title: Foersterella

abstract:
Foersterella is a genus of insects belonging to the family Tetracampidae. The species of this genus are found in Europe. Species:
  - Foersterella angusticornis Hansson, 2016
  - Foersterella anupama Narendran, 2000

text:
# Foersterella

***Foersterella*** is a genus of insects belonging to the family Tetracampidae.

The species of this genus are found in Europe.

Species:

## InfoBox

| *Foersterella* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Tetracampidae |
| Subfamily: | Tetracampinae |
| Genus: | *Foersterella*<br>Dalla Torre, 1897 |
|


title: Wejdyki

abstract: Wejdyki is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Ryn, within Giżycko County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) west of Ryn, 21 km (13 mi) south-west of Giżycko, and 68 km (42 mi) east of the regional capital Olsztyn.

text:
# Wejdyki

**Wejdyki** \[vɛi̯ˈdɨki\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Ryn, within Giżycko County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.

It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) west of Ryn, 21 km (13 mi) south-west of Giżycko, and 68 km (42 mi) east of the regional capital Olsztyn.

## InfoBox

| Wejdyki | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Wejdyki | |
| Coordinates: 53°56′N 21°30′E / 53.933°N 21.500°E / 53.933; 21.500 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Warmian-Masurian |
| County | Giżycko |
| Gmina | Ryn |


title: Luther E. Hall

abstract: Luther Egbert Hall was the 35th governor of Louisiana from 1912 to 1916. Prior to that, he was a state senator from 1898 to 1900, a state district judge from 1900 to 1906, and state appellate judge from 1906 to 1911. Before his death, he was assistant attorney general from 1918 to 1921. He built the historic Gov. Luther Hall House in Monroe, Louisiana in 1906.

text:
# Luther E. Hall

**Luther Egbert Hall** (August 30, 1869 – November 6, 1921) was the 35th governor of Louisiana from 1912 to 1916. Prior to that, he was a state senator from 1898 to 1900, a state district judge from 1900 to 1906, and state appellate judge from 1906 to 1911. Before his death, he was assistant attorney general from 1918 to 1921. He built the historic Gov. Luther Hall House in Monroe, Louisiana in 1906.

## Career

He was elected to the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1912, but was then elected governor before taking his seat on the court. In becoming governor, he defeated James B. Aswell, the former president of Northwestern State University (then the Louisiana State Normal College) in Natchitoches in the Democratic primary.

## Death

Hall died on November 6, 1921, of a heart attack while campaigning for a seat on the Louisiana Supreme Court. He is interred at Bastrop City Cemetery in Bastrop.

## InfoBox

| Luther E. Hall | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 35th Governor of Louisiana | |
| **In office**
May 14, 1912  May 9, 1916 | |
| Lieutenant | Thomas C. Barrett |
| Preceded by | Jared Y. Sanders |
| Succeeded by | Ruffin G. Pleasant |
| Member of the Louisiana Senate | |
| **In office**
1898-1900 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1869-08-30)August 30, 1869
Bastrop, Louisiana |
| Died | November 6, 1921(1921-11-06) (aged 52)
New Orleans, Louisiana |
| Resting place | Bastrop City Cemetery |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | Julia Clara Wendel |
| Alma mater | Tulane University |
| Occupation | Lawyer |
|  | |


title: Ptereleotris arabica

abstract: Ptereleotris arabica is a species of dartfish in the family Microdesmidae.

text:
# Ptereleotris arabica

***Ptereleotris arabica*** is a species of dartfish in the family Microdesmidae.

## InfoBox

| *Ptereleotris arabica* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Gobiiformes |
| Family: | Gobiidae |
| Genus: | *Ptereleotris* |
| Species: | ***P. arabica*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Ptereleotris arabica***<br>Randall & Hoese, 1985 | |
|


title: Lena Warnstetten

abstract: Lena Warnstetten is a 1925 German silent film directed by Erich Eriksen and starring Grete Reinwald and William Dieterle.

text:
# Lena Warnstetten

***Lena Warnstetten*** is a 1925 German silent film directed by Erich Eriksen and starring Grete Reinwald and William Dieterle.

## Cast

In alphabetical order

## Bibliography

* Hans-Michael Bock and Tim Bergfelder. *The Concise Cinegraph: An Encyclopedia of German Cinema*. Berghahn Books.

## InfoBox

| Lena Warnstetten | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Erich Eriksen |
| Written by |  |
| Starring |  |
| Cinematography | Franz Stein |
| Production
company | National Film |
| Distributed by | National Film |
| Country | Germany |
| Languages | Silent
German intertitles |


title: Titanium ethoxide

abstract: Titanium ethoxide is a chemical compound with the formula Ti4(OCH2CH3)16. It is a commercially available colorless liquid that is soluble in organic solvents but hydrolyzes readily. Its structure is more complex than suggested by its empirical formula. Like other alkoxides of titanium(IV) and zirconium(IV), it finds used in organic synthesis and materials science.

text:
# Titanium ethoxide

**Titanium ethoxide** is a chemical compound with the formula Ti4(OCH2CH3)16. It is a commercially available colorless liquid that is soluble in organic solvents but hydrolyzes readily. Its structure is more complex than suggested by its empirical formula. Like other alkoxides of titanium(IV) and zirconium(IV), it finds used in organic synthesis and materials science.

## Syntheses

Titanium ethoxide is prepared by treating titanium tetrachloride with ethanol in the presence of an amine:

TiCl4 \+ 4 EtOH + 4 Et3N → Ti(OEt)4 \+ 4 Et3NHCl

The purity of titanium ethoxide is commonly assayed by proton NMR spectroscopy. Ti(OEt)4 1H NMR (90 MHz, chloroform-d, ppm): 4.36 (quartet, 8H, CH2), 1.27 (triplet, 12H, CH3).

## Structure

Both Ti(OEt)4 exist mainly as tetramers with an octahedral coordination environment around the metal centers. There are two types of titanium centers, depending on the number of terminal vs bridging alkoxide ligands. Zr(OEt)4 is structurally similar. The virtual symmetry of the M4O16 core structure for the tetramer structures of these compounds is C2h.

### Titanium methoxide

Like the ethoxide, titanium methoxide Ti(OMe)4 exists as a tetramer with each of the TiIV metal centers having an octahedral coordination environment.

### Titanium isopropoxide

With bulky alkyl groups, Ti(O*i*Pr)4 in contrast exist as a monomer with a tetrahedral environment around the Ti center. This lower degree of coordination to the metal center is attributed to the steric bulk of the *i*Pr groups versus the *n*-alkyl groups, this serves to prevent bridging interactions between the metal centers.

### Zirconium ethoxide

Zirconium ethoxide can be prepared in a manner similar but not identical to the titanium compound:

ZrCl4 \+ 5 NaOEt + EtOH → NaH\[Zr(OEt)6\] + 4 NaCl NaH\[Zr(OEt)6\] + HCl → Zr(OEt)4 \+ NaCl + 2 EtOH

A more common synthesis for zirconium ethoxide is to treat zirconium tetrachloride with the desired alcohol and ammonia:

ZrCl4 \+ 4 ROH + 4 NH3 → Zr(OR)4 \+ 4 NH4Cl

Zirconium ethoxide can also be prepared with zirconocene dichloride:

Cp2ZrCl2 \+ 4 EtOH + 2 Et3N → 2 CpH + 2 Et3NHCl + Zr(OEt)4

### Zirconium propoxide

Zr(O*n*Pr)4 also adopts the titanium ethoxide structure.

## Reactions

Hydrolysis of Ti alkoxides can be used to deposit TiO2:

Ti(OEt)4 \+ 2 H2O → TiO2 \+ 4 EtOH

The course of the hydrolysis is affected by the presence of base or acid catalysts for the hydrolysis. Generally acid-catalysis yields a sol where the polymer chains are randomly oriented and linear. In the base-mediated case bushy clusters or crosslinked networks are produced, these structures can trap solvent and reaction byproducts and form a gel coating. This is the sol-gel process. Intermediates in the hydrolysis have been crystallized. They feature interior oxides in addition to the ethoxide on the exterior of the clusters.

The high reactivity of titanium ethoxide toward water is exploited in its use in condensation reactions.

## InfoBox

Titanium ethoxide
|
Abbreviated structure of titanium(IV) ethoxide tetramer. The ethoxide ligands are represented by O's. The terminal ethoxide ligands are designated by Oa, the doubly bridging ligands by Ob, and the triply bridging ligands by Oc. | |
| --- | --- |
| Names | |
| IUPAC name ethanolate; titanium(4+) | |
| Preferred IUPAC name Titanium(IV) ethoxide | |
| Systematic IUPAC name titanium(4+) tetraethanolate | |
| Other names Ethyl titanate, tetraethyl titanate | |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number |  |
| 3D model (JSmol) |  |
| ChemSpider |  |
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.019.464 |
| EC Number | * 221-410-8 |
| PubChem CID |  |
| UNII |  |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) |  |
| InChI * InChI=1S/4C2H5O.Ti/c4\*1-2-3;/h4\*2H2,1H3;/q4\*-1;+4Key: JMXKSZRRTHPKDL-UHFFFAOYSA-N | |
| SMILES * CC\[O-\].CC\[O-\].CC\[O-\].CC\[O-\].\[Ti+4\] | |
| Properties | |
| Chemical formula | C32H80O16Ti4 |
| Molar mass | 228.109 g/mol |
| Appearance | colorless liquid |
| Density | 1.088 |
| Melting point | 54 °C (129 °F; 327 K) |
| Boiling point | 150–152 °C (302–306 °F; 423–425 K) (@10 mmHg) |
| Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C \[77 °F\], 100 kPa).  Infobox references | |


title: Uriel Górka

abstract: Uriel Górka of the Łodzia coat of arms was bishop of Poznań and chancellor of the Crown. He was one of the most powerful men in Poland of his generation.

text:
# Uriel Górka

**Uriel Górka** of the Łodzia coat of arms (born around 1435 - died 21 January 1498) was bishop of Poznań and chancellor of the Crown. He was one of the most powerful men in Poland of his generation.

## Early life

He was the son of Łukasz I and Katarzyna Szamotulska. As a child, he was destined for the clergy. In spite of poor health, he studied at the Kraków Academy until 1453, and then in Italy and Germany, to study again in Bologna in 1463. The father tried for him numerous church prebends: in 1449 he became a Poznań canon, in 1453 Gniezno and Łęczyca, in 1467 Płock, Sandomierz and Kraków. In 1454 he received the position of Poznań provost, and in 1468 Gniezno. Such accumulation of dignity in the hands of one person required a special permission from the Roman Curia.

In 1473, thanks to the support of his father, he was appointed royal chancellor, even though he had no previous experience relating to that office. In 1478 he was in Rome as a royal deputy. During this stay, he received from the Pope the office of a papal payments collector for the Archdiocese of Gniezno, which he probably held until 1486. During this period, he established numerous relations with the Western European, and especially Nuremberg, banking houses, and Polish and Italian burgers in Polish cities. In the years 1473 - 1474 he was the administrator of the Archdiocese of Gniezno and, at the request of the king, he called a provincial synod to Łęczyca, who established the payment obligations of the clergy to the state.

After the death of Andrzej Bniński in 1479, he took the Poznań bishopric promised to him, while at the same time resigning from the office of the Crown Chancellor. His period of office on the bishop's throne in Poznan is poorly documented, but it is known that he was patron of the artists. He also brought records from Vischer's factory to his and his father's graves. He also ordered a service at the Albrecht Dürer plant.

He witnessed the release of the Piotrków Privilege in 1496.

In his estates he tried to grow vines. His only heir was his nephew, Łukasz II Górka. He died during a curative stay in Karlovy Vary on 21 January 1498.


title: Mihai Țurcaș

abstract: Mihai Țurcaș was a Romanian sprint canoeist. Competing in the four-man 1000 m event he won the world title in 1966, the European title in 1967, and two Olympic medals in 1964 and 1968. After retiring from competition he worked as a kayaking coach and was involved with the national junior and senior teams between 1990 and 1992.

text:
# Mihai Țurcaș

**Mihai Țurcaș** (born 18 November 1942 - d. 22 December 2002) was a Romanian sprint canoeist. Competing in the four-man 1000 m event (K-4 1000 m) he won the world title in 1966, the European title in 1967, and two Olympic medals in 1964 and 1968. After retiring from competition he worked as a kayaking coach and was involved with the national junior and senior teams between 1990 and 1992.

## InfoBox

Mihai Țurcaș
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Personal information | |
| Born | (1942-11-18)18 November 1942
Braşov, Romania |
| Died | 24 December 2002(2002-12-24) (aged 60)
Bucharest, Romania |
| Height | 181 cm (5 ft 11 in) |
| Weight | 84 kg (185 lb) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Canoe sprint |
| Club | Dinamo Bucharest |
| Medal record      Representing  Romania  Olympic Games  1964 Tokyo K-4 1000 m  1968 Mexico City K-4 1000 m  World Championships  1966 East Berlin K-4 1000 m  European Championships  1965 Bucharest K-4 1000 m  1967 Dusiburg K-1 4×500 m  1967 Dusiburg K-4 1000 m | |


title: Quantedge

abstract: Quantedge Capital is an alternative investment asset manager based in Singapore and New York City. It manages over US$3 billion under its flagship Quantedge Global Master Fund primarily on behalf of high-net-worth individuals, family offices and institutions.

text:
# Quantedge

**Quantedge Capital** is an alternative investment asset manager based in Singapore and New York City. It manages over US$3 billion under its flagship **Quantedge Global Master Fund** primarily on behalf of high-net-worth individuals, family offices and institutions.

## Firm overview

Founded in 2006, the firm has more than 70 employees based in Singapore and New York.

## Investment strategy

Quantedge employs a systematic investment strategy that uses statistical models to invest across major macro asset classes such as bonds, equities, commodities, currencies and reinsurance. The fund has an investment universe of more than 200 instruments and typically invests in more than 90% of these instruments. Hence, the portfolio is exceedingly diversified as the manager believes that "ultra-diversification" helps to enhance the overall portfolio's risk-adjusted returns. It also uses dynamic asset allocation to overweight more attractive instruments and underweight less attractive ones. Quantedge also targets a constant level of total risk, which approximates to 25% annualized volatility and it does not employ short-term day-trading strategies; instead holding its positions ranking from weeks to several years.

## Investment returns

Since its launch in October 2006, the firm's Quantedge Global Fund has delivered roughly +20% annual returns after fees. The fund has delivered positive returns for most years since inception, except in 2008 (-23%), 2015 (-18%), 2018 (-29%) and 2022 (-21%). Its largest annual gains were in 2010 and 2019 with 82% and 70% return respectively. The consistent outsize returns set the firm apart in the hedge-fund industry. Hedge funds globally have produced an average net annualized return of 7.2% as of the end of 2021.

Annual Net Returns (%)
| 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 36% | 19% | -23% | 47% | 82% | 33% | 39% | 9% | 29% | -18% | 27% | 38% | -29% | 70% | 7% | 20% | -21% | 30% |

Source: Bloomberg, Stega Capital . 2006 returns are since October.

The fund's track record makes it one of the most successful hedge funds as ranked by AsiaHedge, Bloomberg, Barrons, HSBC and Stega Capital amongst others. Other notable hedge funds with similar outstanding long-term performance in the past include the Medallion Fund by Renaissance Technologies and George Soros' Quantum Fund which are both closed to outside investors and have been since the 1990s and early 2000s respectively.

## Criticism

### High target volatility

Quantedge targets a high level of total risk for its portfolio relative to other hedge funds. As a result, the fund expects to experience a 10% to over 40% loss periodically as part of its strategy. During the 2008 financial crisis, Quantedge experienced a 45% drawdown before ending the year with a narrower 23% loss. In March 2020, Quantedge experienced its largest monthly decline of 29%. Hence, the fund only accepts investors who understand its strategy, are able to tolerate high levels of short-term volatility and who can invest for the long term.

### Multi-year lock-ups

New investors are only offered investments in Share Classes which require either a 3-year or 5-year fixed-term investment, or semi-permanent capital with limited redemptions of to up to 5% per calendar quarter. More than 85% of their assets under management today are in such share classes, minimizing the risk of a run on the fund.

## InfoBox

Quantedge Capital Pte Ltd
|
|  |
| Company type | Private |
| Industry | Investment Management |
| Founded | 2006 (2006) |
| Headquarters | Singapore & New York City |
| AUM | ~$3.8 billion (Mar 2024) |
| Number of employees | ~ 70 |
| Website | quantedge.com |


title: Luz (Cuca Roseta album)

abstract: Luz is the fourth album released by fado singer Cuca Roseta. It was released in November 2017 by Sony Music. At the time of its release, Rosetta said of its title: "I wanted to make a record with this word, which has to do with the fado and also with something more spiritual, more interior." It included songs written by Pedro da Silva Martins, Hélder Moutinho, and Jorge Fernando.

text:
# Luz (Cuca Roseta album)

***Luz*** is the fourth album released by fado singer Cuca Roseta. It was released in November 2017 by Sony Music. At the time of its release, Rosetta said of its title: "I wanted to make a record with this word, which has to do with the fado and also with something more spiritual, more interior." It included songs written by Pedro da Silva Martins, Hélder Moutinho, and Jorge Fernando.

## Track listing

1. Luzinha
2. Quero
3. Foge
4. Triste Sina
5. Balelas
6. Sábio Mudo
7. Não Demores
8. Até Ao Amanhecer
9. Ai O Amor
10. Versos Contados
11. Luz Materna
12. Saudade E Eu
13. Rosinha Da Serra D'Arga
14. Contemplação
15. Alecrim
16. Luz Do Mundo

## InfoBox

| Luz | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Cuca Roseta | |
| Released | November 2017 |
| Genre | Fado |
| Label | Sony Music |
| Cuca Roseta chronology | |
| *Riû*
(2015) ***Luz***
(2017) *Luz de Natal*
(2018) | |


title: Foerster Peak

abstract: Foerster Peak is a mountain, broadly east of the Half Dome area of Yosemite National Park. Foerster Peak is far, from any road, by over 10 miles (16 km). Foerster Peak was named for Lewis Foerster, US military who was on duty in Yosemite in 1895. From most directions, Foerster Peak is a class 2 climb; some are class 2—class 3.

text:
# Foerster Peak

**Foerster Peak** is a mountain, broadly east of the Half Dome area of Yosemite National Park. Foerster Peak is far, from any road, by over 10 miles (16 km).

Foerster Peak was named for Lewis Foerster, US military who was on duty in Yosemite in 1895.

From most directions, Foerster Peak is a class 2 climb; some are class 2class 3.

## On Foerster Peak's locale

Foerster Peak is one of three Sierra Peaks Section listed peaks on along the boundary separating southeastern Yosemite from the Ansel Adams Wilderness.

Foerster Peak is loosely southeast of Half Dome and Clouds Rest, and is east of Mount Starr King. Foerster Peak is loosely northwest of Electra Peak. It is southwest of Mount Ansel Adams, loosely northeast of Gray Peak, and Red Peak. It is loosely southeast of Mount Florence, southwest of Mount Lyell and Rodgers Peak, is west of Mount Ritter, is northeast of Merced Peak. Foerster Peak is also southeast of Lake Merced and Merced Lake High Sierra Camp, and Washburn Lake. Foerster Peak is east of Mount Clark. Quartzite Peak is nearby.

## InfoBox

| Foerster Peak | |
| --- | --- |
| Foerster Peak**Electra Peak**Foerster PeakFoerster Peak (the United States) | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 12,057 ft (3,675 m)NAVD 88 |
| Prominence | 457 ft (139 m) |
| Coordinates | 37°41′24″N 119°17′27″W / 37.69000°N 119.29083°W / 37.69000; -119.29083 |
| Geography | |
| Location | Yosemite National Park, Madera County, California, U.S. |
| Parent range | Ritter Range, Sierra Nevada |
| Climbing | |
| First ascent | in 1914, by Norman Clyde, |


title: Wenceslao Vinzons

abstract: Wenceslao "Bintao" Quinito Vinzons Sr. was a Filipino patriot and leader of the Philippine armed resistance against the Japanese invasion in World War II. He was the youngest delegate to the 1935 Philippine Constitutional Convention. For leading demonstrations as a student leader, he was dubbed the "Father of Student Activism in the Philippines" when he, along with Narciso J. Alegre and future Senator and Vice President Arturo Tolentino, founded the Young Philippines Party. Vinzons was among the first Filipinos to organize a guerrilla movement at the onset of the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941. In the course of the resistance, he was captured and executed by the occupying Japanese military.

text:
# Wenceslao Vinzons

**Wenceslao** "**Bintao**" **Quinito Vinzons Sr.** (September 28, 1910 – July 15, 1942) was a Filipino patriot and leader of the Philippine armed resistance against the Japanese invasion in World War II. He was the youngest delegate to the 1935 Philippine Constitutional Convention. For leading demonstrations as a student leader, he was dubbed the "*Father of Student Activism in the Philippines*" when he, along with Narciso J. Alegre and future Senator and Vice President Arturo Tolentino, founded the *Young Philippines Party*.

Vinzons was among the first Filipinos to organize a guerrilla movement at the onset of the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941. In the course of the resistance, he was captured and executed by the occupying Japanese military.

## Early life and education

Vinzons was born in the town of Indan, Camarines Norte to Gavino Vinzons y Venida and Engracia Quinito y Elep. His paternal grandparents were Serafín Vinzons, a Chinese Filipino, and Baldomera Venida. His maternal grandparents were Rosalío Quinito and Cipriana Elep. He was baptized on October 5, 1910 by Fr. Marciano Bamba at the Saint Peter the Apostle Church in the same town and his godfather was Ángel Anz. He graduated valedictorian from his local high school, and proceeded to study at the University of the Philippines in Manila.

While at the university, Vinzons gained fame as a student leader. A fellow of the Upsilon Sigma Phi fraternity, Vinzons would be elected president of the student council and editor-in-chief of the Philippine Collegian. He was also known for delivering an oratorical address entitled *Malaysia Irredenta*, where he advocated the unification of Southeast Asian nations with a common Malay origin. The piece won him the Manuel L. Quezon Gold Medal for Excellence.

Vinzons obtained his law degree from the University of the Philippines College of Law in 1932, and placed third in the bar examinations the following year.

## Political career

After graduation, Vinzons, along with Narciso J. Alegre and Arturo Tolentino (a future senator and Marcos-era unofficial vice president) founded a political party, Young Philippines, which advocated the granting of Philippine independence from American rule.

After the passage in 1934 of the Tydings–McDuffie Act which laid the groundwork for independence, Vinzons successfully sought election that same year as a delegate, together with Atty. Baldomero M. Lapak, to represent Camarines Norte in the 1934 Constitutional Convention. As a member of the Convention, he was instrumental in prescribing Tagalog as an official language of the Philippines. At 24, he was the youngest delegate, and the youngest signer of the 1935 Constitution.

During the 1935 presidential elections, Vinzons actively campaigned for the presidential bid of Emilio Aguinaldo, former President of the First Philippine Republic, the main challenger to then-Senate President Manuel L. Quezon. Vinzons' efforts helped Aguinaldo carry Camarines even though Quezon won the presidency. Following Aguinaldo's defeat, Vinzons put on hold his political career, opting instead to become the president of a mining corporation based in his home province.

Vinzons resumed political life in 1940, when he was elected governor of Camarines Norte. The following year, he successfully ran for election to the House of Representatives, representing the lone district of Camarines Norte. However, his service in the legislature was delayed by the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in December 1941.

## Guerrilla activities and execution

Within days following the arrival of the Japanese occupation forces in the Philippines, Vinzons began to organize armed resistance in Bicol against the invading army, which had reached the region on December 12, 1941. He commandeered the rice warehouses in Camarines Norte, and ordered the confiscation of explosives used in the province's gold mines for use against the Japanese forces.

By December 18, 1941, he would lead a raid against a troop of Japanese soldiers in Basud, Camarines Norte. His guerrilla recruits soon grew to around 2,800 strong, and in May 1942, Vinzons would lead these forces to successfully liberate the provincial capital of Daet. It is said that between December 1941 and May 1942, Vinzons' troops, armed with poisoned arrows among other weapons, were able to kill around 3,000 Japanese soldiers. Henceforth, the capture of Vinzons became a prime objective of the Japanese.

Through the betrayal of a renegade guerrilla-turned-informant, Vinzons was captured by the Japanese military together with his father on July 8, 1942. He refused to pledge allegiance to his captors, and was brought to a garrison in Daet. It was there, on July 15, 1942, that Vinzons was bayoneted to death after refusing one final entreaty to cooperate with the Japanese forces. Shortly thereafter, his father, wife, sister and two of his children were also executed by the Japanese.

## Legacy

Vinzons is hailed as the "Father of Student Activism in the Philippines".

Vinzons' hometown of Indan was renamed Vinzons, in his memory, as was an elementary school in Manila. The student activity center of the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman was named Vinzons Hall in 1959. Vinzons Hall also houses the offices of the Philippine Collegian. Former Senator Richard Gordon, an admirer of Vinzons, commissioned sculptor Juan Sajid Imao for a bust in his honor at Vinzons Hall as part of rehabilitation efforts by the UP Diliman University Student Council in 2009.

Several of Vinzons' relatives embarked on political careers. Fernando Vinzons Pajarillo was related to Wenceslao and had been elected congressman and governor, for many terms. Wenceslao's son was a one-time governor. His daughter Rannie Vinzons-Gaite was once member of the Provincial Council.

The former lone legislative district of Camarines Norte was last served by a descendant, former Bureau of Internal Revenue Commissioner and former Representative Liwayway Vinzons-Chato.

A three-act musical on Vinzon's life, entitled *"Bintao"*, was staged at the University of the Cordilleras in January 2008. For its centennial anniversary in November 2018, the Upsilon Sigma Phi also staged *"Bintao"* under the direction of Tony Mabesa and Alexander Cortez.

* *Filipinos in History Vol. II*. Manila, Philippines: National Historical Institute. 1990. p. 267.
* Perez, Jose B. (November 29, 2007). "Vinzons". *Bicol Mail Online*. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
* Perez, Jose B. (December 13, 2007). "More on Vinzons". *Bicol Mail Online*. Retrieved January 6, 2008.

## InfoBox

| The HonorableWenceslao Q. Vinzons | |
| --- | --- |
| Vinzons on a 2010 stamp of the Philippines | |
|  | |
| Member of the Philippine House of Representatives from Camarines Norte's Lone District | |
| *Died before taking office* | |
| Governor of Camarines Norte | |
| **In office**
December 30, 1940  December 30, 1941 | |
| Preceded by | Miguel Lukban |
| Succeeded by | Basilio Bautista Sr. |
| Member of the 1934 Philippine Constitutional Convention from Camarines Norte | |
| **In office**
July 10, 1934  November 15, 1935 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Wenceslao Quinito Vinzons
(1910-09-28)September 28, 1910
Indan, Camarines Norte, Philippine Islands |
| Died | July 15, 1942(1942-07-15) (aged 31)
Daet, Camarines Norte, Philippines |
| Political party | Young Philippines |
| Spouse | Liwayway Custodio Gonzales |
| Children | 5 |
| Parent(s) | Gabino Vinzons (father)
Engracia Quinito (mother) |
| Alma mater | University of the Philippines
University of the Philippines College of Law (LLB) |
| Occupation | Politician |
| Profession | Lawyer, activist |
| Known for | "Father of Student Activism in the Philippines" |
|  | |


title: Luther Duncan

abstract: Luther Noble Duncan was a 20th-century American educator and administrator. He was a pioneer of 4-H youth development, a director of the Alabama Extension Service and president of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute.

text:
# Luther Duncan

**Luther Noble Duncan** (October 14, 1875 – July 26, 1947) was a 20th-century American educator and administrator. He was a pioneer of 4-H youth development, a director of the Alabama Extension Service (now Alabama Cooperative Extension System) and president of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University).

## Early life

Duncan was born near Russellville in the northwest Alabama county of Franklin. In 1896, he enrolled at Alabama Polytechnic Institute (API) in Auburn, Alabama, where he eventually emerged as a student leader. To support his college career, he taught during the summer at a rural school near his home for $25 a month.

Following graduation, Duncan returned to his native northwest Alabama to teach for a short time in a rural county school before taking an instructor's job at an agricultural school in Wetumpka in east Alabama. He held several other teaching jobs in various parts of Alabama before returning to Auburn to work as an instructor and research worker under the direction of famed agricultural scientist and researcher J.F. Duggar.

## Exposure to Extension Work

Duncan's work with API took him to almost every county in Alabama. His work with farmer institutes and similar types of efforts strengthened his knowledge of an informal type of educational outreach that eventually became known as Cooperative Extension work. He was especially influenced by the work of Seaman A. Knapp, an early Extension educational pioneer. During this early stage of his career, he also completed his master's degree at API in 1907.

Duncan eventually was appointed a professor of Extension in API's school of agriculture, jointly employed by API and by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and charged with serving as a "demonstration expert". His work involved organizing demonstrations at schools and other agriculture-related venues to encourage youth and adults alike to adopt cutting-edge agricultural practices pioneered at API and other land-grant universities throughout the nation.

In this position, Duncan played an instrumental role organizing boys (or corn) clubs through the state — a movement that eventually would be combined with girls clubs to form what later became known as 4-H. By 1909, the state had more than 2,000 corn club members. By 1911, the number had grown to 10,000 members.

Duncan also played a major role in educational efforts aimed at diversifying Alabama agriculture, promoting hog and poultry production in addition to raising cotton, peanuts and tomatoes.

By 1915, following of the Smith-Lever Act, which formally established Cooperative Extension work in Alabama and the rest of the nation, Duncan was serving as superintendent of Junior and Home Economics Extension in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Meanwhile, Duggar, Duncan's mentor, assumed the directorship of the newly organized Alabama Extension Service. The dual units persisted until Duncan assumed leadership of the Alabama Extension Service in 1920.

## Alabama Extension Service Director

Along with Duggar's initial efforts, Duncan was instrumental in laying the groundwork for Cooperative Extension work in Alabama, ensuring the transition of the Extension mission from a primarily USDA-driven effort to one in which API, the state's first land-grant university, held primary responsibility.

Much of the Alabama Extension Service's initial efforts were focused on dealing with the bleak economic conditions associated with farming at the time. Part of this involved developing a staff of specialists with statewide responsibilities and trained to provide agents in the field with up-to-date, research-based information from the land-grant university system. Duncan also oversaw efforts to adopt new forms of technological delivery, including the purchase of a 1,000-watt radio station to broadcast educational information to the state's farm population.

Duncan is remembered as an Extension administrator who demanded near perfection from his employees. He expected them not only to display a level of maturity "in order to secure and maintain the confidence and respect of farm people" but also to possess "unbounded energy, zeal, optimism, enthusiasm and persistency" — habits that should reflect "the very highest character".

"A man entering upon his duties of the day without a shave or with a dirty collar…will never get very far with what he represents", Duncan once said.

## The Farm Bureau Controversy

Duncan was roundly criticized for his organization's close association with the Farm Bureau — an issue that would hound him throughout his API career. From Extension's inception, agents worked with a wide array of agencies and other organizations associated with farming. But the relationship with the Farm Bureau, which was organized on the API campus at Duncan's behest in 1921, was unique.

From the beginning, Cooperative Extension work was widely considered a success in providing research-based information to the state's farmers. But much of this progress was stymied by the lack of a cooperative farm marketing mechanism — the reason for the organization of a nationwide network of Farm Bureaus.

Critics maintained that Duncan favored the Farm Bureau over other farm organizations and even dictated Farm Bureau policy — a charge Duncan repeatedly denied.

In his defense, Duncan's actions reflected to a large degree those of the USDA, which had generally supported a close working relationship with Farm Bureau. Nevertheless, Duncan drew harsh criticism from USDA for acquiescing to the publication of a circular that instructed Alabama Extension agents about how to recruit Farm Bureau members and to collect their dues. The publication subsequently was withdrawn.

Throughout the controversy, Duncan stuck to his guns, stressing that one of the original charges of the Extension Service was to advise farm organizations. He also contended that in supporting the Farm Bureau, he merely was assisting the farm organization with the best prospects for success.

Duncan conceded that relations between Extension and Farm Bureau had been too close at times, such as when Extension agents collected dues on behalf of the Farm Bureau. But he stressed that these problems had been resolved.

A subsequent investigation of the issue by API's board of trustees revealed no wrongdoing.

## President of Alabama Polytechnic Institute (later Auburn University)

Duncan, who had developed a strong reputation for managing a statewide organization on a lean budget, was heavily favored by the state's business and professional interests to succeed Bradford Knapp as president of API. As far as many of them were concerned, this was precisely the kind of management style API needed in 1932, only three years after the onset of the Great Depression.

Nevertheless, Duncan's past association with the Farm Bureau continued to draw withering criticism from Victor Hanson, an API trustee and Birmingham News publisher. Following a statewide newspaper campaign organized at Hanson's behest against Duncan, the API trustees, unable to reach agreement on Knapp's successor, appointed a three-man executive committee, which included Duncan, to manage the institute's affairs until final agreement could be reached on a permanent successor.

Duncan's financial acumen, demonstrated time and again during this especially cash-strapped period of API's history, eventually won over a majority of API trustees. Duncan was installed as API president in 1935.

Duncan is perhaps best remembered as a dogged fighter for what he considered to be API's fair share of state funding. While he remained a strong supporter of cooperation among Alabama's institutions of higher learning, he nonetheless stressed that this cooperation never should work to the detriment of API.

For example, Duncan maintained that the prevailing interpretation of the state's Teacher-Training Equalization Fund greatly favored the University of Alabama at API's expense, even consigning API to second-class status.

Working closely with Alabama Governor Bibb Graves, U.S. Senator John H. Bankhead and E.A. O'Neal, president of the American Farm Bureau, Duncan eventually secured passage of the Bankhead-Jones At, which increased funding for resident teaching, agricultural research and agricultural extension.

Duncan also was a strong supporter of the equalization principle that each Alabama student should receive the same level of state support regardless of the institution attended. He also advocated a cooperative recruitment plan and the assignment of roles to Alabama and API so that would each could "render maximum service" in the areas it was best equipped to serve.

Unfortunately for Duncan, stiff opposition at the time prevented much of this vision from being realized in his lifetime.

Ironically, as he entered the twilight of his career, Duncan, however unwittingly, went to the mat once again over Extension's longstanding relationship with the Alabama Farm Bureau. Incoming populist Gov. James "Big Jim" Folsom, along with API trustee and Folsom supporter Gould Beech, maintained that agriculture had suffered a relative decline — a problem, they claimed was due in large part to Alabama Extension — and that Extension was still engaged in improper political activity with the Farm Bureau.

Duncan, however, was unable to see this battle to the end, dying unexpectedly in the President's Mansion on July 26, 1947.

## Legacy

Even today, Duncan remains a somewhat controversial figure in Alabama history. He is best remembered for making the Alabama Extension Service and API driving forces on the Alabama political scene. He also is viewed by many as a visionary and reformer — an early and vocal proponent of equitable funding for Alabama higher education, though one who never hesitated to secure what he considered to be API's fair share.

## InfoBox

| Luther Duncan | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | October 14, 1875
Rockwood, near Russellville, Alabama |
| Died | July 26, 1947(1947-07-26) (aged 71)
API, Auburn, Alabama |
| Education | B.S., M.S., Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University) |
| Occupation(s) | 4-H Pioneer
Educator
Administrator |
| Spouse | Ann Smith |
| Parent(s) | Thomas A. and Margaret (Hargett) Duncan |


title: Ptereleotris hanae

abstract: Ptereleotris hanae, commonly known as the blue gudgeon dartfish or blue hana goby, is a species of dartfish native to the western Pacific Ocean. It is a reef inhabitant, being found at depths of from 3 to 50 metres, though usually no shallower than 6 metres (20 ft). It inhabits burrows made by alpheid shrimp, but unlike the Amblyeleotris gobies who normally associate with these shrimp, this species has no interactions with their shrimp hosts. This species can reach a length of 12 centimetres (4.7 in) TL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade.

text:
# Ptereleotris hanae

***Ptereleotris hanae***, commonly known as the **blue gudgeon dartfish** or **blue hana goby**, is a species of dartfish native to the western Pacific Ocean. It is a reef inhabitant, being found at depths of from 3 to 50 metres (9.8 to 164.0 ft), though usually no shallower than 6 metres (20 ft). It inhabits burrows made by alpheid shrimp, but unlike the *Amblyeleotris* gobies who normally associate with these shrimp, this species has no interactions with their shrimp hosts. This species can reach a length of 12 centimetres (4.7 in) TL. It can also be found in the aquarium trade.

## InfoBox

| *Ptereleotris hanae* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Gobiiformes |
| Family: | Gobiidae |
| Genus: | *Ptereleotris* |
| Species: | ***P. hanae*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Ptereleotris hanae***<br>(D. S. Jordan & Snyder, 1901) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Vireosa hanae* D. S. Jordan & Snyder, 1901 | |


title: Lena Wilson (executive)

abstract: Lena Cooper Wilson CBE is a United Kingdom Scottish executive and bank employee. She rose to be the CEO of Scottish Enterprise. She went on to directorships with a number of organisations.

text:
# Lena Wilson (executive)

**Lena Cooper Wilson CBE** (born c. 1965) is a United Kingdom Scottish executive and bank employee. She rose to be the CEO of Scottish Enterprise. She went on to directorships with a number of organisations.

## Early life and career

Wilson was born in Yorkhill which is part of Glasgow near Partick in about 1965. At the age of two her parents moved to East Kilbride so that her father could work for Rolls-Royce plc. He stepped down in role to become a labourer to give the family a more rural outlook. Wilson was keen at school but she wasn't attracted to science and engineering. When she went to university she studied Business Administration at Glasgow Caledonian University with a vague ambition of becoming a diplomat or working for the United Nations. She realised that she needed to find the money to travel to London for work and her first job was advertised as a "Girl Friday" when such adverts were legal in Britain.

Wilson became the Chief Executive of Scottish Enterprise in 2009. She had previously lead Scotland’s international trade and investment arm "Scottish Development International".

Wilson was involved when Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond signed the Masdar agreement with Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber on behalf of UAE's Masdar Institute of Science and Technology at the World Future Energy Summit in 2012. Hundreds will co-operate on the development of wind power.

Wilson was awarded a CBE in 2015 for her contribution to "economic development" in Scotland. Wilson lead the government's Scottish O&G job taskforce whose task was completed in 2017 and the same year she left Scottish Enterprise in October. She had received criticism from the Scottish Parliament over taking a paid, non-executive directorship with the multinational product testing and certification company Interek. Wilson had been paid £214,000 a year by Scottish Enterprise and she was replaced by Steve Dunlop. Dunlop was offered £168,000 a year and he was said to be one of the top paid civil servants in Scotland.

Wilson also joined the board of the Royal Bank of Scotland in 2017.

In 2019, she became the chair of the accountancy firm "Chiene and Tait" which is based in Edinburgh In the same year, she was elected to be a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

## InfoBox

| Lena Wilson | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Lena Cooper Wilson
c.1965
Yorkhill, Glasgow |
| Nationality | British |
| Education | Glasgow Caledonian University and University of Strathclyde |
| Occupation | Executive |
| Known for | CEO of Scottish Enterprise |
| Successor | Steve Dunlop |


title: Urocopia

abstract: Urocopia is a genus of cyclopoid copepods in the family Urocopiidae, the sole genus of the family. There are at least three described species in Urocopia.

text:
# Urocopia

***Urocopia*** is a genus of cyclopoid copepods in the family Urocopiidae, the sole genus of the family. There are at least three described species in *Urocopia*.

## Species

These three species belong to the genus *Urocopia*:

## InfoBox

| *Urocopia* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Copepoda |
| Order: | Cyclopoida |
| Suborder: | Ergasilida |
| Family: | Urocopiidae |
| Genus: | *Urocopia*<br>Sars G.O., 1917 |
|


title: Quantcast File System

abstract: Quantcast File System (QFS) is an open-source distributed file system software package for large-scale MapReduce or other batch-processing workloads. It was designed as an alternative to the Apache Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), intended to deliver better performance and cost-efficiency for large-scale processing clusters.

text:
# Quantcast File System

**Quantcast File System** (**QFS**) is an open-source distributed file system software package for large-scale MapReduce or other batch-processing workloads. It was designed as an alternative to the Apache Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), intended to deliver better performance and cost-efficiency for large-scale processing clusters.

## Design

QFS is software that runs on a cluster of hundreds or thousands of commodity Linux servers and allows other software layers to interact with them as if they were one giant hard drive. It has three components:

* A chunk server runs on each machine that will host data, manages I/O to its hard drives, and monitors its activity and capacity.
* A central process called the metaserver keeps the directory structure and maps of files to physical storage. It coordinates activities of all the chunk servers and monitors the overall health of the file system. For high performance it holds all its data in memory, writing checkpoints and transaction logs to disk for recovery.
* A client component is the interface point that presents a file system application programming interface (API) to other layers of the software. It makes requests of the metaserver to identify which chunk servers hold (or will hold) its data, then interacts with the chunk servers directly to read and write.

In a cluster of hundreds or thousands of machines, the odds are low that all will be running and reachable at any given moment, so fault tolerance is the central design challenge. QFS meets it with Reed–Solomon error correction. The form of Reed–Solomon encoding used in QFS stores redundant data in nine places and can reconstruct the file from any six of these stripes. When it writes a file, it by default stripes it across nine physically different machines — six holding the data, three holding parity information. Any three of those can become unavailable. If any six remain readable, QFS can reconstruct the original data. The result is fault tolerance at a cost of a 50% expansion of data.

QFS is written in the programming language C++, operates within a fixed memory footprint, and uses direct input and output (I/O).

## History

QFS evolved from the Kosmos File System (KFS), an open source project started by Kosmix in 2005. Quantcast adopted KFS in 2007, built its own improvements on it over the next several years, and released QFS 1.0 as an open source project in September, 2012.

1. Release 2.2.6
2. "QFS improves performance of Hadoop file system - Strata". Archived from the original on 2012-11-19. Retrieved 2012-12-06.
3. "Quantcast releases bigger, faster, stronger Hadoop file system — Tech News and Analysis". Archived from the original on 2012-12-03. Retrieved 2012-12-06.

## InfoBox

Quantcast File System (QFS)
| Developer(s) | Sriram Rao, Michael Ovsiannikov, Quantcast |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Stable release | 2.2.6 / May 6, 2023 (2023-05-06) |
|  | |
| Written in | C++ |
| Type | Distributed File System |
| License | Apache License 2.0 |
| Website | github.com/quantcast/qfs |


title: Lycianthes rantonnetii

abstract: Lycianthes rantonnetii, the blue potato bush or Paraguay nightshade, is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to South America. Growing to about 6 ft (1.8 m) tall and broad, it is a rounded evergreen shrub with a somewhat lax habit. A profusion of trumpet-shaped, bright blue-purple flowers with a prominent yellow eye appear in summer, followed by red berries. It is widely cultivated and may be hardy in mild or coastal areas. Alternatively it can be grown in a container and brought under cover in winter. It requires a sheltered location in full sun. Though related to food plants like the potato and tomato, all parts of the plant are considered toxic to humans. It has been given the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The species is named for Barthélémy Victor Rantonnet, a 19th-century French horticulturalist. Lycianthes rantonnetii has previously been placed in Solanum, a huge genus which has recently been the subject of major investigation, with species being transferred to and from several different genera. There are many rare and little-known species whose true placement has yet to be determined.

text:
# Lycianthes rantonnetii

***Lycianthes rantonnetii***, the **blue potato bush** or **Paraguay nightshade**, is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to South America. Growing to about 6 ft (1.8 m) tall and broad, it is a rounded evergreen shrub with a somewhat lax habit. A profusion of trumpet-shaped, bright blue-purple flowers with a prominent yellow eye appear in summer, followed by red berries. It is widely cultivated and may be hardy in mild or coastal areas. Alternatively it can be grown in a container and brought under cover in winter. It requires a sheltered location in full sun. Though related to food plants like the potato and tomato, all parts of the plant are considered toxic to humans.

It has been given the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

The species is named for Barthélémy Victor Rantonnet, a 19th-century French horticulturalist.

*Lycianthes rantonnetii* has previously been placed in *Solanum*, a huge genus which has recently been the subject of major investigation, with species being transferred to and from several different genera. There are many rare and little-known species whose true placement has yet to be determined.

## InfoBox

| *Lycianthes rantonnetii* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Asterids |
| Order: | Solanales |
| Family: | Solanaceae |
| Genus: | *Lycianthes* |
| Species: | ***L. rantonnetii*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Lycianthes rantonnetii***
(Carrière) Bitter | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| *Solanum rantonnei* orth. var. Carrière
*Solanum rantonnetii* Carrière | |


title: Paul Grimault

abstract: Paul Grimault was one of the most important French animators. He made many traditionally animated films that were delicate in style, satirical, and lyrical in nature. His most important work is Le Roi et l'oiseau, which ultimately took over 30 years to produce. He began it as La Bergère et le Ramoneur in 1948 and it was highly anticipated, but Grimault's partner André Sarrut showed the film unfinished in 1952, against Grimault's wishes. This caused a rift between partners and a stop in production. In 1967, Grimault got possession of the film and subsequently was able to complete it in 1980 under a new title, Le Roi et l'oiseau, incorporating some footage from the original and re-hiring the original animators, together with some new, younger ones. There are many names for it in English that have been used in various releases, including: The King and the Bird (literal), The King and the Mockingbird, The Curious Adventures of Mr. Wonderbird and The King and Mr. Bird (1980). He also collected his best shorts in a retrospective compilation movie, La table tournante (1988), which is included in the deluxe edition of Le Roi et l'oiseau. For a detailed bibliography, see this reference.

text:
# Paul Grimault

**Paul Grimault** (French: \[ɡʁimo\]; 23 March 1905 – 29 March 1994) was one of the most important French animators. He made many traditionally animated films that were delicate in style, satirical, and lyrical in nature.

His most important work is *Le Roi et l'oiseau*, which ultimately took over 30 years to produce. He began it as *La Bergère et le Ramoneur* (*The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep*) in 1948 and it was highly anticipated, but Grimault's partner André Sarrut showed the film unfinished in 1952, against Grimault's wishes. This caused a rift between partners and a stop in production. In 1967, Grimault got possession of the film and subsequently was able to complete it in 1980 under a new title, *Le Roi et l'oiseau,* incorporating some footage from the original and re-hiring the original animators, together with some new, younger ones. There are many names for it in English that have been used in various releases, including: *The King and the Bird* (literal), *The King and the Mockingbird*, *The Curious Adventures of Mr. Wonderbird* and *The King and Mr. Bird* (1980).

He also collected his best shorts in a retrospective compilation movie, *La table tournante* (1988), which is included in the deluxe edition of *Le Roi et l'oiseau.* For a detailed bibliography, see this reference.

## Les Gémeaux

In 1936 Grimault founded, with André Sarrut, *Les Gémeaux,* which was the second significant French animation venture, following the work of Émile Cohl, which had closed years earlier. During World War II, American films being unavailable, its films found a captive audience. The studio produced a number of shorts, then closed its doors in 1952 following the expense of making *La Bergère et le Ramoneur,* which was the first feature-length French animated movie.

## Other work

Grimault was part of the agitprop group Groupe Octobre. At this group he met Jacques Prévert, with whom he went on to collaborate on several animated films, most notably *Le roi et l'oiseau.*

## Filmography

Grimault's filmography is as follows; those included in the retrospective *La table tournante* are marked with a star ("\*").

Feature length:

* 1952/1953 : *La Bergère et le Ramoneur,* disowned, incorporated into *Le Roi et l'Oiseau*
* 1980 : *Le Roi et l'Oiseau* Received 1979 Louis Delluc Prize in December 1979, released in theaters on 19 March 1980
* 1988 : *La Table tournante,* with Jacques Demy, collection of shorts

Named after the moving table in *La séance de spiritisme* (1931), which is the short that begins the collection.

Short:

* *Monsieur Pipe fait de la peinture*, 1936 (unfinished, film school)
* *Les phénomènes électriques*, 1937
* *Le messager de la lumière*, 1938 *
* *L'enchanteur est enchanté*, 1938
* *Les passagers de "La Grande Ourse"*, 1939–1941 (originally *Gô chez les oiseaux* (*Gô among the birds*), 1939)\*
* *Le marchand de notes*, 1942 *
* *La Machine à explorer le temps*, 1942 (unfinished)
* *L’épouvantail*, 1943 *
* *Le voleur de paratonnerres*, 1944 *
* *Niglo reporter*, 1945 (unfinished)
* *La flûte magique*, 1946 *
* *Le petit Soldat*, 1947 * (International prize, Venice Biennial 1948, Grand Prix of the Prague and Rio festivals, 1950)
* *La Légende de la soie*, 1950 * (short for the silk industry)
* *Pierres oubliées*, 1952
* *Enrico cuisinier*, 1956 (mixed with live action, with Pierre Prévert)
* *La faim du monde* (ou La faim dans le monde), 1957/58 (re-edited version for children, *Le Monde en raccourci,* 1975)
* *Le petit Claus et le grand Claus*, 1964
* *Le diamant*, 1970 * with Jacques Prevert, complement to *L'Aveu* of Costa-Gavras
* *Le chien mélomane*, 1973 * with Jacques Prevert
* *Le fou du Roi*, 1987–1988 * (made for La Table Tournante)

Commercials:

* Le Messenger de la Lumière (*The Messenger of Light*) – for a light shop
* La Légende de la Soie (*The Legend of Silk*) – paid for by the silk industry
* Sain et Sauf (*Safe and Sound*) – for Danon yogurt
* Terre! (*Land ho!*) – for an optician

Other work:

* *La séance de spiritisme* (*The spiritualist seance*) (1931, live action advertisement by Jean Aurenche with stop-action animation by Grimault and Jacques Brunius)
* Two animated TV pilots (*Chasseurs pécheurs* and *Les Sportifs de la Préhistoire*), 1970
* Animated sequences projected during the show *C'est la guerre, Monsieur Gruber* (It's war, Mister Gruber) by Jacques Sternberg, at the Odeon theater, during the Comédie-Française

## Legacy

## InfoBox

| Paul Grimault | |
| --- | --- |
| Grimault in 1961 | |
| Born | (1905-03-23)23 March 1905
Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine, France |
| Died | 29 March 1994(1994-03-29) (aged 89)
Le Mesnil-Saint-Denis, Yvelines, France |
| Nationality | French |
| Occupation | Animator & filmmaker |
| Notable work | *The King and the Mockingbird* |


title: Welshampton and Lyneal

abstract: Welshampton and Lyneal is a civil parish in Shropshire, England. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 852. The current parish is the result of a controversial merger of an older parish, Welshampton, with part of Ellesmere Rural parish. The parish includes Welshampton and Lyneal, and the surrounding villages of Balmer Heath, Breaden Heath, Colemere, and Newton.

text:
# Welshampton and Lyneal

52°54′04″N 2°49′44″W / 52.901°N 2.829°W / 52.901; -2.829 **Welshampton and Lyneal** is a civil parish in Shropshire, England. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 852.

The current parish is the result of a controversial merger of an older parish, Welshampton, with part of Ellesmere Rural parish.

The parish includes Welshampton and Lyneal, and the surrounding villages of Balmer Heath, Breaden Heath, Colemere, and Newton.


title: Luther E. Barnhardt

abstract: Luther Ernest Barnhardt was an American politician in the state of North Carolina. He served as the 23rd lieutenant governor of North Carolina from 1957 to 1961 under Governor Luther H. Hodges.

text:
# Luther E. Barnhardt

**Luther Ernest Barnhardt** (November 29, 1903 – June 1, 1980) was an American politician in the state of North Carolina. He served as the 23rd lieutenant governor of North Carolina from 1957 to 1961 under Governor Luther H. Hodges.

## Early life

Barnhardt was born on November 29, 1903, in Concord, North Carolina. One of five children, his parents were George Thomas and Lily Faggart Barnhardt. He received both his bachelors of laws and juris doctor degrees from Wake Forest University. He was an attorney in Concord for 52 years and chair of the Cabarrus Board of Elections for a decade.

## Political career

A Democrat, Barnhardt was a member of the North Carolina Senate for five terms beginning in 1944 as a representative for Cabarrus and Rowan counties. He was elected president of the state senate in 1953, a position he held for three years. When the governor William B. Umstead died and Luther H. Hodges replaced him, Barnhardt was elected lieutenant governor in 1956. After his term expired, he chose not to seek election to any public office. In 1977, Barnhardt retired his law practice.

## Personal life

Barnhardt was married to Burvelle MacFarland Barnhardt and the couple had two sons and two daughters. He died on June 1, 1980, at a nursing home in Charlotte, North Carolina. He is buried at Carolina Memorial Park in Concord.

## InfoBox

| Luther E. Barnhardt | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 23rd Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina | |
| **In office**
1957  January 5, 1961 | |
| Governor | Luther H. Hodges |
| Preceded by | Luther H. Hodges |
| Succeeded by | Harvey Cloyd Philpott |
| Member of the North Carolina Senate from the 21st District | |
| **In office**
1945–1956Serving with Nelson Woodson | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | November 29, 1903
Concord, North Carolina |
| Died | June 1, 1980 (1980-07) (aged 76) |
|  | |


title: Pseustes

abstract: Pseustes was a genus of snakes of the family Colubridae.

text:
# Pseustes

***Pseustes*** was a genus of snakes of the family Colubridae.

## Taxonomy

Jadin et al. (2013) reassigned all species of *Pseustes* to the genera *Phrynonax* and *Spilotes*.

## Species

## Further reading

* Fitzinger L (1843). *Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus Primus, Amblyglossae.* Vienna: Braumüller & Seidel. 106 pp. + indices. (*Pseustes*, new genus, p. 27). (in Latin).
* Jadin, Robert C; Burbrink, Frank T.; Rivas, Gilson A.; Vitt, Laurie J.; Barrio-Amorós, César L.; Guralnick, Robert P. (2013). "Finding arboreal snakes in an evolutionary tree: phylogenetic placement and systematic revision of the Neotropical birdsnakes". *Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research* **52** (3): 257–264.

## InfoBox

| *Pseustes* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Pseustes sulphureus*,
now *Spilotes sulphureus*,
in Atlantic Forest in Bahia, Brazil | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Colubridae |
| Subfamily: | Colubrinae |
| Genus: | *Pseustes*
Fitzinger, 1843 |
|


title: Titanium foam

abstract: Titanium foams exhibit high specific strength, high energy absorption, excellent corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. These materials are ideally suited for applications within the aerospace industry. An inherent resistance to corrosion allows the foam to be a desirable candidate for various filtering applications. Further, titanium's physiological inertness makes its porous form a promising candidate for biomedical implantation devices. The largest advantage in fabricating titanium foams is that the mechanical and functional properties can be adjusted through manufacturing manipulations that vary porosity and cell morphology. The high appeal of titanium foams is directly correlated to a multi-industry demand for advancement in this technology.

text:
# Titanium foam

**Titanium foams** exhibit high specific strength, high energy absorption, excellent corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. These materials are ideally suited for applications within the aerospace industry. An inherent resistance to corrosion allows the foam to be a desirable candidate for various filtering applications. Further, titanium's physiological inertness makes its porous form a promising candidate for biomedical implantation devices. The largest advantage in fabricating titanium foams is that the mechanical and functional properties can be adjusted through manufacturing manipulations that vary porosity and cell morphology. The high appeal of titanium foams is directly correlated to a multi-industry demand for advancement in this technology.

## Characterization

Banhart describes two dominating perspectives in which cellular metals are characterized, referring to them as atomistic and macroscopic. The atomistic (or molecular) perspective holds that a cellular material is a construction of struts, membranes, and other elements which possess mechanical properties of their bulk metal counterpart. Indeed, the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of titanium foams are commonly measured using the same methods as that of their solid counterparts. However, special precautions must be taken due to the cellular structure of metal foams. From a macroscopic perspective, the cellular structure is perceived as a homogeneous structure and characterized by considering the effective (or averaged) material parameters.

## Microstructure

Titanium foams are characterized structurally by their pore topology (relative percentage of open vs. closed pores), porosity (the multiplicative inverse of relative density), pore size and shape, and anisotropy. Microstructures are most often examined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray tomography.

Categorizing titanium foams in terms of pore structure (as either open- or close-celled) is the most basic form of differentiation. In close-celled foams, pores are composed of bubbles entrapped in the metallic solid. These foams consist of a continuous network of sealed pores wherein interconnections between the pores are virtually non-existent. Alternatively, in open-celled foams, the pores are interconnected and solid struts allow fluid to pass through.

Most manufactured foams contain both types of pores, although in many cases the subtype is minimal. According to the IUPAC, pore sizes are classified into three categories: micro (less than 2 nm), meso (between 2 and 50 nm) and macro (larger than 50 nm) pores.

## Mechanical properties

As with other metal foams, the properties of titanium foams depend mostly on the properties of the starting material and the relative density of the resultant foam. Thermal properties in foams – such as melting point, specific heat and expansion coefficient – remain constant for both the foams and the metals from which they are composed. However, the mechanical properties of foams are greatly influenced by microstructure, which include the aforementioned properties as well as anisotropy and defects within the foam's structure.

### Sensitivity to impurities

The mechanical properties of titanium foams are sensitive to the presence of interstitial solutes, which present limitations to processing routes and utilization. Titanium has a high affinity for atmospheric gases. In foams, this is evidenced by the metal's tendency to trap oxides within cell edges. Micro-hardness of cell walls, elastic modulus, and yield strength increase as a result of interstitial solutes; ductility, which is a function of the quantity of interstitial impurities, is consequently reduced. Of the atmospheric gases, nitrogen has the most significant impact, followed by oxygen and carbon. These impurities are often present in the precursor mixture and also introduced during processing.

### Theoretical models for predicting mechanical properties

#### Gibson & Ashby models

Gibson & Ashby micromechanical models for porous materials provide mathematical equations for the prediction of mechanical parameters based on experimentally determined geometric constants. The constants of proportionality are determined by fitting experimental data to various mathematical models for structures consisting of cubes and solid struts and are dependent upon cell geometry. A limitation of the Gibson & Ashby model is that it is most accurate for foams exhibiting porosities higher than 70%, although experimental comparisons for lower porosity foams have shown agreement with this model. Ye & Dunand found reasonable agreement to the Gibson & Ashby model for titanium foams exhibiting 42% porosity. Ultrasonic measurements provided an average Young's modulus value of 39 GPa, which is in relatively good agreement with the Gibson & Ashby prediction of 35 GPa.

The Gibson & Ashby models assume ideal structures; microstructural irregularities (e.g. inhomogeneous pore distribution; defects) are not considered. Additionally, experimental results from which the predetermined proportionality constants were based on experimental values that were obtained from simple compression tests. Consequently, they may not be applicable for multiaxial loads.

#### Minimum solid area (MSA) models

Minimum solid area models assume that the load bearing area (cross-sectional area normal to the stress) is the logical basis for modeling mechanical behavior. MSA models assume pore interaction results in reduction of stress. Therefore, the minimum solid areas are the carriers of stress. As a result, predicted mechanical properties fluctuate based on the quantification of the solid area of the foam. For titanium foams consisting of partially sintered powders, the minimum solid area consists of the neck area between powders through the cross-section of cell walls between macropores. The mathematical relationships in MSA models are relatively consistent with the Gibson & Ashby model. However, the MSA models are designed to predict mechanical property parameters over a broader range of porosity levels. Like the Gibson & Ashby models, MSA models were derived assuming idealized (defect-free) structures containing uniform pore shapes, size and distribution.

### Compressive properties

The most frequently reported mechanical property of titanium foams is compressive strength. It was generally accepted that the compressive properties of metal foams depended on the properties of the cell wall rather than on pore size. However, more recent research has indicated that smaller pore sizes equate to higher compressive strength. As pore sizes reach nano-dimensions, the relationship is even more clear due to changes in deformation mechanism.

Tuncer & Arslan fabricated titanium foams via the space-holder method using various shaped space-holders to elucidate the effect of cell morphology on mechanical properties. They found that foams created with needle-like urea space-holders exhibited a decrease in elastic modulus and yield strength when compared to spherical pores.

## Processing methods

Many metal foam manufacturing techniques are accomplished by the introduction of a gaseous phase into a precursor matrix, which can occur in either molten metal or a powdered metal form. Due to titanium's high melting point (1670 °C) and high chemical affinity with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen (which dissolve rapidly either in liquid or solid titanium at a temperature above 400 °C), solid-state processes based on powder densification are the preferred method of fabrication. Processing methods must also be designed to avoid exposure to air or moisture; vacuum or inert gas sintering processes are usually sufficient for preventing contamination.

### Loose-powder (gravity) sintering

Utilizing powder metallurgy routes for titanium foam fabrication allows for production at lower temperatures than those required through a melt process and reduces overall risks for contamination. In loose-powder sintering (also known as gravity sintering), pores are created through diffusion bonding arising from the voids existing between packed powder particles. Axial compaction followed by sintering follows the same procedure as above, but pressures is applied for compaction of the precursor material. For both compaction methods, the resulting pore morphology is dependent upon the morphology of the metallic powder, making it difficult to control the size, shape, and distribution of the pores. Another disadvantage includes the relatively high probability of pore collapse and limited achievable porosity levels.

### Expansion of pressurized bubbles

To produce titanium foams via expansion of pressurized gas, the titanium precursor mixture is placed within a gas-tight metal can, which is evacuated after filling. The metal can is pressurized with inert gas—most commonly argon – and is pressed isostatically. The gas-filled pores are contained within the compacted matrix, and upon exposure to elevated temperatures, these bubbles expand through creep of the surrounding metal matrix. Since processing titanium foams using hot isostatic pressing (HIP) eliminates the need for separate compaction and sintering processes, a wider variety of custom shapes and sizes are possible than via loose powder sintering techniques. Disadvantages of this process include reduced pore connectivity, limited achievable porosity, and a complicated experimental set-up. However, a unique aspect of the HIP process with respect to titanium (and other polymorphic materials) is that transformation superplasticity can be enhanced through the HIP process by way of thermal cycling, or by cycling around the alpha/beta allotropic temperature boundaries of the metal.

### Superplastic expansion

Titanium undergoes allotropic transformation from its α-phase (hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure at temperatures less than 882.5 °C) to its β-phase (body centered cubic, bcc) structure at temperatures above 882.3 °C). Alpha-phase titanium products typically exhibit medium to high strength with excellent creep strength, whereas beta-phase titanium products typically exhibit very high strength and low ductility. Foams created under thermal cycling conditions have been shown to exhibit increased porosity due to the density difference between allotropic phases. Davis et al. produced titanium foams with 41% porosity (as compared to 27% porosity through the normal HIP creep mechanism). Increases in overall ductility were also observed in foams created through thermal cycling. In a similar experiment, porosity of 44% was achieved and determined as the maximum achievable porosity under thermal cycling conditions. A later study also utilized exploitation of transformation superplasticity conditions through HIP, but in this case, the titanium powder in the precursor matrix was replaced with titanium wires to create anisotropic pores. The resulting anisotropic pores showed closer correlation with natural bone in that the foams exhibited higher elastic moduli, yield strength and deformation when subjected to longitudinally loaded forces than when loads were applied transversely.

### Space-holder technique

The space-holder technique is the most commonly employed method for producing titanium foams. The space-holder technique allows for the fabrication of higher porosity foams (35–80% ) than other techniques, while also giving the engineer more control over pore fraction, shape and connectivity. Mechanical properties can be adjusted through the size, shape and quantity of space-holders employed. The space-holder technique was first demonstrated by Zhao and Sun for the fabrication of aluminum foams in a powder metallurgical method, which consisted of the incorporation of NaCl as a space-holder. The space-holder was mixed into the powder mixture and dissolved prior to sintering. The same method was used to create titanium foams for the first time when Wen et al. utilized ammonium hydrogen carbonate spacers.

#### Powder selection

The size and shape of the metal powder has a direct impact on the stability of the precursor as well as the resulting foam. For this purpose, powders that increase packing efficiency are most advantageous. The use of spherical particles may result in less contact of particles which consequently leads to larger secondary pores and a higher probability of pore collapse prior to complete sintering. This factor can be limited through different compaction techniques that decrease the degree of interstitial sites around the titanium particles. However, this method also has limitations; for example, the powders cannot be compacted to such a degree that would promote deformation of the spacer (unless anisotropic pore shape is desired).

#### Space-holder selection

The selection of the space-holder is one of the most crucial steps because it defines many of the properties of the resulting foam, including cell shape, cell size and macroporosity. The space-holder should be inert and represent the size and shape of the desired pores. The porosity may be adjusted anywhere between 50 and 85% without the filler material becoming a part of the resultant foam. It is also important to select a spacer that has limited or no solubility in titanium, as this incorporation will affect the mechanical properties of the resulting foam.

#### Space-holder size and shape

The degree of homogeneity in pore distribution of the final product is primarily dependent on the adequacy of mixing of the precursor. The difference in particle size between the titanium powders and the spacers directly impacts the ability to adequately mix the preform. The greater the size difference, the more difficult it is to control this process. Nonhomogeneous mixing resulting from the use of spacers considerably larger than the titanium particles employed and has shown adverse effects in the stability of the precursor after removal of spacer and in the distribution of porosity. Spacer size has been investigated. It was shown that the use of a coarse spacer results in thicker pore walls while the use of finer spacers results in enhanced compaction, leading to increased densification. Increased densification is evidenced by a monomodal pore distribution with the employment of fine spacers and a bimodal distribution using coarse spacers. Further, finer spacers result in a more homogeneous pore distribution. Sharma et al. utilized acicular spacers and achieved porosities up to 60% where pores were undistorted. In samples employing fine particles, porosities up to 70% were achievable before noting distortion in the pores. However, the bimodal pore distribution observed in coarse-spacer samples showed to be beneficial in terms of mechanical properties in that higher compressive strengths were observed, beyond those that might exist due to the inverse relationship of porosity and compressive strength alone.

#### Compaction

The precursor mixture of powders and space-holders are compacted into a mold under a specified pressure. This can be achieved through uniaxial or isostatic processes. The pores resulting from this method are open and interconnected via windows between neighboring pores with the size of the pores partially dependent upon the coordination number and contact area of the resulting compact. Compaction pressure must be high enough to ensure sufficient mechanical strength for retention of pore geometry specified by the space-holder, but not too high enough as to cause deformation of the space-holder.

#### Sintering and space-holder removal

When employing dissolvable spacers, it is possible to remove the spacer after sintering, which reduces the risk of pore collapse. In most cases, foams created using space-holders contain bimodal pore distributions with macro-sized pores resulting from the space-holder particles and micro-sized pores located on the pore walls and resulting from incomplete sintering of the powder matrix. As a result, the macropores typically exhibit rough internal surfaces. In some applications, such as for the use of bio-medical implants, this is an advantageous property. Inner porosity (or micro-porosity) has been shown to reduce stiffness; thus, reduce the risk of stress-shielding effects, while also offering improved osseointegration.

#### Space-holder materials

##### Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Sodium chloride is the most commonly chosen space-holder for titanium foams because it is highly soluble in water and inert with respect to titanium. This inertness prevents contamination and degradation of the mechanical properties of the resulting foam. Moreover, NaCl is non-toxic; any residuals are bioinert.

Bansiddhi & Dunand pioneered the use of NaCl as a permanent space-holder for the fabrication of NiTi foams. The resulting foams consisted of 32-36% porosity with more complete densification than they observed when producing NiTi foams using a sodium fluoride (NaF) space-holder. However, processing parameters resulted in molten NaCl and a metal/salt blend in the cavities of the foam. Certain risks are associated with using a molten space-holder including reaction with the metal, dissolving of the space-holder in the metal and prevention of densification through the creation of a thin layer of liquid between the metal and particles. Near complete densification was achieved when NaCl was used as a permanent space-holder in pure titanium foam. In this case, a temperature below the melting point of NaCl was used; titanium is less creep resistant than NiTi, which allows for densification at lower temperatures. The resulting foams achieved porosity of 50–67% with minimal observable microporosity. Anisotropic pore shape in some areas alluded to NaCl's deformation during HIP, which is desirable for some applications. Additionally, an observed, rough inner surface of the pores holds advantages for biomedical implant applications. Jha et al. achieved 65-80% porosity through the use of NaCl as a space-holder and a cold compaction process at various pressures with two-stage sintering. In this case, NaCl was removed through dissolution after the second stage of sintering. Resulting Young's moduli (8–15 GPa) were considerably lower than the Young's modulus of 29 GPa achieved for 50% porosity foams. This illustrates the known relationship between porosity and Young's modulus wherein Young's modulus decreases linearly with increasing porosity. Achievable porosity through the space-holder method is directly related to the type and amount of space-holder utilized (up to a threshold maximum achievable porosity level).

##### Magnesium

Magnesium can be removed either thermally or by reactive measures through the dissolution in acid. Esen & Bor found a critical content of magnesium as a space holder to be 55-60%, above which compacts shrink excessively during sintering. Foams ranging in porosity from 45 to 70% with a bimodal pore distribution and compressive strength of 15 MPa (for 70% porosity) were demonstrated. Kim et al. fabricated foams with anisotropic pores through the intentional deformation of Mg particles during compaction in an effort to enhance mechanical properties. A final porosity of 70% equated to a yield strength of 38 MPa for normal orientation of pores and 59 MPa when pores were aligned with the direction of compression.

##### Urea

Another commonly employed space-holder for titanium foams is urea, which yielded porosities from 20 to 75%. Wen et al. produced foams exhibiting a bimodal pore distribution with porosities ranging from 55 to 75%, Young's moduli between 3–6.4 GPa, and a plateau stress of 10–35 MPa. An inverse relationship between plateau stress and porosity was observed with increased porosity resulting in decreased plateau stress. Tuncer et al. utilized urea in combination with irregularly shaped titanium powders in an effort to increase green strength through increased packing efficiency (of particles). This also eliminated the need for the incorporation of a binder.

##### Tapioca starch

Tapioca starch can be burnt off easily through the sintering process and is insoluble in titanium. Titanium foams consisting of a bimodal pore distribution (macropores ranging from 100 to 300 μm) and 64–79% porosity, exhibited yield strengths of 23–41 MPa and Young's moduli of 1.6–3.7 GPa.

##### Ammonium bicarbonate

Although ammonium bicarbonate has been utilized in the manufacturing of titanium foams, it is not an ideal spacer in that it has a low melting/dissociation point and some solubility in titanium. This results in considerable shrinkage which makes control of pore shape difficult. Furthermore, the decomposition releases environmentally harmful gases.

### Freeze-casting

Freeze-casting is a directional solidification technique that is utilized to fabricate materials exhibiting anisotropic, elongated pore structures. Pore morphology is defined, in large part, by the morphology of the solidified fluid. Titanium foams exhibiting dendritic and lamellar pore structures have been produced, through the use of non-aqueous and aqueous processing respectively. These materials exhibit anisotropic mechanical properties as a result of their anisotropic pore structures. Compressive strength for loads applied parallel to the wall direction of titanium foams are found to be, on average, 2.5 times greater than for those applied perpendicular to the wall direction.

## Applications

Potential structural applications for titanium foams include their general incorporation into light-weight structures and as components for mechanical energy absorption. The most important considerations for the use of titanium foams in structural applications includes their porosity, specific strength, ductility in compression and cost. Because of low manufacturing costs, most metal foams marketed for structural applications are of a close-celled aluminum variety. In comparison, titanium foam manufacturing incurs a higher cost, but this cost is defensible in space applications where the material offers an otherwise incomparable reduction in overall weight. The lower thermal conductivity of titanium may also be appreciated in rocket construction. The specific strength, overall energy absorbing capability and high melting point all reinforce titanium's superiority to aluminum in aerospace and military applications. When used for aerospace applications, levels of porosity close to 90% are desired. Titanium foams are capable of retaining their high tensile strength at temperatures up to 400 °C; a limit imposed by the metal's low resistance to oxidation.

### Aerospace applications

The driving force for titanium foam's replacement of existing materials in the aerospace sector results from the following five factors:

* Weight reduction: as a substitute for steels and nickel-based superalloys;
* Application temperature: as a substitute for aluminum and nickel-based alloys and steels
* Corrosion resistance: as a substitute for aluminum alloys and low-alloyed steels
* Galvanic compatibility: with polymer matrix composites as substitutes for aluminum alloys
* Space constraints: as substitutes for aluminum alloys and steels

The most urgent problem of engineering and its advanced branch of aerospace engineering is the efficient use of materials as well as increased service life.

#### Sandwich panel cores

Sandwich panel cores are used throughout the aerospace industry; they are integrated within aircraft bodies, floors and internal panels. Sandwich constructions consist of two faces separated by a thick, light-weight core and are most commonly composed of balsa-wood, foamed polymers, glue-bonded aluminum or Nomex (paper) honeycombs. Typically, the cores are combined with reinforcing fibers to increase their shear modulus. Indeed, carbon fiber-reinforced polymers exhibit the highest specific stiffness and strength of these materials. However, polymers decompose at low temperatures; thus employment of the aforementioned materials pose inherent challenges due to the limited range of temperature they may be utilized within as well as their moisture-dependent properties. The largest and most inadequately predicted failure within the core results from strain localization. Strain localization refers to the development of bands exhibiting intensive straining as a result of the localization of deformations in the solid. For the best performance, the structure should exhibit low peak response force and high total energy absorption. Titanium foams are lightweight, stiff, and possess the capability to resist blast. Furthermore, the use of titanium-based foams exhibiting homogeneous porosity distribution would significantly decrease the risks associated with strain localization. The high strength-to-weight ratio of titanium foams offers an opportunity to provide increased bending and shearing stiffness as well as energy absorption capabilities during periods of bending. Titanium foams may be utilized in environments with elevated temperatures (up to 400 °C). Composite structures may also be produced; the incorporation of silicon carbide monofilaments into Ti-6-Al-4V foams was shown to exhibit an elastic modulus of 195 GPa and tensile strength of 800 MPa.

##### Auxetic structures

Titanium foams exhibiting auxetic pore structures are of interest for incorporation in sandwich panel cores due to their enhanced shear performance. Foams with this pore structure exhibit negative Poisson's ratio in one or more dimensions. Poisson's ratio is defined as the ratio of the lateral contractile strain to the longitudinal tensile strain for the foam undergoing uniaxial tension in the loading direction. Auxetic materials are typically able to resist indentations through their response to compression; upon compression, the auxetic material contracts. In addition to indentation resistance, research has shown that auxetic foams offer better absorption of sound and vibration, enhanced shear resistance and facture toughness. These structures also exhibit synclastic bending, which results lends itself to integration within curved sandwich panels.

### Biomedical implants

Titanium alloys are the choice material for a diverse range of biomedical implants. Currently employed titanium alloy implants include: hip joints, bone screws, knee joints, spinal fusions, shoulder joints, and bone plates. These alloys range from high ductility, commercially-pure titanium foams with high formability, to heat-treatable alloys with high strength. Titanium is well-suited for use in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT), which further enhances its applicability for biomedical implant applications.

#### Bioimplants: microstructure

Biomedical implants should have low density for patient comfort and high porosity and surface area to facilitate vascularization and the ingrowth of new bone. Ideally, the implant will allow sufficiently easy fluid flow for cell nutrition and osteoblast multiplication as well as migration for cellular colonization of the implant to become uniform. The pores contained within the foam's cellular matrix mimic the extracellular matrix of bone, allowing the body to fixate with the implant. The porosity of the implant also promotes apposition and facilitates vascularization−as cells are able to attach, reproduce and form basic functions. It has been shown that a macropore size of 200–500 μm is preferred for ingrowths of new bone tissues and transportation of body fluids. The lower bound is controlled by the size of cells (~20 μm), and the upper bound is related to the specific surface area through the availability of binding sites. Finer pores further help in tissue growth and biofluid movement. Anisotropic, elongated pores (such as those attainable via the freeze-casting technique) may be beneficial in bone implants in that they can further mimic the structure of bone.

The porous surface geometry of the foam promotes bone in-growth, provides anchorage for fixation, and ensures stresses are transferred from the implant to the bone. Surface roughness in the pore can enhance bone in-growth, and coarser cell size facilitates faster tissue growth. To optimize the implant's functionality and ability to successfully fuse with bone, it may be necessary to manipulate the material's manufacturing methods in order to modify the foam's pore structure. Changes in pore structure can directly influence implant strength as well as other key properties.

#### Bioimplants: mechanical properties

Human cancellous bone possesses a stiffness ranging from 12 to 23 GPa; careful control and modification of manufacturing parameters to achieve similar strengths is imperative for practicality of integration. Correctly predicting the Young's modulus for foams is imperative for actual biomedical integration; a mismatch of Young's moduli between the implant and the bone can result in stress-shielding effects from a disproportional handling of stress. The implant which typically exhibits a higher Young's modulus than the bone will absorb most of the load. As a result of this imbalance, the starting bone density will be reduced, there will be tissue death and, eventually, implant failure.

Natural bone exhibits the ability to adjust local fiber away from the low-stress regions toward high stress regions through the distribution of porosity, thus maximizing overall comfort. Using finite element analysis, researchers examined the effect of filling pores with bone on mechanical properties. They concluded that bone ingrowth significantly improved the mechanical properties, evidenced by decreased localized plasticity and stress concentrations. In effect, the titanium foam in the study allowed the bone to exhibit its natural ability to adjust local fiber away from the low-stress regions toward high stress regions.

Experiments demonstrated that random combinations of pore size and shape result in lower Young's moduli. Theoretical models for the quantification of Young's moduli do not account for random pore size and shape distribution, so experimental measurements must be conducted in the presence of heterogeneous pore size and distribution. This is a limitation of the micro-mechanical models discussed above.

#### Osseointegration

Currently utilized implants take a great deal of time to integrate with the body after the initial surgical procedure occurs. True adhesion between the implant and the bone has been difficult to achieve and, unfortunately, success rates of implant fixation are low due to the implant's failure to achieve long-term osseointegration into the bone. With an increasing number of individuals requiring orthopedic implants, the development of materials with structural and biological potential to improve osseointegration is crucial. Utilization of titanium-based foams present one way to potentially improve the bioactivity and reduce stress-shielding effects of currently employed bioimplant materials.

The problem of osseointegration is best understood by examining the process of natural bone growth. In the body, bone and tissues experience self-regeneration, and structural modifications occur normally in response to environmental stimuli. Successful osseointegration occurs in three main stages that follow a natural biologically determined procedure: 1) incorporation of the implant into the bone's formation, 2) adaption of the new bone mass to carry weight and 3) remodeling of the new bone structure. The first stage in this process is the most crucial for overall success; the implant and the bone must form a rapid connection, and this bond must be strong and enduring. Owing to its porous structure, a titanium metal foam implant may be able to achieve close fixation with the bone and will decrease patient recovery time considerably. Essentially, the foam becomes an extracellular matrix in the body as tissue is integrated into it. Today, the implants most commonly used for bone replacement lack the ability to promote these characteristics, which are found in natural bone and, as a result, the implants have limited lifetimes. This phenomenon of osseointegration works similarly to direct fracture healing. However, instead of a bone fragment-end reconnecting to bone, the fragment-end connects to an implant surface. In a study on fibroblastic interactions with high-porosity Ti6Al4V alloy, the metal foam was supportive of cell attachment and proliferation, migration through the porous network, and proved capable of sustaining a large cell population.

#### Increasing bioactivity via coatings

Titanium's propensity to form an oxide layer on its surface prevents corrosion of surfaces that are in contact with human tissues because the surface oxides minimize diffusion of metal ions from the bulk material to the surface. When titanium gains a coating to make it more bioactive, it can turn the already biocompatible titanium surface into an interface able to enhance osteoblast adhesion and able to promote osseointegration. Today, research is heavily focused on improving the success rate of integration and uses an understanding of the natural process of bone growth and repair to create coatings that will enhance the surface finish and surface properties of the implant. These adjustments allow the artificial structure to mimic biological materials and to gain acceptance into the body with fewer negative side effects. A 3-year clinical and radiographic study found implants in humans coated by nanocrystalline hydroxylapatite (HA) to support osseointegration. The nanocrystalline HA was developed with a large rough surface of interconnecting pores between 10 and 20 nm of the silica matrix gel, resulting in a porous bone structure. Mean rates of marginal bone loss were insignificant and the periotest values were indicative of a solid osseointegration. In effect, the pores are structured in such a way that they are able hold onto the proteins on the biomaterial's surface. Ideally, this allows the body to engage in self-repair in that the synthetic HA is recognized as a like-nanomaterial in which live tissues may develop

Titanium foams can be coated with HA through various methods including plasma spraying, sol-gel and electrophoretic deposition. It has been shown that HA-coated titanium exhibits increased interfacial strength in comparison to titanium foams without the coating. In an effort to enhance bone in-growth, Spoerke et al. developed a method for growing organoapatites on titanium implants. Organoapatites may assist in-bone in-growth at the implant interface. The foams were manufactured using a modified HIP process, which exploits the allotropic nature of titanium to create higher porosity foams. Previous in vitro experimentation with the organoapatite-titanium foam held promising results including the possibility that ingrown tissue within these coated pores will improve the lifetime use of the foam through reduction of stress-shielding effects.

#### Animal studies

In the lab, synthetic nanocrystalline bone grafting material in mice has shown in-growth of vascularized fibrous tissue which resulted in improved healing. Furthermore, new blood vessels were observed at day 5 after implantation, and the implant showed a high functional vessel density. In a study examining the femoral epiphyses of rabbits in two to eight weeks of healing, bone-to-implant contact was compared to bone growth inside the chambers for four different implant surfaces. The researchers found that bone substitute materials may improve the bone apposition onto titanium.