title: Marsha P. Johnson State Park

abstract: Marsha P. Johnson State Park is an 11-acre (4.5 ha) state park in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn in New York City, New York, U.S. The park stretches along the East River near North 7th, 8th, and 9th Streets, with views of the Williamsburg Bridge and Midtown Manhattan. East River State Park opened in 2007 on the site of the Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal. The park was renamed in honor of gay rights activist Marsha P. Johnson in 2020, becoming the first New York state park to be named after an LGBTQ person.

text:
# Marsha P. Johnson State Park

**Marsha P. Johnson State Park** (formerly and also known as **East River State Park**) is an 11-acre (4.5 ha) state park in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn in New York City, New York, U.S. The park stretches along the East River near North 7th, 8th, and 9th Streets, with views of the Williamsburg Bridge and Midtown Manhattan.

East River State Park opened in 2007 on the site of the Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal. The park was renamed in honor of gay rights activist Marsha P. Johnson in 2020, becoming the first New York state park to be named after an LGBTQ person.

## History

Marsha P. Johnson State Park is built on the former site of the Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal, the first offline railroad terminal to be located in Brooklyn (opened in 1870 as Palmer's Dock). It is adjacent to the city-run Bushwick Inlet Park. The park opened on May 26, 2007, and was originally known as East River State Park. Unlike other nearby parks, it closes at dusk. State park rules prohibit dogs and bicycle riding.

In 2009, the music concerts that were held at the McCarren Park Pool were relocated to the East River State Park. The Open Space Alliance for North Brooklyn (OSA) selected the East River State Park as the site for future performances. The park has been nicknamed the Williamsburg Waterfront. Through a public/private partnership the Open Space Alliance and Ticketmaster, live music performances will be held through the summer months at the East River State Park.

### Renaming and renovation

On February 1, 2020, Governor Andrew Cuomo of New York announced that the East River State Park in Brooklyn would be renamed in honor of gay rights activist Marsha P. Johnson. New York state governor Andrew Cuomo formally rededicated the park on August 24, 2020, on the 75th anniversary of Johnson's birth. At the renaming, Cuomo also announced the addition of art and signage within the park that would reflect Johnson's work. The state government closed parts of the park in early 2021, adding trees, paths, gardens, and event spaces as part of a renovation. The state originally planned to commission a mural honoring Johnson, but these plans were scrapped in mid-2021 after community members and activists criticized the lack of public input for the plans.

In August 2022, on the 77th anniversary of Johnson's birth, governor Kathy Hochul announced that a new gate to the park would be constructed as part of a renovation. The gateway would contain floral decorations, which Johnson frequently wore, and the words "Pay it no mind", which Johnson sardonically said was what her middle initial stood for.

## InfoBox

| Marsha P. Johnson State Park | |
| --- | --- |
| East River State Park | |
| View of Marsha P. Johnson State Park with the East River and Midtown Manhattan in the background | |
|  | |
| Type | State park |
| Location | Williamsburg, Brooklyn, New York, U.S. |
| Nearest city | New York City |
| Coordinates | 40°43′18″N 73°57′44″W / 40.721592°N 73.962257°W / 40.721592; -73.962257 |
| Area | 11 acres (4.5 ha) |
| Created | 2007 |
| Operated by | New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation |
| Visitors | 1,464,993 (in 2014) |
| Open | Year round |


title: Limoniopsis

abstract:
Limoniopsis is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Plumbaginaceae. Its native range is Turkey to Caucasus. Species:
  - Limoniopsis davisii Bokhari
  - Limoniopsis owerinii (Boiss.) Lincz.

text:
# Limoniopsis

***Limoniopsis*** is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Plumbaginaceae.

Its native range is Turkey to Caucasus.

Species:

## InfoBox

| *Limoniopsis* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| Order: | Caryophyllales |
| Family: | Plumbaginaceae |
| Genus: | *Limoniopsis*<br>Lincz. |
|


title: Yak Bak

abstract: Yak Bak was a line of handheld electronic voice recorder toys developed by Ralph Osterhout at Team Machina for Yes! Gear in the mid-to-late 1990s. Several versions of the toy were developed, including the Yak Bak, Yak Bak 2, Yak Bak 2k, Yak Bak WarpR, Yak Wakky, Yak Bak SFX, and the Yak Bakwards. Some of these models also came in pen form as part of the "Power Penz" series. The Yak Bak was intended to be a compact, more affordable competitor to the Talkboy introduced by Tiger Electronics in 1992.

text:
# Yak Bak

**Yak Bak** was a line of handheld electronic voice recorder toys developed by Ralph Osterhout at Team Machina for **Yes! Gear** (a.k.a. Yes! Entertainment) in the mid-to-late 1990s. Several versions of the toy were developed, including the Yak Bak, Yak Bak 2, Yak Bak 2k, Yak Bak WarpR, Yak Wakky, Yak Bak SFX, and the Yak Bakwards. Some of these models also came in pen form as part of the "Power Penz" series. The Yak Bak was intended to be a compact, more affordable competitor to the Talkboy introduced by Tiger Electronics in 1992.

## History

In December 1994, YES! launched its YES! Gear product line with the introduction of Yak Bak, a simple device consisting of a single speaker and two buttons. One button was marked "Say" and the other, "Play." By holding down the "Say" button, a person could record six seconds of sound, during which a light would shine to indicate that the Yak Bak was recording. Afterwards, the "Play" button would enable the person to hear what was just recorded. This was the basic premise for all subsequent models of the toy, each one adding a slight variance to the original. The television commercial for it showed a boy sitting in a living room recliner while his sister came by and started fussing at him. Then he kept playing his "Is not!" quote using the Yak Bak at his sister, while his sister kept saying "Is too!".

Following encouraging sales of its 1995 line of miniature recorders, YES! introduced four new Yak Bak products for 1996 and lowered the products' prices to a more affordable range. The original Yak Bak would be re-released in 1997 as Yak Bak Classic and again in 2000 as Yak Bak 2k.

## Yak Bak 2

This was identical to the original, but added a locking mechanism which prevented the user from accidentally hitting the "Say" button and thereby erasing the stored recording. This locking mechanism became a staple of some of the future models. The most notable function of this version is the WarpR, which changes the pitch of the recording. Later models of this series had incorporated the WarpR design and function. It came in many colors. One of the toys of the year during the Sixth Annual CBS This Morning Toy Test and the Seventh Annual Sesame Street Parents' Toy Test.

## Yak Bak 2k

To cash in on the hysteria regarding the turn of the millennium, the Yak Bak 2k was released.

## Yak Bak WarpR

The Yak Bak WarpR provided users with the ability to alter the recording via a pitch dial that would speed up or slow down the sound, thereby making the voice sound higher or deeper. This model was more popular than previous ones as the novelty of voice recording became more enticing once users could "warp" their voices. This "warping" option also became a staple of all future models. As was the case with the Yak Bak 2, the Yak Bak WarpR also contained a lockout mechanism which disabled the Say button.

## Yak Guard

The Yak Guard was a motion-triggered device capable of guarding rooms and belongings, or to "pull gags on friends and family members," as suggested in company advertisements. A personally recorded "alarm" could be placed on door knobs or drawers, for example, alerting the owner of trespass.

## Yak Time

The Yak Time was a combination of the original Yak Bak and a wrist watch.

## Yak Wakky

The Yak Wakky allowed users to change the pitch and speed of the recording by way of light sensitive sensors on the body of the device. When activated by a switch on the right hand side of the toy, the sensors would, depending on how much light shone on them, increase the pitch of the recording. By using the palm of his/her hand, the user could alter the pitch of the recordings dramatically.

## Yak Bak SFX

The Yak Bak SFX provided the same function as the Yak Bak WarpR but with additional buttons that added six sound effects before or after the recording.

## Yak Bakwards

Retail priced at $19.99, the Yak Bakwards was essentially the Yak Bak WarpR with an additional "Yalp" button. This button literally reversed the "Play" function, causing the recording to be reversed.

## Yak Bak Ball

Yak Bak Ball is in the shape of a small football. The user holds down the button and record; toss it and after catching it, squeezes or hit it and hear the message. The grips are designed to be easy to catch. It was made to get children active outdoors.

## Yak Maniak

The Yak Maniak allowed the user to alter the pitch of the recording as was the case with past models. It also included five sound effects, not too dissimilar to the previous Yak Baks, but the most notable difference between this model and others in the series were its three extra voice effects. The Yak Maniak enabled the user to cause their recordings to stutter, echo or warble. These effects were activated by a trigger on the left hand side of the toy. A three-position dial was turned either all the way to the right for stutter, to the central position for echo, or to the left for warble. During playback, the trigger had to be held down to activate the stutter, held down for a certain length of the recording then released to enable the echo or held down to activate the warble effect. Hitting play mid-way through the echo effect could delete the remainder of the recording.

## Yak Bak Power Penz

The Yak Bak Power Pens combined working ink pens with the Yak Bak toy. Marketed for children in school, the Power Penz came in both the Yak Write SFX and the Yak Bak 2 models. It was made to compete against the Talkboy FX Plus by Tiger Electronics.


title: Lev Shcheglov

abstract: Lev Shcheglov was a Russian physician who focused on sexology and psychotherapy.

text:
# Lev Shcheglov

**Lev Shcheglov** (28 August 1946 – 11 December 2020) was a Russian physician who focused on sexology and psychotherapy.

## Biography

Shcheglov was considered the leading authority on sexological matters in Russia. He published 230 scientific works, among them 20 monographs and textbooks.

He died from COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia. He is buried in St. Petersburg at the Preobrazhenskoye Jewish cemetery.

## Publications

In English * Shcheglov, Lev (1993). "Medical Sexology". In Kon, Igor; Riordan, James (eds.). *Sex and Russian Society*. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253332011.

In Russian * Щеглов Л. Записки сексолога. — Амфора, 2009. — ISBN 978-5-367-00947-7
* Щеглов Л. Всё про секс: от А до Я. — Амфора, Ред Фиш, 2005. — ISBN 5-483-00129-X
* Щеглов Л., Билич Г. Мужская сексуальность. — Новая Волна, Умеренков, 2004. — ISBN 5-7864-0198-7, ISBN 5-94368-039-X
* Щеглов Л. Энциклопедия секса, или 1001 ночь с доктором Щегловым. — Алетейя, 2002. — ISBN 5-89329-524-2
* Щеглов Л., Фрай М. Книга извращений. — Амфора, 2002. — ISBN 5-94278-279-2 \[23\]
* Щеглов Л. Лабиринты плоти или история болезни мадам Елены. — ЛИК, 2000. — ISBN 5-86038-070-4
* Щеглов Л. Сексология и сексопатология. Врачу и пациенту. — Культ-информ-пресс, 1998. — ISBN 5-8392-0154-5
* Щеглов Л. Не только о сексе. — Комплект, 1997. — ISBN 5-7837-0026-6
* Щеглов Л. Неврозы и сексуальные расстройства. — 1996.
* Щеглов Л. Яблоко доктора Щеглова, или Что осталось за кадром. — АРТ-Пресс, 1995. — OCLC 36759865
* Щеглов Л. Доктор Щеглов о сексе. — Фирма «Латона», 1995. — ISBN 5-88577-004-2
* Щеглов Л. Сексология. Врачу и пациенту. — СПб.: Олма-Пресс, 2001. — 384 с. — 3000 экз. — ISBN 5-7654-1068-5, ISBN 5-224-02421-8
* Щеглов Л. Групповая ненависть как двигатель новейшей истории / Русский имаго 2000. Исследования по психоанализу культуры. СПб., 2001, с. 114-116.
* Щеглов Л. Некоторые аспекты психоаналитического подхода в сексологической практике. // Вопросы сексологии. СПб., 1992, с. 70-72.
* Щеглов Л. Психосоматическая модель сексуальных расстройств. СПб., 1993. - 32 с.
* Щеглов Л. Психосоматические соотношения и психоанализ. / Вопросы психоанализа. СПб., 1993, с. 76-89.
* Щеглов Л. Эрос в зеркале культуры / Русский имаго 2001. Исследования по психоанализу культуры. СПб., 2002, с. 243-251.
* Щеглов Л. Лабиринты страсти.
* Щеглов Л. Андрогин.

## InfoBox

| Lev Shcheglov | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 28 August 1946
Leningrad, Soviet Union |
| Died | 11 December 2020 (aged 74)
Saint Petersburg, Russia |
| Nationality | Russian |
| Alma mater | Saint Petersburg State Medical Academy |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | sexology, somatoform disorders, psychotherapy |
|  | |


title: Lithoxus lithoides

abstract: Lithoxus lithoides is a species of armored catfish native to Guyana and Suriname where it is found in stony rivulets of the Essequibo and upper Correntyne River basins. It can be found clinging to rocks in rapidly moving water. This species grows to a length of 8.6 centimetres (3.4 in) SL. It is the only species in its genus.

text:
# Lithoxus lithoides

***Lithoxus lithoides*** is a species of armored catfish native to Guyana and Suriname where it is found in stony rivulets of the Essequibo and upper Correntyne River basins. It can be found clinging to rocks in rapidly moving water. This species grows to a length of 8.6 centimetres (3.4 in) SL. It is the only species in its genus.

## Taxonomy

*Lithoxus* is supported as a monophyletic sister to *Exastilithoxus*. Together, these two genera form a well-supported clade.

## Diet

*Lithoxus* (along with its sister, *Exastilithoxus*) are fairly unusual among loricariids in that they subsist entirely on a diet of insect larvae.

* Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "*Lithoxus lithoides*". *FishBase*. December 2011 version.

## InfoBox

| *Lithoxus lithoides* | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Siluriformes |
| Family: | Loricariidae |
| Subfamily: | Hypostominae |
| Tribe: | Ancistrini |
| Genus: | *Lithoxus*
Eigenmann, 1910 |
| Species: | ***L. lithoides*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Lithoxus lithoides***
C. H. Eigenmann, 1912 | |
|


title: Patrick Doeplah

abstract: Patrick Doeplah was a Liberian footballer who played at both professional and international levels as a striker.

text:
# Patrick Doeplah

**Patrick Doeplah** (27 October 1990  22 March 2011) was a Liberian footballer who played at both professional and international levels as a striker.

## Career

### Club career

Doeplah spent his youth career with Gardnersville and Roots, before playing senior football with Mighty Barrolle and LISCR. At the latter club, he was the subject of interest from Ghanaian side Asante Kotoko.

He instead signed on loan for Israeli club Hapoel Kfar Saba for the 2009–2010 season, before the deal was later made permanent.

### International career

Doeplah earned two caps for Liberia in 2010.

## Death

Doeplah died on 22 March 2011 at the age of 20. He was found dead at a house in Monrovria, where he had been attending an Olympic training camp. He was said to have suffered a cardiac arrest.

## Career statistics

| Club performance | | | League | | Cup | | League Cup | | Continental | | Total | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | Club | League | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |
|
| Israel | | | League | | Israel State Cup | | Toto Cup | | Europe | | Total | |
| 2009–2010 | Hapoel Kfar Saba | Liga Leumit | 32 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 38 | 8 |
| 2010–2011 | | | 23 | 9 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 28 | 10 |
|
| Total | Liberia | | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| | Israel | | 55 | 17 | 4 | 0 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 60 | 18 |
| Career total | | | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |

## InfoBox

Patrick Doeplah
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Date of birth | (1990-10-27)27 October 1990 | | |
| Place of birth | Monrovia, Liberia | | |
| Date of death | 22 March 2011(2011-03-22) (aged 20) | | |
| Place of death | Monrovia, Liberia | | |
| Height | 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Striker | | |
| Youth career | | | |
|  | Gardnersville | | |
|  | Roots | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2007 | Mighty Barolle | ? | (?) |
| 2008–2009 | LISCR | ? | (?) |
| 2009–2010 | Hapoel Kfar Saba (loan) | 32 | (8) |
| 2010–2011 | Hapoel Kfar Saba | 23 | (9) |
| International career | | | |
| 2010 | Liberia | 2 | (0) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals | | | |


title: Omegle

abstract: Omegle was a free, web-based online chat service that allowed users to socialize with others without the need to register. The service randomly paired users in one-on-one chat sessions where they could chat anonymously. It operated from 2009 to 2023.

text:
# Omegle

**Omegle** (/ˈmɛɡəl/ *oh-MEG-əl*) was a free, web-based online chat service that allowed users to socialize with others without the need to register. The service randomly paired users in one-on-one chat sessions where they could chat anonymously. It operated from 2009 to 2023.

## Creation

The site was created by then-18-year-old Leif K-Brooks of Brattleboro, Vermont and was launched in March 2009. Less than a month after launch, Omegle garnered around 150,000 page views per day. In March 2010, the site introduced a videotelephony feature.

### Etymology

Brooks said, "I was working on a different project before Omegle, and it kept breaking due to an error from a third-party service it used. The error code wasn't documented, and I wanted a name for it, so I nicknamed it 'error code omega' because it was apocalyptic. Omegle was eventually named after that."

## Criticism of China

Omegle criticized the Chinese Communist Party, expressed support for the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, and added an image of the American flag on the front page with the words "Xi Jinping sure looks like Winnie-the-Pooh" over it.

## Racism amongst some users

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Omegle was used by many alt-right users for racist content, in which users harassed ethnic minorities and women with hate speech. In 2020, two teenagers used the keywords "BLM", "KKK" and "racist" to match with users, reporting that many of their matches made racist remarks. In 2020, TikTok user Johan Bradley posted a video of two teenage boys referring to him as a "nigger" and "slave" while making whipping noises. The Omegle users were identified as students of Shoreham-Wading River High School, prompting their district's superintendent to launch disciplinary action against them. In 2020, the Anti-Defamation League began an investigation into antisemitism and far-right trolling on Omegle. An Australian white supremacist and former YouTuber named Tor Brookes (who used the alias Philip Hedley on Omegle but is more generally known as "CatboyKami") popularised the site in far-right circles after he attended a "Stop the Steal" rally in Phoenix, Arizona. He has promoted conspiracy theories and far-right extremism on Omegle, as well as on BitChute, Discord, and Telegram, such as a video of him mimicking the murder of George Floyd. His content includes racial slurs and costumes (including blackface) to mock other ethnic groups. Other prominent white supremacists that used Omegle included American Paul Miller, who used the alias GypsyCrusader and dressed as the comic book villains Joker and Riddler to spread racist messages, and Canadian Brandon Martinez, who would enter interests associated with the Democratic Party to harass leftist users.

## Child sexual abuse

In 2010, K-Brooks expressed disappointment over sexual content on the site. While video chats were monitored to flag the IP addresses of users that showed nudity or sexual content, Omegle did not have a broadcast delay to prevent minors from viewing harmful material at the beginning of a chat. Prior to early 2013, the site did not censor contributions through a profanity filter, and users often encountered nudity and sexual content. A former user who was a child at the time reported, after it closed, her experiences with the site, saying "So. Many. Penises." and mentioning people self-harming.

Originally, 13-year-olds could use the website with the permission of a parent or guardian. Many local and state law enforcement agencies warned of increasing sexual exploitation of minors when Omegle's popularity surged, particularly with teenagers, during the COVID-19 lockdowns.

In 2020, a Canadian teacher was arrested at his home in Guelph after he broadcast child pornography on Omegle. He pleaded guilty to several criminal charges in 2022. In 2021, an Australian man was arrested at his home on the Central Coast of New South Wales after he allegedly used Omegle to advertise his search for child sex.

In 2022, the rules were updated so that only those 18 or older were allowed to use the website.

### Closure

At the time of its closure, Omegle faced a $22 million lawsuit, which was filed in 2019 over a user from Oregon who became a victim of child sex exploitation. In 2014, the then-11-year-old plaintiff encountered a Canadian pedophile on Omegle, who blackmailed her into digital sexual slavery. The lawsuit alleged that Omegle knowingly allowed the pairing of minors with pedophiles due to a splash screen warning that stated, "Predators have been known to use Omegle, so please be careful". Omegle removed this warning at a later date. The BBC published an extensive report on the role of a lawsuit and out-of-court settlement that resulted in shutting down the site. The plaintiff, referred to as "A.M.", was mentioned in the Omegle's final site message saying, "I thank A.M. for opening my eyes to the human cost of Omegle." This acknowledgment and a link to the lawsuit was part of the site's settlement agreement. On November 8, 2023, K-Brooks posted an announcement describing the challenges of running the site and the ultimate decision to shut down the website. Challenges listed included online exploitation of children and attacks on communication services. K-Brooks concluded that his decision revolved around internet misuse and asked users to consider donating to the Electronic Frontier Foundation to support internet users' digital rights. The lede of the announcement began with quotes by C. S. Lewis and Douglas Adams.

## InfoBox

Omegle
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Type of site |  |
| Available in | English |
| Founded | March 25, 2009 (2009-03-25) |
| Dissolved | November 8, 2023 (2023-11-08) |
| Country of origin | United States |
| Owner | Omegle.com, LLC |
| Created by | Leif K-Brooks |
| Industry | Internet |
| URL | omegle.com |
| Commercial | No |
| Registration | No |
| Current status | Defunct |


title: PRNET

abstract: The Packet Radio Network (PRNET) was a set of early, experimental mobile ad hoc networks whose technologies evolved over time. It was funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Major participants in the project included BBN Technologies, Hazeltine Corporation, Rockwell International's Collins division, and SRI International.

text:
# PRNET

The **Packet Radio Network** (**PRNET**) was a set of early, experimental mobile ad hoc networks whose technologies evolved over time. It was funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Major participants in the project included BBN Technologies, Hazeltine Corporation, Rockwell International's Collins division, and SRI International.

## History

ARPA initiated the PRNET project in 1973, funding both theoretical and experimental research. Its goals were outlined in a 1975 paper by Bob Kahn, namely, to investigate the feasibility of using packet-switched, store-and-forward radio communications to provide reliable computer communications in a mobile environment. The earlier ALOHAnet served as an inspiration, but PRNET tackled a significantly harder set of problems, namely, multi-hop communications between mobile vehicles without a central station. In Kahn's initial conception, the overall system design was "predicated upon the existence of an array of low cost repeaters", where he defines the term to mean "a particular kind of packet radio which is equipped to retransmit by radio some or all packets which it receives by radio". In today's terminology, this might be called a *router* or a *packet switch*, rather than a radio repeater.

The first PRNET was established under the auspices of SRI in the San Francisco Bay Area, with BBN contributing network technology and Collins creating the Experimental Packet Radios (EPRs), which implemented L-band spread-spectrum waveforms and supported half-duplex communications at 100 or 400 kilobits/second. There was also a smaller network at BBN, for software development and testing. The first packet radios were delivered in mid-1975 for initial testing and a quasi-operational network capability was established for the first time in September 1976, shortly after the prototype networking software was developed. By 1977, this software included radio network routing control; a gateway to other networks; network measurement; debugging tools; and configuration tools.

PRNET was sufficiently advanced by 1977 to participate in the initial three-way internetworking demonstration, which linked a mobile vehicle in PRNET with nodes in the ARPANET, and via SATNET, to nodes in London run by Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London. Afterwards, it was usually attached to the ARPANET so that BBN software developers could access and update it from Cambridge. By June 1978, about 25 radio nodes were available.

By September 1979, "Ron \[Kunzelman\] reported that SRI is now operating two PRNETs in the San Francisco bay area, and one PRNET at Ft. Bragg, North Carolina. The net at Ft. Bragg is now eight terminals on two TIUs, and will grow to forty terminals."

The Experimental Packet Radios were later replaced by Upgraded Packet Radios (UPR), circa 1978, and in 1986 by Low-Cost Packet Radio (LPR) as part of DARPA's follow-on SURAN project.

* Robert E. Kahn, "The organization of computer resources into a packet radio network", AFIPS '75 Proceedings, May 19–22, 1975, pages 177-186.
* J. Burchfiel, R. Tomlinson and M. Beeler, "Functions and Structure of a Packet Radio Station," AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Volume 44, 1975, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J.
* Darryl E. Rubin, "Army Packet Radio Network Protocol Study", SRI International, November 1977.
* Robert E. Kahn, Steven A. Gronemeyer, Jerry Burchfiel, Ronald C. Kunzelman, "Advances in Packet Radio Technology", Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 66, no. 11, November 1978, pages 1468–1498.
* John Schoch; Larry Stewart (February 1979). *Internetwork Experiments with the Bay Area Packet Radio Network* (PDF). Internet Experiment Note. IEN 78.
* J. Jubin, "Current packet radio network protocols", lNFOCOM‘85 Proc., Mar. 1985.
* J. Westcott and J. Jubin, "A distributed routing design for a broadcast environment," in MILCOM’82 Proc., 1982.
* John Jubin and Janet D. Tornow, "The DARPA Packet Radio Network Protocols", Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 75, no. 1, January 1987, pages 21–32.


title: Lisa C. Richardson

abstract: Lisa C. Richardson is an American physician who is the Director of CDC Division of Cancer Prevention and Control. She is responsible for the Colorectal Cancer Control Program, the National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program, the National Comprehensive Cancer Control Program, and the National Program of Cancer Registries.

text:
# Lisa C. Richardson

**Lisa C. Richardson** is an American physician who is the Director of CDC Division of Cancer Prevention and Control. She is responsible for the Colorectal Cancer Control Program, the National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program, the National Comprehensive Cancer Control Program, and the National Program of Cancer Registries.

## Early life and education

Richardson earned her bachelor's and medical degrees at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Howard University. Whilst at UNC, she was inducted into the Alpha Omega Alpha honor society. She moved to the University of Michigan School of Public Health for graduate studies, where she earned a master's degree in public health. Richardson was an oncology fellow at the University of Florida College of Medicine.

## Research and career

In 1997, Richardson joined the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). She was appointed medical director of the CDC National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Programme. The initiative provided cancer screening for low income, uninsured women. In 1998, she was made medical director of the CDC blood disorder division. In this capacity she evaluated HIV and hepatitis infections amongst people with haemophilia. She joined the faculty at the University of Florida in 2000, where she spent four years before returning to the CDC. She was appointed to the Division of Cancer Prevention and Control in 2010, where she oversees a $380 million annual budget.

Richardson serves on the faculty at the University of Southern California, where she specializes in trans-care and eating disorders in athletes.

## Selected publications

* Gery P Guy; Cheryll C Thomas; Trevor Thompson; Meg Watson; Greta M Massetti; Lisa C Richardson; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1 June 2015). "Vital signs: melanoma incidence and mortality trends and projections - United States, 1982-2030". *Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report*. **64** (21): 591–596. ISSN 0149-2195. PMC 4584771. PMID 26042651. Wikidata Q34479259.
* Arica White; Trevor D Thompson; Mary C White; Susan A Sabatino; Janet de Moor; Paul V Doria-Rose; Ann M Geiger; Lisa C Richardson (3 March 2017). "Cancer Screening Test Use - United States, 2015". *Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report*. **66** (8): 201–206. doi:10.15585/MMWR.MM6608A1. ISSN 0149-2195. PMC 5657895. PMID 28253225. Wikidata Q38933266.
* Lisa C Richardson; Lori A Pollack (1 January 2005). "Therapy insight: Influence of type 2 diabetes on the development, treatment and outcomes of cancer". *Nature Clinical Practice Oncology*. **2** (1): 48–53. doi:10.1038/NCPONC0062. ISSN 1743-4254. PMID 16264856. Wikidata Q36303910.

## InfoBox

| Lisa C. Richardson | |
| --- | --- |
| Richardson in a 2021 Centers for Disease Control video | |
| Alma mater | University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Institutions | University of Florida <br>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
|  | |


title: T-72M4CZ

abstract: The T-72M4 CZ is an upgraded Czech version of the Soviet-designed, Czechoslovakia made main battle tank T-72M. The only user of this tank is the Czech Army. Between 2003 and 2006, 30 tanks were produced. The main armament is a 125 mm gun 2A46M. The crew comprises a gunner, driver and commander. Maximum speed on the road is 61 km/h, and in terrain 44 km/h. This tank is comparable with third generation MBT. All tanks are still in active service.

text:
# T-72M4CZ

The **T-72M4 CZ** is an upgraded Czech version of the Soviet-designed, Czechoslovakia made main battle tank T-72M. The only user of this tank is the Czech Army. Between 2003 and 2006, 30 tanks were produced. The main armament is a 125 mm gun 2A46M. The crew comprises a gunner, driver and commander. Maximum speed on the road is 61 km/h, and in terrain 44 km/h. This tank is comparable with third generation MBT. All tanks are still in active service.

## Upgrade

The main goal of modernization was to achieve combat parameters and utility properties of 3rd - 4th generation tanks. The upgrade increased the firepower by conducting effective fire from place or while moving and increased the effects of under-caliber projectiles with a completely new ammunition for the tank cannon and the possibility of observation by day and night. The new powerplant and the modification of the chassis significantly contributed to increasing the mobility and maneuverability of the tank. Passive and active tank protection in combat was also increased by attaching dynamic body protection and turret protection, reinforcing the armor and body modification, laser detection and indication system, new protective smoke grenade and protective masking system (against visual, infra and radiolocation survey).

The upgrade was a joint venture between Nimda, Finmeccanica - Selex Galileo of Italy and VOP CZ (VOP025). The upgrade consists of a new powerpack in the form of Perkins Condor CV 12, Allison XTG-411-6N automatic transmission and Selex Galileo TURMS/T Fire Control System. The navigation system was upgraded with NBV-97, which was developed by Letecké Přístroje Praha SRO and a new communications suite has been added.

For protection, a new ERA called DYNA (DYNamic Armour) developed in the Czech Republic was added along with full NBC protection and a fire detection and suppression system by German company Kidde Deugra.

## Variants

* **T-72M4 CZ-W** \- command version of T-72M4 CZ.
* **VT-72M4 CZ** \- recovery tank variant based on T-72M4 CZ for Czech Army.

## Operators

## InfoBox

| T-72M4CZ | |
| --- | --- |
| T-72M4 CZ | |
| Type | Main battle tank |
| Place of origin | Czech Republic |
| Service history | |
| In service | 2004-present |
| Used by | Czech Republic |
| Production history | |
| Produced | 2003-2006 |
| No. built | 27 T-72M4 CZ
3 T-72M4 CZ-W
3 VT-72M4 CZ |
| Specifications | |
| Mass | 48 tonnes |
| Length | 7.9 m |
| Width | 3.6 m |
| Height | 2.2 m |
| Crew | 3 (commander, driver and gunner) |
| --- | |
| Armor | Composite armour 570 mm (22.4 in) front of the turret |
| Main
armament | 125 mm 2A46M smoothbore tank gun |
| Secondary
armament | 7.62 mm PKMT coaxial machine gun,
12.7 mm NSVT AA machine gun on commander's ring-mount |
| Engine | diesel Perkins Condor CV 12 1000 TCA
1006 hp (746 kW) |
| Power/weight | 21 hp/tonne (15,5 kW/tonne) |
| Suspension | torsion bar |
| Maximum speed | 61 km/h |


title: Lexington Hills, California

abstract: Lexington Hills is a census-designated place and an unincorporated area in Santa Clara County, California, United States. The population was 2,492 at the 2020 census. The area is located in the Santa Cruz Mountains, about five miles south of Los Gatos and about 14 miles (23 km) north of Santa Cruz. Lexington Hills is the name assigned by the United States Census Bureau to the area, which actually comprises several small communities, including Redwood Estates, Holy City, Chemeketa Park, and Aldercroft Heights.

text:
# Lexington Hills, California

**Lexington Hills** is a census-designated place and an unincorporated area in Santa Clara County, California, United States. The population was 2,492 at the 2020 census. The area is located in the Santa Cruz Mountains, about five miles south of Los Gatos and about 14 miles (23 km) north of Santa Cruz. Lexington Hills is the name assigned by the United States Census Bureau to the area, which actually comprises several small communities, including Redwood Estates, Holy City, Chemeketa Park, and Aldercroft Heights.

## Geography

Lexington Hills is located at 37°09′28″N 121°59′02″W / 37.157695°N 121.984013°W / 37.157695; -121.984013.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 4.7 square miles (12 km2), of which, 4.7 square miles (12 km2) of it is land and 0.03 square miles (0.078 km2) of it (0.72%) is water.

### Climate

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Lexington Hills has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1990 | 2,064 |  |  |
| 2000 | 2,454 |  | 18.9% |
| 2010 | 2,421 |  | −1.3% |
| 2020 | 2,492 |  | 2.9% |
| source: | | | |

### 2010

The 2010 United States Census reported that Lexington Hills had a population of 2,421. The population density was 513.0 inhabitants per square mile (198.1/km2). The racial makeup of Lexington Hills was 2,148 (88.7%) White, 10 (0.4%) African American, 5 (0.2%) Native American, 90 (3.7%) Asian, 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 59 (2.4%) from other races, and 109 (4.5%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 193 persons (8.0%).

The Census reported that 2,413 people (99.7% of the population) lived in households, 8 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.

There were 946 households, out of which 321 (33.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 559 (59.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 52 (5.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 42 (4.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 55 (5.8%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 11 (1.2%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 210 households (22.2%) were made up of individuals, and 51 (5.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55. There were 653 families (69.0% of all households); the average family size was 2.99.

The population was spread out, with 539 people (22.3%) under the age of 18, 121 people (5.0%) aged 18 to 24, 558 people (23.0%) aged 25 to 44, 948 people (39.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 255 people (10.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.9 males.

There were 996 housing units at an average density of 211.0 per square mile (81.5/km2), of which 760 (80.3%) were owner-occupied, and 186 (19.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 2.6%. 2,026 people (83.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 387 people (16.0%) lived in rental housing units.

### 2000

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,454 people, 949 households, and 637 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 550.1 inhabitants per square mile (212.4/km2). There were 1,011 housing units at an average density of 226.6 per square mile (87.5/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 91.85% White, 0.57% African American, 0.49% Native American, 2.20% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.92% from other races, and 2.93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.01% of the population.

There were 949 households, out of which 35.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.2% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.8% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.03.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 25.8% under the age of 18, 4.1% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 32.3% from 45 to 64, and 5.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.2 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $103,955, and the median income for a family was $110,809. Males had a median income of $69,891 versus $51,116 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $56,235. About 1.9% of families and 3.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% of those under age 18 and 16.3% of those age 65 or over.

### Census county division

Lexington Hills is also the name of a wider unincorporated census county division (CCD) located on the eastern side of the Santa Cruz Mountains in west Santa Clara County, California. The area covers approximately 54 square miles (140 km2), much of it open space, and contains Lake Elsman, Lexington, and Williams reservoirs, as well as the Lexington Reservoir County Park and Bear Creek Redwoods and Sierra Azul open space preserves. The Lexington Hills communities, as well as the former Almaden Air Force Station on Mount Umunhum, and Loma Prieta (highest peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains) are also located in the area.

As of the 2010 US Census, the population of the CCD was 4,009 residents of whom 83.2% were non-Hispanic white, 8.4% Hispanic, 4.0% Asian, and 4.4% of other races, with a median age of 45.0 years old.

Most residents and businesses in the area use postal zip codes from the Lexington Hills CDP and the neighboring cities of Almaden and Los Gatos. The telephone area code is 408.

## Government

In the California State Legislature, Lexington Hills is in the 15th Senate District, represented by Democrat Dave Cortese, and in the 28th Assembly District, represented by Democrat Gail Pellerin.

In the United States House of Representatives, Lexington Hills is in California's 18th congressional district, represented by Democrat Zoe Lofgren.

## InfoBox

| Lexington Hills | |
| --- | --- |
| census-designated place | |
| Location in Santa Clara County and the state of California | |
| Lexington HillsLocation in the United States | |
| Coordinates: 37°9′28″N 121°59′2″W / 37.15778°N 121.98389°W / 37.15778; -121.98389 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | California |
| County | Santa Clara |
| Area | |
| Total | 4.720 sq mi (12.224 km2) |
| Land | 4.686 sq mi (12.136 km2) |
| Water | 0.034 sq mi (0.088 km2)  0.72% |
| Elevation | 1,250 ft (381 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 2,492 |
| Density | 530/sq mi (200/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-8 (PST) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-7 (PDT) |
| ZIP code | 95033 |
| Area codes | 408/669 |
| FIPS code | 06-41282 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1867036 |


title: Tripas

abstract: Tripas, in Mexican cuisine, are the small intestines of farm animals that have been cleaned, boiled and grilled. Tripas are used as filling for tacos, and then dressed with condiments such as cilantro, chopped onions, and chile sauce. They are also served with pico de gallo and guacamole.

text:
# Tripas

***Tripas***, in Mexican cuisine (known as chitterlings in English-speaking countries), are the small intestines of farm animals that have been cleaned, boiled and grilled. *Tripas* are used as filling for tacos, and then dressed with condiments such as cilantro, chopped onions, and chile sauce. They are also served with *pico de gallo* and *guacamole*.

## Preparation

Tripas as prepared Mexican style require care by the cook, to avoid becoming rubbery. They are traditionally cooked in a "*Disco*" which is constructed of two tilling discs (commonly used in the farming industry) welded to an iron pole in the center of the discs to form a wok like bowl on top of the pole with another disc about 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) below it. The *tripas* are placed in the top disc and filled with water while the lower disc is filled with wood or charcoal, thus creating the heat to cook. The *tripas* are boiled for several hours until tender, adding water as needed. Once they are tender the cook will allow the water to boil off and then finish the preparation by continuing to let them cook in their own fat.

Tripas are prepared in three levels:

1. 'Soft' preparation is attained shortly after the water boils off while the tripas are still tender with a velvet like texture. Properly prepared, they should not be rubbery but should have some firmness to them.
2. 'Medium Crispy' is reached by allowing the *tripas* to continue to cook in their own fat long enough for the exterior to crisp and harden. The center of the tripas are usually still soft and velvety.
3. 'Extra Crispy' preparation is reached by allowing the *tripas* to cook long enough to get crispy all the way through. Sometimes lard is added to the disco to reach this level of crispness but the true "Cocineros" (Mexican chefs) contend that it is best done using their own fat.

## Portuguese tripas

*Tripas* or *dobrada* in Portuguese cuisine is beef stomach, and in the form of *tripas à moda do Porto* (tripes Porto style, with white beans, rice and carrots) is considered the traditional dish of the city of Porto, whose inhabitants are informally known as *tripeiros*. It is a typical and usual dish across many different regions of Portugal and is most widely known outside Porto as dobrada.

## InfoBox

Tripa
| Machitos with beans | |
| --- | --- |
| Type | Offal |
| Place of origin | Mexico |
| Main ingredients | intestine |


title: Lithotomy position

abstract: The lithotomy position is a common position for surgical procedures and medical examinations involving the pelvis and lower abdomen, as well as a common position for childbirth in Western nations. The lithotomy position involves the positioning of an individual's feet above or at the same level as the hips, with the perineum positioned at the edge of an examination table. References to the position have been found in some of the oldest known medical documents including versions of the Hippocratic oath; the position is named after the ancient surgical procedure for removing kidney stones and bladder stones via the perineum. The position is perhaps most recognizable as the 'often used' position for childbirth: the patient is laid on the back with knees bent, positioned above the hips, and spread apart through the use of stirrups. The position is frequently used and has many obvious benefits from the doctor's perspective. Most notably the position provides good visual and physical access to the perineal region. The position is used for procedures ranging from simple pelvic exams to surgeries and procedures including those involving reproductive organs, urology, and gastrointestinal systems. New observations and scientific findings, combined with a greater sensitivity to patient needs have raised awareness of the physical and psychological risks the position may pose for prolonged surgical procedures, pelvic examinations, and, most notably, childbirth.

text:
# Lithotomy position

The **lithotomy position** is a common position for surgical procedures and medical examinations involving the pelvis and lower abdomen, as well as a common position for childbirth in Western nations. The lithotomy position involves the positioning of an individual's feet above or at the same level as the hips (often in stirrups), with the perineum positioned at the edge of an examination table. References to the position have been found in some of the oldest known medical documents including versions of the Hippocratic oath (see lithotomy); the position is named after the ancient surgical procedure for removing kidney stones and bladder stones via the perineum. The position is perhaps most recognizable as the 'often used' position for childbirth: the patient is laid on the back with knees bent, positioned above the hips, and spread apart through the use of stirrups.

The position is frequently used and has many obvious benefits from the doctor's perspective. Most notably the position provides good visual and physical access to the perineal region. The position is used for procedures ranging from simple pelvic exams to surgeries and procedures including those involving reproductive organs, urology, and gastrointestinal systems. New observations and scientific findings, combined with a greater sensitivity to patient needs have raised awareness of the physical and psychological risks the position may pose for prolonged surgical procedures, pelvic examinations, and, most notably, childbirth.

## Use for prolonged surgical procedures

Some studies have found a significant relationship between prolonged surgical procedures with the patient in the lithotomy position and a circulatory complication known as compartment syndrome. Nerve injury by pressure is also possible, the femoral or peroneal nerve are at risk.

## Use for childbirth

A Cochrane Review found that the lithotomy position may not be the ideal position for childbirth, noting that while it makes care easier for physicians by placing the patient in an easily accessible position, it is often harder on the patient as use of the lithotomy position can narrow the birth canal by up to a third. In lieu of the lithotomy position, the Cochrane Review recommended women make informed choices about birthing positions and find the position that is most comfortable for them.

## Use for pelvic examinations

Patients have reported feeling a loss of control and increased sense of vulnerability when examined in the lithotomy position because they cannot see the area being examined. Other, equally effective positions have been suggested for examinations of conscious patients.


title: Passaic River Coalition

abstract: The Passaic River Coalition (PRC) is an organization based out of Willow Hall in Morristown, New Jersey. The coalition is an urban watershed association active since 1969 in protecting water quality and quantity of the entire Passaic River watershed of northern New Jersey and Rockland and Orange Counties, New York.

text:
# Passaic River Coalition

The **Passaic River Coalition** (PRC) is an organization based out of Willow Hall in Morristown, New Jersey. The coalition is an urban watershed association active since 1969 in protecting water quality and quantity of the entire Passaic River watershed of northern New Jersey and Rockland and Orange Counties, New York.

## History

Established in 1969 and incorporated in 1972, the Passaic River Coalition has given valuable assistance and stewardship for the preservation and protection of over 1,000 miles of waterways. The organization has faced the challenges of a watershed beset with every conceivable environmental problem. The coalition has been involved in many topics including:

* Flood Management
* Enlargement of Recreational and Natural Areas
* Enhancement of Water Supply Management
* Improvement of Water Quality
* Ground Water Management

In 1993, a major land trust endowment was made to the PRC to providing funding for land acquisition. With funding from the endowment and matching payments from the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, the PRC has now preserved over 1,000 acres of open space. In addition to land preservation, the PRC does riverside conservation, riverfront parks, trail construction, and the creation of urban park recreation.

## Flooding: The Reason for the Passaic River Coalition

For many decades, two things have been certain in the Passaic River Basin - floods and flood studies. Actual progress has been less certain. The Passaic River Coalition was formed in 1969 to address this issue and has been a major force ever since, both fending off harmful ideas and promoting effective measures to reduce flood damages without destroying the very resources we are trying to protect.

The Passaic River Basin has a long history of floods. The current record flood was in 1903, when much of the basin was undeveloped but also had been subject to massive deforestation. Major floods have occurred in 1902, 1945, 1968, 1977, 1984, 1999, 2000, 2007, 2010, and 2011.

Between the State and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), we have over a century of flood control studies. At various times, dry flood-storage reservoirs, dual-purpose reservoirs (for both flood control and water supply), river channelization, levees, dikes and tunnels have been proposed. Eventually, non-structural concepts were introduced, such as land preservation and floodplain development controls, but it took decades for these ideas to get far.

In the late 1960s, a Corps plan (called Plan III) included large dams and reservoirs; it was that plan that triggered creation of the PRC. Problems with that plan led to Plan II-B, which led to Congressional requirements in 1976 for new studies. Right after the major flood of 1984, the state endorsed The Pompton/Passaic Dual Inlet Tunnel Diversion Plan. After lengthy debate in which the PRC played a prominent role, in 1996 Governor Whitman removed State support for this project, and the federal Water Resources Development Act of 2000 prohibited design and construction funding for the flood control tunnel. Still, the project remains authorized. Most recently, in 2011 the Corps was asked by New Jersey to reevaluate six mainstem alternatives, in response to the Passaic River Basin Flood Advisory Commission. The Corps found that three may remain economically justified, though all are very expensive and New Jersey would need to pay 35 percent:

* Alternative 14A – Levees, Floodwalls, and Non-Structural Plan ($3.1 billion)
* Non-Structural Plan for areas affected by the “10-year floods” ($1.2 billion)
* Diversion Tunnel ($4.7 billion)

Late this year, the Corps anticipates submitting a new evaluation to New Jersey for review. The Corps also plans to provide new reports on the lower portion of the tidal Passaic (addressing storm surge issues in Kearny, Harrison and Newark), and in the Lower Saddle River. In other words, Passaic Basin interests will need to engage with three major Corps reports very soon.

Meanwhile, some smaller-scale projects have been completed by the Corps, including Molly Ann Brook in Passaic County, the Ramapo River flood control project, and wetlands purchases. The state has also been active, with improved controls over wetlands and flood plain development, and land preservation (with help from many others). The latter includes the acquisition of houses with repetitive flood damages (Blue Acres), where the houses are torn down and the land dedicated to riverside park lands. Morris County has also helped fund such work, notably in Pequannock Township, and the Passaic River Coalition has been active in Little Falls Township.

## Properties

Since the Land Trust's creation in 1993, the PRC has acquired 20 properties in 6 counties (Passaic, Morris, Bergen, Essex, Sussex, and Somerset), 20 municipalities, and a total of almost 900 acres. The properties are:

* Bat Cave - Rockaway, NJ
* Butler Forest Preserve - Butler, NJ
* Butler Raceway - Butler, NJ
* Cynthia's Landing - Denville, NJ
* Farley Road - Millburn, NJ
* Federal Hill - Bloomingdale, NJ
* Hickory Road - Ringwood, NJ
* Long Hill Wetlands I, II, and III - Long Hill, NJ
* Lyndhurst Greenway 1, 2, 3, and 4 - Lyndhurst, NJ
* Mahwah River - Mahwah, NJ
* Morsetown Brook Wetland Preserve - West Milford, NJ
* Pine Island 1 - West Milford, NJ
* River Road Acres - Chatham NJ
* River Road Easement - Chatham, NJ
* Russia Brook Sanctuary I and II - Jefferson, Hardyston, and Sparta, NJ
* Hope Forest Reserve - West Milford, NJ
* Tory Tract - Ringwood, NJ
* Twin Brooks - Ringwood, NJ
* Waterview - Ringwood, NJ
* Willow Hall - Morristown, NJ


title: Omegophora

abstract: Omegophora is a genus of pufferfishes native to the coastal waters of Australia.

text:
# Omegophora

***Omegophora*** is a genus of pufferfishes native to the coastal waters of Australia.

## Species

There are currently two recognized species in this genus:

## InfoBox

| *Omegophora* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Omegophora cyanopunctata (Bluespotted toadfish) | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Tetraodontiformes |
| Family: | Tetraodontidae |
| Genus: | *Omegophora*<br>Whitley, 1934 |
|


title: Yaju-deka

abstract: Yaju-deka Yaju-deka is a 1982 Japanese drama film directed by Eiichi Kudo. It was entered into the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival.

text:
# Yaju-deka

***Yaju-deka*** (野獣刑事, *Yajū deka*) is a 1982 Japanese drama film directed by Eiichi Kudo. It was entered into the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| Yaju-deka | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Eiichi Kudo |
| Written by | Fumio Kōnami |
| Produced by | Goro Kusakabe |
| Starring | Ken Ogata |
| Cinematography | Seizō Sengen |
| Edited by | Isamu Ichida |
| Release date | * 2 October 1982 (1982-10-02) |
| Running time | 122 minutes |
| Country | Japan |
| Language | Japanese |


title: T-7 (rocket)

abstract: The T-7 was China's first sounding rocket. A test rocket, dubbed the T-7M, was first successfully launched on 19 February 1960 in Nanhui, Shanghai, and a full-scale rocket was launched on 13 September 1960. Wang Xiji of the Shanghai Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering was the chief designer. Twenty-four T-7 rockets were launched between 1960 and 1965, and it was retired after a final launch in 1969.

text:
# T-7 (rocket)

The **T-7** was China's first sounding rocket. A test rocket, dubbed the **T-7M**, was first successfully launched on 19 February 1960 in Nanhui, Shanghai, and a full-scale rocket was launched on 13 September 1960. Wang Xiji of the Shanghai Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering was the chief designer. Twenty-four T-7 rockets were launched between 1960 and 1965, and it was retired after a final launch in 1969.

## Specifications

The T-7 was designed to carry a payload of 25 kilograms (55 lb) to an altitude of 58 kilometres (36 mi). It had a length of 8 metres (26 ft), a launch weight of 1,138 kilograms (2,509 lb) and a diameter of 45 centimetres (18 in).

## History

In 1958, China started its satellite program and tasked the Shanghai Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering with the development of rockets for satellite launches. Wang Xiji, a professor of the Department of Engineering Mechanics at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, was appointed the chief engineer in charge of the rocket development, and Yang Nansheng was appointed deputy director of the institute in charge of the overall program including the launch site.

The institute had very few experienced scientists. Other than Wang and Yang, there were only two visiting professors, Bian Yingui (卞荫贵) and Li Minhua. The rest of the institute consisted of a few hundred university students with an average age of 21. Even Wang and Yang had little knowledge about rockets and had to learn on the fly.

The development team worked with severe shortages of technical experience, funds, and equipment. They often worked in hunger as China was in the midst of the Great Famine. They performed calculations using hand-cranked mechanical computers as the team did not have an electronic computer, and a single ballistics calculation could take more than forty days. The launch site, located at Laogang in Nanhui County outside Shanghai, consisted of a sandbag bunker and a power generator. People at the launch bunker communicated with the tracking sites by relayed shouting or hand signals, and the rocket's liquid fuel tank was pressurised using a bicycle pump.

After a failed first launch in January 1960, the second launch on 19 February 1960 was successful. This small-scale test rocket, dubbed the T7-M, was China's first sounding rocket, and it reached an altitude of 8.0 kilometres (5.0 mi). This success, achieved by a group of young engineers without the help of Soviet experts, impressed Mao Zedong.

In March 1960, a launch site was built in Guangde County, Anhui for the full-scale T-7, which was successfully launched on 13 September 1960. After several further test launches, including a few failures, the rocket reached the design altitude of 58 kilometres (36 mi) on 23 November 1961. Its designed payload was 25 kilograms (55 lb).

24 T-7 rockets were launched in total from 1960 to 1965, including nine carrying meteorological payloads. The rocket was retired after a final launch in 1969.

## Aftermath

The experience gained from developing the T-7 contributed greatly to the development of the Long March 1, the rocket that launched China's first satellite. After their success with T-7, Wang Xiji and his team were transferred to Beijing and Wang was appointed the chief designer of the Long March 1. He again collaborated with Yang Nansheng, and the Long March 1 successfully launched the Dong Fang Hong I satellite in 1970.


title: Letipea

abstract: Letipea is a village in Viru-Nigula Parish, Lääne-Viru County, northern Estonia. It is located on the Letipea cape on the coast of the Gulf of Finland about 6 km northeast of the town of Kunda. Letipea has a population of 17. On 8 August 1976, a conflict between resting workers and drunk Soviet border guards took place in Letipea, resulting in the death of 8 people, with 18 more being injured. Letipea Landscape Conservation Area was founded on 30 January 1992. It was proposed by Marek Vahula and others in 3 days, as a bird reserve instead of a building plan of the port of Kunda. Since 2009, it has been a possible location for the Estonian nuclear power station.

text:
# Letipea

**Letipea** is a village in Viru-Nigula Parish, Lääne-Viru County, northern Estonia. It is located on the Letipea cape (Letipea neem) on the coast of the Gulf of Finland about 6 km northeast of the town of Kunda. Letipea has a population of 17 (as of 1 January 2013).

On 8 August 1976, a conflict between resting workers and drunk Soviet border guards took place in Letipea, resulting in the death of 8 people, with 18 more being injured.

Letipea Landscape Conservation Area (area 608.8 ha) was founded on 30 January 1992. It was proposed by Marek Vahula and others in 3 days, as a bird reserve instead of a building plan of the port of Kunda. Since 2009, it has been a possible location for the Estonian nuclear power station.

## Letipea Ehalkivi

Ehalkivi (Sunset Glow Boulder) is Estonia's biggest pegmatite granite boulder, at the tip of the Letipea peninsula. It is the largest erratic boulder in the glaciation region of North Europe. It measures 7 meters in height, a circumference of 48.2 m, a volume of 930 m3, and a mass of approximately 2,500 tonnes.

## InfoBox

| Letipea | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Letipea lighthouse | |
| LetipeaLocation in Estonia | |
| Coordinates: 59°32′50″N 26°35′56″E / 59.54722°N 26.59889°E / 59.54722; 26.59889 | |
| Country | Estonia |
| County | Lääne-Viru County |
| Municipality | Viru-Nigula Parish |
| Population (2013) | |
| Total | 17 |


title: Trichordestra beanii

abstract: Trichordestra beanii is a species of cutworm or dart moth in the family Noctuidae. It was described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1877 and is found in North America. The MONA or Hodges number for Trichordestra beanii is 10306.

text:
# Trichordestra beanii

***Trichordestra beanii*** is a species of cutworm or dart moth in the family Noctuidae. It was described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1877 and is found in North America.

The MONA or Hodges number for *Trichordestra beanii* is 10306.

* Lafontaine, J. Donald & Schmidt, B. Christian (2010). "Annotated check list of the Noctuoidea (Insecta, Lepidoptera) of North America north of Mexico". *ZooKeys*, vol. 40, 1-239.

## Further reading

* Ross H. Arnett (30 July 2000). *American Insects: A Handbook of the Insects of America North of Mexico*. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0212-1.

## InfoBox

| *Trichordestra beanii* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Superfamily: | Noctuoidea |
| Family: | Noctuidae |
| Genus: | *Trichordestra* |
| Species: | ***T. beanii*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Trichordestra beanii***<br>(Grote, 1877) | |
|


title: Passaic Street Bridge

abstract: The Passaic Street Bridge is a vehicular bridge crossing the Passaic River in Passaic and Garfield, New Jersey. The girder bridge was built in 1898 and is the third to span the river at that point. It is considered eligible for listing on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and National Register of Historic Places.

text:
# Passaic Street Bridge

The **Passaic Street Bridge** is a vehicular bridge crossing the Passaic River in Passaic and Garfield, New Jersey. The girder bridge was built in 1898 and is the third to span the river at that point. It is considered eligible for listing on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and National Register of Historic Places.

## InfoBox

| Passaic Street Bridge | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Coordinates | 40°51′53″N 74°06′36″W / 40.86478°N 74.10998°W / 40.86478; -74.10998 |
| Carries | Passaic Street |
| Crosses | Passaic River |
| Locale | Passaic & Garfield
New Jersey |
| Owner | Passaic County and
Bergen County |
| Maintained by | Passaic and Bergen |
| ID number | 020021C |
| Characteristics | |
| Design | thru girder |
| Material | Steel |
| Total length | 233 feet (71 m) |
| Width | 27.6 feet (8.4 m) |
| Longest span | 78.1 feet (23.8 m) |
| No. of spans | 3 |
| History | |
| Engineering design by | Wise and Watson |
| Constructed by | F.R. Long |
| Opened | 1898 |
| Location | |
|  | |
| References | |
|  | |


title: One world foundation

abstract: one world foundation is a non-profit aid organisation in Sri Lanka, which operates a school for more than 1,100 children, adolescents and adults. The project is financed with the proceeds from a guest house and from donations. The foundation is a social enterprise which aims to contribute to Sri Lankan society via its educational provision and as an employer providing social benefits and fair working conditions for its employees. The private social project was founded in 1995 by Kathrin Messner and Josef Ortner. The foundation also operates a residence programme for artists and writers.

text:
# One world foundation

**one world foundation** is a non-profit aid organisation in Sri Lanka, which operates a school for more than 1,100 children, adolescents and adults. The project is financed with the proceeds from a guest house and from donations. The foundation is a social enterprise which aims to contribute to Sri Lankan society via its educational provision and as an employer providing social benefits and fair working conditions for its employees. The private social project was founded in 1995 by Kathrin Messner and Josef Ortner. The foundation also operates a residence programme for artists and writers.

## The Free Education Unit

The educational project "Free Education Unit" is a private school in Ahungalla (with a pre-school in Katuwile) for more than 1,100 children, adolescents and adults which offers free education in addition to state schooling as well as free vocational training programmes. It was founded in 1995 with approximately 100 students, and in 2004 schooling and training was extended to 700 students. When the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami hit on 26 December 2004, the one world foundation facilities were completely destroyed. On the rebuilt school campus approximately 40 teachers are employed. Initially the focus was on English courses and programmes for pre-schoolers and women. Now, under the direction of former student Prabath Wijesekara, the school's curriculum includes music, sports, photography, computer and IT courses, and since 2010 also Tamil language courses. In the Women's Cooperation, mothers of the pre-schoolers receive basic training in a handicrafts and economic skills. The foundation trains women and men on an equal basis.

Education and training are currently offered up to Level 4 of the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ). NVQ is the certification system of the Sri Lankan National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority. At the same time the unit also meets the standards of the TVEC, the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission. Both authorities are controlled by the Sri-Lankan Ministry of Education. Level 4 is the level of training for "Manual workers who can carry out their work alone". The Free Education unit's next aim is to obtain certification for Level 5 – the "Diploma Level for Future Supervisors".

## The Ayurveda Resort "Bogenvillya"

The one world foundation aims to promote a form of tourism based on mutual understanding and a fair exchange. The educational programmes of the Free Education Unit are funded from the proceeds from the guesthouse. In 2015 the Ayurveda Resort employed a staff of 35.

The Ayurveda Guesthouse Bogenvillya lies 80 km to the south of Colombo on the West coast of Sri Lanka, in the fishing village Ahungalla. The resort has direct access to the beach and is equipped with a swimming pool. The guest rooms are in the main building and the adjacent bungalows. Ayurvedic medical treatments are available, along with therapies such as massages and oil treatments as well as detoxification (Panchakarma). The course of a treatment is accompanied by consultations with the skilled in-house physicians. The guest house also offers yoga courses with qualified teachers every morning on a platform in the garden.

## Architecture

The school building of one world foundation was designed by the Austrian architect Carl Pruscha, who also designed the "Palm Grove Bungalow" and the "Lagoon Bungalow" for the Ayurveda Resort. The main building of the guesthouse and the "Garden Loft" were built by Josef Ortner. The "Araliya Bungalow", added in 2015 and designed by Varuna de Silva, was the first bungalow planned by a Sri Lankan architect. Their open construction is designed to provide protection from intense sun light and monsoon downpours and provides ventilation without air conditioning.

## Residence programme for artists and writers

In 2009 Galerie Krinzinger in cooperation with one world foundation started an artist in residence programme. In Wathuregama – where until the tsunami in 2004 the old school grounds used to be – a studio was re-built and formally inaugurated on 14 January 2010. It is now available to the artists invited by the gallery. Some of the works of art created during the residencies are now on exhibition on the grounds of the resort and in the guest rooms.

So far the following artists completed a residence programme at one world foundation: Clarina Bezzola (2010), Christian Eisenberger (2013), Marcus Geiger (2010), Markus Hanakam (2014), Thomas Helbig (2009), Suhasini Kejriwal (2010), Ursula Mayer (2014), Peter Sandbichler (2015), Hans Schabus (2011/2012), Roswitha Schuller (2014), Ruchi Bakshi Sharma (2017), Sudarshan Shetty (2009), Navin Thomas (2009), Theegulla Venkanna (2013), Karunasiri Wijesinghe (2013).

The writer in residence programme is supported by the Austrian Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. The curator of the programme is the Austrian writer Robert Menasse. The three months residencies are open to writers who work on transnational or transcultural projects. The writers taking part so far were: Rosa Artmann (2016), Dimitré Dinev (2011), Maja Haderlap (2012), Andreas Jungwirth (2017), Kala Ramesh (2014), David Schalko (2015), Sabine Scholl (2016), Cordula Simon (2014), Brita Steinwendtner (2013), Ilija Trojanow (2014), Andreas Weber (2014).

## Bibliography

* one world foundation. A Social Sculpture, Vienna 2015, ISBN 978-3-200-04240-7

## InfoBox

one world foundation (owf)
|
|  |
| Founded | 1995 |
| Founder | Kathrin Messner / <br>Josef Ortner († 2009) |
| Type | Aid organisation |
| Location |  |
| Website | owf.at |


title: Pabwehshi

abstract: Pabwehshi is an extinct genus of mesoeucrocodylian. It is based on GSP-UM 2000, a partial snout and corresponding lower jaw elements, with another snout assigned to it. These specimens were found in Maastrichtian-age Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Vitakri and Pab Formations in Balochistan, Pakistan, and represent the first diagnostic crocodyliform fossils from Cretaceous rocks of South Asia. Pabwehshi had serrated interlocking teeth in its snout that formed a "zig-zag" cutting edge. Pabwehshi was named in 2001 by Jeffrey A. Wilson and colleagues. The type species is P. pakistanensis, in reference to the nation where it was found. It was traditionally classified as a baurusuchid closely related to Cynodontosuchus and Baurusuchus. Larsson and Sues (2007) found close affinity between Pabwehshi and the Peirosauridae within Sebecia. Montefeltro et al. Pabwehshi has a sagittal torus on its maxillary palatal shelves – a character that is absent in baurusuchids – but they did not include Pabwehshi in their phylogenetic analysis.

text:
# Pabwehshi

***Pabwehshi*** (meaning "Pab \[Formation\] beast \["wehshi" in Urdu\]") is an extinct genus of mesoeucrocodylian. It is based on GSP-UM 2000, a partial snout and corresponding lower jaw elements, with another snout assigned to it. These specimens were found in Maastrichtian-age Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Vitakri and Pab Formations in Balochistan, Pakistan, and represent the first diagnostic crocodyliform fossils from Cretaceous rocks of South Asia. *Pabwehshi* had serrated interlocking teeth in its snout that formed a "zig-zag" cutting edge. *Pabwehshi* was named in 2001 by Jeffrey A. Wilson and colleagues. The type species is *P. pakistanensis*, in reference to the nation where it was found. It was traditionally classified as a baurusuchid closely related to *Cynodontosuchus* and *Baurusuchus*. Larsson and Sues (2007) found close affinity between *Pabwehshi* and the Peirosauridae within Sebecia. Montefeltro *et al.* *Pabwehshi* has a sagittal torus on its maxillary palatal shelves – a character that is absent in baurusuchids – but they did not include *Pabwehshi* in their phylogenetic analysis.

## InfoBox

| *Pabwehshi*
Temporal range: Late Cretaceous, | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| *Clade*: | Archosauria |
| *Clade*: | Pseudosuchia |
| *Clade*: | Crocodylomorpha |
| *Clade*: | Crocodyliformes |
| *Clade*: | Notosuchia |
| *Clade*: | Sebecosuchia |
| Family: | Baurusuchidae |
| Subfamily: | Baurusuchinae |
| Genus: | *Pabwehshi*
Wilson *et al.*, 2001 |
|
| Species | |
| * ***P. pakistanensis*** Wilson *et al.*, 2001 (type) | |


title: Marple Newtown School District

abstract: Marple Newtown School District (MNSD) is a public school district which serves Newtown Township and Marple Township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Marple Newtown School District encompasses approximately 21 square miles (54 km⁲). According to 2000 federal census data, it serves a resident population of 35,437. The student demographic is about 86% Caucasian, 11% Asian, 2% Black, and 1% Hispanic with 51% being male and 49% being female.

text:
# Marple Newtown School District

**Marple Newtown School District** (**MNSD**) is a public school district which serves Newtown Township and Marple Township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Marple Newtown School District encompasses approximately 21 square miles (54 km2). According to 2000 federal census data, it serves a resident population of 35,437. The student demographic is about 86% Caucasian, 11% Asian, 2% Black, and 1% Hispanic with 51% being male and 49% being female.

## Schools

High School * Marple Newtown Senior High School

Middle School * Paxon Hollow Middle School

Elementary schools * Culbertson Elementary School
* Loomis Elementary School
* Russell Elementary School
* Worrall Elementary School

Former schools:

* Alice Grim Elementary School - It was to close in June 1982

## Extracurriculars

The district offers a wide variety of clubs, activities and an extensive sports program.

### Visual and Performing Arts

In 2019, Marple Newtown was named a "Best Community for Music Education" by the NAMM Foundation. It also received the award in 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016.

The Marple Newtown High School Tiger Marching Band has won three Cavalcade of Bands open-class championships (2014, 2015 and 2016).

In 1975, the Tiger Marching Band performed on ice at the Spectrum with the Ice Capades.

## Notable alumni

## InfoBox

| Marple Newtown School District | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Address | |
| 40 Media Line Rd Ste 209 Newtown Square, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, 19073-4614
United States | |
| District information | |
| Type | Public |
| Students and staff | |
| District mascot | Tiger |
| Other information | |
| Website | http://www.mnsd.org/ |


title: Lion of Ireland

abstract: Lion of Ireland, by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero and High King Brian Boru.

text:
# Lion of Ireland

***Lion of Ireland***, by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero and High King Brian Boru.

## Plot summary

The story begins with Brian as a child of around 8 or 9 and it ends with him as an 88-year-old man. The book shows his rise to power and his struggle to maintain it. His personal life is an important part of the plot, because Brian's war against Máel Mórda (leader of the Leinstermen) and Sihtric (king of Dublin) was to be inextricably connected with his complicated marital relations, in particular his marriage to Gormlaith, Máel Mórda's sister and Sihtric's mother, who had been in turn the wife of Amlaíb Cuarán, king of Dublin and York, then of Máel Sechnaill. Even though the book is based on a historical figure, most of it is fiction.

## Film adaptation

In 2003, Ireland based RiverFilms proposed a film adaptation of the book as *Braveheart and El Cid meet The Vikings*.

On March 4, 2019, it was announced in Deadline that a new movie adaptation was in the works. The series would be created by Irish author Michael Scott. The article was subsequently picked up the Sunday Times, and Irish Central who listed both Scott and BCDF Pictures as producers.

## InfoBox

The Lion of Ireland
| First edition | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Morgan Llywelyn |
| Language | English |
| Genre | Historical fiction |
| Publisher | Houghton Mifflin (US) |
| Publication date | 1980 |
| Media type | Print (Hardback) |
| Pages | 522 |
| ISBN | 0-395-28588-7 |
| OCLC | 5496902 |


title: Systems biology

abstract: Systems biology is the computational and mathematical analysis and modeling of complex biological systems. It is a biology-based interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a holistic approach to biological research. Particularly from the year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in biology in a variety of contexts. The Human Genome Project is an example of applied systems thinking in biology which has led to new, collaborative ways of working on problems in the biological field of genetics. One of the aims of systems biology is to model and discover emergent properties, properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques of systems biology. These typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks.

text:
# Systems biology

**Systems biology** is the computational and mathematical analysis and modeling of complex biological systems. It is a biology-based interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a holistic approach (holism instead of the more traditional reductionism) to biological research.

Particularly from the year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in biology in a variety of contexts. The Human Genome Project is an example of applied systems thinking in biology which has led to new, collaborative ways of working on problems in the biological field of genetics. One of the aims of systems biology is to model and discover emergent properties, properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques of systems biology. These typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks.

## Overview

Systems biology can be considered from a number of different aspects.

As a field of study, particularly, the study of the interactions between the components of biological systems, and how these interactions give rise to the function and behavior of that system (for example, the enzymes and metabolites in a metabolic pathway or the heart beats).

As a paradigm, systems biology is usually defined in antithesis to the so-called reductionist paradigm (biological organisation), although it is consistent with the scientific method. The distinction between the two paradigms is referred to in these quotations: "the reductionist approach has successfully identified most of the components and many of the interactions but, unfortunately, offers no convincing concepts or methods to understand how system properties emerge ... the pluralism of causes and effects in biological networks is better addressed by observing, through quantitative measures, multiple components simultaneously and by rigorous data integration with mathematical models." (Sauer *et al.*) "Systems biology ... is about putting together rather than taking apart, integration rather than reduction. It requires that we develop ways of thinking about integration that are as rigorous as our reductionist programmes, but different. ... It means changing our philosophy, in the full sense of the term." (Denis Noble)

As a series of operational protocols used for performing research, namely a cycle composed of theory, analytic or computational modelling to propose specific testable hypotheses about a biological system, experimental validation, and then using the newly acquired quantitative description of cells or cell processes to refine the computational model or theory. Since the objective is a model of the interactions in a system, the experimental techniques that most suit systems biology are those that are system-wide and attempt to be as complete as possible. Therefore, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics and high-throughput techniques are used to collect quantitative data for the construction and validation of models.

As the application of dynamical systems theory to molecular biology. Indeed, the focus on the dynamics of the studied systems is the main conceptual difference between systems biology and bioinformatics.

As a socioscientific phenomenon defined by the strategy of pursuing integration of complex data about the interactions in biological systems from diverse experimental sources using interdisciplinary tools and personnel.

## History

Although the concept of a systems view of cellular function has been well understood since at least the 1930s, technological limitations made it difficult to make systems wide measurements. The advent of microarray technology in the 1990s opened up an entire new visa for studying cells at the systems level. In 2000, the Institute for Systems Biology was established in Seattle in an effort to lure "computational" type people who it was felt were not attracted to the academic settings of the university. The institute did not have a clear definition of what the field actually was: roughly bringing together people from diverse fields to use computers to holistically study biology in new ways. A Department of Systems Biology at Harvard Medical School was launched in 2003. In 2006 it was predicted that the buzz generated by the "very fashionable" new concept would cause all the major universities to need a systems biology department, thus that there would be careers available for graduates with a modicum of ability in computer programming and biology. In 2006 the National Science Foundation put forward a challenge to build a mathematical model of the whole cell. In 2012 the first whole-cell model of *Mycoplasma genitalium* was achieved by the Covert Laboratory at Stanford University. The whole-cell model is able to predict viability of *M. genitalium* cells in response to genetic mutations.

An earlier precursor of systems biology, as a distinct discipline, may have been by systems theorist Mihajlo Mesarovic in 1966 with an international symposium at the Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland, Ohio, titled *Systems Theory and Biology*. Mesarovic predicted that perhaps in the future there would be such a thing as "systems biology". Other early precursors that focused on the view that biology should be analyzed as a system, rather than a simple collection of parts, were Metabolic Control Analysis, developed by Henrik Kacser and Jim Burns later thoroughly revised, and Reinhart Heinrich and Tom Rapoport, and Biochemical Systems Theory developed by Michael Savageau

According to Robert Rosen in the 1960s, holistic biology had become passé by the early 20th century, as more empirical science dominated by molecular chemistry had become popular. Echoing him forty years later in 2006 Kling writes that the success of molecular biology throughout the 20th century had suppressed holistic computational methods. By 2011 the National Institutes of Health had made grant money available to support over ten systems biology centers in the United States, but by 2012 Hunter writes that systems biology still has someway to go to achieve its full potential. Nonetheless, proponents hoped that it might once prove more useful in the future.

An important milestone in the development of systems biology has become the international project Physiome.

## Associated disciplines

According to the interpretation of systems biology as using large data sets using interdisciplinary tools, a typical application is metabolomics, which is the complete set of all the metabolic products, metabolites, in the system at the organism, cell, or tissue level.

Items that may be a computer database include: phenomics, organismal variation in phenotype as it changes during its life span; genomics, organismal deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence, including intra-organismal cell specific variation. (i.e., telomere length variation); epigenomics/epigenetics, organismal and corresponding cell specific transcriptomic regulating factors not empirically coded in the genomic sequence. (i.e., DNA methylation, Histone acetylation and deacetylation, etc.); transcriptomics, organismal, tissue or whole cell gene expression measurements by DNA microarrays or serial analysis of gene expression; interferomics, organismal, tissue, or cell-level transcript correcting factors (i.e., RNA interference), proteomics, organismal, tissue, or cell level measurements of proteins and peptides via two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry or multi-dimensional protein identification techniques (advanced HPLC systems coupled with mass spectrometry). Sub disciplines include phosphoproteomics, glycoproteomics and other methods to detect chemically modified proteins; glycomics, organismal, tissue, or cell-level measurements of carbohydrates; lipidomics, organismal, tissue, or cell level measurements of lipids.

The molecular interactions within the cell are also studied, this is called interactomics. A discipline in this field of study is protein–protein interactions, although interactomics includes the interactions of other molecules. Neuroelectrodynamics, where the computer's or a brain's computing function as a dynamic system is studied along with its (bio)physical mechanisms; and fluxomics, measurements of the rates of metabolic reactions in a biological system (cell, tissue, or organism).

In approaching a systems biology problem there are two main approaches. These are the top down and bottom up approach. The top down approach takes as much of the system into account as possible and relies largely on experimental results. The RNA-Seq technique is an example of an experimental top down approach. Conversely, the bottom up approach is used to create detailed models while also incorporating experimental data. An example of the bottom up approach is the use of circuit models to describe a simple gene network.

Various technologies utilized to capture dynamic changes in mRNA, proteins, and post-translational modifications. Mechanobiology, forces and physical properties at all scales, their interplay with other regulatory mechanisms; biosemiotics, analysis of the system of sign relations of an organism or other biosystems; Physiomics, a systematic study of physiome in biology.

Cancer systems biology is an example of the systems biology approach, which can be distinguished by the specific object of study (tumorigenesis and treatment of cancer). It works with the specific data (patient samples, high-throughput data with particular attention to characterizing cancer genome in patient tumour samples) and tools (immortalized cancer cell lines, mouse models of tumorigenesis, xenograft models, high-throughput sequencing methods, siRNA-based gene knocking down high-throughput screenings, computational modeling of the consequences of somatic mutations and genome instability). The long-term objective of the systems biology of cancer is ability to better diagnose cancer, classify it and better predict the outcome of a suggested treatment, which is a basis for personalized cancer medicine and virtual cancer patient in more distant prospective. Significant efforts in computational systems biology of cancer have been made in creating realistic multi-scale *in silico* models of various tumours.

The systems biology approach often involves the development of mechanistic models, such as the reconstruction of dynamic systems from the quantitative properties of their elementary building blocks. For instance, a cellular network can be modelled mathematically using methods coming from chemical kinetics and control theory. Due to the large number of parameters, variables and constraints in cellular networks, numerical and computational techniques are often used (e.g., flux balance analysis).

## Bioinformatics and data analysis

Other aspects of computer science, informatics, and statistics are also used in systems biology. These include new forms of computational models, such as the use of process calculi to model biological processes (notable approaches include stochastic π-calculus, BioAmbients, Beta Binders, BioPEPA, and Brane calculus) and constraint-based modeling; integration of information from the literature, using techniques of information extraction and text mining; development of online databases and repositories for sharing data and models, approaches to database integration and software interoperability via loose coupling of software, websites and databases, or commercial suits; network-based approaches for analyzing high dimensional genomic data sets. For example, weighted correlation network analysis is often used for identifying clusters (referred to as modules), modeling the relationship between clusters, calculating fuzzy measures of cluster (module) membership, identifying intramodular hubs, and for studying cluster preservation in other data sets; pathway-based methods for omics data analysis, e.g. approaches to identify and score pathways with differential activity of their gene, protein, or metabolite members. Much of the analysis of genomic data sets also include identifying correlations. Additionally, as much of the information comes from different fields, the development of syntactically and semantically sound ways of representing biological models is needed.

## Creating biological models

Researchers begin by choosing a biological pathway and diagramming all of the protein, gene, and/or metabolic pathways. After determining all of the interactions, mass action kinetics or enzyme kinetic rate laws are used to describe the speed of the reactions in the system. Using mass-conservation, the differential equations for the biological system can be constructed. Experiments or parameter fitting can be done to determine the parameter values to use in the differential equations. These parameter values will be the various kinetic constants required to fully describe the model. This model determines the behavior of species in biological systems and bring new insight to the specific activities of system. Sometimes it is not possible to gather all reaction rates of a system. Unknown reaction rates are determined by simulating the model of known parameters and target behavior which provides possible parameter values.

The use of constraint-based reconstruction and analysis (COBRA) methods has become popular among systems biologists to simulate and predict the metabolic phenotypes, using genome-scale models. One of the methods is the flux balance analysis (FBA) approach, by which one can study the biochemical networks and analyze the flow of metabolites through a particular metabolic network, by optimizing the objective function of interest (e.g. maximizing biomass production to predict growth).

## Further reading