'i Nyi-ma | བསྟན་པའི་ཉི་མ་ | 1623 | 1689 |  |  |
| Dadrag | Zla-grags | ཟླ་གྲགས | 1641 |  |  |  |
| Tubzhong | gTub-zhong | གཏུབ་ཞོང་ | 1674 |  |  |  |
| Pema Rije | Padma Rig-rgyas (Pemarigyas) | པདྨ་རིག་རྒྱས་ | 1706 | 1763 |  |  |
| Rabje | Rab-rgyas (Rabgyas) | རབ་རྒྱས་ | 1733 |  |  |  |
| Pema | Padma | པདྨ་ |  |  |  |  |
| *Dasho* Pila Gonpo Wangyal | Pi-la mGon-po rNam-rgyal | པི་ལ་མགན་པོ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་ | 1782 |  |  |  |
| *Dasho* Jigme Namgyal | rJigs-med rNam-rgyal | འཇིགས་མེད་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་ | 1825 | 1881 |  |  |
| King Ugyen Wangchuck | O-rgyan dBang-phyug | ཨོ་རྒྱན་དབང་ཕྱུག་ | 1862 | 1926 | *1907* | *1926* |
| King Jigme Wangchuck | 'Jigs-med dBang-phyug | འཇིགས་མེད་དབང་ཕྱུག་ | 1905 | 1952 | *1926* | *1952* |
| King Jigme DorjiWangchuck | 'Jigs-med rDo-rje dBang-phyug | འཇིགས་མེད་རྡོ་རྗེ་དབང་ཕྱུག་ | 1928 | 1972 | *1952* | *1972* |
| King Jigme Singye Wangchuck | 'Jigs-med Seng-ge dBang-phyug | འཇིགས་མེད་སེང་གེ་དབང་ཕྱུག་ | 1955 |  | *1972* | *2006* |
| King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck | 'Jigs-med Khe-sar rNam-rGyal dBang-phyug | འཇིགས་མེད་གེ་སར་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་དབང་ཕྱུག་ | 1980 |  | *2006* |  |
|

1. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Worden, Robert L. (September 1991). Savada, Andrea Matles (ed.). *Bhutan: A Country Study*. Federal Research Division. Administrative Integration and Conflict with Tibet, 1651–1728.
2. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Worden, Robert L. (September 1991). Savada, Andrea Matles (ed.). *Bhutan: A Country Study*. Federal Research Division. Civil Conflict, 1728–72.
3. Dorji, Chen-Kyo Tshering (1994). "Appendix III". *History of Bhutan based on Buddhism*. Sangay Xam, Prominent Publishers. p. 200. ISBN 81-86239-01-4. Retrieved 2011-08-12.
4. Crossette, Barbara (2011). *So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas*. Vintage Departures. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-80190-6. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
5. (Gter-ston), Padma-gliṅ-pa; Harding, Sarah (2003). Harding, Sarah (ed.). *The life and revelations of Pema Lingpa*. Snow Lion Publications. p. 24. ISBN 1-55939-194-4. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
6. Europa Publications (2002). *Far East and Australasia*. Regional surveys of the world: Far East & Australasia (34 ed.). Psychology Press. pp. 180–81. ISBN 1-85743-133-2. Retrieved 2011-08-08.
7. Brown, Lindsay; Mayhew, Bradley; Armington, Stan; Whitecross, Richard W. (2007). *Bhutan*. Lonely Planet Country Guides (3 ed.). Lonely Planet. pp. 38–43. ISBN 978-1-74059-529-2. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
8. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Worden, Robert L. (September 1991). Savada, Andrea Matles (ed.). *Bhutan: A Country Study*. Federal Research Division. British Intrusion, 1772–1907.
9. Rennie, Frank; Mason, Robin (2008). *Bhutan: Ways of Knowing*. IAP. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-59311-734-4. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
10. Global Investment and Business Center, Inc. (2000). *Bhutan Foreign Policy and Government Guide*. World Foreign Policy and Government Library. Vol. 20. Int'l Business Publications. pp. 59–61. ISBN 0-7397-3719-8. Retrieved 2011-08-09. `{{cite book}}`: `|author=` has generic name (help)
11. United Nations. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2004). *Perspectives from the ESCAP region after the Fifth WTO Ministerial Meeting*. ESCAP Studies in Trade and Investment. Vol. 53. United Nations Publications. p. 66. ISBN 92-1-120404-6.

## InfoBox

| House of Wangchuck | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Country | Bhutan |
| Founded | 17 December 1907 |
| Founder | Ugyen Wangchuck |
| Current head | Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck |
| Titles |  |


title: Violetta Plincke

abstract: Violetta Elsa Plincke was a Waldorf teacher and lecturer on education who contributed much to the establishment of Steiner education in Britain.

text:
# Violetta Plincke

**Violetta Elsa Plincke** (17 June 1883 in St Petersburg Russia – 7 January 1968 London UK) was a Waldorf teacher and lecturer on education who contributed much to the establishment of Steiner education in Britain.

## Early life

Violetta Plincke was born the daughter of an English architect at the imperial court of the Tzar and a German mother in St Petersburg. Fluent in the three languages Russian, German and English, she initially studied History of Art and History at the University of St Petersburg. In 1912, she commenced her studies in Philosophy at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau. From a fellow student, Lutz Kricheldorff, who was the first actor to perform Ahriman in Rudolf Steiner’s Mystery Plays, she was introduced to the literature of Anthroposophy, about which she had previously heard in Russia and Finland. In 1913, Kricheldorff took her with him to the performances of the Mystery Plays in Munich and a short time later, the two were married. The marriage lasted but a few years, and she continued her studies in Berlin, where she was present at Rudolf Steiner’s public lectures in the “Architektenhaus” (GA 52 – 67) and left deeply impressed by the rhetorical skills of the lecturer, which inspired her for her later work as a lecturer in Britain.

## Career

During WW I she earned her living working in a children’s hospital. When Rudolf Meyer got her a job at the „Institut für Seeverkehr und Weltwirtschaft“ she moved to Kiel The first Anthroposophical Group in Kiel developed out of this initial circle of friends. Inspired by the “Hochschulkurse” (GA 322) in Dornach in 1920, Violetta asked Rudolf Steiner how she could best become engaged on behalf of Anthroposophy. He asked her to become Class 1 teacher for the new Waldorf School in Stuttgart. In 1923 she took on the task of introducing Steiner education into the new school of Margaret Cross in Kings Langley, England.

She remained in England, taking up an independent activity as travelling lecturer and counselor in Steiner education, which made her, as Cecil Harwood acknowledged in his obituary of her “one of the best known and loved members in Britain” Perhaps her primary engagement was with the Workers Educational Association (WEA), a worker’s educational community in the industrial centres of Britain, under whose auspices she could communicate culture and anthroposophy in her personal warm-hearted manner.

A motor accident brought her work to an end in March 1966 and she died at Epiphany in 1968.

## Further reading

* *Der Lehrerkreis um Rudolf Steiner in der ersten Waldorfschule 1919-1925* by Johannes Tautz, Stuttgart 1977
* *Rudolf Steiner in Britain: A Documentation of His Ten Visits* Crispian Villeneuve - October 2009 Rudolf Steiner Press ISBN 978-1906999032


title: Lophomilia

abstract: Lophomilia is a genus of moths of the family Erebidae. The genus was described by Warren in 1913.

text:
# Lophomilia

***Lophomilia*** is a genus of moths of the family Erebidae. The genus was described by Warren in 1913.

## Species

* Berio (1977). *Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria* 81: 237, fig. 26.
* Butler (1879). *Illustration typical specimens of Lepidoptera Heterocera in the collection of the British Museum* 3: 66. pl.57:7.
* Kononenko, V. & Behounek, G. (2009). "A revision of the genus *Lophomilia* Warren, 1913 with description of four new species from East Asia (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Hypeninae)." *Zootaxa* 1989: 1-22.
* Holloway (1976). *Moths of Borneo with special reference to Mount Kinabalu*: 16, pl. 6: 68.
* Sugi (1962). *Akitu* 10: 37.
* Sugi (1977). *Tyõ to Ga* 28: 39.
* Warren (1912). *Novitates Zoologicae* 19: 38.
* Yoshimoto (1993). *Moths of Nepal Tinea* 13 (supplement 3): 77, pl. 53: 19.
* Yoshimoto (1995). *Moths of Nepal Tinea* 14 (supplement 2): 74, pl. 116: 11.

## InfoBox

| *Lophomilia* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Erebidae |
| Subfamily: | Hypeninae |
| Genus: | ***Lophomilia***<br>Warren, 1913 |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Atuntsea* Berio, 1977 * *Bryograpta* Sugi, 1977 | |


title: Feistritz bei Anger

abstract: Feistritz bei Anger is a former municipality in the district of Weiz in the Austrian state of Styria. Since the 2015 Styria municipal structural reform, it is part of the municipality Anger.

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# Feistritz bei Anger

**Feistritz bei Anger** is a former municipality in the district of Weiz in the Austrian state of Styria. Since the 2015 Styria municipal structural reform, it is part of the municipality Anger.

## Geography

Feistritz lies about 35 km northeast of Graz, 10 km east of Weiz, and 10 km west of the Stubenbergsee.

## InfoBox

| Feistritz bei Anger | |
| --- | --- |
| Former municipality | |
| Kuelml Castle | |
|  | |
| Location within Weiz district | |
| Feistritz bei AngerLocation within Austria | |
| Coordinates: 47°15′00″N 15°41′00″E / 47.25000°N 15.68333°E / 47.25000; 15.68333 | |
| Country | Austria |
| State | Styria |
| District | Weiz |
| Area | |
| Total | 8.04 km2 (3.10 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 470−1,100 m (−3,140 ft) |
| Population (1 January 2016) | |
| Total | 1,069 |
| Density | 130/km2 (340/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 8184 |
| Area code | 03175 |
| Vehicle registration | WZ |
| Website | www.feistritz-anger.at |


title: The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs

abstract: The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs is a reference work on dinosaurs written by the paleontologist and paleoartist Gregory S. Paul. It was first published by Princeton University Press in 2010. In the United Kingdom it was published by A & C Black under the title Dinosaurs: A Field Guide. An updated second edition was released in 2016. A third edition was released in 2024. The book was well-received upon its release but garnered a mixed reception among paleontologists, who generally praised the large number of skeletal and life reconstructions throughout the book but questioned Paul's at times unorthodox approach to dinosaur taxonomy.

text:
# The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs

***The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs*** is a reference work on dinosaurs written by the paleontologist and paleoartist Gregory S. Paul. It was first published by Princeton University Press in 2010. In the United Kingdom it was published by A & C Black under the title ***Dinosaurs: A Field Guide***. An updated second edition was released in 2016. A third edition was released in 2024.

The book was well-received upon its release but garnered a mixed reception among paleontologists, who generally praised the large number of skeletal and life reconstructions throughout the book but questioned Paul's at times unorthodox approach to dinosaur taxonomy.

## Format

*The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs* was the first in the line of field guides published by Princeton University Press to be on an extinct (and thus not actually observable in the field) group of organisms. The book is a reference work on dinosaurs envisioned to be "in the style of a field guide". The book contains information on a wide assortment of dinosaur species and genera, accompanied with a large number life restorations and skeletal reconstructions of different species; envisioned by Paul as encompassing almost all species for which sufficient fossil material is available to allow such reconstructions.

The first edition of *The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs* included entries on over 700 dinosaur species and over 600 illustrations, out of which around 400 were skeletal reconstructions. The entry of each dinosaur species includes information on its size, age, distribution and anatomical characteristics. The second edition features entries on around 100 new species and around 200 new or updated illustrations.

The book also contains a long introductory section (65 pages in the first edition and 68 pages in the second) exploring the evolution, biology, anatomy, and behavior of dinosaurs, as well as the climate and paleogeography of the Mesozoic era.

## Reception

*The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs* garnered positive reviews upon its release. Reviews published by *Wired* and the National Audubon Society, for instance, praised the book's extensive coverage of dinosaurs and its many illustrations, though noted that it may be written in a too technical manner to appeal to children and "casual dinosaur fans".

### Scientific response

The illustrations of *The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs* were generally applauded by paleontologists. The British paleontologist Darren Naish praised the artwork, particularly that the book included depictions of several dinosaurs only rarely (and in some cases never) illustrated prior, though he also found the illustrations to be "shrink-wrapped" (reconstructed with too little soft tissue). Naish also thought that the book's value could have been improved with specimen numbers and scale bars next to the reconstructions. The American paleontologist Stephen L. Brusatte praised the book as an "artistic treasure", noting that "no other dinosaur book features such an extensive catalogue of artistic reconstructions" and applauding it for including many newly described species for the first time in a popular science book.

Several paleontologists, including Naish, Brusatte, Riley Black, and Christopher R. Noto, criticized Paul's approach to dinosaur taxonomy. All four noted that Paul in several cases chose to synonymize different genera that most paleontologists still regard as distinct; the book for instance treats the ceratopsids *Centrosaurus*, *Styracosaurus*, *Einiosaurus*, *Achelousaurus* and *Pachyrhinosaurus* as all belonging to the same genus (*Centrosaurus*). Both Naish and Brusatte particularly criticized Paul's lack of explanations and justifications for his reclassifications in the text. Some other taxonomic choices, such as the assignment of some genera to specific groups and the use of original clades (such as "minmids" and "paxceratopsians") also received some criticism.

Brusatte further criticized Paul's lack of references. Although admitting that including references would not be standard for a field guide, he found the book's lack of references to make it "useless as a piece of scientific literature". Brusatte also questioned some statements in the book as verging too far into speculation, such as Paul's writings on dinosaur behavior.

1. Naish, Darren (2012). "Dinosaurs: A Field Guide/The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs". *Historical Biology*. **25** (1): 115–119. doi:10.1080/08912963.2012.670534. ISSN 0891-2963.
2. "The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs: Second Edition". *Princeton University Press*. Retrieved 27 November 2022.
3. "The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs: Third Edition". *Princeton University Press*. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
4. Brusatte, Stephen L. (2011). "A Review of "The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, by Gregory S. Paul"". *Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology*. **31** (4): 932–933. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.576734. ISSN 0272-4634.
5. Switek, Brian. "A Roll Call of Dinosaurs". *The Wall Street Journal*. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
6. Liu, Jonathan H. "Book Review: The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs". *Wired*. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
7. "Review: The Princeton Field Guide To Dinosaurs". *Audubon*. 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
8. Noto, Christopher R. (2011). "The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs . Princeton Field Guides. By Gregory S. Paul. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press. $35.00. 320 p.; ill.; index. ISBN: 978‐0‐691‐13720‐9. 2011". *The Quarterly Review of Biology*. **86** (2): 126–127. doi:10.1086/659894. ISSN 0033-5770.

## InfoBox

The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs
| First edition cover | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Gregory S. Paul |
| Language | English |
| Genre | Reference encyclopedia |
| Publisher | Princeton University Press |
| Publication date | 2010 (1st edition)
2016 (2nd edition)
2024 (3rd edition) |
| Publication place | United States |
| Pages | 320 (1st edition)
360 (2nd edition)
384 (3rd edition) |
| ISBN | 978-0-691-13720-9 |


title: Locharbriggs

abstract: Locharbriggs is a village in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. It is located near the Lochar Water, 2.7 miles (4.3 km) north-northeast of the town of Dumfries. It was one of several villages that stood on the edge of the Lochar Moss which was largely reclaimed in the 19th century. The Locharbriggs locality had an estimated population of 5,610 in 2016. Locharbriggs is known for the quarrying of distinctive red sandstone of the Locharbriggs Sandstone Formation. This has been used for buildings in towns and cities including Dumfries, Glasgow and Edinburgh. The stone has also been exported further afield, including for the construction of the steps of the Statue of Liberty in New York. Only one quarry now remains active. The village's amenities include bus services, three local shops, a public house, a social club, a Chinese takeaway, fish and chip shop, hairdressers, community centre, a library, and a primary school. Transport links from Locharbriggs to Dumfries often suffer during school holidays, when major works are routinely carried out on the main A701 trunk road.

text:
# Locharbriggs

**Locharbriggs** is a village in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. It is located near the Lochar Water, 2.7 miles (4.3 km) north-northeast of the town of Dumfries. It was one of several villages that stood on the edge of the Lochar Moss which was largely reclaimed in the 19th century. The Locharbriggs locality (which also includes neighbouring Heathhall) had an estimated population of  5,610 in 2016.

Locharbriggs is known for the quarrying of distinctive red sandstone of the Locharbriggs Sandstone Formation. This has been used for buildings in towns and cities including Dumfries, Glasgow and Edinburgh. The stone has also been exported further afield, including for the construction of the steps of the Statue of Liberty in New York. Only one quarry now remains active.

The village's amenities include bus services, three local shops, a public house (the Lochar Inn), a social club, a Chinese takeaway, fish and chip shop, hairdressers, community centre, a library, and a primary school.

Transport links from Locharbriggs to Dumfries often suffer during school holidays, when major works are routinely carried out on the main A701 trunk road.

Media related to Locharbriggs at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Locharbriggs | |
| --- | --- |
| Locharbriggs | |
| LocharbriggsLocation within Dumfries and Galloway | |
| Population | 5,610 (2022) |
| OS grid reference | NX9980 |
| Council area |  |
| Country | Scotland |
| Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
|  | |
| Police | Scotland |
| Fire | Scottish |
| Ambulance | Scottish |
|  | |
|