title: Vaughan Connelly

abstract: Vaughan Bradford Connelly was an American gridiron football player who played college football for Georgia Tech and later played in the first American Football League (AFL) in 1926. He subsequently was active in real estate development and other ventures, described by The Miami News in 1957 as "widely known for his real estate, gas, oil, mining, hotel and apartment operations."

text:
# Vaughan Connelly

**Vaughan Bradford Connelly** (August 25, 1902 – April 18, 1991) was an American gridiron football player who played college football for Georgia Tech and later played in the first American Football League (AFL) in 1926. He subsequently was active in real estate development and other ventures, described by *The Miami News* in 1957 as "widely known for his real estate, gas, oil, mining, hotel and apartment operations."

## Biography

Connelly was born in Atlanta in 1902. His father was the superintendent of police for the Southern Railway. Connelly attended Central High School in Washington, D.C., where he was a letterman in football and track. He also attended Staunton Military Academy in Virginia, lettering there in basketball, football, and track.

Connelly attended the Georgia School of Technology (Georgia Tech) where he played college football for the Georgia Tech football team as a halfback during the one-platoon system era. He was nicknamed "One Minute", in reference to his entering a game against Oglethorpe University in the final minute of play and scoring a touchdown. He also competed in track in the broad jump and high hurdles. A member of the class of 1927, he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon as a freshman. He left college after his junior season, as alluded to in the school's 1926 yearbook, evidently to work in real estate in Miami.

Connelly played professional football with the 1926 Newark Bears in the first American Football League (AFL), with several other former Georgia Tech players including Jimmy Brewster, Ike Williams, and Doug Wycoff. He was listed at 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m) and 170 pounds (77 kg) with Newark.

From March 1929 to March 1930, Connelly was the advertising and business manager of the National Aeronautic Association, based in Washington, D.C. In early 1945, Connelly and his wife purchased a "home of distinction" on Collins Avenue in Miami Beach, Florida. Connelly was evidently an angler, having caught a 23-pound (10 kg) barracuda during a fishing tournament in March 1947.

As of 1956, Connelly was active in real estate development in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Washington, D.C. In September 1957, he bought the Everglades Hotel in Miami for $2 million ($21.7 million in 2023). He subsequently took out a mortgage on the property from the Teamsters Union, who foreclosed on the mortgage and acquired the property in 1960. By April 1963, Connelly was bankrupt. In May 1964, Connelly testified in court that he was required to pay 10% of the amount he borrowed from the Teamsters, then led by Jimmy Hoffa, as under-the-table commissions. Hoffa was convicted of fraud for his involvement with loans and kickbacks, including for the Everglades Hotel.

Connelly was married to M. Louise Connelly. She was also active in real estate; in 1959, the company she led purchased the historic Langford Building in Miami from the estate of Louis B. Mayer. As of mid-1967, the couple was living in Alexandria, Virginia.

1. "All-Time Letterwinners" (PDF). *Georgia Tech Football Information Guide*. 2023. p. 243. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via ramblinwreck.com.
2. "Draft Registration Card". Selective Service System. c. 1941. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via fold3.com.
3. "Social Security Death Index". Social Security Administration. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via fold3.com.
4. "Everglades Hotel Is Sold To Connellys". *The Miami News*. August 31, 1957. p. 3. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
5. "John W. Connelly, 86, Of Southern, Dies". *The Evening Star*. Washington, D.C. June 9, 1950. p. B-1. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
6. *Central High School Yearbook*. 1920. p. 42. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via Internet Archive.
7. "Connelly Has Gone". *The Washington Post*. December 20, 1919. p. 20. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
8. *Blue & Gold: The Year Book of the Staunton Military Academy*. 1921. p. 35. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via fold3.com.
9. *The Blue Print*. Georgia School of Technology. 1926. p. 130. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via gatech.edu.
10. Tharpe, Mack (November 22, 1925). "Tech Coaches Seek Fine Morale for Auburn Game". *The Atlanta Journal*. p. C5. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
11. *The Blue Print*. Georgia School of Technology. 1926. p. 142. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via gatech.edu.
12. *The Blue Print*. Georgia School of Technology. 1924. p. 84. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via gatech.edu.
13. Hawkins, Dick (December 12, 1926). "Hawk-Eye-ing Sports". *The Atlanta Constitution*. p. 4B. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
14. Neft, David S.; Cohen, Richard M. (1991). *The Football Encyclopedia*. New York City: St. Martin's Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-312-05089-5. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via Internet Archive.
15. "Aeronautic Group Sued". *The Evening Star*. Washington, D.C. February 20, 1931. p. B-1. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
16. "Mr. and Mrs. Vaughan Connelly of Alexandria, VA., and Washington, D. C." *Miami Herald*. February 18, 1945. p. 16-C. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
17. "3 Beach Anglers Stage 'Cuda Duel". *The Miami News*. March 25, 1947. p. 4-B. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
18. "Brothers Buy Broward Hotel". *The Miami News*. September 2, 1956. p. 3C. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
19. Hesser, Charles (January 16, 1959). "Hoffa Moving In On Miami". *The Miami News*. p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
20. "Hotel Sold to Union on Courthouse Steps". *Evening World Herald*. Omaha, Nebraska. AP. September 28, 1960. p. 13. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
21. "Business Property To Pay Settlement". *Fort Lauderdale News*. April 8, 1963. p. 16A. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
22. "Miamian: Teamster Loan Cost $300,000". *The Miami News*. AP. May 16, 1964. p. 2. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
23. Sidlo, Steve (December 7, 1978). "Landmark Everglades Hotel Sold". *The Miami News*. p. 1D. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
24. "Sale of Marina Asked in Suit". *The Evening Star*. Washington, D.C. December 31, 1960. p. 3. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
25. Sherman, Frederic (July 5, 1959). "Deal Made For Miami Landmark". *Miami Herald*. p. 3-G. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.
26. "City Buys Dinner Key Park Land". *The Miami News*. June 8, 1967. p. 3. Retrieved March 17, 2024  via newspapers.com.

## InfoBox

Vaughan Connelly
| Connelly in 1925 | |
| --- | --- |
| Date of birth | (1902-08-25)August 25, 1902 |
| Place of birth | Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. |
| Date of death | April 18, 1991(1991-04-18) (aged 88) |
| Career information | |
| Position(s) | Halfback |
| Height | 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) |
| Weight | 170 lb (77 kg) |
| US college | Georgia Tech (1924–1925) |
| Career history | |
| As player | |
| 1926 | Newark Bears |
|  | |
| Career stats | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Tungou

abstract: Tungou also misnomerly referred to as Ringui is a village located south of Ukhrul in Ukhrul district, Manipur state, India. The village is about 35 kilometers from Ukhrul via National Highway 150 that connects Imphal and Kohima via Ukhrul and Jessami. Tungou is flanked by Ramva in the east, Tashar in the north, Sinakeithei in the west and Lungpha in the south. Locally, the inhabitants speak Tungou tui which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family.

text:
# Tungou

**Tungou** also misnomerly referred to as *Ringui* is a village located south of Ukhrul in Ukhrul district, Manipur state, India. The village is about 35 kilometers from Ukhrul via National Highway 150 that connects Imphal and Kohima via Ukhrul and Jessami. Tungou is flanked by Ramva in the east, Tashar in the north, Sinakeithei in the west and Lungpha in the south. Locally, the inhabitants speak Tungou tui which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family.

## Total population

According to 2011 census, Tungou has 352 households with a total of 1971 people of which 1022 are male and 949 are female. Of the total population, 283 were in the age group of 0–6 years. The average sex ratio of the village is 929 female to 1000 male which is lower than the state average of 985. The literacy rate of the village stands at 90.40% which is higher than the state average 76.94%. Male literacy rate stands at 93.35% while female literacy rate was 87.14%.

## People and occupation

The village is home to people of the Tangkhul Naga tribe and the majority of the inhabitants are Christians. Agriculture is the primary occupation of the inhabitants. Tungou is one of the 44 villages considered likely to be affected as a catchment area when the Mapithel multi purpose project is finally functional. The village produced the first motion pictures in Tangkhul dialect. Dr. Yaronsho Ngalung, the incumbent Autonomous District Council Chairman hails from this village.

## InfoBox

| Tungou | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Nickname: Tungou | |
| TungouLocation in Manipur, IndiaTungouTungou (India) | |
| Coordinates: 25°02′17″N 94°14′40″E / 25.03806°N 94.24444°E / 25.03806; 94.24444 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Ukhrul |
| Population | |
| Total | 723 |
| Languages | |
| Official | Tangkhul (Tungou tui) |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
| PIN | 795142 |
| Vehicle registration | MN |
| Nearest city | Ukhrul Imphal |
| Literacy | 81.06% |
| Lok Sabha constituency | Outer Manipur |
| Vidhan Sabha constituency | Chingai |
| Website | manipur.gov.in |


title: Wilhelm Tank

abstract: Wilhelm Tank was a German professor of anatomy, artist and sculptor. His teaching activity over five decades combined with 14 books and more than a hundred articles on scientific and artistic subjects in academic journals, made him one of the more influential figures in his field during the middle part of the twentieth century.

text:
# Wilhelm Tank

**Wilhelm Tank** (15 June 1888 – 29 September 1967) was a German professor of anatomy, artist and sculptor. His teaching activity over five decades combined with 14 books and more than a hundred articles on scientific and artistic subjects in academic journals, made him one of the more influential figures in his field during the middle part of the twentieth century.

## Life

### Family provenance and early years

Tank's came from a traditional East Prussian family with close links to the Protestant Churches Union. His father, Emil Tank, was a Superintendent (senior church administrator) based, by the time of Wilhelm's birth, not in East Prussia but in the village of Kuschlin, at that time in the Prussian Province of Posen. On leaving school he embarked on an apprenticeship in mechanical engineering. He then switched to the Berlin University of the Arts.

It was at the Berlin University of the Arts that his professional career began. He studied anatomy with Hans Virchow. He was also a pupil of Prof. Paul Richer, an academic artist-anatomist whose reputation at that time extended far beyond the borders of France. During and after his student years Tank undertook study tours to Africa, western Asia, southern Russia, England, France, Italy and Spain along with the German-speaking part of central Europe, in order to study the form.

### Teaching

Tank began his own teaching career in 1912. He accepted an appointment as a teacher of anatomical and nude drawing at the Charité (teaching hospital) in Berlin. Assignments at secondary schools and arts colleges followed. Between 1925 and 1936 he had a teaching contract with the German Academy for Body Exercises (*"Deutsche Hochschule für Leibesübungen"* / DHfL). In 1929 he was appointed to the Berlin University of the Arts. first as an associate professor and later as a full professor. Subsequently, he was giving lectures both at the Berlin University of the Arts and, latterly, at the Free University of Berlin in 1962. Even in retirement Tank continued to lecture at three education establishments.

### Beyond teaching

Tank worked as an artist and illustrator. His anatomical drawings appear in books, and on posters as well as in exhibitions of his work such as the one first staged in 1920. Tank was featured in the Great German Arts Exhibition held in Munich annually between 1937 and 1944. Posthumously presented displays include those at the Galerie Edition Marco in Bonn (1978), the Museum of European Arts (1985) and the Schloss Nörvenich gallery (2003).

He also applied his scholarship ib political film and radio work. In 1928, together with the radio producer Arthur Holz, he developed "Radio gymnastics" and published a booklet of illustrations in support of the first series. With the film producer Wilhelm Prager (1876–1955) he instigated and collaborated on the first in a series of "body culture" films, Ways to Strength and Beauty, designing an elaborate poster to advertise its launch.

## InfoBox

| Wilhelm Tank | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 15 June 1888
Kuschlin, Province of Posen, Germany |
| Died | 29 September 1967
Berlin |
| Occupation(s) | Professor of anatomy
Artist
Sculptor |
| Spouse | Ingeborg Gast/Tank (1914–2005) |
| Parent | Emil Tank |


title: Recombination (cosmology)

abstract: In cosmology, recombination refers to the epoch during which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms. Recombination occurred about 378000 years after the Big Bang. The word "recombination" is misleading, since the Big Bang theory does not posit that protons and electrons had been combined before, but the name exists for historical reasons since it was named before the Big Bang hypothesis became the primary theory of the birth of the universe.

text:
# Recombination (cosmology)

In cosmology, **recombination** refers to the epoch during which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms. Recombination occurred about 378000 years after the Big Bang (at a redshift of *z* = 1100). The word "recombination" is misleading, since the Big Bang theory does not posit that protons and electrons had been combined before, but the name exists for historical reasons since it was named before the Big Bang hypothesis became the primary theory of the birth of the universe.

## Overview

Immediately after the Big Bang, the universe was a hot, dense plasma of photons, leptons, and quarks: the quark epoch. At 10−6 seconds, the Universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently to allow for the formation of protons: the hadron epoch. This plasma was effectively opaque to electromagnetic radiation due to Thomson scattering by free electrons, as the mean free path each photon could travel before encountering an electron was very short. This is the current state of the interior of the Sun. As the universe expanded, it also cooled. Eventually, the universe cooled to the point that the radiation field could not immediately ionize neutral hydrogen, and atoms became energetically favored. The fraction of free electrons and protons as compared to neutral hydrogen decreased to a few parts in 10000.

Recombination involves electrons binding to protons (hydrogen nuclei) to form neutral hydrogen atoms. Because direct recombinations to the ground state (lowest energy) of hydrogen are very inefficient, these hydrogen atoms generally form with the electrons in a high energy state, and the electrons quickly transition to their low energy state by emitting photons. Two main pathways exist: from the 2p state by emitting a Lyman-a photon – these photons will almost always be reabsorbed by another hydrogen atom in its ground state – or from the 2s state by emitting two photons, which is very slow.

This production of photons is known as decoupling, which leads to recombination sometimes being called **photon decoupling**, but recombination and photon decoupling are distinct events. Once photons decoupled from matter, they traveled freely through the universe without interacting with matter and constitute what is observed today as cosmic microwave background radiation (in that sense, the cosmic background radiation is infrared and some red black-body radiation emitted when the universe was at a temperature of some 3000 K, redshifted by a factor of 1100 from the visible spectrum to the microwave spectrum).

## Recombination time frames

The time frame for recombination can be estimated from the time dependence of the temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The microwave background is a blackbody spectrum representing the photons present at recombination, shifted in energy by the expansion of the universe. A blackbody is completely characterized by its temperature; the shift is called the redshift denoted by *z*: $T\_{\text{CMB}=\mathrm {2.7~K} \times (1+z)}$ where 2.7 K is today's temperature.

The thermal energy at the peak of the blackbody spectrum is the Boltzmann constant, kB, times the temperature, $k\_{B}T\_{\text{CMB}(z)}$ but simply comparing this to the ionization energy of hydrogen atoms will not consider the spectrum of energies. A better estimate evaluates the thermal equilibrium between matter (atoms) and radiation. The density of photons, $\eta \_{\gamma }(E\>Q\_{H})$ with energy *E* sufficient to ionize hydrogen is the total density times a factor from the equilibrium Boltzmann distribution: $\eta \_{\gamma }(E\>Q\_{H})=\eta \_{\gamma }\exp \left({\frac {-Q\_{H}{k\_{B}T\_{\text{CMB}(z)}\right)}}}$ At equilibrium this will approximately equal the matter (baryon) density. The ratio of photons to baryons, $\eta $, is known from several sources including measurements by the Planck satellite to be around 109. Solving for $z\_{\text{rec}}$ gives value around 1100, which converts to a cosmic time value around 400,000 years.

## Recombination history of hydrogen

The cosmic ionization history is generally described in terms of the free electron fraction *x*e as a function of redshift. It is the ratio of the abundance of free electrons to the total abundance of hydrogen (both neutral and ionized). Denoting by *n*e the number density of free electrons, *n*H that of atomic hydrogen and *n*p that of ionized hydrogen (i.e. protons), *x*e is defined as

$$x\_{\text{e}={\frac {n\_{\text{e}{n\_{\text{p}+n\_{\text{H}.}}}}}}}$$

Since hydrogen only recombines once helium is fully neutral, charge neutrality implies *n*e = *n*p, i.e. *x*e is also the fraction of ionized hydrogen.

### Rough estimate from equilibrium theory

It is possible to find a rough estimate of the redshift of the recombination epoch assuming the recombination reaction $p+e^{-}\longleftrightarrow H+\gamma $ is fast enough that it proceeds near thermal equilibrium. The relative abundance of free electrons, protons and neutral hydrogen is then given by the Saha equation:

$$\frac {n\_{\text{p}n\_{\text{e}{n\_{\text{H}=\left({\frac {m\_{\text{e}k\_{\text{B}T}{2\pi \hbar ^{2}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}\exp \left(-{\frac {E\_{\text{I}{k\_{\text{B}T}\right),}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

where *m*e is the mass of the electron, *k*B is the Boltzmann constant, *T* is the temperature, *ħ* is the reduced Planck constant, and *E*I = 13.6 eV is the ionization energy of hydrogen. Charge neutrality requires *n*e = *n*p, and the Saha equation can be rewritten in terms of the free electron fraction *x*e:

$$\frac {x\_{\text{e}^{2}{1-x\_{\text{e}=(n\_{\text{H}+n\_{\text{p})^{-1}\left({\frac {m\_{\text{e}k\_{\text{B}T}{2\pi \hbar ^{2}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}\exp \left(-{\frac {E\_{\text{I}{k\_{\text{B}T}\right).}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

All quantities in the right-hand side are known functions of z, the redshift: the temperature is given by *T* = (1 + *z*) × 2.728 K, and the total density of hydrogen (neutral and ionized) is given by *n*p \+ *n*H = (1 + *z*)3 × 1.6 m−3.

Solving this equation for a 50 percent ionization fraction yields a recombination temperature of roughly 4000 , corresponding to redshift *z* = 1500.

### Effective three-level atom

In 1968, physicists Jim Peebles in the US and Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and collaborators in the USSR independently computed the non-equilibrium recombination history of hydrogen. The basic elements of the model are the following.

* Direct recombinations to the ground state of hydrogen are very inefficient: each such event leads to a photon with energy greater than 13.6 eV, which almost immediately re-ionizes a neighboring hydrogen atom.
* Electrons therefore only efficiently recombine to the excited states of hydrogen, from which they cascade very quickly down to the first excited state, with principal quantum number *n* = 2.
* From the first excited state, electrons can reach the ground state *n* = 1 through two pathways:
    + Decay from the 2p state by emitting a Lyman-α photon. This photon will almost always be reabsorbed by another hydrogen atom in its ground state. However, cosmological redshifting systematically decreases the photon frequency, and there is a small chance that it escapes reabsorption if it gets redshifted far enough from the Lyman-α line resonant frequency before encountering another hydrogen atom.
    + Decay from the 2s state by emitting two photons. This two-photon decay process is very slow, with a rate of 8.22 s−1. It is however competitive with the slow rate of Lyman-α escape in producing ground-state hydrogen.
* Atoms in the first excited state may also be re-ionized by the ambient CMB photons before they reach the ground state. When this is the case, it is as if the recombination to the excited state did not happen in the first place. To account for this possibility, Peebles defines the factor *C* as the probability that an atom in the first excited state reaches the ground state through either of the two pathways described above before being photoionized.

This model is usually described as an "effective three-level atom" as it requires keeping track of hydrogen under three forms: in its ground state, in its first excited state (assuming all the higher excited states are in Boltzmann equilibrium with it), and in its ionized state.

Accounting for these processes, the recombination history is then described by the differential equation

$$\frac {dx\_{\text{e}{dt}=-C\left(\alpha \_{\text{B}(T)n\_{\text{p}x\_{e}-4(1-x\_{\text{e})\beta \_{\text{B}(T)e^{-E\_{21}/T}\right),}}}}}}$$

where αB is the "case B" recombination coefficient to the excited states of hydrogen, βB is the corresponding photoionization rate and *E*21 = 10.2 eV is the energy of the first excited state. Note that the second term in the right-hand side of the above equation can be obtained by a detailed balance argument. The equilibrium result given in the previous section would be recovered by setting the left-hand side to zero, i.e. assuming that the net rates of recombination and photoionization are large in comparison to the Hubble expansion rate, which sets the overall evolution timescale for the temperature and density. However, *C* αB *n*p is comparable to the Hubble expansion rate, and even gets significantly lower at low redshifts, leading to an evolution of the free electron fraction much slower than what one would obtain from the Saha equilibrium calculation. With modern values of cosmological parameters, one finds that the universe is 90% neutral at *z*  1070.

### Modern developments

The simple effective three-level atom model described above accounts for the most important physical processes. However it does rely on approximations that lead to errors on the predicted recombination history at the level of 10% or so. Due to the importance of recombination for the precise prediction of cosmic microwave background anisotropies, several research groups have revisited the details of this picture over the last two decades.

The refinements to the theory can be divided into two categories:

* Accounting for the non-equilibrium populations of the highly excited states of hydrogen. This effectively amounts to modifying the recombination coefficient *α*B.
* Accurately computing the rate of Lyman-α escape and the effect of these photons on the 2s–1s transition. This requires solving a time-dependent radiative transfer equation. In addition, one needs to account for higher-order Lyman transitions. These refinements effectively amount to a modification of Peebles' *C* factor.

Modern recombination theory is believed to be accurate at the level of 0.1%, and is implemented in publicly available fast recombination codes.

## Primordial helium recombination

Helium nuclei are produced during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, and make up about 24% of the total mass of baryonic matter. The ionization energy of helium is larger than that of hydrogen and it therefore recombines earlier. Because neutral helium carries two electrons, its recombination proceeds in two steps. The first recombination, $\mathrm {He} ^{2+}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}\longrightarrow \mathrm {He} ^{+}+\gamma $ proceeds near Saha equilibrium and takes place around redshift *z*  6000. The second recombination, $\mathrm {He} ^{+}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}\longrightarrow \mathrm {He} +\gamma $, is slower than what would be predicted from Saha equilibrium and takes place around redshift *z*  2000. The details of helium recombination are less critical than those of hydrogen recombination for the prediction of cosmic microwave background anisotropies, since the universe is still very optically thick after helium has recombined and before hydrogen has started its recombination.

## Primordial light barrier

Prior to recombination, photons were not able to freely travel through the universe, as they constantly scattered off the free electrons and protons. This scattering causes a loss of information, and "there is therefore a photon barrier at a redshift" near that of recombination that prevents us from using photons directly to learn about the universe at larger redshifts. Once recombination had occurred, however, the mean free path of photons greatly increased due to the lower number of free electrons. Shortly after recombination, the photon mean free path became larger than the Hubble length, and photons traveled freely without interacting with matter. For this reason, recombination is closely associated with the last scattering surface, which is the name for the last time at which the photons in the cosmic microwave background interacted with matter. However, these two events are distinct, and in a universe with different values for the baryon-to-photon ratio and matter density, recombination and photon decoupling need not have occurred at the same epoch.

1. Tanabashi et al. 2018, p. 358, chpt. 21.4.1: "Big-Bang Cosmology" (Revised September 2017) by K.A. Olive and J.A. Peacock.
2. Ryden 2003, p. 159.
3. Maoz 2016, pp. 251–252: "Going forward in time now, the temperature declined, and at *T* ~ 3000 K, few of the photons in the radiation field, even in its high-energy tail, had the energy required to ionize a hydrogen atom. Most of the electrons and protons then recombined. Once this happened, at a time *t*rec = 380,000 yr after the Big Bang, the major source of opacity disappeared, and the Universe became transparent to radiation of most frequencies."
4. The derivation in this section is from Bromm 2014
5. Ryden 2003, p. 157.
6. Longair 2008, p. 32.
7. Peebles 1968.
8. Zel'Dovich, Ya. B.; Kurt, V. G.; Syunyaev, R. A. (1969). "Recombination of Hydrogen in the Hot Model of the Universe". *Soviet Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics*. **28**: 146. Bibcode:1969JETP...28..146Z.
9. Nussbaumer, H.; Schmutz, W. (1984). "The hydrogenic 2s–1s two-photon emission". *Astronomy and Astrophysics*. **138** (2): 495. Bibcode:1984A&A...138..495N.
10. Hu, Wayne; Scott, Douglas; Sugiyama, Naoshi; White, Martin (1995). "Effect of physical assumptions on the calculation of microwave background anisotropies". *Physical Review D*. **52** (10): 5498–5515. arXiv:astro-ph/9505043. Bibcode:1995PhRvD..52.5498H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.52.5498. PMID 10019080. S2CID 9168355.
11. Chluba, J.; Vasil, G. "CosmoRec: Cosmological recombination module".
12. "HyRec: A code for primordial hydrogen and helium recombination including radiative transfer". Archived from the original on 20 July 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
13. Switzer, Eric R.; Hirata, Christopher M. (2008). "Primordial helium recombination. III. Thomson scattering, isotope shifts, and cumulative results". *Physical Review D*. **77** (8): 083008. arXiv:astro-ph/0702145. Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77h3008S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.083008. S2CID 119504365.
14. Switzer, Eric R.; Hirata, Christopher M. (2008). "Primordial helium recombination. I. Feedback, line transfer, and continuum opacity". *Physical Review D*. **77** (8): 083006. arXiv:astro-ph/0702143. Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77h3006S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.083006. S2CID 9425660.
15. Longair 2008, p. 280.
16. Padmanabhan 1993, p. 115.
17. Longair 2008, p. 281.

## Bibliography


title: Red Brook

abstract: Red Brook is a minor river in Greater Manchester in North West England. Rising at the confluence of Caldwell Brook and Sinderland Brook at Covershaw Bridge near Sinderland Green, the river runs north west towards Partington, where it runs into the Manchester Ship Canal opposite the mouth of Glaze Brook.

text:
# Red Brook

**Red Brook** is a minor river in Greater Manchester in North West England.

Rising at the confluence of **Caldwell Brook** and **Sinderland Brook** at Covershaw Bridge near Sinderland Green, the river runs north west towards Partington, where it runs into the Manchester Ship Canal opposite the mouth of Glaze Brook.

## Caldwell Brook

Caldwell Brook runs northwards to Covershaw Bridge, draining the Civil Parish of Dunham Massey.

## Sinderland Brook

Sinderland Brook runs westwards from Sale.


title: Mammoth, Pennsylvania

abstract: Mammoth is a census-designated place that is located in Mount Pleasant Township, Westmoreland County in the state of Pennsylvania, United States, with its own post office and postal zip code: 15664. The community is located just off Pennsylvania Route 982 and is part of the Mount Pleasant Area School District.

text:
# Mammoth, Pennsylvania

**Mammoth** is a census-designated place that is located in Mount Pleasant Township, Westmoreland County in the state of Pennsylvania, United States, with its own post office and postal zip code: 15664.

The community is located just off Pennsylvania Route 982 and is part of the Mount Pleasant Area School District.

## Demographics

As of the 2010 census, the population was 525 residents.

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2020 | 526 |  |  |
| U.S. Decennial Census | | | |

## Local Attractions

Mammoth is home to Mammoth Park, a 408-acre park that features a stocked freshwater lake, recreational areas, several playgrounds, and pavilions. The park is home to the Giant Slide Complex, a pair of 100-foot long slides perched on a climbable rock wall. The complex has been embroiled in lawsuits every year, but remains open as of 2024. In the spring, the annual Mammoth Fest festival featuring vendor booths and children's rides is held at the park.

Also located in Mammoth is the Mount Pleasant Township Municipal Building.

Despite its small population, Mammoth is home to several businesses, including Citizens Telephone Company of Kecksburg which first opened in 1906 to bring telephone services to the rural miners and farmers who lived in the area.

Mammoth is situated in close proximity to the site of the 1965 Kecksburg UFO incident in which many local residents claimed to have witnessed an object streak across the sky and crash-land in the woods of neighboring Kecksburg, PA. The government response to the incident has led many to speculate what the object was, leading to many theories such as a UFO or Russian satellite.

## Mining

Known as the infamous Mammoth Mine Disaster, on January 27, 1891, an explosion tore through Mammoth No. 1 Mine owned at the time by H.C. Frick Coke Company. Newspapers reported that firedamp was ignited by a miner's oil lamp, causing the explosion. All 110 miners who entered that day were killed instantly.

The workers killed in the mine explosion were buried in a mass grave in St. John's Cemetery in Scottdale, Pennsylvania. In 2000, the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission erected a historical marker at the burial site commemorating the Mammoth Mine Explosion.

The sealed-off entrance to the mine can still be seen today. It is situated behind the Mount Pleasant Township Municipal Building, which once served as the former boiler house and lamp house for the mine. It is the only building from the mining operation still in existence. Many of the patch homes once owned by the miners and their families are still occupied today throughout Mammoth and along Poker Road.

## InfoBox

| Mammoth, Pennsylvania | |
| --- | --- |
| CDP | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Pennsylvania |
| County | Westmoreland |
| Area | |
| Total | 2.02 sq mi (5.24 km2) |
| Land | 2.02 sq mi (5.24 km2) |
| Water | 0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 526 |
| Density | 260.14/sq mi (100.45/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| FIPS code | 42-46800 |


title: US Yachts US 27

abstract: The US Yachts US 27 is an American sailboat that was designed by Doug Peterson and Daryl Watson as a racer-cruiser and first built in 1983. The design is a unauthorized development of Peterson's International Offshore Rule Half Ton class Chaser 29 racer, using the same hull design with a different deck and other changes. The US 27 molds were later sold to Pearson Yachts and developed into the Triton 27 in 1984.

text:
# US Yachts US 27

The **US Yachts US 27** is an American sailboat that was designed by Doug Peterson and Daryl Watson as a racer-cruiser and first built in 1983.

The design is a unauthorized development of Peterson's International Offshore Rule Half Ton class Chaser 29 racer, using the same hull design with a different deck and other changes. The US 27 molds were later sold to Pearson Yachts and developed into the Triton 27 in 1984.

## Production

The design was built by US Yachts in the United States, starting in 1983, but it is now out of production.

## Design

The US 27 is a recreational keelboat, built predominantly of fiberglass, with wood trim. It has a masthead sloop rig, a raked stem, a reverse transom, an internally mounted spade-type rudder controlled by a tiller and a fixed fin keel or optional shoal draft keel. It displaces 5,836 lb (2,647 kg) and carries 2,024 lb (918 kg) of ballast.

The boat has a draft of 5.17 ft (1.58 m) with the standard keel and 3.5 ft (1.1 m) with the optional shoal draft keel.

The boat is optionally fitted with a Swedish Volvo diesel engine for docking and maneuvering. The fuel tank holds 20 U.S. gallons (76 L; 17 imp gal) and the fresh water tank has a capacity of 29 U.S. gallons (110 L; 24 imp gal).

The design has sleeping accommodation for four people, with a double "V"-berth in the bow cabin, a U-shaped settee and drop-down dinette table in the main cabin on the port side. The galley is located on the starboard side amidships and is equipped with a two-burner stove, ice box and a sink. The enclosed head is located just aft of the bow cabin on the port side. Cabin headroom is 72 in (183 cm).

The design has a hull speed of 6.46 kn (11.96 km/h).

## InfoBox

US Yachts US 27
| Development | |
| --- | --- |
| Designer | Doug Peterson and Daryl Watson |
| Location | United States |
| Year | 1983 |
| Builder(s) | US Yachts |
| Role | Racer-Cruiser |
| Name | US Yachts US 27 |
| Boat | |
| Displacement | 5,836 lb (2,647 kg) |
| Draft | 5.17 ft (1.58 m) |
| Hull | |
| Type | monohull |
| Construction | fiberglass |
| LOA | 27.00 ft (8.23 m) |
| LWL | 23.25 ft (7.09 m) |
| Beam | 9.50 ft (2.90 m) |
| Engine type | Volvo diesel engine |
| Hull appendages | |
| Keel/board type | fin keel |
| Ballast | 2,024 lb (918 kg) |
| Rudder(s) | internally-mounted spade-type rudder |
| Rig | |
| Rig type | Bermuda rig |
| foretriangle height | 32.75 ft (9.98 m) |
| foretriangle base | 10.75 ft (3.28 m) |
| mainsail luff | 28.00 ft (8.53 m) |
| mainsail foot | 9.75 ft (2.97 m) |
| Sails | |
| Sailplan | masthead sloop |
| Mainsail area | 136.50 sq ft (12.681 m2) |
| Jib/genoa area | 176.03 sq ft (16.354 m2) |
| Total sail area | 312.53 sq ft (29.035 m2) |
| Chaser 29
\[edit on Wikidata\] | |


title: Francis Bernard (artist)

abstract: Francis Bernard is a painter, a multimedia artist and the author of textimages.

text:
# Francis Bernard (artist)

**Francis Bernard** (born 1928 in Paris) is a painter, a multimedia artist and the author of textimages.

## Exhibitions

In 1974, Francis Bernard exhibits work at the Swedish Cultural Center in Paris: a polychromatic sculpture on the occasion of an exhibition of works from the Salvador Allende Museum, Santiago, Chile.

A few years later, Francis Bernard undertakes a graphic transcription of « AMERICA » a poem by Michèle Lalonde from Quebec. Presented as billboards, this work will be shown in Montreal, as well as in the Luxembourg museum in Paris in December 1980.

In 1981, Francis Bernard creates a graphic series based on the character Père Duchesne. This will be shown for two months at the Centre Pompidou. The series is a collection of 150 drawings and paintings and constitutes the « Théâtre pictural du Père Duchesne ». It is inspired by the Jean-Pierre Faye play, *Les dernières journées du père Duchesne*, which uses historical material from the revolutionary newspaper« Le Père Duchesne ». Twenty two panels of this series are also presented at the French-Italian Cultural Center, during the biennial Venice carnival on the theme "The masks of Marat".

In 1984, in the hall of the Criée Theater in Marseille, Bernard exhibits a series of images painted on the theme of the French revolution in the style of the Épinal print.

Francis Bernard has also widely exhibited elsewhere: Cultural center, Nanterre; École normale supérieure, Cachan; La Rochelle; Bruxelles; Montréal....).

## Cartoon movies and graphic videos

In parallel to the graphic series on Père Duchesne, Francis Bernard also creates a graphic video. Filmed in 1981 in the video studio of Beaubourg, it will be shown during the biennial Venice carnival and in the large hall of the Centre Pompidou.

In Venice he makes the cartoon movie « Les Pupi Siciliennes ». The characters are wooden puppets who tell the story of Charlemagne upon his return from the Crusades. The musical score for the film is composed by Enzo d’Alò director of the studio La Lanterna Magica. In 1979, with Enzo D’Alò Bernard makes the film « Pupinocchio » in the studio La lanterna Magica, Turin. This is a graphic fantasy combining the characters of Pinocchio and the Pupi siciliennes.

Francis Bernard is also author of the play entitled « Attentat à la peinture » first performed in Bruxelles in the Halles de Schaerbeek and then in Turin, Gênes and Milan. Parts of the play were also performed in the Théâtre du Rond-Point in Paris which Jean-Louis Barrault and Madeleine Renaud were the directors-organizers. Ahmed Ben Diab, visual artist and musician composed the score.

## Illustrations and books' covers

In 1980, Francis Bernard illustrated books by Michèle Lalonde that were published for a celebration of the 14th of July organised by the town of La Rochelle. These included *Métaphore pour un nouveau monde*.

In 1986, Francis Bernard illustrated a Moroccan tale, entitled *La Négresse Lune* in collaboration with Bénédicte Vilgrain. The full-page compositions are in black and in color. In the same year, he illustrated several texts of poetry including « Narration du déluge » written by Abdellatif Laâbi and published by Arcantère (1986). The illustrations were also exhibited at the Castel of Fougères.

Bernard also contributed to the review CHANGE founded and animated by Jean-Pierre Faye who operated the typesetting of the review published by Robert Laffont.

Between 1983-1987, Francis Bernard typeset the cover of several works from the series « Théorie pratique pédagogie » published by Pratiques. Since 2009, he has produced the dummies of books published by Jean-François Chanlat, professor at the University Paris Dauphine for the éditions of Montréal.

1. Discussion with the artist.
2. Archives of the exhibitions of the Centre Pompidou: http://www.centrepompidou.fr/Pompidou/Manifs.nsf/Archives?ReadForm&RestrictToCategory=8082\*Categorie2&count=999&sessionM=4.6&L=1
3. Interview of Enzo d'Alo : http://www.occhisulcinema.it/Dos-Enzo%20D%27Al%F2.htm Archived 2015-05-19 at the Wayback Machine
4. Lalonde, Michèle (1980). *Métaphore pour un nouveau monde* (in French). L'Hexagone. ISBN 978-2-89006-195-8.
5. La Négresse Lune. Courbevoie, Le Théâtre Typographique, 1986, in-folio en ff., non paginé, (24) pp., emboîtage carton noir et plexiglas, illustré sur le premier plat, titre au dos. (SS50B), available on http://www.livre-rare-book.com/book/5472525/1329468/en Archived 2013-01-28 at archive.today
6. Narration du déluge, Abdellatif Laâbi and Francis Bernard, Arcantère, Voix au chapitre, 1986, 63 p. http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/DB=2.1/SRCH?IKT=12&TRM=001228854&COOKIE=U10178,Klecteurweb,D2.1,E1fbf2876-0,I250,B341720009+,SY,A\9008+1,,J,H2-26,,29,,34,,39,,44,,49-50,,53-78,,80-87,NLECTEUR+PSI,R92.140.124.194,FN
7. The archives of the review Change are kept at the Institut Mémoires de l'édition contemporaine (IMEC) : http://www.imec-archives.com/fonds\_revues\_fiche.php?i=104122 Archived 2012-03-15 at the Wayback Machine


title: Women's field hockey in Australia

abstract: Women's field hockey in Australia began informally in New South Wales and Tasmania from as early as 1901, with the first team developed in Sydney in 1903. Soon after, Women's field hockey began to be played in schools, universities and eventually developed state and national teams. Women's field hockey was eventually represented by the Australian Institute of Sport, though it did not receive the same support as the men's field hockey. The Australia women's national field hockey team, established in 1914, has placed highly in many competitions.

text:
# Women's field hockey in Australia

**Women's field hockey in Australia** began informally in New South Wales and Tasmania from as early as 1901, with the first team developed in Sydney in 1903. Soon after, Women's field hockey began to be played in schools, universities and eventually developed state and national teams. Women's field hockey was eventually represented by the Australian Institute of Sport, though it did not receive the same support as the men's field hockey. The Australia women's national field hockey team (nicknamed *the Hockeyroos*), established in 1914, has placed highly in many competitions.

## History

The first women's field hockey team founded in Australia was the Wandah Club. This club was based out of Sydney and was created in 1903. It was founded by Miss Clubbe and her sister. Later that year, after the club was founded, school based began to be played in Hobart and Sydney girls' schools. That year also saw the creation of clubs in New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia. Women's hockey in Australia predates this on an informal, non-club level. Women were informally playing field hockey in New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania by 1901. Field hockey began to be played by women in Melbourne in 1907.

In 1934, the Victorian Women's Centennial Sports Carnival was held. The event was organised by the Victorian Women's Amateur Sports Council and held at the Melbourne Cricket Grounds. The purpose was to increase women's interest in sport by providing them opportunities to play. Sports that were included on the programme included cricket, field hockey, women's basketball, bowls, rowing, swimming, athletics, rifle shooting, baseball, golf, tennis and badminton. There were over 1,000 bowlers involved over the course a week. Cricket featured a match versus a visiting English side. Women's basketball featured a Victorian side playing against a representative all Australian side. There was a day for watersports such as swimming and rowing. A tennis tournament was held. A field hockey tournament featuring Australian, Kiwi and Fijian teams was played.

Australian women's sports had an advantage over many other women's sport organisations around the world in the period after World War II. Women's sport organisations had largely remained intact and were holding competitions during the war period. This structure survived in the post war period. Women's sport were not hurt because of food rationing, petrol rationing, population disbursement, and other issues facing post-war Europe.

In January 1981, the Australian Institute of Sport opened. Field hockey, men's or women's, was not a sport that was part of the original group of sports represented by the institute. The sport was later included, with women being represented in equal numbers to their male peers. While the representation by gender would later be similar, space issues at the Australian Institute of Sport prevented some development when compared to the men's game. Hockey was originally based at the Australian Institute of Sport at a Perth-based headquarters. This arrangement was done with agreements between the institute, the Commonwealth government and the government of Western Australia. When hockey was first included at AIS, an initial committee was created which included a chairman from AIS, an AHA representative, an AWHA representative, a representative from WAIT, a representative from Western Australia's government and a sports medicine representative. At the onset, sixteen male players were awarded scholarships but zero female players were.

Women's state teams have historically been coached by men. This means that there are many similarities in the style of play between the men and women's style of play on the local, state and national level.

## Governance

The governance of women's field hockey in Australia began in 1907, when a New South Wales association was created. National governance came about on 2 July 1910 when the All Australian Women's Hockey Association was created. The first president of this organisation was Gwynneth Morris of Victoria. The national organisation became an affiliate of the All England Women's Hockey Association right away. Marie Montgomerie Hamilton who had led the New South Wales Hockey Association for over twenty years became the All-Australia chair from 1932 to 1934 and again from 1945 to 1954.

In 2000, Women's Hockey Australia merged with the Australian Hockey Association to form Hockey Australia.

In 1933, the New South Wales Amateur Women's Sport Council was created by Gwendolen Game. The organisation brought together all the women's sporting bodies on the state level. Sports represented included New South Wales's women's field hockey, cricket, women's basketball, baseball, rowing and vigoro. A similar organisation covering similar sports had been created in Victoria in 1931.

## Schools and university

A university field hockey team for women was first established at the University of Queensland in 1912.

In 1922, a committee in Australia investigated the benefits of physical education for girls. They came up with several recommendations regarding what sports were and were not appropriate for girls to play based on the level of fitness required. It was determined that for some individual girls that for medical reasons, the girls should probably not be allowed to participate in tennis, netball, lacrosse, golf, hockey, and cricket. Soccer was completely medically inappropriate for girls to play. It was medically appropriate for all girls to be able to participate in, so long as they were not done in an overly competitive manner, swimming, rowing, cycling and horseback riding.

## Interstate

The first interstate match in Australia occurred in 1909 when a New South Wales representative side competed against a representative Victorian side in Melbourne. The first interstate tournament occurred the following year at a competition in Rushcutters Bay, New South Wales. Representative sides from Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales competed.

An interstate competition was held to determine the national champions starting in 1946. In the period between 1946 and 1967, Western Australia's team claimed sole victory in all but five years. Those years they did not win sole victory include 1948 where they shared the top with New South Wales, 1954 when New South Wales won, 1956 when the competition was not held, 1961 when Queensland won, and 1965 when they shared victory with South Australia.

State sides have historically been very competitive, making national team selection very difficult as the level of play is very high. An example of the level of competition being high on the state side can be found in 1983 when a South Australian representative side beat the Indian national team that was doing a tour of the country.

## International

the Australia women's national field hockey team (nicknamed *The Hockeyroos*) played its first game in 1914 against the England XI team. This was the first international match that Australia competed in. The English made an appearance in the country on a trip to New Zealand and played only one game. An English representative team was the first international team to tour Australia. They did this tour in 1927, playing three test matches, an inter-state tournament and matches in every Australian state. England won every game they played during this 1927 tour.

Florinda Katharine Ogilvie led the All Australia Women’s Hockey Association from 1926 and in 1930 she went with them when they undertook their first international tour. Australia played their first international match on foreign soil that year when they went to South Africa and Rhodesia to compete in an Empire tournament. At the conclusion of this tournament, the team went on a tour of the United Kingdom and continental Europe. Australia made their first appearance in a World Championship competition in 1936 in the tournament held in the United States. Australia had their first victory against England in 1953. They beat England 2 goals to 1. This victory occurred at the 5th International Tournament that was held in England that year. In 1959, Australia won their first international tournament: The 1959 Holland Tournament.

In 1967, the Australian women's national team completed a tour of ten countries in a period of four months, playing thirty-one games and only losing five. That same year, they competed in the 9th World Championship where they finished in the top four alongside national teams from South Africa, England and the Netherlands. The Australian women participated in the first Women's World Cup for field hockey that was held in 1979. The team finished fourth. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Australia and New Zealand were both leading women's field hockey nations that were competitive with their European counterparts. In 1981, the Australians won the America's Cup, the first year this competition was held. That same year, the team also competed in the 1981 version of the World Cup. They finished fourth. In 1982, the Australians competed in a New Zealand tournament featuring teams from the Netherlands, the United States, New Zealand, Canada and England. The team finished second. That year, the team also competed in the New Zealand Tournament. They finished second.

The process for qualifying for the 1984 Summer Olympics depended on a team's performance at the 1983 World Cup. The 1983 World Cup was also a significant event for Australian women's field hockey because it was the first World Cup that was governed by the International Hockey Federation, an international governing body that for the first time represented both sexes. The World Cup was held in April in Kuala Lumpur. Australia was in pool A with Scotland, the United States, Wales, the Netherlands and India. Players for the team included Lorraine Wharton. Players for the team included Lorraine Wharton and Elspeth Clement. The team was coached by Brian Glencross. Elspeth Clement was the second leading scorer in the tournament, scoring seven goals, three less than Jane Swinnerton of England who scored ten. The Australians led in penalty scorners awarded in the tournament, with seventy-one, where they converted nine of them into goals. Australia finished tied with England for first in the tournament for penalty strokes award with three. They converted only one of those, compared to England's two. On the first day, Australia beat Wales five to zero. On the third day, Australia beat India by a score of three to two. On the fourth day, Australia tied Scotland one all. On day six, the Netherlands beat Australia one to zero. On day six, the Netherlands beat Australia one to zero. On day seven, Australia tied the American team one all. On day ten during the semi-finals, Australia tied Canada zero to zero. Extra time was played. The game was still a tie. The game went to penalty strokes, which Canada won eight to five. On day twelve, Australia played in the Bronze Medal match and beat Germany by a score of three to one. The Australian team finished third.

Between 1931 and 1983, Australia's national team has finished first in twice, second five times, third six times and fourth three times in international competitions. During that same time period, Australia's women have competed in sixty-two test matches, where they won twenty-seven, drew eleven and lost twenty-four matches. The team has one three Olympic gold medals (1988, 1996, 2000), two World Cup gold medals (1994, 1998), six Champions Trophies (1991, 1993, 1995, 1997 , 1999, 2003) and three Commonwealth Games gold medals (1998, 2006, 2010).

## Popularity

In 1940, a study of 314 women in New Zealand and Australia was done. Most of the women in the study were middle class, conservative, Protestant and white. The study found that 183 participated in sport. The ninth most popular sport that these women participated in was field hockey, with 3 having played the sport. The sport was tied with billiards, chess, fishing, croquet, horse racing, squash, table tennis and shooting.

## Uniforms

Early field hockey uniforms in the 1900s and 1910s consisted of high-button shoes, ankle length skirts and long sleeved button up shirts.

## People

One of the important people in developing women's field hockey in Australia was Louie Wilkie.

## Bibliography

* Evening Post (19 December 1922). "Women in Print". *Evening Post*. Vol. CC, no. 147. New Zealand: National Library of New Zealand. p. 7. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
* Howell, Max; Howell, Reet; Brown, David W. (1989). *The Sporting Image, A pictorial history of Queenslanders at play*. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ISBN 0-7022-2206-2.
* Pollard, Jack (1968). *AMPOL book of Australian Sporting Records*. Sydney: The Pollard Publishing Co. OCLC 71140.
* Stell, Marion K. (1991). *Half the Race, A history of Australian women in sport*. North Ryde, Australia: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-207-16971-3.
* Tronson, Mark (1984). *Esanda's World Hockey*. Wallacia, Australia: International Field Hockey Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-9591102-0-3. OCLC 27616070.


title: List of Indigenous Australian firsts

text:
# List of Indigenous Australian firsts

Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Torres Strait Islanders are Indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The term "Aboriginal" has traditionally been applied to Indigenous inhabitants of mainland Australia, Tasmania, and some of the other adjacent islands. Since the colonisation of Australia in 1788, Indigenous Australians have been segregated from European Australians both in their rights and socially within society. The 'firsts' listed in this article contain historical steps that have changed this initial racist segregation both legally and culturally.

| Contents |
| --- |
| 18th century
19th century: 1820s1830s1840s1850s1860s1870s1880s1890s
20th century: 1900s1910s1920s1930s1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s
21st century: 2000s2010s
See also
References

 |

## 17th century

### 1600s

## 18th century

### 1780s

* **1788**
    + First Indigenous Australian to live amongst Europeans: Arabanoo.

### 1790s

## 19th century

### 1800s

* **1802**
    + First Indigenous Australian to circumnavigate Australia: Bungaree.

### 1810s

* **1815**
    + First Indigenous Australian to be granted land by the colonial authorities: Bungaree.

### 1830s

* **1835**
    + First Indigenous Australian to be recorded playing western sport: Shiney (cricket in Hobart).
* **1836**

### 1850s

* **1856**
    + Indigenous Australian males first given the right to vote in elections (South Australia).

### 1860s

### 1870s

### 1880s

### 1890s

## 20th century

### 1900s

### 1910s

* **1910**

First time First Nations children were forcibly removed from their families as a result of government policies. Now known as the "Stolen Generation".

### 1920s

### 1930s

### 1940s

### 1950s

### 1960s

### 1970s

### 1980s

### 1990s

## 21st century

### 2000s

### 2010s

### 2020s

* Australian Indigenous Doctors' Association (2009), *Journeys into Medicine*, AIDA: Sydney. ISBN 978 0 646 52119 0.
* Gale, M-A. (1997) *Dhanum Djorra'wuy Dhawu*, Aboriginal Research Institute: Underdale. ISBN 0 86803 182 8.
* McMillan, A. (2007) *An Intruder's Guide to East Arnhem Land*, Niblock Publishing: Darwin. ISBN 978 0 9803904 1 4.
* Rolfe, C. (2009) *Winners of the Melbourne Cup: Stories That Stopped a Nation*, Red Dog Books: Sydney. ISBN 1 74203 513 2.
* Screen Australia (2010) *The Black List*, Screen Australia: Sydney. ISBN 978 1 920998 11 0.
* Tatz, C. & Tatz, P. (1996) *Black Diamonds*, Allen & Unwin: Sydney. ISBN 1 86448 065 3.
* Tatz, C. & Tatz, P. (2000) *Black Gold*, Aboriginal Studies Press: Canberra. ISBN 0 85575 367 6.

## InfoBox

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|

Didgeridoo, Boomerang, Torres Strait face mask, David Unaipon, Albert Namatjira, Noel Pearson, Ernie Dingo, David Gulpilil, Jessica Mauboy, David Wirrpanda, Cathy Freeman, Christine Anu | |
| Total population | |
| 517,000, 2.5% of Australia's population (in 2006) | |
| Languages | |
| Several hundred Indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so), Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol | |
| Religion | |
| Majority Christianity, with minority following traditional animist (Dreamtime) beliefs. | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| *see* List of Indigenous Australian group names | |


title: Marsh Pass

abstract: Marsh Pass, also known as La Puerta Limita, "The Border Gate", is a gap in Navajo County, Arizona. It lies at an elevation of 6,102 feet along Laguña Creek. The name of Marsh Pass is thought to come from its location along a chain of swamps and lakes in the pass, that have since been drained by a deep arroyo.

text:
# Marsh Pass

**Marsh Pass**, also known as **La Puerta Limita**, "The Border Gate", is a gap in Navajo County, Arizona. It lies at an elevation of 6,102 feet (1,860 meters) along Laguña Creek. The name of Marsh Pass is thought to come from its location along a chain of swamps and lakes in the pass, that have since been drained by a deep arroyo.

## History

The original Spanish name of the pass, *La Puerta Limita*, indicated the border between the Mexican provinces of Santa Fe de Nuevo México and Alta California to the west. Marsh Pass was a location along the Armijo Route of the Old Spanish Trail between present day Kayenta and the Crossing of the Fathers on the Colorado River. There the route turned northwest toward the crossing on the Colorado River.

36°39′06″N 110°25′48″W / 36.65167°N 110.43000°W / 36.65167; -110.43000


title: Tungsram SC

abstract: Tungsram Sport Club was a Hungarian football club from the town of Budapest, Hungary. The club was affiliated with the Tungsram Hungarian company.

text:
# Tungsram SC

**Tungsram Sport Club** was a Hungarian football club from the town of Budapest, Hungary. The club was affiliated with the Tungsram Hungarian company.

## History

Tungsram Sport Club debuted in the 1954 season of the Hungarian League and finished ninth.

## Name Changes

* 1911–?: Ampére SE
* 1951–1957: ÚTE Izzó
* 1957–1959: Újpesti Tungsram TE
* 1959–?: Budapesti Vasas Izzó SK
* ?-1980: Vasas Izzó Sportkör
* 1980: merger with Váci Híradás Vasas SE
* 1980–?: Tungsram SC
* ?-?: Tungsram-Pulzus SC
* ?-1999: Tungsram SC

## Managers

## InfoBox

Tungsram SC
| Full name | Tungsram Sport Club |
| --- | --- |
| Founded | 1911 |
| Ground | Vízművek pálya |
| Capacity | 1,718 |
| Website | Club website |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Who Cares if You Listen?

abstract: "Who Cares if You Listen?" is an article written by the American composer Milton Babbitt (1916–2011) and published in the February, 1958, issue of High Fidelity. Originally titled by Babbitt as "The Composer as Specialist", the article was subsequently retitled by the magazine's editors against his wishes. it is among the best known of Babbit's works and epitomized the distance that had grown between many composers and their listeners. In the words of Anthony Tommasini in The New York Times, "To this day, it is seized as evidence that he and his ilk are contemptuous of audiences." Babbitt was a practitioner of integral serialism, which in his hands could be a highly technical mode of musical composition. The article does not refer to serialism at all, but rather takes the position that "serious", "advanced" music, like advanced mathematics, philosophy, and physics, is too complex for a "normally well-educated man without special preparation" to "understand".

text:
# Who Cares if You Listen?

"**Who Cares if You Listen?**" is an article written by the American composer Milton Babbitt (1916–2011) and published in the February, 1958, issue of *High Fidelity*. Originally titled by Babbitt as "**The Composer as Specialist**", the article was subsequently retitled by the magazine's editors against his wishes. it is among the best known of Babbit's works and epitomized the distance that had grown between many composers and their listeners. In the words of Anthony Tommasini in *The New York Times*, "To this day, it is seized as evidence that he and his ilk are contemptuous of audiences."

Babbitt was a practitioner of integral serialism, which in his hands could be a highly technical mode of musical composition. The article does not refer to serialism at all, but rather takes the position that "serious", "advanced" music, like advanced mathematics, philosophy, and physics, is too complex for a "normally well-educated man without special preparation" to "understand".

## The article

In this article and throughout his writings, Babbitt's subject is "American culture, which he finds threatened by populism. It has produced little meaningful understanding of or dialogue about music, he argues, and it has forced the 'serious' and 'advanced' composer into a state of isolation".

Babbitt describes "serious", "advanced music" as "a commodity which has little, no, or negative commodity value", and the composer of such music as, "in essence, a 'vanity' composer". It is music of which the general public is largely unaware, and in which it takes no interest. "After all, the public does have its own music, its ubiquitous music: music to eat by, to read by, to dance by..." Performers, too, are seldom interested in "advanced" music, so that it is rarely performed at all and the exceptional occasions are mainly "poorly attended concerts before an audience consisting in the main of fellow 'professionals'. At best, the music would appear to be for, of, and by specialists". Babbitt continues to maintain, however, that music cannot "evolve" if it only attempts to appeal to "the public". "And so, I dare suggest that the composer would do himself and his music an immediate and eventual service by total, resolute, and voluntary withdrawal from this public world to one of private performance and electronic media, with its very real possibility of complete elimination of the public and social aspects of musical composition." He recognizes the practical problems for the composer of "advanced" music not patronized by the concert-going public: "But how, it may be asked, will this serve to secure the means of survival for the composer and his music? One answer is that after all such a private life is what the university provides the scholar and the scientist." He concludes: "if this \[advanced\] music is not supported, the whistling repertory of the man in the street will be little affected... But music will cease to evolve, and, in that important sense, will cease to live."

## Controversy over title

In an interview with Gabrielle Zuckerman for "American Mavericks" on American Public Media in 2002, Babbitt admits that the "story" of "Who Cares if You Listen" had "pursued" and "angered" him. He goes on to state that the article was originally a lecture entitled "Off the Cuff", and that the title "Who Cares if You Listen" was not authorized by him. In fact, some years earlier, he stated that the title he sent to *High Fidelity* was "The Composer as Specialist", notwithstanding the article's opening line. However, "the article was injudiciously cut and given its inflammatory title by an editor". In the interview, Babbitt suggests that the published title "had little of the letter and nothing of the spirit of the article", and protests, "Of course, I do care if you listen." Yet, Babbitt's suggestion in the article for the composer of "advanced music" is "total, resolute, and voluntary withdrawal from this public world to one of private performance".

Tommasini was not the only one to have pointed out that Babbitt's protests about the title "may sound like revisionist spin control". Whether the article's contents were reflected in the title is a matter of controversy. On the one hand, one commentator stated that "Mr. Babbitt will go to his grave famous for, among other things, a piece of prose whose published title—Who Cares If You Listen?—he insists was appended by an unfeeling editor. Yet the title accurately echoes the essay's ideas..." On the other, it has been written that "Although the essay does not actually express the sentiment of its false title, one could, on a cursory reading, perhaps, get that out of it."

## Historical reception

According to Michael Beckerman, writing in *The New York Times* in 1994, "Milton Babbitt combined the evolutionary imperative with genuine contempt for his audience in his infamous article, 'Who Cares if You Listen'... These tactics contrast with those of composers like Janacek, Bartok and Debussy, who never advocated antagonistic battles or felt that alternative visions needed to be suppressed in the name of progress."

In 1997, K. Robert Schwarz equated serialism with the "advanced" music Babbitt described in his article, and added, "By the 1960s, the Serialists commanded intellectual prestige and held influential academic posts. All they lacked was a public. In fact, mainstream audiences disliked their work, preferring the music of traditionalists who retained links with tonality: Copland, Barber, Prokofiev, Shostakovich and Britten. In academic circles, those composers were sneered at, viewed as expendable fossils from a bygone age." Nine years later, Walter Simmons echoed Schwarz's belief, and named in addition to Barber et al., Nicolas Flagello, Ernest Bloch, Howard Hanson, Paul Creston, and Vittorio Giannini as victims of "a *de facto* blacklisting of composers who failed to conform to the approved \[i.e., pro-modernist\] version of music history", and cites Babbit's article as epitomizing "the contemptuous attitude of Modernist composers". In a review of Simmons's book, however, David Nicholls disagreed, referring to Simmons's contention as a "conspiracy theory" and attributing the disregard of the composers he cites to their "artistic limitations". Another interpretation was proposed by Joseph N. Straus. Straus conducted a research study that considered six questions about American compositional activity from the 1950s and 1960s: (1) who controlled the academy? (2) whose music got published? (3) whose music got performed? (4) whose music got recorded? (5) who got the prizes, awards, and fellowships? (6) whose music got reviewed? From this evidence the author concluded, "As the period drew to a close, the American academy was dominated, as it had been throughout the 1950s and 1960s, by tonally oriented composers."

Finally, the article gives a glimpse into how Babbitt viewed the future of music in 1958: "The unprecedented divergence between contemporary serious music and its listeners, on the one hand, and traditional music and its following, on the other, is not accidental and—most probably—not transitory." In this prediction, he was perfectly accurate. "In fact it considers the problems for the survival of music that are posed by the discrepancy between the music that results from the composer's life-long, professional's engagement with music and its advances, on the one hand, and the interests of the lay public on the other, a situation which was troubling then and has not become any less troubling over the years." "In this regard, 'The Composer as Specialist' appears more relevant than ever, given that the drive towards the economic justification of university disciplines has, in Europe at least, reached a critical stage."

**Sources**

## Further reading

* Tawa, Nicholas E. (1987), *A Most Wondrous Babble: American Art Composers, Their Music, and the American Scene, 1950–1985*, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press


title: Mammoth, Montana

abstract: Mammoth is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Madison County, Montana, United States. It is in the northern part of the county, in the valley of the South Boulder River within the northern end of the Tobacco Root Mountains. Via the South Boulder River, it is part of the Jefferson River watershed, one of the headwaters of the Missouri River. Mammoth is reached by South Boulder Road, which leads north 11 miles (18 km) to Montana Highway 359 at a point 5 miles (8 km) south of Cardwell. Mammoth was first listed as a CDP prior to the 2020 census, when it had a population of 4.

text:
# Mammoth, Montana

**Mammoth** is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Madison County, Montana, United States. It is in the northern part of the county, in the valley of the South Boulder River within the northern end of the Tobacco Root Mountains. Via the South Boulder River, it is part of the Jefferson River watershed, one of the headwaters of the Missouri River.

Mammoth is reached by South Boulder Road, which leads north 11 miles (18 km) to Montana Highway 359 at a point 5 miles (8 km) south of Cardwell.

Mammoth was first listed as a CDP prior to the 2020 census, when it had a population of 4.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2020 | 4 |  |  |
| U.S. Decennial Census | | | |

## Education

The CDP is in the Harrison K-12 Schools school district.

## InfoBox

| Mammoth, Montana | |
| --- | --- |
| Census-designated place | |
| MammothMammoth | |
| Coordinates: 45°40′2″N 112°1′7″W / 45.66722°N 112.01861°W / 45.66722; -112.01861 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Montana |
| County | Madison |
| Area | |
| Total | 0.35 sq mi (0.91 km2) |
| Land | 0.35 sq mi (0.91 km2) |
| Water | 0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2) |
| Elevation | 6,016 ft (1,834 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 4 |
| Density | 11.43/sq mi (4.41/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-7 (Mountain (MST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-6 (MDT) |
| ZIP Codes | 59721 (Cardwell)
59747 (Pony) |
| Area code | 406 |
| FIPS code | 30-47460 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2806644 |


title: USS Gilliam

abstract: USS Gilliam (APA-57), named for Gilliam County in Oregon, was the lead ship in her class of attack transports serving in the United States Navy during World War II.

text:
# USS Gilliam

**USS *Gilliam* (APA-57)**, named for Gilliam County in Oregon, was the lead ship in her class of attack transports serving in the United States Navy during World War II.

## Construction and commissioning

*Gilliam* was launched on 28 March 1944 under a Maritime Commission contract by the Consolidated Steel Corporation at Wilmington in Los Angeles, California, sponsored by Mrs. A. O. Williams of Wilmington. The U.S. Navy acquired *Gilliam* on 31 July 1944 and commissioned her on 1 August 1944.

## Operational history

### World War II

The first of a new type of attack transport, *Gilliam* stood out of San Francisco Bay 16 October 1944 with 750 United States Army troops for Oro Bay, New Guinea, and delivered them to that port 4 November. Embarking nearly 1000 troops of the U.S. 11th Airborne Division, she sailed a week later and off-loaded her passengers at Leyte, subsequently returning to Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, 22 November. *Gilliam* got underway again 29 November under orders to steam to Leyte Gulf and embark elements of the 6th Army Headquarters for passage to Lingayen Gulf.

#### Heavy air attacks

*Gilliam* was part of a 36-ship convoy heading toward the Philippines when, on 5 December 1944, the convoy came under heavy air attack while 100 miles (160 km) from Leyte Gulf. At 12:18 *Gilliam* spotted a plane coming in low over the water at deck level, headed for the middle of the convoy. Coming under limited fire, the Japanese plane released a torpedo two minutes later which hit SS *Antoine Saugrain*. Just after 12:30 two more planes came in low and fast, and one got another torpedo into the stricken merchantman, which was then dead in the water.

Intense fire from the convoy drove the planes off, but later that afternoon another Japanese aircraft dove in at 15:30, and after running into heavy fire, made a suicide crash on SS *Marcus Daly*. The Japanese caught her on the bow at waterline and started fires and explosions. A second kamikaze tried his luck but missed and crashed into the sea after repeated hits from the convoy's gunners.

*Anton Saugraine* and *Marcus Daly* were kept afloat by quick damage control, but the former ship was attacked again the next day while under tow and finally sunk. During this engagement, *Gilliam'*s unflinching crew stood at General Quarters for nearly 12 hours and the ship reached Leyte on 6 December without damage.

#### Invasion of Luzon

At Leyte *Gilliam* acted as receiving ship for the crews of damaged warships and undertook medical and salvage operations in spite of continued air alerts. After embarking over 500 soldiers at Tacloban, she sailed from that port 7 January 1945 bringing troops to Lingayen Gulf in support of the invasion. She returned to Leyte on 14 January to embark elements of the 32nd Infantry Division and brought them safely back to Lingayen Gulf 27 January.

#### Invasion of Okinawa

After loading casualties for passage to Leyte, *Gilliam* sailed from that port 2 February to embark Marines of the III Amphibious Corps at Guadalcanal and conducted training exercises in preparation for the coming invasion of Okinawa.

*Gilliam* closed Okinawa on 1 April and in the face of kamikaze attacks debarked reconnaissance parties of the 3rd Amphibious Corps and unloaded vital cargo. On 5 April she sailed for the United States via Saipan and Pearl Harbor, mooring at San Francisco 27 April for drydock repairs.

Subsequently *Gilliam* embarked men of the 6th Seabee Battalion a Port Hueneme, California, and sailed 28 May 1945 for Okinawa via Eniwetok and Ulithi. She off-loaded cargo and passengers at Okinawa and then headed back to San Francisco.

### After hostilities

*Gilliam* arrived back at San Francisco on 10 August, where nearly 1,000 troops were embarked and brought to Pearl Harbor on 27 August. Men of the Headquarters and Service Battalions, 5th Amphibious Corps came on board at Hawaii, and *Gilliam* sailed 1 September for Sasebo, Japan, and put her occupation troops ashore 3 weeks later.

On 25 September 1945 she got underway for Manila, and after embarking more than 450 veterans of the 33rd Infantry Division at Lingayen Gulf, she carried them to Sasebo, arriving 15 October.

#### Operation Magic Carpet

After returning to Cebu in the Philippines 29 October, she became part of the Operation Magic Carpet fleet and sailed 2 November with 1,000 sailors and soldiers, debarking them at Portland, Oregon, 21 November 1945.

### Operation Crossroads

Following a voyage to Samar, *Gilliam* moored at Pearl Harbor on 16 February 1946 and prepared to participate in the atomic bomb tests at Bikini atoll in the summer of 1946. On the morning of 1 July 1946, *Gilliam*, a target ship for Test Able, was the first ship struck by the blast and sunk quickly in Bikini lagoon, badly damaged. She was decommissioned, 5 July 1946 and struck from the Naval Register, 20 July 1946.

### Decorations

*Gilliam* received three battle stars for World War II service and two Navy Occupation Service Medals for her actions during the occupation of Japan.

* USS *Gilliam* (APA-57), DANFS Online.
* APA-57 *Gilliam*, Navsource Online.
* Delgado, James P. (1991), *The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb: A Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons*, Santa Fe, New Mexico: National Park Service, ASIN B0014H9NEW, retrieved 8 November 2009

*This article incorporates text from the public domain* Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships*.*

## InfoBox

| USS *Gilliam* (APA-57) | |
| --- | --- |
| History | |
| United States | |
| Name | USS *Gilliam* (APA-57) |
| Namesake | Gilliam County, Oregon |
| Builder | Consolidated Steel |
| Launched | 28 March 1944 |
| Sponsored by | Mrs. A. O. Williams of Wilmington |
| Acquired | 31 July 1944 |
| Commissioned | 1 August 1944 |
| Decommissioned | N/A |
| Stricken | N/A |
| Honours and<br>awards | Two battle stars for World War II service |
| Fate | Sunk during Operation Crossroads on 1 July 1946 at Bikini Atoll |
| General characteristics | |
| Class and type | *Gilliam*-class attack transport |
| Displacement | 4,247 tons (lt), 7,080 t.(fl) |
| Length | 426 ft (130 m) |
| Beam | 58 ft (18 m) |
| Draft | 16 ft (4.9 m) |
| Propulsion | Westinghouse turboelectric drive, 2 boilers, 2 propellers, Design shaft horsepower 6,000 |
| Speed | 16.9 knots |
| Capacity | 47 Officers, 802 Enlisted |
| Complement | 27 Officers 295 Enlisted |
| Armament | 1 x 5"/38 caliber dual-purpose gun mount, 4 x twin 40mm gun mounts, 10 x single 20mm gun mounts |
| Notes | MCV Hull No. 1850, hull type S4-SE2-BD1 |


title: Person to Person!

abstract: Person to Person! is the eighth album led by saxophonist Houston Person which was recorded in 1970 and released on the Prestige label.

text:
# Person to Person!

***Person to Person!*** is the eighth album led by saxophonist Houston Person which was recorded in 1970 and released on the Prestige label.

## Reception

Professional ratings
| Review scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| Allmusic |  |

Allmusic awarded the album 3 stars calling it "Soul-jazz that inclines more to the "soul" part of the compound than many such Prestige efforts of the time".

## Track listing

*All compositions by Houston Person except as indicated*

1. "The Son of Man" (Harold Ousley) - 8:30
2. "Teardrops" (Bunny Biggs) - 4:35
3. "Close to You" (Burt Bacharach, Hal David) - 5:15
4. "Drown In My Own Tears" (Henry Glover) - 7:15
5. "Up At Joe's, Down At Jim's" - 8:45
6. "Yester-Me, Yester-You, Yesterday" (Brian Wells, Ron Miller) - 4:30

## Personnel

## InfoBox

| Person to Person! | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Houston Person | |
| Released | 1970 |
| Recorded | October 12, 1970 |
| Studio | Van Gelder Studio, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |
| Genre | Jazz |
| Label | Prestige
PR 10003 |
| Producer | Bob Porter |
| Houston Person chronology | |
| *Truth!*
(1970) ***Person to Person!***
(1970) *Houston Express*
(1971) | |


title: Witch bottle

abstract: A witch bottle is a apotropaic magical item used as protection against witchcraft. They are described in historical sources from England and the United States. The earliest surviving mention is from seventeenth-century England.

text:
# Witch bottle

A **witch bottle** is a apotropaic magical item used as protection against witchcraft. They are described in historical sources from England and the United States. The earliest surviving mention is from seventeenth-century England.

## Origins and purpose

One of the earliest descriptions of a witch bottle in Suffolk, England, appears in 1681 in Joseph Glanvill’s *Saducismus Triumphatus, or Evidence concerning Witches and Apparitions*:

> For an old Man that Travelled up and down the Country, and had some acquaintance at that house, calling in and asking the Man of the house how he did and his Wife; He told him that himself was well, but his Wife had been a long time in a languishing condition, and that she was haunted with a thing in the shape of a Bird that would flurr \[sic\] near to her face, and that she could not enjoy her natural rest well. The Old Man bid him and his Wife be of good courage. It was but a dead Spright, he said, and he would put him in a course to rid his Wife of this languishment and trouble, He therefore advised him to take a Bottle, and put his Wives Urine into it, together with Pins and Needles and Nails, and Cork them up and set the Bottle to the Fire well corkt, which when it had felt a while the heat of the Fire began to move and joggle a little, but he for sureness took the Fire shovel, and held it hard upon the Cork, And as he thought, he felt something one while on this side, another while on that, shove the Fire shovel off, which he still quickly put on Again, but at last at one shoving the Cork bounced out, and the Urine, Pins, Nails and Needles all flew up, and gave a report like a Pistol, and his Wife continued in the same trouble and languishment still.
>
> Not long after, the Old Man came to the house again, and inquired of the Man of the house how his Wife did. Who answered, as ill as ever, if not worse. He askt him if he had followed his direction. Yes, says he, and told him the event as is above said. Ha, quoth he, it seems it was too nimble for you. But now I will put you in a way that will make the business sure. Take your Wive’s Urine as before, and Cork, it in a Bottle with Nails, Pins and Needles, and bury it in the Earth; and that will do the feat. The Man did accordingly. And his Wife began to mend sensibly and in a competent time was finely well recovered; But there came a Woman from a Town some miles off to their house, with a lamentable Out-cry, that they had killed her Husband. They askt her what she meant and thought her distracted, telling her they knew neither her nor her Husband. Yes, saith she, you have killed my Husband, he told me so on his Death-bed. But at last they understood by her, that her Husband was a Wizard, and had bewitched this Mans Wife and that this Counter-practice prescribed by the Old Man, which saved the Mans Wife from languishment, was the death of that Wizard that had bewitched her.

Since at least the early modern period it has been a common custom to hide objects such as written charms, dried cats, horse skulls, concealed shoes, and witch bottles in the structure of a building. Folk magic contends that witch bottles protect against evil spirits and magical attack, and counteract spells cast by witches; they are countermagical devices, the purpose of which is to draw in and trap harmful intentions directed at their owners.

## Description

Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or "Greybeards". Bellarmines were named after a particularly fearsome Catholic Inquisitor, Robert Bellarmine, who persecuted Protestants and was instrumental in the burning of Giordano Bruno. Greybeards and Bellarmines were made of brown or gray stoneware glazed with salt and embossed with a bearded face.

Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers.

## Preparation

A white witch or folk healer would prepare the witch's bottle. Historically, the witch's bottle contained the victim's (the person who believed they had a spell put on them, for example) urine, hair or nail clippings, or red thread from sprite traps. Later witch bottles were filled with rosemary, needles and pins, and red wine. Historically and currently, the bottle is then buried at the farthest corner of the property, beneath the house hearth, or placed in an inconspicuous spot in the house. It is believed that after being buried, the bottle captures evil which is impaled on the pins and needles, drowned by the wine, and sent away by the rosemary.

Sometimes sea water or earth are used instead. Other types of witch bottles may contain sand, stones, knotted threads, feathers, shells, herbs, flowers, salt, vinegar, oil, coins, or ashes. A similar magical device is the "lemon and pins" charm.

Another variation is within the disposal of the bottle. Some witch's bottles were thrown into a fire and when they exploded, the spell was broken or the witch supposedly killed.

The witch bottle was believed to be active as long as the bottle remained hidden and unbroken. People did go through a lot of trouble in hiding their witch bottles – those buried underneath fireplaces have been found only after the rest of the building has been torn down or otherwise disappeared. The origins of this tradition have been dated at least to the sixteenth century. In ancient times the bottles were made of stone and originally contained rusty nails, urine, thorns, hair, menstrual blood, and pieces of glass, wood, and bone.

## In England

This form of "bottled spell" dates back hundreds of years, and were prevalent in Elizabethan England – especially East Anglia, where superstitions and belief in witches were strong. The bottles were most often found buried under the fireplace, under the floor, and plastered inside walls. In 2016 a glass bottle found buried in the threshold of a man's house was featured in an episode of *Antiques Roadshow* filmed in Trelissick, Cornwall; glass specialist Andy McConnell tasted a small amount of the contents theorising it was possibly port or wine though he did note the rusty flavour and the presence of nails, a later episode in 2019 then revealed the contents had been analysed by Loughborough University that identified it actually contained "urine, a tiny bit of alcohol, and one human hair" alongside some brass pins dating from the late 1840s and an ostracod. It was theorised to be a witch bottle.

## In Belgium

During the renovation of the De Zwarte Ruiter pub in Turnhout, Belgium, in 2020 a jug from the sixteenth century was discovered. It was used to ward off witchcraft. It is the first time such a "witch bottle" has been found in Europe outside England.

## In the United States

To date, fewer than a dozen possible witch bottles have been identified in the United States. Archaeologist Marshall Becker was the first to identify an American witch bottle in an archaeological context. Known as the Essington witch bottle, the artifact was recovered during excavations on Great Tinicum Island in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. A mid-nineteenth to early twentieth-century slave or tenant site in Dorchester County, Maryland, yielded a buried witch bottle whose cork stopper was bristling with straight pins. In 2016, a bottle filled with nails was excavated from the hearth of a Civil War site in Virginia and appears to be a witch bottle.

**Notes**

**Bibliography**

## Further reading

* Maple, Eric. *The Dark World of Witches*. New York: A.S. Barnes & Co., 1962
* Pennick, Nigel. *Secrets of East Anglian Magic*. London: Robert Hale, 1995
* Semmens, Jason. "The Usage of Witch-Bottles and Apotropaic Charms in Cornwall" *Old Cornwall* 12, No. 6 (2000) pp. 25–30


title: List of Fritillaria species

abstract: This List of Fritillaria species shows the accepted species names within the genus Fritillaria, of which there are about 100 to 130.

text:
# List of Fritillaria species

This **List of Fritillaria species** shows the accepted species names within the genus *Fritillaria*, of which there are about 100 to 130.

## Alphabetical list of species

Formerly included

Numerous names have been coined using the name Fritillaria but referring to species now considered better suited to other genera *(Calochortus Disporum Erythronium Eucomis Lilium Notholirion).* We provide links to help you find appropriate information.

## Subgenera

The species of *Fritillaria* are divided amongst eight subgenera. A partial list of species by subgenera is shown here:

### *Fritillaria*

* *F. acmopetala* Boiss.
* *F. alburyana* Rix
* *F. alfredae* Post
* *F. amana* (Rix) R.Wallis & R.B.Wallis
* *F. assyriaca* Baker
* *F. aurea* Schott
* *F. bithynica* Baker
* *F. carica* Rix
* *F. caucasica* Adam
* *F. cirrhosa* D. Don
* *F. conica* Boiss.
* *F. crassifolia* Boiss & Huet.
* *F. davisii* Turrill
* *F. drenovskii* Degen & Stoj.
* *F. ehrhartii* Boiss. & Orph.
* *F. elwesii* Boiss.
* *F. fleischeriana* Steud. & Hochst. ex Schult.f.
* *F. forbesii* Baker
* *F. frankiorum* R.Wallis & R.B.Wallis
* *F. graeca* Boissier & Spruner
* *F. gussichiae* (Degen & Dorfler) Rix
* *F. hermonis* Fenzl
* *F. involucrata* Allioni
* *F. kotschyana* Herbert
* *F. latakiensis* Rix
* *F. latifolia* Willd.
* *F. lusitanica* Wikstr.
* *F. meleagris* L.
* *F. meleagroides* Patrin ex Schult.f
* *F. messanensis* Rafin
* *F. michailovskyi* Fomin
* *F. minuta* Boiss. & Nöe
* *F. montana* Hoppe ex W. D. J. Koch
* *F. mutabilis* Kamari
* *F. obliqua* Ker Gawl.
* *F. olivieri* Baker
* *F. oranensis* Pomel
* *F. orientalis* Adam
* *F. pallidiflora* Schrenk
* *F. pinardii* Boiss.
* *F. poluninii* (Rix) G.Bakhshi Khaniki & K.Persson
* *F. pontica* Wahlenb.
* *F. pyrenaica* L
* *F. reuteri* Boiss.
* *F. rixii* Zaharof
* *F. ruthenica* Wikstr.
* *F. sibthorpiana* Baker
* *F. sororum* Jimmy Persson & K.Persson
* *F. stribrnyi* Velen.
* *F. tenella* M.Bieb.
* *F. theophrasti* Kamari & Phitos
* *F. thessala* (Boiss.) Kamari
* *F. thunbergii* Miq.
* *F. tortifolia* X.Z.Duan & X.J.Zheng
* *F. tubiformis* Gren. & Godr.
* *F. usuriensis* Maxim.
* *F. uva-vulpis* Rix
* *F. verticillata* Willd.
* *F. walujewii* Regel
* *F. whittallii* Baker
* *F. zagrica* Stapf

### *Rhinopetalum* Fisch.

5 species

* *F. ariana* (Loz.-Lozinsk. & Vved.) E.M.Rix
* *F. bucharica* Regel
* *F. gibbosa* Boiss.
* *F. karelini* (Fisher ex D.Don) Baker
* *F. stenanthera* Regel

### *Theresia* Koch

Monotypic

* *F. persica* L.

### *Petilium* (L.) Endl.

4 species

* *F. chitraensis* B. Mathew
* *F. eduardii* Regel
* *F. imperialis* L.
* *F. raddeana* Regel

### *Liliorhiza* (Kellog) Benth. & Hook.f.

* *F. affinis* (Schult.) Sealy
* *F. agrestis* Greene
* *F. atropurpurea* Nutt.
* *F. camschatcensis* (L.). Ker-Gawl.
* *F. dagana* Turcz.
* *F. eastwoodae* Macfarl.
* *F. falcata* (Jepson) Beetle
* *F. gentneri* Gilkey
* *F. glauca* Greene
* *F. liliacea* Lindl.
* *F. maximowiczii* Freyn.
* *F. micrantha* Heller
* *F. phaeanthera* Purdy
* *F. pluriflora* Torr. ex Benth.
* *F. pudica* (Pursh) Spreng.
* *F. recurva* Benth.
* *F. striata* Eastw.

### *Korolkowia* Rix

Monotypic

* *F. sewerzowii* Regel

### *Davidii* Rix

Monotypic

* *F. davidii* Franchet

### *Japonica* Rix

8 species

* *F. amabilis* Koidzumi
* *F. ayakoana* I.Maruyama & N. Naruhashi
* *F. japonica* Miq.
* *F. kaiensis* N.Naruhashi
* *F. koidzumiana* Ohwi
* *F. muraiana* Ohwi
* *F. shikokiana* N. Narushi
* *F. tokushimensis* Akasawa, Katayama & T.Naito
1. Ness 2003.
2. FOC 2017.
3. WCSP 2017.
4. PBS 2015.
5. MBG 2017.
6. Rønsted et al 2005.
7. Day et al 2014.

## Bibliography

* Day, Peter D.; Berger, Madeleine; Hill, Laurence; Fay, Michael F.; Leitch, Andrew R.; Leitch, Ilia J.; Kelly, Laura J. (November 2014). "Evolutionary relationships in the medicinally important genus *Fritillaria* L. (Liliaceae)". *Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution*. **80**: 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.07.024. PMID 25124097.
* Rønsted, N.; Law, S.; Thornton, H.; Fay, M. F.; Chase, M. W. (2005). "Molecular phylogenetic evidence for the monophyly of *Fritillaria* and *Lilium* (Liliaceae; Liliales) and the infrageneric classification of *Fritillaria*". *Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution*. **35** (3): 509–527. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.574.7908. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.023. PMID 15878122.
* "Fritillaria meleagris". Pacific Bulb Society. 5 May 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
* "Fritillaria michailovskyi". *Plant Finder*. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
* Ness, Bryan (2003). "Fritillaria". *Flora of North America Volume 26*. p. 164. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
* Xinqi, Chen; Mordak, Helen V. "Fritillaria". *Flora of China. Volume 24*. p. 127. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
* WCSP. "Fritillaria". *World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP)*. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 11 October 2017.


title: Marsh Marshall

abstract: Marsh Marshall is an American economist, venture capital and hedge fund manager, and television producer. He is the author of "Organizations and Growth in Rural China", academic and newspaper articles on China's economy and on venture capital investing. He is currently Chief Operating Officer at the quantitative hedge fund, Periwinkle Trading LLC, and is writing a book on investment, economic growth and corporate governance.

text:
# Marsh Marshall

**Marsh Marshall** is an American economist, venture capital and hedge fund manager, and television producer. He is the author of "Organizations and Growth in Rural China", academic and newspaper articles on China's economy and on venture capital investing. He is currently Chief Operating Officer at the quantitative hedge fund, Periwinkle Trading LLC, and is writing a book on investment, economic growth and corporate governance.

## Early life

Marshall was born in 1953 and raised in Washington DC, where he graduated from Georgetown Preparatory School in 1971. In 1975, he earned a bachelor's degree in history from Tufts University (magna cum laude); a 1977 master's degree in development economics from Stanford University, and a 1983 doctorate degree in economics from Oxford University, where he was a Tutor in Economics at Magdalen College. His doctoral thesis focused on the relationship between institutions and economic growth. In July 1979, Marshall was a member of a small delegation of Oxford and Cambridge economists invited by the Chinese Academy of Social Science to discuss economic reforms with China's leader, Deng Xiaoping. In a 1979 article, Marshall presented evidence that the apparent success of Mao Zedong's agricultural model, Dazhai, was a fraud. In 1981, China's post-Mao leadership acknowledged the fraud in Beijing Review.

## Business career

In 1993-1995 Marshall led a Silicon Valley–based team of designers and engineers for Bell Atlantic in the development of user interfaces and electronic program guides for video-on-demand service, for which Marshall was issued a US patent. In 1996, Marshall was subsequently appointed Vice President at Tele-TV, a partnership of Bell Atlantic, NYNEX and Pacific Bell. In 1998, Marshall was IXI Corporation's Chief Operating Officer, and helped establish a data network of $10 trillion in directly measured financial assets from large mutual funds, banks, and insurance companies; after the 2009 sale of the company to Equifax (NYSE: EFX), Marshall became President of the IXI Digital division of Equifax. In 2000, Marshall became a General Partner at a $90 million, Rothschild-sponsored venture capital firm, ECentury Capital, where he made equity and debt investments in software, semiconductor, and digital media companies and served on eight boards. Marshall is currently Chief Operating Officer at the statistical arbitrage, systematic hedge fund Periwinkle Trading LLC, founded by Scott Smallwood, former Managing Director at Morgan Stanley's quantitative hedge fund, Process Driven Trading. In 2011, Marshall was appointed Chairman of the Board of Bluecava, a California software and digital device data company. He was a board director of Linkable Networks and a senior adviser at I2 Capital

## Film and television career

Marshall's television career was centered at the British Broadcasting Corporation in London, where he was trained in news and current affairs production. Marshall was with the British Broadcasting Corporation for five years and produced and directed more than a dozen major programs and films. His filmography includes Life After Debt for BBC Panorama; Moneylenders for PBS Frontline; On Course for War (for Panorama); Czech Mate (with BBC Foreign Affairs Editor John Simpson); Review of the Year 1989 with Jonathan Dimbleby, a 90-minute Christmas season film for BBC1, In 1993, he directed a BBC drama, War with America, a special effects film set in the future, with a cast of British actors,.

## Filmography

* "War with America" 1993 (Director)
* "Sleepwalking to War?" 1990 (Producer)
* "Czech-mate: Inside the Revolution" 1990, (Producer)
* "Conference Day Labor 89" 1989 (Producer)
* "Conference Day Sdp" 89" 1989 (Producer)
* "Conference Day Conservatives 89" 1989 (Producer)
* "Walking Tall" 1988 (Associate Producer)
* "Kilroy" 1988 (Producer)
* "On Course for War" 1984 (Associate Producer)
* "Life after Debt" 1983 (Producer)

## InfoBox

| Marsh Marshall | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | American |
| Education | Tufts University, Stanford University, Oxford University |
| Occupation(s) | Economist, Venture Capitalist and Financial Engineering Executive |