title: Wytopitlock, Maine

abstract: Wytopitlock is an unincorporated village in Reed Plantation, Aroostook County, Maine, United States. Wytopitlock is located on the Mattawamkeag River and is served by Maine State Route 171.

text:
# Wytopitlock, Maine

**Wytopitlock** is an unincorporated village in Reed Plantation, Aroostook County, Maine, United States. Wytopitlock is located on the Mattawamkeag River and is served by Maine State Route 171.

## InfoBox

| Wytopitlock, Maine | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Wytopitlock | |
| Coordinates: 45°38′26″N 68°04′32″W / 45.64056°N 68.07556°W / 45.64056; -68.07556 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Maine |
| County | Aroostook |
| Township | Reed Plantation |
| Elevation | 341 ft (104 m) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| ZIP code | 04497 |
| Area code | 207 |
| GNIS feature ID | 578733 |


title: X-class Melbourne tram

abstract: The X-class was a class of two Birney trams imported from United States manufacturers JG Brill Company and St Louis Car Company by the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board. In June 1924 both entered service from Hawthorn depot on the Power Street to Hawthorn Bridge service. In 1928 both were transferred to Glenhuntly depot to operate the Point Ormond route. In 1956, 217 was transferred to the isolated Footscray network. They also operated night services taking them as far as Brighton East, Malvern East and Coburg North. With the cessation of these services in 1957, both were withdrawn.

text:
# X-class Melbourne tram

The **X-class** was a class of two Birney trams imported from United States manufacturers JG Brill Company and St Louis Car Company by the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board. In June 1924 both entered service from Hawthorn depot on the Power Street to Hawthorn Bridge service. In 1928 both were transferred to Glenhuntly depot to operate the Point Ormond route.

In 1956, 217 was transferred to the isolated Footscray network. They also operated night services taking them as far as Brighton East, Malvern East and Coburg North. With the cessation of these services in 1957, both were withdrawn.

## Preservation

One has been preserved:

## InfoBox

| X-class | |
| --- | --- |
| Manufacturer | JG Brill Company
St Louis Car Company |
| Constructed | 1923 |
| Number built | 2 |
| Fleet numbers | 217-218 |
| Capacity | 33 |
| Specifications | |
| Car length | 8.53 m (28 ft 0 in) |
| Width | 2.55 m (8 ft 4 in) |
| Height | 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in) |
| Wheel diameter | 673 mm (26.5 in) |
| Wheelbase | 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in) |
| Weight | 8.4 t (19,000 lb) |
| Current collector(s) | Trolley pole |
| Bogies | JG Brill Company 79E (217)
St Louis Car Company No 7 (218) |
| Track gauge | 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+12 in) |


title: X-bracing

abstract: X-bracing is a structural engineering practice where the lateral load on a building is reduced by transferring the load into the exterior columns. X-bracing was used in the construction of the 1908 Singer Building, then the tallest building in the world. Some skyscrapers by engineer Fazlur Khan, such as the 1969 John Hancock Center, have a distinctive X-bracing exterior, allowing for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan if the architect desires.

text:
# X-bracing

**X-bracing** is a structural engineering practice where the lateral load on a building is reduced by transferring the load into the exterior columns.

X-bracing was used in the construction of the 1908 Singer Building, then the tallest building in the world.

Some skyscrapers by engineer Fazlur Khan, such as the 1969 John Hancock Center, have a distinctive X-bracing exterior, allowing for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan (and usable floor space) if the architect desires.


title: X-chromosome reactivation

abstract:
X chromosome reactivation (XCR) is the process by which the inactive X chromosome is re-activated in the cells of eutherian female mammals. Therian female mammalian cells have two X chromosomes, while males have only one, requiring X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) for sex-chromosome dosage compensation. In eutherians, XCI is the random inactivation of one of the X chromosomes, silencing its expression. Much of the scientific knowledge currently known about XCR comes from research limited to mouse models or stem cells. Partial XCR may derepress one or more genes on the Xi, and the level of restored gene expression may not be as high as it would normally be on the active X chromosome. Complete XCR restores the Xi to Xa and erases the epigenetic memory of XCI, meaning that inducing X-inactivation again will randomly select an X chromosome to silence, rather than deterministically silencing the original Xi. XCR is an emerging topic of interest for multiple reasons:
  - Reactivating silenced genes may be a therapy for X-linked diseases in heterozygous females, such as Rett syndrome, or a therapy for cancer by reactivating silenced tumor suppressor genes
  - XCR may be a contributing factor to human disorders, such as certain cancers
  - Understanding the mechanisms of XCR will elucidate general gene regulation principles, contributing to the study of gene silencing, epigenetic memory, and the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs)

text:
# X-chromosome reactivation

**X chromosome reactivation (XCR)** is the process by which the inactive X chromosome (the Xi) is re-activated in the cells of eutherian female mammals. Therian female mammalian cells have two X chromosomes, while males have only one, requiring X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) for sex-chromosome dosage compensation. In eutherians, XCI is the random inactivation of one of the X chromosomes, silencing its expression. Much of the scientific knowledge currently known about XCR comes from research limited to mouse models or stem cells.

Partial XCR may derepress one or more genes on the Xi, and the level of restored gene expression may not be as high as it would normally be on the active X chromosome (the Xa). Complete XCR restores the Xi to Xa and erases the epigenetic memory of XCI, meaning that inducing X-inactivation again will randomly select an X chromosome to silence, rather than deterministically silencing the original Xi.

XCR is an emerging topic of interest for multiple reasons:

1. Reactivating silenced genes may be a therapy for X-linked diseases in heterozygous females, such as Rett syndrome, or a therapy for cancer by reactivating silenced tumor suppressor genes
2. XCR may be a contributing factor to human disorders, such as certain cancers
3. Understanding the mechanisms of XCR will elucidate general gene regulation principles, contributing to the study of gene silencing, epigenetic memory, and the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs)

## History

### History of X-inactivation

In 1959 Susumu Ohno showed that the two X chromosomes of mammals were different: one appeared similar to the autosomes; the other was condensed and heterochromatic. This finding suggested, independently to two groups of investigators, that one of the X chromosomes underwent inactivation.

In 1961, Mary Lyon proposed the random inactivation of one female X chromosome to explain the mottled phenotype of female mice heterozygous for coat color genes. The Lyon hypothesis also accounted for the findings that one copy of the X chromosome in female cells was highly condensed, and that mice with only one copy of the X chromosome developed as infertile females. This suggested to Ernest Beutler, studying heterozygous females for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, that there were two red cell populations of erythrocytes in such heterozygotes: deficient cells and normal cells, depending on whether the inactivated X chromosome (in the nucleus of the red cell's precursor cell) contains the normal or defective G6PD allele.

### History of X-reactivation

Early in the study of XCI in early embryonic development, the original state of the two X chromosomes and the mechanism by which they differentiated into the Xa and Xi was unknown. One hypothesis was that the chromosomes were inactive until one was activated. The other, favored hypothesis that was eventually validated was that both maternal and paternal X chromosomes are active until some mechanism inactivates one chromosome.

As early as 1981, the concept of X reactivation appears in the literature, with a paper on induced XCR in somatic cell hybrid clones by 5-azacitidine treatment, and a paper on XCR in mouse oocytes.

Experiments originally showed that eliminating the X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) gene, a gene that encodes a lncRNA that mediates XCI, in post-XCI somatic cells did not result in detectable Xi reactivation. Therefore, it was believed that XCI, once established in somatic cells, was irreversible and that Xist, while required to initiate XCI, was not required to sustain it. However, newer investigations using modern technologies have found evidence that Xist RNA is involved in the maintenance of XCI. For example, Zhang, et al. found that “Deleting Xist results in a loss of nucleolar association and an inability to maintain Xi heterochromatin, leading to Xi reactivation at the single gene level.”

Unlike XCI, XCR lacks an appropriate *in vitro* system for study, limiting current research to mouse embryos and *in vitro* stem cell reprogramming.

## Biological Occurrences

### During Development

In mice, Xi reactivation is known to occur in three developmental stages:

1. In the oocyte after fertilization, the paternal X chromosome is reactivated, reversing male meiotic sex chromosome inactivation (MSCI).
2. In the inner cell mass (ICM) of the epiblast after imprinted XCI in preimplantation development, the Xi is reactivated.
3. In migrating primordial germ cells (PGCs), Xi reactivation establishes two Xa's in female germ cells before oogenesis. Unlike the other two, here genomic imprinting is erased.

It is known that in the inner cell mass (the embryo proper) of mice, XCI occurs randomly, while in the extra-embryonic tissues, imprinted XCI deterministically inactivates the paternal X. In early mouse embryos, the paternal X chromosome is already partially silenced at the zygote stage by imprinted XCI, suggesting that sex-chromosome dosage compensation exists from conception. Following re-activation of the paternal X in the ICM, complete and random XCI occurs post-implantation.

Regarding female mouse germ cells, mature mammalian oocytes were observed to have two active X chromosomes by studies that recorded twice the expression levels from the oocytes from XX female mice as opposed to XO mice in the 1960s. To determine whether XCI never occurred in these cells, or if the Xi was reactivated post-XCI, Kratzer and Chapman found that oogonia have an Xi and an Xa, but the Xi is gradually reactivated shortly before entering the meiotic cycle on the eleventh day.

In human development, X chromosome reactivation also occurs in PGCs. In the ICM of human embryos, however, X reactivation does not occur, because humans do not have imprinted XCI, so XCI has yet to happen in this stage of development.

### In Cancer

Because only one X chromosome is expressed, genetic mutations that lead to cancer are dominant when they occur on the Xa, and silent on the Xi. Increased dosage of X-linked genes, by whole or partial replication of the Xa or by whole or partial loss of XCI, is linked to oncogenesis. Translocations between the Xi and autosomal chromosomes can result in the silencing of autosomal tumor suppressors or reactivation of X-linked oncogenes. X-linked genes may escape inactivation, which potential oncogenic consequences. Impaired XCI and skewed X-inactivation may also be associated with oncogenesis.

Gain of an X chromosome, Klinefelter syndrome, and XX male syndrome are risk factors linked to male breast cancer. In females, there is no evidence that trisomy X or tetrasomy X females are at higher risk of cancer.

Breast cancer and ovarian cancer, particularly more aggressive strains, commonly lack an Xi and have two Xa's. Breast cancer cells commonly have two identical Xa's, possibly from duplication of the original Xa and loss of the original Xi. Gains of X chromosomes have been observed in many other cancers, including leukemia, prostate cancer, and intracranial germ cell cancers. Potential mechanisms leading to this overexpression of X-linked genes include chromosome segregation errors, defects in general heterochromatin maintenance, and defects in Xi-specific silencing factors, the latter two of which would partially reactivate the Xi.

### In Stem Cell Reprogramming

The presence of two Xa's is a measure of the pluripotency, or ability to differentiate into many different cell types, of embryonic stem cells. Cell hybrid experiments fusing somatic cells and stem cells in vitro resulted in reactivation of the entire Xi. Reprogramming of mouse and human fibroblast cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) reactivates the Xi found in the original fibroblasts. If re-differentiated and XCI occurs again, the selection of the Xi is not randomized, i.e. the X that was originally the Xi in the starting fibroblast will be deterministically inactivated again, evidencing the incompleteness of X reactivation. Reprogramming can be accomplished by nuclear cloning, cell fusion with pluripotent cells, or expression of pluripotency factors. Factors implicated in XCI maintenance include origin recognition complex 2 (*Orc2*), heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1a), *macroH2A1*, and *Bmil.* Disruption of *Orc2* or HP1a function have both been shown to lead to partial Xi reactivation.

## Mechanism

The mechanisms of Xi reactivation remains unknown, including whether they share a common pathway or if different contexts leverage completely different pathways. For XCR to be repressed, silencing of *Xist* expression is required but not sufficient. The erasure of chromatin modifications that maintain the heterochromatin of the Xi significantly contributes to XCR. H3K27me3, macroH2A, and their associated mechanisms of DNA methylation and histone deacetylation, act as a barriers to XCR in the ICM. Deleting Xist RNA, demethylating DNA, and inhibiting histone hypoacetylation together increases reactivation in primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts on the gene level in a stochastic manner.

X reactivation can be induced and tolerated in mouse extra-embryonic tissues. For example, a mutation of the Polycomb protein EED leads to a lack of *Xist* RNA coating on the Xi and X reactivation in differentiated trophoblast stem cells.

*Xist* repression in XCR is induced by Tsix RNA. *Tsix* deletion appears to decrease the efficiency of XCR in the ICM *in vivo,* but not in iPSC reprogramming.

### Timing of Gene Expression

Studies have elucidated some of the progression of XCR in the reversal of imprinted XCI in the mouse ICM, of random XCI in iPSC reprogramming, and in germ cell development. XCR proceeds gradually, with sets of genes regaining expression at the early, mid, or late stage of XCR. At the initiation of X reactivation, early genes are transcriptionally activated and *Xist* repression starts. The reactivation of these early genes happens before complete *Xist* silencing, suggesting the latter is not necessary for the reactivation of some genes. As XCR progresses, intermediate and late genes are transcriptionally activated, *Xist* RNA is lost, H3K27me3 is lost, and *Tsix* is reactivated. During this process, in genome topology there may possibly be acquisition of topologically associating domains (TADs), which are units of genome organization in 3D space, and loss of mega-domains. At completion, there is complete transcriptional reactivation of genes on the Xi, loss of epigenetic memory, DNA hypomethylation, fully established TADs, and if XCI is re-instated, the choice of Xi will be random.

## As a Potential Therapy

The human X chromosome contains a disproportionate number of genes associated with intellectual disability. X-linked disorders in heterozygous female patients are particularly relevant here because these patients carry an X chromosome with the mutated disorder allele and an X chromosome with a healthy wild-type allele. XCI randomly selects one X chromosome as the Xi, leaving the genes on the other X, the Xa, to be expressed. Therefore, heterozygous female patients are a mosaic of healthy and diseased cells. In non-cell-autonomous X-linked disorders, such as hemophilia A, the healthy cells can compensate for the diseased cells. In other disorders such as Kabuki syndrome, the mutation affects the cell such that cells carrying the healthy allele are more common (a skewed XCI pattern), reducing the severity of the disease. However, in X-linked disorders where the healthy cells are insufficient to restore wild-type function, X chromosome reactivation may be a potential therapy. By reactivating the Xi in diseased cells, the previously unexpressed wild-type allele can regain some level of expression and restore function. Disorders that could hypothetically be treated by X reactivation include Rett syndrome, CDKL5 deficiency disorder, Fragile X syndrome, etc.

### Potential Risks and Concerns

XCI serves a central function in sex-chromosome dosage compensation. Xi reactivation currently doesn't target specific genes, but rather targets the entire chromosome, running the risk of overexpression of other X-linked genes and subsequent side effects. Treatments also may not be able to specifically target the Xi chromosome, instead causing genome-wide disruption of epigenetic patterns.

XCI is essential for early embryonic development. For example, female mouse embryos that inherited a paternal germline Xist deletion had trophoblast cells where both X chromosomes were fully expressed, resulting in a lethal phenotype. Pre-XCI Xist deletion in mouse zygotes can be tolerated to the extent that the embryos can be carried to term, but none survive past weaning as a result of issues with organ development. However, these concerns may be mitigated by the fact that applications of X reactivation are more focused on post-XCI cells, past the early developmental stages.

Xi loss or Xi reactivation is associated with certain cancers. Xist deletion in the blood compartment of mice has been shown to cause hematologic cancers, suggesting an important role for Xist RNA and for XCI in cancer suppression. In addition, while Xist deletion can be tolerated in the epithelial cells and the gut, the mouse becomes more susceptible to stress-induced gut cancer, suggesting Xist and XCI are protective against chronic stress. Xist deletion in mouse brains have seen no negative effects in some studies. The variation among organs and cell-types for tolerance of partial X reactivation currently appears to recommend a local approach targeting individual organs for X reactivation. For example, in neurodevelopmental disorders, X reactivation may be targeted to the brain and central nervous system.

### Research

In developing a treatment to reactivate the Xi, screens to identify single factors that inhibit XCI have listed many potential pharmacological targets to consider for further study. However, XCI is complex and maintained by a diverse set of proteins and multiple mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone hypoacetylation, and the role of Xist RNA. More effective X reactivation may require a synergistic combination of factors, and studies have considered combinations of decitabine with Aurora kinase inhibitors, Xist antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and DNA TOP2A/TOP2B knockdown. Some experimental synergistic combinations of drugs have outperformed any single factor for levels of X reactivation.


title: Wąglik-Kolonia

abstract: Wąglik-Kolonia is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Pisz, within Pisz County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.

text:
# Wąglik-Kolonia

**Wąglik-Kolonia** \[ˈvɔnɡlik kɔˈlɔɲa\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Pisz, within Pisz County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.

## InfoBox

| Wąglik-Kolonia | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Wąglik-Kolonia | |
| Coordinates: 53°37′53″N 21°45′53″E / 53.63139°N 21.76472°E / 53.63139; 21.76472 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Warmian-Masurian |
| County | Pisz |
| Gmina | Pisz |


title: Wrong-side failure

abstract: A wrong-side failure describes a failure condition in a piece of railway signalling equipment that results in an unsafe state. A typical example would be a signal showing a 'proceed' aspect when it should be showing a 'stop' or 'danger' aspect, resulting in a "false clear".

text:
# Wrong-side failure

A **wrong-side failure** describes a failure condition in a piece of railway signalling equipment that results in an unsafe state. A typical example would be a signal showing a 'proceed' aspect (e.g. green) when it should be showing a 'stop' or 'danger' aspect, resulting in a "false clear". (The converse is a **right-side failure**, where even with any reduction the resulting state is safe overall.)

## Example of how a wrong-side failure may occur

Consider a relay that has to energize to show a green light.

If a wire breaks, or the battery is drained, then the relay will de-energize and the signal will show a red light, which is fail-safe.

If a stray wire from another circuit touches the wire connected to that same relay, then that would be a wrong side failure, which is potentially dangerous. This stray wire can be guarded against by ensuring that the insulation on the relay wire is of good quality, and that all terminals are locked away.

In addition, the relay may be double-switched, also known as double-cut, that is to say that it only energizes if a positive circuit and a negative circuit are both complete. That would then require two stray wires to cause a wrong-side failure, which is much less likely than a single stray wire.

## Accidents

While accidents from the problem are rare, they do occur:

* 1876 – Abbots Ripton rail disaster (England) – signals frozen by blizzard in 'clear' position (signal arm hidden in a slot in the post).
* 1915 – Rockledge, Tennessee – Relocation of a Western Union telegraph line from old alignment to new alignment causes a false clear signal indication when the Western Union wire comes in contact with the signal wire for the automatic block signal at the south end of the siding at Rockledge. A southbound freight train departed Rockledge on the false clear indication and collided with a northbound passenger train that had entered the block at Tantallon on a proper clear indication two minutes before the freight train departed Rockledge. A contributing factor was that the tower operator at Rockledge only controlled the signals, the track switches being operated by the train crews themselves.
* 1927 – Marrar (NSW, Australia) – lightning damage meant that the single line train tablet system incorrectly released two tablets simultaneously putting two trains on a collision course; fortunately they saw each other and were able to stop in time.
* 1938 – Charing Cross (Northern line) tube crash (London) – signal linesman rewires a faulty signal incorrectly, so that it shows green too soon; two Underground trains collide as a result, injuring twelve. Also Charing Cross (District line) tube crash, signal linesman makes wiring error in cabin, two Underground trains collide, killing six.
* 1953 – Sydenham Rail Disaster (NSW, Australia) – five killed
* 1976 – Glenbrook, New South Wales (Australia) Automatic signal in rear of a stationary EMU at "caution" when it should have been at "danger". Following goods train enters occupied signal section and collides with EMU; 1 passenger killed. Cause attributable to deteriorated wiring which allowed a false feed.
* 1979 – Invergowrie rail crash (Scotland) – signal was at "wrong" (i.e. indistinct indication) yet taken by driver to be a 'proceed' signal.
* 1982 – Valley Heights train collision (NSW, Australia) – electrician wrongly replace out clear glass lenses with coloured glass causing false colour with reflected sunlight.
* 1988 – Clapham Junction rail crash (London) – single stray wire causes false green signal and collision killing 35.
* 1990 – Cowan rail disaster (NSW, Australia), which occurred when sand on the rails insulated the wheels from the rails, causing a failure to shunt that allowed a trailing block signal to improperly display a clear aspect, resulting in a rear-end collision.
* 2005 – Deelfontein (South Africa) – solder splatter bridges a relay contact. Most testing is done with the relays unplugged which would not detect the splatter, while the solder splatter is likely to lead to a difficult to trace phantom problem.
* 2009 – On March 26, two trains collided near Arévalo, Spain while engineers were testing a new signalling system. Lack of safeguards and testing on an active line led to the collision of two freight trains. One of the train drivers died.
* 2009 – Ft Totten crash Washington DC Metro (WMATA). An inbound Red Line train stopped short of Ft. Totten station; the following train failed to stop and impacted at about 42 mph (68 km/h). Nine dead, 80 injured. Preliminary NTSB reports were that the AC track circuit transmitter was breaking into parasitic oscillation, and that coupled across the rack cabinet to the receiver.
* 2020 – On the Italian high speed rail network, maintenance workers during the night left a faulty point to the reverse position, but disconnected its network connection and its link to the safety signalling system (ETCS L2); the first morning high speed train received a green signal to proceed at full speed and hit the point at 181 mph (291 km/h), resulting in the Livraga derailment which killed 2 and injured 31.
* 2024 - 2024 Cicalengka railway collision. An uncommanded signal displaying a false clear aspect due to aging hardware causes two trains to collide near Cicalengka Station in Bandung Regency, Indonesia, killing four rail employees and injuring 42 others.

## False alarms

Railway authorities usually give the drivers and signalmen the benefit of the doubt and investigate whether a wrong-side failure is the cause of an accident. This occurred with the Hinton train collision, but investigations soon showed that a wrong-side failure was not the cause.

The 2008 Chatsworth train collision was determined to be human error, not wrong-side failure as a few initially said.

## Wrong-side failures to be reported

In the United States there is a rule that wrong-side failures are to be reported to the Federal Railroad Administration.


title: Xanthomonas phaseoli

abstract: Xanthomonas phaseoli, sometimes referred to as bean blight, is a species of bacteria.

text:
# Xanthomonas phaseoli

***Xanthomonas phaseoli***, sometimes referred to as **bean blight**, is a species of bacteria.

1. "Xanthomonas phaseoli". *www.gbif.org*. Retrieved 2022-09-28.

## InfoBox

| *Xanthomonas phaseoli* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Pseudomonadota |
| Class: | Gammaproteobacteria |
| Order: | Xanthomonadales |
| Family: | Xanthomonadaceae |
| Genus: | *Xanthomonas* |
| Species: | ***X. phaseoli*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Xanthomonas phaseoli***<br>(Smith 1897) Gabriel *et al.* 1989 | |
|


title: XHGB-FM

abstract: XHGB-FM is a Mexican radio station on 103.5 FM in Nanchital, Veracruz. It is owned by Organización Radiofónica Mexicana.

text:
# XHGB-FM

**XHGB-FM** is a Mexican radio station on 103.5 FM in Nanchital, Veracruz. It is owned by Organización Radiofónica Mexicana.

## History

**XEGB-AM** 960 received its concession on December 8, 1951. It was owned by Luis Aranda Castillo and broadcast with 1,000 watts day and 500 night. In 1966, it was sold to Radio Coatzacoalcos, S.A., which became Radiodifusora XEGB in 1967. In 2000, the station's transmitter moved from Coatzacoalcos to Nanchital.

XEGB was cleared for AM-FM migration in 2010 as **XHGB-FM** 103.5.

The station flipped from "Retro" to Estéreo Joven in August 2019 as part of a change in operator at XHAFA-FM 99.3 and XHGB. The station changed formats again on November 18, 2020, when Radio S.A. (owners of XHCSV-FM 93.1) became the new operator. On April 1, 2022, Activa moved to XHAFA and became Imperio a grupera.

## InfoBox

XHGB-FM
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Broadcast area | Coatzacoalcos |
| Frequency | 103.5 MHz |
| Branding | La Poderosa |
| Programming | |
| Format | Grupera |
| Ownership | |
| Owner | * Organización Radiofónica Mexicana * (Radiodifusora XEGB, S.A. de C.V.) |
| Operator | Grupo AS Comunicación |
| History | |
| First air date | December 8, 1951 (concession) |
| Technical information | |
| ERP | 25 kW |
| Transmitter coordinates | 18°04′17″N 94°24′15″W / 18.07139°N 94.40417°W / 18.07139; -94.40417 |


title: Wu Zhu

abstract: Wu Zhu is a type of Chinese cash coin produced from the Han dynasty in 118 BC when they replaced the earlier San Zhu cash coins, which had replaced the Ban Liang (半兩) cash coins a year prior, until they themselves were replaced by the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) cash coins of the Tang dynasty in 621 AD. The name Wu Zhu literally means "five zhu" which is a measuring unit officially weighing about 4 grams however in reality the weights and sizes of Wu Zhu cash coins varied over the years. During the Han dynasty a very large quantity of Wu Zhu coins were cast but their production continued under subsequent dynasties until the Sui. The production of Wu Zhu cash coins was briefly suspended by Wang Mang during the Xin dynasty but after the reestablishment of the Han dynasty, the production of Wu Zhu cash coins resumed, and continued to be manufactured long after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty for another 500 years. Minting was definitively ended in 618 with the establishment of the Tang dynasty. Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from 118 BC to 618 AD having a span of 736 years, which is the longest for any coin in human history.

text:
# Wu Zhu

**Wu Zhu** (Chinese: 五銖) is a type of Chinese cash coin produced from the Han dynasty in 118 BC when they replaced the earlier San Zhu (三銖; "Three Zhu") cash coins, which had replaced the Ban Liang (半兩) cash coins a year prior, until they themselves were replaced by the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) cash coins of the Tang dynasty in 621 AD. The name Wu Zhu literally means "five zhu" which is a measuring unit officially weighing about 4 grams however in reality the weights and sizes of Wu Zhu cash coins varied over the years. During the Han dynasty a very large quantity of Wu Zhu coins were cast but their production continued under subsequent dynasties until the Sui.

The production of Wu Zhu cash coins was briefly suspended by Wang Mang during the Xin dynasty but after the reestablishment of the Han dynasty, the production of Wu Zhu cash coins resumed, and continued to be manufactured long after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty for another 500 years. Minting was definitively ended in 618 with the establishment of the Tang dynasty. Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from 118 BC to 618 AD having a span of 736 years, which is the longest for any coin in human history.

## History

### Western Han dynasty

"Wu" means "five" (5) and zhu was an ancient Chinese unit of weight equal to 100 grains of millet. A "five zhu" cash coin would weigh about 4 grams. Originally Ban Liang cash weighed 12 Zhu as a Liang (tael) was 24 Zhu, however over time the weight of Ban Liang cash coins gradually decreased so the Wu Zhu cash coins were introduced as a new standard unit (after the earlier San Zhu, or "3 Zhu" cash coins) under the reign of Emperor Emperor Wu. The introduction of the Wu Zhu also fixed the standard exchange between bronze coins and gold as 10,000 bronze Wu Zhu cash coins would be worth 1 *Jin* of gold.

The first Wu Zhu cash coins had unfiled edges but the second series issued under the reign of Emperor Wu had them filed. In 118 BC the central government of the Han dynasty ordered both the Commanderies (郡, *jùn*) and the Principalities (國, *guó*) to cast Wu Zhu coins, these Wu Zhu coins are referred to as "Jun Guo Wu Zhu" (郡國五銖, *jùn guó wǔ zhū*) coins which at most have a diameter 33.3 millimetres and a weight of 5.8 grams. A notable feature of Jun Guo Wu Zhu coins is that they have a rim around the square center hole of the reverse side of them, these rims were added to prevent people from scraping metal off the coins which would reduce their value. Another notable feature of these early Wu Zhu's is that they tend to have edges which are unfiled, making these cash coins to generally have rough circumferences, they are notably also heavier than later cast Wu Zhu's. In 115 BC Emperor Wu decreed that all Wu Zhu cash coins should be cast with a value of 5 cash coins, these coins are known as "Chi Ze Wu Zhu" (赤仄五銖, *chì zè wǔ zhū*) or "Zhong Guan Chi Ze" (鍾官赤仄, *zhōng guān chì zè*) because of their "red" or "purple" edges as they were filed which resulted in the colour of the copper being visible, another feature of these cash coins is that the "Wu" (五) character tends to be composed of some rather straight lines.

Starting from the year 113 BC, the central government regained the exclusive authority to manufacture coinage, from this point Wu Zhu cash coins started being produced by the Three Offices of Shang Lin (上林三官, *shàng lín sān guān*). These Wu Zhu coins had a nominal value of one coin as opposed to the Chi Ze Wu Zhu's which had an unrealistic nominal value of five. The majority of the Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu's contain a raised line above the square center hole on the obverse side of the coin.

Under the reign of Emperor Xuan which lasted from 73 BC until 49 BC the Wu characters were less in size and notably was written with slightly crooked strokes that don't extend to the horizontal lines of the top and bottom ends. A number of these Western Han dynasty Wu Zhu cash coins also displayed dots which represent "stars" and crescents which represent the moon on the interior rim of the coin as well as other symbols which were considered to be auspicious being some of the earliest examples of cash coins used as Chinese amulets and charms.

In the 123 years after 118 BCE, when Wu Zhu cash coins were initially introduced, over 28 billion coins were cast for circulation.

### Xin dynasty

After Wang Mang had overthrown the Han dynasty with his own Xin dynasty he wished to displace the Wu Zhu currency of the Western Han dynasty, owing, it is said, to his prejudice to the "Jin" (Chinese: ; pinyin: *jīn*; literally: "gold") radical () in the character zhu (Chinese: ; pinyin: *zhū*) of this inscription, which was also a component part of the character Liu (劉), the family name of the rulers of the House of Han, whose descendant Wang Mang had just dethroned. He introduced a number of currency reforms which met with varying degrees of success. The first reform, in AD 7, retained the Wu Zhu coin, but reintroduced two versions of the knife money, during a later reform the Wu Zhu cash coins were completely abolished and Wang Mang placed the death penalty on anyone who dared to circulate any Wu Zhu cash coins, but as the new currency system introduced by Wang Mang was chaotic and confusing to the people they kept secretly circulating.

### Chengjia

The Iron Wu Zhu's of Chengjia, which resemble the Western Han dynasty Wu Zhu coin, is attributed to Gongsun Shu, who rebelled in Sichuan in AD 25, and issued iron coins, two being equal to one *Jian Wu Wu Zhu* (Chinese: 建武五銖; pinyin: *jiàn wǔ wǔ zhū*). Head of the *zhu* component rounded. Typical of Eastern Han Wu Zhu's. In AD 30, a ditty was sung by the youths of Sichuan: "The yellow bull! the white belly! Let Wu Zhu cash coins return". This ridiculed the tokens of Wang Mang and the iron coins of Gongsun Shu, which were withdrawn by the Eastern Han Emperor Guangwu in the 16th year of Jian Wu (AD 40). The Emperor was advised that the foundation of the wealth of a country depends on a good political economy, which was found in the good old Wu Zhu coinage, and so reissued the Wu Zhu cash coins.

### Eastern Han dynasty

After the fall of the Xin dynasty the production of Wu Zhu cash coins was resumed. After the restoration of the Han dynasty the production of Wu Zhu cash coins was first resumed under Emperor Guangwu who reigned from the year 25 until 56 AD. Under the reign of the warlord Dong Zhuo (董卓) the capital of the Han dynasty was moved from Luoyang to the city of Chang'an (modern day Xi'an) where he ordered that the large Qin dynasty era bronze statues which date to the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang be melted down to make small cash coins, large quantity of these Wu Zhu coins were so small that they were commonly referred to as "goose eye coins" (鵝眼錢, *é yǎn qián*) or "chicken eye coins" (雞目錢, *jī mù qián*) by the people. As these cash coins were so diminutive in size only left half of the wu (五) Chinese character and the right half of the zhu (銖) Chinese character fit on these coins. It is also pivotal to clarify that these cash coins are not what is referred to as "chiselled rim coins" (鑿邊錢, *záo biān qián*) where regular size Wu Zhu cash coins had their insides cut out so as to form two separate cash coins. "goose eye Wu Zhu coins" or "chicken eye Wu Zhu coins" were actually cast in this diminutive manner as evidence by the remnants of the metal sprue (or stub) from the casting process are located at the rim's five o'clock position of "goose eye" or "chicken eye Wu Zhu coins".

### The Three Kingdoms

The Three Kingdoms period was an era in Chinese history that lasted from 220 until 280 and was characterised by a period of disunity following the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty. The Kingdom of Shu Han was founded after Liu Bei seized control of the city of Chengdu, immediately after the city was taken Liu Bei had discovered that the treasury was completely empty which meant that he didn't have the funds for his military expenses, this was paired with a severe shortage of copper, this severe lack of copper was so bad that it is said that in order to manufacture cash coins even the hooks which were used to hang bed curtains were melted as the government desperately needed the metal. To cover the state's expenses Liu Bei ordered the creation of Zhi Bai Wu Zhu (直百五銖, *zhí bǎi wǔ zhū*) cash coins which had a nominal value or one hundred regular cash coins. Unlike the earlier coinage of the Xin dynasty which disastrously failed due to the extreme disparage between the nominal and intrinsic values the coins of the Kingdom of Shu Han weren't as badly received due to the fact that the Wu Zhu cash coins produced by Dong Zhuo only weighed around a single gram, previously a cycle plagued Chinese governments trying to set of a fiat coinage system where first the government issued new (fiduciary) cash coins, then the government would set values, usually the people don't accept these set values, and then finally the currency doesn't trade which causes inflation to set in and counterfeiting becomes a prominent problem. Zhi Bai Wu Zhu's are usually divided into "thin" and "thick" types depending on the thickness of the cash coin. It is also believed that the Kingdom of Shu Han under the reign of Liu Bei cast a variant of the Wu Zhu cash coin which had a rim around the square hole that is 21.7 millimetres in diameter and has a weight of around 2.3 grams and due to this associated is known as the "Shu Wu Zhu" (蜀五銖, *shǔ wǔ zhū*) cash coins, but due to later archeological findings this isn't taken with absolute certainty.

In the Kingdom of Cao Wei which was established by Cao Cao in 220 it is believed that only Wu Zhu coins were cast, moulds have been found dating to this period and it is confirmed that Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from the first year of the Taihe period (227) until the second year of Xianxi period (265).

### Jin dynasty and the 16 Kingdoms

Under Sima Yan China was reunited for a short period of time under the rule of the Western Jin dynasty ruled from Luoyang. The Chinese economy improved under Jin rule and although no historical records mention the production of coinage under the Jin as the quantity of old Wu Zhu cash coins from the Han dynasty that were still in circulation would not have been sufficient it is likely that the government would've had to cast a large number of cash coins in order to need the demand coming from the market. The Great Dictionary of Chinese Numismatics claims that Wu Zhu cash coins were being cast in the city of Chengdu in the Shu region of the Western Jin dynasty (which lies in modern-day Sichuan). After a family struggle within the Sima family caused a devastating civil war, China was so weakened that the "five barbarian tribes" from the north started conquering territories in China and established their own states starting the sixteen kingdoms period.

#### Former Liang Kingdom

The Kingdom of Former Liang started casting Wu Zhu cash coins which have traditionally been attributed to the Kingdom of Shu known as "Shu Wu Zhu" cash coins, some of these Wu Zhu's have been discovered in the Hexi corridor (in current day Gansu province) which lead archaeologists to believe that they may have been cast under the reign of Zhang Gui.

### The Northern and Southern dynasties

After the Eastern Jin dynasty fell the Northern and Southern dynasties period commenced in the year 420. In the Southern dynasties it was customary for people to remove the middle part of Wu Zhu cash coins to create two separate coins, the portion cut out of the outer ring of the Wu Zhu is usually referred to as a "thread ring Wu Zhu" (綖環五銖, *xiàn huán wǔ zhū*) while the coin cut out of the inner portion is usually referred to as "chiseled rim Wu Zhu" (鑿邊五銖, *záo biān wǔ zhū*) cash coins or as "cut rim Wu Zhu" (剪輪五銖, *jiǎn lún wǔ zhū*) cash coins. Private casting of cash coins also became a common practice during the Northern and Southern dynasties period which resulted in there being many extremely small, thin, and very fragile bronze cash coins that were cast by these private mints. These cash coins are known as "goose eye" (鵝眼, *é yǎn*) or "chicken eye" (雞目, *jī mù*) coins. Peng Xinwei mentions a man called Gu Xuan of the Liang dynasty that was one of the first to write about Chinese numismatics. Gu Xuan wrote about the circulating cash coins of the period, but did not mention any Qi dynasty cash coins. Peng takes this as evidence that the Qi dynasty did not mint any of its own cash coins. The cash coins of this period were of a high artistic standard, especially those produced by the Chen and the Zhou dynasties.

All cash coins of this period typically have a narrow rim. However, during this period private minting was way more common in the Southern dynasties than in the Northern dynasties, which is the reason that Wu Zhu cash coins and other coins of the Southern dynasties were more uneven than those of the Northern dynasties.

All the coins of the period had the same kind of seal script calligraphy.

#### Liang dynasty

Under the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty there were two types of Wu Zhu cash coins which were being manufactured, some had an outside while others did not have an outside rim with the Wu Zhu cash coins without an outside rim are referred to as "Female coins" (女錢, *nǚ qián*).

From the year 523 onwards the government of the Liang dynasty decided to cast iron Wu Zhu cash coins due to the fact that iron was both relatively easy and not expensive to acquire in what is today Sichuan. The iron cash coins issued by the Liang dynasty are quite distinctive from other iron cash coins as they have 4 lines that radiate outwards from each corner of the square center hole which is why they're referred to as "four corner coins" (四出錢, *sì chū qián*). As it became quite common for the people to cast iron cash coins privately based on these government issues it wasn't long before their quantities increased so drastically that it required cartloads of these iron Wu Zhu cash coins to pay for anything, even to this day these Wu Zhu's are quite common due to the widespread private production that plagued these iron issues. After them the Taiqing Fengle (太清豐樂, "Tai Qing Prosperous and Happy") cash coin was cast under the reign of Emperor Wu, these cash coins were actually believed to be Chinese numismatic charms until recently and were named after the Taiqing period (547–549).

In 552 under the reign of Emperor Yuan the capital city was moved to the city of Jiangling, the Jiangling Mint issued Wu Zhu cash coins which had two "stars" (a term used to refer to dots on cash coins) on the obverse of the Wu Zhu, one "star" was situated above the square center hole and one below and for this reason are commonly known as "Two Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" (兩柱五銖錢, *liǎng zhù wǔ zhū qián*). These Wu Zhu's were nominally ten normal Wu Zhu's and are relatively rare today.

From the year 557 under the reign of Emperor Jing had Wu Zhu cash coins produced that had one "star" above the square hole and one "star" below on both sides of these Wu Zhu's which is why they are known as "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" (四柱五銖錢, *sì zhù wǔ zhū qián*) and had a nominal value of 20 normal Wu Zhu cash coins, but merely 10 days after their introduction they were trading at par with regular Wu Zhu's. Another variant of these "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" had the "stars" on the left and right sides of the square center hole. Today "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" are extremely rare with those that have the "stars" above and below the square center hole being the rarest.

Another variant of Liang dynasty era Wu Zhu's known as the "Three Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" (三柱五銖錢, *sān zhù wǔ zhū qián*) were produced, however as no historical records mention them it is exactly unknown when they were produced, it is speculated by some Chinese numismatists and Gary Ashkenazy that they were only produced for five days in the year 557 immediately after the production of the "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" to circulate at a value of 10 normal Wu Zhu's and had three "stars" to differentiate them from the earlier "Two Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" which had the same exaggerated nominal value. "Three Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" have one "star" above and one "star" below the obverse square hole, while they have one "star" just to the left and touching the rim that surrounds the square center hole on the reverse side of the coin. These cash coins are extremely rare today due to their extremely short production period.

Note that despite their high nominal values, "Two Pillar", "Three Pillar", and "Four Pillar" Wu Zhu cash coins usually weighed less than 2 or 3 grams, this disparity between their nominal and intrinsic values was a contributing factor to the decline of the economy of the Liang dynasty.

#### Chen dynasty

The Chen dynasty produced Wu Zhu cash coins which had a nominal value of 10 "Goose Eye Wu Zhu's" and/or "Chicken Eye Wu Zhu's" and were known as "Tianjia Wu Zhu cash coins" (天嘉五銖錢, *tiān jiā wǔ zhū qián*) because they were produced during the Tianjia period of Emperor Wen, however as not a single specimen exists today it is unknown how these Tianjia era Wu Zhu's looked like. It is speculated that these Tianjia era Wu Zhu's would have been relatively big and had a rim around the square center hole on the obverse side of the coin being overall similar to the Taihuo Liuzhu (太貨六銖, *tài huò liù zhū*) cash coins. Wu Zhu cash coins that fit this description historically have been believed to have been produced during the Tianjian era (502–519) in the Liang dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu. As Wu Zhu cash coins also fitting this description have been dug up in Guanzhong, Shaanxi it has been proposed that they might've been produced by the Northern Zhou dynasty.

Under the reign of Emperor Xuan in 579 the Taihuo Liuzhu (太貨六銖, *tài huò liù zhū*) cash coins were cast which originally had a nominal value of 10 Wu Zhu's but due to the fact that this fact accepted by the populace its nominal value was decreased to be equal to the Wu Zhu. Taihuo Liuzhu cash coins considered to be the "crown jewel" of Southern dynasty coinage due to the quality of its calligraphy. As the seal script version of the Hanzi character for "six" (六, *liù*) looked similar to a human being standing akimbo which inspired the contemporary saying that this symbolised the general people standing in this position before the Emperor and exclaiming that the nominal value of the Taihuo Liuzhu was too high. An extremely rare version of this cash coin exists that only has the inscription Liu Zhu (六銖, *liù zhū*), this coin is in fact so rare that only a single specimen of it has ever been reported to exist.

#### Northern Wei dynasty

The Northern Wei dynasty was a Xianbei ruled state under the Tuoba clan that adopted the administrative system of the Han Chinese and even established their capital city at Luoyang, a city which had been the capital city of various preceding Chinese dynasties and mandated that his people adopt both Chinese fashion and language. During this period Emperor Xiaowen ordered the issuance of the Taihe Wuzhu (太和五銖, *tài hé wǔ zhū*) as part of this Sinicisation process. There is one purported version of the Taihe Wuzhu which has the Chinese character "Tai" (太) written in a calligraphic style akin to that of the "Tai" on the Taihuo Liuzhu (太貨六銖, *tài huò liù zhū*) cash coin issued by the Chen dynasty. However, as the only evidence relating to the existence of this cash coin comes from rubbings in old coin catalogues it is speculated that or actually isn't real. Taihe Wuzhu coins tend to be fairly crudely made and vary in size and weight. Larger specimens are typically about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and weigh about 3 grams. Smaller Taihe Wuzhu specimens are typically about 2 centimeters in diameter and weigh 2.3 grams. The calligraphy found on its inscription is a mixture of both Chinese seal script and clerical script, which comprises the classic Wei stelae style (魏碑体). The Taihe Wuzhu cash coins only circulated in the areas around Luoyang and never became the national currency for the entire Northern Wei dynasty as a whole leading to them becoming relatively scarce.

The Northern Wei dynasty started issuing regular Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins in 510 but it is currently unknown what special characteristics these Wu Zhu cash coins had to differentiate them from other Wu Zhu's.

Emperor Xiaozhuang ordered the creation of the Yongan Wuzhu in the year 529 which was during the Yongan period (528–530), despite the fact that the authoritative power government of the Northern Wei dynasty was in trouble as the rebellion of the Six Frontier Towns waged on for a decade. After Emperor Xiaowu was forced to flee from Luoyang in the year 534 the country split into the Western Wei dynasty and the Eastern Wei dynasty, and despite the fact that neither country existed for a long period of time they both continued issuing Yongan Wuzhu cash coins to the point that both large quantities and a large number of varieties exist, as well as the fact that Yongan Wuzhu cash coins are still extremely common today.

During this era various nicknames for cash coins were given by the people which include the "Auspicious cash coins" (吉錢, *jí qián*) as well as the "Heavenly Pillar" (天株) cash coins, it is unknown what these cash coins were but it's speculated by Gary Ashkenazy that they were variants of the Yongan Wuzhu cash coins, according to Gary Ashkenazy the "Auspicious cash coins" were very likely to have been Yongan Wuzhu's that had the Hanzi character for "earth" (土) on the reverse side of the coin above the square center hole. The nickname would then be derived from the fact that the square center hole resembles the Hanzi character "" and as the "土" would be above it they together would look like "" meaning "auspicious". According to Gary Ashkenazy the "Heavenly Pillar" cash coin may have also been a variety of the Yongan Wuzhu which has a "dot" (dots represent "stars" (星) on Chinese cash coins) in the lower right part of the obverse side of the coin. When the "Heavenly Pillar" cash coin is held upright it would point towards the sky or "heaven" (天). The "star" in this particular case can also be referred to as a "pillar" (株) because it is cylindrically shaped and appears to rise up from the surface (肉) of the Yongan Wuzhu cash coin. Another variant of the Yongan Wuzhu is also known as the "four corner" (si chu 四出) cash coin because it has 4 diagonal lines thar extend outwards from the corners of the square center hole all the way to the reverse rim of these Yongan Wuzhu coins.

There were other cash coins in this era which also had descriptive nicknames assigned to them such as "Yongzhou Green-Red" (雍州青赤, *yōng zhōu qīng chì*), "Liangzhou Born Thick" (梁州生厚, *liáng zhōu shēng hòu*), "Tight Cash" (緊錢, *jǐn qián*), and "Red Halter" (赤牽, *chì qiān*). These cash coins were mentioned in historical records and may have also been references to specific varieties of Yongan Wuzhu cash coins which currently aren't clearly identified yet.

#### Western Wei dynasty

The Western Wei dynasty existed briefly from the year 535 until 556, historical records mention that an Wu Zhu cash coin was cast during the Datong period (535–551) which had a calligraphic style akin to that of the earlier Yongan Wuzhu cash coins as well as those of the Sui Wu Zhu's. A defining characteristic of these "Datong Wu Zhu cash coins" (大統五銖錢, *dà tǒng wǔ zhū qián*) is the fact that they have a broad outer rim with an inner rim only by the "Wu" (五) character to the right side of the square center hole.

#### Northern Qi dynasty

The Northern Qi dynasty was a country founded by Emperor Wenxuan that existed from the year 550 until 577, from the year 553 the Changping Wuzhu (常平五銖, *chángpíng wǔ zhū*) cash coins were cast.

### Sui dynasty

China was reunified under the Sui dynasty (581–618). Under this short-lived dynasty, many reforms were initiated that led to the subsequent success of the Tang dynasty. The only coin associated with the Sui is a Wu Zhu coin. The Sui dynasty only cast one type of coin, a Wu Zhu with wide rim that has been found in excavations that clearly indicated that it belonged to the Sui period. Chinese numismatic researcher Peng Xinwei believed that the Sui dynasty period Wu Zhu was adopted from the Western Wei, because it is said in the history of the Sui, that Wu Zhus already circulated in the first year of the Sui, and that additional new cash coins were minted at the same time.

Emperor Wen decreed that Wu Zhu cash coins be produced in the first year of the Kaihuang period (581 in the Gregorian calendar), alongside the introduction of this new Wu Zhu cash coin the older currencies were gradually being deprecated and with the conquest of the Chen dynasty the coins now known as "Sui Wu Zhu cash coins" (隋五銖錢, *suí wǔ zhū qián*) were the only circulating currency in all of China. The reason why Emperor Wen introduced a new Wu Zhu was because the fiduciary cash coins of the Northern Zhou and Chen dynasties placed the economy in a bad state and the Sui Wu Zhu's were set to the original weight of 2 grams. The first Wu Zhu's are known as the "Kaihuang Wu Zhu cash coins" (開皇五銖, *kāi huáng wǔ zhū*) because of their year of introduction, later Emperor Wen allowed the principalities of the Sui dynasty to cast their own Wu Zhu's. Additional mints were set up in various prefectures, typically with five furnaces each. Cash was frequently checked for quality by the officials. However, after 605, private coining again caused a deterioration of the coinage. Today these Wu Zhu cash coins are still very common and must have likely been manufactured in immense numbers. The fabric of the Wu Zhu's of the Sui dynasty is unlike that of any earlier Chinese cash coins but resemble that of the vast majority of later produced Chinese coins. The rims of these Wu Zhu's tend to be broad and flat, while earlier Chinese cash coins usually have thin and rather rounded rims. The basic fabric of a coin is dictated by the minting techniques used to produce it and the Wu Zhu's of the Sui dynasty were produced with an entirely new casting technology.

Among the varieties of the Sui dynasty era Wu Zhu is one which is particularly well-made composed of what the Chinese call "white copper" (白銅, *bái tóng*) and are therefore known as "Bai Qian Wu Zhu" (白錢五銖, *bái qián wǔ zhū*) cash coins and are believed to have been manufactured in the Jiangnan region. The Chinese character "Wu" (五) on these coins is slightly more curved where the lines cross. Wu Zhu cash coins from the Sui dynasty are known to be produced in both larger and smaller sizes, the smaller and lighter Wu Zhu's were produced later as the country was facing higher expenditures and debased the coinage, the last Wu Zhu cash coins of the Sui dynasty circulated alongside improvised currency such as scraps of iron, paper, and leather.

## List of types of Wu Zhu coins

Almost 900 different types and over 1800 varieties of Wu Zhu cash coins and Wu Zhu derivatives are known to exist.

List of variants of Wu Zhu cash coins:

## Kingdom of Kucha

The Kingdom of Kucha was a Buddhist state located in present-day Kucha County, Xinjiang, it was first recorded during the Han dynasty and was later annexed by the Tang, during its time it was a prominent player on the silk road. From around the third or fourth century the Kingdom of Kucha began the manufacture of Wu Zhu cash coins inspired by the diminutive and devalued Wu Zhu's of the post-Han dynasty era in Chinese history.

There are five known types of Kucha cash coins based on the Chinese Wu Zhu's which are usually characterised by the fact that they're diminutive in size, very thin, and tend to have both weak and irregular inscriptions while four of these types tend to have no inscriptions at all. One type of Kucha Wu Zhu cash coin is the "Han Gui bilingual Wu Zhu coin" (漢龜二體五銖錢, *hàn guī èr tǐ wǔ zhū qián*) which are characterised by the fact that the obverse side resembles Chinese Wu Zhu coins while the reverse sides feature a local Kucha script above and below the square center hole. As the language of the Kingdom of Kucha isn't well preserved in the modern era many hypotheses have been suggested about its meaning including that it is simply a translation of "Wu Zhu" or feature the name of the Kingdom of Kucha in the Kuśiññe language. Cash coins without any inscription cast in this region are generally believed to have been produced between the years 265 and 589, the first variant of these cash coins are round in shape and have a rim around the square centre hole on one side while the other side is rimless, they tend to thin on the outside while they're thick on the inside and weigh between 0.4 grams 1.7 grams, and have a diameter of 9 to 18 millimetres. The second type can be described as similar to the aforementioned type but have no inner rim, these cash coins generally from 8 to 13 millimetres in diameter and have a weight of 0.2 to 0.4 grams. The third type of these cash coins are also completely without rim but are square in shape and have a square centre hole, they tend to be very thin with diameters between 8 and 11 millimetres and weigh between 0.2 and 0.5 grams. The final variant are irregularly shaped, diminutive in size, thin, and are cast of poor workmanship. Some are merely five millimetres in diameter and weigh as little as 0.2 grams.

The Buddhist monk Xuanzang describes that there are "small bronze coins" in the city of Kucha while he visited there in the year 630 which is mentioned in his work "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions" during the Tang dynasty. These cash coins are likely to have been the "Han Gui bilingual Wu Zhu coin".

## Wu Zhu coins and the emergence of Chinese charms

Wu Zhu cash coins played a central role in the emergence of Chinese numismatic charms, as the Wu Zhu cash coins were cast in enormous quantities during both the Western Han dynasty and the subsequent seven hundred years of its usage not all variants can be directly attributed to every ruler, however "auspicious" symbols such as stars (dots), suns (circles), moons (crescents), numbers, rod numerals, Hanzi characters, lines, and others started to be used after the Eastern Han dynasty, the reason for the earlier uniformity was the usage of bronze moulds which last for a long time, these moulds continued to be used over and over again by subsequent dynasties. However, as other techniques such as mother coins started to be used some mints started adding these "auspicious" symbols which became the inspiration for later Chinese charms and amulets. Although the usage of some these symbols were already used on the earlier Ban Liang cash coins, they became more common on the Wu Zhu. It unclear why exactly these symbols started being added in large quantities during the Eastern Han dynasty and later but the first Chinese charms and amulets started emulating their design. Some of these early Wu Zhu coins also had the precursors to the "flower" or "rosette" holes found on later cash coins as such coins were discussed in an article in the 1987 (7th issue) of the Chinese periodical "Shaanxi Finance" (陝西金融, *shǎn xī jīn róng*) which shows rubbings of several Wu Zhu cash coins with unusual center holes found in a hoard.

### Wu Zhu charms

Chinese numismatic charms based on Wu Zhu cash coins tend to feature the same "auspicious symbolism" as contemporary Wu Zhu cash coins had themselves including crescents representing the moon, circles representing the sun, and dots representing the stars, in fact to an untrained eye Wu Zhu charms can be interchangeable with regular Wu Zhu coins. Other than these features it's also not uncommon for Wu Zhu charms to feature wholly original iconography from various aspects of Chinese culture such as a dragon and a fisherman. Other than simply having the inscription "Wu Zhu" some Wu Zhu charms are also based on other variants of the Wu Zhu cash coins with four character inscriptions that incorporate the legend "Wu Zhu".

Wu Zhu cash coins are sometimes Integrated into other types of charms and amulets, as there is a variant Daruma doll which features Bodhidharma, the founder of Zen Buddhism, holding a Northern Wei dynasty period Taihe Wuzhu cash coin.

## Wu Zhu coin moulds (gallery)

## Hoards of Wu Zhu cash coins

In the modern era hoards of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to be very common in China as these coins were produced in large quantities.

* In 1980, a golden Wu Zhu cash coin was unearthed in the prefecture-level city of Xianyang in province of Shaanxi. This golden cash coin is 2.6 cm in diameter and was cast during the Western Han dynasty period.
* In 2000 at the archeological site of So Kwun Wat, Tuen Mun in the special administrative region of Hong Kong over sixty Han dynasty era bronze cash coins were unearthed which included both Ban Liang (半兩) and Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins, among the hoard were also pieces of linen and bamboo mats.
* In January 2006 during the construction of a plaza in Pingli County, Shaanxi a Han dynasty era tomb was uncovered, during its excavation archeologists found 259 Wu Zhu cash coins, 1 tripod made from iron, a pottery kitchen range as well as 3 pottery urns.
* On 16 July 2012 a large cache of 14,000 ancient Chinese coins was found in Kuqa, Xinjiang which included Han dynasty era Wu Zhu (五銖) and "Chiseled rim Wu Zhu" (鑿邊五銖) cash coins, Xin dynasty era Huo Quan (貨泉) and Daquan Wushi (大泉五十) cash coins, a Three Kingdoms period Taiping Baiqian (太平百錢) cash coins, as well as native cash coins. Alongside the cash coins were shards of pottery as well as fragments of human bones which lead the archeologists believe that this was an old cemetery.
* In August 2012 a large hoard of Wu Zhu cash coins and Xin dynasty era cash coins was found in the city of Huoluochaideng, Inner Mongolia. The hoard included 3500 kg of Chinese cash coins and around 150 clay moulds used to manufacture coins from the Xin dynasty. According to archeologists the site might've been a mint that was in operation since the reign of Emperor Wu until Emperor Wang Mang.
* In 2015 Chinese archeologists uncovered 10 tonnes of bronze Wu Zhu cash coins from the Western Han dynasty (or around 2 million coins) alongside over ten thousand of other iron, bronze, and gold items in the Haihunhou cemetery near Nanchang, Jiangxi, among the other uncovered items were bamboo slips, wood tablets, as well as jade objects. As these Wu Zhu cash coins were strung in strings of 1000 pieces this proved that the practice of stringing cash coins per 1000 didn't first happen during the Tang dynasty as was previously thought but actually six hundred years earlier.
* In 2018 in South Korea 26 Wu Zhu cash coins were unearthed in a tomb in Kyongsan, North Gyeongsang.

## Explanatory notes

1. Numis' Numismatic Encyclopedia. A reference list of 5000 years of Chinese coinage. (Numista) Written on December 9, 2012 • Last edit: June 13, 2013. Retrieved: 23 August 2018.
2. One Thousand Years of Wu Zhu Coinage (118 BC-AD 958) by H. Gratzer and A. Fishman (09 December 2016) ISBN 1539677141.
3. Li Fang, Shengqiang Luo, Wenli Zhou, Chunxin Wang, Zhengyao Jin, Fang Huang, and Anchuan Fan (11 March 2023). "Counterfeiting activities during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) revealed by the special alloy coins in the Chenzhou hoard, Hunan, China". *Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports*. **49**. Journal of Archaeological Science (ScienceDirect, Elsevier). Bibcode:2023JArSR..49j3942F. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.103942. Retrieved 3 August 2023.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
4. "Wu Zhu – One of the longest lived coin types". *by Bob Reis (Professional Coin Grading Service \- Collectors Universe)*. 17 July 2000. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
5. "Chinese Cast Coins - ANCIENT CHINESE COINAGE - 255 BC TO AD 221". *By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins)*. 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
6. ChinaSage.info - History of Chinese Currency. Retrieved: 01 September 2018.
7. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Western Han Wu Zhu". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
8. F1037, The Study of Wu-Zhu Coin, China (2009). Author: Du Weishan (The son of Du Yuesheng). Publisher: Shanghai Art and Painting Publishing House. (in Mandarin Chinese)
9. "Chinese coins – 中國錢幣". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 16 November 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
10. Lien-sheng Yang, *Money and Credit in China: A Short History*, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 12 (1952; repr. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971).
11. Asianart.com (2020). "Mold for wuzhu coins - Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) - Bronze; H. 22.7 cm, W. 7.7cm, D. 0.9 cm - Excavated from Cangshan - Collection of Shandong Provincial Museum - (cat. #19A)". China Institute Gallery. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
12. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Xin Dynasty Shuiyin Gu". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
13. Hartill 2005, p. 86.
14. Fredrik Schjøth. *Chinese Currency*. Oslo, 1929
15. Chester L. Krause and Clifford Mishler. Standard Catalog of World Coins.
16. Hartill 2005, p. 91.
17. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Eastern Han Wu Zhu". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
18. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Wu Dynasty Coins". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
19. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Shu-Han Dynasty Coins". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
20. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Wei Dynasty Coins - Wei Dynasty (Three Kingdoms) Coins". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
21. "Ancient Chinese Coins: Later Wu Zhu". *Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)*. 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
22. "Chinese Cast Coins - A TIME OF DISUNITY". *By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins)*. 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
23. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (Western Washington University). Pages: 190-194.
24. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (Western Washington University). Pages: 194-190.
25. "Bodhidharma Holding a Wu Zhu Coin". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 1 March 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
26. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (Western Washington University). Pages: 194-195.
27. Hartill 2005, p. 101.
28. "Chinese Cast Coins - MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - THE SUI, T'ANG AND POST TANG DYNASTIES". *By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins)*. 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
29. Hartill 2005, p. 91–94.
30. François Thierry de Crussol (蒂埃里) (14 September 2015). "Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (1). - Western Han wuzhu (1). - 1-Les junguo wuzhu 郡國五銖" (in French). TransAsiart. Retrieved 9 August 2023. En 118 av. J.-C., Wudi 武帝 interdit la fonte des banliang 半兩 et imposa celle des wuzhu 五銖, pièces devant peser 5 zhu et qui devait être munies d'un rebord interne et externe au revers, ce qui n'était pas le cas des banliang dont le revers était plat. La fonte était autorisée aux princes gouvernant un royaume (guo 國), aux commanderies (jun 郡) et bien sûr aux ateliers de l'empereur à Chang'an.
31. "Wu Zhu, Shang Lin San Guan: CM.185-2015". *Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge*. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2023. Shang Lin San Guan: the Three Offices of Shang Lin Park were the Office for Coinage, Office for the Sorting of Copper, and the Office of Price Equalisation.
32. Hartill 2005, p. 85, 91–94.
33. The Náprstek museum XINJIANG CAST CASH IN THE COLLECTION OF THE NÁPRSTEK MUSEUM, PRAGUE. by Ondřej Klimeš (ANNALS OF THE NÁPRSTEK MUSEUM 25 • PRAGUE 2004). Retrieved: 28 August 2018.
34. "Xinjiang, Qiuzi Kingdom - Bilingual Cash Coins". *By Vladimir Belyaev (Chinese Coinage Website - Charm.ru)*. 11 February 2002. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
35. Jen, David Chinese Cash: Identification and Price Guide, 340 p, 2000.
36. Anything Anywhere - CHINA, coins of that western region called Xinjiang/Sinkiang. - Xinjiang means "new land." Formerly known to westerners as "Chinese Turkestan." Approximately 5000 years of history, not particularly well written up in English and perhaps some of the Chinese studies are somewhat politically/ethnically biased. By Bob Reis. Retrieved: 25 August 2018.
37. "Emergence of Chinese Charms - Symbols Begin to Appear on Chinese Coins". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 16 November 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
38. Museum of Chinese Art and Ethnography ● Parma, Italy ● 0521-257.337 Good Luck Charms. Retrieved: 08 May 2018.
39. Yu Jiming - Zhongguo Huaqian Tujian (Illustrated Critical Catalogue of Chinese Charms), 2nd edition (1997). (in Mandarin Chinese)
40. Grundmann, Horst - Amulette Chinas und seiner Nachbarländer (2003). (in German)
41. Chen, Hong Xi Wan Qian Ji (Curio Coin Collection), 1986 (English translation).
42. "Chinese Charms with Coin Inscriptions – 錢文錢。". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 16 November 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
43. Fang, Alex Chengyu - Chinese Charms: Art, Religion and Folk Belief (2008)
44. Cribb, Joseph - Chinese Coin Shaped Charms (1986).
45. Edgar J.Mandel. Metal Charms and Amulets of China.
46. Sportstune.com – Section 1.9: "Charms with coin inscriptions: Wu Chu" by John Ferguson. Retrieved: 22 August 2018.
47. Sportstune.com – Section 1.120: "Charms with coin inscriptions: Shih Chien Wu Chu" by John Ferguson. Retrieved: 22 August 2018.
48. Sportstune.com – Section 1.10: "Charms with coin inscriptions: Ch'ang P'ing Wu Chu" by John Ferguson. Retrieved: 22 August 2018.
49. "五铢金钱 - 西汉（公元前202—8年）- 直径2.6厘米 - 1980年陕西咸阳出土". *National Museum of China (中国国家博物馆)* (in Chinese (China)). 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
50. "Exhibition to show the archaeological discoveries in Tuen Mun". *The Government of Hong Kong*. 18 January 2002. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
51. "Han Dynasty Coins Unearthed in Shaanxi". *Xinhua News Agency (hosted on China.org.cn)*. 10 January 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
52. "Largest Cache of Ancient Coins Unearthed in Xinjiang Province". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 30 August 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
53. "2,100-year old Coin Manufacture Workshop Ruins Found at Ancient City-site in Inner Mongolia". *Chinese Archeology Writer (Chinese Archeology – Institute of Archeology – Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)*. 9 July 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
54. "3 Tons of Coins Excavated from Ruins of Han Dynasty Mint in Inner Mongolia". *Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)*. 1 January 2013. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
55. "鄂尔多斯发现3500公斤西汉至王莽时期古钱币与钱范。". *人民网\>\>文化\>\>滚动新闻推荐（时效性强新闻）。* (in Chinese). 31 December 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
56. "10 ton Han Dynasty coins found in China". *Gila Lunatic (lunaticg)*. 10 October 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
57. "Two million copper coins weighing 10 tonnes found inside 2,000-year-old tomb". *by Ian Harvey (The Vintage News)*. 25 December 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2018.

## Sources

## InfoBox

| Wu Zhu | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Traditional Chinese | 五銖 |
| Simplified Chinese | 五铢 |
| Literal meaning | five *zhu* |
| Transcriptions  Standard Mandarin  Hanyu Pinyin wǔ zhū  Middle Chinese  Middle Chinese /ŋuo<sup>X</sup> d͡ʑɨo/  Old Chinese  Zhengzhang /\*ŋaːʔ djo/ | |
|  | |


title: Wu Zhongqi

abstract: Wu Zhongqi, a native of Changqing County, Shandong Province. He was a member of the Standing Committee of the Jiangsu Provincial People's Congress, vice-president of the Jiangsu Academy of Chinese Painting and Calligraphy, director and advisor of the Chinese Calligraphers Association, advisor to the Jiangsu Provincial Federation of Literature and Art, chairman and advisor of the Jiangsu Calligraphers Association, and director of the Nanjing Cultural Relics Management Committee.

text:
# Wu Zhongqi

**Wu Zhongqi** (September 20, 1907 - March 29, 2006, Chinese: 武中奇), a native of Changqing County, Shandong Province. He was a member of the Standing Committee of the Jiangsu Provincial People's Congress, vice-president of the Jiangsu Academy of Chinese Painting and Calligraphy, director and advisor of the Chinese Calligraphers Association, advisor to the Jiangsu Provincial Federation of Literature and Art, chairman and advisor of the Jiangsu Calligraphers Association, and director of the Nanjing Cultural Relics Management Committee.

## Biography

He was born into an impoverished peasant family and accompanied his parents to Jinan as an adolescent to earn a livelihood. At the beginning of 1936, the CCP Eastern Provincial Committee's organs were situated in his residence, having been rebuilt shortly after being destroyed by the Kuomintang. He was introduced to the CCP by Li Yu (Chinese: 黎玉), the secretary of the CCP Eastern Provincial Committee, in the same year. Following the July 7th Incident in 1937, he traveled to Tai'an with the CCP Shandong Provincial Committee. In January 1938, he took part in the anti-Japanese armed uprising at Mount Culai (Chinese: 徂徕山). He held the positions of platoon leader, squadron leader, battalion commander, special forces brigade leader, and chief of the ninth detachment in the Shandong Column of the Eighth Route Army. In 1941, he enrolled in the second training course of the Party School of the CCP Shandong Branch.

Wu Zhongqi was dispatched as a member of the Jinan Work Committee and director of the Jinan Anti-Japanese Democratic Government Office in June 1943, when the Shandong branch of the CPC decided to re-establish the CPC Jinan Work Committee and establish the Jinan Anti-Japanese Democratic Government Office. Wu Zhongqi was also appointed as the first governor of the Anti-Japanese Democratic Government of Lixing County. The Jinan Municipal Democratic Government was established in September 1944 and the Jinan Anti-Japanese Democratic Government Office was abolished in August 1945. Wu was appointed as the secretary-general of the municipal government. The Jinan Democratic Government was established in August 1945, following the abolition of the Jinan Anti-Japanese Democratic Government Office. He was transferred to the Relief Branch of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for the Liberated Areas of Shandong Province in November 1945, where he was responsible for the day-to-day operations of the Branch.

In 1949, Wu Zhongqi took part in the takeover of Shanghai and served as the chief of the Secretarial Section of the Shanghai Municipal People's Government. He also became the Chief of Staff of the Southern Cadre Column of the Third Field Army. Wuzhongqi was appointed director of the Nanjing Watch Factory in 1959 and served as director of the Nanjing Cultural Relics Custodian Committee in 1963. In the spring of 1973, he was vindicated and imprisoned in the Cultural Revolution. He was appointed vice president of the National Painting Institute of Jiangsu Province in 1979 and a member of the Standing Committee of the Jiangsu Provincial People's Congress in 1980. He perished in Nanjing on March 29, 2006, at the age of 98, after serving as the chairman of the Jiangsu Calligraphers Association.


title: Wu Zi Bei Ge

abstract: Wu Zi Bei Ge, also known as Wu Zi Bei Ge: Wu Zetian Zhuan, is a 2006 Chinese television series based on the life of Wu Zetian, the only woman in Chinese history to assume the title of "Empress Regnant". The series was directed and written by Chen Yanmin, and starred Siqin Gaowa and Wen Zhengrong as the empress. The series' title Wu Zi Bei Ge literally means "Song of the Uncharactered Stele", with the "stele" referring to the unmarked one standing near Wu Zetian's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum.

text:
# Wu Zi Bei Ge

***Wu Zi Bei Ge***, also known as ***Wu Zi Bei Ge: Wu Zetian Zhuan***, is a 2006 Chinese television series based on the life of Wu Zetian, the only woman in Chinese history to assume the title of "Empress Regnant". The series was directed and written by Chen Yanmin, and starred Siqin Gaowa and Wen Zhengrong as the empress. The series' title *Wu Zi Bei Ge* literally means "Song of the Uncharactered Stele", with the "stele" referring to the unmarked one standing near Wu Zetian's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| *Wu Zi Bei Ge* | |
| --- | --- |
| DVD cover art | |
| Also known as | Wu Zi Bei Ge: Wu Zetian Zhuan |
|  | |
| Traditional Chinese | 無字碑歌 /
無字碑歌：武則天傳 |
| Simplified Chinese | 无字碑歌 /
无字碑歌：武则天传 |
| Literal meaning | Song of the Uncharactered Stele /
Song of the Uncharactered Stele: The Story of Wu Zetian |
|
| Hanyu Pinyin | Wú Zì Bēi Gē /
Wú Zì Bēi Gē: Wǔ Zétiān Zhuàn |
|  | |
|  | |
| Genre | Historical drama |
| Written by | Chen Yanmin
Zhang Wenhua
Li Yijia |
| Directed by | Chen Yanmin |
| Starring | Siqin Gaowa
Wen Zhengrong
Zhang Tielin
Fang Xu
Liu Wei
Liu Jinshan
Liao Xiaoqin |
| Theme music composer | Ma Ding |
| Opening theme | *Wu Zi Bei Ge* (无字碑歌) performed by Mao Amin |
| Ending theme | *Qianqiu Gongzui Renping Shuo* (千秋功罪任凭说) performed by Mao Amin |
| Country of origin | China |
| Original language | Mandarin |
| No. of episodes | 40 |
| Production | |
| Production location | China |
| Running time | 45 minutes per episode |


title: Xavier Buff

abstract: Xavier Buff is a French mathematician, specializing in dynamical systems. Buff received in 1996 his Ph.D. (promotion) from the University of Paris-Sud under Adrien Douady with thesis Points fixe de renormalisation. As a postdoc he was in the academic year 1997–1998 the H. C. Wang Assistant Professor at Cornell University. At the Paul Sabatier University he became in 1998 a maître de conférences, achieved in 2006 his habilitation with habilitation thesis Disques de Siegel et ensembles de Julia d'aire strictement positive, and became in 2008 a full professor. In 2010 he was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Hyderabad and gave a talk Quadratic Julia Sets with Positive Area based on joint work with Arnaud Chéritat. In 2006 Buff and Chéritat received the Prix Leconte of the French Academy of Sciences for their collaborative work on Julia sets with positive mass; they proved the existence of quadratic polynomials that have positive Lebesgue measure. In 2008 Buff, Chéritat, and Pascale Roesch received a Young Researchers grant from Agence Nationale de la Recherche. In 2009 Buff became a member of the Institut Universitaire de France.

text:
# Xavier Buff

**Xavier Buff** (born 16 December 1971) is a French mathematician, specializing in dynamical systems.

Buff received in 1996 his Ph.D. (promotion) from the University of Paris-Sud under Adrien Douady with thesis *Points fixe de renormalisation*. As a postdoc he was in the academic year 1997–1998 the H. C. Wang Assistant Professor at Cornell University. At the Paul Sabatier University (Université Toulouse III) he became in 1998 a *maître de conférences*, achieved in 2006 his habilitation with habilitation thesis *Disques de Siegel et ensembles de Julia d'aire strictement positive*, and became in 2008 a full professor.

In 2010 he was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Hyderabad and gave a talk *Quadratic Julia Sets with Positive Area* based on joint work with Arnaud Chéritat. In 2006 Buff and Chéritat received the *Prix Leconte* of the French Academy of Sciences for their collaborative work on Julia sets with positive mass; they proved the existence of quadratic polynomials that have positive Lebesgue measure. In 2008 Buff, Chéritat, and Pascale Roesch received a Young Researchers grant from Agence Nationale de la Recherche. In 2009 Buff became a member of the Institut Universitaire de France.

## Selected publications

* with A. Chéritat: Quadratic Julia sets with positive area, Annals of Mathematics, vol. 176, 2012, pp. 673–746
* with A. Chéritat: A new proof of a conjecture of Yoccoz, Annales de l’institut Fourier, vol. 61, 2011, pp. 319–350
* with A. Chéritat: The Brjuno function continuously estimates the size of quadratic Siegel disks, Annals of Mathematics, vol. 164, 2006, pp. 265–312
* with A. Chéritat: Upper Bound for the Size of Quadratic Siegel Disks, Inventiones Mathematicae, vol. 156, 2004, pp. 1–24 doi:10.1007/s00222-003-0331-6
* with C. Henriksen: Julia sets in parameter spaces, Communications in Mathematical Physics, vol. 220, 2001, pp. 333–375 doi:10.1007/PL00005568
* with A. Chéritat: Ensembles de Julia quadratiques de mesure de Lebesgue strictement positive, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. 341, 2005, pp. 669–674 doi:10.1016/j.crma.2005.10.001
* with Leila Schneps, Jérôme Fehrenbach, Pierre Lochak, Pierre Vogel: Moduli Spaces of Curves, Mapping Class Groups and Field Theory, AMS and SMF 2003

## InfoBox

| Xavier Buff | |
| --- | --- |
| Xavier Buff, Oberwolfach 2008 | |
| Born | (1971-12-16) December 16, 1971 |
| Alma mater | University of Paris-Sud |
| Occupation | Mathematician |


title: Wuhuan Boulevard station

abstract: Wuhuan Boulevard Station, is a station of Line 1 of Wuhan Metro. It entered revenue service on July 29, 2010. It is located in Dongxihu District.

text:
# Wuhuan Boulevard station

**Wuhuan Boulevard Station** (Chinese: 五环大道站), is a station of Line 1 of Wuhan Metro. It entered revenue service on July 29, 2010. It is located in Dongxihu District.

## Station layout

| **3F** | Side platform, doors open on the right | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| | Westbound | Line 1 towards Jinghe (Dongwu Boulevard) |
| | Eastbound | Line 1 towards Hankou North (Etouwan) |
| | Side platform, doors open on the right | |
| **2F** | Concourse | Faregates, Station Agent |
| **G** | Entrances and Exits |  |

## Transfers

Bus transfers to Route 218, 222, 560, 736, 528, H83 inner line and HM2 are available at Wuhuan Avenue Station.

## InfoBox

| Wuhuan Boulevard
五环大道 metro | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Location | Dongxihu District, Wuhan, Hubei
China |
| Coordinates | 30°35′04″N 114°13′13″E / 30.584504°N 114.220165°E / 30.584504; 114.220165 |
| Operated by | Wuhan Metro Co., Ltd |
| Line(s) | Line 1 |
| Platforms | 2 (2 side platforms) |
| Construction | |
| Structure type | Elevated |
| History | |
| Opened | July 29, 2010 (2010-07-29) (Line 1) |
|  | |
| Services | |
| Preceding station Wuhan Metro Following station  Dongwu Boulevardtowards Jinghe  Line 1  Etouwantowards Hankou North | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Xenohyla eugenioi

abstract: Xenohyla eugenioi is a species of tree frog in the Hylidae family native to northeastern Brazil in ecotones between the Atlantic Forest and caatingas. It has been found in the Brazilian states of Bahia and Sergipe, approximately 1,000 km away from the other species in its genus, Xenohyla truncata. Like its relative, this frog spends the day hiding in bromeliads, emerging at night to hunt and forage. This frog has been observed between 128 and 960 meters above sea level. This frog is not endangered, but scientists note that there may be some threat from the collection of bromeliad plants and habitat loss associated with agriculture, livestock grazing, and logging. X. eugenioi keeps its white stripes through adulthood. Additionally, the species prefers to inhabit agrestes, and breeds in temporary pools formed by rainwater. Males grow from 30.9 to 31.5 mm SVL while females reach 39.5 to 45.5 mm SVL. It is currently unknown if this frog is also frugivorous like its relative. Xenohyla eugenioi is named after the Brazilian herpetologist Eugênio Izecksohn. Izecksohn described the type species Hyla truncata in 1959 and later established the genus Xenohyla where he transferred it to in 1998.

text:
# Xenohyla eugenioi

***Xenohyla eugenioi*** is a species of tree frog in the Hylidae family native to northeastern Brazil in ecotones between the Atlantic Forest and caatingas. It has been found in the Brazilian states of Bahia and Sergipe, approximately 1,000 km away from the other species in its genus, *Xenohyla truncata*. Like its relative, this frog spends the day hiding in bromeliads, emerging at night to hunt and forage. This frog has been observed between 128 and 960 meters above sea level.

This frog is not endangered, but scientists note that there may be some threat from the collection of bromeliad plants and habitat loss associated with agriculture, livestock grazing, and logging.

*X. eugenioi* keeps its white stripes through adulthood. Additionally, the species prefers to inhabit agrestes, and breeds in temporary pools formed by rainwater. Males grow from 30.9 to 31.5 mm (1.22 to 1.24 in) SVL while females reach 39.5 to 45.5 mm (1.56 to 1.8 in) SVL. It is currently unknown if this frog is also frugivorous like its relative.

*Xenohyla eugenioi* is named after the Brazilian herpetologist Eugênio Izecksohn. Izecksohn described the type species *Hyla truncata* in 1959 and later established the genus *Xenohyla* where he transferred it to in 1998.

1. IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group; Instituto Boitatá de Etnobiologia e Conservação da Fauna (2023). "*Xenohyla eugenioi*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species*. 3.1. **2023**: e.T29431A172198654. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T29431A172198654.en. Retrieved January 20, 2024.
2. Caramaschi, Ulisses (January 1998). "Description of a second species of the genus Xenohyla (Anura: Hylidae)". *Amphibia-Reptilia*. **19** (4): 377–384. doi:10.1163/156853898X00043  via ResearchGate.
3. Almeida, Andrade, Caramaschi, dos Reis Dias, Rony, Hugo, Ulisses, Eduardo (19 September 2015). "Xenohyla eugenioi Caramaschi, 1998 (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae): Geographic distribution and new record from the state of Sergipe, northeastern Brazil". *Check List*. **11** (5): 1744. doi:10.15560/11.5.1744  via ResearchGate.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

## InfoBox

| *Xenohyla eugenioi* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Hylidae |
| Genus: | *Xenohyla* |
| Species: | ***X. eugenioi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Xenohyla eugenioi***
(Caramaschi, 1998) | |
|


title: Włodzimirów, Słupca County

abstract: Włodzimirów is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zagórów, within Słupca County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland.

text:
# Włodzimirów, Słupca County

**Włodzimirów** \[vwɔd͡ʑiˈmiruf\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zagórów, within Słupca County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland.

## InfoBox

| Włodzimirów | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Włodzimirów | |
| Coordinates: 52°07′11″N 17°53′39″E / 52.11972°N 17.89417°E / 52.11972; 17.89417 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Greater Poland |
| County | Słupca |
| Gmina | Zagórów |


title: Włodzimirów, Konin County

abstract: Włodzimirów is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kazimierz Biskupi, within Konin County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately 5 kilometres (3 mi) south-east of Kazimierz Biskupi, 8 km (5 mi) north-west of Konin, and 90 km (56 mi) east of the regional capital Poznań.

text:
# Włodzimirów, Konin County

**Włodzimirów** \[vwɔd͡ʑiˈmiruf\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kazimierz Biskupi, within Konin County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately 5 kilometres (3 mi) south-east of Kazimierz Biskupi, 8 km (5 mi) north-west of Konin, and 90 km (56 mi) east of the regional capital Poznań.

## InfoBox

| Włodzimirów | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Włodzimirów | |
| Coordinates: 52°16′43″N 18°13′1″E / 52.27861°N 18.21694°E / 52.27861; 18.21694 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Greater Poland |
| County | Konin |
| Gmina | Kazimierz Biskupi |
| Population | 230 |


title: Wulfsige of Sherborne

abstract: Wulfsige was a ninth-century Bishop of Sherborne.

text:
# Wulfsige of Sherborne

**Wulfsige** was a ninth-century Bishop of Sherborne.

## Dates

The exact dates of Wulfsige's bishopric and of his demise are uncertain. The editors of *The Handbook of British Chronology* have placed his date of accession between 879 and 889 and his death between 890 and 896 with a terminal end date of 900. This date is confirmed by the fact that Asser, Wulfsige's successor, was signing charters as bishop of Sherborne in 900. However, it has recently been suggested that Wulfsige of Sherborne might have been the same Wulfsige who succeeded Heahstan as bishop of London around 900, making 900 the approximate year of Wulfsige's transfer rather than his death.

## Educational reform under Alfred the Great

Wulfsige was a contemporary of King Alfred the Great, who had undertaken an effort of educational reform in his realm, personally translating into English what he considered the works “most necessary for all men to know.” When Alfred translated the Pastorale of Pope Gregory the Great, he sent a copy to each of his bishops, including Wulfsige, and added a prefatory letter explaining his educational aims and requesting the bishops to educate young men so that they could read these great works, originally composed in Latin. The copy sent to Wulfsige, which includes his name in the preface, survives as MS Ii.2.4 at Cambridge University Library. It is one of only five which are extant today and was the original from which copies were made in the eleventh century.

When Werferth, bishop of Worcester, translated Gregory's *Dialogues* into English, Alfred sent an exemplar to Wulfsige, who composed a poem that was included as a preface to the work. In this preface, Wulfsige asked his readers to pray for him and for King Alfred, whom he referred to as the "greatest treasure-giver of all time."

## Citations

* Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). *Handbook of British Chronology* (Third revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56350-X.

## InfoBox

| Wulfsige | |
| --- | --- |
| Bishop of Sherborne | |
| Appointed | between 879 and 889 |
| Term ended | from between 890 and 896 to 900 |
| Predecessor | Æthelheah |
| Successor | Asser |
| Orders | |
| Consecration | between 879 and 889 |
| Personal details | |
| Died | from between 890 and 896 to 900 |
| Denomination | Christian |