title: Vehicle registration plates of Maryland

abstract: The U.S. state of Maryland first required its residents to register their motor vehicles in 1904. Registrants provided their own license plates for display until 1910, when the state began to issue plates. Plates are currently issued by the Motor Vehicle Administration of the Maryland Department of Transportation. Front and rear plates are required for most classes of vehicles, while only rear plates are required for motorcycles and trailers, as well as classes L and N that are at least 50 years old.

text:
# Vehicle registration plates of Maryland

The U.S. state of Maryland first required its residents to register their motor vehicles in 1904. Registrants provided their own license plates for display until 1910, when the state began to issue plates.

Plates are currently issued by the Motor Vehicle Administration of the Maryland Department of Transportation. Front and rear plates are required for most classes of vehicles, while only rear plates are required for motorcycles and trailers, as well as classes L (historic, 20+ years and unaltered) and N (street rod, 25+ years and altered) that are at least 50 years old.

## Passenger baseplates

### 1910 to 1970

In 1956, the United States, Canada, and Mexico came to an agreement with the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators, the Automobile Manufacturers Association and the National Safety Council that standardized the size for license plates for vehicles (except those for motorcycles) at 6 inches (15 cm) in height by 12 inches (30 cm) in width, with standardized mounting holes. The 1956 (expired March 31, 1957) issue was the first Maryland license plate that complied with these standards.

| Image | Dates issued | Design | Slogan | Serial format | Serials issued | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 1910 | Embossed black serial on yellow plate with border line; vertical "MD" and "1910" at right | *none* | 1234 | 1 to approximately 5000 |  |
|  | 1911 | White serial on black porcelain plate; "MD 1911" at right | *none* | 1234 | 1000 to approximately 8000 |  |
|  | 1912 | Dark blue serial on white porcelain plate; "MD 1912" at right | *none* | 12345 | 1000 to approximately 11000 |  |
|  | 1913 | Yellow serial on black porcelain plate; "MD 13" at right | *none* | 12345 | 2000 to approximately 15000 |  |
|  | 1914 | White serial on green porcelain plate; "MD 14" at right | *none* | 12345 | 2000 to approximately 20500 |  |
|  | 1915 | Embossed white serial on blue plate; "MD 15" at right | *none* | 12345 | 4000 to approximately 32000 |  |
|  | 1916 | Embossed yellow serial on black plate; "MD 16" at left | *none* | 12345 | 8000 to approximately 51000 |  |
|  | 1917 | Embossed dark green serial on white plate; "MD·1917" centered at bottom | *none* | 12-345 | 20-000 to approximately 82-000 |  |
|  | 1918 | Embossed white serial on dark gray plate; "MD·1918" centered at top | *none* | 12-345 | 20-000 to approximately 95-000 |  |
|  | 1919 | Embossed black serial on white plate; "MD·1919" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 20-000 to approximately 109-000 |  |
|  | 1920 | Embossed white serial on red plate; "MD·1920" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 20-000 to approximately 113-000 |  |
|  | 1921 | Embossed red serial on white plate with border line; "MD·1921" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 138-000 |  |
|  | 1922 | Embossed white serial on dark blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND·1922" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 151-000 | First use of the full state name. |
|  | 1923 | Embossed black serial on yellow plate with border line; "MARYLAND·1923" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 185-000 |  |
|  | 1924 | Embossed orange serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1924" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 223-000 |  |
|  | 1925 | Embossed white serial on green plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1925" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 242-000 |  |
|  | 1926 | Embossed white serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1926" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 275-000 |  |
|  | 1927 | Embossed black serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1927" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 288-000 |  |
|  | 1928 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1928" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 305-000 |  |
|  | 1929 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1929" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 325-000 |  |
|  | 1930 | Embossed white serial on green plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1930" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 342-000 |  |
|  | 1931 | Embossed white serial on red plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1931" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 386-000 |  |
|  | 1932 | Embossed red serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1932" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 389-000 |  |
|  | 1933 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1933" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 385-000 |  |
|  | 1934 | Embossed yellow serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND" centered at top; "1634" at top left and "1934" at top right | "TERCENTENARY" centered at bottom | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 374-000 | Commemorated the 300th anniversary of the settlement of Maryland. |
|  | 1935 | Embossed dark blue serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1935" centered at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 381-000 |  |
|  | 1936–37 | Embossed white serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1936" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 396-000 | Valid through March 31, 1937. |
|  | 1937–38 | Embossed black serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND 1937" centered at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 409-000 |  |
|  | 1938–39 | Embossed white serial on green plate with border line; "MARYLAND EX-3-31-39" at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 508-000 |  |
|  | 1939–40 | Embossed green serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND EX-3-31-40" at bottom | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 522-000 |  |
|  | 1940–41 | Embossed white serial on dark blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND EX-3-31-41" at top | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 544-000 |  |
|  | 1941–44 | Embossed black serial on silver plate with border line; "MARYLAND" centered at top; "3-31" at top left and "1942" at top right | "DRIVE CAREFULLY" centered at bottom | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 654-000 | Revalidated through March 31, 1943 with yellow tabs, then through March 31, 1944 with black tabs, due to metal conservation for World War II. |
|  | 1944–47 | Embossed silver serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND" centered at top; "3-31" at top left and "1945" at top right | "DRIVE CAREFULLY" centered at bottom | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 688-000 | Revalidated through March 31, 1946 with silver tabs, then through March 31, 1947 with yellow tabs. |
|  | 1947–51 | Embossed black serial on silver plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "48" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 795-000 | Revalidated through March 31, 1949 with black tabs, then through March 31, 1950 with red tabs, and finally through March 31, 1951 with black tabs. |
|  | 1951–53 | Embossed silver serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "MARCH 52" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | 123-456 | 30-000 to approximately 795-000 | Revalidated through March 31, 1953 with white tabs. |
|  | 1953–54 | Embossed yellow serial on black plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "54" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-12-34 | AA-10-01 to approximately JF-65-00 | For each two-letter series, only the letters A through H, and J, were used. |
|  | 1954–55 | Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "55" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB♦12♦34 |  | Letter K added to two-letter series. |
|  | 1955–56 | Embossed red serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "56" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB:12:34 |  |  |
|  | 1956–57 | Embossed dark green serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-57" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-12-34 |  |  |
|  | 1957–58 | Embossed white serial on dark green plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-58" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-12-34 |  | Letter L added to two-letter series. |
|  | 1958–59 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-59" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB:12:34 |  |  |
|  | 1959–60 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-60" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB♦12♦34 |  |  |
|  | 1960–61 | Embossed black serial on turquoise plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-61" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB:12:34 |  |  |
|  | 1961–62 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-62" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-12-34 | AA-10-01 to approximately FY-47-00 | Letters M through Z (excluding O, Q and U) added to two-letter series. The practice of not using I, O, Q and U in standard passenger serials continues today. |
|  | 1962–63 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-63" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB♦12♦34 | AA♦10♦01 to approximately FN♦98♦00 |  |
|  | 1963–64 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" and "EXP-3-31-64" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB:12:34 | AA:10:01 to approximately FX:92:00 |  |
|  | 1964–65 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-65" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-1234 | AA-1001 to approximately GF-1300 |  |
|  | 1965–66 | Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-66" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB♦1234 | AA♦1001 to approximately GP♦7800 |  |
|  | 1966–67 | Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-67" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB:1234 | AA:1001 to approximately GZ:9000 |  |
|  | 1967–68 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-68" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB-1234 | AA-1001 to approximately HG-8000 |  |
|  | 1968–69 | Embossed white serial on blue plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-69" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB♦1234 | AA♦1001 to approximately HT♦5900 |  |
|  | 1969–70 | Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "EXP-3-31-70" and "MARYLAND" centered at top and bottom respectively | *none* | AB 1234 | AA 1001 to approximately JB 9300 |  |

### 1970 to present

| Image | Dates issued | Design | Slogan | Serial format | Serials issued | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | April
1970 – March
1975 | Embossed white serial on blue plate; border line around plate and around sticker spot at bottom right; "MARYLAND" centered at bottom; "71" at bottom left | *none* | AB 1234 | AA 1001 to approximately SC 4300 |  |
|  | April
1975 – March
1980 | Embossed red serial on white plate; border line around plate and around sticker spot at top right; "MARYLAND" centered at top | *none* | ABC 123 | AAA 001 to approximately HNB 999 |  |
|  | April
1980 – January 1986 | Embossed black serial on white plate with border line; "MARYLAND" centered at top | *none* | ABC 123 | AAA 001 to approximately KHN 999 |  |
|  | February 1986 – September 2004 | Embossed black serial on reflective white plate; shield with design of the state flag screened in the center; "Maryland" screened in black centered at top | *none* | ABC 123 | NAA 001 to ZZZ 999, then AAA 001 to MZZ 999 (from mid-1992) | Modification of the optional 350th Anniversary base introduced in 1983 (see below). Two-year renewals started on July 1, 1992. |
|  | September 2004 – February 2005 | | | 1AB C23 | 1AA A01 to 9AK Z99 |  |
|  | February 2005 – November 2006 | | "www.maryland.gov" screened in black centered at bottom | | 1AL A01 to 9CM Z99 |
|  | November – December 2006 | | 1CN A01 to 9CN Z99 | Manufactured in New Jersey using that state's serial dies, while the plate production facility at the Maryland State Prison was closed for three weeks due to inmate unrest. |
|  | December 2006
June 13, 2010 | | 1CP A01 to approximately 4GD J47 | Identical to 2005–06 plates. |
|  | June 14, 2010 – September 25, 2016 | War of 1812 200th anniversary commemorative design with U.S. flag and Fort McHenry silhouette. Blue on reflective white. State name in blue (with capital-letter sized, but lower-case shaped, "Y"). "War of 1812" text under state name in red. Was to be issued until 2015, but was extended. Commemorates both the Bicentennial, and the anniversary of the writing of the United States' national anthem by Francis Scott Key. | www.starspangled200.org | 1A/B2345 | 1M/D0000 to 9M/D9999; 1A/A0000 to approximately 7C/N9999 | During the period when the plate was issued, the web address "www.starspangled200.org" belonged to a non-profit commemorating the War of 1812 bicentennial. Afterwards, the address was briefly owned by a gambling site in the Philippines but was reclaimed by the state government and now redirects to the Maryland Motor Vehicle Administration. Serials issued on passenger vehicles, trucks and multi-purpose vehicles (SUVs and minivans). |
|  | September 26, 2016 – present | Embossed black serial on reflective white plate with state flag screened in bottom half; "Maryland" screened in red centered at top | *none* | 1AB2345 | 8CN0000 to 1GG9617 (as of May 19, 2024) | Letters E and F are no longer being issued as of late 2023. Plates jumped from approximately 8FR7999 to 1GA0000 following the change. |

## Optional plates

| Image | Dates issued | Design | Slogan | Serial format | Serials issued | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | December 1975 – February 1977 | Embossed blue serial on reflective white plate; blue graphic screened at top left featuring the Fort McHenry cannons; "MARYLAND" screened in red centered at bottom; "1776" and "1976" screened in blue on either side of state name | "BICENTENNIAL" screened in blue centered at top, with a red star on either side | 123 ABC | 001 AAA to approximately 999 AFH | Manufactured by Polyvend Inc. of Arkansas. Last issued February 1977, but remained valid through March 31, 1980. |
|  | August 1983 – February 1986 | Embossed black serial on reflective white plate; shield with design of the state flag screened in the center; "Maryland" screened in black centered at top; "1634" and "1984" screened on either side of state name | "350th Anniversary" screened in black centered at bottom | 123 ABC | 001 AAA to approximately 999 AKE | Commemorated the 350th anniversary of the settlement of Maryland. Awarded "Plate of the Year" for best new license plate of 1984 by the Automobile License Plate Collectors Association, the first time Maryland was so honored. Adopted as standard passenger base from 1986 to 2010 (see above). |
|  | December 1990 – January 2004 | Embossed dark green serial on reflective white plate; blue heron graphic screened in the center and dark green reed graphics at bottom corners; "Maryland" screened in blue centered at top | "Treasure the Chesapeake" screened in blue centered at bottom | 123 ABC (passenger) | 001 BAY to 999 BAY; 001 AAA to 899 BNN |  |
| | | | | ABC 12D (multi-purpose vehicle) | BAY 01A to BAY 99Z; AAA 01A to AEY 99W | |
|  | January 2004 – October 28, 2018 | Embossed black serial on reflective graphic plate featuring gradient blue sky, white sea, a heron and reeds at left, and a Chesapeake blue crab on sand at bottom right; "MARYLAND" screened in white centered at top | "Treasure the Chesapeake" screened in blue centered at bottom | 12345**C**/A
12345**B**/**Y**
1234**D**/A | 00001C/B to 99999C/B; 00001B/Y to 99999B/Y; 00001C/A to 99999C/A; 00001C/C to approximately 50000C/H | Same serial formats used for passenger and multi-purpose vehicles. |
|  | October 29, 2018 – present | Embossed black serial on reflective graphic plate featuring cloudy blue sky, blue sea, seabed, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and a Chesapeake blue crab at left and seagrass at bottom right; "MARYLAND" screened in black centered at top | "Protect the Chesapeake" screened in white centered at bottom | 12345**C**/A | 50001C/H to 08108C/K (as of January 17, 2021) | Awarded "Plate of the Year" for best new license plate of 2018 by the Automobile License Plate Collectors Association, the second time Maryland was so honored. Same serial formats used for passenger and multi-purpose vehicles. |
|  | July 2001 – present | Embossed black serial on reflective graphic plate featuring orange and yellow gradient sky, green and white rolling hills, and a red farmhouse with a white silo and a green tree; "Maryland" screened in yellow centered at top | "Our Farms, Our Future" screened in yellow at bottom right | **A**123456 | A000001 to A350180 (as of September 18, 2020) | Issued in celebration of Maryland's agricultural heritage. Same serial format used for passenger and multi-purpose vehicles. |
|  | January 1 – December 31, 2014 | Embossed black serial on yellow plate with border line; "MARYLAND" screened in black centered at top | "1910 VINTAGE" screened in black centered at bottom | **VR**12345 (passenger car)
**VG**12345 (antique vehicles)
**VR**1234♿ (handicapped) | VR00001 to approximately VR00760 | Special reproduction of Maryland's first license plate. Serials VR00300 and up were issued to the general public, while VR00001 to VR00299 were issued by special request. |

## Non-passenger plates

Multi-purpose vehicles (such as minivans and sport utility vehicles), as well as pickup trucks and cargo vans, have traditionally been issued separate plate types. However, since June 14, 2010, trucks and multi-purpose vehicles have been issued passenger plates with the same serial format, first on the War of 1812 commemorative base and currently on the "Maryland Proud" base.

| Image | Type | Dates issued | Design | Slogan | Serial format | Serials issued | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Motorcycle | 1970–75 | White on blue with border line; "71 MD." at bottom | *none* | 1234
A123
123A
AB12
12345 |  | Issued annually prior to 1970. All plates from 1986 until present are still valid. |
|  | | 1975–80 | Red on white with border line; "MD." at bottom | *none* | 123456 | 10000 to approximately 201500 | |
|  | | 1980–86 | Black on white with border line; "MD." at bottom | *none* | 123456 | 10000 to approximately 214000 | |
|  | | 1986–89 | Black on white; "Maryland" screened at top | *none* | 12345**D** | 00001D to 99999D | |
| | | | | 1989–97 | 1234**D**5 | 0000D1 to 9999D9 | |
| | | | | 1997–2003 | 123**D**45 | 000D01 to 999D99 | |
| | | | | 2003–05 | 123**M**45 | 000M01 to approximately 740M00 | |
|  | | | 2005–06 | www.maryland.gov | 740M01 to 999M99 ||
| | | | 2006–09 | 1**D**2345 | 0D0001 to 9D9999 ||
| | | | 2009 – June 13, 2010 | **D**12345 | D00001 to approximately D39000 ||
|  | | June 14, 2010 – mid 2012 | As War of 1812 passenger base | www.StarSpangled200.org | D39001 to D99999 ||
| | | | | mid 2012 – September 25, 2016 | 12345**Y** | 00001Y to approximately 95000Y | |
|  | | September 26 – December 2016 | As "Maryland Proud" passenger base | *none* | 95001Y to 99999Y ||
| | | | | December 2016 – present | 123**Y**45 | 000Y01 to present | |
|  | Multi-purpose | February 1986 – October 1997 | Black on white; "Maryland" screened at top | *none* | 123456**M** | 000001M to 999999M |  |
|  | | October 1997 – February 2003 | | | **M**123456 | M000001 to M999999 | |
|  | | February 2003 – February 2005 | | | 123**M**456 | 000M001 to 479M999 | |
|  | | | | February 2005 – April
2007 | www.maryland.gov | 480M000 to 999M999 | 895M000 through 909M999 were manufactured in New Jersey using that state's serial dies, while the plate production facility at the Maryland State Prison was closed for three weeks due to inmate unrest. |
|  | | | | April
2007 – June 13, 2010 | 12345**M**6 | 00000M1 to approximately 61999M9 |  |
|  | Truck | February 1986 – December 1992 | As shield passenger base | *none* | 123 456 | 300 001 to 999 999, then 000 001 to 299 999
(from 1989) |  |
|  | | December 1992 – February 2005 | | | 12A 345 | 00A 001 to 22R 999 | |
|  | | | | February 2005 – June 13, 2010 | www.maryland.gov | 23R 000 to approximately 99X 999 | |

## Government plates

Plates issued to local and state government agencies, including police and transit buses operated by a city or county or the state (for City of Baltimore).

| Image | Type | First issued | Design | Slogan | Serial format | Serials issued | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Local government-owned vehicle | 1986 | Black on reflective white with shield as separator in serial | *none* | **L**/**G** 12345 | L/G 00001 to approximately L/G 75000 |  |
|  | | 2005 | | www.maryland.gov | | L/G 75001 to L/G 99999 | |
|  | | | 2014 | As above, but with shield at left | 12345 **L**/**G** | 00001 L/G to 17397 L/G (as of December 9, 2020) | |
|  | State government-owned vehicle | 1986 | Black on reflective white with shield as separator in serial | *none* | **S**/**G** 12345 | S/G 00001 to approximately S/G 22800 | Serials S/G 80000 and up used on State Highway Administration vehicles. |
|  | | 2005 | | www.maryland.gov | | S/G 22801 to approximately S/G 30500 | |
|  | | | 2014 | As above, but with shield at left | 12345 **S**/**G** | 00001 S/G to 07271 S/G (as of December 20, 2020) | |
|  | Natural Resources Police |  | Screen-printed yellow slogan stacked vertically on black background, state name screen-printed and centered at top in yellow, serial screen-printed and stacked in yellow offset right. | **NATURAL**/**RESOURCES**/**POLICE** | 1/2/3 |  |
|  | State Police | 1963–1984, 1997–present | Stamped black text on yellow background of galvanized steel with state name stamped centered at top in black; slogan centered in black at top underneath state name with serial stamped centered at bottom in black. | **STATE POLICE** | A-12 |  |  |
|  | | 1995–1996 | Stamped black text on yellow background of galvanized steel with state name stamped centered at top in black; slogan centered in middle with serial stamped centered at bottom in black. | | |  |  |
|  | | 1989–1995 | Printed emblem offset left, with state name printed centered at top, slogan printed centered at bottom, with printed serial in black on white silk-screened steel background. | *State Police* |  |  |  |
|  | | 1985–1989 | Printed emblem offset left, with state name printed centered at top, slogan printed centered at bottom, with printed serial in black on white silk-screened aluminum background. | *50th Anniversary* |  |  |  |

## Temporary plates

| Image(s) | Type and/or tenure | Date(s) issued | Design | Information imprinting method |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Temporary, 20-day | 1955 | Black on white cardboard | Hand-written |
|

 | | 19591963 | | |
|

 | Temporary, 30-day | 19701977 | | |
|
 | | 1980s | | Combination, hand-written and hole-punched |
|  | Temporary, 45-day | 19982000 | Green on white cardboard | Hand-written |
|
 | Temporary, 60-day | 20022003 | Blue on white cardboard | |
|  | | 2006 | | Combination, hand-written and machine-printed |
|  | Temporary, 60-day | 20112013 | Black on white paper | Computer-printed |
| | | 2013present | | Machine-printed |

## Organization plates

## Further reading

## InfoBox

Maryland
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Current series | |
| Name | Maryland Proud |
| Size | 12 in × 6 in
30 cm × 15 cm |
| Serial format | 1AB2345 |
| Introduced | September 26, 2016 (2016-09-26) |
| Availability | |
| Issued by | Maryland Department of Transportation, Motor Vehicle Administration |
| History | |
| First issued | July 1, 1910 (1910-07-01)
(pre-state plates from 1904 to June 30, 1910) |
|  | |


title: Variants of PCR

text:
# Variants of PCR

The versatility of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has led to modifications of the basic protocol being used in a large number of variant techniques designed for various purposes. This article summarizes many of the most common variations currently or formerly used in molecular biology laboratories; familiarity with the fundamental premise by which PCR works and corresponding terms and concepts is necessary for understanding these variant techniques.

## Basic modifications

Often only a small modification needs to be made to the standard PCR protocol to achieve a desired goal:

*Multiplex-PCR* uses several pairs of primers annealing to different target sequences. This permits the simultaneous analysis of multiple targets in a single sample. For example, in testing for genetic mutations, six or more amplifications might be combined. In the standard protocol for DNA fingerprinting, the targets assayed are often amplified in groups of 3 or 4. *Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification* (*MLPA*) permits multiple targets to be amplified using only a single pair of primers, avoiding the resolution limitations of multiplex PCR. Multiplex PCR has also been used for analysis of microsatellites and SNPs.

*Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR) PCR* targets repetitive areas of the genome that exhibit length variation. Analysis of the genotypes in the samples usually involves sizing of the amplification products by gel electrophoresis. Analysis of smaller VNTR segments known as short tandem repeats (or STRs) is the basis for DNA fingerprinting databases such as CODIS.

*Asymmetric PCR* preferentially amplifies one strand of a double-stranded DNA target. It is used in some sequencing methods and hybridization probing to generate one DNA strand as product. Thermocycling is carried out exactly as in conventional PCR, but with a limiting amount or leaving out one of the primers. When the limiting primer becomes depleted, replication increases arithmetically rather than exponentially through extension of the excess primer. A modification of this process, named *L*inear-*A*fter-*T*he-*E*xponential-PCR (or *LATE-PCR*), uses a limiting primer with a higher melting temperature (Tm) than the excess primer in order to maintain reaction efficiency as the limiting primer concentration decreases mid-reaction. See also overlap-extension PCR.

Some modifications are needed to perform *long PCR*. The original Klenow-based PCR process did not generate products that were larger than about 400 bp. Taq polymerase can however amplify targets of up to several thousand bp long. Since then, modified protocols with Taq enzyme have allowed targets of over 50 kb to be amplified.

*Nested PCR* is used to increase the specificity of DNA amplification. Two sets of primers are used in two successive reactions. In the first PCR, one pair of primers is used to generate DNA products, which may contain products amplified from non-target areas. The products from the first PCR are then used as template in a second PCR, using one ('hemi-nesting') or two different primers whose binding sites are located (nested) within the first set, thus increasing specificity. Nested PCR is often more successful in specifically amplifying long DNA products than conventional PCR, but it requires more detailed knowledge of the sequence of the target.

*Quantitative PCR* (*qPCR*) is used to measure the specific amount of target DNA (or RNA) in a sample. By measuring amplification only within the phase of true exponential increase, the amount of measured product more accurately reflects the initial amount of target. Special thermal cyclers are used that monitor the amount of product during the amplification.

*Quantitative Real-Time PCR* (*QRT-PCR*), sometimes simply called *Real-Time PCR* (*RT-PCR*), refers to a collection of methods that use fluorescent dyes, such as Sybr Green, or fluorophore-containing DNA probes, such as TaqMan, to measure the amount of amplified product in real time as the amplification progresses.

*Hot-start PCR* is a technique performed manually by heating the reaction components to the DNA melting temperature (e.g. 95 °C) before adding the polymerase. In this way, non-specific amplification at lower temperatures is prevented. Alternatively, specialized reagents inhibit the polymerase's activity at ambient temperature, either by the binding of an antibody, or by the presence of covalently bound inhibitors that only dissociate after a high-temperature activation step. 'Hot-start/cold-finish PCR' is achieved with new hybrid polymerases that are inactive at ambient temperature and are only activated at elevated temperatures.

In *touchdown PCR*, the annealing temperature is gradually decreased in later cycles. The annealing temperature in the early cycles is usually 3–5 °C above the standard Tm of the primers used, while in the later cycles it is a similar amount below the Tm. The initial higher annealing temperature leads to greater specificity for primer binding, while the lower temperatures permit more efficient amplification at the end of the reaction.

*Assembly PCR* (also known as *Polymerase Cycling Assembly* or *PCA*) is the synthesis of long DNA structures by performing PCR on a pool of long oligonucleotides with short overlapping segments, to assemble two or more pieces of DNA into one piece. It involves an initial PCR with primers that have an overlap and a second PCR using the products as the template that generates the final full-length product. This technique may substitute for ligation-based assembly.

In *colony PCR*, bacterial colonies are screened directly by PCR, for example, the screen for correct DNA vector constructs. Colonies are sampled with a sterile pipette tip and a small quantity of cells transferred into a PCR mix. To release the DNA from the cells, the PCR is either started with an extended time at 95 °C (when standard polymerase is used), or with a shortened denaturation step at 100 °C and special chimeric DNA polymerase.

The *digital polymerase chain reaction* simultaneously amplifies thousands of samples, each in a separate droplet within an emulsion or partition within an micro-well.

*Suicide PCR* is typically used in paleogenetics or other studies where avoiding false positives and ensuring the specificity of the amplified fragment is the highest priority. It was originally described in a study to verify the presence of the microbe *Yersinia pestis* in dental samples obtained from 14th-century graves of people supposedly killed by plague during the medieval Black Death epidemic. The method prescribes the use of any primer combination only once in a PCR (hence the term "suicide"), which should never have been used in any positive-control PCR reaction, and the primers should always target a genomic region never amplified before in the lab using this or any other set of primers. This ensures that no contaminating DNA from previous PCR reactions is present in the lab, which could otherwise generate false positives.

COLD-PCR (*co*-amplification at *l*ower *d*enaturation temperature-PCR) is a modified protocol that enriches variant alleles from a mixture of wild-type and mutation-containing DNA samples.

## Pretreatments and extensions

The basic PCR process can sometimes precede or follow another technique.

*RT-PCR* (or *R*everse *T*ranscription *PCR*) is used to reverse-transcribe and amplify RNA to cDNA. PCR is preceded by a reaction using reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that converts RNA into cDNA. The two reactions may be combined in a tube, with the initial heating step of PCR being used to inactivate the transcriptase. The Tth polymerase (described below) has RT activity, and can carry out the entire reaction. RT-PCR is widely used in expression profiling, which detects the expression of a gene. It can also be used to obtain sequence of an RNA transcript, which may aid the determination of the transcription start and termination sites (by RACE-PCR) and facilitate mapping of the location of exons and introns in a gene sequence.

*Two-tailed PCR* uses a single primer that binds to a microRNA target with both 3' and 5' ends, known as hemiprobes. Both ends must be complementary for binding to occur. The 3'-end is then extended by reverse transcriptase forming a long cDNA. The cDNA is then amplified using two target specific PCR primers. The combination of two hemiprobes, both targeting the short microRNA target, makes the Two-tailed assay exceedingly sensitive and specific.

*Ligation-mediated PCR* uses small DNA oligonucleotide 'linkers' (or adaptors) that are first ligated to fragments of the target DNA. PCR primers that anneal to the linker sequences are then used to amplify the target fragments. This method is deployed for DNA sequencing, genome walking, and DNA footprinting. A related technique is *amplified fragment length polymorphism*, which generates diagnostic fragments of a genome.

*Methylation-specific PCR* (*MSP*) is used to identify patterns of DNA methylation at cytosine-guanine (CpG) islands in genomic DNA. Target DNA is first treated with sodium bisulfite, which converts unmethylated cytosine bases to uracil, which is complementary to adenosine in PCR primers. Two amplifications are then carried out on the bisulfite-treated DNA: one primer set anneals to DNA with cytosines (corresponding to methylated cytosine), and the other set anneals to DNA with uracil (corresponding to unmethylated cytosine). MSP used in quantitative PCR provides quantitative information about the methylation state of a given CpG island.

## Other modifications

Adjustments of the components in PCR is commonly used for optimal performance.

The divalent *magnesium* ion (Mg++) is required for PCR polymerase activity. Lower concentrations Mg++ will increase replication fidelity, while higher concentrations will introduce more mutations.

*Denaturants*(such as DMSO) can increase amplification specificity by destabilizing non-specific primer binding. Other chemicals, such as glycerol, are *stabilizers* for the activity of the polymerase during amplification. *Detergents* (such as Triton X-100) can prevent polymerase stick to itself or to the walls of the reaction tube.

DNA polymerases occasionally incorporate mismatch bases into the extending strand. *High-fidelity PCR* employs enzymes with 3'-5' exonuclease activity that decreases this rate of mis-incorporation. Examples of enzymes with proofreading activity include Pfu; adjustments of the Mg++ and dNTP concentrations may help maximize the number of products that exactly match the original target DNA.

## Primer modifications

Adjustments to the synthetic oligonucleotides used as primers in PCR are a rich source of modification:

Normally PCR primers are chosen from an invariant part of the genome, and might be used to amplify a polymorphic area between them. In *allele-specific PCR* the opposite is done. At least one of the primers is chosen from a polymorphic area, with the mutations located at (or near) its 3'-end. Under stringent conditions, a mismatched primer will not initiate replication, whereas a matched primer will. The appearance of an amplification product therefore indicates the genotype. *(For more information, see SNP genotyping.)*

*InterSequence-Specific PCR* (or *ISSR-PCR*) is method for DNA fingerprinting that uses primers selected from segments repeated throughout a genome to produce a unique fingerprint of amplified product lengths. The use of primers from a commonly repeated segment is called *Alu-PCR*, and can help amplify sequences adjacent (or between) these repeats.

Primers can also be designed to be 'degenerate' – able to initiate replication from a large number of target locations. *Whole genome amplification* (or *WGA*) is a group of procedures that allow amplification to occur at many locations in an unknown genome, and which may only be available in small quantities. Other techniques use *degenerate primers* that are synthesized using multiple nucleotides at particular positions (the polymerase 'chooses' the correctly matched primers). Also, the primers can be synthesized with the nucleoside analog inosine, which hybridizes to three of the four normal bases. A similar technique can force PCR to perform Site-directed mutagenesis. (also see Overlap extension polymerase chain reaction)

Normally the primers used in PCR are designed to be fully complementary to the target. However, the polymerase is tolerant to mis-matches away from the 3' end. *Tailed-primers* include non-complementary sequences at their 5' ends. A common procedure is the use of *linker-primers*, which ultimately place restriction sites at the ends of the PCR products, facilitating their later insertion into cloning vectors.

An extension of the 'colony-PCR' method (above), is the use of *vector primers*. Target DNA fragments (or cDNA) are first inserted into a cloning vector, and a single set of primers are designed for the areas of the vector flanking the insertion site. Amplification occurs for whatever DNA has been inserted.

PCR can easily be modified to produce a *labeled product* for subsequent use as a hybridization probe. One or both primers might be used in PCR with a radioactive or fluorescent label already attached, or labels might be added after amplification. These labeling methods can be combined with 'asymmetric-PCR' (above) to produce effective hybridization probes.

*RNase H-dependent PCR* (rhPCR) can reduce primer-dimer formation, and increase the number of assays in multiplex PCR. The method utilizes primers with a cleavable block on the 3’ end that is removed by the action of a thermostable RNase HII enzyme.

## DNA Polymerases

There are several DNA polymerases that are used in PCR.

The *Klenow fragment*, derived from the original DNA Polymerase I from *E. coli*, was the first enzyme used in PCR. Because of its lack of stability at high temperature, it needs be replenished during each cycle, and therefore is not commonly used in PCR.

The bacteriophage *T4 DNA polymerase* (family A) was also initially used in PCR. It has a higher fidelity of replication than the Klenow fragment, but is also destroyed by heat. T7 DNA polymerase (family B) has similar properties and purposes. It has been applied to site-directed mutagenesis and Sanger sequencing.

*Taq* polymerase, the DNA Polymerase I from *Thermus aquaticus*, was the first thermostable polymerase used in PCR, and is still the one most commonly used. The enzyme can be isolated from its native source, or from its cloned gene expressed in *E. coli*. A 61kDa truncated from lacking 5'-3' exonuclease activity is known as the *Stoffel fragment*, and is expressed in *E. coli*. The lack of exonuclease activity may allow it to amplify longer targets than the native enzyme. It has been commercialized as *AmpliTaq* and *Klentaq*. A variant designed for hot-start PCR called the "Faststart polymerase" has also been produced. It requires strong heat activation, thereby avoiding non-specific amplification due to polymerase activity at low temperature. Many other variants have been created.

Other *Thermus* polymerases, such as *Tth* polymerase I (P52028) from *Thermus thermophilus*, has seen some use. *Tth* has reverse transcriptase activity in the presence of Mn2+ ions, allowing PCR amplification from RNA targets.

The archean genus *Pyrococcus* has proven a rich source of thermostable polymerases with proofreading activity. *Pfu DNA polymerase*, isolated from the *P. furiosus* shows a 5-fold decrease in the error rate of replication compared to Taq. Since errors increase as PCR progresses, Pfu is the preferred polymerase when products are to be individually cloned for sequencing or expression. Other lesser used polymerases from this genus include *Pwo* (P61876) from *Pyrococcus woesei*, *Pfx* from an unnamed species, "Deep Vent" polymerase (Q51334) from strain GB-D.

Vent or *Tli polymerase* is an extremely thermostable DNA polymerase isolated from *Thermococcus litoralis*. The polymerase from *Thermococcus fumicolans* (*Tfu*) has also been commercialized.

## Mechanism modifications

Sometimes even the basic mechanism of PCR can be modified.

Unlike normal PCR, *Inverse PCR* allows amplification and sequencing of DNA that surrounds a known sequence. It involves initially subjecting the target DNA to a series of restriction enzyme digestions, and then circularizing the resulting fragments by self ligation. Primers are designed to be extended outward from the known segment, resulting in amplification of the rest of the circle. This is especially useful in identifying sequences to either side of various genomic inserts.

Similarly, *thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR* (or *TAIL-PCR*) is used to isolate unknown sequences flanking a known area of the genome. Within the known sequence, TAIL-PCR uses a nested pair of primers with differing annealing temperatures. A 'degenerate' primer is used to amplify in the other direction from the unknown sequence.

## Isothermal amplification methods

Some DNA amplification protocols have been developed that may be used alternatively to PCR. They are isothermal, meaning that they are run at a constant temperature.

*Helicase-dependent amplification* (HDA) is similar to traditional PCR, but uses a constant temperature rather than cycling through denaturation and annealing/extension steps. DNA Helicase, an enzyme that unwinds DNA, is used in place of thermal denaturation. *Loop-mediated isothermal amplification* is a similar idea, but done with a strand-displacing polymerase.

*Nicking enzyme amplification reaction* (NEAR) and its cousin strand displacement amplification (SDA) are isothermal, replicating DNA at a constant temperature using a polymerase and nicking enzyme.

*Recombinase Polymerase Amplification* (RPA) uses a recombinase to specifically pair primers with double-stranded DNA on the basis of homology, thus directing DNA synthesis from defined DNA sequences present in the sample. Presence of the target sequence initiates DNA amplification, and no thermal or chemical melting of DNA is required. The reaction progresses rapidly and results in specific DNA amplification from just a few target copies to detectable levels typically within 5–10 minutes. The entire reaction system is stable as a dried formulation and does not need refrigeration. RPA can be used to replace PCR in a variety of laboratory applications and users can design their own assays.

Other types of isothermal amplification include whole genome amplification (WGA), Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA).


title: Veldamas

abstract: Veldamas was a form of landownership in the early stages of Lithuanian serfdom. The term describes a peasant family with its land and other belongings granted by the Grand Duke of Lithuania to his loyal followers, usually as a reward for military service. The peasant retained ownership of his property, including land, but owed taxes and levies imposed by the noble. Veldamas was a middle stage between laukininkas and a serf. The term veldamas is derived from Lithuanian word veldėti, valda and means "to rule something". East Slavic texts of the Grand Duchy loaned the word as велдомы. The term gradually disappeared after the Volok Reform in 1557, but it was still used in Postilė by Mikalojus Daukša (1599) to denote a subordinate.

text:
# Veldamas

**Veldamas** (plural: *veldamai*) was a form of landownership in the early stages of Lithuanian serfdom. The term describes a peasant family with its land and other belongings granted by the Grand Duke of Lithuania to his loyal followers, usually as a reward for military service. The peasant retained ownership of his property, including land, but owed taxes and levies imposed by the noble. *Veldamas* was a middle stage between *laukininkas* (a free peasant) and a serf. The term *veldamas* is derived from Lithuanian word *veldėti*, *valda* and means "to rule something". East Slavic texts of the Grand Duchy loaned the word as велдомы (plural; singular: велдом). The term gradually disappeared after the Volok Reform in 1557, but it was still used in *Postilė* by Mikalojus Daukša (1599) to denote a subordinate.

## Rights

*Veldamai* were different from *kaimynai*, a class of peasants also under control of the nobles, as *kaimynai* did not own their land and had to rent it from the nobles. *Veldamai* had some personal freedoms and rights. Their daughters could marry anyone their families approved upon a payment of *kriena*, a wedding tribute to the noble. The nobles could not usurp their property, including land, animals, and tools, or transform them into a *šeimynykštis*, a type of patrimonial slaves. The nobles could not buy or exchange *veldamai* without official approval from the Grand Duke of his officials. A series of privileges to the nobles restricted *veldamai* right to move or buy their freedom: they could not leave to estates of other nobles or of the Grand Duke. The nobles were also granted the right to decide court trials involving *veldamai* as the Grand Duke promised not to interfere. These privileges were the legal basis for serfdom.

## Evolution

The practice was initiated by Grand Dukes Jogaila and Skirgaila, but gained popularity under Vytautas the Great in early 15th century. This coincided with growing demand for agricultural products prompted by developing cities in Western Europe. Noblemen–soldiers shifted to noblemen–landlords. Soldiers were no longer satisfied with sharing spoils of war and demanded land ownership, which would provide steady income during years of peace. Vytautas put *veldamai* system into use when he centralized the state by replacing local princes with loyal governors, owning their fortune to the Grand Duke. Persons awarded *veldamai* became members of the Lithuanian nobility. Some *veldamai* were also gifted to churches.

*Veldamai* were put into difficult position as they owed taxes both to the state (*sidabrinė* – tax in silver and *dėkla* – tax in grain) and their local noble. A series of privileges by the Grand Dukes (by Sigismund Kęstutaitis in 1434, Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447, Alexander Jagiellon in 1492, Sigismund I the Old in 1507) released *veldamai* from their taxes to the state. All the income *veldamai* produced was owned by the noble, but *veldamai* retained other duties to the state, like building and repairing roads, bridges, or castles. The first Statute of Lithuania (1529) confirmed the privileges granted to the nobles and discontinued the tradition of creating new *veldamai*. In 1547 peasants lost the right to buy or sell their land. Eventually, Volok Reform, begun in 1557, established full-scale serfdom in the Grand Duchy. Differences between *šeimynykštis*, *kaimynas*, and *veldamas* disappeared.

## Further reading


title: Velda González

abstract: Velda González de Modestti was a Puerto Rican actress, dancer, comedian, politician and former senator. She was a member of the Senate of Puerto Rico from 1981 to 2005.

text:
# Velda González

**Velda González de Modestti** (April 10, 1933 – April 20, 2016) was a Puerto Rican actress, dancer, comedian, politician and former senator. She was a member of the Senate of Puerto Rico from 1981 to 2005.

## Early years and studies

Velda González was born on April 10, 1933, in Hatillo, Puerto Rico. She studied at her elementary school in her hometown, and continued high school in Carolina and San Juan, graduating from University High School. González enrolled at the University of Puerto Rico where she received a Bachelor's degree in Arts, with a Major in Spanish and Theater. She also completed studies for a Master's degree in Puerto Rican Studies from the Center of Advanced Studies of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean.

## Artistic career

González began her artistic career as part of the University of Puerto Rico ballet directed by Madame Herta Brauer. She also distinguished herself as both an instructor and actress in theater, television, radio, and films. She started to gain fame as part of the cast of *El colegio de la alegría*, with Tommy Muñíz. However, her most famous role was as Azucena, the maid in the comedy sketch *La criada malcriada*, back in 1965. The role was so popular that González continued doing the show for 15 years. Her namesake of "criada" (maid in Spanish) even gave a name to a local tomato sauce called *Criada*.

González also served as producer of a variety show called *De fiesta con Velda* at the end of the 1960s. She also performed in several films like *El último gángster*, *Una mujer para los sábados*, *Fray Dólar*, *Prohibido amar en Nueva York*, *Romance en Puerto Rico*, and others. During her career, she won several local awards, most notably the Agüeybanás de Oro for Distinguished Comedy Actress of the Decade (1965–1975), and Comedy Actress of the Year for three consecutive years (1969 to 1971). She was also recognized by the New York Latin ACE Awards as Best Comedy Actress in 1971 and 1978.

Her last performance was in "Las Chicas Del Calendario" two months before she died in April 2016.

## Political career: 1980-2005

María Luisa Arcelay was a member of the Partido Coalicionista de Puerto Rico (The Puerto Rican Coalition Party). In the November 1932 elections, she was elected to represent the district of Mayagüez in the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico. This made Arcelay thereby the first Puerto Rican woman, and the first woman in all of Latin America, to be elected to a government legislative body, then in 1936 Maria M. de Pérez Almitory of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico was elected the first ever female Senator in Puerto Rico. In 1952 Juana Rodríguez Mundo of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD) was elected at-large Senator and Antonia Cabrera de Fajardo of the Statehood Party was elected at-large by addition Senator. In 1956, Palmira Cabrera de Ibarra also of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD) was elected in the Arecibo District. In 1964 Josefina O. de Batle of the PPD was elected Senator. In 1968, Angeles Mendoza of the New Progressive Party (PNP) and Maria Arroyo de Colón of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD) were elected at-large Senators. In 1972, actress and singer Ruth Fernández was elected Popular Democratic Party (PPD) at-large Senator and also Sila Nazario de Ferrer (PNP - San Juan District). Fernandez served until 1980 when González replaced her in the Senate of Puerto Rico, making her the eleventh female to be elected in the history of that legislative body. c. González spent 25 years as a member of the Senate, being reelected in 1984, 1988, 1992, 1996, and 2000.

During her time as Senator, she focused on an agenda in favor of women rights. She presided the Commissions on Women Affairs, and Internal Affairs, among others. She was also the President pro tempore of the Senate from 2000 to 2004, under his colleague Antonio Fas Alzamora. She became controversial with her right-wing social-religious views. She censored reggaeton and "perreo", also sponsored legislation for compulsory child support payments (ASUME), which in view of many favored women over men.

In 2004, González lost an election for the first time in her career. She was placed 13th among at-large senatorial candidates slightly ahead of her mentor Fas Alzamora but below the 11th spot needed to be elected.

## Later years: 2004-2016

After her political defeat, González went on to work for the Film Corporation of the Government of Puerto Rico. However, she returned to politics in 2008 when she was elected to the Municipal Assembly of Carolina.

## Personal life

González was married to Héctor L. Modestti, who died in 1980. She had three children: Freddie, Mirelsa-a well known television writer and psychologist, and Velda (died in 2022) who was a publicity professional.

## Death

González died from natural causes on April 20, 2016, at the age of 83 in San Juan, Puerto Rico. She was buried at Buxeda Cemetery in Carolina, Puerto Rico.

## InfoBox

| Velda González | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the Puerto Rico Senate
from the At-large district | |
| **In office**
1981–2005 | |
| President pro tempore of the Senate of Puerto Rico | |
| **In office**
2001–2004 | |
| Preceded by | Lucy Arce |
| Succeeded by | Orlando Parga |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1933-04-10)April 10, 1933
Hatillo, Puerto Rico |
| Died | April 20, 2016(2016-04-20) (aged 83)
San Juan, Puerto Rico |
| Political party | Popular Democratic Party |
| Other political
affiliations | Popular Democratic Party (PPD) |
| Spouse | Héctor L. Modestti (deceased) |
| Children | * Freddy * Mirelsa * Velda |
| Alma mater | University of Puerto Rico (BA) |
| Profession |  |
|  | |


title: Varignana

abstract: Varignana is an hamlet located on the hills of the Bolognese Apennines in the comune of Castel San Pietro Terme in the Metropolitan City of Bologna.

text:
# Varignana

**Varignana** is an hamlet located on the hills of the Bolognese Apennines in the *comune* of Castel San Pietro Terme in the Metropolitan City of Bologna.

## History

The first documents attesting to the existence of the village of Vargnano date back to the year 1000. However the birth of the original village seems to be earlier than a few centuries. The construction of Varignana in fact would have been due to the destruction of the nearby Roman city of Claternae, which occurred around the fifth century.

To date the oldest buildings still remained intact in Varignana are the crypt, in the Church of San Lorenzo, the ruins of the access *casserro* and the south-west tower. In fact with the bombings of the Second World War almost all the houses were destroyed.

## Transports

Today Varignana is served by a railway station, located 4 km (2.5 mi) apart from the hamlet.

1. "La frazione di Varignana - Palesio nel comune di Castel San Pietro Terme (BO) Emilia-Romagna".
2. "S.Maria di Varignana". *Il castellano.net* (in Italian). Retrieved 2020-04-24.

## InfoBox

| Varignana | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| VarignanaVarignana | |
| Coordinates: 44°24′17″N 11°30′25″E / 44.40472°N 11.50694°E / 44.40472; 11.50694 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Emilia-Romagna |
| Metro | Bologna (BO) |
| Comune | Castel San Pietro Terme |
| Population | |
| Total | 343 |
| Demonym | Varignanese |
| Postal code | 40024 |
| Area code | 0039 051 |


title: Velilla de San Esteban

abstract: Velilla de San Esteban is a village in Soria, Spain. It is part of the municipality of San Esteban de Gormaz. The village had 37 inhabitants in 2000 and just 10 in 2017.

text:
# Velilla de San Esteban

**Velilla de San Esteban** is a village in Soria, Spain. It is part of the municipality of San Esteban de Gormaz. The village had 37 inhabitants in 2000 and just 10 in 2017.

## InfoBox

| Velilla de San Esteban | |
| --- | --- |
| Velilla de San EstebanLocation in Spain | |
| Coordinates: 41°35′19″N 3°18′31″W / 41.58861°N 3.30861°W / 41.58861; -3.30861 | |
| Country | Spain |
| Province | Soria |
| Municipality | San Esteban de Gormaz |
| Comarca | Comarca de Burgo de Osma |
| Elevation | 850 m (2,790 ft) |
| Population (2017) | |
| Total | 10 |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Website | sanestebandegormaz.org |


title: Velilla de Jiloca

abstract: Velilla de Jiloca is a municipality on the river Jiloca, located in the province of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2008 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 108 inhabitants.

text:
# Velilla de Jiloca

**Velilla de Jiloca** is a municipality on the river Jiloca, located in the province of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2008 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 108 inhabitants.

41°17′N 1°36′W / 41.283°N 1.600°W / 41.283; -1.600

## InfoBox

| Velilla de Jiloca | |
| --- | --- |
| municipality | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Country | Spain |
| Autonomous community | Aragon |
| Province | Zaragoza |
| Area | |
| Total | 10 km2 (4 sq mi) |
| Population (2018) | |
| Total | 90 |
| Density | 9.0/km2 (23/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Vassallia

abstract: Vassallia is an extinct genus of cingulate belonging to the family Pampatheriidae. It lived between the Middle Oligocene and the Early Pliocene in what is now South America.

text:
# Vassallia

***Vassallia*** is an extinct genus of cingulate belonging to the family Pampatheriidae. It lived between the Middle Oligocene and the Early Pliocene in what is now South America.

## Description

This animal must have been very similar in shape and size to today's giant armadillo (*Priodontes maximus*); it is likely that the largest species of *Vassallia maxima* could have exceeded one meter in length. Like all pampatheres, *Vassallia* was also equipped with an armor consisting of osteoderms articulated with each other to form two rigid structures, one anterior and one posterior, and a few bands of movable osteoderms that allowed partial movement of the back. *Vassallia* was very similar to another pampathere, *Kraglievichia* from which it differed mainly in some dental features (the teeth had a somewhat simpler structure) and bony plates, which had a main figure with a slightly elevated central area.

A study carried out on the dentition and morphology of jaw and mandible of *Vassallia* indicated that this animal possessed some features comparable to those of some mammalian ungulates, such as wide and flattened mandibular condyles, non-fused mandibular symphysis, expanded angular processes, posteriorly extended tooth row, open root teeth, mesial teeth with transverse striations, elongated and gradually arranged distal teeth. *Vassallia* also, unlike other pampatheres such as *Holmesina'*, possessed on the occlusal surfaces of the teeth a central island of dentin resistant dentin that functioned as an ectoloph, which is also present in ungulates.

## Classification

The genus *Vassallia* was first described by Castellanos in 1927; the type species, ***Vassallia minuta***, was smaller than that of the larger contemporary pampathere *Kraglievichia,* while *V. maxima,* described by Castellanos himself a few years later, was larger. Remains of these species have been found in Argentina, while fossils akin to those of *V. minuta* have been found in Bolivia.

*Vassallia* is a member of the Pampatheriidae, an extinct family of cingulates of closely related to armadillos, but equipped with a different type of armor and dentition. In particular, it appears that *Vassallia* is a possible ancestor, or very close in origin, of the genus *Kraglievichia,* which in turn is seen as ancestral to the well-known *Pampatherium*.

## Paleobiology

Study of the morphology of the teeth and jaws of *Vassallia* indicates that this animal was a herbivore, probably feeding on grass and not on leaves and shrubs.

## Bibliography

* Castellanos, A. (1927). Breves notas sobre los clamidoterios. Publ. Cent. Est. Ing. Rosario 1-8, Argentina.
* L. G. Marshall and T. Sempere. 1991. The Eocene to Pleistocene vertebrates of Bolivia and their stratigraphic context: a review. Fósiles y Facies de Bolivia - Vol. 1 Vertebrados (Revista Ténica de YPFB) 12(3-4):631-652.
* SF Vizcaíno, G De Iuliis, MS Bargo. 1998. Skull Shape, Masticatory Apparatus, and Diet of Vassallia and Holmesina (Mammalia: Xenarthra: Pampatheriidae): When Anatomy Constrains Destiny. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 5 (4), 291–322
* De Iuliis G, Edmund AG. Vassallia maxima Castellanos, 1946 (Mammalia: Xenarthra: Pampatheriidae), from Puerta del CorralQuemado (Late Miocene to Early Pliocene), Catamarca Province, Argentina. 2002. In: Cenozoic Mammals of Land and Sea. Emry RJ, editor. Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press; 93: 49 - 64.

## InfoBox

| *Vassallia*
Temporal range: Middle Miocene-Late Pliocene (Tinguirirican-Montehermosan)
~ | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Cingulata |
| Family: | Pampatheriidae |
| Genus: | *Vassallia*
Castellanos 1927 |
|
| Type species | |
| ***Vassallia minuta***
Moreno and Mercerat 1891 | |
| Species | |
| * *V. maxima*  Castellanos 1927 * *V. minuta* Moreno and Mercerat, 1891 | |


title: Vatomandry (district)

abstract: Vatomandry is a district located in Atsinanana Region, Madagascar.

text:
# Vatomandry (district)

**Vatomandry** is a district located in Atsinanana Region, Madagascar.

## Etymology and location

Located on the coast, the town's name means 'Sleeping Rocks', derived from two black rocks near the shore. It is also on the path of the Canal des Pangalanes and Route Nationale (RN) 11.

## History

In the pre-colonial era of the 19th century, Vatomandry was a center of Hova government with an active port.

Cyclone Manou caused great damage in 2003 to the town and left 68 people dead. Cyclone Giovanna in 2012 also caused significant damage.

## Religion

## Notable personalities

## Communes

The district is further divided into 15 communes:

## InfoBox

| Vatomandry (district) | |
| --- | --- |
| Vatomandry | |
| Vatomandry (district)Location in Madagascar | |
| Coordinates: 19°19′51″S 48°58′41″E / 19.33083°S 48.97806°E / -19.33083; 48.97806 | |
| Country | Madagascar |
| Region | Atsinanana |
| District | Vatomandry (district) |
| Population (2019)3ieme recensement | |
| Total | 169,861 |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (EAT) |


title: Vatovaea

abstract: Vatovaea is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It is monotypic, being represented by the single species Vatovaea pseudolablab. Vatovaea pseudolablab is a woody climber, growing 1.2 to 1.5 m. tall from an enormous woody tuber. The species is native to tropical eastern Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula, ranging from Sudan to Uganda and Tanzania, and to Yemen and Oman. Typical habitats are semi-desert grassland and Acacia bushland, and occasionally on seasonally-wet grassland over clay soils, from 270 to 1350 meters elevation.

text:
# Vatovaea

***Vatovaea*** is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It is monotypic, being represented by the single species ***Vatovaea pseudolablab***.

*Vatovaea pseudolablab* is a woody climber, growing 1.2 to 1.5 m. tall from an enormous woody tuber. The species is native to tropical eastern Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula, ranging from Sudan to Uganda and Tanzania, and to Yemen and Oman. Typical habitats are semi-desert grassland and *Acacia* bushland, and occasionally on seasonally-wet grassland over clay soils, from 270 to 1350 meters elevation.

## InfoBox

| *Vatovaea* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Fabales |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
| Subfamily: | Faboideae |
| Genus: | *Vatovaea*
Chiov. (1951) |
| Species: | ***V. pseudolablab*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Vatovaea pseudolablab***
(Harms) J.B.Gillett (1966) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Phaseolus cibellii* Chiov. (1915) * *Vatovaea biloba* Chiov. (1951) * *Vigna pseudolablab* Harms (1913) | |


title: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management

abstract: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) is an integrated vehicle handling and software control system developed by Toyota. It involves an omnibus computer linkage of traction control, electronic stability control, electronic steering, and other systems, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. The system was first introduced in the Japanese domestic market in July 2004, when Toyota debuted VDIM on the Toyota Crown Majesta. This was followed by the VDIM's export debut on the third generation Lexus GS, which was launched in 2005. VDIM integrates the company's Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB), Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS), Electronic Brakeforce Distribution (EBD), Traction Control (TRC) and Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) active safety systems with the Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS), Electric Power Steering (EPS) and Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS) systems which previously worked independently using proprietary software. This way all the systems function together rather than the ECU prioritizing which is the most important. VDIM was initially designed for rear-wheel drive cars. VDIM's capabilities expand upon Toyota's stand-alone Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) system which was introduced in 1995; VSC remains the baseline electronic stability control system used by the company. VSC by definition does not intervene until after a skid is detected, while VDIM takes measures to prevent skids, slides, or wheel spins rather than just take action after tire slippage has occurred. This is done by constantly making corrections in a subtle manner that are transparent to the driver. In further contrast with VSC, VDIM can also calibrate driver steering input according to vehicle speed, with active steering and throttle adjustments to improve ride quality and directional control during performance driving, such as in slalom courses. With the EPS system VDIM instantly varies the amount of power steering assist depending on driving conditions. In vehicles equipped with Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS), VDIM also manages steering gear ratios to help the driver maintain control. Initially, the system was only offered on vehicles equipped with Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB), but this is no longer required. We drove a Highlander equipped with Toyota's standard stability control system. When running through a loose dirt course, it kept us pointed in the right direction. At the same time, it felt intrusive and somewhat herky-jerky as it did its magic to keep us in line. But then we drove a Highlander Hybrid, which has the new VDIM system, through the same slalom. The new system made the old one feel crude by comparison. The VDIM was virtually invisible in operation, making it seem as if the Highlander Hybrid was guided by the hand of God.

text:
# Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management

**Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management** (**VDIM**) is an integrated vehicle handling and software control system developed by Toyota. It involves an omnibus computer linkage of traction control, electronic stability control, electronic steering, and other systems, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. The system was first introduced in the Japanese domestic market in July 2004, when Toyota debuted VDIM on the Toyota Crown Majesta. This was followed by the VDIM's export debut on the third generation Lexus GS, which was launched in 2005. VDIM integrates the company's Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB), Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS), Electronic Brakeforce Distribution (EBD), Traction Control (TRC) and Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) active safety systems with the Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS), Electric Power Steering (EPS) and Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS) systems which previously worked independently using proprietary software. This way all the systems function together rather than the ECU prioritizing which is the most important. VDIM was initially designed for rear-wheel drive cars.

VDIM's capabilities expand upon Toyota's stand-alone Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) system which was introduced in 1995; VSC remains the baseline electronic stability control system used by the company. VSC by definition does not intervene until *after* a skid is detected, while VDIM takes measures to *prevent* skids, slides, or wheel spins rather than just take action after tire slippage has occurred. This is done by constantly making corrections in a subtle manner that are transparent to the driver. In further contrast with VSC, VDIM can also calibrate driver steering input according to vehicle speed, with active steering and throttle adjustments to improve ride quality and directional control during performance driving, such as in slalom courses.

With the EPS system VDIM instantly varies the amount of power steering assist depending on driving conditions. In vehicles equipped with Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS), VDIM also manages steering gear ratios to help the driver maintain control. Initially, the system was only offered on vehicles equipped with Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB), but this is no longer required.

> We drove a Highlander equipped with Toyota's standard stability control system. When running through a loose dirt course, it kept us pointed in the right direction. At the same time, it felt intrusive and somewhat herky-jerky as it did its magic to keep us in line. But then we drove a Highlander Hybrid, which has the new VDIM system, through the same slalom. The new system made the old one feel crude by comparison. The VDIM was virtually invisible in operation, making it seem as if the Highlander Hybrid was guided by the hand of God.
>
> John DiPietro, Edmunds.com

## Applications

## Similar systems


title: Venison

abstract: Venison originally meant the meat of a game animal but now refers primarily to the meat of deer. Venison can be used to refer to any part of the animal, so long as it is edible, including the internal organs. Venison, much like beef or pork, is categorized into specific cuts, including roast, sirloin, and ribs.

text:
# Venison

**Venison** originally meant the meat of a game animal but now refers primarily to the meat of deer (or antelope in South Africa). Venison can be used to refer to any part of the animal, so long as it is edible, including the internal organs. Venison, much like beef or pork, is categorized into specific cuts, including roast, sirloin, and ribs.

## Etymology

The word derives from the Latin *venari*, meaning "to hunt or pursue". This term entered the English language through Norman French *venaison* in the 11th century, following the Norman conquest of England and the establishment of Royal Forests.

## Definition

*Venison* originally described meat of any game animal killed by hunting and was applied to any animal from the families Cervidae (true deer), Leporidae (rabbits and hares), Suidae (wild boar) and certain species of the genus *Capra* (goats and ibex).

In Southern Africa, the word *venison* refers to the meat of antelope, a Bovidae taxon, as there are no native Cervidae in sub-Saharan Africa.

## Qualities

Venison may be eaten as steaks, tenderloin, roasts, sausages, jerky, and minced meat. It has a flavor reminiscent of beef. Cuts of venison tend to have a finer texture and be leaner than comparable cuts of beef. However, like beef, leaner cuts can be tougher as well. Venison burgers are typically so lean as to require the addition of fat in the form of bacon, beef, olive oil, or cheese to achieve parity with hamburger cooking time, texture, and taste. Organ meats (offal) of deer can also be eaten. Traditionally, they are called *hombres* (originally the Middle English *hombres*). This is supposedly the origin of the phrase "humble pie", meaning a pie made from the organs of a deer.

## Health benefits and concerns

When sourced correctly from a healthy deer, venison can be healthy meat for human consumption. Venison is higher in moisture and protein, more diverse in amino acids, and lower in calories, cholesterol, and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, or lamb.

However, since it is unknown whether chronic wasting disease (CWD)--a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy among deer (similar to mad cow disease among cattle)--can pass from deer to humans through the consumption of venison, there have been some fears of dangerous contamination of the food supply from wild deer carrying CWD. The disease has been found among farmed deer in the US and western Canada, but New Zealand has not identified the disease among its herd.

According to the CDC, the *Toxoplasma gondii* parasite can also be transmitted through human consumption of undercooked or raw venison if it did not reach an internal temperature of 145 °F (63 °C) for whole pieces of meat, or 160 °F (74 °C) for ground venison. The CDC also says that freezing meat for several days in sub-zero (0 °F or −18 °C) temperatures can greatly reduce the chances of infection by toxoplasmosis.

Hunters are advised not to shoot for food a deer that appears sick or is acting strangely, and they are also advised to take general precautions in examining the meat from deer they have killed.

## Availability

### Czech Republic

Venison (as well as other game meats, mainly wild boar) is a part of traditional cuisine and is commonly eaten, not considered a specialty. Dishes such as deer goulash are often on restaurant menus. A variety of venison (roe, red and fallow deer, mouflon) and other game meat is widely available in butcher shops in fresh state, distributed by wholesalers, as well as in big retail chains such as Tesco, at prices similar to beef or pork, around 200 CZK or 8 EUR per kilogram. Despite the popularity and low prices, in recent years the production of venison has surpassed demand, and is therefore often used in production of animal food.

### New Zealand

New Zealand has large populations of wild and farmed deer, making venison a relatively common meat. It is widely available in supermarkets.

### United Kingdom

In England, hunting rights were restricted in an effort to preserve property rights. As a result, the possession and sale of venison was tightly regulated under English law, although it is readily available commercially.

### United States

In the United States, venison is less common at retail due to the requirement that the animal first be inspected by USDA inspectors. There are very few abattoirs which process deer in North America, and most of this venison is destined for restaurants. Where deer are considered an invasive species, companies such as Molokai Wildlife Management and Maui Nui Venison that hunt axis deer in Hawaii, combine culling with USDA certification and retail sale. Most venison sold through retail in the United States are farmed from New Zealand and Tasmania. It is available through some high-end specialty grocers and some chains which focus on more "natural" meats. Non-retail venison is often obtained through hunting and self-processing or contracting to small meat processing facilities to do the processing for the hunter, but sale of the finished meat is usually illegal.

The American sandwich chain Arby's gained attention in October 2016 when word leaked through social media that they were about to test a venison sandwich. Arby's later confirmed that they had selected 17 stores in Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Wisconsin (all major deer hunting states) to offer a venison sandwich during a four-day test during those states' hunting seasons. Both due to curiosity and heavy demand from hunters, the sandwiches sold out in all markets on the first day of the test.

* Media related to Venison at Wikimedia Commons
* Venison at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject


title: Velasquez's woodpecker

abstract: Velasquez's woodpecker is a species of bird in subfamily Picinae of the woodpecker family Picidae. It is found from Mexico to Nicaragua.

text:
# Velasquez's woodpecker

**Velasquez's woodpecker** (***Melanerpes santacruzi***) is a species of bird in subfamily Picinae of the woodpecker family Picidae. It is found from Mexico to Nicaragua.

## Taxonomy and systematics

The taxonomy of Velasquez's woodpecker has not been settled. The International Ornithological Committee (IOC) treats it as a species with 11 subspecies. The American Ornithological Society, the Clements taxonomy, and BirdLife International's *Handbook of the Birds of the World* (HBW) treat them all as subspecies of the **golden-fronted woodpecker** (*Melanerpes aurifrons*).

This article follows the IOC model. The 11 subspecies are:

* *Melanerpes santacruzi polygrammus*(Cabanis, 1862)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi grateloupensis*(Lesson, 1839)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi veraecrucis*(Nelson, 1900)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi dubius*(Cabot, 1844)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi leei*(Ridgway, 1885)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi santacruzi*(Bonaparte, 1838)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi hughlandi*(Dickerman, 1987)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi pauper*(Ridgway, 1888)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi turneffensis*(Russell, 1963)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi insulanus*(Bond, 1936)
* *Melanerpes santacruzi canescens*(Salvin, 1889)

As knowledge of this species increased, the number of identified subspecies began as one, increased to four and then five, and then to the current 11. Most of the subspecies intergrade along their contact zones.

## Description

Velasquez's woodpecker is 22 to 26 cm (8.7 to 10 in) long and weighs 65 to 102 g (2.3 to 3.6 oz). In general the species has black and white barred upperparts and paler plain underparts with a colored patch on the belly. Adults have tufts of feathers at their nares that are yellow, orange, or red in different subspecies. Males have a red crown; their nape color also varies among yellow, orange, or red in different subspecies, but not always in parallel with the color of the nares. Females have a gray crown and their nape color is generally more buffy to pale yellow. The width of the black and white bars on the upperparts varies, generally from narrower in the north becoming wider in the south. The base color of the tail is black, with an amount of white on the central and outermost pairs of feathers varying from very little in the north to much more in the south. The belly patch is yellow in the north and red in the south. Almost all of the variations are clinal rather than changing abruptly from subspecies to subspecies.

## Distribution and habitat

The subspecies of Velasquez's woodpecker are found thus:

* *Melanerpes santacruzi polygrammus*, Pacific slope of southwestern Mexico from southwestern Oaxaca to Chiapas
* *Melanerpes santacruzi grateloupensis*, Mexico from central San Luis Potosí and southwestern Tamaulipas to eastern Puebla and central Veracruz
* *Melanerpes santacruzi veraecrucis*, southern Veracruz to northeastern Guatemala.
* *Melanerpes santacruzi dubius*, from the Yucatán Peninsula to Belize and northeastern Guatemala
* *Melanerpes santacruzi leei*, Cozumel Island off the Yucatán Peninsula
* *Melanerpes santacruzi santacruzi*, from southeastern Chiapas through El Salvador and southwestern Honduras to north central Nicaragua
* *Melanerpes santacruzi hughlandi*, the upper Chixoy and Motagua rivers in central Guatemala
* *Melanerpes santacruzi pauper*, coastal northern Honduras
* *Melanerpes santacruzi turneffensis*, Turneffe Atoll off Belize
* *Melanerpes santacruzi insulanus*, Útila Island off Honduras
* *Melanerpes santacruzi canescens*, Roatán and Barbareta Islands off Honduras

Most of the studies of these taxa have concentrated on the golden-fronted woodpecker *sensu stricto* in Texas so little is known about the habitats frequented by most of the subspecies. *M. s. polygrammus* occurs in arid tropical scrublands and tropical deciduous forest. In Central America the species inhabits open woodlands, thorn forest, semi-deciduous forest, and pine savannah up to about 1,300 m (4,300 ft).

## Behavior

### Movement

Velasquez's woodpecker is a year-round resident throughout its range.

### Feeding

The few studies of Velasquez's woodpecker have determined that its diet is adult and larval arthropods, some aerial insects, and much fruit and nuts. The species forages by gleaning, pecking, probing, and least frequently by aerial flycatching.

### Breeding

The breeding season of Velasquez's woodpecker varies geographically but is imperfectly known. No pattern is apparent in the height above ground of the nest cavity, which both sexes excavate. Most clutches are of four or five eggs, and both sexes incubate. The incubation period is 12 to 14 days and fledging occurs about 30 days after hatch.

### Vocalization

The call of Velasquez's woodpecker is "a loud, slightly nasal, *che'e'e'e*" that is repeated up to three times. It "also makes a lower-pitched *che-huh*.

## Status

The IUCN follows HBW taxonomy and so has not assessed Velasquez's woodpecker separately from the golden-fronted woodpecker *sensu lato*. That species is considered to be of Least Concern, with a stable population.

## Further reading

* García-Trejo, E. A.; De Los Monteros, A. E.; Arizmendi, M. D. C.; Navarro-Sigüenza, A. G. (2009). "Molecular Systematics of the Red-Bellied and Golden-Fronted Woodpeckers". *The Condor*. **111** (3): 442. doi:10.1525/cond.2009.080017. S2CID 84280533.
* Selander, R.K.; Giller, D.R. (1963). "Species limits in the woodpecker genus *Centurus* (Aves)". *Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History*. **124**: 213–273.
* Skutch, Alexander F. (1969). "Golden-fronted woodpecker" (PDF). *Life Histories of Central American Birds III: Families Cotingidae, Pipridae, Formicariidae, Furnariidae, Dendrocolaptidae, and Picidae*. Pacific Coast Avifauna, Number 35. Berkeley, California: Cooper Ornithological Society. pp. 451–460. Skutch studied the race *Melanerpes aurifrons pauper* which is now *Melanerpes santacruzi pauper*.

## InfoBox

| Velasquez's woodpecker | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| In Honduras | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Piciformes |
| Family: | Picidae |
| Genus: | *Melanerpes* |
| Species: | ***M. santacruzi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Melanerpes santacruzi***<br>(Bonaparte, 1838) | |
|
| Subspecies | |
| 11, see text | |
| Synonyms | |
| *Melanerpes aurifrons santacruzi* | |


title: Vera Summers

abstract: Vera Ada Summers was an Australian high school teacher and principal.

text:
# Vera Summers

**Vera Ada Summers** OBE (born 1899) was an Australian high school teacher and principal.

## Biography

Summers attended Perth College followed by the University of Western Australia, where she completed a bachelor of arts degree. She was a member of the staff of Presbyterian Ladies' College, Perth from January 1920 to December 1961, a period of 42 years. She began her career at the college as a teacher, and in 1931 she took the position of deputy principal, followed by principal in January 1934.

In 1928 she received a scholarship and completed a doctoral degree in French at the University of Paris. In 1962 Summers was appointed an officer of the Order of the British Empire.

Summers published two autobiographical books, *The light of other days* (1977) and *Personalities and places* (1978).


title: Vera Strodl Dowling

abstract: Vera Elsie Strodl Dowling was a Danish pilot who gained fame in the Second World War as the only Scandinavian woman to fly for the RAF's Air Transport Auxiliary. Later, based in Alberta, Canada, she instructed pilots under the Commonwealth Training Programme. In May 2000, she was honoured with membership of Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame.

text:
# Vera Strodl Dowling

**Vera Elsie Strodl Dowling** (16 July 1918 – 11 January 2015) was a Danish pilot who gained fame in the Second World War as the only Scandinavian woman to fly for the RAF's Air Transport Auxiliary. Later, based in Alberta, Canada, she instructed pilots under the Commonwealth Training Programme. In May 2000, she was honoured with membership of Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame.

## Early life

Born in Braughing, Hertfordshire, on 16 July 1918, Vera Elsie Strodl was the daughter of Maren and Raimond Strodl. Her Danish parents had moved to England to run a cattle farm but ran into financial difficulties complicated by her father's problems with alcohol. In 1930, Maren Strodl returned to her native Bogense, Denmark, together with her children.

While still in England, as an eleven-year-old, Strodl dreamt of becoming a pilot after she first experienced flying. Back in Denmark, she was confirmed in the local church and took her *realskole* leaving examination in Bogense. In 1934, she returned to England to train as a pilot.

## Flying career

She settled in Hastings which was close to the Sussex Aero Club where she first worked as a waitress and cleaner in order to save some money for taking flying lessons. She was trained by an RAF veteran from the First World War, earning her pilot's ‘A’ License on 14 January 1937. Later that year, Strodl became an aircraft inspector with Philips & Powis Aircraft Ltd. based in Reading. She left the company for a position at Gloster Aircraft Company, as she wanted to learn about aircraft with riveted metal constructions. In 1939, she had planned to go to Australia, but gave up the idea as war became imminent. Instead, she joined Taylorcraft Aviation Corporation (later called Auster Aircraft Limited) at Rearsby, Leicestershire. Over the next two years, she worked as an aircraft inspector and production test pilot for the company.

## Involvement in World War II

In 1941, she volunteered for the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA) where she had the job of ferrying many different types of new, repaired and damaged military aircraft between factories and airfields until the end of the war in 1945. It was dangerous work as the ATA pilots were frequently targeted by German fighters but could also be shot down by British anti-aircraft batteries who sought to destroy German bombers. The pilots also risked flying into barrage balloons. They had to fly all types of aircraft from Spitfires to four-engined bombers, some of them so badly damaged that they were almost flying coffins. Although the ATA ferrying work was not as dangerous as mainstream RAF missions, there were many casualties, with one out every six pilots losing their lives.

Whenever she flew a new type of aircraft, she wrote its name on her leather flying jacket. The jacket can now be seen at Nordfyns Museum in Bogense.

Strodl came close to disaster on several occasions. Once she was reported missing and presumed dead when she suddenly turned up in the mess. Strodl's wartime logbook shows she flew some 200 different flights totalling 1,500 hours. Of about 500 ATA pilots, she was one of some 100 women and the only one from Scandinavia to fly for the RAF during the Second World War.

## Post-war activities

In 1946, Strodl served with the Women's Royal Air Force Voluntary Reserve. She became a flying instructor at the Sandown Air Base on the Isle of Wight. In 1947, she was employed by Osterman Aero in Gothenburg, Sweden where she flew various aircraft including an amphibious Republic Seabee.

In 1952, Strodl moved to Alberta, Canada, where she worked as a flying instructor, first in Lethbridge, then in Edmonton. She also taught aerobatics.

## Personal life

In 1963, she married Standford J. Dowling. She continued to fly until 1987. In her seventies, she tested planes from Camrose Airport. On her 85th birthday, she made a parachute jump. All in all, she clocked up over 30,000 flying hours.

For many years, in her spare time, Strodl flew for a local missionary organization. Her little yellow plane bore the inscriptions "God is a good God" and "Jesus saves and heals today". She visited remote communities in the prairies and the north of Canada, taking part in church services. Her faith was reinforced by her belief that God had literally held her in his wings.

Strodl died in Edmonton, Canada on 11 January 2015 aged 96.

## Awards

In the year 2000, Strodl was inducted into Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame for the great benefit to Canada of "her extraordinary enthusiasm for and life long dedication to aviation, in wartime and peace, particularly her dedication to flight instruction."

### Further reading

## InfoBox

| Vera Strodl Dowling | |
| --- | --- |
| Strodl in the cockpit of a North American Mustang !a in 1943 | |
| Born | Vera Elsie Strodl
16 July 1918
Braughing, Hertfordshire |
| Died | 11 January 2015
Edmonton, Canada |
| Occupation | Pilot |


title: Velesnica

abstract: Velesnica is a village in the municipality of Kladovo, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 265 people.

text:
# Velesnica

**Velesnica** is a village in the municipality of Kladovo, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 265 people.

44°31′05″N 22°33′03″E / 44.51806°N 22.55083°E / 44.51806; 22.55083

## InfoBox

| Велесница Velesnica | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Велесница | |
| Coordinates: 44°31′05″N 22°33′03″E / 44.51806°N 22.55083°E / 44.51806; 22.55083 | |
| Country | Serbia |
| District | Kladovo/Bor District |
| Municipality | Kladovo |
| Population (2002) | |
| Total | 265 |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Vera Cruz Futebol Clube

abstract: Vera Cruz Futebol Clube, commonly known as Vera Cruz, is a Brazilian football club based in Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco state. They competed in the Série C once.

text:
# Vera Cruz Futebol Clube

**Vera Cruz Futebol Clube**, commonly known as **Vera Cruz**, is a Brazilian football club based in Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco state. They competed in the Série C once.

## History

The club was founded on 3 February 1960. Vera Cruz won the Campeonato Pernambucano Third Level in 2002, and the Campeonato Pernambucano Second Level in 2006 and in 2009. They competed in the Série C in 2007, when they were eliminated in the First Stage of the competition.

## Achievements

## Stadium

Vera Cruz Futebol Clube play their home games at Estádio Municipal Severino Cândido Carneiro, nicknamed *Carneirão*. The stadium has a maximum capacity of 8,000 people.

## InfoBox

Vera Cruz
| Full name | Vera Cruz Futebol Clube |
| --- | --- |
| Nickname(s) | *Tricolor do Povo*
*Galo das Tabocas*
*Galo do Maués*
*Galo da Zona da Mata* |
| Founded | 3 February 1960 (1960-02-03) |
| Ground | Carneirão, Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco state, Brazil |
| Capacity | 8,000 |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Vellakulam

abstract:
Vellakulam is a village located in the Tenkasi District of South Tamil Nadu, India. The village is located 20–25 km from Kovilpatti and Sankarankovil. This village is primarily dependent on agriculture, farmers are the core of the village. It is part of Panchayat, and its jurisdiction includes the following villages:
  - Vellakulam
  - Kasilingapuram
  - North Aivaypulipatti
  - South Aivaypalipatti

text:
# Vellakulam

**Vellakulam** is a village located in the Tenkasi District (Earlier with Tirunelveli District till Year 2019) of South Tamil Nadu, India. The village is located 20–25 km from Kovilpatti and Sankarankovil.

This village is primarily dependent on agriculture, farmers are the core of the village. It is part of Panchayat, and its jurisdiction includes the following villages:

1. Vellakulam
2. Kasilingapuram
3. North Aivaypulipatti
4. South Aivaypalipatti

12°48′N 79°37′E / 12.800°N 79.617°E / 12.800; 79.617

## InfoBox

| Vellakulam | |
| --- | --- |
| village | |
| Country | India |
| State | Tamil Nadu |
| District | Tenkasi |
| Government | |
| Type | Panchayati raj (India) |
| Body | Gram panchayat |
| Languages | |
| Official | Tamil |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
| PIN | 627719 |
| Telephone code | 04636 |
| Vehicle registration | TN-79 |


title: Venus Rosewater Dish

abstract: The Venus Rosewater Dish is the Ladies' Singles Trophy awarded at The Championships, Wimbledon, and was first presented to the Champion in 1886. A Rosewater dish is a ceremonial platter or basin used after eating to catch rosewater poured from warm or cold ewers over the hands to wash them, which was a daily ceremony in England. Later, such dishes were used for display only. A salver was originally used by food tasters who tested food for poison. A rosewater dish was considered a salver by extension. These dishes were made of pewter, silver, or gold. The 50 guineas trophy is an 18+3⁄4-inch (48 cm) diameter, partially gilded, sterling silver salver made in 1864 by Elkington & Co. of Birmingham, and is a copy of an electrotype by Caspar Enderlein from a Renaissance pewter original in the Louvre. It is tradition for the winner to be awarded the trophy and then walk a lap around the court to display the trophy to the crowd and photographers. The winner does not keep the trophy, which remains in the museum at the All-England club, but from 1949 to 2006 all Champions have received a miniature replica of the trophy, and from 2007 all Champions have received a three-quarter replica of the trophy, bearing the names of all past Champions. Being a reproduction of a Paris museum antique, the theme of decoration is related not to tennis but Classical mythology. The central boss depicts the figure of Sophrosyne, the personification of temperance and moderation, seated on a chest with a lamp in her right hand and a jug in her left, with various attributes such as a sickle, fork and caduceus around her. The four reserves on the boss of the dish each contain a classical god, together with elements. The reserves around the rim show Minerva presiding over the seven liberal arts: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music, rhetoric, dialectic and grammar, each with relevant attribute. The rim of the salver has an ovolo moulding. The remainder of the surface is decorated with gilt renaissance strapwork and foliate motifs in relief against a rigid silver ground. The first recipient of the trophy was Blanche Bingley in 1886, the name of Maud Watson, champion of 1884 and 1885 was later added. The names of the winners from 1884 to 1957 are inscribed on the inside of the dish with the names of 1958 to present on the outside.

text:
# Venus Rosewater Dish

The **Venus Rosewater Dish** is the Ladies' Singles Trophy awarded at The Championships, Wimbledon, and was first presented to the Champion in 1886.

A Rosewater dish is a ceremonial platter or basin used after eating to catch rosewater poured from warm or cold ewers over the hands to wash them, which was a daily ceremony in England. Later, such dishes were used for display only. A salver (Latin *salva*, *save from risk*) was originally used by food tasters who tested food for poison. A rosewater dish was considered a salver by extension. These dishes were made of pewter, silver, or gold.

The 50 guineas trophy is an 18+34-inch (48 cm) diameter, partially gilded, sterling silver salver made in 1864 by Elkington & Co. of Birmingham, and is a copy of an electrotype by Caspar Enderlein from a Renaissance pewter original in the Louvre.

It is tradition for the winner to be awarded the trophy and then walk a lap around the court to display the trophy to the crowd and photographers. The winner does not keep the trophy, which remains in the museum at the All-England club, but from 1949 to 2006 all Champions have received a miniature replica of the trophy (diameter 8 inches (20 cm)), and from 2007 all Champions have received a three-quarter replica of the trophy, bearing the names of all past Champions (diameter 14 inches (36 cm)).

Being a reproduction of a Paris museum antique, the theme of decoration is related not to tennis but Classical mythology. The central boss depicts the figure of Sophrosyne (not Venus), the personification of temperance and moderation, seated on a chest with a lamp in her right hand and a jug in her left, with various attributes such as a sickle, fork and caduceus around her. The four reserves on the boss of the dish each contain a classical god, together with elements. The reserves around the rim show Minerva presiding over the seven liberal arts: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music, rhetoric, dialectic and grammar, each with relevant attribute. The rim of the salver has an ovolo moulding. The remainder of the surface is decorated with gilt renaissance strapwork and foliate motifs in relief against a rigid silver ground.

The first recipient of the trophy was Blanche Bingley in 1886, the name of Maud Watson, champion of 1884 and 1885 was later added. The names of the winners from 1884 to 1957 are inscribed on the inside of the dish with the names of 1958 to present on the outside.

## Bibliography


title: Verrucula arnoldaria

abstract: Verrucula arnoldaria is a rare species of lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling) lichen in the family Verrucariaceae. It grows parasitically on the thallus of the rock-dwelling, crustose lichen Calogaya arnoldii. The species was formally described as new to science in 2007 by lichenologists Père Navarro-Rosinés and Claude Roux, from specimens collected in Vaucluse, France. It has also been recorded from Italy. The lichen has a thick brownish-grey, areolate thallus that roughly maintains the shape of its underlying host. The thallus is covered with a crystalline pruina. It makes ellipsoid spores that measure up to about 15 μm long. Its host grows on calciferous rocks and calciferous schists.

text:
# Verrucula arnoldaria

***Verrucula arnoldaria*** is a rare species of lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling) lichen in the family Verrucariaceae. It grows parasitically on the thallus of the rock-dwelling, crustose lichen *Calogaya arnoldii*. The species was formally described as new to science in 2007 by lichenologists Père Navarro-Rosinés and Claude Roux, from specimens collected in Vaucluse, France. It has also been recorded from Italy. The lichen has a thick brownish-grey, areolate thallus that roughly maintains the shape of its underlying host. The thallus is covered with a crystalline pruina. It makes ellipsoid spores that measure up to about 15 μm long. Its host grows on calciferous rocks and calciferous schists.

## InfoBox

| *Verrucula arnoldaria* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Verrucula arnoldaria* (darkened parts of thallus) growing on *Calogaya arnoldii* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Eurotiomycetes |
| Order: | Verrucariales |
| Family: | Verrucariaceae |
| Genus: | *Verrucula* |
| Species: | ***V. arnoldaria*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Verrucula arnoldaria***<br>Nav.-Ros. & Cl.Roux (2007) | |
|