title: Track International

abstract: Track was a company involved in the manufacture and sales of bowling balls and ten-pin bowling related accessories. The company was purchased by Columbia Industries and subsequently transferred to Ebonite International of Hopkinsville, Kentucky when the latter acquired the former in February 2007. Track-branded products were then manufactured, under the ownership of Ebonite International, through November 2019. On November 15, 2019, Ebonite International and all of its brands were subsequently purchased by Brunswick Bowling Products, LLC.

text:
# Track International

**Track** was a company involved in the manufacture and sales of bowling balls and ten-pin bowling related accessories. The company was purchased by Columbia Industries and subsequently transferred to Ebonite International of Hopkinsville, Kentucky when the latter acquired the former in February 2007. Track-branded products were then manufactured, under the ownership of Ebonite International, through November 2019. On November 15, 2019, Ebonite International and all of its brands were subsequently purchased by Brunswick Bowling Products, LLC.

1. Hickland, Ron. "Ron Hickland designs bowling balls at Ebonite International". diversitycareers.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
2. Johnson, Bob (November 15, 2019). "Brunswick Acquires Ebonite International". Bowlers Journal. Retrieved November 20, 2019.


title: Wesley Clair Mitchell

abstract: Wesley Clair Mitchell was an American economist known for his empirical work on business cycles and for guiding the National Bureau of Economic Research in its first decades. Mitchell was referred to as Thorstein Veblen's "star student." Paul Samuelson named Mitchell as one of the several "American saints in economics" born after 1860.

text:
# Wesley Clair Mitchell

**Wesley Clair Mitchell** (August 5, 1874 – October 29, 1948) was an American economist known for his empirical work on business cycles and for guiding the National Bureau of Economic Research in its first decades.

Mitchell was referred to as Thorstein Veblen's "star student."

Paul Samuelson named Mitchell (along with Harry Gunnison Brown, Allyn Abbott Young, Henry Ludwell Moore, Frank Knight, Jacob Viner, and Henry Schultz) as one of the several "American saints in economics" born after 1860.

## Biography

Mitchell was born in Rushville, Illinois, the second child and oldest son of a Civil War army doctor turned farmer. In a family with seven children and a disabled father with an appetite for business ventures "verging on rashness" a lot of responsibility fell on the oldest son. Despite these challenges, Wesley Clair went to study at the University of Chicago and was awarded a PhD in 1899.

Mitchell's career as a researcher and teacher took the following course: instructor in economics at Chicago (1899–1903), assistant professor (1903–08) and professor (1909–12) of economics at the University of California, Berkeley, visiting lecturer at Harvard University (1908–09), lecturer (1913) and full professor (1914–44) at Columbia University. In 1916 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was elected to both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society in 1931.

He was one of the founders of the New School for Social Research, where he taught for a time between 1919 and 1922, and of the National Bureau of Economic Research (1920), where he was director of research until 1945.

There was an interruption for government service during the First World War, when Mitchell served as chief of price statistics in the planning and statistics division of the War Industries Board, working with Isador Lubin, Walter Stewart and Leo Wolman. He later served on many government committees; he was chairman of the President's Committee on Social Trends (1929–33). In 1923–4, he was president of the American Economic Association. Mitchell and John Whitridge Williams represented the United States at the World Population Conference held in Geneva, Switzerland in 1927. From 1941 he was on the original standing committee of the Foundation for the Study of Cycles.

The National Bureau was the institution through which Mitchell had greatest influence. There his important associates included Arthur Burns and Simon Kuznets. In his autobiography Kuznets acknowledges his "great intellectual debt to Mitchell."

Mitchell has also made valuable contributions to the history of economic thought.

Mitchell was married to Lucy Sprague Mitchell, a pioneering educator and the founder of Bank Street College of Education. He assisted his wife with the founding of the school.

## Work

### University of Chicago

Mitchell's teachers included economists Thorstein Veblen and J. L. Laughlin and philosopher John Dewey. Although Veblen and Dewey did more to shape Mitchell's outlook, Laughlin supervised his dissertation. Laughlin's main interest was in currency questions; he was a strong opponent of the quantity theory of money. The currency question facing the US in the 1890s was the choice between alternative monetary standards: inconvertible paper, gold monometallism and gold/silver bimetallism.

Mitchell's thesis, published as *A History of the Greenbacks,* considered the consequences of the inconvertible paper regime established by the Union in the Civil War. However this, and the follow-up study *Gold Prices and Wages Under the Greenback Standard,* transcended conventional monetary history of the kind Laughlin did and provided a comprehensive quantitative account of the behavior of the US economy in the recent past.

### *Business Cycles,* 1913

Mitchell's next project, which would occupy him for the rest of his life, was the study and measurement of the business cycle, which was then emerging as the big problem in economics. His magnum opus, *Business Cycles* appeared in 1913. The Preface begins:

> This book offers an analytic description of the complicated processes by which seasons of business prosperity, crisis, depression, and revival come about in the modern world. The materials used consist chiefly of market reports and statistics concerning the business cycles which have run their course since 1890 in the United States, England, Germany and France.

In chapter I Mitchell reviews 13 theories of the business cycle and admits that "All are plausible." He then puts them aside by arguing:

> To observe, analyse, and systematise the phenomena of prosperity, crisis, and depression is the chief task. And there is better prospect of rendering service if we attack this task directly, than if we take the round about way of considering the phenomena with reference to the theory.

Mitchell's research strategy was thus quite different from that adopted by H. L. Moore or Irving Fisher who started from a hypothesis and went looking for evidence to support it. Moore and Mitchell offer another contrast in that, while Moore embraced the new statistical methods of correlation and regression, Mitchell found little use for them.

### *Measuring Business Cycles*

Thirty years later, Mitchell was still working on business cycles and he published another large work, *Measuring Business Cycles* with A.F. Burns. The book presented the characteristic "National Bureau" methods of analyzing business cycles. While Mitchell was still following the 1913 agenda, other economists had taken to studying the economy using models and even to constructing macroeconometric models. Against that background of Keynesian economics and the new econometric methods, Mitchell and his project looked dated.

Milton Friedman believed, "Mitchell is generally considered primarily an empirical scientist rather than a theorist." However, Mitchell's main creative efforts went into his empirical work on business cycles. Mitchell stated an endogenous theory, based on the internal dynamics of capitalism. Whereas neoclassical theories are deduced from unproven psychological axioms, he builds his theory from inductive generalities gained from empirical research. Also, he was considered a critic of conventional economic theory. As influenced greatly by Veblen, Mitchell is usually categorized with him as an American institutionalist.

## Bibliography

* *A History of the Greenbacks,* University of Chicago Press, 1903. ISBN 978-0-548-15056-6
* *Gold Prices and Wages Under the Greenback Standard,* University of California Press, 1908. ISBN 978-0-678-00200-1
* *Business Cycles,* University of California Press, 1913. ISBN 978-0-8337-2407-6
* Mitchell, Wesley C. (November 1914). "Human Behavior and Economics: A Survey of Recent Literature". *The Quarterly Journal of Economics*. **29** (1): 1–47. doi:10.2307/1885296. JSTOR 1885296.
* The Making and Using of Index Numbers, *Bulletin of the US Bureau of Labor Statistics,* 1915. ISBN 978-0-678-00098-4
* *Business Cycles: The Problem and its Setting,*  New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1927. ISBN 978-0-405-07608-4
* *The Backward Art of Spending Money: and other essays,*  New York: McGraw-Hill, 1937. ISBN 978-0-7658-0611-6
* *Measuring Business Cycles* (with A.F. Burns), New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1946. ISBN 978-0-87014-085-3
* *What Happens During Business Cycles,*  New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1951. ISBN 978-0-87014-088-4
* *Types of Economic Theory from Mercantilism to Institutionalism,*  ed. Joseph Dorfman, 2 vols. New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1967. (Reconstructed from Mitchell's lecture notes). ISBN 978-0-678-00234-6

There is a bibliography in the volume edited by Burns (below). Lucy Sprague Mitchell, Wesley Mitchell's wife, wrote the book *Two lives; the story of Wesley Clair Mitchell and myself* (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1953).

## Further reading

* Burns, Arthur Frank (1952). *Wesley Clair Mitchell: The Economic Scientist*. National Bureau of Economic Research.
* Fiorito, Luca, and Massimiliano Vatiero. "Wesley Clair Mitchell and the 'Illiberal Reformers' A Documentary Note." *History of Political Economy* 53.1 (2021): 35-56. online
* Ginzberg, Eli. "Wesley Clair Mitchell" *History of Political Economy* (1997) 29#3 pp 371–390. Reproduces autobiographical essay written in 1931 but never published.
* Kuznets, Simon (1949). "Wesley Clair Mitchell, 1874-1948: An Appreciation". *Journal of the American Statistical Association*. **44** (245): 126–131. doi:10.1080/01621459.1949.10483297.
* Morgan, Mary S. (1992). *The History of Econometric Ideas*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42465-3. Morgan compares Mitchell's approach to business cycles with both earlier and later approaches.
* Rutherford, Malcolm. "Institutional Economies at Columbia University." *History of Political Economy* 36.1 (2004): 31-78 online.
* Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1950). "Wesley Clair Mitchell (1874–1948)". *Quarterly Journal of Economics*. **64** (1): 139–155. doi:10.2307/1881963. JSTOR 1881963.

## InfoBox

| Wesley Clair Mitchell | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | (1874-08-05)August 5, 1874
Rushville, Illinois, U.S. |
| Died | October 29, 1948(1948-10-29) (aged 74)
New York City, U.S. |
|  | |
| Academic career | |
| Field | Political economics
Macroeconomics |
| Institution | NBER (1920–1945)
Columbia University (1913–1944)
UC Berkeley (1903–1912)
University of Chicago (1899–1903) |
| School or
tradition | Institutional economics |
| Alma mater | University of Chicago |
| Doctoral
advisor | J. Laurence Laughlin |
| Doctoral
students | Simon Kuznets
Arthur F. Burns
Raymond J. Saulnier |
| Influences | Thorstein Veblen
John Dewey |
| Contributions | Empirical research on Business cycles |
|  | |


title: Rafael Parra

abstract: Rafael Parra was the president of the Venezuelan state of Zulia and a Venezuelan general. He died in October 1912, in Curaçao.

text:
# Rafael Parra

**Rafael Parra** was the president of the Venezuelan state of Zulia and a Venezuelan general. He died in October 1912, in Curaçao.

## President of Zulia

Parra was appointed the President of Zulia in 1877, by the new President of Venezuela, Francisco Linares Alcántara. He arrived in Maracaibo on 22 September 1877. He held the office for three terms, between 1877 and 1878 and again in 1891. One of his first acts (before he arrived in Maracaibo) was to create a Board for reconstructing the Baralt Theatre. Parra signed off on the demolition and rebuild of the old Baralt Theatre on 28 July 1877; he laid the first stone of the new building in a ceremony on 7 October 1877. The new theatre was inaugurated on 24 July 1883; the inauguration was combined with traditional festivities for the birthday of Simón Bolívar.

In 1877, Parra voiced his support of the Maracaibo aqueduct. Not yet under construction, the aqueduct had been approved for consideration on 23 February 1877. This year, the state had brought an American or English engineer called Turner to Maracaibo to consult on aqueducts for the large Lake Maracaibo; state legislature authorized for Parra to employ Turner, but Turner died shortly thereafter and work did not begin.

He unsuccessfully sought re-election in 1880, for which there were three candidates. The election campaigning was seen as violent. In 1891, he returned to the presidency, taking office on 25 January and touring the various districts of Zulia in July that year. During 1891, Parra also introduced a new postal system to Zulia and was involved in establishing the design of a stamp for Zulia; he decreed that the state would have its own stamp and system, but this had not been authorized by the Venezuelan government. Parra produced 50,000 stamps, which featured the new shield of state. These never left the Maracaibo customs office until 1896, when the new President of Zulia, Jesús Muñoz Tébar, paid the fiscal value of the stamps and had many sent to the Venezuelan army to be destroyed (they were technically illegal), also sending some to the personal collection of David Belloso Rossell.

## Personal life

Parra was married to Gregoria Martínez, and their son Hermócrates Parra was born on 19 February 1867 in La Villa del Rosario. Hermócrates was a surveyor and civil engineer in Zulia; he was one of the state's first engineers and constructed much of the city's infrastructure. After working in North America, Hermócrates later became a politician in Zulia.


title: Two pound coin

abstract: The British two pound coin (£2) is a denomination of sterling coinage. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s release. Three different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the current design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The reverse design features Britannia. The coin was released on 15 June 1998 after a review of the United Kingdom's coinage decided that a general-circulation £2 coin was needed. The new bi-metallic coin design replaced a series of commemorative, uni-metallic coins which were issued between 1986 and 1996 to celebrate special occasions. Although legal tender, those earlier coins had never been common in everyday circulation. As of March 2014 there were an estimated 417 million £2 coins in circulation with an estimated face value of £834 million. Beyond the usual commemorative versions, no standard two pound coins have been minted for general circulation since 2016, although examples have been issued in uncirculated sets at a premium. This was because the concurrent introduction of the new version of the one pound coin had put enough £2 coins back into circulation, as people emptied coin jars primarily for the older one pound coin that was due to be withdrawn. £2 coins are legal tender to any amount when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.

text:
# Two pound coin

The British **two pound coin** (**£2**) is a denomination of sterling coinage. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s release. Three different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the current design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The reverse design features Britannia.

The coin was released on 15 June 1998 (coins minted 1997) after a review of the United Kingdom's coinage decided that a general-circulation £2 coin was needed. The new bi-metallic coin design replaced a series of commemorative, uni-metallic coins which were issued between 1986 and 1996 to celebrate special occasions. Although legal tender, those earlier coins had never been common in everyday circulation.

As of March 2014 there were an estimated 417 million £2 coins in circulation with an estimated face value of £834 million.

Beyond the usual commemorative versions, no standard two pound coins have been minted for general circulation since 2016, although examples have been issued in uncirculated sets at a premium. This was because the concurrent introduction of the new version of the one pound coin had put enough £2 (and 20 pence) coins back into circulation, as people emptied coin jars primarily for the older one pound coin that was due to be withdrawn.

£2 coins are legal tender to any amount when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.

## Design

The original reverse of the coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, is an abstract design symbolising the history of technological achievement, accompanied by the words TWO POUNDS above, and the year of minting below. This was the first bi-metallic coin to be produced for circulation in Britain since the tin farthing with a copper plug produced in 1692, and is the highest denomination coin in common circulation in the UK. The coin consists of an outer yellow metal nickel-brass ring made from 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel, and an inner steel-coloured cupro-nickel disc made from 75% copper, 25% nickel. The coin weighs 12 grams (0.42 oz) and is 2.84 centimetres (1.12 in) in diameter.

The design itself was first tried out in 1994 when the Royal Mint produced a short run of demonstration pieces to the new bi-metal standard. These pieces were not for circulation and were simply intended to test the manufacturing process. The coin was technically similar to the version which eventually entered circulation with the Maklouf effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and the image of a sailing ship similar to that previously used on the reverse of the pre-decimal halfpenny piece. The inscription on the reverse read ROYAL MINT TRIAL 1994 with an edge inscription based on the one pound coin which read DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI XLVI, meaning "An ornament and a safeguard – \[in the\] 46th year of \[her\] reign". The 1994 pieces were never legal tender but were eventually released for sale as part of a presentation set in 1998. At the same time in 1994 the Royal Mint produced a mono-metallic trial two-pound coin, with the same ship reverse and inscription, but otherwise similar to the earlier commemorative coins. These were never issued in presentation sets, and so are much scarcer than the bi-metallic version.

Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins, which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, were not released to circulation until June 1998 (the same time as the 1998-dated coins). Coins dated 1998 and later bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D on the obverse; the Rank-Broadley coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF.

The reverse of the regular-issue coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, bears a concentric design symbolically representing technological development from the Iron Age, through the Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Age to the Internet, with the inscription TWO POUNDS above the design and the date below. An oddity of the design is that it depicts nineteen interlocking gears. Because there is an odd number of them, the mechanism could not actually turn. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS, a quote taken from a letter by Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, in which he describes how his work was built on the knowledge of those that had gone before him. "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." Newton was Warden and later Master of the Royal Mint.

In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced that a new design featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort would replace the previous design. The new coins feature the edge inscription QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, meaning "I claim the four seas", an inscription previously featured on coins bearing the image of Britannia.

In October 2023 the King Charles III two-pound coin was presented; the coin features the national flowers - a rose for England, a daffodil for Wales, a thistle for Scotland and a shamrock for Northern Ireland. The coin has the edge inscription IN SERVITIO OMNIUM ("In the service of all"), taken from the King's inaugural speech in September 2022.

## Variants

In addition to the standard designs there have been several variant reverse designs used on the £2 coin to commemorate important events. These are summarised in the table below.

Uni-Metallic
| Year | Event | Design | Edge Inscription | Designer | Mintage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1986 | XIII Commonwealth Games | Cross of St Andrew, crown of laurel leaves and Scottish Thistle | XIII COMMONWEALTH GAMES SCOTLAND 1986 | Norman Sillman | 8,212,184 |
| 1989 | Tercentenary of the Bill of Rights | Cypher of 'W&M' (King William and Queen Mary) interlaced surmounting a horizontal Parliamentary Mace and representation of the Royal Crown above and the dates 1689 and 1989 below, all within the inscription 'Tercentenary of the Bill of Rights' | None (milled) | John Lobban | 4,392,825 |
| 1989 | Tercentenary of the Claim of Right | Cypher of 'W&M' (King William and Queen Mary) interlaced surmounting a horizontal Parliamentary Mace and representation of the Royal Crown above and the dates 1689 and 1989 below, all within the inscription 'Tercentenary of the Claim of Right' | None (milled) | John Lobban | 381,400 |
| 1994 | Tercentenary of the Bank of England | The Bank's Corporate Seal including the Crown and Cypher of King William and Queen Mary and the dates 1694–1994 | SIC VOS NON VOBIS<br>(Translation \> "Thus we do, but not for ourselves") | Leslie Durbin | 1,443,116 |
| 1995 | 50th Anniversary of the end of the Second World War | A stylised representation of a Dove as the symbol of peace | 1945 IN PEACE GOODWILL 1995 | John Mills | 4,394,566 |
| 1995 | 50th Anniversary of the founding of the United Nations | 50th anniversary symbol of United Nations and a fanning pattern of flags with the inscription NATIONS UNITED FOR PEACE above and the dates '1945–1995' below | None (milled) | Michael Rizzello | 1,668,575 |
| 1996 | 10th European Football Championship | A stylised representation of a football, with the date of 1996 centrally placed and encircled by sixteen small rings | TENTH EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP | John Mills | 5,141,350 |
|

Bi-Metallic Coins (Images: )
| Year | Event | Design | Edge Inscription | Designer | Mintage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1999 | 1999 Rugby World Cup | Design depicts a stadium, on which is superimposed a rugby ball and goalpost. The date '1999' above separated by goal-posts from the value 'TWO POUNDS' below | RUGBY WORLD CUP 1999 | Ron Dutton | 4,933,000 |
| 2001 | 100th Anniversary of Marconi's 1st Wireless Transmission across the Atlantic | Radio waves decorating centre and outer border while a spark of electricity linking the zeros of the date represents the generation of the signal | WIRELESS BRIDGES THE ATLANTIC...MARCONI 1901... | Robert Evans | 4,558,000 |
| 2002 | XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester (England) | Stylised figure of an athlete holding a banner and the inscription XVII Commonwealth Games 2002. This variant contains the flag of England featured beside the athlete | SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP, MANCHESTER 2002 | Matthew Bonaccorsi | 650,500 |
| 2002 | XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester (Scotland) | Stylised figure of an athlete holding a banner and the inscription XVII Commonwealth Games 2002. This variant contains the flag of Scotland featured beside the athlete | SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP, MANCHESTER 2002 | Matthew Bonaccorsi | 771,750 |
| 2002 | XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester (Wales) | Stylised figure of an athlete holding a banner and the inscription XVII Commonwealth Games 2002. This variant contains the flag of Wales featured beside the athlete | SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP, MANCHESTER 2002 | Matthew Bonaccorsi | 588,500 |
| 2002 | XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester (Northern Ireland) | Stylised figure of an athlete holding a banner and the inscription XVII Commonwealth Games 2002. This variant contains the Ulster Banner featured beside the athlete | SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP, MANCHESTER 2002 | Matthew Bonaccorsi | 485,500 |
| 2003 | 50th Anniversary of the discovery of DNA | A representation of the double helical structure of DNA with the words DNA Double Helix above and 'TWO POUNDS' and the dates '1953–2003' below | DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID | John Mills | 4,299,000 |
| 2004 | 200th Anniversary of the first steam locomotive by Richard Trevithick | A representation of a steam locomotive engine with the words 'TWO POUNDS' above and inside a cog wheel, the words R.TREVITHICK 1804 INVENTION INDUSTRY PROGRESS 2004 as a circumscription | None (milled with an incuse railway line motif) | Robert Lowe | 5,004,500 |
| 2005 | 400th anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot | An arrangement of crossiers, maces and swords surrounded by stars and the dates 1605 & 2005. Denomination TWO POUNDS below | REMEMBER REMEMBER THE FIFTH OF NOVEMBER | Peter Forster | 5,140,500 |
| 2005 | 60th anniversary of Victory in Europe Day | Design depicts St Paul's Cathedral illuminated by searchlights and the value 'TWO POUNDS' sbove and the dates 1945–2005 below | IN VICTORY MAGNANIMITY IN PEACE GOODWILL | Bob Elderton | 10,191,000 |
| 2006 | Bicentennial of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel | Depiction of a section of the roof of Paddington Station with the dates 2006 above and the name BRUNEL to the right and the denomination TWO POUNDS below | SO MANY IRONS IN THE FIRE | Robert Evans | 7,452,250 |
| 2006 | Bicentennial of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel | A portrait of Isambard Kingdom Brunel with two of his engineering achievements, encircled by a chain with the denomination TWO POUNDS above and the date 2006 below | 1806–1859 ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL ENGINEER | Rod Kelly | 7,928,250 |
| 2007 | Tercentenary of the Act of Union between England and Scotland | A design dividing the coin into four quarters, with a rose and a thistle occupying two of the quarters and a portcullis in each of the other two quarters. The whole design is overlaid with a linking jigsaw motif and surrounded by the dates "1707" and "2007", and the denomination "TWO POUNDS" | UNITED INTO ONE KINGDOM | Yvonne Holton | 7,545,000 |
| 2007 | Bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire | The date "1807" with the "0" depicted as a broken chain link, surrounded by the inscription "AN ACT FOR THE ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE TRADE" and the date "2007" | AM I NOT A MAN AND A BROTHER | David Gentleman | 8,445,000 |
| 2008 | Olympic Handover Ceremony | A flag showing the five Olympic rings being passed from a hand on the left to a hand on the right. The surrounding inscription reads "BEIJING 2008" left of image and "LONDON 2012" to right. The London 2012 olympic logo is at the bottom of the coin overlapping both metals | I CALL UPON THE YOUTH OF THE WORLD | The Royal Mint Engraving Team | 918,000 |
| 2008 | The Centenary of the London Olympic Games of 1908 | Four lanes of a running track extend from bottom left and converge into distance towards top right. The lane numbers show "1908" across the lanes with "TWO POUNDS 2008" written along the lanes. The inscription "LONDON OLYMPIC CENTENARY" is shown around the upper right half of the coin | THE 4TH OLYMPIAD LONDON | Thomas T Docherty | 910,000 |
| 2009 | 250th Anniversary of the birth of Robert Burns | A handwriting style of font reads \[sic\] "we'll tak a cup a' kindness yet, for auld lang syne". The inscription "1759 ROBERT BURNS 1796" above, "TWO POUNDS" below | SHOULD AULD ACQUAINTANCE BE FORGOT | The Royal Mint Engraving Team | 3,253,000 |
| 2009 | 200th Anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth | A profile portrait of Charles Darwin on left, facing right, stares into the face of a chimpanzee on right, facing left. The inscription "1809 . DARWIN . 2009" above, "TWO POUNDS" below | ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES 1859 | Suzie Zamit | 3,903,000 |
| 2010 | 100th Anniversary of the death of Florence Nightingale | The design portrays a pulse being taken, whilst the background symbolises the rays of light from the lamp that Florence Nightingale was known for carrying during her rounds to tend to the wounded troops in the Crimean War. Surrounded by the inscription "1820 – FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE – 1910" with "TWO POUNDS" below | 150 YEARS OF NURSING | Gordon Summers | 6,175,000 |
| 2011 | 400th Anniversary of the King James Bible | The design features typeset in a replica of the black letter typeface used in the first edition: the reversed, raised text of the printing block on the left and the recessed text of the printed word on the right, taking the form of the quote, ‘In the beginning was the Word’ (John 1:1).’ Inscription "KING JAMES BIBLE" above, "1611–2011" below | THE AUTHORISED VERSION | Paul Stafford & Benjamin Wright | 975,000 |
| 2011 | 500th Anniversary of the maiden voyage of the *Mary Rose* | The Mary Rose sailing right, based upon a 1546 pictorial survey of Henry VIII's navy. Inscription "THE MARY ROSE" above, "TWO POUNDS" below | YOUR NOBLEST SHIPPE 1511 | John Bergdahl | 1,040,000 |
| 2012 | 200th Anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens | A profile outline of Charles Dickens, facing left, created from the titles of Dickens’ famous works. Inscription "1812 CHARLES DICKENS 1870" to left | SOMETHING WILL TURN UP | Matthew Dent | 8,190,000 |
| 2012 | The London 2012 Handover to Rio | The design depicts the moment of a baton handover in a relay race. The hand holding the baton descends from top right, above a sweeping UK flag which twists to become the flag of Brazil below the hand reaching up from bottom left to take the baton. Inscription "LONDON 2012" top left, "RIO 2016" bottom right. The London 2012 olympic logo is at the very top of the coin | I CALL UPON THE YOUTH OF THE WORLD | Jonathan Olliffe | 845,000 |
| 2013 | London Underground 150th Anniversary – The Train | The front of a tube train (1967 stock) fills the cupro-nickel centre of the coin as if approaching out of a tunnel formed by the surrounding nickel-brass outer ring of the coin. Inscription "1863 · LONDON UNDERGROUND · 2013" above | Linear representation of the Tube map | Edward Barber and Jay Osgerby | 1,690,000 |
| 2013 | London Underground 150th Anniversary – The Roundel | A representation of the London Underground logo with "1863" above and "2013" below | MIND THE GAP | Edwina Ellis | 1,560,000 |
| 2013 | The 350th Anniversary of the Guinea | A recreation of the design on what became known as the "spade guinea": a shield with the arms of King George III. Surrounding inscription "ANNIVERSARY OF THE GOLDEN GUINEA 2013" | WHAT IS A GUINEA? ‘TIS A SPLENDID THING (Stephen Kemble quotation) | Anthony Smith ARBS | 2,990,000 |
| 2014 | 100th Anniversary of the Outbreak of the First World War | A representation of the famous recruitment poster featuring Lord Kitchener with the legend "YOUR COUNTRY NEEDS YOU". Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914–1918" with "2014" below | THE LAMPS ARE GOING OUT ALL OVER EUROPE | John Bergdahl | 5,720,000 |
| 2014 | 500th Anniversary of Trinity House | The beacon of a lighthouse shining out to left and right. Surrounding inscription "1514 TRINITY HOUSE 2014" with "TWO POUNDS" below. | SERVING THE MARINER | Joe Whitlock-Blundell and David Eccles | 3,705,000 |
| 2015 | 800th Anniversary of Magna Carta | King John is signing the Charter witnessed by a bishop and baron. Surrounding inscription "MAGNA CARTA" with "1215 - 2015" below | FOUNDATION OF LIBERTY | John Bergdahl | 1,495,000 |
| 2015 | The Royal Navy | *Iron Duke*-class battleship in profile with a lone seaplane on the starboard side and sea birds on the port side. Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914 - 1918" with "2015" below | THE SURE SHIELD OF BRITAIN | David Rowlands | 650,000 |
| 2016 | William Shakespeare | Comedy \- Jester's hat and stick. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below | ALL THE WORLD'S A STAGE | John Bergdahl | 4,355,000 |
| 2016 | William Shakespeare | History \- crown with a dagger through the middle of the crown. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below | THE HOLLOW CROWN (quote from *Richard II*) | John Bergdahl | 5,655,000 |
| 2016 | William Shakespeare | Tragedy \- skull with a rose. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below | WHAT A PIECE OF WORK IS A MAN | John Bergdahl | 4,615,000 |
| 2016 | The Army | Profile outline of three First World War soldiers. Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918" with "2016" below | FOR KING AND COUNTRY | John Bergdahl | 9,550,000 |
| 2016 | The Great Fire of London | London burning, with boats on the River Thames in the foreground. Surrounding inscription "1666 THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON 2016" with "TWO POUNDS" below | THE WHOLE CITY IN DREADFUL FLAMES | Aaron West | 1,625,000 |

Non-circulating Designs
| Year | Event | Design | Edge Inscription | Designer | Mintage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2017 | Jane Austen | Silhouette of Jane Austen's head, overlaid by her signature. | THERE IS NO DOING WITHOUT MONEY (quote from *Northanger Abbey*) | Dominique Evans | 0 |
| 2017 | First World War Aviation | Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8, carrying a pilot and his observer, taking reconnaissance photography over the Battle of Arras. | THE SKY RAINED HEROES | Dan Flashman | 0 |
| 2018 | 100th Anniversary of the Royal Air Force | Badge of the Royal Air Force, surrounded by the inscription "THE 100TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ROYAL AIR FORCE", with "1918-2018" below | PER ARDUA AD ASTRA (also present on reverse as part of badge) | Rhys Morgan | 0 |
| 2018 | The 100th Anniversary of the First World War Armistice | Inscription: "THE TRUTH UNTOLD THE PITY OF WAR", with surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR ARMISTICE 1918" | WILFRED OWEN KILLED IN ACTION 4 NOV 1918 | Stephen Raw | 0 |
| 2018 | 250th Anniversary of Captain Cook's Epic Voyage | The stern of HM Bark *Endeavour*, Captain Cook’s famous ship, leaving Plymouth with the ensign visible alongside 250 to mark the anniversary with Cook's signature below. | OCEANI INVESTIGATOR ACERRIMVS ("a keen explorer of the ocean") | Gary Breeze | 0 |
| 2018 | The 200th Anniversary of the publication of *Frankenstein* |  | A SPARK OF BEING | Thomas Docherty | 0 |
| 2019 | 260th Anniversary of Wedgwood | Wedgwood vase. Surrounding inscription "WEDGWOOD" with "1759-2019" below | EVERYTHING GIVES WAY TO EXPERIMENT | Wedgewood Design Team | 0 |
| 2019 | 350th Anniversary of the last diary entry of Samuel Pepys | Hand holding quill pen over sheet of paper with Pepys' signature and the date "MAY 31 1669". Surrounding inscription "SAMUEL PEPYS DIARIST" with "1669-2019" below | THE GOOD GOD PREPARE ME | Gary Breeze | 0 |
| 2019 | 75th Anniversary of the D-Day Landings | Strategic Arrows pointing to the Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword sectors of Normandy Coast, with 2019 below | THE LONGEST DAY | Stephen Taylor | 0 |
| 2019 | 250th Anniversary of Captain James Cook's Time in Tahiti | The middle half of HM Bark Endeavour, with inscription "1769 - 2019 CAPTAIN JAMES COOK" surrounding | OCEANI INVESTIGATOR ACERRIMVS | Gary Breeze | 0 |
| 2020 | 400th Anniversary of the voyage of the *Mayflower* | The Titular Mayflower, with "MAYFLOWER 1620 - 2020" inscribed around | UNDERTAKEN FOR THE GLORY OF GOD | Chris Costello | 0 |
| 2020 | 100th Anniversary of the Murder Mysteries of Agatha Christie | Puzzle Pieces, with "100 YEARS OF MYSTERY 1920 - 2020" inscribed around | LITTLE GREY CELLS | David Lawrence | 0 |
| 2020 | 75th Anniversary of VE Day | A crowd celebrating, "VICTORY" in the background and "1945 - 2020 VICTORY IN EUROPE DAY" inscribed around | JUST TRIUMPH AND PROUD SORROW | Dominique Evans | 0 |
| 2020 | The 250th Anniversary of Captain James Cook's Voyage of Discovery | The front half of HM Bark *Endeavour*, with inscription "CAPTAIN JAMES COOK 1770 - 2020" surrounding | OCEANI INVESTIGATOR ACERRIMVS | Gary Breeze | 0 |
| 2021 | 75th Anniversary of the death of H. G. Wells | Depictions of the Invisible Man and a Martian, surrounded by clock numerals, "2021 H.G.WELLS" inscribed below | GOOD BOOKS ARE THE WAREHOUSES OF IDEAS | Christ Costello | 0 |
| 2021 | 250th Anniversary of the birth of Sir Walter Scott | Depiction of Sir Walter Scott, with "250th ANNIVERSARY OF HIS BIRTH" inscribed above, "SIR WALTER SCOTT NOVELIST, HISTORIAN, POET" inscribed in the middle ring and 2021 inscribed below | THE WILL TO DO, THE SOUL TO DARE | Stephen Raw | 0 |
| 2022 | The 100th Anniversary of the death of Alexander Graham Bell | Depiction of the buttons of a telephone, with "PIONEER OF THE TELEPHONE 1847 1922" split across each button | INNOVATION IN SCIENCE BELL | Henry Gray | 0 |
| 2022 | Celebrating the life and legacy of Dame Vera Lynn | Vera Lynn, with "DAME VERA LYNN 1917 - 2020" inscribed to the left | WE'LL MEET AGAIN | The Royal Mint Engraving Team | 0 |
| 2022 | Celebrating 150 Years of the FA Cup | The 2014 FA Cup, with "CELEBRATING 150 YEARS OF THE FA CUP" inscribed around it | FOOTBALL's GREATEST CUP COMPETITION | Matt Dent and Christian Davies | 0 |
| 2022 | 25 Years of the £2 Coin | The definitive version of the £2 coin from 1997, but with the number "25" in the central hologram | STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS | Bruce Rushin | 0 |
| 2023 | 50th Anniversary of the death of J. R. R. Tolkien | Monogram of J.R.R. Tolkien | NOT ALL THOSE WHO WANDER ARE LOST | David Lawrence | 0 |
| 2023 | 200th Anniversary of death of Edward Jenner | A crowd of miniature people surrounding a smallpox virus | INNOVATION IN SCIENCE JENNER | Henry Gray | 0 |
| 2023 | Centenary of the *Flying Scotsman* | The Flying Scotsman steaming, "LNER 4472 1923 - 2023" inscribed below | LIVE FOR THE JOURNEY | John Bergdahl | 0 |
| 2023 | Ada Lovelace |  | INNOVATION IN SCIENCE LOVELACE | Osborne Ross | 0 |
| 2024 | Celebrating 200 Years of the National Gallery | The front of the National Gallery | MAIORVM GLORIA POSTERIS LVMEN EST | Edwina Ellis | 0 |
| 2024 | 150th Anniversary of Sir Winston Churchill's Birth | A Young Winston Churchill, with the dates 1874 - 1965 flanking him | PAVE THE WAY FOR PEACE AND FREEDOM | Natasha Seaward | 0 |

## "Inverted effigy" coins

In 2015, a small number of £2 coins entered circulation that featured the Queen’s head rotated clockwise by approximately 150 degrees. The Royal Mint stated that the misalignment of the Queen’s effigy was "almost certainly the result of one of the dies working loose and rotating during the striking process". Change Checker, a coin dealing website, suggest that the Inverted Effigy may have affected as few as around just 3,250 coins.

## Mintages

| Uni-metallic coin |
| --- |
| * 1986 ~ 8,212,184 (Commonwealth Games - Edinburgh) * 1989 ~ 4,392,825 (Bill of Rights - 1689–1989) * 1989 ~ 381,400 (Claim of Right - 1689-1989 Scotland) * 1989 ~ 4,777,891 (in all versions, including Proofs) * 1994 ~ 1,443,116 (Tercentenary of the Bank of England) * 1995 ~ 4,394,566 (50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War) * 1995 ~ 1,668,575 (50th anniversary of founding of the United Nations) * 1996 ~ 5,141,350 (10th European Football Championship) |

| Bi-metallic coin – total |
| --- |
| * 1997 ~ 13,734,625 * 1998 ~ 91,110,375 * 1999 ~ 33,719,000 * 2000 ~ 25,770,000 * 2001 ~ 34,984,750 * 2002 ~ 13,024,750 * 2003 ~ 17,531,250 * 2004 ~ 11,981,500 * 2005 ~ 3,837,250 * 2006 ~ 16,715,000 * 2007 ~ 10,270,000 * 2008 ~ 30,107,000 * 2009 ~ 8,775,000 * 2010 ~ 6,890,000 * 2011 ~ 24,375,030 * 2012 ~ 3,900,000 * 2013 ~ 15,860,250 * 2014 ~ 18,200,000 * 2015 ~ 35,360,058 * 2015 ~ 650,000 (Britannia) * 2016 ~ 2,925,000 (Britannia) * 2017 ~ 0 (zero) (Britannia or Shield) * 2018 ~ 0 (zero) * 2019 ~ 0 (zero) * 2020 ~ 0 (zero) * 2021 ~ 6,045,000 (Britannia) * 2022 ~ 4,030,000 (Britannia) |

| Bi-metallic coin – commemoratives issued into circulation |
| --- |
| * 1999 ~ 4,933,000 (Rugby World Cup) * 2001 ~ 4,558,000 (Marconi) * 2002 ~ 771,750 (Commonwealth Games – Scotland) * 2002 ~ 588,500 (Commonwealth Games – Wales) * 2002 ~ 485,500 (Commonwealth Games – Northern Ireland) * 2002 ~ 650,500 (Commonwealth Games – England) * 2003 ~ 4,299,000 (DNA) * 2004 ~ 5,004,500 (Trevithick) * 2005 ~ 10,191,000 (World War Two) * 2005 ~ 5,140,500 (Gunpowder Plot) * 2006 ~ 7,928,250 (Brunel – portrait) * 2006 ~ 7,452,250 (Brunel – achievements) * 2007 ~ 7,545,000 (Act of Union) * 2007 ~ 8,445,000 (Abolition of Slave Trade) * 2008 ~ 910,000 (1908 Olympic Games) * 2008 ~ 918,000 (Beijing Olympic Games Handover) * 2009 ~ 3,903,000 (Charles Darwin) * 2009 ~ 3,253,000 (Robert Burns) * 2010 ~ 6,175,000 (Florence Nightingale) * 2011 ~ 975,000 (King James Bible) * 2011 ~ 1,040,000 (The Mary Rose) * 2012 ~ 845,000 (Rio Olympic Games Handover) * 2012 ~ 8,190,000 (Charles Dickens – 200th Anniversary) * 2013 ~ 1,690,000 (London Underground – train) * 2013 ~ 1,560,000 (London Underground – roundel) * 2013 ~ 2,990,000 (Anniversary of the Guinea) * 2014 ~ 5,720,000 (Anniversary of the Outbreak of the First World War) * 2014 ~ 3,705,000 (500th Anniversary of Trinity House) * 2015 ~ 1,495,000 (800th Anniversary of Magna Carta) * 2015 ~ 650,000 (The Royal Navy) * 2015 ~ 650,000 (Britannia) * 2016 ~ 4,355,000 (William Shakespeare - Comedy) * 2016 ~ 5,655,000 (William Shakespeare - History) * 2016 ~ 4,615,000 (William Shakespeare - Tragedy) * 2016 ~ 9,550,000 (First World War Army) * 2016 ~ 1,625,000 (The Great Fire of London) * 2016 ~ 2,925,000 (Britannia) * 2017 ~ 0 (zero) (Britannia) * 2018 ~ 0 (zero) (Britannia) * 2019 ~ 0 (zero) (Britannia) * 2020 ~ 0 (zero) (Britannia) * 2021 ~ 6,045,000 (Britannia) * 2022 ~ 4,030,000 (Britannia) |

1. Two Pound Coin Designs and Specifications, Royal Mint
2. "Mintage Figures". Royal Mint. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
3. "Why the Royal Mint stopped making 20p coins". *BBC News*. 10 May 2019.
4. A symbol of optimism BRITANNIA RETURNS Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-03-01.
5. "The Definitive 2015 United Kingdom £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin". Royal Mint. 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
6. Thomas Snelling (1762). *A View of the Silver Coin and Coinage of England, from the Norman Conquest to the Present Time: Consider'd with Regard to Type, Legend, Sorts, Rarity, Weight, Fineness and Value : with Copper Plates*. T. Snelling. p. 34.
7. BBC
8. The Royal Mint
9. King James £2 coin issued, Royal Mint
10. London 2012 Handover to Rio – the final London 2012 coin, Royal Mint
11. "The Royal Mint announces coins for 2014". *Royal Mint*. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
12. 800th Anniversary of the Magna Carta 2015 UK £2 BU Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2014-11-13.
13. The Royal Navy 2015 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2014-11-13.
14. The Shakespeare 2016 UK £2 Three-Coin BU Set Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
15. The Army 2016 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
16. Great Fire of London 2016 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
17. Coin Week (www.coinweek.com). Retrieved on 2018-03-16.
18. "Just Discovered: Rare "Inverted Effigy" £2 Coin". *Change Checker*. 17 January 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
19. "Commemorative £2 coins struck to circulating standard, 1986-96". Royal Mint. 2008. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
20. United Kingdom decimal coins issued into general circulation, Royal Mint. Retrieved 2014-05-08.

## InfoBox

Two pounds
| United Kingdom | |
| --- | --- |
| Value | £2 |
| Mass | 12 g |
| Diameter | 28.4 mm |
| Thickness | 2.5 mm |
| Edge | Milled, with incuse lettering |
| Composition | Outer ring: Nickel-brass<br>(76% Cu, 20% Zn and 4% Ni)<br>Centre: Cupro-nickel<br>(75% Cu, 25% Ni) |
| Years of minting | 1997–present |
| Obverse | |
|  | |
| Design | Queen Elizabeth II |
| Designer | Jody Clark |
| Design date | 2015 |
| Reverse | |
|  | |
| Design | Britannia |
| Designer | Antony Dufort |
| Design date | 2015 |


title: MMSAT-1

abstract: MMSAT-1 was a Burmese microsatellite launched to the International Space Station (ISS) on 20 February 2021 and deployed into orbit from the ISS on 22 March 2021. It was Myanmar's first microsatellite and jointly built by Japan's Hokkaido University and Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University. It was delivered to the ISS by the American cargo spacecraft Cygnus NG-15. MMSAT-1 was temporarily held on ISS and its deployment was delayed due to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état. It was deployed into orbit on 22 March 2021. MMSAT-1 was intended to be used not only for environmental observation and mineral exploration, but also for natural disaster control, but human rights activists worried that the satellite could be used for military purposes. According to Hokkaido University, as Myanmar did not yet have the necessary equipment, the satellite would initially be operated from Japan. MMSAT-1 reentered the atmosphere on 4 April 2023.

text:
# MMSAT-1

**MMSAT-1** (also known as **Lawkanat-1**) was a Burmese microsatellite launched to the International Space Station (ISS) on 20 February 2021 and deployed into orbit from the ISS on 22 March 2021. It was Myanmar's first microsatellite and jointly built by Japan's Hokkaido University and Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University. It was delivered to the ISS by the American cargo spacecraft Cygnus NG-15. MMSAT-1 was temporarily held on ISS and its deployment was delayed due to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état. It was deployed into orbit on 22 March 2021.

MMSAT-1 was intended to be used not only for environmental observation and mineral exploration, but also for natural disaster control, but human rights activists worried that the satellite could be used for military purposes. According to Hokkaido University, as Myanmar did not yet have the necessary equipment, the satellite would initially be operated from Japan.

MMSAT-1 reentered the atmosphere on 4 April 2023.

## InfoBox

MMSAT-1 (Lawkanat-1)
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Mission type | Earth Observation |
| Operator | Myanmar MAEU / Japan Hokkaido University |
| COSPAR ID | 1998-067SJ |
| SATCAT no. | 47976 |
| Mission duration | 2 years, 1 month and 14 days<br>(final) |
|  | |
|  | |
| Spacecraft properties | |
| Bus | Cygnus NG-15 |
| Manufacturer | Japan Hokkaido University / Myanmar MAEU |
| BOL mass | 50 kilograms (110 lb) |
| Dimensions | 50 × 50 × 50 cm |
|  | |
|  | |
| Start of mission | |
| Launch date | 20 February 2021, 17:36:50 (20 February 2021, 17:36:50) |
| Rocket | Antares 230+ |
| Launch site | MARS LP-0A |
| Deployed from | ISS |
| Deployment date | 22 March 2021 (2021-03-22) |
|  | |
|  | |
| End of mission | |
| Decay date | 4 April 2023 |
|  | |
|  | |
| Orbital parameters | |
| Reference system | Geocentric |
| Regime | Low Earth |
| Perigee altitude | 416 km |
| Apogee altitude | 421 km |
| Inclination | 51.6° |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Peddapappur

abstract: Peddapappur is a village in Anantapur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is the mandal headquarters of Peddapappur mandal in Anantapur revenue division.

text:
# Peddapappur

**Peddapappur** is a village in Anantapur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is the mandal headquarters of Peddapappur mandal in Anantapur revenue division.

14°53′04″N 77°51′31″E / 14.88444°N 77.85861°E / 14.88444; 77.85861

## InfoBox

| Peddapappur | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Dynamic map | |
| Country | India |
| State | Andhra Pradesh |
| District | Anantapur |
| Talukas | Tadipatri |
| Population (2001) | |
| Total | 33,556 |
| Languages | |
| Official | Telugu |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
| Vehicle registration | AP |


title: William A. Sahlman

abstract: William A. Sahlman is an American academic. He is a professor emeritus at the Harvard Business School. He has published research about entrepreneurship, including over 150 business cases. He is the co-author or co-editor of three books.

text:
# William A. Sahlman

**William A. Sahlman** is an American academic. He is a professor emeritus at the Harvard Business School. He has published research about entrepreneurship, including over 150 business cases. He is the co-author or co-editor of three books.

## Early life

William A. Sahlman graduated from Princeton University in 1972. He earned a master in business administrator in 1975 and a PhD in Business Economics in 1982 from the Harvard Business School.

## Academia and commentaries

Sahlman began teaching at the Harvard Business School in 1980. He has published research about entrepreneurship, including more than 150 business cases. He is the co-author of a book and the co-editor of two more books.

Sahlman argued that the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was a crisis of corporate management resulting from a disorder of "incentives, risk management and control, accounting, human capital, and culture."

Sahlman suggested that successful business plans need to focus on "the people, the opportunity, the context, and the possibilities for both risk and reward."

With his colleague Josh Lerner, Sahlman argued that several steps could be taken to make entrepreneurship as competitive in the United States as it is in China or Brazil. For example, they suggested that the USG should invest more in business ventures, and use the toolbox of taxes and subsidies to encourage innovation. They also suggested that the government should let entrepreneurs address social ills, as in the case of charter schools. They added educated immigrants should be given green cards to improve the rate of human capital in the United States. Moreover, they suggested that capital markets should be liberated from unnecessary regulations. They also suggested that the government should publish financial data and encourage dialogue between trade organizations, and discourage unfair competition by banning monopolies. Additionally, they noted that the government should do away with Obamacare and encourage entrepreneurship in healthcare; lower taxes; find the right balance in protecting intellectual rights to enable innovation; maintain flexible dismissals; and reduce political gridlock.

## Selected publications

### Books

* Roberts, Michael J., Howard H. Stevenson, William A. Sahlman, Paul Marshall and Richard G. Hamermesh, eds. *New Business Ventures and the Entrepreneur*. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006
* Paul A. Gompers; William Sahlman (2002) \[2001\]. *Entrepreneurial Finance: A Casebook*. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-08066-4. OCLC 634854524.
* Sahlman, William A., Howard H. Stevenson, Michael J Roberts, and Amar V. Bhide. *The Entrepreneurial Venture*. 2nd ed. Harvard Business School Press, 1999

## InfoBox

| William A. Sahlman | |
| --- | --- |
| Education | Princeton University<br>Harvard Business School |
| Occupation | Academic |
| Employer | Harvard Business School |


title: Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash

abstract: [lower-alpha 1] Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash is a 2015 tennis video game in the Mario Tennis series developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo for the Wii U, released internationally in November 2015, and released in Japan in January 2016. It is the first Mario Tennis game to feature simultaneous online worldwide multiplayer. The game received mixed reviews from critics; it was criticized for a lack of additional modes, its smaller character roster than prior entries, and a perceived lack of enough innovation, with many deeming the game to be inferior to previous installments in terms of content, although its visual presentation, gameplay, and multiplayer were praised.

text:
# Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash

***Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash*** is a 2015 tennis video game in the *Mario Tennis* series developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo for the Wii U, released internationally in November 2015, and released in Japan in January 2016. It is the first *Mario Tennis* game to feature simultaneous online worldwide multiplayer. The game received mixed reviews from critics; it was criticized for a lack of additional modes, its smaller character roster than prior entries, and a perceived lack of enough innovation, with many deeming the game to be inferior to previous installments in terms of content, although its visual presentation, gameplay, and multiplayer were praised.

## Gameplay

Before starting a match, players choose from four modes, 16 playable characters, and determine either competing in 1-on-1 matches or 2-on-2 doubles matches. From there, a court option is picked; each court is themed as a different texture of ground, of which effect the ball in speed and bounce. Matches include four occurring abilities: Chance Shots are glowing spots on the ground, and upon standing over it and pressing a certain button combination, allows the player to pull off a powerful move; Jump Shots, an ability that allows the player to jump up and hit the ball resulting in a faster and longer-ranged shot; the titular Ultra Smash, a unique kind of Jump Shot which serves as a punishment mechanic only possible when the opponent loses form when returning a shot and allows the player to perform a very fast and powerful Smash shot; and the Mega Mushroom, a mushroom thrown onto either sides of the court that causes the player to grow in size, allowing stronger and more distant hits on the ball. The game does not require motion controls.

The game has a total of 4 modes, including Mega Battle. Classic Tennis allows for creating a custom rule set, being able to remove Chance Shots, Jump Shots or Mega Mushrooms, making the gameplay similar to that of Mario Tennis games prior to Mario Tennis Open. Knockback Challenge is a single player endurance mode, where the player competes against opponents, increasing in difficulty after each win. Online Multiplayer supports single or multiplayer; players compete against worldwide opponents in either Mega Battle or Classic Tennis.

The game supports amiibo functionality, where the player can train the character through artificial intelligence to compete in matches similarly to the player, in similar fashion to the Super Smash Bros. series. The trained amiibo can compete as an additional competitor in online matches.

## Development

Camelot Software Planning, the creators of previous *Mario Tennis* games, developed *Ultra Smash*. The game, upon its reveal, was announced for Holiday 2015, later being released on November 20, 2015. According to the director, Shugo Takahashi, the developers aimed to create a game that was generally simple enough to "give anyone the taste of how tennis is interesting"; they compared their concept to *Mario Tennis* on the Nintendo 64.

The Jump Shot was an idea requested by Nintendo early into development. It was implemented due to the move having multiple gateway elements that could add a layer of strategy, such as where and how to hit the ball. Mega Battle was proposed by Camelot, of which the idea was created from considering concepts that could be used with HD graphics as the series first HD game. The idea was implemented so players could have "Mario-ish features while playing tennis". Takahashi stated that there was constant trial and error creating larger scale models, such as being able to see the ball and creating a proper hitbox. Similar courses were created to have the sense of unity

Halfway through development, Nintendo wanted the game to have amiibo functionality. They conceptualized the concept of training a character to play like the player, similar to *Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U*. Camelot proceeded with the idea, due to the company being familiar with the role-playing game genre, having developed games of the genre in the past.

*Ultra Smash* also introduced simultaneous worldwide online multiplayer, after *Mario Tennis Open* only featured online multiplayer locked to the game's region. The developers at first thought that "a worldwide online versus would be impossible" but Takahashi believed that "if they could realize it, it would be definitely interesting", so they put a lot of power into making it a reality.

### Characters

> "Speaking of Boo, when we wanted to add the character in MT64, Nintendo was strongly against it. They said 'Boo can't even wield a racket'."

Producer Hiroyuki Takahashi, 2016 *Nintendo Everything* interview

Deciding the roster, Camelot used pre-existing characters from older franchises in hopes that players would gravitate towards characters they recognized. Each character's skills were determined based upon their appearance. Using this, the developers found it difficult to balance the skills for each character alongside opinions of stats from the fans. They considered Mario to be the most difficult to compare and balance, due to him being the "starter character" that could not be too strong or too weak.

## Reception

*Ultra Smash* received "mixed" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.

IGN's Marty Sliva gave the game 4.8 out of 10, calling it "a bare-bones, lackluster addition to Mario's sporting adventures". He also compared it unfavorably to its predecessors by stating "that *Mario Power Tennis* on the GameCube managed to include more characters, interesting modes, and varied courses a decade ago is a bit insulting." GameSpot's Scott Butterworth similarly criticized the lack of game modes and alternate ways to play and awarded the game 6 out of 10. Nintendo World Report's Daan Koopman lambasted the game for all of the game's courts sharing the stadium aesthetic, lacking online friend pairing options, and less features than the previous two entries. Game Informer's Kyle Hilliard praised the game's core gameplay, new HD graphics, and music while also criticizing its lack of content, stating that "*Mario Tennis Ultra Smash* offers that same fun, silly take on tennis, but it doesn’t provide much outside of the well-executed core game." concluding that "There is a great straightforward tennis game here, but little else to hook you in and keep you coming back".

1. "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash - Mario Tennis Comes To The Wii U System". *Nintendo*. Archived from the original on April 12, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
2. Shea, Brian (June 19, 2015). "Mario Tennis Ultra Smash: Flying High And Going Big". Game Informer. Archived from the original on June 20, 2015. Retrieved June 19, 2015.
3. Nunneley, Stephany (October 22, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash supports online multiplayer and multiple controllers". *VG247*. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
4. Porter, Matt (October 22, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash Gets Fresh Faces and New Details". IGN. Archived from the original on October 25, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
5. Schilling, Chris (November 19, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash review". *Eurogamer*. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
6. Ronaghan, Neal (June 21, 2018). "A Brief History of Mario Tennis". *Nintendo World Report*. Archived from the original on November 29, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
7. "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash team on HD development, new characters, amiibo, and online play". *Nintendo Everything*. February 6, 2016. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
8. "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash for Wii U Reviews". Metacritic. Archived from the original on December 4, 2023. Retrieved September 4, 2016.
9. Carter, Chris (November 18, 2015). "Review: Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash". Destructoid. Archived from the original on November 19, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
10. Hilliard, Kyle (November 18, 2015). "Nintendo Drops The Volley - Mario Tennis Ultra Smash - Wii U". Game Informer. Archived from the original on November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
11. Paras, Peter (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash Review". Game Revolution. Archived from the original on November 23, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
12. Butterworth, Scott (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash Review". GameSpot. Archived from the original on November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
13. Arif, Shabana (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash Review". GamesRadar. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
14. Huber, Michael (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash - Review". GameTrailers. Archived from the original on November 21, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
15. Sliva, Marty (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash Review". IGN. Archived from the original on November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
16. Whitehead, Thomas (November 22, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash (Wii U) Review". NintendoLife. Retrieved November 22, 2015.
17. Koopman, Daan (November 18, 2015). "Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash (Wii U) Review". Nintendo World Report. Retrieved November 18, 2015.

## InfoBox

| Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash | |
| --- | --- |
| Packaging artwork, depicting Mario performing a Jump shot | |
| Developer(s) | Camelot Software Planning |
| Publisher(s) | Nintendo |
| Director(s) | Shugo Takahashi |
| Producer(s) |  |
| Designer(s) | * Hiroyuki Takahashi * Shugo Takahashi |
| Programmer(s) | * Haruki Kodera * Yutaka Yamamoto |
| Artist(s) | Teppei Kamata |
| Composer(s) | Motoi Sakuraba |
| Series | *Mario Tennis* |
| Platform(s) | Wii U |
| Release | * NA/EU: November 20, 2015 * AU: November 21, 2015 * JP: January 28, 2016 |
| Genre(s) | Sports |
| Mode(s) | Single-player, multiplayer |


title: Lightspeed (brokerage)

abstract: Lightspeed Trading, LLC offers an electronic trading platform to trade financial assets including common stocks, preferred stocks, futures contracts, exchange-traded funds, options, mutual funds, and fixed income investments. It also provides margin lending, and cash management services.

text:
# Lightspeed (brokerage)

**Lightspeed Trading, LLC** offers an electronic trading platform to trade financial assets including common stocks, preferred stocks, futures contracts, exchange-traded funds, options, mutual funds, and fixed income investments. It also provides margin lending, and cash management services.

## History

In 2006, Lightspeed was formed by the spin off of the professional trader platform of E-Trade.

In 2008, Lightspeed acquired Integrity Trading.

In February 2010, Lightspeed acquired NobleTrading.

In June 2010, Lightspeed received an exclusive license to operate the Anvil Professional Trading Platform.

In October 2010, Lightspeed acquired Terra Nova Financial.

In June 2011, Lightspeed acquired Lime Brokerage International of Ireland.

In July 2011, Lightspeed acquired Greenmoor Financial Group, expanding its offerings in options.

In 2018, it was sold to Wedbush Securities by its prior owner Professional Trading Solutions, which LLR Partners had invested in. In the transaction it merged with Lime Brokerage, LLC, an agency brokerage owned by Wedbush.

In 2020, Lightspeed sold the Lime low-latency execution platform to Score Priority, a New York–based brokerage.

in 2021, Lightspeed acquired Coinigy, a cryptocurrency portfolio management company to create Lightspeed Crypto.

## InfoBox

Lightspeed Trading, LLC
| Company type | Privately held company |
| --- | --- |
| Industry | Financial services |
| Founded | 2006 (2006) |
| Headquarters | New York City and Chicago |
| Key people | Farid Naib, CEO |
| Services | Stockbroker<br>Electronic trading platform |
| Parent | Wedbush Securities |
| Website | www.lightspeed.com |


title: Townsonia viridis

abstract: Townsonia viridis, commonly known as the beech orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It forms diffuse colonies with tiny, inconspicuous flowers and small, more or less round leaves and grows mainly in mossy places in myrtle beech forest.

text:
# Townsonia viridis

***Townsonia viridis***, commonly known as the **beech orchid**, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It forms diffuse colonies with tiny, inconspicuous flowers and small, more or less round leaves and grows mainly in mossy places in myrtle beech forest.

## Description

*Townsonia viridis* is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, sympodial herbs which grows in small groups with the tubers connected by a fleshy root. It spreads through mossy patches and leaf litter. Each tuber produces one or two leaves. Both flowering and non-flowering plants have an erect, very thin leaf emerging at ground level. These leaves are pale green to yellowish and have wavy margins. They are 6–15 mm (0.2–0.6 in) long and 5–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide with a petiole 30–50 mm (1–2 in) long. Flowering plants also have a similar leaf on the flowering stem except that it lacks a petiole and is well above ground level. Up to four flowers 5–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long and 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide are borne on a brittle, fleshy flowering stem 50–150 mm (2–6 in) high. The flowers are green with red blotches. The dorsal sepal is 6.5–8 mm (0.26–0.31 in) long, about 4 mm (0.2 in) wide and forms a hood over the column. The lateral sepals are a similar length to the dorsal sepal but only half as wide. The petals are about 2.5 mm (0.1 in) long, 1 mm (0.04 in) wide and spread apart from each other. The labellum is a broad egg shape, 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) long and wide, folded lengthwise with the tip turned downwards. Flowering occurs from November to January.

## Taxonomy and naming

The beech orchid was first formally described in 1906 by Joseph Dalton Hooker who gave it the name *Acianthus viridis* and published the description in *Flora Antarctica*. In 1911 Rudolf Schlechter changed the name to *Townsonia viridis*. The specific epithet (*viridis*) is a Latin word meaning "green".

## Distribution and habitat

The beech orchid grows in permanently wet forests, especially those of myrtle beech. It is found mainly on the west coast of Tasmania.

Media related to *Townsonia viridis* at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Beech orchid | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| Order: | Asparagales |
| Family: | Orchidaceae |
| Subfamily: | Orchidoideae |
| Tribe: | Diurideae |
| Genus: | *Townsonia* |
| Species: | ***T. viridis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Townsonia viridis***<br>(Hook.f.) Schltr. | |
|
| Synonyms | |
|  | |


title: Mirage (Marvel Comics)

abstract: Mirage is the name of two fictional villains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.

text:
# Mirage (Marvel Comics)

**Mirage** is the name of two fictional villains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.

## Publication history

Mirage first appeared in *The Amazing Spider-Man* #156 and was created by Len Wein and Ross Andru.

## Fictional character biography

### Desmond Charne

**Desmond Charne** was a former holography technician who wanted to be a supervillain. To that end, he used holograph technology which could make him invisible or create 3-D illusions. He also became the leader of his own criminal gang at some point.

He made his criminal debut at Betty Brant and Ned Leeds' wedding, intending to rob them and their guests, but Spider-Man interfered. After a lengthy battle, Spider-Man defeated Mirage by dropping a chandelier on him.

Mirage then planned to kidnap the Thing from a hospital, to sell him to the highest bidder. Daredevil prevented Mirage's plans, and defeated him.

Mirage attended the "Bar With No Name" in Medinah County, Ohio and was massacred along with all the other villains present at the incident by the Scourge of the Underworld, sustaining multiple gunshot wounds. He was reported to have survived, as part of a ploy to lure the Scourge into a trap. Dressed as Mirage, Captain America captured Scourge, who was then shot to death by another mysterious assailant. Arnim Zola later created a "proto-husk" replica of him only for it to be killed by Deadpool.

During the "Dark Reign" storyline, Mirage was later among the 18 criminals that were murdered by Scourge of the Underworld to be resurrected by Hood using the power of Dormammu as part of a squad assembled to eliminate the Punisher. Mirage's powers of illusion have been augmented. Lascivious demonstrates her new emotion-based powers on him, making him lick her boots. Mirage disguises himself and a number of the criminals as the Avengers out to kill the Punisher. The Punisher uncovers the ruse when he knocks out Mirage (disguised as Captain America) and captures him. He interrogates Mirage about the villain's plans, and leaves him with a grenade in his mouth. Mirage escapes and Letha removes the grenade. Letha orders Bird-Man to take him to safety. Later, Mirage was in a nightclub when the Punisher attacks him and threatens Mirage to get him to tell him everything he knows about the Microchip's whereabouts, but Mirage was shot by the female assassin before giving the Punisher any information.

Mirage resurfaces at a Super Villains Anonymous meeting, where he elaborates on his origin, and reveals that he had fallen into a coma for three months after being shot. Mirage is then hired on as a member of Boomerang and Owl's Sinister Six teen, a team assembled to distract the Chameleon's forces while Boomerang steals from him. During the battle between the group and the Chameleon's men, Mirage is knocked out and impersonated by the Chameleon, who is in turn knocked out by Boomerang when he sees through the ruse. Afterward, Mirage is shoved off of a building by Boomerang, who had assumed he was a hologram. When Mirage splatters on the ground, the surprised Boomerang reassures himself that Mirage has come back from worse.

During the "Dead No More: The Clone Conspiracy" storyline, Mirage was cloned by Jackal and his company New U Technologies. He was involved in a fight with the other supervillain clones until it was broken up by a clone of Prowler. Mirage later died from clone degeneration.

During the "Damnation" storyline, Mirage is revived when Doctor Strange uses his magic to restore Las Vegas.

During the "Hunted" storyline, Mirage was seen as a patron at the Pop-Up with No Name.

### Unnamed

A new character named Mirage has appeared as a Superhuman Registration Act violator. This Mirage is a female. When Mindwave was imprisoned by the Thunderbolts at Thunderbolts Mountain, he began a telepathic conversation with fellow prisoners Caprice, Bluestreak, and Mirage. Mirage informed Mindwave that Penance had a violent dissociative episode and that most of the Thunderbolts were under stress. She also noted that Doc Samson, who was present in Thunderbolts Mountain, had some fascinating thoughts.

Mirage was ordered not to focus on Samson, but she ignored her fellow prisoners to pry into his mind anyway, and this time he noticed her psychic probing. He used his pent-up rage to send some psychic feedback to her that stunned her painfully and broke the connection. Bullseye killed Mirage and her allies in their cells by throwing scalpels into their heads.

## Powers and abilities

Desmond Charne was an electronics and laser technology genius, and held a master's degree in physics. He designed a costume of synthetic stretch fabric lined with micro-circuitry and miniature devices with which Mirage could project three-dimensional laser-induced images called holograms. These tiny holographic projectors, located in the costume's cowl, enabled him to disguise himself as others, or to project multiple images, or to project three-dimensional images of himself several yards from his actual location while rendering himself "invisible" by bending light rays appropriately. He also often carried a handgun with a silencer, and a tranquilizer gun.

The second Mirage has telepathic abilities.

## Other versions

The Desmond Charne version of Mirage appears as one of the guardians of Krona's stronghold in *JLA/Avengers*, and as a criminal apprehended by Spider-Man in *Spider-Man Loves Mary Jane*.

## InfoBox

| Mirage | |
| --- | --- |
| Publication information | |
| Publisher | Marvel Comics |
| First appearance | *The Amazing Spider-Man* #156 (May 1976) |
| Created by | Len Wein
Ross Andru |
| In-story information | |
| Alter ego | Desmond Charne |
| Species | Human |
| Team affiliations | Grapplers
Sinister Sixteen |
| Notable aliases | Master of Illusion |
| Abilities | Genius electrician, physicist and laser technologist
Carries a handgun and tranquilizer gun
Costume grants:
Three dimensional holographic image projection |


abstract: Rajavit–Vajiravudh Traditional Rugby Match is an annual Traditional rugby match between two private all-boys boarding schools in Thailand, King’s College and Vajiravudh College. It is held to strengthen the unity of teachers and students, and to encourage esprit de corp and the unity between members of both institutions. The income from the competition is donated to charity. The two teams have competed 25 times; King’s College won 16 times, Vajiravudh College won seven times, and there were two draws.

text:
# Rajavit–Vajiravudh Traditional Rugby Match

**Rajavit–Vajiravudh Traditional Rugby Match** is an annual Traditional rugby match between two private all-boys boarding schools in Thailand, King’s College and Vajiravudh College. It is held to strengthen the unity of teachers and students, and to encourage esprit de corp and the unity between members of both institutions. The income from the competition is donated to charity.

The two teams have competed 25 times; King’s College won 16 times, Vajiravudh College won seven times, and there were two draws.

## History

In the reign of King Rama VI, there was an annual sports event, held in front of the palace, between schools in the department of the chamberlain (schools under the patronage). On the day of the event, all teachers and students under the patronage had an audience with the king at Mahadlekluang School (the current Vajiravudh College).

In reign of King Rama VII, a period of financial crisis required a decrease in the royal court's expenses. King’s College and Mahadlekluang School were combined under the name Vajiravudh College on April 16, 1926, to be a royal memorial to His Majesty the King Rama VI. King Rama IX re-established King’s College and accepted it under royal patronage, and organized the first traditional rugby match (Royal Trophy) on November 11, 1983.

## Result of the match

King's College won 16 titles, Vajiravudh College won seven titles and drew two times.

| Time | result | score |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | KC won VC | 7-0 |
| 2 | draw | 12-12 |
| 3 | KC won VC | 7-0 |
| 4 | VC won KC | 7-6 |
| 5 | VC won KC | 17-14 |
| 6 | VC won KC | 18-16 |
| 7 | KC won VC | 4-3 |
| 8 | KC won VC | 14-11 |
| 9 | KC won VC | 21-8 |
| 10 | KC won VC | 26-3 |
| 11 | KC won VC | 19-17 |
| 12 | KC won VC | 22-18 |
| 13 | KC won VC | 26-16 |
| 14 | VC won KC | 4-0 |
| 15 | KC won VC | 29-21 |
| 16 | VC won KC | 2-0 |
| 17 | KC won VC | 11-10 |
| 18 | VC won KC | 8-5 |
| 19 | KC won VC | 23-22 |
| 20 | KC won VC | 23-22 |
| 21 | draw | 16-16 |
| 22 | KC won VC | 34-20 |
| 23 | VC won KC | 27-22 |
| 24 | VC won KC | 15-10 |
| 25 | KC won VC | 12-10 |

## InfoBox

Rajavit–Vajiravudh Traditional Rugby Match
| Founded | 1983 |
| --- | --- |
| Country | Thailand |
| Number of teams | 2 (King's College and Vajiravudh College) |
| Domestic cup(s) | Royal Trophy <br>His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej |
| Current champions | King's College |
| Most championships | King's College (16 titles) |


title: Tymmophorus

abstract:
Tymmophorus is a genus of parasitoid wasps belonging to the family Ichneumonidae. The species of this genus are found in Europe and North America. Species:
  - Tymmophorus erythrozonus
  - Tymmophorus fasciventris Dasch, 1964

text:
# Tymmophorus

***Tymmophorus*** is a genus of parasitoid wasps belonging to the family Ichneumonidae.

The species of this genus are found in Europe and North America.

Species:

## InfoBox

| *Tymmophorus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Tymmophorus erythrozonus* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Ichneumonidae |
| Genus: | *Tymmophorus*<br>Schmiedeknecht, 1913 |
|


title: MMS-class minesweeper

abstract: The British Royal Navy operated large numbers of small Motor Minesweepers (MMS) during the Second World War, in two major classes: the first with 105 ft (32 m) hulls and the second with 126 ft (38 m) hulls. Intended to counter magnetic influence mines in coastal waters, they had wooden hulls.

text:
# MMS-class minesweeper

The British Royal Navy operated large numbers of small Motor Minesweepers (MMS) during the Second World War, in two major classes: the first with 105 ft (32 m) hulls (of which 294 were built) and the second with 126 ft (38 m) hulls (of which 102 were built). Intended to counter magnetic influence mines in coastal waters, they had wooden hulls.

## 105 ft MMS

In the early months of the Second World War, Germany made extensive use of magnetic mines, which led to a requirement for a wooden minesweeper, less vulnerable than steel trawlers. The resultant design, the 105 ft-class (also known as the *MMS 1* series and later the Type 1501 series) was built between 1940 and 1944.

They were 105 ft (32.0 m) long between perpendiculars, with an overall length of 119 ft 4 in (36.37 m), a beam of 23 ft 5 in (7.14 m) and a draught of 8 ft 9 in (2.67 m). Displacement was 240–255 long tons (244–259 t). They were powered by a 500 bhp (370 kW) diesel engine, giving a speed of 11 kn (13 mph; 20 km/h). Their major minesweeping equipment was the LL sweep, where two minesweepers operating side-by-side each trailed two buoyant cables with electrodes at the end of the cables. Pulsing a high current through the cables generated a magnetic field sufficient to set off mines over an area of about 1 acre (0.40 ha). They were later fitted with an SA sweep to deal with acoustic mines, which consisted of an acoustic hammer box mounted on an A-frame on the ship's bow, which could be lowered into the water when required. The ships did not have enough towing power to use conventional contact sweeps for dealing with moored contact mines. Defensive armament consisted of two 0.5 inch machine guns and/or one or two Oerlikon 20mm cannons. The ships had a complement of 20 men.

The coastal minesweepers had pennant numbers *MMS-1* to *MMS-118*, *MMS-123* to *MMS-313* and *MMS-1001* to *MMS-1090*, the last group measuring 126 feet between perpendiculars. They were nicknamed "Mickey Mouse" from their initials.

The motor minesweepers had limited use post-war and were quickly disposed of. By 1949, only four remained in service in the Royal Navy: *St. David* (*MMS-1733*, ex-*MMS-233*), *Venturer* (*MMS-1761*, ex-*MMS-261*), *MMS-1717* (ex-*MMS-217*) and *MMS-1736* (ex-*MMS-236*). *St. David* and *Venturer* were tenders to RNVR divisions.

Ten had been built for the Royal Canadian Navy, *Coquitlam*, *Crankbrook*, *Daerwood*, *Kalamalka*, *La Vallée*, *Llewellyn*, *Lloyd George*, *Revelstoke*, *Rossland* and *St. Joseph*. By 1946 only *Llewellyn*, *Lloyd George* and *Revelstoke* were still in service.

Five were built for the Royal Indian Navy, *MMS-129*, *130*, *131*, *132* (renamed *Barq*) and *154*; *MMS-151* was transferred later. Four remained in service in 1949: *Barq* and *MMS-130*, *151* and *154*

During the war, *MMS-43*, *45*, *75*, *79*, *112*, *182*, *187*, *188*, *189* and *193* were manned by Belgian personnel. As late as 1949, *MMS-182*, *187*, *188*, *189*, *191*, *193* and *266* were on loan to the Belgian Navy.

Sixteen were transferred to the French Navy: *D241* (ex-*MMS-21*; later *D361*), *D242* (ex-*MMS-184*; later *D362*), *D251* (ex-*MMS-47*; later *D363*), *D252* (ex-*MMS-9*; later *D364*), *D261* (ex-*MMS-116*; later *D365*), *D262* (ex-*MMS-118*; later *D366'),* D291 *(ex-*MMS-133*; later* D367*),* D292 *(ex-*MMS-134*; later* D368*),* D371 *(ex-*MMS-221*),* D372 *(ex-*MMS-202*),* D373 *(ex-MMS-220*), *D374* (ex-*MMS-91*), *D375* (ex-*MMS-75*), *D376* (ex-*MMS-204*), *D377* (ex-*MMS-49*) and *D378* (ex-*MMS-13*). All were returned to the Royal Navy in October 1947.

Eleven were transferred to the Royal Netherlands Navy; two were lost, one returned to the RN, and eight were retained postwar. The 11 vessels were: *Ameland* (ex-*MMS-231*), *Beveland* (ex-*MMS-237*), *Marken* (i) (ex-*MMS-227*, lost 20 May 1944), *Marken* *(ii) (ex-*MMS-54*),* Putten *(ex-*MMS-138*),* Rozenburg *(ex-*MMS-292*),* Terschelling *(i) (ex-*MMS-174*, lost 12 July 1942),* Terschelling (ii) (ex-*MMS-234*), *Texel* (i) (ex-*MMS-173*, returned to RN November 1942), *Texel* (ii) (ex-*MMS-73*), and *Vlieland* (ex-*MMS-226*). *Vlieland* was lost in Indonesian waters in November 1951.

Seventeen were loaned to the Italian Navy: *MMS-10*, *32*, *34*, *35*, *48*, *50*, *99*, *100*, *102-106*, *135*, *167*, *172* and *185*. The first to be returned to the Royal Navy were *MMS-34* and *35*, in August 1949.

Eight were transferred to the Royal Hellenic Navy in 1946: *Andros* (ex HMS *MMS-310*, J810), *Argyrokastron* (ex-HMS *MMS-58*, J558), *Chimarra* (ex-HMS *MMS-1* J501), *Korytsa* (ex-HMS *MMS-53*, J553), *Mikonos* (ex-HMS *MMS-5*, J505), *Syros* (ex-HMS *MMS-313*, J813), *Tepeleni* (ex-HMS *MMS-46*, J546), and *Tinos* (ex-HMS *MMS-144*, J644).

Three were transferred by Lend-Lease to the Soviet Navy, *T-108*, *109* and *110* (ex-*MMS-90*, *203* and *212*, respectively).

### Newfoundland MMS

*MMS-119-122* were built in Newfoundland in 1941-42 and requisitioned by the Royal Navy. They were larger than the *MMS-1* type but smaller than the *MMS-1001* and *BYMS-1* types, and had a top speed of 9 knots. The four vessels were renamed *Emberley*, *Oderin*, *Marticot* and *Mervasheen*, respectively, as danlayers in 1942.

## 126 ft MMS

This type comprised 90 vessels for the Royal Navy, numbered *MMS-1001-1090*, and 16 laid down for the Royal Canadian Navy but never delivered to that Service. They measured 126 feet long between perpendiculars and 139 feet 9 inches to 140 feet overall. Displacements were 360 tons standard and 430 tons deep load. A one-shaft diesel provided 1,000 bhp for a speed of 10 knots. Armament during the war comprised two 20mm guns with a few armed with four 20mm; the survivors with the RN in 1949 were armed with two 20mm and two machine guns.

By 1949, only 12 vessels of the type remained in RN service. Of these, *MMS-1060* and *1061* were in use as minesweepers, while *1003*, *1004* and *1011* were described in *Jane's Fighting Ships* as "mobile wiping deperming units." Seven were in use as tenders to RNVR divisions: *Bernicia* (ex-*MMS-1090*), *Curzon* (ex-*MMS-1017*), *Graham* (ex-*MMS-1045*), *hUMBER* (EX-*mms-1030*), *Kilmorey* (ex-*MMS-1034*), *Mersey* (ex-*MMS-1075*) and *Montrose* (ex-*MMS-1077*).

Six were transferred to the French Navy: *D341* (ex-*MMS-1069*), *D342* (ex-*MMS-1054*), *D343* (ex-*MMS-1065*), *D344* (ex-*MMS-1055*), *D345* (ex-*MMS-1070*) and *D346* (ex-*MMS-1056*). All were returned to the RN for disposal in October 1947

Eight were transferred to the Royal Netherlands Navy: *Duiveland* (ex-*MMS-1044*), *Ijselmond* (ex-*MMS-1026*), *Overflakee* (ex-*MMS-1046*), *Schokland* (ex-*MMS-1082*), *Tholen* (ex-*MMS-1014*), *Voorne* (ex-*MMS-1043*), *Wieringen* (ex-*MMS-1025*) and *Walcheren* (ex-*MMS-1042*)

*MMS-1085* and *1086* were transferred to the Royal Norwegian Navy, where they were named *Orka* and *Vefsna*, respectively They were retained postwar.

Of the 16 laid down for the RCN, *Ash Lake*, *Birch Lake*, *Cherry Lake*, *Fir Lake*, *Maple Lake* and *Oak Lake*, were cancelled. The remaining ten - *Alder Lake*, *Beech Lake*, *Cedar Lake*, *Elm Lake*, *Hickory Lake*, *Larch Lake*, *Pine Lake*, *Poplar Lake*, *Spruce Lake* and *Willow Lake* \- were transferred to the Soviet Navy as *T-193-202*. Two others were transferred from the RN to the Soviet Navy: *T-121* and *122* (ex-*MMS-1005* and *1023*).

*MMS-1020* was loaned postwar to the Belgian Navy for use as a fishery protection vessel.

## Bibliography

* Blackman, Raymond V. B., ed. (1953). *Jane's Fighting Ships 1953–54*. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.
* Brown, David K. (2000). *Nelson to Vanguard: Warship Design and Development 1923–1945*. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-149-6.
* Cowie, J. S. (1949). *Mines, Minelayers and Minelaying*. London: Oxford University Press.
* Gardiner, Robert; Chesneau, Roger, eds. (1980). *Conway's All The World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946*. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-146-7.
* Preston, Antony (1989). *Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II*. London: Studio Publishing. ISBN 1-85170-194-X.
* Lenton, H. T.; Colledge, J. J. (1973). *Warships of World War II* (2nd ed.). London: Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-0403-X.
* McMurtrie, Francis E., and Blackman, Raymond V.B. (1949). *Jane's Fighting Ships 1949-50.* New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
* Melvin, Michael J. (1992). *Minesweeper, The Role of the Motor Minesweepers in World War II*. Worcester, UK: Square One Publishing. ISBN 1-872017-57-6.
* Worth, Jack (1984). *British Warships Since 1945: Part 4: Minesweepers*. Liskeard, UK: Maritime Books. ISBN 0-907771-12-2.

## InfoBox

| 105 ft motor minesweeper | |
| --- | --- |
| Class overview | |
| Operators |  |
| Subclasses | *Llewellyn* class |
| Built | 1940–1945 |
| General characteristics | |
| Type | Minesweeper |
| Displacement | 240–250 long tons (244–254 ) |
| Length | * 105 ft (32 m) p/p * 119 ft (36 m) o/a |
| Beam | 23 ft (7.0 m) |
| Draught | 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) |
| Propulsion | Diesel engine, 375–425 bhp (280–317 kW) |
| Speed | 12 knots (14 mph; 22 km/h) |
| Complement | 20 |
| Armament | * 2 × 20 mm AA guns * 2 × machine guns |


abstract: The Pennsylvania Governor's School for the Information, Society & Technology (PGSIST) is one of the Pennsylvania Governor's Schools of Excellence, a group of five-week summer programs for gifted high school students in the state of Pennsylvania.

text:
# Pennsylvania Governor's School for Information, Society & Technology

The **Pennsylvania Governor's School for the Information, Society & Technology** (PGSIST) is one of the Pennsylvania Governor's Schools of Excellence, a group of five-week summer programs for gifted high school students in the state of Pennsylvania.

## History and notable features

PGSIST is hosted by the iSchool at Drexel University and aims to provide participants with a strong technological foundation in conjunction with an understanding of how technology impacts society. Participants are required to be Pennsylvania high school students between their junior and senior year and must live in the dormitories for the full five weeks of the program.

Prior to 2006, PGSIST was known as the Pennsylvania Governor's School for Information Technology (PGSIT) and jointly sponsored by both Drexel University and Pennsylvania State University.

Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell has proposed cutting fund for all the PGSEs, including PGSIST, from the 2009-2010 budget.

## Curriculum

The program is roughly divided into two halves. The first half of the program consists of core courses which all students must take, such as programming, ethics, and database design.

The second half of the program consists of what are known as "tracks"; students are assigned to a track based on their preferences and space availability, and they spend the entire academic day studying that particular area.

In the past, tracks have included topics such as Networking and Distributed Computing, Advanced Programming, and E-Commerce, but tracks change from year to year. In addition to coursework, participants are required to complete a project; the project begins shortly after the program starts and commences on the final day with presentations. Several projects from 2005 are described in a Drexel University Press Release.


title: William Frederick Meggers

abstract: William Frederick Meggers was an American physicist specialising in spectroscopy. Born in Clintonville, Wisconsin, he had to combine his early schooling with working on the family farm, but earned a scholarship to Ripon College, receiving a bachelor's degree in physics in 1910 and working as a research assistant. After a few years at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1914 he joined the National Bureau of Standards, and while working there earned his PhD from Johns Hopkins University. His work in spectrochemistry is generally credited to have sparked interest in the field in the United States, leading to him being dubbed the Dean of American spectroscopists. In 1947 he received the Frederic Ives Medal and the C.E.K. Mees Medal in 1964, both from the Optical Society. In 1958, OSA named him an Honorary Member. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1953. Since 1970, the Optical Society of America has awarded the William F. Meggers Award for outstanding work in spectroscopy. In 1965, Dr. Meggers and his wife, Edith R. Meggers, donated their coin and stamp collections to the American Institute of Physics, for the express purpose of establishing a biennial award program for the improvement of physics teaching at the high school level. Awards have been presented since 1994. The Meggers crater on the Moon is named in his honor. His daughter and oldest child was Betty J. Meggers, who also received her doctorate and became a noted archeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, specializing in South American pre-Columbian archeology. He also had two sons, William F. Meggers Jr. (1924-2000) and John C. Meggers (1928-1966). There are two awards named in his honor: The Optical Society's William F. Meggers Award and the Applied Spectroscopy William F. Meggers Award.

text:
# William Frederick Meggers

**William Frederick Meggers** (July 13, 1888  November 19, 1966) was an American physicist specialising in spectroscopy.

Born in Clintonville, Wisconsin, he had to combine his early schooling with working on the family farm, but earned a scholarship to Ripon College, receiving a bachelor's degree in physics in 1910 and working as a research assistant. After a few years at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1914 he joined the National Bureau of Standards, and while working there earned his PhD from Johns Hopkins University.

His work in spectrochemistry is generally credited to have sparked interest in the field in the United States, leading to him being dubbed *the Dean of American spectroscopists*.

In 1947 he received the Frederic Ives Medal and the C.E.K. Mees Medal in 1964, both from the Optical Society. In 1958, OSA named him an Honorary Member. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1953. Since 1970, the Optical Society of America has awarded the William F. Meggers Award for outstanding work in spectroscopy.

In 1965, Dr. Meggers and his wife, Edith R. Meggers, donated their coin and stamp collections to the American Institute of Physics, for the express purpose of establishing a biennial award program for the improvement of physics teaching at the high school level. Awards have been presented since 1994.

The Meggers crater on the Moon is named in his honor.

His daughter and oldest child was Betty J. Meggers, who also received her doctorate and became a noted archeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, specializing in South American pre-Columbian archeology. He also had two sons, William F. Meggers Jr. (1924-2000) and John C. Meggers (1928-1966).

There are two awards named in his honor: The Optical Society's William F. Meggers Award and the Applied Spectroscopy William F. Meggers Award.

### Archival collections