title: Maat Mons

abstract: Maat Mons is a massive shield volcano on the planet Venus and the planet's second-highest mountain and highest volcano. It rises 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) above the mean planetary radius at 0.5°N 194.6°E, and nearly 5 km above the surrounding plains. It is named after the Egyptian goddess of truth and justice, Ma'at.

text:
# Maat Mons

**Maat Mons** is a massive shield volcano on the planet Venus and the planet's second-highest mountain and highest volcano. It rises 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) above the mean planetary radius at 0°30′N 194°36′E / 0.5°N 194.6°E / 0.5; 194.6, and nearly 5 km above the surrounding plains. It is named after the Egyptian goddess of truth and justice, Ma'at.

## Geology

Maat Mons is a large shield volcano located in Atla Regio, a site of recent tectonic rifting possibly fed by an active mantle plume. Three other neighbouring major volcanic centres are situated within Atla Regio, Ozza Mons, Ongwuti Mons, and an unnamed mons. Interpretation of their respective radial dike swarm features indicates that Maat Mons is the youngest volcanic centre within Atla Regio, fed by the same mantle plume which gave rise to the previous volcanic centres.

### Structure

Maat Mons has a large summit caldera, 28×31 km in size. Within the large caldera, there are at least five smaller collapse craters, up to 10 km in diameter. A chain of small craters 3–5 km in diameter extends some 40 km along the southeast flank of the volcano, but rather than indicating a large fissure eruption, they seem to also be formed by collapse. Full-resolution imagery from the *Magellan* probe reveals no evidence of lava flows from these craters.

At least two large-scale structural collapse events seem to have occurred in the past on Maat Mons.

Maat Mons is surrounded by a radial dike swarm, with grabens extending over 1,500 kilometres from the volcano's centre.

### Modern activity

Intriguingly for planetary geologists, atmospheric studies carried out by the Pioneer Venus probes in the early 1980s revealed a considerable variation in the concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and methane (CH4) in Venus' middle and upper atmosphere. One possible explanation for this was the injection of volcanic gases into the atmosphere by plinian eruptions at Maat Mons.

More recent studies have suggested that the volcano structure, distribution of lava flows, pit craters, summit morphology, and other small-scale features are indicative of recent volcanic activity on Maat Mons.

A study published by the journal *Science* in 2023 concluded that there has been recent volcanic activity on Maat Mons. The study analyzed images taken between 1990 and 1992 by the *Magellan* spacecraft. These images, taken eight months apart, displayed changes to the volcanic vent's shape and dramatically increased in size. The image also showed features that have been interpreted as lava flows.

## InfoBox

Maat Mons
| Maat Mons is displayed in this false-color three-dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus, with the vertical scale multiplied by 22.5. Based on *Magellan* probe radar images | |
| --- | --- |
| Feature type | Shield volcano |
| Location | Atla Regio, Venus |
| Coordinates | 0°30′N 194°36′E / 0.5°N 194.6°E / 0.5; 194.6 |
| Diameter | 395 km (245 mi) |
| Peak | * 4.9 km (3.0 mi) 16,076 ft (4,900 m) * 8 km (5.0 mi) 26,247 ft (8,000 m) above mean. |
| Eponym | Ma'at |


title: Penzberg

abstract: Penzberg is a city in the Weilheim-Schongau district, in Bavaria, Germany. It is located about 50 km south of Munich, and had a population of around 17,000 in 2020. A historic coal mining town, Penzberg today is known for its pharmaceutical industries.

text:
# Penzberg

**Penzberg** (German: \[ˈpɛnt͡sˌbɛʁk\] ; Central Bavarian: *Benschberg*) is a city (although some see it as a town) in the Weilheim-Schongau district, in Bavaria, Germany. It is located about 50 km south of Munich, and had a population of around 17,000 in 2020. A historic coal mining town, Penzberg today is known for its pharmaceutical industries.

## History

The settlement was first mentioned as *Poennesperch* in a 1275 contract, when it was sold to the Benediktbeuern Abbey. Surface coal mining had already started in the 16th century, though it was ended by the Thirty Years' War and the industrial exploitation of coal did not begin until 1800. In 1919 Penzberg received town privileges.

### World War 2

An allied air raid on 16 November 1944 severely damaged the town, including the parish church, but did not affect the local coal mine, the heart of the town's economic life.

In order to follow Hitler's "scorched earth" policy (Nero Decree), the local Nazi leaders wanted to blow up the coal mine which was the economic life blood of the town (*The End: Hitler's Germany 1944–45* by Ian Kershaw – p344), so, on 28 April 1945 Hans Rummer (the social democratic mayor of Penzberg until the Nazi takeover in 1933) and others deposed the Nazi mayor. However, it was not long before the officer commanding a local Wehrmacht unit had the leaders of the revolt arrested. When, on the evening of the same day, Gauleiter Paul Giesler heard about the incident, he gave orders that the leaders were to be shot immediately without trial. To achieve this, a Werwolf group, around 100 strong, was dispatched, storming the town hall. They arrested and shot Rummer and seven fellows. During the night, a further eight suspected resistance fighters were hanged by a "drumhead court-martial" under SA brigade leader Hans Zöberlein. Among the victims were two women, one of them pregnant. The very next day, the Americans arrived. The massacre is known as the *Penzberger Mordnacht* (Night of Penzberg Murder). The mine was not destroyed, and remained open until 1966 when it closed for economic reasons; the adjacent power plant was also shut down in 1971.

## Transport

The town is served by Penzberg station on the Kochelsee Railway.

## Important buildings

## Notable people

## InfoBox

| Penzberg | |
| --- | --- |
| Town | |
| Aerial view of Penzberg from the southwest | |
|  | |
| Location of Penzberg within Weilheim-Schongau district | |
| Penzberg Penzberg | |
| Coordinates: 47°45′N 11°23′E / 47.750°N 11.383°E / 47.750; 11.383 | |
| Country | Germany |
| State | Bavaria |
| Admin. region | Upper Bavaria |
| District | Weilheim-Schongau |
| Government | |
| Mayor (202026) | Stefan Korpan (CSU) |
| Area | |
| Total | 25.73 km2 (9.93 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 596 m (1,955 ft) |
| Population (2023-12-31) | |
| Total | 16,909 |
| Density | 660/km2 (1,700/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| Postal codes | 82377 |
| Dialling codes | 08856 |
| Vehicle registration | WM |
| Website | www.penzberg.de |


title: Mario Hytten

abstract: Mario Hytten is a Swedish-born former racing driver who raced predominantly under a Swiss licence. He competed in the 1985 24 Hours of Le Mans, finishing 5th. He now works as a sports promoter and sponsorship specialist. He is fluent in five languages.

text:
# Mario Hytten

**Mario Hytten** (born 20 April 1955) is a Swedish-born former racing driver who raced predominantly under a Swiss licence. He competed in the 1985 24 Hours of Le Mans, finishing 5th. He now works as a sports promoter and sponsorship specialist. He is fluent in five languages.

## Racing career

Hytten raced predominantly in Formula 3 and Formula 3000 in a career spanning more than a decade, from 1980 to 1992. In all he entered 75 races, won one and registered eight podium finishes. He finished 5th in the 1985 24 Hours of Le Mans driving the Porsche 956B.

## Post racing

Hytten retired from racing in 1993 and moved into sports media and sponsorship. He is the current CEO of Captimax Sports Media, who make camera systems for televised sporting events, and runs Planetaire AB, a sustainability communications company. He is currently working on Skyrace World Cup, a new format sailplane world championship.

## Racing record

### Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results

| Year | Team | Co-Drivers | Car | Class | Laps | Pos. | Class
Pos. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1985 | Porsche Kremer Racing | George Fouché
Sarel van der Merwe | Porsche 956B | C1 | 361 | 5th | 5th |

### Complete International Formula 3000 results

(key) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position; races in *italics* indicate fastest lap.)

| Year | Entrant | Chassis | Engine | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | Pos. | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1985 | Corbari Italia | Lola T950 | Cosworth | SIL
9 | THR
10 | EST
Ret | NÜR
C | VAL
Ret |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 10th | 8 |
| | Onyx | | | | March 85B |  |  |  |  |  | PAU
Ret | SPA
Ret | DIJ
12 | PER
5 | ÖST
10 | ZAN
Ret | DON
2 |
| 1986 | Arno International | March 85B | Cosworth | SIL
15 | VAL
Ret | PAU
DNS | SPA | IMO | MUG |  |  |  |  |  |  | NC | 0 |
| | Ralt RT20 | | | |  |  |  |  |  |  | PER
DNQ | ÖST
Ret | BIR
DNQ | BUG | JAR
DNQ |  |
| 1987 | Racetech 3000 | March 87B | Cosworth | SIL | VAL | SPA | PAU
9 | DON
DNQ | PER
13 | BRH
DNQ |  |  |  |  |  | NC | 0 |
| | Ralt RT20 | | | |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | BIR
Ret | IMO
DNQ | BUG | JAR |  |
| 1988 | Team Ralt | Ralt RT22 | Judd | JER | VAL | PAU | SIL | MNZ | PER
8 | BRH
Ret | BIR
Ret | BUG | ZOL | DIJ |  | NC | 0 |


title: Liliam Cuenca

abstract: Liliam Cuenca is a Cuban artist. She studied at the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes "San Alejandro" in Havana.

text:
# Liliam Cuenca

**Liliam Cuenca** (born **Liliam Cuenca González** on 25 June 1944 in Havana, Cuba) is a Cuban artist. She studied at the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes "San Alejandro" in Havana.

## Individual exhibitions

Her solo exhibitions include one in 1978 at the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes de La Habana. In 1990 she presented her works at the Ridel Gallery in Puerto Rico. In 1995 exhibited in Metro-Dade Cultural Resource Center in Miami, Florida.

## Collective exhibitions

In 1973 she participated in the III Salón Nacional Juvenil de Artes Plásticas, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Havana. In 1976 she was included in the VI Salón Nacional Juvenil de Artes Plásticas, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Havana. She also participated in collective exhibitions in the Museo Ayacucho, Cumaná, Venezuela, 1983; at the Museo de Arte La Rinconada, Caracas, Venezuela, 1984; in 1989 at the Museum of Art, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and in 1996 at The Housatonic Museum of Art, Bridgeport, Connecticut.

## Awards

In 1979 she obtained the First Prize at the First Engraving Trienal *Víctor Manuel*held at the Galería de Havana.

* Viegas, Jose (2004). *Memoria: Artes Visuales Cubanas Del Siglo Xx* (in Spanish). California International Arts Foundation. ISBN 978-0-917571-12-1.
* Viegas-Zamora, Jose; Vives Gutierrez, Cristina; Nodal, Adolfo V. (2001). *Memoria: Cuban Art of the 20th Century*. California/International Arts Foundation. ISBN 978-0-917571-11-4.

## InfoBox

| Liliam Cuenca | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1944-06-25) June 25, 1944<br>Havana, Cuba |
| Occupation | Artist |


title: Total mesorectal excision

abstract: Total mesorectal excision (TME) is a standard surgical technique for treatment of rectal cancer, first described in 1982 by Professor Bill Heald at the UK's Basingstoke District Hospital. It is a precise dissection of the mesorectal envelope comprising rectum containing the tumour together with all the surrounding fatty tissue and the sheet of tissue that contains lymph nodes and blood vessels. Dissection is along the avascular alveolar plane between the presacral and mesorectal fascia, described as holy plane. Dissection along this plane facilitates a straightforward dissection and preserves the sacral vessels and hypogastric nerves and is a sphincter-sparing resection and decreases permanent stoma rates. It is possible to rejoin the two ends of the colon; however, most patients require a temporary ileostomy pouch to bypass the colon, allowing it to heal with less risk of infection, perforation or leakage. TME has become the "gold standard" treatment for rectal cancer Worldwide. The operation can be done by open surgery, laparoscopic or Robot-assisted. For lower down tumours in the middle and lower third of the rectum a new procedure has been developed known as Transanal-Total Mesorectal Excision (TaTME). Instead of the dissection via the abdomen TaTME combines an abdominal and transanal endoscopic approach allowing easier dissection of the most difficult part of the surgery deep down in the pelvis. The perceived benefits of this technique may include ease of procedure due to better views, decreased operative time and reduced complications. An occasional side effect of the operation is the formation and tangling of fibrous bands from near the site of the operation with other parts of the bowel. These can lead to bowel infarction if not operated on. TME results in a lower recurrence rate than traditional approaches and a lower rate of permanent colostomy. Postoperative recuperation is somewhat increased over competing methods. When practiced with diligent attention to anatomy there is no evidence of increased risk of urinary incontinence or sexual dysfunction. However, there can be partial fecal incontinence and/or "clustering" – a series of urgent trips to the toilet separated by a few minutes, each trip producing only a very small yield. Other long-term bowel dysfunction symptoms may include fecal and gas incontinence, urgency, frequent bowel movements, and difficulty emptying. The symptoms collectively are referred to as low anterior resection syndrome (LARS) and adversely affect quality of life, sometimes so much so that some patients even prefer to have their stoma-reversal itself reversed, and to live with a permanent colonostomy or iliostomy. Depending on the staging, size and location of the tumour, neoadjuvant radiotherapy often combined with chemotherapy may be used to shrink the tumour prior to surgery and prevent further spread. Adjuvant chemotherapy may also be used post-surgery to prevent further disease spread

text:
# Total mesorectal excision

**Total mesorectal excision** (**TME**) is a standard surgical technique for treatment of rectal cancer, first described in 1982 by Professor Bill Heald at the UK's Basingstoke District Hospital. It is a precise dissection of the mesorectal envelope comprising rectum containing the tumour together with all the surrounding fatty tissue and the sheet of tissue that contains lymph nodes and blood vessels. Dissection is along the avascular alveolar plane between the presacral and mesorectal fascia, described as holy plane (Heald's "holy plane"). Dissection along this plane facilitates a straightforward dissection and preserves the sacral vessels and hypogastric nerves and is a sphincter-sparing resection and decreases permanent stoma rates. It is possible to rejoin the two ends of the colon; however, most patients require a temporary ileostomy pouch to bypass the colon, allowing it to heal with less risk of infection, perforation or leakage.

TME has become the "gold standard" treatment for rectal cancer Worldwide. The operation can be done by open surgery, laparoscopic or Robot-assisted.

For lower down tumours in the middle and lower third of the rectum a new procedure has been developed known as **Transanal-Total Mesorectal Excision (TaTME)**. Instead of the dissection via the abdomen TaTME combines an abdominal and transanal endoscopic approach (endoscopic instruments are inserted into the anus) allowing easier dissection of the most difficult part of the surgery deep down in the pelvis (particularly in male patients or patients with visceral obesity or a narrow pelvis). The perceived benefits of this technique may include ease of procedure due to better views, decreased operative time and reduced complications.

An occasional side effect of the operation is the formation and tangling of fibrous bands from near the site of the operation with other parts of the bowel. These can lead to bowel infarction if not operated on.

TME results in a lower recurrence rate than traditional approaches and a lower rate of permanent colostomy. Postoperative recuperation is somewhat increased over competing methods. When practiced with diligent attention to anatomy there is no evidence of increased risk of urinary incontinence or sexual dysfunction. However, there can be partial fecal incontinence and/or "clustering" – a series of urgent trips to the toilet separated by a few minutes, each trip producing only a very small yield. Other long-term bowel dysfunction symptoms may include fecal and gas incontinence, urgency, frequent bowel movements, and difficulty emptying. The symptoms collectively are referred to as low anterior resection syndrome (LARS) and adversely affect quality of life, sometimes so much so that some patients even prefer to have their stoma-reversal itself reversed, and to live with a permanent colonostomy or iliostomy.

Depending on the staging, size and location of the tumour, neoadjuvant radiotherapy often combined with chemotherapy may be used to shrink the tumour prior to surgery and prevent further spread. Adjuvant chemotherapy may also be used post-surgery to prevent further disease spread

## InfoBox

| Total mesorectal excision | |
| --- | --- |
| Specialty | colorectal surgery |


title: Madagh

abstract: Madagh is an Armenian custom of commemorating victims through requiem services, most often associated with the annual remembrance of the Armenian genocide. Madagh is typically celebrated with community gatherings sponsored by churches, which include public offerings of food. Food offerings often include lamb stew with pilaf made from bulgur, and Armenian flat bread or katah bread.

text:
# Madagh

***Madagh*** is an Armenian custom of commemorating victims through requiem services, most often associated with the annual remembrance of the Armenian genocide. *Madagh* is typically celebrated with community gatherings sponsored by churches, which include public offerings of food. Food offerings often include lamb stew with pilaf made from bulgur, and Armenian flat bread or *katah* bread.

## Historical origins

Some religious scholars assert that *madagh* (or sometimes *matal*) has its roots in ancient liturgical sacrifice. The legitimation of the *madagh* sacrifice within the early Armenian Christian church is particularly associated with Gregory the Illuminator. The *madagh* is still considered one of the most important religious blessings in the contemporary Armenian Church. Contemporary church leaders assert that the ritual today is imbued with a new set of religious significance within the canon of Orthodox Christian practice. Contemporary interpretations link the *madagh* with the practice of Christian *agape*, or communal fellowship and love. It is also connected with the practice of religious charity, because the meal is often given to the community for free and is associated with feeding the poor.

Members of the Armenian diaspora typically associate the serving of the *madagh* with an annual commemoration of "martyr's day", the anniversary of the massacre of Armenian intellectuals throughout the Anatolian peninsula, which took place on April 24, 1915 (Armenian genocide). Although, for many, it is an apt time for partaking in *madagh*, *madagh* celebrations take place throughout the summer months. The connection of the *madagh* to commemoration of the Armenian genocide in Turkey may be a contentious point, as the genocide is not officially recognized within Turkey. This past uses the term "genocide" to accurately reproduce the understanding and interpretations of those populations that are enacting the ritual and is in keeping with most scholarly accounts. Moreover, despite its association with the genocide, the *madagh* may be used as part of other requiem services (*Hokehankisd*), including victims of other massacres or departed loved ones.

## Food and festivities

Such events are popular in New York City as well as in the sizable Armenian descent population concentrated in Southeastern Wisconsin and Northern Illinois. The events are often an opportunity to showcase traditional Armenian cuisine. At such feasts, particularly in the Midwestern USA, the *madagh* is typically celebrated with Lamb Stew and Bulgur Pilaf (Wheat pilaf) (click links for recipes). Older men from the community dig large pits in the earth the night before the feast, in which the communal pots of pilaf and lamb stew are roasted. On the day of the festival, which is free and open to the public, the presiding priest blesses the food and asks for God to remember the departed who are being commemorated as part of the Requiem Service. After the blessing, families line up with pots and bowls into which volunteers pass out the communal lamb stew and pilaf.

Occasionally, one of the few remaining living survivors of the Armenian genocide will be brought in to join the event. When such an honored guest is present, feast attendees typically gather around to hear a first-person account of the history as lived in 1915 through the eyes of a child. As of 2004, it was believed that there were only four remaining living survivors of the genocide in the United States.

Annual *madagh* festivals are important cultural and community events apart from their historic connection to commemorating Armenian genocide. You may see young men playing soccer or throwing a football while the old men play backgammon in the shade. After the eating is finished, an Armenian band may play Armenian folk music for traditional dancing. Dancers line up next to each other, link pinkie fingers, and move their feet in pattern to the music as the line snakes around the pavilion. At most festival celebrations, guests attending the festival but unfamiliar with the history would be unlikely to note a connection to the genocide.


title: Maddaloni

abstract: Maddaloni is a town and comune of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, about 5 kilometres (3 mi) southeast of Caserta, with stations on the railways from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Naples.

text:
# Maddaloni

**Maddaloni** (Campanian: *Matalùnë*) is a town and *comune* of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, about 5 kilometres (3 mi) southeast of Caserta, with stations on the railways from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Naples.

## Main sights

The city is at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the towers of its medieval castle and the Church of San Michele crowning the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family (once dukes of Maddaloni), the old college now named after Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the chief points of interest.

The Gothic church of Santa Margherita has a series of 15th-century frescoes by the Florentine painter Giovanni Balducci. The church of the Annunziata has a series of early 17th century paintings that decorate the rich wooden ceiling. Many of the works were patronized by the local feudal lords, the Carafa family.

The town has two museums, the Museo Civico and the Museo Archeologico, which contains pre-Roman tombs and objects from the ancient city of Calatia.

There are many important schools in Maddaloni. The "Convitto Nazionale Giordano Bruno" is the oldest public secondary school in the province of Caserta. It was founded in 1807 in the former Franciscan convent. The great hall has a ceiling, which is decorated with the largest canvas painting in the world spanning 720 square metres (7,800 sq ft).

The "Villaggio dei Ragazzi" was originally a school for orphans founded in 1947 by local priest Don Salvatore D'Angelo. The private school has become an important centre of learning in the province and has been run by the religious order The Legion of Christ since its founder died in 2000.

Giulietta Sacco was born here in 1944 and continued to live here, is a prominent interpreter of Neapolitan songs in the late 1960s and 1970s.

About 4 kilometres (2 mi) east of Valle di Maddaloni is the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders of Charles of Bourbon king of Naples and his son. It was built to convey the water of the Taburno to Caserta across the valley between Monte Longano and Monte Gargano. In that area, the aqueduct goes past a threefold series of arches rising to a height of nearly 100 metres (330 ft) and measuring 529 metres (1,736 ft) long.

## References

## InfoBox

| Maddaloni | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
| Comune di Maddaloni | |
| Location of Maddaloni | |
| MaddaloniLocation of Maddaloni in ItalyMaddaloniMaddaloni (Campania) | |
| Coordinates: 41°02′N 14°23′E / 41.033°N 14.383°E / 41.033; 14.383 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Campania |
| Province | Caserta (CE) |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Andrea de Filippo |
| Area | |
| Total | 36 km2 (14 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 73 m (240 ft) |
| Population (May 2, 2012) | |
| Total | 39 248 |
| Demonym | Maddalonesi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 81024 |
| Dialing code | 0823 |
| Patron saint | St. Michael |
| Website | Official website |


title: Fort Stanton, Washington, D.C.

abstract: Fort Stanton is a residential neighborhood in Southeast Washington, D.C. It is bounded by Erie St SE. to the north, Suitland Parkway to the south, 16th St. SE to the west, and 19th Pl SE to the east. The neighborhood is named after the nearby civil War defense Fort Stanton. Fort Stanton is part of Ward 7, represented by Vince Gray. Fort Stanton is situated between the neighborhoods of Anacostia, to the north, Barry Farm to the west, Garfield Heights to the East, and Douglass to the south. The nearby Anacostia Community Museum is located in Fort Stanton as well as the nearby Fort Stanton Recreation Center and Fort Stanton Pool.

text:
# Fort Stanton, Washington, D.C.

**Fort Stanton** is a residential neighborhood in Southeast Washington, D.C. It is bounded by Erie St SE. to the north, Suitland Parkway to the south, 16th St. SE to the west, and 19th Pl SE to the east. The neighborhood is named after the nearby civil War defense Fort Stanton. Fort Stanton is part of Ward 7, represented by Vince Gray. Fort Stanton is situated between the neighborhoods of Anacostia, to the north, Barry Farm to the west, Garfield Heights to the East, and Douglass to the south.

The nearby Anacostia Community Museum is located in Fort Stanton as well as the nearby Fort Stanton Recreation Center and Fort Stanton Pool.

## InfoBox

| Fort Stanton | |
| --- | --- |
| Neighborhood of Washington, D.C. | |
| Coordinates: 38°51′20″N 76°58′46″W / 38.8556°N 76.9795°W / 38.8556; -76.9795 | |
| Country | United States |
| District | Washington, D.C. |
| Ward | Ward 7 |
| Government | |
| Councilmember | Vincent C. Gray |


title: William C. Christianson

abstract: William Christian Christianson was an American jurist. He was one of the judges at the Nuremberg Military Tribunals.

text:
# William C. Christianson

**William Christian Christianson** (December 5, 1892  May 27, 1985) was an American jurist. He was one of the judges at the Nuremberg Military Tribunals.

## Early life and education

Christianson was born in Moody County, South Dakota. He was the son of Christian O. Christianson (1857–1937) and Karen (Holter) Christianson (1862–1936). Christianson went to school in Austin, Minnesota, and Jasper, Minnesota. He earned a bachelor's degree from Highland Park College and then received his Juris Doctor from University of Chicago Law School in 1920.

## Career

Christianson was assistant county attorney for Goodhue County, Minnesota and Red Wing, Minnesota city attorney. Christianson served on the Minnesota Supreme Court from March 1946 to January 1947. In 1948 and 1949, Christianson was one of the judges of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials. In 1949, Christianson was appointed a Minnesota District Court judge for the first district and served until his retirement in 1963.

## Personal life

Christianson was married to Myrtle Lorenz who died in 1977. Christianson died in Red Wing, Minnesota, in 1985. He was buried at Oakwood Cemetery in Goodhue County, Minnesota.

## InfoBox

| William Christianson | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Associate Justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court | |
| **In office**
March 1946  January 1947 | |
| Appointed by | Edward John Thye |
| Preceded by | Luther Youngdahl |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | William Christian Christianson
December 5, 1892
Moody County, South Dakota, U.S. |
| Died | May 27, 1985 (aged 92)
Red Wing, Minnesota, U.S. |
| Education | Highland Park College (BA)
University of Chicago (JD) |
|  | |


title: Val Falvey, TD

abstract: Val Falvey, TD is an Irish television sitcom, created and written by Arthur Mathews and Paul Woodfull, and produced by Deadpan Pictures for RTÉ. The series stars Ardal O'Hanlon as Val Falvey, a newly elected Teachta Dála (TD) in Dáil Éireann, who inherited his seat in the Midlands from his father, and finds himself out of his depth in the world of politics.

text:
# Val Falvey, TD

***Val Falvey, TD*** is an Irish television sitcom, created and written by Arthur Mathews and Paul Woodfull, and produced by Deadpan Pictures for RTÉ.

The series stars Ardal O'Hanlon as Val Falvey, a newly elected Teachta Dála (TD) in Dáil Éireann, who inherited his seat in the Midlands from his father, and finds himself out of his depth in the world of politics.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| *Val Falvey, TD* | |
| --- | --- |
| Genre | Sitcom |
| Written by | Arthur Mathews
Paul Woodfull |
| Starring | Ardal O'Hanlon |
| Country of origin | Ireland |
| Original language | English |
| No. of series | 1 |
| No. of episodes | 6 |
| Production | |
| Production company | Deadpan Pictures |
| Original release | |
| Network | RTÉ One |
| Release | 22 November (2009-11-22)
27 December 2009 (2009-12-27) |


title: Liliaceae

abstract: The lily family, Liliaceae, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity. Common characteristics include large flowers with parts arranged in threes: with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals arranged in two whorls, six stamens and a superior ovary. The leaves are linear in shape, with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges, single and arranged alternating on the stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most species are grown from bulbs, although some have rhizomes. First described in 1789, the lily family became a paraphyletic "catch-all" (wastebasket) group of lilioid monocots that did not fit into other families and included a great number of genera now included in other families and in some cases in other orders. Consequently, many sources and descriptions labelled "Liliaceae" deal with the broader sense of the family. The family evolved approximately 68 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleogene epochs. Liliaceae are widely distributed, mainly in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the flowers are insect pollinated. Many Liliaceae are important ornamental plants, widely grown for their attractive flowers and involved in a major floriculture of cut flowers and dry bulbs. Some species are poisonous if eaten and can have adverse health effects in humans and household pets. A number of Liliaceae genera are popular cultivated plants in private and public spaces. Lilies and tulips in particular have had considerable symbolic and decorative value, and appear frequently in paintings and the decorative arts. They are also an economically important product. Most of their genera, Lilium in particular, face considerable herbivory pressure from deer in some areas, both wild and domestic.

text:
# Liliaceae

✶ or ÷ P3+3 A3+3 G(3)General floral formula of the Liliacaeae: Flowers actinomorphic or slightly zygomorphic and hermaphrodite with 6 undifferentiated tepals in two whorls of three, the same number and arrangement of stamens, and a superior ovary with 3 fused carpels. Individual species and genera may have more or less derived formulas.

The lily family, **Liliaceae**, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity. Common characteristics include large flowers with parts arranged in threes: with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) arranged in two whorls, six stamens and a superior ovary. The leaves are linear in shape, with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges, single and arranged alternating on the stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most species are grown from bulbs, although some have rhizomes. First described in 1789, the lily family became a paraphyletic "catch-all" (wastebasket) group of lilioid monocots that did not fit into other families and included a great number of genera now included in other families and in some cases in other orders. Consequently, many sources and descriptions labelled "Liliaceae" deal with the broader sense of the family.

The family evolved approximately 68 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleogene epochs. Liliaceae are widely distributed, mainly in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the flowers are insect pollinated. Many Liliaceae are important ornamental plants, widely grown for their attractive flowers and involved in a major floriculture of cut flowers and dry bulbs. Some species are poisonous if eaten and can have adverse health effects in humans and household pets.

A number of Liliaceae genera are popular cultivated plants in private and public spaces. Lilies and tulips in particular have had considerable symbolic and decorative value, and appear frequently in paintings and the decorative arts. They are also an economically important product. Most of their genera, *Lilium* in particular, face considerable herbivory pressure from deer in some areas, both wild and domestic.

## Description

Liliaceae floral morphologySection through flower of *Fritillaria meleagris**Lilium* flower with perigonium of six undifferentiated tepals, arranged in two trimerous whorls and side-connected (*dorsifixed*) anthers.Sego lily (*Calochortus nuttallii*) with tepals in two clearly distinguished whorls of three sepals and three petals.*Tulipa clusiana* with three sepals resembling petals*Tricyrtis* flower with patterned tepals*Lilium longiflorum*: 1. Stigma, 2. style, 3. stamens, 4. filament, 5. tepal*Erythronium revolutum* flower with three stigmata and pseudo-basifixed anthers surrounding the filament tip*Lilium* with longitudinal dehiscence of anthers*Lilium* anthers in cross section*Lilium auratum* pollen with typical single-grooved (monosulcate) pattern *Tulipa humilis* flower showing multiple connate (fused) carpels surrounded by stamens.*Lillium* fruit capsule

The diversity of characteristics complicates any description of the Liliaceae morphology, and confused taxonomic classification for centuries. The diversity is also of considerable evolutionary significance, as some members emerged from shaded areas and adapted to a more open environment (see Evolution).

### General

The Liliaceae are characterised as monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, bulbous (or rhizomatous in the case of Medeoleae) flowering plants with simple trichomes (root hairs) and contractile roots. The flowers may be arranged (inflorescence) along the stem, developing from the base, or as a single flower at the tip of the stem, or as a cluster of flowers. They contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics and are symmetric radially, but sometimes as a mirror image. Most flowers are large and colourful, except for Medeoleae. Both the petals and sepals are usually similar and appear as two concentric groups (whorls) of 'petals', that are often striped or multi-coloured, and produce nectar at their bases. The stamens are usually in two groups of three (trimerous) and the pollen has a single groove (monosulcate). The ovary is placed above the attachment of the other parts (superior). There are three fused carpels (syncarpus) with one to three chambers (locules), a single style and a three-lobed stigma. The embryo sac is of the *Fritillaria* type. The fruit is generally a wind dispersed capsule, but occasionally a berry (Medeoleae) which is dispersed by animals. The leaves are generally simple and elongated with veins parallel to the edges, arranged singly and alternating on the stem, but may form a rosette at the base of the stem.

### Specific

InflorescenceUsually indeterminate (lacking terminal flower) as a raceme (*Lilium*); sometimes reduced to a single terminal flower (*Tulipa*). When pluriflor (multiple blooms), the flowers are arranged in a cluster or rarely are subumbellate (*Gagea*) or a thyrse (spike). FlowersHermaphroditic, actinomorphic (radially symmetric) or slightly zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetric), pedicellate (on a short secondary stem), generally large and showy but may be inconspicuous : (Medeoleae). Bracts may (bracteate) or may not (ebracteate) be present. The perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each, although *Scoliopus* has only three petals, free from the other parts, but overlapping. The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like) and apotepalous (free) with lines (striate) or marks in other colors or shades. The perianth is either homochlamydeous (all tepals equal, e.g. *Fritillaria*) or dichlamydeous (two separate and different whorls, e.g. *Calochortus*) and may be united into a tube. Nectar is produced in perigonal nectaries at the base of the tepals. AndroeciumSix stamens in two trimerous whorls, with free filaments, usually epiphyllous (fused to tepals) and diplostemonous (outer whorl of stamens opposite outer tepals and the inner whorl opposite inner tepals), although *Scoliopus* has three stamens opposite the outer tepals. The attachment of the anthers to the filaments may be either peltate (to the surface) or pseudo-basifixed (surrounding the filament tip, but not adnate, that is not fused) and dehisce longitudinally and are extrorse (dehiscing away from center). The pollen is usually monosulcate (single groove), but may be inaperturate (lacking aperture: *Clintonia*, some *Tulipa* spp.) or operculate (lidded: *Fritillaria*, some *Tulipa* spp.), and reticulate (net patterned: *Erythronium*, *Fritillaria*, *Gagea*, *Lilium*, *Tulipa*). GynoeciumSuperior ovary (hypogynous), syncarpous (with fused carpels), with three connate (fused) carpels and is trilocular (three locules, or chambers) or unilocular (single locule, as in *Scoliopus* and *Medeola*). There is a single style and a three lobed stigma or three stigmata more or less elongated along the style. There are numerous anatropous (curved) ovules which display axile placentation (parietal in *Scoliopus* and *Medeola*), usually with an integument and thinner megasporangium. The embryo sac (megagametophyte) varies by genera, but is mainly tetrasporic (e.g. *Fritillaria*). Embryo sacs in which three of the four megaspores fuse to form a triploid nucleus, are referred to as *Fritillaria-type*, a characteristic shared by all the core Liliales. FruitA capsule that is usually loculicidal (splitting along the locules) as in the Lilioideae, but occasionally septicidal (splitting between them, along the separating septa) in the Calachortoideae and wind dispersed, although the Medeoleae form berries (baccate). The seeds may be flat, oblong, angular, discoid, ellipsoid or globose (spherical), or compressed with a well developed epidermis. The exterior may be smooth or roughened, with a wing or raphe (ridge), aril or one to two tails, rarely hairy, but may be dull or shiny and the lack of a black integument distinguishes them from related taxa such as Allioideae that were previously included in this family, and striate (parallel longitudinally ridged) in the Steptopoideae. The hilum (scar) is generally inconspicuous. The bitegmic (separate testa and tegmen) seed coat itself may be thin, suberose (like cork), or crustaceous (hard or brittle). The endosperm is abundant, cartilaginous (fleshy) or horny and contains oils and aleurone but not starch (non-farinaceous). Its cells are polyploid (triploid or pentaploid, depending on the embryo sac type). The embryo is small (usually less than one quarter of seed volume), axile (radially sectioned), linear (longer than broad) or rarely rudimentary (tiny relative to endosperm) depending on placentation type, and straight, bent, curved or curled at the upper end. LeavesSimple, entire (smooth and even), linear, oval to filiform (thread-like), mostly with parallel veins, but occasionally net-veined. They are alternate (single and alternating direction) and spiral, but may be whorled (three or more attached at one node, e.g. *Lilium, Fritillaria),* cauline (arranged along the aerial stem) or sheathed in a basal rosette. They are rarely petiolate (stem attached before apex), and lack stipules. The aerial stem is unbranched. GenomeThe Liliaceae include a species with one of the largest genome size within the angiosperms, *Fritillaria assyriaca* (1C=127.4 pg), while *Tricyrtis macropoda* is as small as 4.25 pg. Chromosome numbers vary by genus. Some genera like *Calochortus* (x=6-10), *Prosartes* (6,8,9,11), *Scoliopus* (7,8), *Streptopus* (8, 27) and *Tricyrtis* (12-13) have a small and variable number of chromosomes while subfamily Lilioideae have a larger and more stable chromosome number (12) as have the Medeoleae (7). PhytochemistryThe seeds contain saponins but no calcium oxalate raphide crystals, chelidonic acid (unlike Asparagales) or cysteine derived sulphur compounds (allyl sulphides), another distinguishing feature from the characteristic alliaceous odour of the Allioideae. *Fritillaria* in particular contains steroidal alkaloids of the cevanine and solanum type. Solanidine and solanthrene alkaloids have been isolated from some *Fritillaria* species. *Tulipa*  contains tulipanin, an anthocyanin. (see also: Toxicology)

Characteristics often vary by habitat, between shade-dwelling genera (such as *Prosartes*, *Tricyrtis*, *Cardiocrinum*, *Clintonia*, *Medeola*, *Prosartes*, and *Scoliopus*) and sun loving genera. Shade-dwelling genera usually have broader leaves with smooth edges and net venation, and fleshy fruits (berries) with animal-dispersed seeds, rhizomes, and small, inconspicuous flowers while genera native to sunny habitats usually have narrow, parallel-veined leaves, capsular fruits with wind-dispersed seeds, bulbs, and large, visually conspicuous flowers. (See also *Evolution*).

## Taxonomy

The taxonomy of the Liliaceae has a very complex history. The family was first described in the eighteenth century, and over time many other genera were added until it became one of the largest of the monocotyledon families, and also extremely diverse. Modern taxonomic systems, such as the APG which is based on phylogenetic principles using molecular biology, have redistributed many of these genera resulting in the relatively small family that is currently recognised. Consequently, there are many different accounts of the Liliaceae in the literature and older uses of the term occur commonly. To distinguish between them, the Latin terms *sensu lato* and *sensu stricto* are frequently used (together with their abbreviations, *s.l.* and *s.s.*) to denote the broader or stricter sense of the circumscription respectively, e.g. Liliaceae *s.s.*.

### History

The family Liliaceae was described by Michel Adanson in 1763 and formally named by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789. Jussieu defined this grouping as having a calyx of six equal colored parts, six stamens, a superior ovary, single style, and a trilocular (three-chambered) capsule. By 1845, John Lindley, the first English systematist, unhappily acknowledged the great diversity in the circumscription of the family, and that it had expanded vastly, with many subdivisions. As he saw it, the Liliaceae were already paraphyletic ("catch-all"), being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. He recognized 133 genera and 1200 species. By the time of the next major British classification – that of Bentham and Hooker in 1883 (published in Latin) – several of Lindley's other families had already been absorbed into the Liliaceae. Over time the family became increasingly broad and somewhat arbitrarily defined as all species of plants with six tepals and a superior ovary, eventually coming to encompass about 300 genera and 4,500 species within the order Liliales under the Cronquist system (1981). Cronquist merged the Liliaceae with the Amaryllidaceae, making this one of the largest monocotyledon families.

Many other botanists echoed Lindley's earlier concerns about the phylogeny of the Liliaceae, but various schemes to divide the family gained little traction. Dahlgren (1985) suggested there were in fact forty – not one – families distributed over three orders (predominantly Liliales and Asparagales). In the context of a general review of the classification of angiosperms, the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. Considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory enabled a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants, as elaborated by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998).

### Modern APG classification and phylogeny

The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) made rapid progress in establishing a modern monophyletic classification of the flowering plants by 2009. Despite establishing this relative degree of monophyly (genetic homogeneity) for the family Liliaceae, their morphology remains diverse and there exists within the Liliaceae clade or grouping, a number of subclades (subgroups). Particularly enigmatic were *Clintonia*, *Medeola*, *Scoliopus*, and *Tricyrtis*.

Of the fifteen genera within the Liliaceae, the ten genera of the Lilioideae subfamily form one morphological group that is characterised by contractile bulbs and roots, and a Fritillaria-type embryo-sac (megagametophyte with four megaspores). Within the Lilioideae, *Clintonia* and the closely related *Medeola* form a subclade, and are now considered a separate tribe (Medeoleae). The other major grouping consists of the five genera constituting the Streptopoideae (including *Scoliopus*) and Calochortoideae (including *Tricyrtis*) subfamilies characterised by creeping rhizomes, styles which are divided at their apices, and by megagametophyte development of the *Polygonum*-type (a simple megaspore and triploid endosperm) embryo-sac.

### Evolution and biogeography

The development of a phylogenetic approach to taxonomy suggested the Liliales formed some of the earliest monocots. Molecular analysis indicates that divergence amongst the Liliales probably occurred around 82 million years ago. The closest sister family to the Liliaceae are the Smilacaceae with the Liliaceae separating 52 million years ago. Liliaceae thus arose during the late (Maastrichtian) Cretaceous to early (Paleocene) Paleogene periods. Major evolutionary clades include the Lilieae (*Lilium, Fritillaria, Nomocharis, Cardiocrinum, Notholirion*) from the Himalayas about 12 mya and the Tulipeae (*Erythronium*, *Tulipa*, *Gagea*) from East Asia at about the same time. The Medeoleae (*Clintonia* and *Medeola*) may have appeared in North America but were subsequently dispersed, as may have the Streptopoideae and Calochortoideae. Liliaceae fossils have been dated to the Paleogene and Cretaceous eras in the Antarctic.

The Liliaceae probably arose as shade plants, with subsequent evolution to open areas including deciduous forest in the more open autumnal period, but then a return of some species (e.g. *Cardiocrinum*). This was accompanied by a shift from rhizomes to bulbs, to more showy flowers, the production of capsular fruit and narrower parallel-veined leaves. Again, some reversal to the broader reticulate-veined leaves occurred (e.g. *Cardiocrinum*).

### Subdivisions and genera

Examples of the four subdivisions of LiliaceaeMedeoleae: Leaves and fruit of *Clintonia borealis*, Quebec, CanadaLilieae: Flower of *Nomocharis aperta*, Yunnan, ChinaCalochortoideae: Flower of *Calochortus catalinae*, CaliforniaStreptopoideae: Leaves and berries of *Streptopus lanceolatus*, Ontario, Canada

#### Suprageneric subdivisions

Due to the diversity of the originally broadly defined Liliaceae *s.l.*, many attempts have been made to form suprageneric classifications, e.g. subfamilies and tribes. Classifications published since the use of molecular methods in phylogenetics have taken a narrower view of the Liliaceae (Liliaceae *s.s.*). The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APweb) recognizes three subfamilies, one of which is divided into two tribes.

#### Genera

Various authorities (e.g. ITIS 16, GRIN 27, WCSP, NCBI, DELTA ) differ on the exact number of genera included in Liliaceae *s.s.*, but generally there are about fifteen to sixteen genera, depending on whether or not *Amana* is included in *Tulipa* and *Lloydia* in *Gagea*.

Currently the APWeb lists fifteen genera, arranged as shown in this table:

APweb Distribution of subfamilies, tribes and genera of Liliaceae
| Subfamily | Tribe | Genus |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Lilioideae Eaton | Medeoleae Benth. (synonyms: Medeolaceae Takht., Medeoloideae Benth.) | *Clintonia* Raf. \- bead lilies |
| | | *Medeola* Gronov. ex L. \- Indian cucumber-root |
| | Lilieae Ritgen (synonyms: Erythroniaceae Martinov, Fritillariaceae Salisb., Liriaceae Borkh., Tulipaceae Borkh.) | *Cardiocrinum* (Endl.) Lindl. \- giant lilies |
| | *Erythronium* L. – trout lily |
| | *Fritillaria* Tourn. ex L. – fritillary or mission bells |
| | *Gagea* Salisb. (including *Lloydia* Salisb. ex Rchb.)<br>– yellow star-of-Bethlehem |
| | *Lilium* Tourn. ex L. – lily |
| | *Nomocharis* Franch. |
| | *Notholirion* Wall. ex Boiss. |
| | *Tulipa* L. (including *Amana* Honda) – tulip |
| Calochortoideae Dumort. (synonyms: Calochortaceae Dumort., Compsoaceae Horan., nom. illeg., Tricyrtidaceae Takht., nom. cons.) | | *Calochortus* Pursh \- mariposa, globe lilies |
| | *Tricyrtis* Wall. – toad lily |
| Streptopoideae (synonym: Scoliopaceae Takht.) | | *Prosartes* D.Don – drops of gold |
| | *Scoliopus* Torr. – fetid adder's tongue |
| | *Streptopus* Michx. – twistedstalk |

The largest genera are *Gagea* (200), *Fritillaria* (130), *Lilium* (110), and *Tulipa* (75 species), all within the tribe Lilieae.

### Etymology and pronunciation

The name "Liliaceae" (English: /ˌlɪliˈsi, -siˌ, -siˌ, -siˌi/) comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from *Lilium*, the type genus, + *-aceae*, a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word *lilium*, "lily", which in turn came from the Greek **leírion** (λείριον).

## Distribution and habitat

The Liliaceae are widely distributed, but mainly in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The centre of diversity is from southwest Asia to China. Their distribution is diverse, mainly in plains, steppes, and alpine meadows, but also in deciduous forests, Mediterranean scrub and arctic tundra. *Tulipa* and *Gagea* provide examples of ornamental geophyte biomorphological types representing continental thermoperiodic zones (Irano-Turanian region), characterised by cessation of underground growth at high temperatures in early summer and requiring low winter temperatures for spring flowering. While some genera are shade-dwelling, such as the Medeoleae, and Streptopoideae, *Tricyrtis*, and *Cardiocrinum*, others prefer a more open habitat.

## Ecology

The Liliaceae are ecologically diverse. Species of Liliaceae bloom at various times from spring to late summer. The colorful flowers produce large amounts of nectar and pollen that attract insects which pollinate them (entomophily), particularly bees and wasps (hymenopterophily), butterflies (psychophily) and moths (phalaenophily). The seeds are dispersed by wind and water. Some species (e.g. *Scoliopus*, *Erythronium and Gagea*) have seeds with an aril structure that are dispersed by ants (myrmecochory).

The proliferation of deer populations in many areas, due to human factors such as the elimination of their animal predators and introduction to alien environments, is placing considerable herbivory pressure on many of the family's species. Fences as high as 8 feet may be required to prevent them from consuming the plants, an impractical solution for most wild areas. Those of the genus *Lilium* are particularly palatable, while species in *Fritillaria* are repellant.

### Pests and predators

Liliaceae are subject to a wide variety of diseases and pests, including insects, such as thrips, aphids, beetles and flies. Also fungi, viruses and vertebrate animals such as mice and deer. An important horticultural and garden pest is the scarlet lily beetle (Japanese red lily beetle, *Lilioceris lilii*) and other Lilioceris species which attack *Fritillaria* and *Lilium*. *Lilium* species may be food plants for the Cosmia trapezina moth. A major pest of Tulips is the fungus, *Botrytis tulipae*.

Both *Lilium* and *Tulipa* are susceptible to a group of five viruses of the family *Potyviridae*, specifically the potyvirus (named for *potato virus Y)* group, which includes the *tulip-breaking virus* (*TBV*) and the *lily streak virus* (lily mottle virus, *LMoV*) resulting in 'breaking' of the color of the flowers. The viruses are transmitted by aphids. This breaking effect was of economic importance during the tulip mania of the seventeenth century, because it appeared to be producing new varieties. In modern times tulip breeders have produced varieties that mimic the effect of the virus, without being infected. One of these varieties is known as 'Rembrandt', after the Dutch artist of that name. Contemporary tulip owners commonly had Rembrandt and other artists paint their flowers to preserve them for posterity, hence the 'broken' tulips were known as Rembrandt tulips at that time. Another modern variety is 'Princess Irene'. One of the tulip breaking viruses is also named the *Rembrandt tulip-breaking virus* (ReTBV).

## Cultivation

Cultivation*Tulipa* varieties are popular ornamental flowers in public and private spaces in the springTulip production, Hillegom, the NetherlandsLily production, Japan

### Floriculture

Many species of Lilieae (in genera *Tulipa*, *Fritillaria*, *Lilium*, and *Erythronium*) and Calochortoideae (*Calochortus* and *Tricyrtis*) are grown as ornamental plants worldwide. Within these genera a wide range of cultivars have been developed by breeding and hybridisation. They are generally used in outdoor gardens and other displays, although in common with many bulbous flowering plants they are often induced to bloom indoors, particularly during the winter months. They also form a significant part of the cut flower market, in particular *Tulipa* and *Lilium*.

#### Tulips

Tulips have been cultivated since at least the tenth century in Persia. Tulip production has two main markets: cut flowers and bulbs. The latter are used, in turn, to meet the demand for bulbs for parks, gardens, and home use and, secondly, to provide the necessary bulbs for cut flower production. International trade in cut flowers has an approximate total value of 11 billion euros, which provides an indication of the economic importance of this activity. The main producer of tulip bulbs is the Netherlands, a country that accounts for 87% of the global cultivated area, with approximately 12,000 hectares. Other leading producers include Japan, France and Poland. Approximately ten other countries produce commercial tulips, largely for the domestic market. By contrast, the Netherlands is the leading international producer, to the extent of 4 billion bulbs per annum. Of these, 53% are used for the cut flower market and the remainder for the dry bulb market. Of the cut flowers, 57% are used for the domestic market in the Netherlands and the remainder exported.

Original *Tulipa* species can be obtained for ornamental purposes, such as *Tulipa tarda* and *Tulipa turkestanica*. These are referred to as species, or botanical, tulips, and tend to be smaller plants but better at naturalising than the cultivated forms. Breeding programs have produced a wide range of tulip types, enabling blooming through a much longer season by creating early, mid- and late spring varieties. Fourteen distinct types are available in addition to botanical tulips, including Lily-flowered, Fringed, Viridiflora, and Rembrandt. In addition to blooming season, tulip varieties differ in shape and height, and exhibit a wide range of colours, both pure and in combination.

#### Lilies

The largest area of production is also the Netherlands, with 76% of the global cultivated area, followed by France, Chile, Japan, the United States, New Zealand and Australia. Approximately ten countries produce lilies commercially altogether. About half of the commercial production is for cut flowers. Many of these countries export bulbs as well as supplying the domestic market. The Netherlands produces about 2,200 million lily bulbs annually, of which 96% is used domestically and the remainder exported, principally within the European Union. One particularly important crop is the production of *Lilium longiflorum*, whose white flowers are associated with purity and Easter.

Although many *Lilium* species such as *Lilium martagon* and *Lilium candidum* can be obtained commercially, the majority of commercially available lilies represent the products of a very diverse hybridisation program, which has resulted in a separate horticultural classification, including such groupings as Asian, Oriental and Orienpet. In addition to a very wide variety of heights, lilies can be obtained in many colours and combinations of colours, and if properly selected can produce an extensive blooming season from early summer to autumn. Because of the history of Liliaceae, many species such as Watsonia (bugle lily) that were previously classified in this family bear the name 'lily' but are neither part of the genus *Lilium*, or the family Liliaceae.

#### Other

A variety of *Fritillaria* species are used as early spring ornamental flowers. These vary from the large *Fritillaria imperialis* (crown imperial) available in a number of colours such as yellow or orange, to much smaller species such as *Fritillaria meleagris* or *Fritillaria uva-vulpis* with their chequered patterns. *Erythronium* is less common but a popular cultivar is 'Pagoda' with its sulphur yellow flowers. *Calochortus* (mariposa lily) may be sold as a mixture or as cultivars.

### Propagation

Methods of propagation include both sexual and asexual reproduction. Commercial cultivars are usually sterile.

#### Sexual reproduction

Seeds can be used for propagation of the plant or to create hybrids and can take five to eight years to produce flowering plants. Since interspecific cross-pollination occurs, overlapping wild populations can create natural hybrids.

#### Asexual reproduction

Bulb offsets and tissue culture produce genetic clones of the parent plant and thus maintaining genetic integrity of the cultivars. Bulb offsets usually require at least a year before flowering. Commercially, plants may be propagated in vitro and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell.

## Toxicology

While members of the Liliaceae *s.s.* have been used as food sources in humans, the bulbs of some species are poisonous to household pets (bulb toxicosis) if eaten and may cause serious complications, such as kidney failure in cats from Lilies, particularly *Lilium longiflorum* (Easter Lily). Dogs may develop less serious effects such as gastrointestinal problems and central nervous system depression. Most Fritillaria (e.g. *Fritillaria imperialis*, *Fritillaria meleagris*) bulbs contain poisonous neurotoxic alkaloids such as imperialin (peiminine), which may be deadly if ingested in quantity, while other species such as *Fritillaria camschatcensis* and *Fritillaria affinis* are edible. Tulips can cause skin irritation due to the presence of tuliposides and tulipalins, which are also found in the flowers, leaves and stems of *Fritillaria*. These are also toxic to a variety of animals.

## Uses

Fritillaria extracts are used in traditional Chinese medicine under the name *chuan bei mu*, and in Latin, *bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae*. The bulbs of *Fritillaria roylei* have been used as antipyretics and expectorants. *Lilium* bulbs, particularly Lanzhou lily (*Lilium davidii*) are used as food in China and other parts of Asia. During World War II, starvation conditions in the Netherlands (*Hongerwinter*, hunger winter 1944) led to using *Tulipa* bulbs as food. *Calochortus* bulbs were eaten by Native Americans and by the Mormon settlers in Utah during starvation. Other members of the family used for food include *Clintonia* (leaves), *Medeola* (roots), *Erythronium* (corms), and *Fritillaria* (bulbs).

## Culture

### Lilies

Lilies (far right) growing in the *Paradiesgärtlein*, *Meister des Frankfurter Paradiesgärtleins* c.1410*Lilium candidum* (Madonna lily)

The type genus, Lily (*Lilium*), has a long history in literature and art, and a tradition of symbolism as well as becoming a popular female name, and a floral emblem, particularly of France (fleur-de-lis). The cultivation of lilies has been described since at least the ninth century, when Charlemagne ordered it to be grown at his imperial palaces. However, the name 'lily' has historically been applied to a wide variety of plants other than the genus *Lilium*.

The lily appears in ancient literature associated with both sovereignty and virginal innocence, and is mentioned on a number of occasions in the Bible, such as the description in Solomon's Song of Songs (2, 1–2) "*I am a rose of Sharon, a lily of the valleys. Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the young women*" or the Gospel of Mathew (6, 28) "*Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin*" to represent beauty. Artistic representations can be found as far back as frescos from the second century BC, at Amnisos and Knossos. Early Christian churches, such as that of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe were sometimes decorated with lilies. While predominantly depicted as white, those seen at Akrotiri are red lilies. The white lily has long been seen as a symbol of purity, coming to be associated with the Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages, from which came the name ‘Madonna lily’ (*Lilium candidum*). A well-known example is Leonardo da Vinci's *Annunciation* (1472–1475) in which the archangel Gabriel bears a Madonna lily. Other symbolic meanings include glory, love and birth.

#### Fleur-de-lis

The stylised lily, or *fleur-de-lis* (lily flower) has long been associated with royalty, although it may originally have been derived from the form of an iris. It has also been associated with the head of a spear. Its three parts have been associated with the three classes of mediaeval society, or alternatively faith, wisdom and chivalry. Whatever its exact derivation, it has come to be associated with France and the French monarchy since the earliest Frankish kings. Consequently, it became incorporated into not only French heraldry but also into many heraldic devices in jurisdictions where there had been historic French influence, such as Quebec and New Orleans. In modern times it appears in many forms, symbolic and decorative, and can be used on compasses to indicate the direction north, as well as the Scouting movement.

### Tulips

Tulips (*Tulipa*) also have a long cultural tradition, particularly in the Islamic world. The Persian word for tulips, *lâleh* (لاله), was borrowed into Turkish and Arabic as *lale*. In Arabic letters, *lale* is written with the same letters as *Allah*, and is used to denote God symbolically. Tulips became widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, fabrics, and ceramics in Islamic art and the Ottoman Empire in particular, and were revered in poetry, such as that of Omar Khayam in the twelfth century.

Tulips were an essential part of the gardens of Persia, having been cultivated from the Steppes. As the SeljuksOghuz-Turkic leaders originated from the steppes – moved to Persia, and then west, they took tulips with them to Turkey, where many escaped cultivation and became naturalised. Today there are a number of places in Turkey called *Laleli* (‘with tulips’). Tulips first appeared in the decorative arts in Turkey in the thirteenth century and flourished under the Ottomans, in particular in the royal palaces, and was adopted by the Osmans as their symbol. Further species were collected from Persia and the spreading Ottoman Empire saw to it that tulip culture also spread. By the sixteenth century it was a national symbol, hence the designation "Tulip era", by which time they were becoming of economic importance.

By 1562 the tulip trade had reached Europe with the first shipment to Antwerp, where they were mistaken for vegetables, although they had been cultivated in Portugal since 1530, and first appeared in illustration in 1559, and the first tulip flowers were seen in the Netherlands in 1625. Tulips spread rapidly across Europe in the seventeenth century, and became an important trading item, initially in France before concentrating in the Netherlands. Eventually speculative trading in tulips became so intense as to cause a financial bubble which eventually collapsed, a period known as tulip mania (tulipomania), from 1634 to 1637, similar to the Ottoman Empire's Tulip era.

Nevertheless, since then the tulip has become indelibly associated with the Netherlands and all things Dutch. it was during this period that the tulipiere, a ceramic vase for growing tulips indoors was devised, and the Golden Age of Dutch Painting was replete with images of tulips. Although tulip festivals are held around the world in the spring, the most famous of these is the display at Keukenhof. One of the better-known novels on tulips is *The Black Tulip* by Alexandre Dumas, père in 1850, dealing with a contest to grow a black tulip in late seventeenth-century Haarlem.

### Other

*Fritillaria* are also often used as floral emblems, for instance as the county flower of Oxfordshire, UK. *Calochortus nuttallii*, the sego lily, is the official state flower of Utah.

## Additional reading

### Books

#### Systematics

#### Taxonomic classifications

Table of 58 families, Part II: Page 1 Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Table of 1615 genera, Part II: Page 8 Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine

#### Other

### Symposia

### Journal articles

* Kelch, D.G. (2000). "What happened to the lily family?". *Pacific Horticulture*. **61**: 76–79.
* Peruzzi, Lorenzo; Jarvis, Charlie E. (2009). "Typification of Linnaean Names in Liliaceae". *Taxon*. **58** (4): 1359–1365. doi:10.1002/tax.584024. JSTOR 27757024.

### Web

#### Databases

#### Flora

#### Other

* The dictionary definition of *Liliaceae* at Wiktionary
* Media related to Liliaceae at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Liliaceae<br>Temporal range: Late Cretaceous \- Recent | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Lilium candidum* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| Order: | Liliales |
| Family: | Liliaceae<br>Juss. |
|
| Type genus | |
| *Lilium*<br>L. Sp. Pl. 1: 302. (1753) | |
| Type species | |
| *Lilium candidum*<br>L. Sp. Pl. 1: 302. (1753) | |
| Subfamilies and tribes | |
| *sensu* APWeb | |
| Diversity | |
| About 600 species | |


title: Total mycosynthesis

abstract: Total mycosynthesis is the combination of the use of a filamentous fungal host organism with a genetic expression system that allows the assembly and controlled expression of one or more biosynthetic genes. Total mycosynthesis involves the reconstruction and/or engineering of biosynthetic pathways for the production of secondary metabolites. It is competitive with chemical total synthesis. It can be used both for the production of known natural products, and for the engineering of pathways to produce new compounds or pathway intermediates.Examples include the total mycosynthesis of tenellin where the tenS, tenC, tenA and tenB genes were transferred from Beauveria bassiana to the expression host Aspergillus oryzae. The expression system allows the engineering of TenS to control chain-length and methylation pattern.

text:
# Total mycosynthesis

**Total mycosynthesis** is the combination of the use of a filamentous fungal host organism with a genetic expression system that allows the assembly and controlled expression of one or more biosynthetic genes. Total mycosynthesis involves the reconstruction and/or engineering of biosynthetic pathways for the production of secondary metabolites. It is competitive with chemical total synthesis. It can be used both for the production of known natural products, and for the engineering of pathways to produce new compounds or pathway intermediates.

Examples include the total mycosynthesis of tenellin where the *tenS*, *tenC*, *tenA* and *tenB* genes were transferred from *Beauveria bassiana* to the expression host *Aspergillus oryzae*. The expression system allows the engineering of TenS to control chain-length and methylation pattern.

## Examples

| Metabolite | Year | Group | Host | Step Count | Titre mg/L | Reference |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Citridone B | 2020 | Watanabe Tang | *A. nidulans* | 6 | 0.6 | https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202008321 |
| Monacolin J | 2022 | Wang | *A. niger* | 3 | 143 | https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040407 |
| Tenellin | 2010 | Cox Lazarus | *A. oryzae* | 3 | 200 | https://doi.org/10.1002/cbic.201000259 |
| Aurovertin B | 2016 | CCC Wang | *A. nidulans* | 7 | nd | https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.orglett.6b00299 |
| Anditomin | 2014 | Abe | *A. oryzae* | 13 | 5 | https://doi.org/10.1021/ja508127q |
| Xenovulene A | 2018 | Cox | *A. oryzae* | 9 | 0.5 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04364-9 |
|

1. Kahlert, Lukas; Schotte, Carsten; Cox, Russell J. (July 2021). "Total Mycosynthesis: Rational Bioconstruction and Bioengineering of Fungal Natural Products". *Synthesis*. **53** (14): 2381–2394. doi:10.1055/a-1401-2716. ISSN 0039-7881. S2CID 233967389.
2. Heneghan, Mary N.; Yakasai, Ahmed A.; Halo, Laura M.; Song, Zhongshu; Bailey, Andrew M.; Simpson, Thomas J.; Cox, Russell J.; Lazarus, Colin M. (2010-06-23). "First Heterologous Reconstruction of a Complete Functional Fungal Biosynthetic Multigene Cluster". *ChemBioChem*. **11** (11): 1508–1512. doi:10.1002/cbic.201000259. PMID 20575135. S2CID 45670640.
3. Fisch, Katja M.; Bakeer, Walid; Yakasai, Ahmed A.; Song, Zhongshu; Pedrick, Jennifer; Wasil, Zahida; Bailey, Andrew M.; Lazarus, Colin M.; Simpson, Thomas J. (2011-09-26). "Rational Domain Swaps Decipher Programming in Fungal Highly Reducing Polyketide Synthases and Resurrect an Extinct Metabolite". *Journal of the American Chemical Society*. **133** (41): 16635–16641. doi:10.1021/ja206914q. PMID 21899331. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
4. Yang, Xiao-Long; Friedrich, Steffen; Yin, Sen; Piech, Oliver; Williams, Katherine; Simpson, Thomas J.; Cox, Russell J. (2019). "Molecular basis of methylation and chain-length programming in a fungal iterative highly reducing polyketide synthase". *Chemical Science*. **10** (36): 8478–8489. doi:10.1039/C9SC03173A. ISSN 2041-6520. PMC 6839510. PMID 31803427.


title: Westwood High School (Mesa, Arizona)

abstract:
Westwood High School is a 4-year public high school in the western part of Mesa, Arizona, United States under the jurisdiction of Mesa Public Schools. It was opened in 1962 with Elias Brimhall as the founding principal. In the 1983–84 school year, it was honored as a Blue Ribbon school.
In 2018 it was reclassified as a "A" school through the Arizona Department of Education school accountability system. It is the zoned public high school of the Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community.

text:
# Westwood High School (Mesa, Arizona)

**Westwood High School** is a 4-year public high school in the western part of Mesa, Arizona, United States under the jurisdiction of Mesa Public Schools. It was opened in 1962 with Elias Brimhall as the founding principal. In the 1983–84 school year, it was honored as a Blue Ribbon school. In 2018 it was reclassified as a "A" school through the Arizona Department of Education school accountability system.

It is the zoned public high school of the Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community.

## Demographics

During the 2020–2021 school year, the demographic break of the 3,355 students enrolled was:

* Male – 50.8%
* Female – 49.2%
* Native American/Alaskan – 11.9%
* Asian/Pacific Islander – 2.3%
* Black – 6.2%
* Hispanic – 56.4%
* White – 21.3%
* Multiracial – 1.9%

## Athletics

Offered Athletics:

## Feeder schools

Junior High Schools that feed into Westwood High School (and the Elementary Schools that feed into the junior high schools):

**Carson Junior High:**

* Adams Elementary School
* Eisenhower Center for Innovation
* Ralph Waldo Emerson Elementary School
* Lehi Elementary School
* Roosevelt Elementary School
* Webster Elementary School
* Whitman Elementary School
* Whittier Elementary School

**Kino Junior High:**

* Eisenhower Center for Innovation
* Lehi Elementary School
* Edison Elementary School
* Holmes Elementary School
* Kerr Elementary School
* Lincoln Elementary School
* Lowell Elementary School

**Rhodes Junior High:**

* Crismon Elementary School
* Pedro Guerrero Elementary School
* Lincoln Elementary School
* Redbird Elementary School
* Roosevelt Elementary School
* Summit Academy (IB)

**Stapley Junior High**

* Barbara Bush Elementary School
* Marjorie Entz Elementary School
* Nathan Hale Elementary School
* Hermosa Vista Elementary School
* Zedo Ishikawa Elementary School
* Lehi Elementary School
* Douglas MacArthur Elementary School

## Notable alumni

Individuals  Groups

## InfoBox

| Westwood High School | |
| --- | --- |
| Home of the Warriors | |
| Address | |
|  | |
| 945 West Rio Salado Parkway
Mesa, Arizona 85201
United States | |
| Coordinates | 33°25′43″N 111°51′1″W / 33.42861°N 111.85028°W / 33.42861; -111.85028 |
| Information | |
| Type | Public high school |
| Established | 1962 |
| School district | Mesa Public Schools |
| NCES District ID | 0404970 |
| NCES School ID | 040497000419 |
| Principal | Chris Gilmore |
| Teaching staff | 170.20 (FTE) |
| Grades | 9–12 |
| Enrollment | 3,570 (2022–2023) |
| Student to teacher ratio | 20.98 |
| Color(s) | Orange and blue |
| Nickname | Warriors |
| Rival | Mesa High School |
| Website | www.mpsaz.org/westwood |
|  | |


title: Rafik Mhamdi

abstract: Rafik Mhamdi is a Tunisian football manager.

text:
# Rafik Mhamdi

**Rafik Mhamdi** is a Tunisian football manager.

## InfoBox

Rafik Mhamdi
| Team information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Current team | Étoile du Sahel (assistant) | | |
| Managerial career | | | |
| Years | **Team** | | |
| 2018–2019 | Étoile du Sahel (assistant) | | |
| 2019 | Étoile du Sahel | | |
| 2019–2020 | Étoile du Sahel (assistant) | | |
| 2020 | JS Kairouan | | |
| 2021 | ES Hammam-Sousse | | |
| 2021– | Étoile du Sahel (assistant) | | |


title: Raincoat

abstract: A raincoat is a waterproof or water-resistant garment worn on the upper body to shield the wearer from rain. The term rain jacket is sometimes used to refer to raincoats with long sleeves that are waist-length. A rain jacket may be combined with a pair of rain pants to make a rainsuit. Rain clothing may also be in one piece, like a boilersuit. Raincoats, like rain ponchos, offer the wearer hands-free protection from the rain and elements; unlike the umbrella. Modern raincoats are often constructed from waterproof fabrics that are breathable, such as Gore-Tex or Tyvek and DWR-coated nylon. These fabrics and membranes allow water vapor to pass through, allowing the garment to 'breathe' so that the sweat of the wearer can escape. The amount of pouring rain a raincoat can handle is sometimes measured in the unit millimeters, water gauge.

text:
# Raincoat

A **raincoat** is a waterproof or water-resistant garment worn on the upper body to shield the wearer from rain. The term **rain jacket** is sometimes used to refer to raincoats with long sleeves that are waist-length. A rain jacket may be combined with a pair of **rain pants** to make a **rainsuit.** Rain clothing may also be in one piece, like a boilersuit. Raincoats, like rain ponchos, offer the wearer hands-free protection from the rain and elements; unlike the umbrella.

Modern raincoats are often constructed from waterproof fabrics that are breathable, such as Gore-Tex or Tyvek and DWR-coated nylon. These fabrics and membranes allow water vapor to pass through, allowing the garment to 'breathe' so that the sweat of the wearer can escape. The amount of pouring rain a raincoat can handle is sometimes measured in the unit millimeters, water gauge.

## Early history

One of oldest examples of rainwear recorded is likely the woven grass cape/mat of Ötzi, around 3230 BCE.

The Olmec Native Americans first invented rubber sometime before 1600 BCE. They developed methods to extract natural latex resin from the rubber tree (*Hevea brasiliensis*), and cure the latex resin into stabilized rubber using the sulfuric compounds of the morning glory in order to create some of the world's first waterproof textile fabrics using cotton and other plant fibers. These rubberized fabrics were crafted into waterproof cloaks, direct precursors to the modern raincoat, as well as other waterproof clothing like shoes.

The indigenous peoples of the Northwest Pacific Coast wore raincoats and other clothing made of woven cedar fiber which, depending on the tightness of the weave, could be dense and watertight, or soft and comfortable.

Throughout much of Eastern and Midwestern regions of North America, many Native American nations used treated leather from a variety of animals to create waterproof clothes, sometimes covered in fringe, to stay warm and dry. In addition to the decorative function, fringe would pull water off the main portion of their clothes so that the garment dried quicker.

The particularities of the Arctic climate gave rise to a distinctive culture of waterproof clothing. The Inuit, Aleuts, and many other peoples in the Arctic region have traditionally worn shirts, coats, and parkas made from the skins of seal, sea otter, fish, and birds. Birdskin shirts, with the feathers on the outside, provide excellent protection from rain as they repel moisture. In Aleut culture, a kamleika is worn as the outermost garment on top of the parka when necessary.

In East Asian cultures such as Vietnam, China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, the use of naturally water-repellent plant fibers, such as rice straw, to create waterproof raincoats and cloaks has been known since ancient times. This raincoat style often consisted of both an upper rainjacket and a lower apron. Materials varied, and were usually locally sourced. Each set took two to three days to craft and was typically paired with a matching straw hat. Raindrops that fell on such garments would run along the fibers and not penetrate into the interior, keeping the wearer dry. They were a common sight among farmers and fishermen on rainy and snowy days, as well as travelers during the rainy season. The raincoat being an absolutely indispensable asset, famed writer Xu Guangqi recorded a popular proverb during the Ming: "No raincoat, no going out." When hunting or traveling at night, the coat could be used as a sleeping pad, and the smell of the leaves would drive away insects and snakes. When worn in wetlands or forests, these cloaks often blended in with the surrounding landscape, making the wearer more difficult to see. As garments made with pre-modern technology, they were extremely waterproof and breathable, but also bulky, and vulnerable to fire. While no longer used as raingear in modern times, traditional straw raincoats are still being made for special purposes such as religious events, tourist souvenirs, and interior decorations.

During the Zhou dynasty in China, the main materials for making raincoats and capes was rice straw, sedge, burlap, and coir. In southern China, hydrangeas were also used. Since at least 200 BCE, lightweight silk hanfu were rubbed with vegetable oils such as Tung oil to repel the rain. During the Ming dynasty, wealthy men and women could wear a “jade needle cape” made of Chinese silvergrass, considered soft and waterproof. During the Qing dynasty, emperors and officials wore raincoats made out of the pipal tree. Yellow garments were for the exclusive use of the emperor, red ones for princes and the highest court officials, and cyan ones for the second-ranking officials. Raincoats were made out of felt for winter use, with sateen and camlet for spring through autumn.

Rain capes made of straw have many indigenous names in modern Mexico, but they are most well known as *capotes de plumas* (also *chereque*, *cherépara*, or *chiripe*) as they are known in Michoacan and the *capisallo* from Tlaxcala, so named for the palm leaves' resemblance to bird feathers. In some regions, such as Colima, these rain capes are called *china de palma trenzada* because of their presumed Filipino origins. These capes can still be found today, in the most traditional indigenous corners of the country.

In New Zealand, the pākē or hieke are made from New Zealand Flax. In Polynesian Hawaii, Kui la’i or Ahu La\`i are made from the leaves of the Ti plant, used not only to protect people from the rain, but also from the sun in hotter parts of the islands. Fishermen would wear them for protection from foul weather and ocean spray, similar in purpose to oilskins.

Furs were popular rainwear in Europe for much of its history, although the modest means of peasants and poor laborers limited the fur to cheaper varieties of goat or cat. Eventually, wool rainwear replaced fur as popular attitudes changed in the later Medieval period. Wool was known for its ability to keep the wearer warm even when soaked, especially wool that had been fulled during the manufacturing process. If wool was made without stringent cleaning, it would retain some of the sheep's lanolin and be naturally somewhat water-resistant although not fully waterproof. Waxing of garments was known in England, but seldom done elsewhere due to the scarcity and expense of wax.

In the 15th and 16th century CE, Europeans arriving to the Americas recorded for themselves that the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and the Amazon basin had created waterproof rubber-impregnated fabrics, although the Native American procedure of curing rubber was not well conveyed to them, and the tropical rubber tree did not grow well in the colder climates of Europe. As a result, rubber remained an impractical curiosity to Europeans until their redevelopment of the vulcanization process about 300 years later.

## Modern developments

One of the first modern waterproof raincoats was created following the patent by Scottish chemist Charles Macintosh in 1824 of new tarpaulin fabric, described by him as "India rubber cloth," and made by sandwiching a core of rubber softened by naphtha between two pieces of fabric. The Mackintosh raincoat was made out of a fabric impregnated with impermeable rubber, although lacking the better curing methods of earlier Mesoamerican rainwear, the early coats suffered from odor, stiffness, and a tendency to deteriorate from natural body oils and hot weather. Many tailors were reluctant to use his new fabric, and had no interest in it. Charles set up his own company and eventually added vulcanized rubber to the coat in 1843, solving many of the problems.

In 1853, Aquascutum introduced a woolen fabric that was chemically treated to shed water. From then on into the early 20th century, the treated wool trench coat was popular fashion rainwear in Europe and the colder regions of the United States, especially among their military circles.

In the 1910s and 1920s, gas and vapor fabric rubberization techniques were patented at textile finishing mills such as the Jenckes Spinning Company, creating rubberized, waterproof fabrics that were softer, more pliable and more comfortable. Stiff raincoats made completely of rubber called "slickers" were also available, as well as raincoats made of heavy oilcloth. These raincoats and "slickers" mimicked the coat fashion of the time; long length, loose belt, high roll/convertible collar, large pockets, and were often sewn with a non-rubberized cotton or wool lining to improve comfort. Popular 1920s raincoat colors were tan, navy blue, and grey. Some of these coats were hooded, but often were not and instead accompanied by a matching rain hat.

In the 1930s, cellophane and PVC rainwear was preferred by many due to the poor economy during the Depression. They were economical, since only one covering had to be purchased instead of buying multiple fashion raincoats. They came in a variety of styles, including clear translucent.

In the 1940s and 1950s, DuPont Nylon emerged in the US as a durable synthetic material that was both lightweight and water-resistant; well-suited to rainwear. New coat styles using tightly woven cotton or rayon gabardine, and a treated shiny “paratroop” twill rayon for extra water resistance were also popular. Raincoats were offered in larger variety of colors like varying shades of blue, gray, bright greens, brown, or natural and could be purchased with taffeta and other synthetic blend linings. Between the 1950s and 1960s, PVC rainwear experienced a resurgence in popularity for the plastic's bright and diverse colors and futuristic look. In the early 1960s, raincoats were introduced in high visibility colors for outdoor workwear and later were offered with retroreflective accents.

## Use as PPE

Raincoats can also be used as a personal protective equipment, particularly in areas where PPEs are in short supply. However, the effectiveness depends on the style and materials used.

## Styles


title: Macquarie Arms Inn

abstract: Macquarie Arms Inn is a heritage-listed former inn and now residence at 104-106 Bathurst Street, Pitt Town, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia. It was also known as the Blighton Arms and Flemings Public House in its time as an inn, while the main house on the property became known as Mulgrave Place. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

text:
# Macquarie Arms Inn

**Macquarie Arms Inn** is a heritage-listed former inn and now residence at 104-106 Bathurst Street, Pitt Town, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia. It was also known as the **Blighton Arms** and **Flemings Public House** in its time as an inn, while the main house on the property became known as **Mulgrave Place**. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

## History

The lower Hawkesbury was home to the Dharug people. The proximity to the Nepean River and South Creek qualifies it as a key area for food resources for indigenous groups. The Dharug and Darkinjung people called the river Deerubbin and it was a vital source of food and transport.

Governor Arthur Phillip explored the local area in search of suitable agricultural land in 1789 and discovered and named the Hawkesbury River after Baron Hawkesbury. This region played a significant role in the early development of the colony with European settlers established here by 1794. Situated on fertile floodplains and well known for its abundant agriculture, Green Hills (as it was originally called) supported the colony through desperate times. However, frequent flooding meant that the farmers along the riverbanks were often ruined.

On 1 January 1810, Lachlan Macquarie replaced William Bligh as Governor of New South Wales. Under Macquarie's influence, the colony prospered. Macquarie's vision was for a free community of white people, working in conjunction with the penal colony. He implemented an unrivaled public works program, completing 265 public buildings, establishing new public amenities and improving existing services such as roads. Under his leadership Hawkesbury district thrived. On 6 December 1810, Macquarie recorded in his journal that on that day he had named what were to become the five Macquarie Towns in the Hawkesbury district. Following Macquarie's proclamation, Pitt Town became a more permanent township with streets and public buildings.

Henry Fleming arrived in Sydney on the third fleet, he was born as the ship, William and Ann entered Sydney Cove. His father was Joseph Fleming, a soldier in the NSW Corps, and when Joseph died, Henry was granted 30 acres of land in Pitt Town. Presumably he was granted the land now fronting Bathurst Street and set about building first a well, then a kitchen, followed by a barn and finally the main homestead.

Fleming operated the Blighton Arms, also known as Flemings Public House, on the site from 1816 until 1819 when his license was withdrawn for operating an "irregular and riotous house". There is some confusion as to which building this inn operated from. Possibly it was the kitchen block as a new brick building was offered for sale in 1820 and this was probably the present house. Others believe that the inn operated from the barn/stables building, explaining the unusual brick veneer walls to the northeast end of that building.

Fleming's brother-in-law, William Johnston was granted a new licence around 1830 for the Macquarie Arms Inn. Johnston's family purchased the property around 1840. By the time of William Johnston's death in the 1870s, the property was no longer used as an inn. Around that time the property became known as Mulgrave Place. Additions were made to the north of the main house around 1900.

Johnston's family retained the property until around 1920 when it was sold to the Greenwalls. The Greenwall family sold it to the present owners in 1982 at which time it was in a poor condition.

The Macquarie Arms today is the earliest surviving inn in Pitt Town.

The siting of the house at the edge of the ridge overlooking Pitt Town Bottoms is also of importance, taking advantage of the views to the Blue Mountains and reinforcing the relationship between the township and the lower farming land. Some of the early plantings on the site are important in adding to the setting of the building.

## Description

On this site there are four buildings: the main house/inn; a separate kitchen; stables/barn; and an early (c.1805) brick cottage. There are also toilets, a brick well with a domed roof and original sandstone key cut cover.

The siting of the complex at the edge of the ridge overlooking Pitt Town Bottoms is also of importance, taking advantage of the views to the Blue Mountains and reinforcing the relationship between the township and the lower farming land.

Some of the early plantings on the site are important in adding to the setting of the building.

Inn

The main building is an important substantial jerkin-head roofed building with much of its original joinery and fabric intact. The inn building is single-storeyed with a long attic probably used for accommodation, survives in a dangerously derelict condition. The walls show a very interesting type of brick nogging, which may be later brick infill between the principal posts of an original slab building - it ought certainly to be thoroughly recorded. The cedar woodwork in the bar-room was removed in the 1970s.

Barn

The barn/stables is a unique structure with its brick-veneered slab walls and jerkin-head roof.

Homestead

The much grander "Mulgrave Place" jerkin-head house on the same property is adjacent to the earlier c.1815 cottage but certainly in existence in by 1823. It is parallel to the street. It is a double-storey homestead with a free-standing cellared kitchen. The kitchen has partly collapsed into the cellar.

The appearance of the house from Bathurst Street has been altered by the addition of a verandah in c. 1870, but the original house is of great importance. The upper storey seems to be largely unchanged from an early colonial date. The five upstairs rooms, which have no artificial lighting, use cedar throughout, one has a superb cedar ceiling, two more have painted wooden ceilings and the remainder have lathe-and -plaster. There are chair rails throughout, three of the doors lack, and have always lacked, handles;the hinges are clearly blacksmith- made.

## Heritage listing

The site of the Blighton Arms / Macquarie Arms Inn and Mulgrave Place is of high historical significance as it contains one of the oldest cottages (c.1815), the earliest surviving inn (c.1816/7) and an early house (pre 1823), kitchen block and stables/barn - one of the earliest building complexes in Pitt Town. It has all the hallmarks of one of the earliest developments after the moving (due to flooding) of the Pitt Town village in 1815.

First licensed in 1816, the inn was established in a converted end of a jerkin-head barn associated with the c.1805 brick cottage. The inn operated as the Blighton Arms or Fleming's Public House (from c.1816/7 until 1819, reopening as the Macquarie Arms from around 1830.

The site has strong associations with Henry Fleming, a third fleet convict and an early settler in the town who built the complex and operated an inn from the site from 1816 until 1819. It is also associated with his brother in law William Johnston, who operated the inn from around 1830 and whose family retained the property until the 1920s.

The site is of high aesthetic significance as one of the earliest surviving building complexes in Australia. The group comprises four main buildings: the main house, kitchen block, early brick cottage and the barn/stables building. Each of these can be considered to be of individual importance as surviving and substantially intact colonial buildings; as a group, their significance is substantial.

The main building is an important substantial jerkin-head roofed building with much of its original joinery and fabric intact.

The barn/stables is a unique structure with its brick veneered slab walls and jerkin-head roof.

The combination of barn, stables and coach house possible early use as an inn is an interesting juxtaposition of functions.

The siting of the group at the edge of the ridge overlooking Pitt Town Bottoms is also of importance, taking advantage of the views to the Blue Mountains and reinforcing the relationship between the township and the lower farming land.

Some of the early plantings on the site are important in adding to the setting of the building.

As an early and intact colonial group on a site which appears to be relatively undisturbed, Mulgrave Place undoubtedly has high archaeological potential.

Macquarie Arms Inn was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

### Bibliography

* Jack, Ian (1981). *(not stated)*.
* Nichols, Michelle (Local Studies Librarian) (2010). *Macquarie and the Hawkesbury District*.

### Attribution

## InfoBox

| Macquarie Arms Inn | |
| --- | --- |
| Former Macquarie Arms Inn, Pitt Town, New South Wales | |
| Location | 104-106 Bathurst Street, Pitt Town, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia |
| Coordinates | 33°35′09″S 150°51′25″E / 33.5858°S 150.8569°E / -33.5858; 150.8569 |
| Owner | Paul & Elizabeth King |
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| New South Wales Heritage Register | |
| Official name | Macquarie Arms Inn (former); Blighton Arms; Flemings Public House; Macquarie Arms Inn: Mulgrave Place |
| Type | state heritage (built) |
| Designated | 2 April 1999 |
| Reference no. | 282 |
| Type | Inn/Tavern |
| Category | Commercial |
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| Location of Macquarie Arms Inn in New South Wales | |