abstract: This is a timeline of optical character recognition.

text:
# Timeline of optical character recognition

This is a **timeline of optical character recognition.**

## Overview

| Time period | Summary |
| --- | --- |
| 1870–1931 | Earliest ideas of optical character recognition (OCR) are conceived. Fournier d'Albe's Optophone and Tauschek's Reading Machine are developed as devices to help the blind read. |
| 1931–1954 | First OCR tools are invented and applied in industry, able to interpret Morse code and read text out loud. The Intelligent Machines Research Corporation is the first company created to sell such tools. |
| 1954–1974 | The Optacon, the first portable OCR device, is developed. Similar devices are used to digitise Reader's Digest coupons and postal addresses. Special typefaces are designed to facilitate scanning. |
| 1974–2000 | Scanners are used massively to read price tags and passports. Companies such as Caere Corporation, ABBYY and Kurzweil Computer Products Inc, are created. The latter one develops the first omni-font OCR software, capable of reading any text document. |
| 2000–2016 | OCR software is made available online for free, through products like Adobe Acrobat, WebOCR, and Google Drive. |

## Timeline

| Year | Event type | Technology | Details |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1870 | Invention |  | American inventor Charles R. Carey invents the retina scanner, an image transmission system using a mosaic of photocells, considered the first OCR invention in the world. |
| 1885 | Invention | Image scanner | Paul Nipkow invents the Nipkow disk, an image scanning device that later will be a major breakthrough both for modern television and reading machines. |
| 1900 | Invention |  | Russian scientist Tyurin envisions the first OCR machine to serve as an aid to the visually handicapped, but never manages to develop it. |
| 1912 | Product | Text-to-speech | Edmund Fournier d'Albe develops the Optophone, a handheld scanner that when moved across a printed page, produces tones that corresponded to specific letters or characters, so as to be interpreted by a blind person. |
| 1916 | Patent |  | American engineer John B. Flowers patents the "One-Eyed Machine Stenographer", a machine capable of reading and typing a script. It worked by superimposing all the letters to find a point that marked each of them. |
| 1921 | Invention | Text-to-tactile sensations | Italian professor Ciro Codelupi envisions the "Reading machine for the blind", capable of transforming luminous sensations into tactile sensations. |
| 1929 | Invention |  | Austrian engineer Gustav Tauschek creates the first OCR device called the "Reading Machine", with a photo-sensor pointing light on words when they corresponded to a content template in its memory. |
| 1931 | Patent | Text-to-telegraph | Israeli physicist and inventor Emanuel Goldberg is granted a patent for his "Statistical machine" (US Patent 1838389), which was later acquired by IBM. It was described as capable of reading characters and converting them into standard telegraph code. |
| 1938 | Invention |  | MIT professor Vannevar Bush develops the Microfilm Rapid Selector, a similar but simpler Goldberg' statistical machine, and 40 times faster. |
| 1949 | Application |  | Engineers working on the Radio Corporation of America start a project to help the blind and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, using the first text-to-speech techniques. |
| 1951 | Invention | Text & Morse-to-speech | American cryptoanalyst David H. Shepard and Harvey Cook Jr. build "Gismo", a machine able to read aloud letter by letter and interpret Morse code (U.S. Patent 2,663,758). |
| 1952 | Company |  | The Intelligent Machines Research Corporation is founded by D. Shepard and William Lawless Jr, to commercialise Gismo (later renamed to "Analysing Reader"). |
| 1954 | Application |  | American magazine *Reader's Digest* becomes the first business to install an OCR reader, used to convert typewritten sales reports into punched cards. |
| 1962 | Invention | Portability | Stanford professor John Linvill develops the Optacon, the first portable reading device for the blind. |
| 1965 | Application |  | *Reader's Digest* expands its OCR use to digitise serial numbers of coupons. with a RCA 501 computer. |
| 1965 | Invention |  | American inventor Jacob Rabinow develops an OCR machine to sort mail from the US Post Office. |
| 1966 | Invention | Handwriting scanner | The IBM Rochester lab develops the IBM 1287, the first scanner capable of reading any handwritten numbers. |
| 1966 | Patent |  | Linvill is granted the patent for the Optacon, described as "Reading aid for the blind" (U.S. patent 3229387). |
| 1968 | Invention | Typefaces | American Type Founders and Swiss designer Adrian Frutiger introduced OCR-A and OCR-B; typefaces made to facilitate OCR operations. |
| 1969 |  |  | The US Army implemented what may have been one of the first major applications using OCR technology by converting their manual allotment program to a centralized system using IBM 360 computers. The process involved the purchase of IBM Selectric typewriters using Time Roman font 12 for all of its finance offices around the world. This application allowed all military personnel to allot portions of their paycheck through automated payroll deductions to pay bills, send to savings, etc. which eliminated monthly processing. The success of this program paved the way for all military services to follow and eventually led to the conversion to a fully automated pay system years later. |
| 1971 | Application | Postal scanner | Canadian postal operator Canada Post starts using OCR systems, to read the name and address on the envelopes and to print barcodes, using ultraviolet ink (U.S. Patent 5420403). |
| 1974 | Company | Omni-font | American inventor Ray Kurzweil creates Kurzweil Computer Products Inc., which develops the first omni-font OCR software, able to recognize text printed in virtually any font. |
| 1976 | Company |  | Dallas company Recognition Equipment Inc. is founded to read credit card receipts from gasoline purchases (U.S. Patent 4027141). |
| 1977 | Company | Commercialisation | Robert Noyce founds the Caere Corporation (now Nuance Communications), and introduces the first commercial handheld OCR reader. |
| 1978 | Product |  | Kurzweil Computer Products begins selling a commercial version of the OCR computer program, called the "Kurzweil Reading Machine". |
| 1980 | Selling |  | Kurzweil's company is sold to Xerox, who renamed it as Scansoft (now merged with Nuance Communications). |
| 1984 | Product | Passport scanner | Caere Corporation develops the first passport scanner for the U.S. State Department. |
| 1987 | Application | Price tag scanner | American retailers Sears, Kmart and J.C. Penney start using OCR to scan price tags. |
| 1989 | Company |  | OCR Russian company ABBYY is founded by David Yang, and starts selling products intended to simplify converting paper files to digital data. |
| 1992 | Invention |  | The first program that recognizes Cyrillic is invented by Russian company OKRUS. |
| 2000 | Application | Online service | OCR technology is made available online as a service (WebOCR), in a cloud computing environment, as well as in mobile applications like real-time translation of foreign-language signs on a smartphone. |
| 2005 | Application | Software | The free cross-platform OCR engine Tesseract is published by Hewlett Packard and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. |
| 2008 | Application |  | Adobe Acrobat starts including support for OCR on any PDF file. |
| 2011 | Application | Word-frequency lookup | Google Ngram Viewer is developed to chart frequencies of words on any source printed from 1950 to 2008. |
| 2013 | Application |  | The MNIST database is created to train machine learning models in pattern recognition. |
| 2015 | Application | Open access | Google offers OCR tools to scan any Google Drive files in over 200 languages for free. |


title: Microarchitectural Data Sampling

abstract: The Microarchitectural Data Sampling (MDS) vulnerabilities are a set of weaknesses in Intel x86 microprocessors that use hyper-threading, and leak data across protection boundaries that are architecturally supposed to be secure. The attacks exploiting the vulnerabilities have been labeled Fallout, RIDL, ZombieLoad., and ZombieLoad 2.

text:
# Microarchitectural Data Sampling

The **Microarchitectural Data Sampling** (**MDS**) vulnerabilities are a set of weaknesses in Intel x86 microprocessors that use hyper-threading, and leak data across protection boundaries that are architecturally supposed to be secure. The attacks exploiting the vulnerabilities have been labeled **Fallout**, **RIDL** (*Rogue In-Flight Data Load*), **ZombieLoad**., and **ZombieLoad 2**.

## Description

The vulnerabilities are in the implementation of speculative execution, which is where the processor tries to guess what instructions may be needed next. They exploit the possibility of reading data buffers found between different parts of the processor.

* Microarchitectural Store Buffer Data Sampling (MSBDS), CVE-2018-12126
* Microarchitectural Load Port Data Sampling (MLPDS), CVE-2018-12127
* Microarchitectural Fill Buffer Data Sampling (MFBDS), CVE-2018-12130
* Microarchitectural Data Sampling Uncacheable Memory (MDSUM), CVE-2019-11091
* Transactional Asynchronous Abort (TAA), CVE-2019-11135

Not all processors are affected by all variants of MDS.

## History

According to Intel in a May 2019 interview with Wired, Intel's researchers discovered the vulnerabilities in 2018 before anyone else. Other researchers had agreed to keep the exploit confidential as well since 2018.

On 14 May 2019, various groups of security researchers, amongst others from Austria's Graz University of Technology, Belgium's Catholic University of Leuven, and Netherlands' Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, in a disclosure coordinated with Intel, published the discovery of the MDS vulnerabilities in Intel microprocessors, which they named Fallout, RIDL and ZombieLoad. Three of the TU Graz researchers were from the group who had discovered Meltdown and Spectre the year before.

On 12 November 2019, a new variant of the ZombieLoad attack, called Transactional Asynchronous Abort, was disclosed.

## Impact

According to varying reports, Intel processors dating back to 2011 or 2008 are affected, and the fixes may be associated with a performance drop. Intel reported that processors manufactured in the month before the disclosure have mitigations against the attacks.

Intel characterized the vulnerabilities as "low-to-medium" impact, disagreeing with the security researchers who characterized them as major, and disagreeing with their recommendation that operating system software manufacturers should completely disable hyperthreading. Nevertheless, the ZombieLoad vulnerability can be used by hackers exploiting the vulnerability to steal information recently accessed by the affected microprocessor.

## Mitigation

Fixes to operating systems, virtualization mechanisms, web browsers and microcode are necessary. As of 14 May 2019, applying available updates on an affected PC system was the most that could be done to mitigate the issues.

* Intel incorporated fixes in its processors starting shortly before the public announcement of the vulnerabilities.
* On 14 May 2019, a mitigation was released for the Linux kernel, and Apple, Google, Microsoft, and Amazon released emergency patches for their products to mitigate ZombieLoad.
* On 14 May 2019, Intel published a security advisory on its website detailing its plans to mitigate ZombieLoad.

## Further reading

### Original papers by the researchers

### Information from processor manufacturers

## InfoBox

Microarchitectural Data Sampling
| Logo designed for the vulnerabilities, featuring a wounded hand holding a broken microprocessor. | |
| --- | --- |
| CVE identifier(s) | CVE-2018-12126 (Fallout),
CVE-2018-12127 (RIDL),
CVE-2019-11091 (RIDL, ZombieLoad),
CVE-2018-12130 (RIDL, ZombieLoad),
CVE-2019-11135 (ZombieLoad v2) |
| Date discovered | 2018 |
| Date patched | 14 May 2019 |
| Discoverer | University of Adelaide
Graz University of Technology
Catholic University of Leuven
Qihoo 360
Cyberus Technology
Saarland University
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Bitdefender
Oracle Corporation
University of Michigan
Worcester Polytechnic Institute |
| Affected hardware | Pre-April 2019 Intel x86 microprocessors |
| Website | mdsattacks.com ZombieLoadAttack.com |


title: Florida State Road 878

abstract: State Road 878 (SR 878), named the Snapper Creek Expressway, is a 2.7-mile (4.3 km) east–west controlled-access toll road south of Miami, Florida. The expressway is named for the nearby Snapper Creek which runs parallel to SR 878. It acts as a spur route of SR 874, providing access to U.S. Route 1 (US 1) near South Miami and local access to the eastern Kendall area while bypassing the Dadeland district. The road is maintained and tolled by the Greater Miami Expressway Agency (GMX).

text:
# Florida State Road 878

**State Road 878** (**SR 878**), named the **Snapper Creek Expressway**, is a 2.7-mile (4.3 km) east–west controlled-access toll road south of Miami, Florida. The expressway is named for the nearby Snapper Creek which runs parallel to SR 878. It acts as a spur route of SR 874 (Don Shula Expressway), providing access to U.S. Route 1 (US 1) near South Miami and local access to the eastern Kendall area while bypassing the Dadeland district. The road is maintained and tolled by the Greater Miami Expressway Agency (GMX).

## Route description

SR 878's western terminus is integrated into the Don Shula Expressway's interchange with SR 94 (Kendall Drive) across the boundary of the Kendall and Sunset districts. Motorists entering the Don Shula Expressway northbound from Kendall Drive are given the option of continuing onto SR 874 via a flyover, or else merging into the traffic leaving SR 874 for the Snapper Creek Expressway, which then heads under the Kendall Drive–Don Shula Expressway flyover. The westbound lanes of SR 878, however, pass over SR 874's mainline, and are then given an exclusive carriageway beside the southbound lanes for 0.46 miles (0.74 km), before merging into SR 874 just north of the Kendall Drive overpass. Southbound motorists from the Don Shula Expressway wishing to exit to Kendall Drive merge into this carriageway before leaving for SR 94 with those vehicles originating from the Snapper Creek Expressway. There is no direct connection for southbound motorists on SR 874 to head east on SR 878; likewise, westbound motorists on SR 878 cannot head north along SR 874 directly.

From here, SR 878 heads predominantly eastwards as a four-lane-wide expressway through residential neighborhoods for the remainder of its length, generally lying 0.5 miles (0.80 km) north of Kendall Drive. After approximately 0.4 miles (0.64 km), the Snapper Creek Expressway passes through the 87th Avenue toll gantry. It then meets Galloway Road (SR 973) shortly afterwards with a diamond interchange. The expressway then enters Glenvar Heights once it crosses SR 973 and remains in that district for the rest of its duration. Just before passing over the Palmetto Expressway (SR 826) without an interchange (approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) east of Galloway Road), SR 878 meets its second and final toll gantry.

About 0.3 miles (0.48 km) east of the Palmetto Expressway, SR 878 has a partial diamond interchange with Southwest 72nd Avenue, which only allows westbound entry to and eastbound exit from the Snapper Creek Expressway. Immediately afterwards, SR 878 turns to the southeast and prepares to meet its eastern terminus at the South Dixie Highway (US 1) at a surface intersection 0.6 miles (0.97 km) later, passing under the Metrorail line and associated MetroPath just before doing so. Traffic heading south along US 1 from eastbound SR 878 moves into a slip lane, while that wishing to head north along US 1 enters it at an oblique angle, aided by traffic signals. The only access onto SR 878 westbound from US 1 is for southbound traffic; motorists heading north along US 1 are guided to SR 878 by signage along Southwest 67th Avenue and Southwest 80th Street.

## Tolls

SR 878's tolls are entirely electronic: cash cannot be accepted along its length. Payment is done either via SunPass transponders or via toll-by-plate billing, the latter of which attracts a higher cost. Two toll gantries are located along the Snapper Creek Expressway, the first between the Don Shula Expressway and Galloway Road, and the second between Galloway Road and Southwest 72nd Avenue. The relationship between the tolling points and interchanges along SR 878 and SR 874 is that all motorists are charged at least one toll for using the road; there are no "free sections". As of July 1, 2013, the cost for a two-axle vehicle to travel the entire length of the Snapper Creek Expressway is $0.50 with a SunPass transponder, or $1.00 via the toll-by-plate program. Each additional axle on a vehicle attracts an extra $0.25 via SunPass or $0.50 via toll-by-plate for each toll gantry passed.

## History

Planning by Dade County for a road named the "Snapper Creek Expressway" was underway as early as 1958, with a final completion date set as late as 1975. Funding for SR 878's construction was made available in 1971 by the Florida Department of Transportation as part of plans to construct the Snapper Creek Expressway along with the South Dade Expressway (now known as the Don Shula Expressway) and the West Dade Expressway (now known as the Homestead Extension of Florida's Turnpike), with an expected completion date of early 1973. Construction was halted in 1974 due to money issued from county bonds for expressway building running out, and the road was left partially completed; however, $8 million in federal emergency funds was directed to completing the expressway in late 1977. The Snapper Creek Expressway, designated SR 878, finally opened in early 1980, with the Southwest 72nd Avenue interchange opening a few weeks later.

No tolls were collected along SR 878, in line with the road's original plans, until MDX's initial roll-out of open road tolling from late 2009 to mid-2010 on its road network. Tolling along the Snapper Creek Expressway began on July 17, 2010. The move to toll the Snapper Creek Expressway angered local residents, but was tempered by MDX's move to investigate toll rebates. Initially, tolls were $0.25 for SunPass users, with a $0.15 surcharge for motorists using the toll-by-plate system. The toll-by-plate rate increased by ten cents on July 1, 2013, to $0.50 per toll gantry passed, while the SunPass rate was unaffected.

## Exit list

The entire route is in Miami-Dade County. All exits are unnumbered.

| Location | mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Kendall | 0.000 | 0.000 |

SR 874 south to Florida's Turnpike Extension south |  |
| | 0.000 | 0.000 | SR 94 (Kendall Drive / Southwest 88th Street) | Westbound exit and eastbound entrance; other movements from SR 874 |
| Sunset | 0.3 | 0.48 | Toll gantry | |
| SunsetGlenvar Heights line | 0.677 | 1.090 | SR 973 (Southwest 87th Avenue / Galloway Road) |  |
| Glenvar Heights | 1.6 | 2.6 | Toll gantry | |
| | 2.218 | 3.570 | Southwest 72nd Avenue | Eastbound exit and westbound entrance |
| | 2.658 | 4.278 | US 1 (Pinecrest Parkway / Dixie Highway) South Miami | No left turn from US 1 north to SR 878 west |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
 | | | | | |

Template:Attached KML/Florida State Road 878KML is from Wikidata * SR 878 in Florida at SouthEastRoads

## InfoBox

| State Road 878 | |
| --- | --- |
| Snapper Creek Expressway | |
| SR 878 highlighted in red | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by GMX | |
| Length | 2.658 mi (4.278 km)Additional length of westbound lanes: 0.460 miles (0.740 km) |
| Existed | 1980–present |
| Major junctions | |
| West end | SR 874 in Kendall |
| East end | US 1 near South Miami |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Florida |
| Counties | Miami-Dade |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| SR 876   SR 880 | |


title: Lunenburg High School

abstract: Lunenburg High School is the high school of the town of Lunenburg, Massachusetts, United States in north-eastern Worcester County. The school educates students from Lunenburg. In 2016, a new Middle/High School building was completed.

text:
# Lunenburg High School

**Lunenburg High School** is the high school of the town of Lunenburg, Massachusetts, United States in north-eastern Worcester County. The school educates students from Lunenburg. In 2016, a new Middle/High School building was completed.

## Administration

* Timothy Santry - Principal (Acting)
* Robert McGrath - Assistant Principal
* Karma Tousignant - Assistant Principal
* Annica Scott - Dean of Students

## Notable alumni

## Athletics

The school is a member of the Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association. It is classified as District D and a part of the Midland Wachusett League. The school mascot is the Blue Knight.

After allegations of racism against its football program in 2013, the school cancelled the final game of the season. Teammates were initially suspected of spray painting racist slurs on a biracial player's house, but police and the FBI later investigated the player's mother, and the students were cleared of any wrongdoing. After an investigation, Worcester County District Attorney Joseph D. Early, Jr. stated that "evidence presented to us fails to demonstrate beyond a reasonable doubt that a crime has been committed," but that the case remains open.

## InfoBox

| Lunenburg Middle High School | |
| --- | --- |
| Lunenburg High School | |
| Location | |
|  | |
| 1079 Massachusetts Ave
Lunenburg, Massachusetts
01462
United States | |
| Coordinates | 42°35′51.4″N 71°43′11.0″W / 42.597611°N 71.719722°W / 42.597611; -71.719722 |
| Information | |
| Type | Public High School
Open enrollment |
| Opened | August 2016 |
| School district | Lunenburg Public Schools |
| Superintendent | Kate Burnham |
| Principal | Timothy Santry |
| Staff | 35.78 (FTE) |
| Grades | 9-12 |
| Enrollment | 440 (2022–2023) |
| Student to teacher ratio | 12.30 |
| Campus size | 167,000 SQFT |
| Campus type | High School |
| Color(s) | Blue
White |
| Athletics conference | Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association
District E
Midland Wachuset League |
| Mascot | Blue Knight |
| Website | https://sites.google.com/a/lunenburgschools.net/lhs/ |


title: Prunus sect. Microcerasus

abstract: Prunus sect. Microcerasus is a section of Prunus. It used to be included in Prunus subg. Cerasus, but phylogenetic research indicates it belongs to Prunus subg. Prunus. It differs from Prunus subg. Cerasus by having three winter buds per axil.

text:
# Prunus sect. Microcerasus

***Prunus* sect. *Microcerasus*** is a section of *Prunus*. It used to be included in *Prunus* subg. *Cerasus*, but phylogenetic research indicates it belongs to *Prunus* subg. *Prunus*. It differs from *Prunus* subg. *Cerasus* by having three winter buds per axil.

## Species

Species in this section are often called **bush cherries** or **dwarf cherries**. They include:

Hybrids:

## InfoBox

| *Prunus sect. Microcerasus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Prunus prostrata* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Rosaceae |
| Genus: | *Prunus* |
| Subgenus: | *Prunus subg. Prunus* |
| Section: | *Prunus sect. Microcerasus*
(Webb & Berthel.) C.K.Schneid. |
|
| Type species | |
| *Prunus prostrata* Labill.
 | |
| Species | |
| See text | |


title: Manuel Rojas (author)

abstract: Manuel Rojas Sepúlveda was a Chilean writer and journalist.

text:
# Manuel Rojas (author)

**Manuel Rojas Sepúlveda**  (Spanish pronunciation: \[maˈnwel ˈroxas\]; January 8, 1896  March 11, 1973) was a Chilean writer and journalist.

## Biography

Rojas was born in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, the son of Chilean parents. In 1899 his family returned to Santiago, but in 1903, after his father's death, his mother returned to Buenos Aires, where he attended school until the age of eleven. In 1912, at the age of sixteen, he decided to return alone to Chile. Once he arrived, he got involved with intellectuals and anarchist groups, while working various jobs as an unskilled labourer. He worked as a house painter, electrician, agricultural worker, railroad handyman, loading ships, tailor's apprentice, cobbler, ship guard, and actor in small-time itinerant groups. Many of the situations and characters he encountered there later became part of his fictional world.

He returned to Argentina in 1921, publishing his first poems there. Back in Chile, he worked intensely in his narrative production and, at the same time, worked in the National Library and at the Universidad de Chile press. He married María Baeza and had three children. He joined the *Los Tiempos* and the *Las Ultimas Noticias* newspapers as a Linotype operator first and ultimately worked on Santiago newspapers as a journalist, all the while working at the *Hipódromo Chile* (Santiago racetrack). After the death of his wife, he married again and started to travel. He received the Chilean National Prize for Literature in 1957. He toured Europe, South America and the Middle East. He became a university professor of Chilean and American Literature in the US and at the Universidad de Chile.

His works have, as a central theme, the representation of the instability, misery and marginality of the members of the working class. The development of the psychological and existential complexities of his characters established a difference between his work and prior literary movements (criollismo, mundonovismo), that were characterized by a less complex view of individuality. He died in Santiago on March 11, 1973.

### Youth

He began to contribute to the anarchist journals *The Buenos Aires Protest* and *The Battle of Santiago*, where he wrote articles about politics, education, and society (for the 100-year anniversary of the return to Chile, in 2012, Jorge Guerra, the president of the Manuel Rojas Foundation, compiled the texts from the Chilean journals and signed them a few times with his name. He signed others with the pen-name Tremalk Naik, in the anthology *A young man at war*).

### Beginnings as a writer

His first published literature was a poem, *El soneto el gusano (The Sonnet the Worm)*, that in 1917, appeared in the magazine, *Los Diez (The Ten)*. He belonged to a group four years later, in 1921, and during his time in Mendoza formed a theater company. He published a book of poems under the name, "Poetic" in the magazine, *Ideas and figures*. The following year, he received his first award with his story, *La laguna* (*The Lake)*, which won the second prize in the contest for the Buenos Aires magazine, *La Montaña (The Mountain)*. His first book of short stories, *Hombres del sur (Men of the South)*, appeared in 1926. In 1928, the same year his mother died, he was hired as a librarian in the Biblioteca Nacional de Chile (The National Library of Chile). His first wife, Maria, was a professor and poet. The death of his wife would be the inspiration for his poem, *Deshecha Rosa* (*Lost Rose)*. The following year, his second story book, *El delincuente (The offender),* came out which contained the famous, *El vaso de leche*, (*The Glass of Milk)*. His first novel, *Lanchas en la bahía (Boats in the Bay)*, which he wrote in 1930, came out in 1932. In 1936, he published his second novel, *La Ciudad de los Césares (The City of the Caesars)*, and, after the death of his wife, he took over as director of the University of Chile's printing press. Years later, Rojas would declare in an interview his regret for writing this novel, criticizing it for not only being bad, but also extremely fictional. "The writer is the son of his experience. A writer without experience is an unimaginable being", he insisted.

## Works

**Novels**

* *Lanchas en la bahía*, 1932
* *La ciudad de los Césares*, 1936
* *Hijo de ladrón*, 1951
* *Mejor que el vino*, 1958
* *Punta de rieles*, 1960
* *Sombras contra el muro*, 1964
* *La oscura vida radiante*, 1971

**Short Stories**

* *Hombres del Sur*, 1926
* *El Delincuente*, 1929
* *El Bonete Maulino*, 1943
* *Imágenes de infancia*, 1955
* *El vaso de leche*, 1927

**Poems**

* *Poéticas*, 1921
* *Tonada del transeúnte*, 1927
* *Travesía*, 1934
* *Desecha rosa*, 1954

**Essays**

* *De la poesía a la revolución*, 1938
* *José Joaquin Vallejo*, 1942
* *Chile:cinco navegantes y un astrónomo*, 1956
* *Los costumbristas chilenos*, 1957
* *El árbol siempre verde*, 1960
* *Antología autobiográfica*, 1962
* *Esencias del pais chileno*, 1963
* *Historia Breve de la literatura chilena*, 1964
* *Pasé por México un dia*, 1964
* *Manual de literatura chilena*, 1964
* *Viaje al país de los profetas*, 1969
* *Justo Arteaga Alemparte*, 1974

## Legacy

In 2012, Chile's National Council of Culture and the Arts established the Manuel Rojas Ibero-American Narrative Award in his honor.

## InfoBox

| Manuel Rojas | |
| --- | --- |
| Rojas in 1957 | |
| Born | Manuel Rojas Sepúlveda
(1896-01-08)January 8, 1896
Buenos Aires, Argentina |
| Died | March 11, 1973(1973-03-11) (aged 77)
Santiago, Chile |
| Awards | National Prize for Literature (1957) |


# 1990 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 21

The 1990 Tour de France was the 77th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Futuroscope with a prologue individual time trial on 30 June and Stage 10 occurred on 10 July with a mountain stage to Saint-Gervais. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 22 July.

## Stage 11

**11 July 1990 — Saint-Gervais to Alpe d'Huez, 182.5 km (113.4 mi)**

| **Stage 11 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax 5h 37' 51"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso s.t.  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 1"  4  Thierry Claveyrolat (FRA) RMO–Mavic–Liberia \+ 4"  5  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 6"  6  Abelardo Rondón (COL) Banesto \+ 40"  7  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved s.t.  8  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto s.t.  9  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 47"  10  Ronan Pensec (FRA)  Z–Tomasso \+ 48" |  | **General classification after stage 11**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Ronan Pensec (FRA)  Z–Tomasso 48h 24' 43"  2  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA) Carrera Jeans–Vagabond \+ 1' 28"  3  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 9' 04"  4  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 9' 28"  5  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 10' 39"  6  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 11' 05"  7  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 11' 29"  8  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 11' 55"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 13' 45"  10  Fabrice Philipot (FRA) Castorama–Raleigh \+ 13' 49" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 12

**12 July 1990 — Fontaine to Villard-de-Lans, 33.5 km (20.8 mi) (individual time trial)**

| **Stage 12 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde 56' 52"  2  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 30"  3  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 43"  4  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 54"  5  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 56"  6  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 58"  7  William Palacio (COL) Ryalcao–Postobón \+ 59"  8  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond \+ 1' 05"  9  Johan Bruyneel (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 1' 17"  10  Reynel Montoya (COL) Ryalcao–Postobón s.t. |  | **General classification after stage 12**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 49h 24' 08"  2  Ronan Pensec (FRA) Z–Tomasso \+ 1' 17"  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 6' 55"  4  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 7' 27"  5  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 9' 02"  6  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 10' 44"  7  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 10' 48"  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 11' 23"  9  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 12' 46"  10  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 13' 58" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 13

**14 July 1990 — Villard-de-Lans to Saint-Étienne, 149.0 km (92.6 mi)**

| **Stage 13 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE 3h 20' 12"  2  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde s.t.  3  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved s.t.  4  Roberto Conti (ITA) Ariostea s.t.  5  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso s.t.  6  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 30"  7  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto s.t.  8  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax s.t.  9  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 36"  10  Dimitri Konyshev (URS) Alfa Lum \+ 3' 08" |  | **General classification after stage 13**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 52h 49' 13"  2  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 2' 02"  3  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 2' 34"  4  Ronan Pensec (FRA) Z–Tomasso \+ 4' 11"  5  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 4' 39"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 6' 25"  7  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 8' 23"  8  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 9' 00"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 05"  10  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 9' 39" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 14

**15 July 1990 — Le Puy-en-Velay to Millau, 205.0 km (127.4 mi)**

| **Stage 14 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE 5h 12' 03"  2  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 24"  3  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 25"  4  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 33"  5  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 34"  6  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde s.t.  7  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto s.t.  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto Soudal s.t.  9  William Palacio (COL) Ryalcao–Postobón s.t.  10  Gilles Delion (FRA) Helvetia–La Suisse s.t. |  | **General classification after stage 14**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 58h 02' 03"  2  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 1' 49"  3  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 2' 21"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 4' 26"  5  Ronan Pensec (FRA) Z–Tomasso \+ 4' 55"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 6' 03"  7  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 36"  8  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 8' 46"  9  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 9' 26"  10  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 43" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 15

**16 July 1990 — Millau to Revel, 170.0 km (105.6 mi)**

| **Stage 15 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Charly Mottet (FRA) RMO–Mavic–Liberia 4h 13' 56"  2  Giuseppe Calcaterra (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 2' 02"  3  Viatcheslav Ekimov (URS) Panasonic–Sportlife s.t.  4  Edwig Van Hooydonck (BEL) Buckler–Colnago–Decca s.t.  5  Thierry Claveyrolat (FRA) RMO–Mavic–Liberia s.t.  6  Davide Cassani (ITA) Ariostea s.t.  7  Atle Kvålsvoll (NOR) Z–Tomasso s.t.  8  Luc Leblanc (FRA) Castorama–Raleigh s.t.  9  Óscar Vargas (COL) Ryalcao–Postobón s.t.  10  Bruno Cornillet (FRA) Z–Tomasso s.t. |  | **General classification after stage 15**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 62h 20' 47"  2  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 1' 52"  3  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 2' 24"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 4' 29"  5  Ronan Pensec (FRA) Z–Tomasso \+ 4' 58"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 6' 06"  7  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 39"  8  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 8' 14"  9  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 8' 49"  10  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 9' 29" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 16

**17 July 1990 — Blagnac to Luz Ardiden, 215.0 km (133.6 mi)**

| **Stage 16 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto 7h 04' 38"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 6"  3  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 15"  4  Miguel Martínez (ESP) ONCE \+ 59"  5  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 1' 18"  6  Roberto Conti (ITA) Ariostea \+ 1' 24"  7  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 1' 36"  8  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 1' 38"  9  Éric Boyer (FRA) Z–Tomasso s.t.  10  Gilles Delion (FRA) Helvetia–La Suisse \+ 2' 00" |  | **General classification after stage 16**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 69h 27' 50"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 5"  3  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 3' 42"  4  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 3' 49"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 29"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 7' 48"  7  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 49"  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 8' 40"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 34"  10  Ronan Pensec (FRA) Z–Tomasso \+ 11' 12" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 17

**18 July 1990 — Lourdes to Pau, 150.0 km (93.2 mi)**

| **Stage 17 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Dimitri Konyshev (URS) Alfa Lum 4h 08' 25"  2  Johan Bruyneel (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 1"  3  Steve Bauer (CAN) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 11"  4  Jean-Claude Colotti (FRA) RMO–Mavic–Liberia \+ 32"  5  Davide Cassani (ITA) Ariostea s.t.  6  Reynel Montoya (COL) Ryalcao–Postobón s.t.  7  Pascal Simon (FRA) Castorama–Raleigh \+ 34"  8  Dominique Arnaud (FRA) Banesto \+ 53"  9  Laurent Biondi (FRA) Histor–Sigma \+ 2' 59"  10  Peter De Clercq (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 3' 38" |  | **General classification after stage 17**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 73h 41' 46"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 5"  3  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 3' 42"  4  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 3' 49"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 29"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 7' 48"  7  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 49"  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 8' 40"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 34"  10  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 11' 30" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 18

**19 July 1990 — Pau to Bordeaux, 202.0 km (125.5 mi)**

| **Stage 18 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax 5h 41' 33"  2  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 1"  3  Roberto Gusmeroli (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 3"  4  Giovanni Fidanza (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 19"  5  Adriano Baffi (ITA) Ariostea s.t.  6  Johan Museeuw (BEL) Lotto–Superclub s.t.  7  Djamolidine Abdoujaparov (URS) Alfa Lum s.t.  8  Olaf Ludwig (DDR) Panasonic–Sportlife s.t.  9  Adri van der Poel (NED) Weinmann–SMM Uster s.t.  10  Martin Schalkers (NED) TVM s.t. |  | **General classification after stage 18**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 79h 23' 38"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 5"  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 3' 31"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 3' 42"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 29"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 7' 29"  7  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 49"  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 8' 40"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 34"  10  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 11' 30" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 19

**20 July 1990 — Castillon-la-Bataille to Limoges, 182.5 km (113.4 mi)**

| **Stage 19 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Guido Bontempi (ITA) Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 5h 16' 04"  2  Dag Otto Lauritzen (NOR) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 1' 28"  3  Peter Roes (BEL) Lotto–Superclub s.t.  4  Roberto Gusmeroli (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 1' 32"  5  Jelle Nijdam (NED) Buckler–Colnago–Decca \+ 2' 06"  6  Adri van der Poel (NED) Weinmann–SMM Uster s.t.  7  Steve Bauer (CAN) 7-Eleven–Hoonved s.t.  8  Andreas Kappes (FRG) Toshiba s.t.  9  Maarten Ducrot (NED) TVM \+ 2' 15"  10  Edwig Van Hooydonck (BEL) Buckler–Colnago–Decca \+ 2' 44" |  | **General classification after stage 19**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA)  Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 84h 45' 46"  2  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 5"  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 3' 31"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 3' 42"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 29"  6  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 7' 29"  7  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 7' 49"  8  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 8' 40"  9  Andrew Hampsten (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 9' 34"  10  Fabio Parra (COL) Kelme–Ibexpress \+ 11' 30" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 20

**21 July 1990 — Lac de Vassivière to Lac de Vassivière, 45.5 km (28.3 mi) (individual time trial)**

| **Stage 20 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde 1h 02' 40"  2  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 28"  3  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 38"  4  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 40"  5  Greg LeMond (USA) Z–Tomasso \+ 57"  6  Pello Ruiz Cabestany (ESP) ONCE \+ 1' 28"  7  Dag Otto Lauritzen (NOR) 7-Eleven–Hoonved \+ 2' 01"  8  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 2' 21"  9  Philippe Louviot (FRA) Toshiba \+ 2' 26"  10  Luc Leblanc (FRA) Castorama–Raleigh \+ 2' 27" |  | **General classification after stage 20**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Greg LeMond (USA)  Z–Tomasso 85h 49' 28"  2  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA) Carrera Jeans–Vagabond \+ 2' 16"  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 2' 29"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 5' 01"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 05"  6  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 9' 14"  7  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 9' 39"  8  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 11' 14"  9  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 12' 04"  10  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 12' 47" |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Stage 21

**22 July 1990 — Brétigny-sur-Orge to Paris Champs-Élysées, 182.5 km (113.4 mi)**

| **Stage 21 result**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Johan Museeuw (BEL) Lotto–Superclub 4h 53' 52"  2  Adriano Baffi (ITA) Ariostea s.t.  3  Olaf Ludwig (DDR) Panasonic–Sportlife s.t.  4  Djamolidine Abdoujaparov (URS) Alfa Lum s.t.  5  Davis Phinney (USA) 7-Eleven–Hoonved s.t.  6  Sean Kelly (IRL) PDM–Concorde s.t.  7  Phil Anderson (AUS) TVM s.t.  8  Jelle Nijdam (NED) Buckler–Colnago–Decca s.t.  9  Adri van der Poel (NED) Weinmann–SMM Uster s.t.  10  Uwe Raab (DDR) PDM–Concorde s.t. |  | **General classification after stage 21**  Rank Rider Team Time  1  Greg LeMond (USA)  Z–Tomasso 90h 43' 20"  2  Claudio Chiappucci (ITA) Carrera Jeans–Vagabond \+ 2' 16"  3  Erik Breukink (NED) PDM–Concorde \+ 2' 29"  4  Pedro Delgado (ESP) Banesto \+ 5' 01"  5  Marino Lejarreta (ESP) ONCE \+ 5' 05"  6  Eduardo Chozas (ESP) ONCE \+ 9' 14"  7  Gianni Bugno (ITA) Chateau d'Ax \+ 9' 39"  8  Raúl Alcalá (MEX) PDM–Concorde \+ 11' 14"  9  Claude Criquielion (BEL) Lotto–Superclub \+ 12' 04"  10  Miguel Induráin (ESP) Banesto \+ 12' 47" |
| --- | --- | --- |


title: Pětka

abstract: The Pětka, or Committee of Five, was an unofficial informal extraparliamentary semi-constitutional political forum that was designed to cope with political difficulties of the First Republic of Czechoslovakia. Founded in September 1920, it was a council of leaders of the coalition parties that made up the Czechoslovak government. Its name came from the Czech word for "five" and is pronounced pyetka. It played a crucial role in the country's politics.

text:
# Pětka

The **Pětka**, or **Committee of Five**, was an unofficial informal extraparliamentary semi-constitutional political forum that was designed to cope with political difficulties of the First Republic of Czechoslovakia. Founded in September 1920, it was a council of leaders of the coalition parties that made up the Czechoslovak government. Its name came from the Czech word for "five" and is pronounced *pyetka*. It played a crucial role in the country's politics.

## Establishment

|  |  |  |  |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Rudolf Bechyně (ČSSD) | Alois Rašín (ČsND) | Jan Šrámek (ČSL) | Antonín Švehla (RSZML) | Jiří Stříbrný (ČSNS) |

The Pětka was founded in 1920 to provide guidance to the weak cabinet of Jan Černý, which is said to have "resembled a ventriloquist’s dummy: it had no political will or voice of its own". When the Petka was formed, Czechoslovakia was recovering from the First World War and dealing with the problems it faced as a new state in postwar Europe. The first President of Czechoslovakia, Tomáš Masaryk, saw the new Europe as "a laboratory built over the graveyard of the world war, a laboratory that needs the work of all". In this post-war Europe, Masaryk "recognised that his people still lacked the necessary experience and forbearance necessary for parliamentary government" and knew that a nontraditional political institution would be needed to maintain control. To govern Czechoslovakia it would have been easier for Masaryk to rule as a dictator, but that was against his democratic ideals. Instead, he acted boldly, if not constitutionally, and formed a government of experts, the Pětka, in September 1920. In his autobiography, Masaryk stated how anxious he was "to ensure the expert elements of the administration and Government".

The five representative experts and their political parties were Antonín Švehla (Agrarian Party), Alois Rašín (National Democratic Party), Rudolf Bechyně (Social Democratic Party), Jiří Stříbrný (Socialist Party) and Jan Šrámek (People's Party). The main force behind the Petka was Antonín Švehla, served as Czechoslovakia’s prime minister from 1922 to 1926 and from 1926 to 1929 and wielded much influence over the government.

Created in 1920, by the leader of the Agrarian Party, Švehla, it was originally designed as a means to stave off a potential crisis that seemed to be brewing on account of the inability of the leading parties in parliament to form a governing coalition. Invited to participate in the Pětka were the leaders of the four other leading political parties in the newly-formed Republic of Czechoslovakia.

## Aims

The Pětka was designed to make up for the lack of "political voice" of the Černý cabinet. The leaders of the five main political parties met at regular intervals to provide direction to the cabinet and advise the prime minister. Each of the five members worked on the principle of "We have agreed that we will agree". The Petka ensured all major disputes took place out of the public eye, and the government maintained a united front for public consumption. The rigid party discipline that characterised the Czechoslovak political system enabled the Petka representatives to control each of their party's members in the Assembly and so they were in a position to control the cabinet. In fact, the Petka has been described as "the real government of the country".

Conceived on an ad hoc basis, the behind-the-scenes forum proved so effective that the leaders of the five parties (the Agrarians, the National Socialists, the National Democrats, the Social Democrats and the Catholic Party) reconvened the Pětka on several occasions for the following two decades.

However, whatever the true dimensions of its power, it is certain that the non-elected rather-shadowy Pětka wielded a great deal of power during the interwar period. In September 1921, it seems to have been the Pětka that was responsible for deciding to install Edvard Beneš as the prime minister. A year later, after Beneš resigned, the Pětka chose Švehla to serve as his successor. As the 1920s progressed, and Czechoslovakia remained relatively stable, the importance of the early Pětka began to wane or rather was incorporated into the cabinet.

## Achievements

The Pětka helped keep under control the economic crisis that sparked hyperinflation across Europe between 1922 and 1923. In 1924, it directed the National Assembly to pass a National Insurance Law, which created a social welfare system that was described as being one of the most progressive in the world at the time. The stability of the First Republic of Czechoslovakia regime was maintained, which must be attributed, at least in part, to the Pětka since it followed a moderate course that was acceptable to a majority of the Chamber of Deputies, which prevented a cabinet crisis at times of social unrest. The Pětka provided discipline to the National Assembly and enabled it to reach compromises and to ensure the stability of Czechoslovakia.

Czechoslovakia stood out among other Central and Eastern European countries during the interwar period by its stability. Many other countries in the region fell under dictatorships, experienced prolonged instability or fell under the control of parties on the extreme left or the extreme right.

During the interwar period in Czechoslovakia, the left never dominated a cabinet, the communists never participated in a government and the coalition was never faced with an organised opposition bloc of opponent parties that was capable of assuming office itself. The Pětka's existence enabled Czechoslovakia to be described as being "internally stable and externally respected".

The establishment and effectiveness of the Pětka reflects two significant aspects of political life in the country after the First World War. Firstly, it demonstrates the impulse towards consensus among the leaders of the newly formed-Czechoslovakia, which had come into being as an independent state only by the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of the war. That sentiment was captured in the slogan of the coalitions forged by Švehla: "We have agreed that we will agree". Whatever their differences and personal leaders, the Czechoslovak leaders felt obliged to search out common ground to prevent the country from falling into chaos. Secondly, the presence and the power of the Pětka demonstrates the fragility and the immaturity of Czechoslovakian democracy.

The legacy of the Pětka is rather mixed. On one hand, it seems to have played an important role in some of the most significant accomplishments of the short-lived First Republic. It can be given credit, among other things, for the vast majority of social reforms enacted between 1918 and 1923. The eight-hour workday, sickness and unemployment relief and restrictions on female and child labour were some of the reforms that the Pětka supposedly engineered. In comparison with the other countries carved out of the remnants of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was a prosperous and secure haven. Some credit must go to the Pětka.

On the other hand, it can be argued that the reliance on the Pětka and on backroom negotiations left the country ill-prepared when the difficulties it encountered defied compromise. Specifically, the leaders found it impossible to contend with the threat posed by the rise of Nazism in Germany and the various repercussions that it had on life in Czechoslovakia, with its large and increasingly-hostile German minority.

## Criticisms

The Pětka faced criticism for being unconstitutional and undemocratic. Even Masaryk himself acknowledged the Pětka was not entirely democratic and said in a 1925 speech:

"I am a convinced democrat and I accept the inherent difficulties of democracy. Our difficulties arise from the high demands of democracy, which requires a body of citizens who are truly educated in the political sense, and an intelligent electorate, both men and women. Hence I am not in favour of government by experts or officials. Of course we have already had two Cabinets of Officials (the Petka). What does that signify? It means that for us the transition from monarchism to democracy is a difficult one. Problems, however, are solved by people who think and possess knowledge, and are not merely elected".

## End

When it was founded, it was thought the Petka would last only briefly. However, "the provisional often proves lasting", and it lasted in some form or another until the end of the First Republic of Czechoslovakia. With the dissolution of the Pětka came the end of discipline in the coalition. Czech and Slovak politicians began to argue, and long-suppressed conflicts were soon exposed.

## Sources

* Mamatey, Victor S. (1973). "The Development of Czechoslovak Democracy, 1920-1938". In Victor S. Mamatey; Radomir Luza (eds.). *A History of the Czechoslovak Republic, 1918-1948*. Princeton University Press.
* Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue (1935). *President Masaryk Tells His Story*. Translated by Karel Čapek. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
* Cohen, Victor (1941). *The Life and Times of Masaryk*. London: John Murray Albemarle Street.
* Crampton, R. J. (1997). *Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – And After*. New York: Routledge.
* Diamond, William (1947). *Czechoslovakia Between East and West*. London: Stevens & Sons Limited.


title: Water scarcity in Mexico

abstract: The extent of water scarcity in Mexico is so serious that the government released an advertising campaign titled "February 2010: The City May Run Out of Water". Mexico City's hydrological paradox is that it gets more than enough rain to, in theory, keep the 21 million people who live in and around it adequately supplied with water. Its average annual precipitation is about twice that of Los Angeles, and even exceeds that of famously damp London. But most of the rainfall comes during the summer, and often during just a few epic storms. So when it is wet, it is much too wet, and the city has built a massive infrastructure over the past five centuries to get the water out quickly. To keep hydrated during the drier months, Mexico City imports water from other regions but mainly just pumps from underground, which causes land subsidence, which makes flooding worse. In May 2008 in Mexico, agriculture accounted for 77% of water use, industry 10% and domestic uses 13%. As a consequence of the 1980 economic crisis, the Mexican irrigation infrastructure became a victim of underinvestment and neglect. Of the 82 irrigation districts present, 42 are in a state of slow deterioration, exacerbating an inefficient usage of water. Furthermore, in a water-saving tax Tarifa 09, the biggest users of water by far - the farmers, were actually exempted. With an increasing population, and considerable economic activities, the Mexican residents of semi-arid and arid north, northwest and central regions use on average 75 US gallons (280 L) of water a day, compared to their US counterparts who use only 50 US gallons (190 L). These regions also account for 84% of Mexico's GDP, have 77% of the population, but have only 28% of runoff water supply. Such high demand factors coupled with low water supplies, means water scarcity is particular evident and serious in these regions. Mexico is also heavily dependent on underground aquifers, as it continues to draw water from these sources to supply almost 70% of its needs. However, the rate of extraction has far exceeded replenishment. As of 2010, 101 of the 653 aquifers in Mexico are severely exploited, all of which are located in the water-scarce regions. Continual draining of water from such aquifers has resulted in the city plunging some 10 meters in the 20th century, clearly indicating that other alternatives are required to sustain the water supply of Mexico. An alternative is the tapping of water from the Cutzamala dam system. Huge pipes that used to expel wastewater to prevent flooding are now being used to pipe water into the city from the dam system. Water is transported across a total distance of 180 kilometers and almost 1000 meters in altitude to reach water-scarce states. However, this presents no viable long-term solution either, as the dam system itself is drying up. Enduring the worst drought in 70 years, the Cutzamala basin is only at 47% of its capacity, and the water level of the basin continues to fall. Providing a fifth of Mexico's water, the poor infrastructural state of the aged system underscores a loss of 40% or 6,000 litres of water every second before reaching Mexico. Repair projects requiring M70 million have since been shelved, contributing to the standstill in efforts to solve Mexico's water scarcity problem.

text:
# Water scarcity in Mexico

The extent of **water scarcity in Mexico** is so serious that the government released an advertising campaign titled "February 2010: The City May Run Out of Water".

Mexico City's hydrological paradox is that it gets more than enough rain to, in theory, keep the 21 million people who live in and around it adequately supplied with water. Its average annual precipitation is about twice that of Los Angeles, and even exceeds that of famously damp London. But most of the rainfall (or hail) comes during the summer, and often during just a few epic storms. So when it is wet, it is much too wet, and the city has built a massive infrastructure over the past five centuries to get the water out quickly. To keep hydrated during the drier months, Mexico City imports water from other regions but mainly just pumps from underground, which causes land subsidence, which makes flooding worse.

In May 2008 in Mexico, agriculture accounted for 77% of water use, industry 10% and domestic uses 13%. As a consequence of the 1980 economic crisis, the Mexican irrigation infrastructure became a victim of underinvestment and neglect. Of the 82 irrigation districts present, 42 are in a state of slow deterioration, exacerbating an inefficient usage of water. Furthermore, in a water-saving tax *Tarifa 09*, the biggest users of water by far - the farmers, were actually exempted.

With an increasing population, and considerable economic activities, the Mexican residents of semi-arid and arid north, northwest and central regions use on average 75 US gallons (280 L) of water a day, compared to their US counterparts who use only 50 US gallons (190 L). These regions also account for 84% of Mexico's GDP, have 77% of the population, but have only 28% of runoff water supply. Such high demand factors coupled with low water supplies, means water scarcity is particular evident and serious in these regions.

Mexico is also heavily dependent on underground aquifers, as it continues to draw water from these sources to supply almost 70% of its needs. However, the rate of extraction has far exceeded replenishment. As of 2010, 101 of the 653 aquifers in Mexico are severely exploited, all of which are located in the water-scarce regions. Continual draining of water from such aquifers has resulted in the city plunging some 10 meters in the 20th century, clearly indicating that other alternatives are required to sustain the water supply of Mexico.

An alternative is the tapping of water from the Cutzamala dam system. Huge pipes that used to expel wastewater to prevent flooding are now being used to pipe water into the city from the dam system. Water is transported across a total distance of 180 kilometers and almost 1000 meters in altitude to reach water-scarce states. However, this presents no viable long-term solution either, as the dam system itself is drying up. Enduring the worst drought in 70 years, the Cutzamala basin is only at 47% of its capacity, and the water level of the basin continues to fall. Providing a fifth of Mexico's water, the poor infrastructural state of the aged system underscores a loss of 40% or 6,000 litres of water every second before reaching Mexico. Repair projects requiring M70 million have since been shelved, contributing to the standstill in efforts to solve Mexico's water scarcity problem.


title: Luo Gan

abstract: Luo Gan is a retired Chinese politician. Between 2002 and 2007, Luo was one of China's top leaders, serving as a member of the nine-man Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, and as the Secretary of Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission (Zhengfawei), which became one of China's most powerful political offices, and well-funded bureaucracies, during Luo's term. In his Zhengfawei role, Luo held oversight for many law-enforcement institutions, including the police, public security officers, armed police, labor camps, prisons, and the judicial system. Luo retired from politics in 2007.

text:
# Luo Gan

| Luo Gan | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Traditional Chinese | 羅幹 |
| Simplified Chinese | 罗干 |
| Transcriptions  Standard Mandarin  Hanyu Pinyin Luó Gàn | |
|  | |

**Luo Gan** (simplified Chinese: 罗干; traditional Chinese: 羅幹; born July 18, 1935) is a retired Chinese politician. Between 2002 and 2007, Luo was one of China's top leaders, serving as a member of the nine-man Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, and as the Secretary of Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission (*Zhengfawei*), which became one of China's most powerful political offices, and well-funded bureaucracies, during Luo's term. In his *Zhengfawei* role, Luo held oversight for many law-enforcement institutions, including the police, public security officers, armed police, labor camps, prisons, and the judicial system. Luo retired from politics in 2007.

## Early career

Luo Gan was born in Jinan, Shandong province. In 1953, he began studying engineering at the Beijing Steel and Iron Institute. A year later, he was selected as part of a Chinese contingent to go study at Karl Marx University in Leipzig, East Germany where he studied German language. He interned at the Leipzig steel and metalworks plant. He then continued studying machine works at Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg. Luo joined the Chinese Communist Party in 1960, while still in Germany. It was said that Luo had stellar grades and won the Agricola prize for academic achievement while studying in Germany.

Upon returning to China, Luo continued to work in the steel industry, first being sent to the First Ministry of Machine-Building, a state-run department in charge of machines, telecommunications, and shipbuilding. There he worked as a technician and project leader in its mechanics department. As a technical specialist, Luo, like many others in his field, were displaced from their posts during much of the Cultural Revolution, and sent to perform manual labour at a May 7 Cadre School. In 1970, Luo returned to work in Henan province, working for a government machine-building project in Luohe, then transferred to Zhengzhou.

## Rise to power

In October 1978, as part of a nationwide reshuffle following the demise of the Gang of Four, former First Machine-Building minister Duan Junyi took on the post of party chief of central Henan Province. While in Henan, Duan was eager to promote his former associates, including Luo Gan. In 1980, Luo was made head of the provincial science and technology commission, and also a leader in the provincial trade office. A year later, Luo was made Vice Governor of Henan.

In 1983, Luo was sent to Beijing and became deputy chairman of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the state-sponsored trade union group. As a major leader of the ACFTU, Luo was in charge of the day-to-day management of the organization. As a result of his tenure in the union, Luo was made Minister of Labour in March 1988. In December 1988, Luo took over duties of the Secretary-General of the State Council as a result of the illness of his predecessor Chen Junsheng.

During his term as a minister, Luo had developed a close relationship with Li Peng came to be considered one of Li's protégés. Luo was appointed a State Councilor, a position with equivalent rank but slightly lesser responsibility compared as a Vice-Premier, in 1993. He served in the position until 2003. In September 1997 at the 15th Party Congress, Luo advanced further, being named a Secretary of the Central Secretariat, the Secretary of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission (*Zhengfawei*), and a member of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party, joining the inner sanctum of party leaders.

Luo oversaw a diverse portfolio with jurisdiction over law enforcement and internal security, as well as "comprehensive social management", a nebulous new phrase that essentially meant asserting control and preventing organized protests and social disturbances; as part of his responsibilities, he was tasked by Jiang Zemin to head the 610 Office, an extrajudicial organ established to suppress the spiritual group Falun Gong. As a result of his role, Luo faced heavy criticism from Falun Gong adherents.

## Standing Committee

Luo entered the Politburo Standing Committee in 2002, at the 16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party at the age of 67. The Standing Committee was expanded from seven members to nine in 2002, some say as a result of then-Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin attempting to stack the body with his supporters. Luo, then branded by overseas media as an associate of Li Peng, became a major beneficiary of this increase in membership. That he held a seat on the nation's highest ruling council, coupled with the relative weakness of the new party General Secretary Hu Jintao, as well as the general focus placed by the Communist Party on internal security and combating dissent to party authority, vastly increased the power of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Regarded as the "security chief" of the country, Luo implemented the "strike hard" campaign against extremism in Xinjiang and against organised crime, increasing the harshness of sentences; some suggest that this policy led to increased executions; it was said that Luo had personally directed the suppression of "illegal organisations" such as the Falun Gong movement and protests such as that at the Pubugou Dam protest in 2004.

Luo's term as the chief of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission was also characterized by proponents of the Weiquan movement as having further solidified party control over legal and judicial affairs, and thus impeding progress on human rights and legal freedoms. During his tenure, Luo was seen to have warned party officials to rein in judicial independence and but also pay heed to the international implications of legal activities in China, while also expanding "rule by law".

Luo retired from the Politburo Standing Committee at the age of 72, after the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. By 2007, rules related to mandated retirement age have been largely entrenched within the Communist Party hierarchy. Luo, as the oldest member of the Standing Committee by that time, naturally must retire. His *Zhengfawei* portfolio was then inherited by Zhou Yongkang, a former oil baron who went on to oversee an even greater expansion of powers of the portfolio. Zhou was eventually convicted on corruption charges and sentenced to prison in 2015.

Luo largely disappeared from the public eye following his retirement in 2007. In 2015, the Chinese authorities published *Luo Gan on Law and Politics Work in China* (罗干谈政法综治工作), a compilation of Luo's thoughts on law enforcement work during his tenure. Luo also made a public appearance at the 2015 China Victory Day Parade.

On December 17, 2009, Argentinian Federal Judge Octavio Araoz de Lamadrid issued a national and international Interpol warrant for the detention of Luo Gan, along with Jiang Zemin. The warrant was issued with basis on the investigation of 17 testimonies of Falun Gong practitioners victims of persecution, along with reports by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and the UN detailed in case Nº 17885/2005.

## InfoBox

| Luo Gan | |
| --- | --- |
| 罗干 | |
|  | |
| Secretary of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission | |
| **In office**
March 27, 1998  October 22, 2007 | |
| General Secretary | Jiang Zemin
Hu Jintao |
| Preceded by | Ren Jianxin |
| Succeeded by | Zhou Yongkang |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1935-07-18) July 18, 1935
Jinan, Shandong, Republic of China |
| Political party | Chinese Communist Party |
|  | |


title: Midwest Christian Outreach

abstract: Midwest Christian Outreach, Inc (MCOI), is a non-denominational, conservative evangelical organization. It is a Chicago support group that encourages people to leave cults or groups they deem cult-like and "an apologetics ministry in suburban Chicago." It has branches in Lohrville, Iowa; Salisbury, North Carolina; Scranton, Kansas; and Spring Hill, Florida. Its mission statement: "Midwest Christian Outreach, Inc., is a non-denominational, evangelical organization that exists to defend the Gospel of Jesus Christ, especially to those who consciously reject it due to what MCO deems 'false beliefs', and to challenge and equip believing Christians to do the same". MCOI is headed by Don Veinot, who is a former atheist, who acts as president. His wife and three others serve as board members of the organization. Religion Dispatches credits Veinot as the founder of MCOI. Founders Ministries credits Veinot and his wife as co-founders of MCOI. Since 1995, MCOI has produced a self-published journal which is mailed out three to four times a year with a circulation of under 2,000. It is also available online in Adobe PDF format called the Midwest Christian Outreach Journal. The journal consists of three or four articles each issue, with either Don Veinot or his wife writing at least one article each time, and a small group of other like-minded conservatives that are frequent contributors. Midwest Christian Outreach is based in Wonder Lake, Illinois.

text:
# Midwest Christian Outreach

**Midwest Christian Outreach, Inc** (**MCOI**), is a non-denominational, conservative evangelical organization. It is a Chicago support group that encourages people to leave cults or groups they deem cult-like and "an apologetics ministry in suburban Chicago."

It has branches in Lohrville, Iowa; Salisbury, North Carolina; Scranton, Kansas; and Spring Hill, Florida.

Its mission statement: "Midwest Christian Outreach, Inc., is a non-denominational, evangelical organization that exists to defend the Gospel of Jesus Christ, especially to those who consciously reject it due to what MCO deems 'false beliefs', and to challenge and equip believing Christians to do the same".

MCOI is headed by Don Veinot, who is a former atheist, who acts as president. His wife and three others serve as board members of the organization. *Religion Dispatches* credits Veinot as the founder of MCOI. Founders Ministries credits Veinot and his wife as co-founders of MCOI.

Since 1995, MCOI has produced a self-published journal which is mailed out three to four times a year with a circulation of under 2,000. It is also available online in Adobe PDF format called the *Midwest Christian Outreach Journal*. The journal consists of three or four articles each issue, with either Don Veinot or his wife writing at least one article each time, and a small group of other like-minded conservatives that are frequent contributors.

Midwest Christian Outreach is based in Wonder Lake, Illinois.


title: Lunenburg campaign (1758)

abstract: The Lunenburg campaign was executed by the Mi'kmaq militia and Acadian militia against the Foreign Protestants who the British had settled on the Lunenburg Peninsula during the French and Indian War. The British deployed Joseph Gorham and his Rangers along with Captain Rudolf Faesch and regular troops of the 60th Regiment of Foot to defend Lunenburg. The campaign was so successful, by November 1758, the members of the House of Assembly for Lunenburg stated "they received no benefit from His Majesty's Troops or Rangers" and required more protection.

text:
# Lunenburg campaign (1758)

The **Lunenburg campaign** was executed by the Mi'kmaq militia and Acadian militia against the Foreign Protestants who the British had settled on the Lunenburg Peninsula during the French and Indian War. The British deployed Joseph Gorham and his Rangers along with Captain Rudolf Faesch and regular troops of the 60th Regiment of Foot to defend Lunenburg. The campaign was so successful, by November 1758, the members of the House of Assembly for Lunenburg stated "they received no benefit from His Majesty's Troops or Rangers" and required more protection.

## Historical context

Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq. To prevent the establishment of Protestant settlements in the region, Mi'kmaq raided the early British settlements of present-day Shelburne (1715) and Canso (1720). A generation later, Father Le Loutre's War began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21, 1749.

By the time Cornwallis had arrived in Halifax, there was a long history of the Wabanaki Confederacy (which included the Mi'kmaq) protecting their land by killing British civilians along the New England/ Acadia border in Maine (See the Northeast Coast campaigns 1688, 1703, 1723, 1724, 1745, 1746, 1747).

The British quickly began to build other settlements. To guard against Mi'kmaq, Acadian, and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax (Citadel Hill) (1749), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Lunenburg (1753) and Lawrencetown (1754). There were numerous Mi'kmaq and Acadian raids on these villages such as the Raid on Dartmouth (1751).

After the Raid on Lunenburg (1756), Governor Lawrence sought to protect the area by establishing blockhouses at the LaHave River, Mush-a-Mush (at present day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia) and at the Northwest Range (present day Northwest, Nova Scotia). Despite the protection of these blockhouses, Indians and Acadians continued raiding the area, executing eight such raids over the next three years. A total of 32 people from Lunenburg were killed in the raids with more being taken prisoner. The British reported that most of these raids were by the Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Cape Sable. (The Argyle, Nova Scotia region was formerly known as Cape Sable and encompassed a much larger area than it does today. It extended from Cape Negro (Baccaro) through Chebogue.)

Following the raid of 1756, Mi'kmaq made eight more raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula over the next three years. In 1757, the Mi'kmaq raided Lunenburg and killed six people from the Brissang family. That same year, the Lunenburg settlers were compelled to do "much militia duty". During the winter, 300 soldiers under the command of former governor, now Major General, Hopson's were stationed at Lunenburg. In April 1757, a band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq partisans raided a warehouse near-by Fort Edward, killing thirteen British soldiers and, after taking what provisions they could carry, setting fire to the building. A few days later, the same partisans also raided Fort Cumberland. Because of the strength of the Acadian militia and Mi'kmaq militia, British officer John Knox wrote that "In the year 1757 we were said to be Masters of the province of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, which, however, was only an imaginary possession." He continues to state that the situation in the province was so precarious for the British that the "troops and inhabitants" at Fort Edward, Fort Sackville and Lunenburg "could not be reputed in any other light than as prisoners."

By year end, Governor Charles Lawrence wrote, "More inhabitants were killed and taken prisoner, by which many were too much exposed, and others apprehensive of danger. The people much discouraged, and in great distress." (By June 1757, the settlers of another Halifax satellite settlement, Lawrencetown, had to be withdrawn completely again from the settlement because the number of Mi'kmaq and Acadian raids eventually prevented settlers from leaving their houses). Of the 151 settlers who arrived in Dartmouth in August 1750, after Mi'kmaq and Acadia raids half of the settlers left the community within two years later. By the end of war (1763), Dartmouth was only left with 78 settlers.

## Campaign

The following year, March 1758, the Mi'kmaq raided the Lunenburg Peninsula at the Northwest Range (present-day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia) and killed five people from the Ochs and Roder families. On 15 May 1758, Captain Faesch left Halifax for Lunenburg with troops of the 60th Regiment and an order was given for Sutherland to join the forces en route to Louisbourg. Acadian privateers attacked shipping off of Lunenburg. By the end of May 1758, most of those on the Lunenburg Peninsula abandoned their farms and retreated to the protection of the fortifications around the town of Lunenburg, losing the season for sowing their grain. For those that did not leave their farms for the town, the number of raids intensified.

During the summer of 1758, in response to the British Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Mi'kmaq conducted four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On July 13, 1758, a member of the Labrador family killed two boys on the LaHave River. The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on August 24, 1758, when eight Mi'kmaq attacked the family homes of Lay and Brant. While they killed three people in the raid, the Mi'kmaq were unsuccessful in taking their scalps, which was the common practice for payment from the French. Two days, later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia. On August 27, Joseph Stye along with Conrad Halty and his wife were buried after being scalped.

On September 8, D.C. Jessen led 60 militia and forty troops from the 60th Regiment around the peninsula for a week to scout for Mi'kmaq, which they did not find. During that time, on September 11, Mi'kmaq captured a child in a raid on the Northwest Range.

After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Gorham's Rangers were stationed at Lunenburg for the winter. (Joseph Gorham owned 300 acres of land at Lunenburg: land still named Gorham Point at the end of present-day Second Peninsula, two islands nearby, a peninsula leading from the community of Mahone Bay as well as the Seven Islands, near Sacrifice Island in Mahone Bay.) Despite the presence of Gorham's Rangers and the 60th Regiment, in December Lawrence wrote to the Lords of Trade, that the Mi'kmaq "had just destroyed a whole family remarkable for their industry, and that in so bloody and barbarous a manner as to terrify and drive three parts of the people from their county lots into the town for protection."

## Afterward

The raids continued the following spring. One raid happened on March 27, 1759, in which three members of the Oxner family were killed. The last raid happened on April 20, 1759. The Mi'kmaq killed four settlers at Lunenburg who were members of the Trippeau and Crighton families. In a letter to the Lords of Trade dated 20 September 1759, Lawrence continued to comment on the raids by Mi'kmaq and Acadians slowing the development of the community. Again, Acadian privateers attacked shipping off of Lunenburg.

Rev. Jean-Baptiste Moreau was the minister at Lunenburg who buried many of the dead. He reported that the Mi'kmaq killed 32 people in the campaign.

Chief Paul Laurent of the LaHave Tribe arrived in Halifax after surrendering to the British at Fort Cumberland on 29 February 1760 and signed a Halifax Treaty on 10 March 1760.

### Sources

## InfoBox

| Lunenburg campaign | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of the French and Indian War | |
|
Jean-Baptiste Moreau, buried many of the 32 killed | |
| Date March–December 1758  Location Lunenburg, Nova Scotia | |
| Belligerents | |
| Great Britain | Mi'kmaq militia
Acadian militia |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Lieut-Colonel Patrick Sutherland
Dettlieb Christopher Jessen
Joseph Gorham
Captain Rudolf Faesch (3rd Battalion, 60th Regiment of Foot) Montgomery's regiment
Naval Captain Silvanus Cobb | Charles Deschamps de Boishebert
Chief Joseph Labrador
Chief Paul Laurent |
| Strength | |
| 30 | unknown |
| Casualties and losses | |
| 32 killed | none |


title: Pseudogobio esocinus

abstract:
Pseudogobio esocinus, or the Japanese gudgeon, is a species of fish in the family Cyprinidae.
This small fish is widely distributed in fresh-water streams and lakes across Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and China.

text:
# Pseudogobio esocinus

***Pseudogobio esocinus***, or the **Japanese gudgeon**, is a species of fish in the family Cyprinidae. This small fish is widely distributed in fresh-water streams and lakes across Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and China.

## InfoBox

| *Pseudogobio esocinus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Cypriniformes |
| Family: | Cyprinidae |
| Subfamily: | Gobioninae |
| Genus: | *Pseudogobio* |
| Species: | ***P. esocinus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pseudogobio esocinus***<br>(Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Gobio esocinus* (Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) | |


title: Marcel Toussaint Terfve

abstract: Marcel Toussaint Louis Joseph Terfve was a Belgian corporal of World War I. He was known as the last Belgian soldier to be killed in the war, dying at 10:45 a.m, a quarter of an hour before the Armistice of 11 November 1918 took effect.

text:
# Marcel Toussaint Terfve

**Marcel Toussaint Louis Joseph Terfve** (December 2, 1893 – November 11, 1918) was a Belgian corporal of World War I. He was known as the last Belgian soldier to be killed in the war, dying at 10:45 a.m, a quarter of an hour before the Armistice of 11 November 1918 took effect.

## Biography

Marcel Terfve was born in Liège on December 2, 1893. His father, Gilles, was an aspiring notary and his mother, French, Marie-Jeanne Drapier, was unemployed. Single, Terfve was an insurance inspector before the start of World War I. In 1914, he volunteered and was enlisted in the 1st Line Regiment within the 3rd company. Within the 1st Line Regiment, he was stationed upon the defenses at the Gete at the Battle of the Yser in October 1914. After the fall of Diksmuide, Terfve spent the next 3 years within the trenches.

Terfve then traveled to France to study to become a non-commissioned officer and graduated as a warrant officer and he initially wanted to become a second lieutenant but he asked for his demotion to remain a corporal within his unit. On November 11, 1918, the first regiment joined the left bank of the Ghent–Terneuzen Canal within the vicinity of Kluizen. At 6:40 a.m., the 1st Line Regiment received a notice from the high command informing that a ceasefire would take place at 11 a.m. This message is confirmed at 9:08. An officer notes, however, the German forces retained their machine guns on the right bank of the canal. At 10:42 a.m., three soldiers were mowed down by machine gun fire on the edge of the canal. Two were seriously injured and Terfve himself received a bullet which punctured his left lung. Despite the regiment's best efforts to mend his wound, at 10.45 am, Terfve passed away, a quarter of an hour before the Armistice of 11 November 1918 went into effect.

## Legacy

Terfve was first buried in Eeklo. He was then re-interred thereafter in the cemetery of Mons-lez-Liège on May 31, 1921.

There is currently no monument in memory of Terfve as there is for Antoine Fonck, the first Belgian soldier to die on August 4, 1914. His burial also seems not to have been preserved.

> There is everything in the short life of this young man. The obvious courage of his voluntary commitment, the solidarity expressed by his decision not to rise in rank to remain in contact with his comrades in the unit and, of course, the horror of the war which still killed until the last moments. Without necessity. Arbitrarily. At the chance of a useless shot and a moment of recklessness. All of us could have been this Marcel Terfve or one of the approximately 40,000 other Belgian soldiers who died between 1914 and 1918.

## InfoBox

| Marcel Toussaint Terfve | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | (1893-12-02)December 2, 1893
Liège, Liège Province, Belgium |
| Died | November 11, 1918(1918-11-11) (aged 24)
Kluizen, East Flanders, Belgium |
| Allegiance | Belgium |
| Branch | Belgian Land Component |
| Rank | Corporal |
| Unit | 1st Line Regiment |
| Battles/wars |  |


title: 1990 Virginia Slims of Houston

abstract: The 1990 Virginia Slims of Houston was a women's tennis tournament played on outdoor clay courts at the Westside Tennis Club in Houston, Texas in the United States that was part of the Tier III category of the 1990 WTA Tour. It was the 20th edition of the tournament and was held from March 27 through April 1, 1990. Fourth-seeded Katerina Maleeva won the singles title and earned won $45,000 first-prize money.

text:
# 1990 Virginia Slims of Houston

The **1990 Virginia Slims of Houston** was a women's tennis tournament played on outdoor clay courts at the Westside Tennis Club in Houston, Texas in the United States that was part of the Tier III category of the 1990 WTA Tour. It was the 20th edition of the tournament and was held from March 27 through April 1, 1990. Fourth-seeded Katerina Maleeva won the singles title and earned won $45,000 first-prize money.

## Finals

### Singles

Katerina Maleeva defeated  Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–1, 1–6, 6–4

* It was Maleeva' first singles title of the year and the 9th of her career.

### Doubles

The doubles event was cancelled due to rain delays.

## InfoBox

| 1990 Virginia Slims of Houston | |
| --- | --- |
| Date | March 27 – April 1 |
| Edition | 20th |
| Category | Tier III |
| Draw | 16S / 8D |
| Prize money | $225,000 |
| Surface | Clay / outdoor |
| Location | Houston, Texas, U.S. |
| Venue | Westside Tennis Club |
| Champions | |
| Singles | |
| Katerina Maleeva | |
|  | |


title: Pyrenotrichaceae

abstract: The Pyrenotrichaceae are a small family of fungi in the order Chaetothyriales. It contains two genera, and a total of six species. The genus Pyrenothrix has two species of bark- or leaf-dwelling lichens, while Neophaeococcomyces has four species of saprobic fungi.

text:
# Pyrenotrichaceae

The **Pyrenotrichaceae** are a small family of fungi in the order Chaetothyriales. It contains two genera, and a total of six species. The genus *Pyrenothrix* has two species of bark- or leaf-dwelling lichens, while *Neophaeococcomyces* has four species of saprobic fungi.

## Taxonomy

The family (originally spelled as *Pyrenothricaceae*) was proposed by the lichenologist Alexander Zahlbruckner in 1926 to contain the genera *Pyrenothrix* and *Cyanoporina*. Because of the presence of perithecia in this *Pyrenothrix* species, Aino Henssen suggested that the genus should be in the order Pleosporales in 1964. Ove Eriksson challenged Henssen's classification of *Pyrenothrix* in 1981, proposing instead that it was closely related to the sooty molds, specifically the family Coccodiniaceae. This repositioning aligns with the characteristics of a filamentous thallus and perithecia, placing *Pyrenothrix* within the order Chaetothyriales. He classified Pyrenothrichaceae under the class Chaetothyriomycetes and Dothideomycetes incertae sedis in 2004. In a 2005 publication, Herrera-Campos and colleagues, describing a second species of *Pyrenothrix*, proposed including the genus in Chaetothyriales based on the simple perithecial wall characteristic of the genus. Although DNA sequences for species of Pyrenotrichaceae are lacking, the placement of the family in the Chaetothyriales has been later followed by subsequent authors. Genus *Cyanoporina*, circumscribed to contain *Cyanoporina granulosa* in 1951, is now considered to be of uncertain classification in the Pezizomycotina. The second genus of the Pyrenotrichaceae, *Neophaeococcomyces*, was proposed in 2015. It contains four species of saprobic fungi that live on dead plant bark in terrestrial habitats.

## Description

The Pyrenotrichaceae comprises lichens that are either corticolous (growing on bark) or foliicolous (growing on leaves). These lichens have a thallus made up of closely packed yet distinct filaments, each comprising unbranched or pseudo-branched photobiont threads (the photosynthetic part of the lichen) encased in a sheath of fungal hyphae. These hyphae are branched and interconnected, consisting of elongated, often curved cells that are pale brownish in colour and sometimes inflated at the ends. The photobiont in these lichens is cyanobacterial, a type of photosynthesizing bacteria.

In terms of reproduction, the sexual morph of Pyrenotrichaceae is characterised by perithecioid ascomata, which are spore-producing structures that are either sessile (attached directly by the base) or immersed among the thallus filaments. These ascomata are typically spherical to pear-shaped and have a short neck, but lack any sort of hair (i.e., they are glabrous). The opening of the ascomata, or ostiole, is not very distinct and contains long, hyaline (translucent) periphysoids (hair-like structures). The excipulum, or outer layer of the ascomata, is thin and made up of multiple layers of cells that vary in width and wall thickness, ranging from thin-walled and hyaline to thick-walled and heavily pigmented. There is no involucrellum, an additional protective layer found in some other lichens.

Inside the ascomata, the structure known as the hamathecium, which is the tissue containing the spore-bearing cells, lacks paraphyses (sterile filaments). This tissue reacts positively to J and KI staining. The asci (spore-producing cells), are fissitunicate (having a two-layered wall that splits open to release the spores), broadly clavate to sac-like in shape, and do not react to J or KI tests, but their lumen (internal cavity) does turn yellow with iodine and pale yellow with potassium iodide. The ascospores produced by the asci typically number eight per ascus and have a transversal septate to muriform (divided into compartments) structure, with a colour ranging from pale to dark grayish-brown.

The asexual morph of Pyrenotrichaceae, which refers to the part of the life cycle where reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes, remains undetermined.

## Genera

## InfoBox

| Pyrenotrichaceae | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Eurotiomycetes |
| Order: | Chaetothyriales |
| Family: | Pyrenotrichaceae
Zahlbr. (1926) |
|
| Type genus | |
| *Pyrenothrix*
Riddle (1917) | |
| Genera | |
| *Pyrenothrix*
*Neophaeococcomyces* | |


title: Lula Reed

abstract: Lula Reed was an American rhythm and blues and gospel singer who recorded in the 1950s and 1960s. She had two R&B hits in 1952 as vocalist with pianist and bandleader Sonny Thompson, and later recorded with guitarist Freddy King. She was occasionally credited as Lulu Reed.

text:
# Lula Reed

**Lula Reed** (born **Lula Marietta McClelland**, March 21, 1926 – June 21, 2008) was an American rhythm and blues and gospel singer who recorded in the 1950s and 1960s. She had two R&B hits in 1952 as vocalist with pianist and bandleader Sonny Thompson, and later recorded with guitarist Freddy King. She was occasionally credited as **Lulu Reed**.

## Background

Reed was born in Mingo Junction, Jefferson County, Ohio. As a child her family moved to Port Clinton, Ohio, where she sang in her local church choir.

## Career

Reed was mentored by blind gospel singer Professor Harold Boggs, before winning an audition over 50 other contestants in Toledo to become the vocalist with Sonny Thompson's band. Credited as vocalist on Thompson's records, she made her recording debut for King Records in Cincinnati in late 1951, on the song "I'll Drown in My Tears" written by Henry Glover. The song reached no.5 on the *Billboard* R&B chart in 1952, and was recorded by Ray Charles in 1956 as "Drown in My Own Tears", with wider commercial success.

Reed's next record with Thompson, "Let's Call It A Day", also written by Glover, reached no.7 on the *Billboard* R&B chart. Most of her later records for King were credited in her own name, although she continued to record with Thompson, who became her husband in 1954. She was a versatile singer, performing some gospel songs as well as blues and R&B. Her 1954 recording, "Rock Love", was later covered by Little Willie John. She remained popular, being voted no.4 R&B singer in the *Cash Box* annual poll in 1954, and continued to record for the King label until 1956. However, Reed failed to have any further chart hits. King released an album of her recordings, *Blue And Moody*, in 1958.

Reed and Thompson recorded for the Chess Records subsidiary Argo between 1958 and 1960, before returning to Cincinnati and starting to record for King's subsidiary Federal label in 1961. She released seven singles on Federal over the next two years, on many of them accompanied by Freddy King, but none made the charts. Accompanied by King and Thompson, she also released an album on Federal, *Boy-Girl-Boy*, in 1962. She then moved to the Tangerine label set up by Ray Charles, and recorded a series of singles in the early 1960s. Her final single was released in 1967.

She then left the music business, due to her perceived lack of promotion by the last record company she signed with. She died in Detroit, Michigan in 2008 at the age of 82.

Several compilation albums of her recordings have been issued, including *I'll Drown in My Tears – The King Anthology*.

## Legacy

In Episode 4, Season 1 of *Totems* (2021), French CIA agent Virgil'e (José Garcia) listens to Reed in his apartment.

## InfoBox

| Lula Reed | |
| --- | --- |
| Birth name | Lula Marietta McClelland |
| Also known as | Lulu Reed |
| Born | (1926-03-21)March 21, 1926
Mingo Junction, Jefferson County, Ohio, U.S. |
| Died | June 21, 2008(2008-06-21) (aged 82)
Detroit, Michigan, U.S. |
| Genres | R&B, gospel |
| Occupation | Singer |
| Years active | 1951–1967 |
| Labels | King, Argo, Federal, Tangerine |


title: Tiradentes do Sul

abstract: Tiradentes do Sul is a municipality in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. As of 2020, the estimated population was 5,616. The municipality would be partially flooded by the proposed Panambí Dam.

text:
# Tiradentes do Sul

**Tiradentes do Sul** is a municipality in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. As of 2020, the estimated population was 5,616.

The municipality would be partially flooded by the proposed Panambí Dam.

27°23′52″S 54°05′02″W / 27.39778°S 54.08389°W / -27.39778; -54.08389

## InfoBox

| Tiradentes do Sul | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
|  | |
| Location of Tiradentes do Sul in Rio Grande do Sul | |
| Country | Brazil |
| Region | South |
| State | Rio Grande do Sul |
| Mesoregion | Noroeste Rio-Grandense |
| Microregion | Três Passos |
| Founded | 20 March 1992 |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Alceu Diel (PSDB, 2021 - 2024) |
| Area | |
| Total | 236.653 km2 (91.372 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | |
| Total | 5,532 |
| Density | 23/km2 (61/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Tiradentense |
| Time zone | UTC−3 (BRT) |
| Website | Official website |


title: Midwest Canadian Shield Forests

abstract: The Midwest Canadian Shield Forests is an ecoregion in Canada, classified as a Taiga and Boreal Forests Biome.

text:
# Midwest Canadian Shield Forests

The **Midwest Canadian Shield Forests** is an ecoregion in Canada, classified as a Taiga and Boreal Forests Biome.

## Setting

This is an area of rolling hills with lakes both small and large, wetlands, and rocky outcrops on the Canadian Shield in northern Saskatchewan, north-central Manitoba (north and east of Lake Winnipeg) and Northwestern Ontario. Specific areas include the Athabasca Sand Dunes, and many lakes such as Cree Lake, Upper Foster Lake and Reindeer Lake in Saskatchewan. The area has a cold climate, very cold in winter although the hills around Lac Seul are warmer and wetter than most of the ecoregion, while the Athabasca Plain and the uplands above the Churchill River and Hayes River are cooler. There are patches of permafrost throughout

## Flora

Much of the landscape, including the Athabasca Plain, is the boreal forest that covers so much of Canada at this latitude, consisting of black spruce (*Picea mariana*), jack pine (*Pinus banksiana*), quaking aspen (*Populus tremuloides*), white birch (*Betula papyrifera*), balsam poplars, white spruce (*Picea glauca*), and balsam fir (*Abies balsamea*). The dominant tree of the wetlands is black spruce, while the rocky outcrops are covered with lichens.

## Fauna

Mammals of the ecoregion include moose (*Alces alces*), American black bear (*Ursus americanus*), woodland caribou (*Rangifer tarandus caribou*), barren-ground caribou (*Rangifer tarandus arcticus*), Canada lynx (*Lynx canadensis*), grey wolf (*Canis lupus*), American beaver (*Castor canadensis*), North American river otter (*Lontra canadensis*), American marten (*Martes americana*), American ermine (*Mustela richardsonii*), fisher (*Martes pennanti*), muskrat (*Ondatra zibethica*), snowshoe hare (*Lepus americanus*), southern red-backed vole (*Myodes gapperi*), American red squirrel (*Tamiasciurus hudsonicus*) and least chipmunk (*neotamius minimus*).

Birds include ducks, geese, American white pelican (*Pelecanus erythrorhynchos*), sandhill crane (*Grus canadensis*), spruce grouse (*Falcipennis canadensis*), sharp-tailed grouse (*Tympahuchus phasianellus*), willow grouse (*Lagopus lagopus*), common nighthawk (*Chordeiles minor*), red-tailed hawk (*Buteo jamaicensis*), common raven (*Corvus corax*), common loon (*Gavia immer*), bald eagle (*Haliaeetus leucocephalus*), Canada jay (*Perisoreus canadensis*), northern hawk owl (*Surnia ulula*), great horned owl (*Bubo virginianus*), American herring gull (*Larus smithsonianus*) and double-crested cormorant (*Phalacrocorax auritus*).

## Threats and preservation

Most of the natural forest remains intact with most alteration having occurred in Manitoba due to logging, mining and hydro-electric power generation. Protected areas include Opasquia Provincial Park, Woodland Caribou Provincial Park and Pipestone River Provincial Park in northwestern Ontario, Atikaki Provincial Wilderness Park in eastern Manitoba and Lac la Ronge and Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park in Saskatchewan.

## InfoBox

| Midwest Canadian Shield Forests | |
| --- | --- |
| Forests of the Pisew Falls Provincial Park, Manitoba | |
|  | |
| Ecology | |
| Realm | Nearctic |
| Biome | Boreal forests/taiga |
| Borders | List |
| Geography | |
| Area | 755,470 km2 (291,690 sq mi) |
| Country | Canada |
| Province |  |
| Conservation | |
| Conservation status | Vulnerable |