title: Ornithogalum umbellatum

abstract: Ornithogalum umbellatum, the garden star-of-Bethlehem, grass lily, nap-at-noon, or eleven-o'clock lady, a species of the genus Ornithogalum, is a perennial bulbous flowering plant in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae). O. umbellatum is a relatively short plant, occurring in tufts of basal linear leaves, producing conspicuous white flowers, in a stellate pattern, in mid to late spring. The flowers open late in the day, but when closed have a green stripe on the outside. It is native throughout most of southern and central Europe, and north-western Africa. O. umbellatum is often grown as a garden ornamental, but in North America and other areas it has escaped cultivation and can be found in many areas, where it may be considered an invasive weed. Parts of the plant are considered poisonous, but are used in some regional cuisines. Essences are also sold as patent remedies. O. umbellatum has been depicted in art by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, and folklore has suggested it originally grew from fragments of the star of Bethlehem, hence its horticultural name.

text:
# Ornithogalum umbellatum

P3+3 A3+3 G(3)Floral formula: Flowers actinomorphic and hermaphrodite with 6 undifferentiated tepals in two whorls of three, the same number and arrangement of stamens, and a superior ovary with 3 fused carpels

***Ornithogalum umbellatum***, the **garden star-of-Bethlehem**, **grass lily**, **nap-at-noon**, or **eleven-o'clock lady**, a species of the genus *Ornithogalum*, is a perennial bulbous flowering plant in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae). *O. umbellatum* is a relatively short plant, occurring in tufts of basal linear leaves, producing conspicuous white flowers, in a stellate pattern, in mid to late spring. The flowers open late in the day (hence some of its common names), but when closed have a green stripe on the outside. It is native throughout most of southern and central Europe, and north-western Africa. *O. umbellatum* is often grown as a garden ornamental, but in North America and other areas it has escaped cultivation and can be found in many areas, where it may be considered an invasive weed. Parts of the plant are considered poisonous, but are used in some regional cuisines. Essences are also sold as patent remedies. *O. umbellatum* has been depicted in art by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, and folklore has suggested it originally grew from fragments of the star of Bethlehem, hence its horticultural name.

## Description

*O. umbellatum* is a perennial herbaceous bulbous plant (geophyte), dying back after flowering, to an underground storage bulb. The following year, it regrows from the often shallow rooted bulbs, which are ovoid with a membranous coat, 15–25 millimetres (12–1 inch) long and 18–32 mm (341+14 in) in diameter. The bulbs form multiple leaf-bearing bulbils that soon separate but remain close by. Initially the plant forms 6–10 basal leaves, that arise in tufts from the bulbs. The leaves are grooved (canaliculate), smooth (glabrous) and linear with a white to light green linear midrib on the upper surface, and grow up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long and 8 mm (14 in) broad.

*O. umbellatum* is scapose, with a glabrous flower stem (scape) that emerges from the leaf tufts later and is about 10–30 cm (4–12 in) in height, tapering at its tip.

Plant MorphologyBulb with bulbilOrnithogalum plantClump of scapes with closed flowers arising from basal leaves

The inflorescence bears 6–20 flat star shaped flowers on ascending stems (pedicels), 3–3.5 cm (1+141+12 in), associated with membranaceous leaflets (bracts), 2.5–3 cm (1–1+14 in), in an open branching umbrella (umbel) shaped terminal cluster, described as a corymbose raceme. The petal-like perianth is radially symmetric (actinomorphic), which is 1.5–2 cm (1234 in) in diameter, consists of six lanceolate tepals which are white with a green stripe on the underside (outside), 15 mm (12 in) in length and 5 mm (14 in) wide. From the outside the closed flower appears green with white margins.

The reproductive parts consist of both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) parts (hermaphrodite). The androecium has six yellow-brown stamens that are free of the perianth and form two groups, each of about 5–8 mm (1438 in), with filaments that are simple and flattened and oblong anthers that are 2–4 mm (116316 in). The gynoecium has a single pistil with a superior (i. e. above the floral parts) ovary that is ovoid to obovoid, 3–4 mm (18316 in), and longer than the style that extends above it. The fruit is a capsule which is oblong-ovoid with 3 sides and 6 ribs. Within it, each locule contains many seeds with a black coat of phytomelan. The species is polyploid (having more than two sets of chromosomes).

Floral morphologyInflorescence, pedicels & bractsUnderside of tepalsDetail of flower from aboveFlower from sideDetail of structuresCapsules on scapes

## Taxonomy

Illustration by John Gerard
1597Description by Linnaeus
1753

*Ornithogalum umbellatum* has been known and described for a long time, according to some authors, as far back as Dioscorides in the first century. In 16th-century England, William Turner (1562) mentions it. In Henry Lyte's 1586 *New Herbal* (a translation into English of Dodoens' 1554 *Cruydeboeck*), reference is made to an *Ornithogalum* as the White Field Onion. John Gerard, in his *Herball* of 1597, describes *Ornithogalum* as the "star of Bethlem". The species known today as *Ornithogalum umbellatum* was first formally described by Linnaeus (1753), who is the botanical authority for the species (L.). *O. umbellatum* is the type species of the genus *Ornithogalum*, which contains about 50 species. The lectotype (reference specimen) was established by Stearn in 1983.

### Etymology

The species epithet reflects the flower formation as an umbel. The plant's many common names include garden star-of-Bethlehem, sleepydick, nap-at-noon, grass lily, summer snowflake, snowdrop, starflower, bird's milk, chinkerichee, ten-o'clock lady, eleven-o'clock lady, Bath asparagus, and star of Hungary. The references to the time of day reflect the opening times of the flowers, opening late and closing at night or in cloudy conditions. The star names indicate the arrangement of the petals and bird's milk is a literal translation of ornithogalum. It has also been called dove's dung, equating it with a plant described in the bible. The name star-of-Bethlehem is shared by a number of species of *Ornithogalum*, due to the white stellate flowers, and the folklore relating the flower to the biblical star-of-Bethlehem (*see In popular culture*).

## Distribution and habitat

A native of most of Europe, North Africa and western Asia, *O. umbellatum* has been adopted as an ornamental garden plant from where it has escaped and naturalised widely in North America, where it is considered an aggressive noxious weed of lawns, gardens and no-till agricultural land, which can be difficult to eradicate. In Europe its range extends from Ireland and Portugal in the west, Italy in the south, north to parts of France and east to Turkey and the Levant.

*O. umbellatum* prefers damp habitats, being found along rivers, streams, and lower, wet areas of pastures. It is tolerant to shade and soil type.

## Ecology

### Life cycle

*Ornithogalum umbellatum* is thermoperiodic, requiring a cold winter to complete its life cycle. It first appears in early spring as tufts of leaves, prior to flowering (proteranthous), which occurs in late spring (May–June), the leaves fading prior to blooming. It reproduces by its bulbs, which form many offsetting bulbils that can be dispersed by water. Like many bulb plants from temperate regions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. *O. umbellatum* spreads aggressively in clumps by means of these offsets.

### Pollination

The flowers are insect pollinated, but may also be self-fertile, forming seeds in summer (June–July). Seed dispersal plays a relatively minor role in propagation, but accounts for isolated blooms.

### Effect of light

The petals exhibit photoperiodism, often opening at noon and closing at night or on cloudy days.

Effect of lightCloudy daySunny day

## Cultivation

*Ornithogalum umbellatum* requires considerable moisture during winter and spring, but can tolerate summer drought. It can be grown in a woodland garden as semi-shade is preferable. It is hardy to zone 5 UK, 4–9 USDA, and can become invasive. It is produced commercially as an ornamental garden plant. To control invasive tendencies, it is best to plant in a container or an edged area. *O. umbellatum* may be grown as an indoor plant.

## Toxicity

The plant, especially the bulb and flowers, contains cardiac glycosides, specifically convallatoxin and convalloside which are toxic to humans and livestock. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, and shortness of breath, as well as pain, burning, and swelling of lips, tongue, and throat. Prolonged contact may lead to skin irritation.

## Uses

Despite the known toxicities, the plant has been described as edible for 2,000 years and incorporated into some traditional regional cuisines (e.g. Turkey) and traditional medicine (e.g. India). In Britain, the plant has long been the subject of herbals for its claimed culinary and medicinal properties. This includes drying and grinding the bulbs, or boiling them and baking the flowers into bread. Essences are sold as patent remedies and for aromatherapy, such as Bach flower remedies. Medical authorities advise against ingesting any part of the plant.

## In culture

Leonardo da Vinci drew *O. umbellatum* and included the plant in one of his depictions of Leda and the Swan (1508–1515), in which the flowers are held in Leda's left hand. In folklore, the biblical star of Bethlehem is said to have fallen to the earth and shattered into pieces which became the ubiquitous white flowers. Legend has also associated it with the journeys of Crusaders and pilgrims to the Holy Land.

A biblical passage in *2 Kings* 6:25 relates an account of a siege in Samaria in which the desperate population consumed the excrement of doves (chiriyonim). "There was a great famine in Samaria; and behold, they besieged it, until a donkey's head was sold for eighty shekels of silver, and a fourth of a kab of dove's dung for five shekels of silver". There has been considerable discussion as to the exact meaning of this term. In notes taken by Paul Dietrich Giseke from a lecture by Linnaeus it is suggested that this *Stercus Columbarum* was in fact the plant *Ornithogalum umbellatum*, which grew abundantly in Palestine and "unde Anglis *Bethlem's Star* dicitur" (is known to the English as Bethlem's Star), the white colour of which resembled the excrement of birds, hence the name *lac Avium* (bird milk or *Ornithogalum*), and which was still eaten by the poor of that country.

Culturally, the flower has been associated with purity and hope, atonement and reconciliation.

## Bibliography

### Books

* Blamey, Marjorie; Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). *The Illustrated Flora of Britain and Northern Europe*. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-40170-5.
* Capra, Fritjof (2013). *Learning from Leonardo: Decoding the Notebooks of a Genius*. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60994-990-7.
* Cullen, James; Knees, Sabina G.; Cubey, H. Suzanne Cubey, eds. (2011) \[1984–2000\]. "O. umbellatum". *The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. 5 vols* (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Huxley, Anthony Julian; Griffiths, Mark; Levy, Margot (1992). *The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening*. Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-333-47494-5.
* Moldenke, Harold N; Moldenke, Alma N (2017) \[1941\]. *Plants Of The Bible*. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-317-84742-7.
* Tutin, T. G.; Heywood, V H; Burges, N. A.; Moore, D. M.; Valentine, D. H.; Walters, S. M.; Webb, D. A., eds. (1980). "O. umbellatum l.". *Flora Europaea. Volume 5, Alismataceae to Orchidaceae (monocotyledones)*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20108-X. *see also* Flora Europaea

Historical sources

### Articles

### Databases

### Other websites

## InfoBox

| *Ornithogalum umbellatum* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| Order: | Asparagales |
| Family: | Asparagaceae |
| Subfamily: | Scilloideae |
| Tribe: | Ornithogaleae |
| Genus: | *Ornithogalum* |
| Species: | ***O. umbellatum*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Ornithogalum umbellatum***<br>L. | |
|
|  | |
| Global distribution (native + introduced) of *Ornithogalum umbellatum* | |
| Synonyms | |
| List * + *Hyacinthus umbellatus* (L.) E. H. L.Krause     + *Ornithogalum affine* Boreau nom. illeg.     + *Ornithogalum angustifolium* Boreau     + *Ornithogalum boraeanum* Jord. & Fourr.     + *Ornithogalum campestre* (Savi) Prain     + *Ornithogalum cespititium* Jord. & Fourr.     + *Ornithogalum corymbosum* Gaterau     + *Ornithogalum dioscoridis* Bubani     + *Ornithogalum fasciculatum* Timb.-Lagr.     + *Ornithogalum garganicum* Ten.     + *Ornithogalum horologicum* Stokes     + *Ornithogalum minus* L.     + *Ornithogalum nanum* Ten. nom. illeg.     + *Ornithogalum parviflorum* Jord. & Fourr.     + *Ornithogalum peyrei* Timb.-Lagr.     + *Ornithogalum praetextum* Steven ex Kunth     + *Ornithogalum preumbellatum* Candargy     + *Ornithogalum rusticum* Jord. & Fourr.     + *Ornithogalum stellare* Salisb. nom. illeg.     + *Ornithogalum tardans* Jord. & Fourr.     + *Ornithogalum vulgare* Sailer     + *Scilla campestris* Savi     + *Stellaris corymbosa* (Gaterau) Moench | |


title: Margaret Menzel

abstract: Margaret Young Menzel was a geneticist known for her research on chromosomes and meiosis in a range of organisms including tomatoes, flowering plants, and worms. Menzel was also an advocate for equal opportunities for women and led a 1972 class action suit against Florida State University.

text:
# Margaret Menzel

**Margaret Young Menzel** was a geneticist known for her research on chromosomes and meiosis in a range of organisms including tomatoes, flowering plants, and worms. Menzel was also an advocate for equal opportunities for women and led a 1972 class action suit against Florida State University.

## Education and career

In 1944, Menzel graduated magna cum laude from Southwestern University in Texas where she majored in biology and English. Following this, she taught for a year at Lamar University before beginning her Ph.D. with Orland Emile White at the University of Virginia working on the genetics of *Physalis*, a type of flowering plant. Following her Ph.D. she held multiple positions including periods at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station and the United States Department of Agriculture. She moved to Florida State University and was promoted to professor in 1968. She retired as professor emeritus.

Menzel was actively involved in the Association of Southeastern Biologists, including periods as vice president and editor of the *ASB Bulletin* from 1972 until 1977.

## Research

Menzel was known for her research on chromosomes, meiosis, and genetic relationships between organisms. She conducted this research on a broad array of species including plants such as *Physalis* and *Hibiscus*, the nematode *Schistosoma,* and agricultural crops such as tomatoes. Her work with Meta Brown on cotton plants centered on cotton cytogenetics and translocated chromosomes. Plants she collected during a 1960 sampling expedition to the Florida Panhandle remain in the herbarium at Florida State.

## Lawsuit against Florida State University

Menzel was an advocate for women's rights as she supported equal pay for women and was involved in the formation of the Florida chapter of the National Organization for Women.

In June 1972, a class action lawsuit (Margaret Menzel v. Florida State University et al. Docket No. TCA 1834) was filed in United States District Court, Northern District of Florida and Menzel's case is one of the cases cited as a key part of extending Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Menzel's complaint centered on discrimination in pay and promotion; she was joined by nine other women working at Florida State University. At the time of the class action suit it was the first case where female professors used a court action to demand equal pay and status; one of the arguments was that sex discrimination began when men took over the administration of what had been Florida State College For Women when it admitted men and became Florida State University in 1947. A federal judge did not agree to back pay in 1973. In 1975, the case was settled with an agreement that Florida State would establish a task force to investigate bias against women at the university and to revise its anti-nepotism policy so as to not discriminate against the wives of university employees. Menzel later served as a witness for Laura Jepsen in her successful 1976 suit against Florida State University for gender discrimination.

## Selected publications

* Menzel, Margaret Young (1951). "The Cytotaxonomy and Genetics of Physalis". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **95** (2): 132–183. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 3143331.
* Short, Robert B.; Menzel, Margaret Y. (June 1960). "Chromosomes of Nine Species of Schistosomes". *The Journal of Parasitology*. **46** (3): 273–287. doi:10.2307/3275488. JSTOR 3275488. PMID 14446186.
* Wilson, F. D.; Menzel, M. Y. (1964). "Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)". *Economic Botany*. **18** (1): 80–91. doi:10.1007/BF02904005. ISSN 0013-0001. S2CID 186234283.
* Menzel, Margaret Y. (July 1962). "Pachytene Chromosomes of the Intergeneric Hybrid Lycopersicon Esculentum x Solanum lycopersicoides". *American Journal of Botany*. **49** (6): 605–615. JSTOR 2439718.
* Menzel, Margaret Y.; Price, J. M. (November 1966). "Fine Structure of Synapsed Chomosomes in F Lycopersicon esculentum- Solanum lycopersicoides and Its Parents". *American Journal of Botany*. **53** (10): 1079. doi:10.2307/2440688. JSTOR 2440688.

## Awards and honors

She received the Senior Research Award from the Association of Southeastern Biologists in 1950 and the Meritorious Teaching Award from the association in 1985. In 1988 the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida State University established the Margaret Y. Menzel Scholarship to recognize outstanding progress in graduate student research. Since 1989 the Botanical Society of America has awarded the Margaret Menzel Award each year for an outstanding paper presented at their annual meeting. In 2000, Florida State University began a program allowing faculty with named professorships to select the name used and in 2002, Walter R. Tschinkel opted to honor Menzel by becoming the "Margaret Menzel Professor of Biological Science".

## Personal life

Menzel met her husband, the malacologist R. Winston Menzel, while she was at the University of Virginia. They collaborated on one project on quahog clams which was published in 1965.

## InfoBox

| Margaret Young Menzel | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Margaret Mary Young
June 21, 1924
Kerrville, Texas |
| Died | May 30, 1987 |
| Alma mater | University of Virginia |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Institutions | Florida State University |
| Thesis | *The cytotaxonomy and genetics of Physalis and related genera* (1949) |
| Doctoral advisor | Orland Emile White |
|  | |


abstract: The 1990 United States Senate election in Texas was held on November 6, 1990. Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Phil Gramm won re-election to a second term.

text:
# 1990 United States Senate election in Texas

The **1990 United States Senate election in Texas** was held on November 6, 1990. Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Phil Gramm won re-election to a second term.

## Major candidates

### Democratic

### Republican

## Campaign

Gramm, a popular incumbent who switched parties a few years prior, had over $5 million on hand.

## Results

General election results
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Republican** | **Phil Gramm (incumbent)** | **2,302,357** | **60.24%** |
|  | Democratic | Hugh Parmer | 1,429,986 | 37.41% |
|  | Libertarian | Gary Johnson | 89,089 | 2.33% |
|  | Write In | Ira Calkins | 725 | 0.02% |
|  | Republican **hold** | | | |

## InfoBox

1990 United States Senate election in Texas
| --- | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nominee **Phil Gramm** Hugh Parmer   Party Republican Democratic  Popular vote **2,302,357** 1,429,986  Percentage **60.24%** 37.41% | |
| ---  County results
**Gramm:**      40–50%      50–60%      60–70%      70–80%      80–90%
**Parmer:**      40–50%      50–60%      60–70%      70–80%
**Tie:**      50% | |
| ---  **U.S. senator before election**
Phil Gramm
Republican **Elected U.S. Senator**
Phil Gramm
Republican | |


title: William T. Fairbourn

abstract: William Taro Fairbourn was an American decorated officer of the United States Marine Corps with the rank of major general. He is most noted as commanding general of the 5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade during the Cuban Missile Crisis and later served as commanding general of 1st Marine Division. Fairbourn was later known as a Nuclear arms race activist.

text:
# William T. Fairbourn

**William Taro Fairbourn** (June 28, 1914 – February 21, 1987) was an American decorated officer of the United States Marine Corps with the rank of major general. He is most noted as commanding general of the 5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade during the Cuban Missile Crisis and later served as commanding general of 1st Marine Division. Fairbourn was later known as a Nuclear arms race activist.

## Early years

William T. Fairbourn was born on June 28, 1914, in Sandy, Utah, as the son of William Reuben Fairbourn and his wife Violet Veneda Jensen. His father served as Sheriff Deputy in Sandy and young William attended high school there. He then attended University of Utah in Salt Lake City and graduated in June 1935 with Bachelor degree. While at University, Fairbourn was a cadet colonel of ROTC unit and also was regimental honor graduate.

Fairbourn was subsequently commissioned second lieutenant in the Marine Corps on July 10, 1935, and ordered to the Basic School at Philadelphia Navy Yard for further officers education. With 124 students, it was the largest Basic School class to that date. This class provided two future Marine Corps Commandants (Leonard F. Chapman Jr. and Robert E. Cushman Jr.), five lieutenant generals (Lewis J. Fields, Frederick E. Leek, Herman Nickerson Jr., William J. Van Ryzin, Richard G. Weede), five major generals (William R. Collins, Fairbourn, Bruno Hochmuth, Raymond L. Murray, Carey A. Randall) and six brigadier generals (William W. Buchanan, Odell M. Conoley, Frederick P. Henderson, Roy L. Kline, John C. Miller Jr., Thomas F. Riley).

Fairbourn completed the school in March 1936 and was attached to the 10th Marine Artillery Regiment, 2nd Marine Brigade at Marine Corps Base San Diego, California. He was ordered for the course at Army Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where he graduated in June 1938.

Fairbourn was subsequently ordered back to San Diego and promoted to the rank of first lieutenant in October of that year. He remained in San Diego until June 1940, when he was ordered for sea duty.

## World War II

Fairbourn was attached to the heavy cruiser USS *Chester* as commanding officer of Marine detachment and was promoted to the rank of captain in April 1941. He was aboard that ship, when Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and subsequently took part in the actions on Tulagi, Coral Sea or Midway.

Fairbourn was detached from *Chester* in June 1942 following the promotion to the rank of major and returned to San Diego, where he served until March 1943. During that period, Fairbourn was attached to the 12th Marine Artillery Regiment, 3rd Marine Division as Regimental Operations officer under Colonel John B. Wilson. The 12th Marines took part in the intensive training at Camp Dunlap, California before sailed to New Zealand in March 1943.

Fairbourn was stationed with the regiment in Auckland until July 1943, when he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and sailed with the regiment to Guadalcanal for amphibious training in the jungle. The 12th Marines then moved to the island of Efate, New Hebrides in October 1943 in order to prepare for upcoming landing on Bougainville.

The 12th Marines landed on Bougainville as a part of 3rd Marine Division under Major General Allen H. Turnage on November 1, 1943, and took part in the Battle of Piva Forks. General Turnage praised the effectiveness of the artillery on Bougainville and Fairbourn received the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" for his service there.

Following the campaign, Fairbourn sailed with the regiment back to Guadalcanal for rest and reequipment and spent next eight months with training. He took part in the recapture of Guam in July 1944 and received his second Bronze Star Medal and Navy Unit Commendation.

Fairbourn subsequently succeeded lieutenant colonel Donald M. Weller in command of 2nd Battalion of his regiment and remained on Guam during the mopping up operations against the small scattered groups of Japanese soldiers. The units of 3rd Marine Division under Major General Graves B. Erskine were ordered for Iwo Jima and landed on February 24, 1945. Fairbourn landed later in the afternoon of that day and following the deployment of his batteries, his battalion began supporting 21st Marine Regiment during the attack on Motoyama Airfield.

The Iwo Jima was declared secured at the end of March 1945 and Fairbourn sailed together with 12th Marines back to Guam. He was decorated with the Legion of Merit with Combat "V" and Navy Presidential Unit Citation for his service on Iwo Jima.

## Postwar service

Fairbourn returned to the United States in May 1945 and assumed duty at Marine Training Command at Camp Lejeune under Major General John Marston and served in this capacity until June 1946, when he assumed duty with the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations under Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. He served in the latter capacity until August 1949, when he was ordered for the instruction at Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

Upon the graduation in June 1950, Fairbourn was ordered to Norfolk Navy Yard, Virginia and attached to the headquarters of Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic. He served under Lieutenant General LeRoy P. Hunt and later under his divisional commander from Iwo Jima, Graves B. Erskine as assistant chief of staff for intelligence and later as assistant chief of staff for operations and was promoted to the rank of colonel in January 1951.

Fairbourn was detached from Norfolk in July 1952 in order to attend Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, and completed the Strategy and Tactics course in June 1953. Fairbourn then served for two years on the college staff until he was ordered to Camp Pendleton in July 1955 as commanding officer of 11th Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division.

Colonel Fairbourn served as chief of staff, 3rd Marine Division under Major General Francis M. McAlister in Okinawa, Japan from November 1957 to March 1958 and returned to the United States one month later. He then served as director of First Marine Corps Reserve and Recruitment District with headquarters at Garden City, New York. Fairbourn was ordered to Washington, D.C., in November 1959 and promoted to the rank of brigadier general. He was subsequently appointed deputy director of Marine Corps Reserve at Headquarters Marine Corps under Major General William W. Stickney and finally succeeded him at the beginning of January 1960.

Fairbourn was transferred to Camp Pendleton, California in July 1962 in order to be appointed assistant division commander, 1st Marine Division under Major General Herman Nickerson. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, Fairbourn was appointed commanding general of 5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade detached from 1st Marine Division and sailed for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. His unit was a step from the outbreak of World War III, but the situation calmed down and Fairbourn and his brigade sailed back to the United States in December 1962.

Fairbourn was appointed commanding general of 1st Marine Division in April 1963 and promoted to the rank of major general in August of that year. Fairbourn was relieved by his assistant division commander, brigadier general Edward H. Hurst in July 1965 and ordered to Washington, D.C., for duty as deputy director for Plans within Plans and Policy Directorate, Joint Chiefs of Staff under Admiral Tom Moorer.

Because of his radical about-face on the nuclear weapons issue, some of Fairbourn's comrades, including Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman Admiral Moorer, who say the retired general has simply "jumped from the frying pan into the fire". Fairbourn was ordered for temporary duty as special assistant to the chief of staff, Headquarters Marine Corps in August 1967 and promptly retired on September 1, 1967, after 32 years of active service.

Fairbourn later commented:

> When I moved to the level of a high-level planner, I began dealing with the collateral effects of strategic nuclear war the number of people killed in a nuclear attack, the innocent bystanders. I revolted at that, but I lived with it until I "got out of the kitchen". Some of my colleagues respected my views, but they don't want to join me. They'd rather play golf. They've paid their dues. Now they want to take off their pack and relax.

## Retirement

Following his retirement from the military, Fairbourn toured the country warning of the dangers of nuclear war. He was also a member of the executive committee of Utahns Against the Nuclear Arms Race and associate director of the Center for Defense Information under retired rear admiral Gene La Rocque.

Fairbourn settled in Salt Lake City, Utah and died there on February 21, 1987. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, together with his wife, Laura S. Fairbourn (1908–2002). They had one son, William Thomas Fairbourn, whom they adopted in 1947.

## Decorations

Here is the ribbon of Major General Fairbourn:

| 1st Row | Legion of Merit with Combat "V" | | | Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" and one 516" Gold Star | | | Navy Presidential Unit Citation | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2nd Row | Navy Unit Commendation | | | American Defense Service Medal with Fleet Clasp | | | Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with one silver and two bronze 3/16 inch service stars | | |
| 3rd Row | American Campaign Medal | | | World War II Victory Medal | | | National Defense Service Medal with one star | | |

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.

## InfoBox

| William T. Fairbourn | |
| --- | --- |
| MG William T. Fairbourn, USMC | |
| Born | (1914-06-28)June 28, 1914
Sandy, Utah, United States |
| Died | February 21, 1987(1987-02-21) (aged 72)
Salt Lake City, Utah, United States |
| Buried | Arlington National Cemetery |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Service/branch | United States Marine Corps |
| Years of service | 1935–1967 |
| Rank | Major general |
| Service number | 0-5109 |
| Commands | 1st Marine Division
Marine Corps Reserve
5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade
11th Marine Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War II Cuban Missile Crisis |
| Awards | Legion of Merit
Bronze Star Medal (2) |
| Other work | Nuclear arms race activist |


title: List of lighthouses in New Caledonia

abstract: This is a list of lighthouses in New Caledonia.

text:
# List of lighthouses in New Caledonia

This is a list of **lighthouses in New Caledonia**.

## Lighthouses

| Name | Image | Year
built | Location & coordinates | Class of Light | Focal
height | NGA
number | Admiralty
number | Range
nml |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Amédée Lighthouse |  | 1865 | Nouméa
22°28′38.39″S 166°28′4.63″E / 22.4773306°S 166.4679528°E / -22.4773306; 166.4679528 | Fl (2) W 15s. | 53 metres (174 ft) | 3644 | K4802.1 | 20 |
| Bonne Anse Lighthouse | Image | n/a | Grande Terre
2°23′49.8″S 166°52′59.3″E / 2.397167°S 166.883139°E / -2.397167; 166.883139 | Iso WG 4s. | 11 metres (36 ft) | 3624 | K4799 | white: 8
green: 6 |
| Canal Woodin North Side Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-24 at the Wayback Machine | n/a | Prony Bay
22°22′58.1″S 166°47′53.1″E / 22.382806°S 166.798083°E / -22.382806; 166.798083 | Iso WG 4s. | 12 metres (39 ft) | 3632 | K4799.5 | white: 8
green: 5 |
| Cap N'Doua Lighthouse |  | n/a | Grande Terre
22°23′18.3″S 166°55′48.3″E / 22.388417°S 166.930083°E / -22.388417; 166.930083 | Fl (4) W 15s. | 55 metres (180 ft) | 3612 | K4794 | 16 |
| Cap N'Doua Range Middle Lighthouse |  | 1932 | Grande Terre
22°23′22.8″S 166°55′40.5″E / 22.389667°S 166.927917°E / -22.389667; 166.927917 | Fl (4) W 15s. | 114 metres (374 ft) | 3616 | K4794.1 | 16 |
| Cap N'Doua Range Rear Lighthouse | Image | 1932 | Grande Terre
22°23′27.2″S 166°55′28.9″E / 22.390889°S 166.924694°E / -22.390889; 166.924694 | Fl (4) W 15s. | 189 metres (620 ft) | 3620 | K4794.2 | 14 |
| Île Lifou Lighthouse |  | n/a | Loyalty Islands
21°03′32.5″S 167°27′22.6″E / 21.059028°S 167.456278°E / -21.059028; 167.456278 | Fl (2+1) W 15s. | 90 metres (300 ft) | 3584 | K4834 | 15 |
| Île Ouen Lighthouse |  | n/a | Grande Terre
22°23′38.2″S 166°49′04.0″E / 22.393944°S 166.817778°E / -22.393944; 166.817778 | Fl WR 2.5s. | 64 metres (210 ft) | 3628 | K4799.6 | white: 9
red: 6 |
| Îlot Maître Lighthouse |  | n/a | Nouméa
22°20′39.1″S 166°25′30.1″E / 22.344194°S 166.425028°E / -22.344194; 166.425028 | Q R | 10 metres (33 ft) | 3652 | K4800.5 | 5 |
| Îlot Nou Range Rear Lighthouse | Image | n/a | Nouméa
22°16′09.1″S 166°24′57.1″E / 22.269194°S 166.415861°E / -22.269194; 166.415861 | Fl (4) W 15s. | 71 metres (233 ft) | 3660 | K4812.1 | 12 |
| Îlot Porc-Épic Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-16 at the Wayback Machine | n/a | Nouméa
22°19′35.4″S 166°34′11.1″E / 22.326500°S 166.569750°E / -22.326500; 166.569750 | Fl (3) WG 12s. | 36 metres (118 ft) | 3636 | K4800 | white: 11
green:8 |
| Îlot Signal Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-14 at the Wayback Machine | 1883 | Nouméa
22°17′53.1″S 166°17′30.6″E / 22.298083°S 166.291833°E / -22.298083; 166.291833 | day beacon | 10 metres (33 ft) | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Passe de Boulari Range Front Lighthouse |  | 1881 | Nouméa
22°28′43.7″S 166°27′58.3″E / 22.478806°S 166.466194°E / -22.478806; 166.466194 | Dir Iso W 6s. | 6 metres (20 ft) | 3640 | K4802 | 11 |
| Passe de Goro Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-24 at the Wayback Machine | ~1950s | Grande Terre
22°19′39.2″S 167°02′15.6″E / 22.327556°S 167.037667°E / -22.327556; 167.037667 | Fl W 4s. | 25 metres (82 ft) | 3604 | K4795 | 11 |
| Petit Pass Range Front Lighthouse (Cathedral) |  | 1970s | Nouméa
22°16′22.8″S 166°26′40.0″E / 22.273000°S 166.444444°E / -22.273000; 166.444444 | Q W | 46 metres (151 ft) | 3676 | K4816 | 15 |
| Puareti Lighthouse |  | n/a | Grande Terre
22°05′48.4″S 166°55′47.2″E / 22.096778°S 166.929778°E / -22.096778; 166.929778 | Fl (4) W 15s. | 90 metres (300 ft) | 3600 | K4790 | 24 |
| Recif Ioro Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-23 at the Wayback Machine | n/a | Grande Terre
22°23′01.7″S 166°57′36.8″E / 22.383806°S 166.960222°E / -22.383806; 166.960222 | Iso R 4s. | 7 metres (23 ft) | 3608 | K4797 | 5 |
| Récif Tabou Lighthouse | Image Archived 2016-10-13 at the Wayback Machine | n/a | Nouméa
22°28′53.0″S 166°26′57.2″E / 22.481389°S 166.449222°E / -22.481389; 166.449222 | Oc (4) WR 12s. | 13 metres (43 ft) | 3648 | K4804 | white:10
red: 7 |
|