title: Varidnaviria

abstract: Varidnaviria is a realm of viruses that includes all DNA viruses that encode major capsid proteins that contain a vertical jelly roll fold. The major capsid proteins (MCP) form into pseudohexameric subunits of the viral capsid, which stores the viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and are perpendicular, or vertical, to the surface of the capsid. Apart from this, viruses in the realm also share many other characteristics, such as minor capsid proteins (mCP) with the vertical jelly roll fold, an ATPase that packages viral DNA into the capsid, and a DNA polymerase that replicates the viral genome. Varidnaviria was established in 2019 based on the shared characteristics of the viruses in the realm. There are two groups of viruses in Varidnaviria: viruses that have a double vertical jelly roll (DJR) folds in the MCP, assigned to the kingdom Bamfordvirae, and viruses that have a single vertical jelly roll (SJR) fold in the MCP, assigned to the kingdom Helvetiavirae. The DJR-MCP lineage is thought to be descended from the SJR-MCP lineage via a gene fusion event, and the SJR-MCP shows a close relation to nucleoplasmins, pointing to a possible origin of the realm's jelly roll fold MCP. Most identified eukaryotic DNA viruses belong to Varidnaviria. Marine viruses in the realm are highly abundant worldwide and are important in marine ecology. Many animal viruses in the realm are associated with disease, including adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the African swine fever virus. Poxviruses have been prominent in the history of medicine, especially smallpox, caused by Variola virus, which was the target of the first vaccine and which later became the first disease eradicated. The realm also notably includes giant viruses that are physically larger and contain a much larger number of genes than typical viruses.

text:
# Varidnaviria

***Varidnaviria*** is a realm of viruses that includes all DNA viruses that encode major capsid proteins that contain a vertical jelly roll fold. The major capsid proteins (MCP) form into pseudohexameric subunits of the viral capsid, which stores the viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and are perpendicular, or vertical, to the surface of the capsid. Apart from this, viruses in the realm also share many other characteristics, such as minor capsid proteins (mCP) with the vertical jelly roll fold, an ATPase that packages viral DNA into the capsid, and a DNA polymerase that replicates the viral genome.

*Varidnaviria* was established in 2019 based on the shared characteristics of the viruses in the realm. There are two groups of viruses in *Varidnaviria*: viruses that have a double vertical jelly roll (DJR) folds in the MCP, assigned to the kingdom *Bamfordvirae*, and viruses that have a single vertical jelly roll (SJR) fold in the MCP, assigned to the kingdom *Helvetiavirae*. The DJR-MCP lineage is thought to be descended from the SJR-MCP lineage via a gene fusion event, and the SJR-MCP shows a close relation to nucleoplasmins, pointing to a possible origin of the realm's jelly roll fold MCP. Most identified eukaryotic DNA viruses belong to *Varidnaviria*.

Marine viruses in the realm are highly abundant worldwide and are important in marine ecology. Many animal viruses in the realm are associated with disease, including adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the *African swine fever virus*. Poxviruses have been prominent in the history of medicine, especially smallpox, caused by *Variola virus*, which was the target of the first vaccine and which later became the first disease eradicated. The realm also notably includes giant viruses that are physically larger and contain a much larger number of genes than typical viruses.

## Etymology

The name "*Varidnaviria*" is a portmanteau of *vari*ous *DNA* viruses and the suffix -*viria*, which is the suffix used for virus realms. Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses in the realm are often called non-tailed or tailless dsDNA viruses to distinguish them from the tailed dsDNA viruses of *Duplodnaviria*.

## Characteristics

### MCP, mCP, and ATPase

Most viruses in *Varidnaviria* contain a capsid that is made of major capsid proteins that contain vertical single (SJR) or double jelly roll (DJR) folds. The major capsid proteins are named so because they are the primary proteins that the capsid is made of. A jelly roll fold is a type of folded structure in a protein in which eight antiparallel beta strands are organized into four antiparallel beta sheets in a layout resembling a jelly roll, also called a Swiss roll. Each beta strand is a specific sequence of amino acids, and these strands bond to their antiparallel strands via hydrogen bonds. The difference between SJR and DJR folds is that a DJR fold is simply two SJR folds in a single protein. Vertical folds are those that are perpendicular to the capsid surface, in contrast to horizontal folds that are parallel to the capsid surface.

During the process of assembling the viral capsid, MCPs self-assemble into hexagonal structures, called hexons, containing multiple copies of the MCP. Hexons then bond to form the relatively flat triangular sides of the icosahedral capsid. All viruses in *Varidnaviria* that encode a DJR-MCP that have been analyzed in high resolution also encode a minor capsid protein (mCP) that contains an SJR fold. These mCPs assemble into pentagonal structures called pentons that form the pentagonal vertices of the icosahedral capsid.

Most members of the realm also encode genome packaging ATPases of the FtsK-HerA superfamily. The ATPases in *Varidnaviria* are enzymes that package the viral DNA into the capsid during the process of assembling virions. FtsK is a family of proteins that contains a transmembrane protein with four membrane-spanning helices at the start of the protein's amino acid sequence and an ATPase with a P-loop fold at the end of the protein's amino acid sequence, and the HerA family is homologous to FtsK. The exact function of the ATPase for some viruses in *Varidnaviria* is unclear since morphological features, such as the circular, supercoiled genome of *Pseudoalteromonas virus PM2*, seemingly prohibit translocation by the ATPase of DNA from outside the capsid to the inside. The subset of the FtsK-HerA superfamily found in *Varidnaviria* is often called the A32 clade, named after the ATPase-encoding A32(R) gene of *Vaccinia virus*.

### Other characteristics

Apart from the core morphogenetic triad of genes, the MCP, mCP, and ATPase, certain other characteristics are common or unique in various lineages within *Varidnaviria*, listed hereafter.

* Many members of the realm encode a type B DNA polymerase, which copies the viral DNA, and often additional components of the DNA polymerase, such as superfamily 3 helicases, or replication initiation proteins, in the case of the family *Corticoviridae*. An exception is the order *Halopanivirales*, whose members do not encode any recognizable replication enzymes.
* Many eukaryotic DJR-MCP viruses encode a capsid maturation protease that is involved in assembling the capsid.
* Some members of the realm encode integrase, an enzyme that integrates the viral genome into the genome of the host.
* Most members of the realm have capsids in the shape of an icosahedron, containing 20 triangular faces and 12 vertices.
* In various lineages, including ascoviruses and poxviruses, the ancestral icosahedral shape of the capsid has been lost and replaced with other shapes, such as ovoids and brick-like shapes.
* Poxviruses encode a scaffold protein, which guides the geometric construction of the viral capsid, that also folds into DJR pseudo-hexamers.
* Some viruses have special vertices in their icosahedral capsids for transporting the genome out of the capsid and for making virus factories.
* For certain viruses, the genome inside the capsid is surrounded by a lipid membrane.
* Nearly all recognized DJR-MCP viruses encode an ATPase of the FtsK-HerA superfamily. Adenoviruses are the exception, instead encoding their own distinct ATPase that has the same role as the FtsK-HerA ATPase.
* The family *Finnlakeviridae*, which was recently added to *Varidnaviria*, and a provisional group called the Odin group, lack the signature FtsK-HerA superfamily ATPase.
* All members of *Varidnaviria* except for *Finnlakeviridae*, have dsDNA genomes. Viruses in *Finnlakeviridae* instead have single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes.

## Phylogenetics

It has been suggested that *Varidnaviria* predates the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of cellular life and that viruses in the realm were present in the LUCA. The vertical SJR-MCPs of *Halopanivirales*, assigned to the kingdom *Helvetiavirae*, unlike SJR folds found outside of *Varidnaviria*, show a relation to a group of proteins that includes the Cupin superfamily and nucleoplasmins, pointing to a possible origin of the major capsid protein of *Varidnaviria* among this group. The DJR-MCP lineage, assigned to the kingdom *Bamfordvirae*, thereafter appears to have come into existence by means of a gene fusion event that merged the two SJR-MCPs into one, indicated by the two SJR-MCPs forming a lattice in the capsid that structurally resembles the DJR-MCP capsid lattice. Archaeal dsDNA viruses in *Portogloboviridae* contain just one vertical SJR-MCP, which appears to have been duplicated to two for *Halopanivirales*, so the MCP of *Portogloboviridae* likely represents an earlier stage in the evolutionary history of *Varidnaviria* MCPs. However, another scenario was later proposed in which the *Bamfordvirae* and *Helvetiavirae* kingdoms would originate independently suggesting that the *Bamfordvirae* DJR-MCP protein snow a relation with the bacterial DUF 2961 protein, leading to a revision of the realm *Varidnaviria*. It is possible that the *Bamfordvirae* DJR-MCP will evolve from this protein independently, however the origin of the DJR-MCP by duplication of the *Helvetiavirae* SJR-MCP cannot yet be ruled out. A molecular phylogenetic analysis suggests that *Helvetiavirae* had no involvement in the origin of the *Bamfordvirae* DJR-MCP and that they probably derive from the class *Tectiliviricetes*.

Viruses in *Bamfordvirae* appear to have made crossed from prokaryotes to eukaryotes early in eukaryotic history, via infection by a tectivirus or tectivirus-like virus of a bacterium that became a bacterial symbiont in a proto-eukaryote. From there, based on phylogenetic analysis of the viral DNA polymerase and other characteristics, eukaryotic viruses in *Bamfordvirae* appear to have formed a complex relationship with various selfish genetic elements, including polintons, a type of transposon, portions of DNA that can self-replicate and integrate themselves into other parts of the same DNA molecule, and certain types of plasmids, which are extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that self-replicate inside of the cell or organelle that they occupy.

The initial bacterial symbiont is likely to have become mitochondria, with mitochondrial linear plasmids descended from tectiviruses remaining. Another divergent lineage reached the nucleus and recombined with transposons, becoming polintons, which may have been the first eukaryotic viruses in *Bamfordvirae* or related to the first ones. Polintons then gave rise to multiple lineages by various mechanisms. Among these lineages are full-fledged viruses, including adenoviruses and giant viruses, cytoplasmic linear plasmids, virophages, which are satellite viruses of giant viruses, transpovirons, which are linear plasmid-like DNA molecules found in giant viruses, and bidnaviruses via genetic recombination with a parvovirus, both of which are classified in the realm *Monodnaviria*. However, this scenario was contradicted by a molecular phylogenetic analysis suggesting that tectiviruses and polintons had no involvement in the origin of eukaryotic viruses in *Varidnaviria* and that polintons are probably derived from these eukaryotic viruses.

While the jelly roll fold is found in other realms, including the family *Microviridae* in *Monodnaviria* and various single-stranded RNA viruses in *Riboviria*, the jelly roll fold found in *Varidnaviria* is vertical, i.e. perpendicular to the capsid surface, contrary to the jelly roll folds in other realms, which are horizontal, i.e. parallel to the capsid surface. In general, the other virus realms have no apparent relation based on common descent to *Varidnaviria*.

## Classification

*Varidnaviria* has two kingdoms: *Bamfordvirae* and *Helvetiavirae*, the latter of which is monotypic down to the rank of family. This taxonomy can be visualized as follows:

* Kingdom: *Bamfordvirae*, which encode a major capsid protein that contains a vertical double jelly roll fold
* Kingdom: *Helvetiavirae*, which encode a major capsid protein that contains a vertical single jelly roll fold

All recognized members of *Varidnaviria* belong to Group I: dsDNA viruses of the Baltimore classification system, which groups viruses together based on how they produce messenger RNA. The family *Finnlakeviridae*, a proposed family of *Varidnaviria*, belongs to Group II: ssDNA viruses and would be the only ssDNA virus in the realm. Most identified DNA viruses that infect eukaryotes belong to *Varidnaviria*, the other major lineages of eukaryotic DNA viruses being the order *Herpesvirales*, which infect animals, in *Duplodnaviria*, and the class *Papovaviricetes*, which infect animals, in *Monodnaviria*. Realms are the highest level of taxonomy used for viruses in and *Varidnaviria* is one of four, the other three being *Duplodnaviria*, *Monodnaviria*, and *Riboviria*.

The unassigned family *Portogloboviridae* is a proposed family of the realm since its capsid proteins appear to be homologous to those of viruses in *Varidnaviria*.

Another proposed group is the *Naldaviricetes* class (including *Polydnaviridae*). These viruses encompass several genes that are distantly related to core genes of the *Nucleocytoviricota* and thus could be highly derived members of the DJR-MCP viruses, despite the absence of the DJR-MCP and formation of odd-shaped virions. Preliminary phylogenetic analysis of several essential genes that are shared by all these arthropod viruses and the *Nucleocytoviricota*, such as PolB, RNAP subunits, helicase-primase and thiol oxidoreductase, has suggested that this group of viruses might be a highly derived offshoot of the *Nucleocytoviricota*.

## Interactions with hosts

### Disease

Bacteriophages in *Varidnaviria* are potentially a major cause of death among marine prokaryotes. This viewpoint is based on autolykiviruses having broad host ranges, infecting and killing many different strains of various bacteria species, in contrast to tailed bacteriophages, which have more limited host ranges, as well as on the apparently large number of marine non-tailed dsDNA viruses. Algal viruses of the family *Phycodnaviridae* play an important role in controlling algal blooms as well as, with many marine viruses in general, contributing to a process called viral shunt, whereby organic material from killed organisms are "shunted" by viruses away from higher trophic levels and recycled for consumption by those at lower trophic levels.

The most notable disease-causing viruses in *Varidnaviria* are adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the *African swine fever virus* (ASFV). Adenoviruses typically cause mild respiratory, gastrointestinal, and conjunctival illnesses, but occasionally cause more severe illnesses, such as hemorrhagic cystitis, hepatitis, and meningoencephalitis. Poxviruses infect many animals and typically cause non-specific symptoms paired with a characteristic rash that is called a pox. Notable poxviruses include *Variola virus*, which causes smallpox, and *Vaccinia virus*, which is used as the vaccine against smallpox. ASFV is usually asymptomatic in its natural reservoirs but causes a lethal hemorrhagic fever in domestic pigs that is a concern for agricultural production.

### Endogenization

Many viruses in *Varidnaviria* encode the enzyme integrase, allowing them to integrate their genome into their host and behave like transposons. The closely related polintons are apparently always endogenized in their hosts. This integration of viral DNA into the host's genome is a form of horizontal gene transfer between unrelated organisms, although polintons are typically transmitted vertically from parent to child.

#### Adapative immunity

A peculiar example of endogenization in *Varidnaviria* are virophages, satellite viruses that are dependent on giant virus infection to replicate. Virophages replicate by hijacking the replication apparati of giant viruses, thereby suppressing the number of giant virus virions produced, increasing the likelihood of host survival. Some virophages are able to become endogenized, and this endogenization can be considered a form of adaptive immunity for the host against giant virus infection.

## History

Diseases caused by poxviruses have been known for much of recorded history. Smallpox in particular has been highly prominent in modern medicine; the first vaccine to be invented targeted smallpox, and smallpox would later become the first disease to be eradicated. Human adenoviruses were the first DJR-MCP viruses in *Varidnaviria* to have their MCPs analyzed, standing out for having jelly roll folds that were perpendicular, rather than parallel, to the capsid surface. In 1999, the structure of the MCP of *Pseudomonas virus PRD1* was resolved, showing that the DJR-MCP lineage included prokaryotic viruses. *Haloarcula hispanica virus SH1* would later, in 2003, become the first SJR-MCP virus discovered.

Over time, the use of metagenomics has allowed for the identification of viruses in the environment even without identification of the host or laboratory specimens, leading to the discovery of many additional members of the realm. Morphological surveys of marine samples suggest that non-tailed dsDNA viruses may be more numerous than the tailed dsDNA viruses of *Duplodnaviria*, which, as of 2019, are the largest and most diverse lineage of viruses documented. With the increased knowledge of the viruses of the realm, *Varidnaviria* was established in 2019 based on the shared traits of viruses in the realm.

The establishment of *Varidnaviria* has allowed for newly discovered and related, yet divergent, viruses to be classified in higher taxa. This includes proposed families such as *Finnlakeviridae*, which would be the only family in the realm with a single-stranded DNA genome, *Autolykiviridae*, which have a broad host range and which may play a major role in the deaths of marine bacteria, and the "Odin" group, which encode a protein that has no known relation to any other proteins in place of the FtsK-HerA superfamily ATPase. In 2020, autolykiviruses were officially classified for the first time.

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## Further reading

## InfoBox

| *Varidnaviria* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| A ribbon diagram of the DJR-MCP of *Pseudoalteromonas virus PM2*, with the two jelly roll folds colored in red and blue | |
|
| Virus classification | |
| (unranked): | Virus |
| *Realm*: | ***Varidnaviria*** |
|
| Subtaxa | |
| See text | |
| Synonyms | |
| * Non-tailed dsDNA viruses * Tailless dsDNA viruses | |


# List of works performed by American Ballet Theatre

This is an alphabetical list of works performed by American Ballet Theatre, a classical ballet company based at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City.

| Title | Choreographer | Composer | Designer | ABT premiere |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Adagio for Strings* | John Meehan | Samuel Barber |  | 8 May 1980 |
| *Afternoon of a Faun* | Jerome Robbins | Claude Debussy |  | 19 October 2005 |
| *Afternoon of a Faun* | Vaslav Nijinsky | Claude Debussy | Nicholas Georgiadis | 4 November 1941 |
| *Airs* | Paul Taylor | George Frideric Handel |  | 8 May 1980 |
| *Aleko* | Léonide Massine | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Marc Chagall | 12 July 1968 |
| Allegro Brillante | John Meehan | Samuel Barber |  | 8 May 1980 |
| *Amazed in Burning Dreams* | Kirk Peterson | Philip Glass | Kirk Peterson, Larae Hascall | 31 October 2001 |
| Americans We | Twyla Tharp | Donald Hunsberger | Santo Loquasto | 1 May 1995 |
| Amnon V'Tamar | Martine van Hamel | George Calusdian | Theoni V. Aldredge | 8 January 1984 |
| L'Amour at son Amour | Jean Babilée | César Franck | Jean Cocteau | 17 April 1951 |
| Anastasia | Sir Kenneth MacMillan | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Bob Crowley | 3 June 1999 |
| Angrismene | William Dollar | Igor Stravinsky |  | 21 April 1958 |
| Annabel Lee | George Skibine | Byron Schiffman |  | 6 May 1957 |
| Apollo | George Balanchine | Igor Stravinsky |  | 27 April 1937 |
| Appalachian Spring | Martha Graham | Aaron Copland | Martha Graham | 1 June 1989 |
| Artemis | Lar Lubovitch | Christopher Theofanidis | Ann Hould-Ward | 20 May 2003 |
| At Midnight | Eliot Feld | Gustav Mahler | Stanley Simmons | 1 December 1967 |
| Awakening | Robert Weiss | Craig Steven Shuler | Susan Tammany | 30 December 1975 |
| The Awakening Pas de deux | Frederick Ashton | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Lila De Nobili | 17 May 2010 |
| Bach Partita | Twyla Tharp | Johann Sebastian Bach | Santo Loquasto | 9 December 1983 |
| Le Baiser de la Fee | John Neumeier | Igor Stravinsky, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Jürgen Rosen | 18 July 1984 |
| Baker's Dozen | Twyla Tharp | Willie "The Lion" Smith | Santo Loquasto | 30 August 2007 |
| Le Bal | Robert Joffrey | Emmanuel Chabrier |  | 20 May 1957 |
| Baladen der Liebe | Enrique Martinez | Max Bruch | Robert Davison | 23 September 1965 |
| Ballet Imperial | George Balanchine | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Rouben Ter-Arutunian | 10 February 1988 |
| Ballo Della Regina | George Balanchine | Giuseppe Verdi | Dale Wibben | 23 October 2007 |
| Barn Dance | Catherine Littlefield | David Guion, John Powell, Louis Gottschalk | Salvatore Pinto | 9 May 1944 |
| Baroque Game | Robert Hill | Dmitry Polischuk | Santo Loquasto | 28 October 1999 |
| *La Bayadère* | Natalia Makarova | Ludwig Minkus, John Lanchbery | Theoni V. Aldredge | 21 May 1980 |
| Beatrice | Richard Wagner | Ralph Vaughan Williams |  | 11 May 1964 |
| The Beloved | Bronislava Nijinska, Darius Mihaud | Franz Schubert, Franz Liszt | Nicolas de Molas | 24 October 1941 |
| Billy the Kid | Eugene Loring | Aaron Copland | Jared French | 8 December 1940 |
| Birthday Offering | Sir Frederick Ashton | Alexander Glazunov | Andre Levasseur | 25 October 1989 |
| Bitter Rainbow | Fernand Nault | Nelson Keyes | Ming Tyler Dick | 11 May 1964 |
| Black Ritual (Obeah) | Agnes de Mille | Darius Milhaud | Nicholas de Molas | 22 January 1940 |
| Black Tuesday |  | Giuseppe Verdi | Santo Loquasto | 10 April 2001 |
| Blood Wedding | Alfred Rodrigues | Denis Aplvor | Dale Wibben | 6 May 1957 |
| Bluebeard | Michel Fokine | Jacques Offenbach | Marcel Vertès | 27 October 1941 |
| Bolero (Solo) | Maurice Ravel | Anton Dolin |  | 6 December 1932 |
| *Boléro* | Maurice Ravel | *La Argentinita*, Pilar López Júlvez | Federico Rey | 7 April 1943 |
| Bourree Fantasque | George Balanchine | Emmanuel Chabrier | Karinska | 8 December 1981 |
| Brahms Quintet | Dennis Nahat | Johannes Brahms | Willa Kim | 10 December 1969 |
| A Brahms Symphony | Lar Lubovitch | Johannes Brahms |  | 3 March 1995 |
| The Brahms-Haydn Variations | Twyla Tharp | Johannes Brahms | Santo Loquasto | 21 March 2000 |
| Brief Fling | Twyla Tharp | Michel Colombier, Percy Grainger | Isaac Mizrahi | 28 February 1990 |
| *The Bright Stream* | Alexei Ratmansky | Dmitri Shostakovich | Elena Markovskaya | 21 January 2011 |
| Bruch Violin Concerto No. 1 | Clark Tippet | Max Bruch | Dain Marcus | 1 December 1987 |
| The Bull's Dancer | Lawrence Gradus | Jacques Ibert |  | 17 December 1963 |
| Bum's Rush | Twyla Tharp | Dick Hyman | Santo Loquasto | 9 February 1989 |
| C. to C. (Close to Chuck) | Jorma Elo | Philip Glass | Ralph Rucci | 27 October 2007 |
| The Capital of the World | Eugene Loring | George Antheil | Esteban Frances | 27 December 1953 |
| *Carmen* | Roland Petit | Georges Bizet | Antoni Clavé | 15 December 1981 |
| *Cinderella* | Frederick Ashton | Sergei Prokofiev |  | 9 June 2014 |
| Company B | Paul Taylor | The Andrews Sisters | Santo Loquasto | 17 October 2008 |
| *Coppélia* | Enrique Martinez | Léo Delibes | William Pitkin | 12 December 1968 |
| *Le Corsaire* | Konstantin Sergeyev | Adolphe Adam, Cesare Pugni, Léo Delibes, Riccardo Drigo, Prince Oldenbourg | Irina Tibilova, Robert Perdziola | 19 June 1998 |
| Cruel World | James Kudelka | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Carmen Alie, Denis Lavoie | 29 April 1994 |
| Facsimile | Jerome Robbins | Leonard Bernstein | Irene Sharaff | 24& October 1946 |
| Fair at Sorochinsk | David Lichine | Modest Mussorgsky | Nicholas Remisoff | 14 October 1943 |
| Fall River Legend | Agnes de Mille | Morton Gould | Miles White | 22 April 1948 |
| Fancy Free | Jerome Robbins | Leonard Bernstein | Kermit Love | 18 April 1944 |
| Fandango | Antony Tudor | Antonio Soler | Hugh Laing | 26 March 1963 |
| Fantaisie Serieuse | Lorca Massine | Erik Satie | Ramonda Gaetani | 7 May 1980 |
| La Fille Mal Gardée | Frederick Ashton | Ferdinand Hérold |  | 31 May 2002 |
| Firebird | Michel Fokine | Igor Stravinsky | Marc Chagall | 24 October 1945 |
| Firebird | Alexei Ratmansky | Igor Stravinsky | Galina Solovyeva | 29 March 2012 |
| Giselle | Jean Coralli, Jules Perrot, Marius Petipa | Adolphe Adam | Anna Anni | 12 January 1940 |
| Lady of the Camellias | John Neumeier | Frédéric Chopin | Jürgen Rose | 25 May 2010 |
| On The Dnieper | Alexei Ratmansky | Sergei Prokofiev | Galina Solovyeva | 1 June 2009 |
| *Onegin* | John Cranko | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Jürgen Rose | 1 June 2001 |
| Othello | Lar Lubovitch | Elliot B. Goldenthal | Ann Hould-Ward | 23 May 1997 |
| Paquita | Rudolf Nureyev | Ludwig Minkus | Freddy Wittop | 6 July 1971 |
| *Les Sylphides* | Michel Fokine | Frédéric Chopin,<br>orchestration: Benjamin Britten |  | 13 February 1941 |
| Theme and Variations | George Balanchine | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Theoni V. Aldredge | 5 May 1986 |
| Thirteen Diversions | Christopher Wheeldon | Benjamin Britten | Bob Crowley | 24 May 2011 |
| This Property is Condemned | Donald Saddler | Genevieve Pitot | Stanley Simmons | 13 May 1957 |
| Three-Cornered Hat | Léonide Massine | Manuel de Falla | Pablo Picasso | 11 April 1943 |
| Undertow | Antony Tudor | William Schuman | Raymond Breinin | 10 April 1945 |
| Unfinished Symphony | Peter van Dijk | Franz Schubert | Kalinowski | 18 July 1972 |
| Us | Keith Lee | Gustav Mahler | Marcos Paredes | 6 May 1970 |
| Variations on 'America' | Eliot Feld | Charles Ives, William Schuman | Willa Kim | 9 January 1982 |
| Variations for Four | Anton Dolin | Marguerite Keogh | Tom Lingwood | 25 September 1958 |
| La Ventana | August Bournonville | Hans Christian Lumbye |  | 28 July 1975 |
| Waltz Masquerade | Alexei Ratmansky | Aram Khachaturian | Natia Sirbiladze | 18 May 2009 |

1. "2014 Spring Season". American Ballet Theatre. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
2. "Mystery of the Missing Music" Archived 3 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine by Michael Cooper, *The New York Times*, 27 August 2013
3. *Les Sylphides* Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, American Ballet Theatre (which gives 11 January 1940)


title: Farighunids

abstract: The Farighunids were an Iranian dynasty that ruled Guzgan in the late 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. They were ultimately deposed by the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, Sultan Mahmud (r. 999–1030).

text:
# Farighunids

The **Farighunids** were an Iranian dynasty that ruled Guzgan (modern-day northern Afghanistan) in the late 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. They were ultimately deposed by the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, Sultan Mahmud (r.999–1030).

## Background

According to the unknown author of the *Hudud al-'Alam*, the Farighunid family descended from the legendary Iranian king Afridun/Faridun. The English historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth suggests that the Farighunids had ancestral ties with the Afrighids, the ruling dynasty of Khwarazm. This is possibly supported by the fact that some chronicles refer to the Afrighids as the "Al Farighun of Kath".

## History

The first Farighunid amir mentioned is Ahmad ibn Farighun. Ahmad, together with the Banijurids, was compelled to recognize the Saffarid Amr ibn al-Layth as his suzerain. Only a short time afterwards, Amr ibn al-Layth was defeated and captured by the Samanids; Ahmad transferred his allegiance to them around this time. Later Ahmad married his daughter to his Samanid sovereign Nuh II. The Farighunids would remain Samanid vassals until the end of the 10th century. Ahmad was succeeded by his son Abu'l Haret Muhammad, whose reign marked the apex Farighunid authority and influence. The chiefs of the neighbouring regions of Gharchistan and Ghur acknowledged his overlordship.

Abu'l Haret died probably some time after 982, and his son Abu'l Haret Ahmad was drawn into the conflicts that took place within the Samanid amirate during its decline. He was ordered by his suzerain Nuh II to attack the rebel Fa'iq Khassa, but was defeated by him. The Farighunids developed marriage alliances with the Ghaznavids; Abu'l Haret's daughter had married Mahmud, while Mahmud's sister had married Abu'l Haret's son Abu'l-Nasr Muhammad. Abu'l Haret assisted Sabuktigin's forces at Herat against Fa'iq and the Simjurids, a battle in which the Ghaznavids and Farighunids were victorious. The Ghaznavids soon afterwards supplanted the Samanids in Khurasan, and the Farighunids become Ghaznavid vassals.

Abu'l Haret died in c. 1000 and Abu'l-Nasr Muhammad succeeded him. Abu'l-Nasr enjoyed the confidence of Mahmud of Ghazna; in 1008 he fought in the center of the Ghaznavid line against the Karakhanids near Carkhiyan and in the following year escorted Mahmud during his campaign in India. He also married off a daughter to Mahmud's son Muhammad of Ghazni. When Abu'l-Nasr died in around 1010, Muhammad took over the rule of Guzgan, even though Abu'l-Nasr had left a son, Hasan. This marked the end of Farighunid rule.

## Cultural significance

The Farighunids had a significant impact of many prominent individuals in the arts and sciences at the time. Two great poets, Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani and Abu al-Fath al-Busti, addressed poems to them, and the author of the *Hudud al-'Alam*, the first geographical treatise to be written in New Persian, dedicated the work to Abu'l Haret Muhammad in 982/3. The Farighunids may also have had connections with the encyclopedist Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi and another encyclopedist named Sha'ya ibn Farighun, who wrote the *Jawame' al-'ulum* for the Muhtajid amir Abu Ali Chaghani.

## Geography

The historical region of Guzgan bordered Tukharistan to the east; to the south, it bordered Ghur; to the west it bordered Gharchistan and Marw; to the north, the Oxus River served as its boundary. The capital of the Farighunids was Yahudiyya, while Anbar—the largest city in Guzgan—served as the seat of the Farighunid amirs. Kundarm and Qurzuman were other major hubs of Guzgan.

## List of Farighunid amirs

## Sources

* Bosworth, C. E. (1984). "Āl-e Farīḡūn". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). *Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/7: Ahriman–Alafrank*. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 756–758. ISBN 978-0-71009-096-6.
* Davud, Seyyed Ali Al-i (2018). "Farīghūnids (Āl-i Farīgh)". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). *Encyclopaedia Islamica Online*. Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1875-9831\_isla\_COM\_036096. ISSN 1875-9831.
* Dunlop, D.M. (1965). "Farighunids". In Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). *The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.* Volume II: *C–G*. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 798–800. OCLC 495469475.
* Haarmann, Ulrich, ed. (1996). *Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts*. Vol. 15. Brill.
* Haug, Robert J (2015). "Farīghūnids". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). *Encyclopaedia of Islam* (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.

## InfoBox

| Farighunids | |
| --- | --- |
| 9th-century–1010 | |
| Guzgan | |
| Status | Client of the Saffarids, Samanids and the Ghaznavids |
| Capital | Yahudiyya |
| Common languages | Persian |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
| Government | Monarchy |
| Historical era | Middle Ages |
|  | |
| Established | 9th-century |
| Ghaznavid conquest | 1010 |
|  | |
|  | |


title: The Greek Herald

abstract: The Greek Herald is the largest and one of the oldest daily Greek community newspapers in Australia. The newspaper is published by Foreign Language Press Ltd.

text:
# The Greek Herald

**The Greek Herald** (Ellinikos Kirikas) is the largest and one of the oldest daily Greek community newspapers in Australia. The newspaper is published by Foreign Language Press Ltd.

## History

Founded by George Marsellos and John Stilson the newspaper was originally published as a broadsheet under the name *Panellenios Keryx* (Panhellenic Herald). Its first edition, published on 16 November 1926, was entirely in English; its other seven pages were in Greek.

"Our aim is primarily to enlighten our fellow-countrymen, the Greeks, in this noble country, and particularly those who have not had the advantage of long residence on these shores. For this reason our paper is not the organ of any party, class or faction. Our sole aim was to enlighten and educate. We are absolutely and sincerely non-artisan. We neither support nor condemn any particular party, and our watchword will be Truth, Right and Justice to all," partners George Marsellos and John Stilson announced in their first edition.

The Greek Herald remains the second oldest Greek Australian newspaper behind *Okeanis* (Ocean), which was founded in 1913 and renamed the *Ethnikon Vema* (National Tribune) in 1920.

## Ownership

The Greek Herald reached its biggest height under Foreign Language Publication, run by former head publisher Theo Skalkos for over 40 years. During his time as head publisher, Theo produced around 12 ethnic newspapers under Foreign Language Publication, becoming the largest ethnic print business in Australia.

Following the death of Theo Skalkos on 20 May 2019, publishers Dimitra Skalkos and Elaine Kintis took over publication of The Greek Herald.

## Digitisation

The Greek Herald's digital platform was launched in December, 2019. The platform is one of the largest digital Greek news publications in Australia.

## Publication owner

Publication owner
| Head Publisher | Year of Ownership |
| --- | --- |
| George Marsellos and John Stilson | 16 November 1926 – April 1933 |
| Dimitrios Lalas | April 1933 – 1939 |
| Alexander Grivas | 1939 – January 1971 |
| Theo Skalkos | January 1971 – 2019 |
| Elaine Kintis | 2019 – 2022 |
| Dimitra Skalkos | 2019 – Incumbent |

## InfoBox

The Greek Herald
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Type | Daily Newspaper |
| Format | Broadsheet |
| Owner(s) | Foreign Language Press Ltd. |
| Founder(s) | George Marsellos and John Stilson |
| Publisher | Dimitra Skalkos |
| Founded | 16 November 1926 (16 November 1926) |
| Headquarters | Sydney, Australia |
| Website | greekherald.com.au |


abstract: Naturally occurring phenethylamines are organic compounds which may be thought of as being derived from phenethylamine itself that are found in living organisms. Tyramine is a phenethylamine that occurs widely in plants and animals, and is metabolized by various enzymes, including monoamine oxidases. Substituted phenethylamines like mescaline and lophophine are found in psychoactive cactus.

text:
# List of naturally occurring phenethylamines

**Naturally occurring phenethylamines** are organic compounds which may be thought of as being derived from phenethylamine itself that are found in living organisms.

Tyramine is a phenethylamine that occurs widely in plants and animals, and is metabolized by various enzymes, including monoamine oxidases. Substituted phenethylamines like mescaline and lophophine are found in psychoactive cactus.

## List of phenethylamines

|
|  |
Selected phenethylamines
| Short Name | Origin | Rα | R4 | R5 | RN1 | RN2 | Full Name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Phenethylamine | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 2-phenylethan-1-amine |
| Hordenine | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | *N*,*N*-Dimethyltyramine |
| Lophophine | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyphenethylamine |
| Mescaline | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine |
| DMPEA | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine |
| Tyramine | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |  |
|  | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine |
| 3-MT | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenethylamine |
|  | Natural | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine |


title: 1931–32 Huddersfield Town A.F.C. season

abstract: Huddersfield Town's 1931–32 campaign was a season that saw Town continue their impressive run of success under Clem Stephenson, by finishing 4th in Division 1. The season is mostly noted for two reasons: the impressive record of 42 goals scored by Dave Mangnall, a club record still to this day, and for the record crowd set during Town's sixth round FA Cup clash with Arsenal during the season.

text:
# 1931–32 Huddersfield Town A.F.C. season

**Huddersfield Town's 1931–32 campaign** was a season that saw Town continue their impressive run of success under Clem Stephenson, by finishing 4th in Division 1. The season is mostly noted for two reasons: the impressive record of 42 goals scored by Dave Mangnall, a club record still to this day, and for the record crowd set during Town's sixth round FA Cup clash with Arsenal during the season.

## Squad at the start of the season

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

| No. Pos. Nation Player  -- GK  ENG Hugh Turner  -- DF  ENG Austen Campbell  -- DF  ENG Billy Carr  -- DF  ENG Norman Christie  -- DF  ENG Bill Dodgin  -- DF  ENG Billy Fogg  -- DF  ENG Roy Goodall  -- DF  ENG Reg Mountford  -- DF  ENG George Roughton  -- DF  ENG Bon Spence  -- DF  ENG Tom Wilson  -- DF  ENG Alf Young | No. Pos. Nation Player  -- MF  ENG Wilf Bott  -- MF  ENG George Crownshaw  -- MF  ENG Dennis Jennings  -- MF  ENG Gerry Kelly  -- MF  ENG Billy Smith  -- FW  ENG Harry Davies  -- FW  ENG Bob Kelly  -- FW  ENG Dave Mangnall  -- FW  SCO George McLean  -- FW  ENG Joe Robson  -- FW  ENG Ernie Whittam |
| --- | --- |

## Review

After finishing 5th the previous season, Town's reimbursed team carried their rich vein of form and managed an impressive run up the table, mainly thanks to the 33 league goals supplied by Dave Mangnall, which saw Town climb up to 4th place in the table. Combined with the 9 goals in the FA Cup, Mangnall's 42 goals give him the individual record of goals for a season in Town's history.

The season is also notable for Town's impressive FA Cup run. After wins over Oldham Athletic, Queens Park Rangers and Preston North End, Town met Herbert Chapman's Arsenal in the 6th round at Leeds Road. The match was watched by over 67,000 people and saw Town lose to a goal in the 2nd minute.

## Squad at the end of the season

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

| No. Pos. Nation Player  -- GK  ENG George Thorpe  -- GK  ENG Hugh Turner  -- DF  ENG Austen Campbell  -- DF  ENG Billy Carr  -- DF  ENG Norman Christie  -- DF  ENG Bill Dodgin  -- DF  ENG Billy Fogg  -- DF  ENG Roy Goodall  -- DF  ENG Reg Mountford  -- DF  ENG George Roughton  -- DF  ENG Bon Spence  -- DF  ENG Alf Young | No. Pos. Nation Player  -- MF  ENG Jack Blackwell  -- MF  ENG Wilf Bott  -- MF  ENG George Crownshaw  -- MF  ENG Dennis Jennings  -- MF  ENG Charlie Luke  -- MF  ENG Billy Smith  -- FW  ENG Frank Bungay  -- FW  ENG Bob Kelly  -- FW  ENG Dave Mangnall  -- FW  SCO George McLean  -- FW  ENG Joe Robson  -- FW  ENG Ernie Whittam |
| --- | --- |

## Results

### Division One

| **Date** | **Opponents** | **Home/
Away** | **Result
F - A** | **Scorers** | **Attendance** | **Position** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 29 August 1931 | Grimsby Town | H | 1 - 1 | B. Kelly | 13,668 | 10th |
| 31 August 1931 | Aston Villa | H | 1 - 1 | Mangnall | 13,226 | 9th |
| 5 September 1931 | Chelsea | A | 1 - 0 | Smith | 42,961 | 5th |
| 7 September 1931 | Leicester City | H | 2 - 1 | Mangnall, B. Kelly | 9,875 | 4th |
| 12 September 1931 | West Ham United | H | 3 - 1 | Jennings, McLean, Mangnall | 11,986 | 2nd |
| 19 September 1931 | Sheffield Wednesday | A | 1 - 4 | Mangnall | 24,326 | 6th |
| 26 September 1931 | Bolton Wanderers | H | 2 - 0 | B. Kelly (2, 1 pen) | 12,901 | 5th |
| 3 October 1931 | Middlesbrough | A | 0 - 1 |  | 16,366 | 8th |
| 10 October 1931 | West Bromwich Albion | H | 2 - 2 | Smith (2) | 19,556 | 8th |
| 15 October 1931 | Leicester City | A | 4 - 2 | Black (og), McLean, Fogg, B. Kelly | 11,420 | 5th |
| 17 October 1931 | Sheffield United | A | 2 - 0 | Mangnall, Jennings | 14,300 | 3rd |
| 24 October 1931 | Sunderland | H | 4 - 1 | Mangnall (2), Smith, McLean | 11,071 | 2nd |
| 31 October 1931 | Manchester City | A | 0 - 3 |  | 21,332 | 4th |
| 7 November 1931 | Everton | H | 0 - 0 |  | 17,605 | 4th |
| 14 November 1931 | Portsmouth | A | 2 - 3 | Jennings (2) | 16,583 | 7th |
| 21 November 1931 | Derby County | H | 6 - 0 | Mangnall (5), McLean | 11,638 | 4th |
| 28 November 1931 | Birmingham | A | 0 - 5 |  | 18,059 | 6th |
| 5 December 1931 | Blackburn Rovers | H | 1 - 1 | Mangnall | 9,628 | 7th |
| 12 December 1931 | Arsenal | A | 1 - 1 | Crownshaw | 39,748 | 5th |
| 19 December 1931 | Blackpool | H | 5 - 0 | Crownshaw, Luke, Robson (2), B. Kelly | 11,072 | 4th |
| 25 December 1931 | Newcastle United | A | 1 - 2 | Bott | 43,493 | 5th |
| 26 December 1931 | Newcastle United | H | 1 - 2 | B. Kelly | 25,424 | 8th |
| 2 January 1932 | Grimsby Town | A | 4 - 1 | McLean (2), Mangnall (2) | 7,921 | 8th |
| 16 January 1932 | Chelsea | H | 2 - 1 | McLean, Mangnall | 16,645 | 7th |
| 30 January 1932 | Sheffield Wednesday | H | 6 - 1 | Goodall (pen), Mangnall (3), McLean, Campbell | 19,061 | 7th |
| 1 February 1932 | West Ham United | A | 1 - 1 | Mangnall | 8,631 | 4th |
| 6 February 1932 | Bolton Wanderers | A | 2 - 1 | Mangnall, Luke | 11,876 | 4th |
| 17 February 1932 | Middlesbrough | H | 1 - 1 | Mangnall | 9,491 | 4th |
| 20 February 1932 | West Bromwich Albion | A | 2 - 3 | Mangnall, Smith | 20,105 | 5th |
| 2 March 1932 | Sheffield United | H | 2 - 2 | Mangnall, Smith | 7,501 | 5th |
| 5 March 1932 | Sunderland | A | 3 - 1 | Mangnall (2), Smith | 29,549 | 5th |
| 19 March 1932 | Everton | A | 1 - 4 | Sagar (og) | 30,748 | 5th |
| 26 March 1932 | Portsmouth | H | 1 - 0 | B. Kelly | 12,901 | 6th |
| 28 March 1932 | Liverpool | A | 3 - 0 | Crownshaw, Bott, Mangnall | 22,346 | 6th |
| 29 March 1932 | Liverpool | H | 4 - 3 | Mangnall (3), Bott | 14,097 | 3rd |
| 2 April 1932 | Derby County | A | 2 - 3 | Crownshaw, Bott | 13,108 | 5th |
| 6 April 1932 | Manchester City | H | 1 - 0 | Crownshaw | 12,963 | 3rd |
| 9 April 1932 | Birmingham | H | 1 - 1 | Crownshaw | 9,563 | 2nd |
| 16 April 1932 | Blackburn Rovers | A | 0 - 3 |  | 10,782 | 3rd |
| 27 April 1932 | Arsenal | H | 1 - 2 | B. Kelly | 13,370 | 6th |
| 30 April 1932 | Blackpool | A | 0 - 2 |  | 15,675 | 6th |
| 7 May 1932 | Aston Villa | A | 3 - 2 | Mangnall (3) | 12,464 | 4th |

### FA Cup

| **Date** | **Round** | **Opponents** | **Home/
Away** | **Result
F - A** | **Scorers** | **Attendance** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 9 January 1932 | Round 3 | Oldham Athletic | A | 1 - 1 | Mangnall | 30,607 |
| 13 January 1932 | Round 3 Replay | Oldham Athletic | H | 6 - 0 | Mangnall (4), McLean, Luke | 20,609 |
| 23 January 1932 | Round 4 | Queens Park Rangers | H | 5 - 0 | Luke (2), Mangnall (2), Campbell | 31,394 |
| 13 February 1932 | Round 5 | Preston North End | H | 4 - 0 | Ward (og), Mangnall (2), Luke | 44,291 |
| 27 February 1932 | Round 6 | Arsenal | H | 0 - 1 |  | 67,037 |

## Appearances and goals

| Name | Nation | Position | League Apps | League Goals | FA Cup Apps | FA Cup Goals | Total Apps | Total Goals |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Jack Blackwell | England | MF | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **2** | **0** |
| Wilf Bott | England | MF | 14 | 4 | 1 | 0 | **15** | **1** |
| Frank Bungay | England | FW | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **1** | **0** |
| Austen Campbell | England | DF | 36 | 1 | 5 | 1 | **41** | **2** |
| Billy Carr | England | DF | 33 | 0 | 4 | 0 | **37** | **0** |
| Norman Christie | England | DF | 5 | 0 | 1 | 0 | **6** | **0** |
| George Crownshaw | England | FW | 13 | 6 | 1 | 0 | **14** | **6** |
| Harry Davies | England | FW | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **1** | **0** |
| Bill Dodgin | England | DF | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **4** | **0** |
| Billy Fogg | England | DF | 11 | 1 | 0 | 0 | **11** | **1** |
| Roy Goodall | England | DF | 39 | 1 | 5 | 0 | **44** | **1** |
| Dennis Jennings | England | MF | 24 | 4 | 0 | 0 | **24** | **4** |
| Bob Kelly | England | FW | 40 | 9 | 5 | 0 | **45** | **9** |
| Gerry Kelly | England | MF | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **4** | **0** |
| Charlie Luke | England | FW | 7 | 2 | 4 | 4 | **11** | **6** |
| Dave Mangnall | England | FW | 34 | 33 | 5 | 9 | **39** | **42** |
| George McLean | Scotland | FW | 28 | 8 | 5 | 1 | **33** | **9** |
| Reg Mountford | England | DF | 10 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **10** | **0** |
| Joe Robson | England | FW | 7 | 2 | 0 | 0 | **7** | **2** |
| George Roughton | England | DF | 18 | 0 | 1 | 0 | **19** | **0** |
| Billy Smith | England | MF | 31 | 7 | 4 | 0 | **35** | **7** |
| Bon Spence | England | DF | 15 | 0 | 4 | 0 | **19** | **0** |
| George Thorpe | England | GK | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **8** | **0** |
| Hugh Turner | England | GK | 34 | 0 | 5 | 0 | **39** | **0** |
| Ernie Whittam | England | FW | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **4** | **0** |
| Tom Wilson | England | DF | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **1** | **0** |
| Alf Young | England | DF | 38 | 0 | 5 | 0 | **43** | **0** |
|

## InfoBox

Huddersfield Town
| 1931–32 season | |
| --- | --- |
| Chairman | Sir Amos Brook Hirst |
| Manager | Clem Stephenson |
| Football League First Division | 4th |
| FA Cup | Quarter-finals
(knocked out by Arsenal) |
| Top goalscorer | League: Dave Mangnall (33)
All: Dave Mangnall (42) |
| Highest home attendance | 67,037 vs Arsenal (27 February 1932) |
| Lowest home attendance | 12,963 vs Manchester City (6 April 1932) |
| Biggest win | 6–0 vs Derby County (21 November 1931)
6–0 vs Oldham Athletic (13 January 1932) |
| Biggest defeat | 0–5 vs Birmingham (28 November 1931) |
|  | |


title: Pierre Le Gros the Younger

abstract: Pierre Le Gros was a French sculptor, active almost exclusively in Baroque Rome where he was the pre-eminent sculptor for nearly two decades. He created monumental works of sculpture for the Jesuits and the Dominicans and found himself centre stage of the two most prestigious artistic campaigns of his era, the Altar of Saint Ignatius of Loyola in the Gesù and the cycle of the twelve huge Apostle statues in the nave of the Lateran basilica. Le Gros' handling of the marble attracted powerful patrons like the papal treasurer Lorenzo Corsini and Cardinal de Bouillon, as Dean of the Sacred College the highest ranking cardinal. He also played a prominent role in more intimate settings like the chapel of the Monte di Pietà and the Cappella Antamori in San Girolamo della Carità, both little treasures of the Roman late baroque not known to many because they are difficult to access. Le Gros was the most exuberant baroque sculptor of all his contemporaries but eventually lost his long battle for artistic dominance to a prevailing classicist tendency against which he fought in vain.

text:
# Pierre Le Gros the Younger

**Pierre Le Gros** (12 April 1666 Paris  3 May 1719 Rome) was a French sculptor, active almost exclusively in Baroque Rome where he was the pre-eminent sculptor for nearly two decades.

He created monumental works of sculpture for the Jesuits and the Dominicans and found himself centre stage of the two most prestigious artistic campaigns of his era, the *Altar of Saint Ignatius of Loyola* in the Gesù and the cycle of the twelve huge *Apostle statues* in the nave of the Lateran basilica. Le Gros' handling of the marble attracted powerful patrons like the papal treasurer Lorenzo Corsini (much later to become Pope Clement XII) and Cardinal de Bouillon, as Dean of the Sacred College the highest ranking cardinal. He also played a prominent role in more intimate settings like the chapel of the Monte di Pietà and the Cappella Antamori in San Girolamo della Carità, both little treasures of the Roman late baroque not known to many because they are difficult to access.

Le Gros was the most exuberant baroque sculptor of all his contemporaries but eventually lost his long battle for artistic dominance to a prevailing classicist tendency against which he fought in vain.

## Name and family

While he himself always signed as **Le Gros** and is referred to in this way in all legal documents, it has become common practice in the 19th and 20th centuries to spell the name **Legros**. Scholars frequently add a suffix like 'the Younger' or 'Pierre II' to distinguish him from his father, Pierre Le Gros the Elder, who was also a sculptor of renown to the French king Louis XIV.

Le Gros was born in Paris into a family with a strong artistic pedigree. Jeanne, his mother, died when he was three, but he stayed in close contact with her brothers, the sculptors Gaspard and Balthazard Marsy, whose workshop he frequented and eventually inherited at the age of fifteen. His initial training as a sculptor lay in the hands of his father while he learned drawing from the engraver Jean Le Pautre, the uncle of his stepmother, Marie Le Pautre. His half brother Jean (1671–1745) was to become a portrait painter.

## Student

As a student of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture Le Gros was awarded the prestigious Prix de Rome to study at the French Academy in Rome, where he arrived in 1690. There, he renewed his close friendship with his cousin Pierre Lepautre, also a sculptor, and struck a friendship with the academy's other fellow, the architect Gilles-Marie Oppenordt. His time there from 1690 to 1695 was fruitful but not untroubled. The academy was plagued by a constant financial crisis, and the premises at the Palazzo Capranica were also a rather ramshackle affair, far from the grandeur the academy would later enjoy after a move in the 18th century to the Palazzo Mancini under the directorship of Le Gros' friend Nicolas Vleughels, and eventually to the Villa Medici.

Keen to prove himself by carving a marble copy of an antique statue, after much lobbying Le Gros was eventually granted permission to do so by the director of the academy Matthieu de La Teulière and his superior in Paris, Édouard Colbert de Villacerf. His model was the then so-called *Vetturie*, an ancient sculpture then in the garden of the Villa Medici in Rome (today in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence), chosen by La Teulière as a good example for female Roman dress – which Le Gros, nevertheless, improved upon following La Teulière's instructions, by introducing dress details found in engravings after Raphael. Finished in 1695, she was finally shipped to Marly some twenty years later and came to Paris in 1722 where she was placed in the Tuileries Garden.

## Early independence

### The chapel of Saint Ignatius

In the same year 1695, Le Gros took part in a competition for a marble group to be placed on the altar of Saint Ignatius of Loyola which the Jesuit Order was erecting to its founder in their Roman mother church Il Gesù. The enterprise turned out to be the most ambitious and prestigious sculptural project Rome saw in decades. The altar's architecture was designed by Andrea Pozzo who also provided oil paintings of the sculptures and reliefs as guides to their composition while leaving the details to the individual sculptors.

Side groups on the *Altar of Saint Ignatius of Loyola*, 1695-1697/98Jean-Baptiste Théodon
*Triumph of Faith over Idolatry*Pierre Le Gros
*Religion Overthrowing Heresy and Hatred*

#### *Religion Overthrowing Heresy*

Le Gros' participation was mediated by the French engraver Nicholas Dorigny and was to be kept strictly secret. Only after being firmly commissioned (his contract is also signed by Dorigny as a witness) was Le Gros allowed to tell the French Academy's director. La Teulière took the news with surprise, told him off for his disloyalty to his benefactor, the French king, and saw no other choice than to dismiss him from the French Academy, but did continue to support him. At the same time, La Teulière could not help being a little proud of his protégé who managed to beat the cream of sculptors in Rome. In particular he stressed that the models the much older Jean-Baptiste Théodon submitted for the pendant group had to be corrected several times while Le Gros' model (today in Montpellier, Musée Fabre) was spot on from the outset.

Le Gros' subject was *Religion Overthrowing Heresy*, a dynamic group of four over-lifesize marble figures on the altar's right hand side. With her cross and a bundle of flames, the towering *Religion*, meaning Catholic religion, drives out heresy, personified by an old woman tearing her hair and a falling man with a serpent. To leave no doubt as to who specifically are considered heretics, three books bear the names of Luther, Calvin and Zwingli, whose book is torn apart by a putto. Le Gros based the facial expressions on examples for the *passions* developed by Charles Le Brun. While the figure of *Religion* appears like a statue, the old woman melts into the wall decoration, the man tips over the edge of the architectural framework towards the spectator and the snake, an anecdotal detail very typical for Le Gros, hisses directly at the viewer.

This work has always been compared to Théodon's counterpart *Triumph of Faith over Idolatry*, carved in a much more classicising, rigid style. The rivalry between the two Frenchmen was to play out repeatedly over the next few years. The sheer panache and virtuosity of this group launched Le Gros' career. He was in great demand and, indeed, the busiest sculptor in Rome at the time.

#### Silver statue of St. Ignatius

In 1697, with his group nearly complete, he won the competition for the altar's main image, the silver statue of *St. Ignatius*. It was a peculiar competition as the twelve sculptors taking part had to decide the winner themselves by pointing out the best model of their competitors. When Le Gros' victory was announced his compatriots were ecstatic and carried him through the streets in triumph.

The statue was cast in silver by Johann Friedrich Ludwig and finished in 1699. A century later it fell victim to an act of barbarism when, in 1798, it was dismantled and the head, arms and legs as well as the accompanying angels melted down for their material value during the Roman Republic. Le Gros' chasuble was left intact and the missing parts remade with slight variations in silver coated plaster from 1803 to 1804 under the supervision of Antonio Canova by one of his assistants.

### Other early works for the Jesuits and Dominicans

At the same time, Le Gros was already busy with another major Jesuit commission for the monumental altar relief of the *Apotheosis of the Blessed Luigi Gonzaga* in the church of Sant'Ignazio (1697–99). This altar was also designed by Pozzo, and Le Gros again had a great deal of freedom to elaborate on the composition. Building on an early idea of Pozzo's, which envisages a statue instead of a relief, Le Gros carved the figure of the saint nearly fully in the round. A superbly fine polish brings out the whiteness of the statuesque saint and gives it emphasis in the centre of the elaborately detailed relief.

He also started his extensive work for Antonin Cloche, the Master of the Dominicans. Apart from also being a Frenchman, Cloche was probably introduced to the sculptor by his secretary, the painter and Dominican friar Baptiste Monnoyer, who was a friend of Le Gros' at the Académie Royale in Paris. With the canonisation process initiated, Cloche commissioned the *Sarcophagus for Pope Pius V* (1697–98) of verde antico marble which was to be integrated into the existing papal tomb monument in the Cappella Sistina in Santa Maria Maggiore. Its main function is to contain the saint's body and make it visible to the faithful for veneration on limited occasions. Usually, however, it was to be hidden by a flap made of gilded bronze which bears his effigy in very shallow relief.

To fulfil all these concurrent commissions Le Gros required assistants and a suitable workshop. With the help of the Jesuits, he had found an ideal space in 1695 in a back wing of the Palazzo Farnese which he was to occupy for all his life.

## High hopes

All his work so far as an independent master had a clearly defined deadline: the celebrations of the Holy Year 1700.

### Married life

In 1701, Le Gros married a young woman from Paris, Marie Petit. She died in June 1704 leaving Le Gros with his first son (a second son only lived for a week) who was in need of a mother. So he immediately married again in October 1704. His bride was another French woman, Marie-Charlotte, daughter of the outgoing director of the French Academy in Rome, René-Antoine Houasse. Witness to this wedding was Vleughels who at the time lived at Le Gros' studio. The couple was to have two daughters and a son (Filippo Juvarra was his godfather in 1712) who lived to be adults while his first son with Marie Petit died as a child in 1710.

### Pope Clement XI

At the end of the year 1700, it fell to Cardinal de Bouillon as the longest serving cardinal to consecrate his friend, the art loving Giovanni Francesco Albani, as Pope Clement XI. The many years of papal frugality were over, and Le Gros decided that this was the time to be ambitious.

Elected a member of the Accademia di San Luca in 1700, he presented the terracotta relief *The Arts Paying Tribute to Pope Clement XI* as his reception piece in 1702. The iconography of this flattering scene was telling and unmistakably expressed the high hopes Le Gros had for the patronage of the newly elected pontiff.

### Antonin Cloche as patron

He also remained the sculptor of choice for Cloche who was eager to promote the status of the Dominicans. Following the death of Cloche's friend Cardinal Girolamo Casanate, who left his substantial collection of books and an endowment for expanding his library to the Dominicans, Le Gros was commissioned to create the cardinal's tomb in the Lateran Basilica (1700–03) and subsequently the *Statue of Cardinal Casanate* in the Biblioteca Casanatense (1706–08).

When the new pope offered the many niches in Saint Peter's to the religious orders to erect an honorary statue to their founders, Cloche jumped at the opportunity and commissioned the *Statue of Saint Dominic* from Le Gros (1702–06). It epitomises his dynamic mature style. Since no other religious order saw the necessity to hurry, *Saint Dominic* was the very first and for decades the only monumental statue of a founder in Saint Peter's.

### Other important commissions

Le Gros also continued to be employed by several branches of the Jesuit order for work such as the statue of *St Francis Xavier* (1702) in the church of Sant'Apollinare, Rome, "a marvel of delicate marble work". It shows the saint reunited with his beloved crucifix which was brought back to him by a crab after it had been lost in the sea. The terracotta model in St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum, presents an alternative idea in which the Jesuit missionary appears much fiercer, probably preaching, with the right arm raised. For the mellower mood displayed in Sant'Apollinare, Le Gros decided on a mirror image of that pose.

Also in 1702, the board of the Monte di Pietà in Rome, presided by the papal treasurer Lorenzo Corsini, continued the steady embellishment of their chapel which already boasted an altar relief by Domenico Guidi and had in time for the Holy Year 1700 found its architectural completion with the dome by Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri. They were now looking to commission two large reliefs for the side walls and made a list of sculptors currently in the limelight. Their choice was to stage another head to head of Le Gros, who was to carve the relief of *Tobit Lending Money to Gabael*, and Théodon, creating its companion piece, *Joseph Distributing Grain to the Egyptians*, on the opposite wall (both 1702–05).

### *Stanislas Kostka*

| External videos | |
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| *Stanislas Kostka on his Deathbed*, 1702–03, Novitiate of the Jesuits<br>Video from Smarthistory | |

The polychrome statue of *Stanislas Kostka on his Deathbed* (1702–03) is today Le Gros's best-known work. Since his normal practice was to evoke naturalistic impressions by an extraordinarily fine surface treatment of a monochrome white marble, this multi-coloured tableau-like depiction is quite untypical for Le Gros. But it would be untypical for any sculptor because it is unique in the history of sculpture on the whole.

Unapologetically, the statue was created to emotionally move the visitor in the room where the blessed (soon to be canonised) Jesuit novice died, next to a chapel in the Jesuit novitiate at Sant'Andrea al Quirinale. The pope honoured the new devotional site with his visit – on foot – the day following its inauguration in 1703.

The figure still moves to this day, and much of the effect is due to the aura created with the staging. The site is not something one would stumble across by accident like a chapel in a church, one has to seek it out. A visitor would enter the quiet, dimly lit rooms carefully with a sense of apprehension and awe, and then see the striking silhouette of a motionless life size figure on a bed, approachable without a barrier.

It is astonishing that one of the first things a first time visitor mentions is that Kostka looks so lifelike when, in fact, the statue couldn't be more artificial. Head, hands, feet and pillows are of white Carrara marble, the thin shirt is of a different white stone and the habit is of a black stone at the time known as "paragone". The saint's head would originally have been emphasised by a nimbus, he held an image of the Madonna in his left hand and a large crucifix would have extended from his right hand into the crook of his right elbow. Stanislas would be looking at the crucified Christ with eyes already delirious. With the large crucifix missing, an important iconographic dimension is lost today, i.e. the connection between Stanislas and Christ (similar to the statue of *St. Francis Xavier* of the same time) which would also round up the composition. The mattress, bed cover with bronze fringes and bed step are from coloured ornamental stones common to Roman baroque art but used in a highly original and effective manner.

### Bouillon Monument

At some point after 1697, Le Gros was employed by Emmanuel-Théodose de La Tour d'Auvergne, cardinal de Bouillon to create the dynastic monument for his family to be erected in a funerary chapel in Cluny Abbey, of which the cardinal was the abbot. Apart from being a compatriot, Bouillon might have known the sculptor through the Jesuits as he habitually lived as their guest in the Jesuit novitiate at Sant'Andrea al Quirinale. Le Gros's work was completed by 1707 and sent to Cluny, where it arrived in 1709. He worked on this project in as much a French manner as he ever would and invented a spectacular sepulchral monument, at once continuing in the French baroque tradition as well as opening up new formal and iconographic avenues.

The chapel was meant to receive several family members, including the cardinal himself, but first and foremost his parents, Frédéric Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duc de Bouillon and Éléonor de Bergh, Duchesse de Bouillon. Depicted as the main characters in the centre of the monument their grouping and gestures allude to the fact that Éléonor was instrumental in converting her husband to catholicism. Another important component was the heart of the duke's brother, the national hero Turenne, enclosed in a heart shaped container of gilded silver and carried towards heaven by a youthful angel who rises from a heraldic tower of white marble which links the family name La Tour to the biblical tower of David. Together with some other sculptures outside the chapel (not planned to be made by Le Gros and, in fact, never executed), the iconographic message was the postulation of a royal rank and sovereignty of the family dating back to the 9th century, the same message Cardinal de Bouillon tried to support by commissioning a written history of his ancestry from the historiographer Étienne Baluze, published in 1708 and containing an engraving of the envisaged funeral chapel with an idealised view of Le Gros's monument.

None of this highly original concept influenced the development of monumental funerary sculpture. Apart from a thorough inspection by royal officials to determine whether they expressed any pretentious dynastic claims, the sculptures were not even unpacked in Cluny due to the fact that Cardinal de Bouillon so completely fell out with his cousin, the Sun King, that he was declared an enemy of the state and all construction stopped. Le Gros' marbles and bronzes were stored, undisturbed in their sealed crates, for nearly 80 years. In the aftermath of the French Revolution they were in danger of being sold as stone material together with Cluny abbey but saved by Alexandre Lenoir who wanted them for his Musée des Monuments français.

The animated marble figures of the *Duke* and *Duchess de Bouillon* together with the angel (minus Turenne's heart) and a finely detailed relief showing the duke as a battle hero never made it to Paris and are today installed at the Hôtel-Dieu in Cluny. A fragment of the heraldic tower is kept in the granary of the abbey.

*Apostle Thomas* by Le GrosTerracotta model, 1703–04
Los Angeles County Museum of ArtMarble, 1703–11
San Giovanni in Laterano

### Lateran Apostles

At the end of 1702, Pope Clement XI announced his intention to finally have Borromini's colossal niches in the Lateran basilica filled with twelve heroic-scaled figures of the Apostles. Clement's idea was very similar to filling the niches of St. Peter's initiated at the same time: get your church embellished but find others to pay for it. So, he called on prelates and princes to sponsor individual statues but handed the task to choose sculptors to a committee created to run the project. The statue of *St. Peter* he intended to finance himself and had Théodon commissioned.

Like Théodon, Le Gros was given not only one but two statues: *Saint Bartholomew* (1703–12) who displays his own flayed skin, sponsored by the pope's treasurer Lorenzo Corsini, and *Saint Thomas* (1703–11), sponsored by King Peter II of Portugal.

From the outset it was recognised that the overall unity of all the Apostle statues was of paramount importance. The architect Carlo Fontana acted as a consultant to work out an appropriate size of the proposed sculptures and, more importantly, the ageing painter Carlo Maratti, the pope's favourite artist, was given the task to achieve a stylistic unity by preparing drawings for each statue which were then given to the sculptors as a guideline. This forced submission enraged many of them who, in 1703, voiced their discontent, Théodon even resigned because of it, eventually returning to France in 1705..

Le Gros went one step further and decided to challenge Maratti's authority by submitting a model which was radically different from the latter's sober, classicising style. With his model for *Saint Thomas* from around 1703–04, the most intricate and detailed terracotta he ever produced, he harked back to the highly emotional baroque of Gianlorenzo Bernini's *St. Longinus*. He was undoubtedly aware that, if he prevailed and his model was accepted by the pope's committee, all the other sculptors would have to follow suit stylistically. So this, in effect, was Le Gros' attempt to establish himself as the artistic leader of the Eternal City.

His model was not approved and the Late Baroque classicism, as Wittkower calls it, prevailed. While Le Gros was the only sculptor who was not held to work from drawings by Maratti, he must have been forced into an act of self-censorship. While essentially the same figure, each and every exuberance was ironed out in his monumental marble figure: the drapery is more ordered, the head lost its visionary vigour, the unruly pages of the book gave way to a carpenter's square, the naturalistic rock became a flat plinth, the weathered tomb stone turned pristine and, of course, the putto vanished. A dynamic group of a saint with a putto in the landscape became a solid statue in a niche.

While Le Gros was put in his place, he was not down and out. When it transpired that the undistinguished Florentine sculptor Antonio Andreozzi would not finish his *Saint James the Greater*, efforts were made in 1713 to win over Louis XIV to take on the patronage and employ Le Gros, but to no avail.

## Later works

Le Gros thrived on playful invention. When, some time between 1706 and 1715, he was asked by the Portuguese ambassador to add heads, hands and legs to a fragmented antique group of *Amor and Psyche*, he deliberately turned the love story on its head and transformed it to the tale of *Caunus and Byblis* in which Caunus vehemently defends himself against the sexual advances of his sister. Le Gros' creation quickly became popular and triggered a rafter of drawings, reproductions and copies by for example Pompeo Batoni, Francesco Carradori, Martin Gottlieb Klauer and, best known of all, Laurent Delvaux who carved two marble versions. Le Gros' work soon ended up in Germany where several plaster casts were made. Some time later it was purified back to *Amor and Psyche* but later destroyed in a fire. The most faithful impression of what it looked like is the plaster cast in Tiefurt House near Weimar.

In 1708–10 Le Gros collaborated with his close friend, the architect Filippo Juvarra, in the creation of the Cappella Antamori in the church of San Girolamo della Carità, Rome. His statue of *San Filippo Neri* is set against a large backlit coloured glass window and seems to dematerialise in the warm yellow orange glow. Drawings by both Le Gros and Juvarra demonstrate that each of them contributed to finding the right composition for the sculpture and tried a number of different poses. Le Gros also made many putti and cherubim and two plaster reliefs for the ceiling showing scenes from Neri's life. The exquisitely crafted chapel is one of the very few traces of Juvarra's activities in Rome.

With the vast, lavish *Monument to Pope Gregory XV and cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi* in Sant'Ignazio, Le Gros conceived his last work for the Jesuits between about 1709–14. It singularly combines the tombs of both the pope and his cardinal-nephew and celebrates their merits from a pronounced Jesuit point of view as the inscription explains: *ALTER IGNATIUM ARIS. ALTER ARAS IGNATIO* (one raised Ignatius to the altars, the other erected altars for Ignatius). This alludes to the facts that Gregory canonised the saint and Ludovico built the church of Sant'Ignazio. The concept is highly theatrical with a large curtain (made from coloured marble) being drawn back by two *Famae* (both the work of Pierre-Étienne Monnot from designs by Le Gros) to reveal the protagonist. This curtain obscures the wall behind and creates the illusion that the monument has the rare quality of being free standing rather than attached to the wall as is the norm. The composition also makes use of the monument's location in the only chapel with a side entrance to the church (to the right of the monument) by turning several figures directly towards visitors entering from there and inviting them in – an effect which today is hard to appreciate as the door is no longer in use.

From 1711 to 1714 followed the Cappella di S. Francesco di Paola in San Giacomo degli Incurabili, for which Le Gros was the architect – which basically means he was in charge of all its decoration – and the sculptor of a large relief showing the saint in adoration of an old venerated image of the *Madonna and child*, intervening to cure the sick.

## Decline

In 1713, he managed to alienate the Jesuits by stubbornly repeating his proposal to transfer his own statue of *Stanislas Kostka on his Deathbed* into the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale as a centrepiece for the newly decorated chapel of saint Stanislas. At the same time, all efforts of deciding who should be commissioned with the last Lateran apostle were at a stalemate with, it seems, three serious contenders: Le Gros, Angelo de' Rossi and Rusconi. The latter had already produced three apostles and was by then clearly favoured by Pope Clement XI, but no decision was made.

In 1714, Le Gros' father died in Paris and he himself was close to death's door, suffering from gall stones.

### Paris

In order to have an operation done and also to settle his inheritance, in 1715 he travelled to Paris, where he stayed with his great friend Pierre Crozat who managed to arrange his travel on a royal ship. Very rich, but with humorous irony nicknamed *Crozat le pauvre* (Crozat the poor) because his brother Antoine was even wealthier, he was a renowned collector and patron of the arts. His house was at the centre of artistic life for connoisseurs and established as well as up and coming artists. There, Le Gros would certainly have met the ageing Charles de la Fosse who lived with Crozat but also his young protégé Antoine Watteau. In addition Le Gros renewed his friendships with Oppenordt and Vleughels. Crozat had Le Gros decorate a *cabinet* in his Parisian house and the chapel in his magnificent country retreat, the Château de Montmorency (both destroyed).

Both Crozat and Oppenordt were on good terms with the Regent, so Le Gros would have had a good start had he decided to stay in Paris. He also acted as a go-between in Crozat's long negotiations (1714–21) to acquire the art collection of Queen Christina of Sweden for the regent. But he had great trouble with the art establishment, and the Académie royale would not admit him easily into their ranks despite his status as an internationally acclaimed artist. Rebuffed, Le Gros returned to Rome in 1716.

### Rome

Back in Rome, the last sad chapter of his life unfolded. His absence had been a great excuse to give the last Lateran apostle to Rusconi. The reason given was that de' Rossi was dead, Le Gros abroad, and therefore Rusconi the only good sculptor available.

It was, however, of far greater consequence what happened at the Accademia di San Luca. Led by Marco Benefial and Michelangelo Cerruti (both non-academicians), a protest arose in 1716 against newly introduced rules of the academy which subjected non-members to financial injustice. Francesco Trevisani and three other academicians (Pasquale de' Rossi, Giovanni Maria Morandi and Bonaventura Lamberti) distanced themselves from subscribing to these new rules, and Le Gros sided with them on his return. As a result, all five were unceremoniously expelled. This meant that they were then unable to carry out any more public commissions in Rome in their own right.

The rich Roman art market was effectively closed to Le Gros, and he had to settle for a few works outside. After being first approached by the Benedictine abbey of Montecassino in 1712, in 1714 he gave in and took on three statues for the abbey's Chiostro dei Benefattori at a bargain price. These now became his main focus. At the time of his death, the statue of *Pope Gregory the Great* was finished and *Emperor Henry II* only needed finishing touches. The third, *Charlemagne*, was hardly started and subsequently taken on by Le Gros' loyal assistant Paolo Campi as his own work. During the heavy bombing of Montecassino in World War II, *Pope Gregory* was nearly completely destroyed and is now heavily restored while *Henry II* suffered less damage and remains recognisable as a work by Le Gros.

Without doubt due to the intervention of Juvarra, who was by then architect to the Duke of Savoy, Le Gros created two female saints for Juvarra's facade of the church of S. Cristina in Turin (c. 1717–18). Upon their arrival, the statues of *Saint Christina* and *Teresa of Avila* were considered too beautiful to be exposed to the elements and brought into the church's interior (1804 transferred to Turin Cathedral) and to be replaced on the facade by copies by a local sculptor. This flattery was probably intended to be a reminder of a similar honour which was bestowed on Bernini half a century earlier with regards to his two angels for Ponte Sant'Angelo.

In a letter from 6 January 1719 to Rosalba Carriera, hoping to introduce the two on her planned visit to Rome, Crozat described Le Gros as "without question the best sculptor there is in Europe, and the most honest man and the most endearing there is."

While Le Gros' great achievement was appreciated elsewhere, he would wait in vain for a similar adulation in Rome. Rusconi received a knighthood from Clement XI for his contribution to the Lateran project in late 1718 while Le Gros went empty handed.

Pierre Le Gros died from pneumonia half a year later on 3 May 1719 and was buried in the French national church in Rome. If we believe Pierre-Jean Mariette, disappointment advanced his early death:

> "If he was indisposed against the Parisian academy, he was even more piqued by the honours conferred on Camillo Rusconi for the figures this able sculptor has made for Saint John Lateran. He expected to at least share them with him, and that would have been right; ... one more miserable cross might have preserved him for us, because one suspects that the chagrin has advanced his days."

Only in 1725, with the painter Giuseppe Chiari being its *principe*, were the five dissenters rehabilitated and reinstated as members of the Accademia di San Luca, four of them posthumously as only Trevisani was still alive at the time.

## Importance

Today, Le Gros is largely forgotten but shares this fate with almost all the artists working in Rome in his time. After a blanket condemnation of the Baroque period by critics from the 18th to well into the 20th century, Gianlorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini and a few other 17th century artists have now been given their rightful place in the pantheon of artistic geniuses. But even the great Alessandro Algardi, while certainly given his dues by art historians, is not anchored in the public consciousness, much less so the following generations of Maratti or Fontana, and then Le Gros and Rusconi. During their lifetime however, they were regarded throughout Europe as outstanding figures, valued as exemplary by generations of young artists.

An impartial look shows Le Gros as a driving force in an international environment. While family life was very French, close friends included painters such as the Dutch Gaspar van Wittel, the Frenchmen Vleughels and Louis de Silvestre as well as the Italian Sebastiano Conca, architects such as the Italian Juvarra and the Frenchman Oppenordt, and the sculptors Angelo de' Rossi as well his loyal students and right-hand men Campi and Gaetano Pace. In addition, the need for assistants brought a bevy of young sculptors and painters from all over Europe to his studio over the years like the Englishman Francis Bird and the Frenchman Guillaume Coustou who frequented his workshop before 1700, both eventually becoming significant artists in their home countries. In the 1710s we find in his workshop the German painter Franz Georg Hermann and the still very young Carle van Loo who studied drawing with Le Gros. In addition to passing on his style through students, copies and versions of important statues such as his *St. Dominic, St. Ignatius* or the *Apostle Bartholomew* can be found all over Europe and engravings were disseminated of his *Luigi Gonzaga* and *Stanislas Kostka*. Le Gros' influence didn't end with his death as his works were also studied much later as evidenced in sketches by Edme Bouchardon. Even in the second half of the 18th century connoisseurs in Paris described his *Vetturie* as an exemplary masterpiece, the quality of which far exceeds the ancient model. The importance of Le Gros for European art in the 18th century is, therefore, beyond question.

That said, because of his nearly exclusive presence in Rome, he must be seen within the context of Italian art history and made virtually no direct impact on the development of French art of his own time. His French contemporaries would have heard about him but wouldn't have seen his works. His *Vetturie*, a student work, arrived in France 20 years overdue and the *Bouillon Monument* was not even unpacked until the end of the 18th century and, therefore, not known to anybody. Moreover, the exuberance of Le Gros' work would have met with reserve or even disapproval in Versailles just as Bernini's did in the 1660s.

At the same time, it is impossible to characterise his art as purely Italian. His artistic training at the Académie royale and the experience in the workshops of his father and uncles gave him a very different starting point. He built on this experience and mixed it with an admiration for Bernini's high baroque. His love for fine detail is something he shared with older French sculptors like François Girardon and Antoine Coysevox. Imbued with the French academic practice of searching for exemplary prototypes, Le Gros looked very closely at all the art around him and found solutions by today less well known sculptors like Melchiorre Cafà and Domenico Guidi but also painters like Giovanni Battista Gaulli helpful, and he adapted them for his own work, often transformed to such a degree that the prototype is hard to pinpoint. There were only very few artists who worked successfully in a similarly playful style as Le Gros in early 18th century Rome, namely Angelo de' Rossi, Bernardino Cametti and Agostino Cornacchini. But the mood of the time drifted more and more towards classicism and made them a dying breed.

### Style

According to Gerhard Bissell, Le Gros was a sculptor of brilliant technical ability:

> The most virtuoso marble worker of his time, he excelled in convincing the eye to see the depicted materials rather than stone. His surfaces are so nuanced they nearly appear as different colours. And yet, he achieved that very rare feat of integrating these fine details into monumental sculptures without appearing grotesque.

He always tended to compose his sculptures like a relief. For his picturesque approach, an expansive shape mattered more to him than the distribution of mass and space. While the detail as well as the large form are very three-dimensional, their volume is usually tied into a system of layers. This leads by no means to a single point of view. Quite the contrary because Le Gros developed all his composition into space and entices the viewer to go around the figure. While a classicist like Rusconi linked a spatial development closely to the anatomy of the figure, Le Gros achieved this with an abundance of highly malleable drapery and extrovert gestures. In addition, he showed a keen sense for nuanced effects of light and shadow, whether it was to make the heavily polished, white as snow figure of *Luigi Gonzaga* stand out, or to cast *Filippo Neri* into a mystical shade. All of Le Gros' work is characterised by a dynamic of far and near view. It is worth getting close up to even his most heroic-scale figures.

Chronological gallery of most of the major works by Le Gros not already illustrated - some dates are uncertain or overlap, therefore the sequence is only roughly chronological.

## Citations

1. Gerhard Bissell, *Pierre le Gros, 1666–1719*, Reading, Berkshire 1997.
2. Robert Enggass, *Early Eighteenth-Century Sculpture in Rome*, University Park and London (Pennsylvania State University Press) 1976.
3. François Souchal, *French Sculptors of the 17th and 18th Centuries. The Reign of Louis XIV*, vol. II, Oxford (Cassirer) 1981, vol. IV, London (Faber) 1993.
4. Thomas Hedin, *The Sculpture of Gaspard and Balthazard Marsy*, Columbia (University of Missouri Press) 1983, pp. 232–233.
5. *Legros (Le Gros), Jean*, in: Ulrich Thieme, Felix Becker (editors): *Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Künstler von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart*, XXII, Leipzig (E. A. Seemann) 1928, p. 575.
6. Anatole de Montaiglon and Jules Guiffrey (eds.), *Correspondance des directeurs de l’Académie de France à Rome avec les surintendants des bâtiments*, vol. I-XVIII, Paris 1887–1912.
7. Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, *Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500–1900*, (Yale University Press) 1981, p. 40.
8. M.-F. Dandré-Bardon, *Traité de Peinture suivi d’un essai sur la sculpture*, Paris 1765, Vol. II, pp. 190–191 (Minkoff Reprint 1972).
9. *Tableau de Paris*
10. Pio Pecchiai, *Il Gesù di Roma*, Rome 1952, pp. 139–196 (in Italian).
11. Gerhard Bissell, *Tadolini, Adamo*, in: Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon, vol. 107, Berlin (de Gruyter) 2020, p. 413.
12. Olivier Michel, *L’Accademia*, in: *Le Palais Farnèse*, Rome 1981, Vol. I/2, pp. 567–609, in particular pp. 572–579 (in French).
13. Gerhard Schuster, *Zu Ehren Casanates. Père Cloches Kunstaufträge in der Frühzeit der Biblioteca Casanatense*, in: Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, Vol. 35, 1991, pp. 323–336.
14. Michael Levey, *Painting and Sculpture in France 1700–1789*, (Yale University Press) 1993, p. 82 (originally published as part of the Pelican History of Art: Wend Graf von Kalnein and Michael Levey, *Art and Architecture of the Eighteenth Century in France*, Harmondsworth 1972 and several new editions).
15. Gerhard Bissell, On the Tercentenary of the Death of Pierre Le Gros, Italian Art Society blog, 2 May 2019
16. See also: Mary Jackson Harvey, *Death and Dynasty in the Bouillon Tomb Commissions*, in: Art Bulletin 74, June 1992, pp. 272–296.
17. Michael Conforti, *The Lateran Apostles*, Ph.D. thesis Harvard University 1977.
18. Rudolf Wittkower, *Art and Architecture in Italy 1600–1750* (The Pelican History of Art), Harmondsworth (5th ed.) 1982, p. 436.
19. Gerhard Bissell, *Haud dubiè Amoris & Psyches imagines fuerunt statuæ istæ*, in: Max Kunze, Axel Rügler (ed.), *Wiedererstandene Antike. Ergänzungen antiker Kunstwerke seit der Renaissance* (Cyriacus. Studien zur Rezeption der Antike, Band 1), Munich 2003, pp. 73–80.
20. Gerhard Bissell, *A "Dialogue" between Sculptor and Architect: the Statue of S. Filippo Neri in the Cappella Antamori*, in: Stuart Currie, Peta Motture (ed.), *The Sculpted Object 1400–1700*, Aldershot 1997, pp. 221–237.
21. Daniel Büchel, Arne Karsten and Philipp Zitzlsperger, *Mit Kunst aus der Krise? Pierre Legros' Grabmal für Papst Gregor XV. Ludovisi in der römischen Kirche S. Ignazio*, in: Marburger Jahrbuch für Kunstwissenschaft 29:2002, pp. 165–197.
22. See also: Francis Haskell, *Pierre Legros and a Statue of the Blessed Stanislas Kostka*, in: Burlington Magazine, vol. 97, 1955, pp. 287–291.
23. Le Gros "sans contredit, est le meilleur sculpteur qu’il y ait en Europe, et le plus honnête homme et le plus aimable qu’il y ait", as quoted by Vittorio Malamanni, *Rosalba Carriera*, in: Le Gallerie Italiane 4:1896–97, p. 51.
24. "S’il fut indisposé contre l’Académie de Paris, il étoit encore plus piqué des honneurs qu’avoient procurés à Camille Ruscone les figures que cet habile sculpteur avoit faites pour Saint-Jean de Latran. Il s’attendoit à les partager du moins avec lui, et cela étoit juste; ... Une misérable croix de plus nous l’auroit peut-être conservé, car on soupçonne que le chagrin avoit avancé ses jours." Pierre-Jean Mariette, "Abecedario", vol. III, edited by Philippe de Chennevières and Anatole de Montaiglon, in: Archives de l’Art Français 6, 1854–56, p. 120.
25. First and foremost Jennifer Montagu, *Alessandro Algardi*, New Haven (Yale University Press) 1985.
26. See Montagu's remarks in her interview with João R. Figueiredo in Forma de vida.
27. The latest extensive collection is: Giuseppe Bonaccorso and Francesco Moschini (ed.), *Carlo Fontana 1638–1714*, Rome (Accademia Nazionale di San Luca) 2017.
28. Rudolph's publications related to Maratti.
29. Frank Martin, *Camillo Rusconi. Ein Bildhauer des Spätbarock in Rom*, Berlin and Munich (Deutscher Kunstverlag) 2019.
30. Stephanie Walker, *The sculptor Pietro Stefano Monnot in Rome, 1695 – 1713*, Ph.D. thesis New York University 1994.
31. Alicia Adamczak, *De Paris à Rome. Jean-Baptiste Théodon (1645–1713) et la sculpture française après Bernin*, Thèse de doctorat Université de Paris IV 2009.

## Further reading

* Gerhard Bissell, *Pierre le Gros, 1666–1719*, Reading, Berkshire 1997, ISBN 0-9529925-0-7 (in German).
* Gerhard Bissell, *Le Gros, Pierre (1666)*, in: Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon online, de Gruyter, Berlin 2014 (in German).
* Robert Enggass, *Early Eighteenth-Century Sculpture in Rome*, University Park and London (Pennsylvania State University Press) 1976.
* Pascal Julien, *Pierre Legros, sculpteur romain*, in: Gazette des Beaux-Arts 135:2000(no. 1574), pp. 189–214 (in French).
* François Souchal, *French Sculptors of the 17th and 18th Centuries. The Reign of Louis XIV*, vol. II, Oxford (Cassirer) 1981, vol. IV, London (Faber) 1993.

## InfoBox

| Pierre Le Gros | |
| --- | --- |
| Portrait of Pierre Le Gros the Younger<br>(anonymous drawing, early 18th century; unknown location) | |
| Born | (1666-04-12)12 April 1666<br>Paris |
| Died | 3 May 1719(1719-05-03) (aged 53)<br>Rome |
| Resting place | San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome |
| Nationality | French |
| Occupation | Sculptor |
| Style | Baroque |


title: Poganovo

abstract: Poganovo is a village/town near Jerma river in the Serbian municipality of Dimitrovgrad, near the border with Bulgaria. The 14th century Serbian Orthodox Poganovo monastery is located at the gorge of Jerma.

text:
# Poganovo

**Poganovo** (Serbian Cyrillic: Поганово) is a village/town near Jerma river in the Serbian municipality of Dimitrovgrad, near the border with Bulgaria. The 14th century Serbian Orthodox Poganovo monastery is located at the gorge of Jerma.

## InfoBox

| Poganovo Поганово | |
| --- | --- |
| Poganovo monastery | |
| PoganovoLocation in Serbia | |
| Coordinates: 42°58′5″N 22°40′4″E / 42.96806°N 22.66778°E / 42.96806; 22.66778 | |
| Country | Serbia |
| Region | Ponišavlje |
| District | Pirot District |
| Municipality | Dimitrovgrad |
| Elevation | 668 m (2,192 ft) |
| Population (2002) | |
| Total | 77 |