title: Theatre of France

abstract: An overview of the history of theatre of France.

text:
# Theatre of France

An overview of the history of **theatre of France**.

## Middle Ages

Discussions about the origins of non-religious theatre ("théâtre profane") — both drama and farce — in the Middle Ages remain controversial, but the idea of a continuous popular tradition stemming from Latin comedy and tragedy to the 9th century seems unlikely.

Most historians place the origin of medieval drama in the church's liturgical dialogues and "tropes". At first simply dramatizations of the ritual, particularly in those rituals connected with Christmas and Easter (see *Mystery play*), plays were eventually transferred from the monastery church to the chapter house or refectory hall and finally to the open air, and the vernacular was substituted for Latin. In the 12th century one finds the earliest extant passages in French appearing as refrains inserted into liturgical dramas in Latin, such as a Saint Nicholas (patron saint of the student clercs) play and a Saint Stephen play.

Dramatic plays in French from the 12th and 13th centuries:

* Le Jeu d'Adam (1150–1160) - written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets with Latin stage directions (implying that it was written by Latin-speaking clerics for a lay public)
* Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas - Jean Bodel \- written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets
* Le Miracle de Théophile \- Rutebeuf (c.1265)

The origins of farce and comic theatre remain equally controversial; some −literary historians believe in a non-liturgical origin (among "jongleurs" or in pagan and folk festivals), others see the influence of liturgical drama (some of the dramas listed above include farcical sequences) and monastic readings of Plautus and Latin comic theatre.

Non-dramatic plays from the 12th and 13th centuries:

Select list of plays from the 14th and 15th centuries:

* La Farce de maître Trubert et d'Antrongnard - Eustache Deschamps
* Le Dit des quatre offices de l'ostel du roy - Eustache Deschamps
* Miracles de Notre Dame
* Bien Avisé et mal avisé (morality) (1439)
* La Farce de maître Pierre Pathelin (1464–1469) - this play had a great influence on Rabelais in the 16th century
* Le Franc archer de Bagnolet (1468–1473)
* Moralité (1486) - Henri Baude
* L'Homme pécheur (morality) (1494)
* La Farce du cuvier
* La Farce nouvelle du pâté et de la tarte

In the 15th century, the public representation of plays was organized and controlled by a number of professional and semi-professional guilds:

Genres of theatre practiced in the Middle Ages in France:

* Farce \- a realistic, humorous, and even coarse satire of human failings
* Sottie \- generally a conversation among idiots ("sots"), full of puns and quidproquos
* Pastourelle \- a play with a pastoral setting
* Chantefable - a mixed verse and prose form only found in "Aucassin et Nicolette"
* Mystery play \- a depiction of the Christian mysteries or Saint's lives
* Morality play
* Miracle play
* Passion play
* Sermon Joyeux - a burlesque sermon

## Renaissance theatre

French theatre in the 16th-century followed the same patterns of evolution as the other literary genres of the period. For the first decades of the century, public theatre remained largely tied to its long medieval heritage of mystery plays, morality plays, farces, and soties, although the miracle play was no longer in vogue. Public performances were tightly controlled by a guild system.

The guild "les Confrères de la Passion" had exclusive rights to theatrical productions of mystery plays in Paris; in 1548, fear of violence or blasphemy resulting from the growing religious rift in France forced the Paris Parliament to prohibit performances of the mysteries in the capital, although they continued to be performed in other places. By the end of the century, only the "Confrères de la Passion" remained with exclusive control over public theatrical productions in Paris, and they rented out their theatre at the Hôtel de Bourgogne to theatrical troupes for a high price. In 1597, this guild abandoned its privilege which permitted other theatres and theatrical companies to eventually open in the capital. Another guild, the "Enfants Sans-Souci" was in charge of farces and soties, as too the "Clercs de la Basoche" who also performed morality plays. Like the "Confrères de la Passion", "la Basoche" came under political scrutiny (plays had to be authorized by a review board; masks or characters depicting living persons were not permitted), and they were finally suppressed in 1582.

Alongside the numerous writers of these traditional works (such as the farce writers Pierre Gringore, Nicolas de La Chesnaye and André de la Vigne), Marguerite de Navarre also wrote a number of plays close to the traditional mystery and morality play.

As early as 1503 however, original language versions of Sophocles, Seneca, Euripides, Aristophanes, Terence and Plautus were all available in Europe and the next 40 years would see humanists and poets both translating these classics and adapting them. In the 1540s, the French university setting (and especiallyfrom 1553 onthe Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theatre (in Latin) written by professors such as George Buchanan and Marc Antoine Muret which would leave a profound mark on the members of La Pléiade. From 1550 on, one finds humanist theatre written in French. Prominent figures such as Catherine de' Medici provided financial support for many humanist plays; in 1554, for example, she commissioned a translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino’s *La Sofonisba*, which was the first tragedy to appear in the French language.

The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. His plays  which were essentially chamber plays meant to be read for their lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory  brought to many humanist tragedies a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action.

### Tragedy

#### Humanist tragedy

Humanist tragedy took two distinct directions:

* *Biblical tragedy*: plots taken from the bible  although close in inspiration to the medieval mystery plays, the humanist biblical tragedy reconceived the biblical characters along classical lines, suppressing both comic elements and the presence of God on the stage. The plots often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters and one finds both Protestant and Catholic playwrights.
* *Ancient tragedy*: plots taken from mythology or history  they often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters

During the height of the civil wars (1570–1580), a third category of militant theatre emerged, adding to the existing genres of ancient tragedy and comedy. This new form of theater was characterized by its explicit political and religious themes, mirroring the turbulent contemporary context of the time. This article aims to explore and expand upon the development and significance of this militant theatre during the period of civil wars.

Militant theatre of the time was heavily influenced by the prevailing political and religious tensions. Plots were often drawn from mythology or history, presenting narratives that had clear parallels to contemporary political events and religious conflicts. This allowed audiences to connect with the performances on a personal and ideological level.

The plays performed in this category of theater often served as vehicles for political commentary and social critique. They explored themes such as power struggles, the abuse of authority, corruption, religious persecution, and the consequences of war. Through vivid and provocative storytelling, these plays sought to engage and incite audiences, encouraging them to reflect upon the turbulent times in which they lived.

One notable aspect of militant theater was its use of allegory and symbolism. Playwrights employed metaphors and allegorical characters to represent political figures, religious factions, or ideological movements. This veiled approach allowed them to address sensitive topics while avoiding direct censorship or retribution.

The actors and playwrights involved in militant theater faced considerable risks due to the politically charged nature of their work. Censorship, surveillance, and even imprisonment were constant threats. Nevertheless, the appeal and impact of these performances attracted audiences who sought catharsis, validation, and a deeper understanding of the socio-political climate.

While militant theatre during the civil wars was a product of its time, its influence extended beyond the immediate historical context. It laid the groundwork for the development of subsequent forms of political and socially conscious theater, leaving a lasting impact on the theatrical landscape.

##### Contemporary tragedy

* *Contemporary tragedy*: plots taken from recent events

Along with their work as translators and adaptors of plays, the humanists also investigated classical theories of dramatic structure, plot, and characterization. Horace was translated in the 1540s, but had been available throughout the Middle Ages. A complete version of Aristotle's *Poetics* appeared later (first in 1570 in an Italian version), but his ideas had circulated (in an extremely truncated form) as early as the 13th century in Hermann the German's Latin translation of Averroes' Arabic gloss, and other translations of the *Poetics* had appeared in the first half of the 16th century; also of importance were the commentaries on Aristotle's poetics by Julius Caesar Scaliger which appeared in the 1560s. The fourth century grammarians Diomedes and Aelius Donatus were also a source of classical theory. The sixteenth century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on French theatre. Lodovico Castelvetro's Aristote-based *Art of Poetry*(1570) was one of the first enunciations of the three unities; this work would inform Jean de la Taille's *Art de la tragedie* (1572). Italian theatre (like the tragedy of Gian Giorgio Trissino) and debates on decorum (like those provoked by Sperone Speroni's play *Canace* and Giovanni Battista Giraldi's play *Orbecche*) would also influence the French tradition.

In the same spirit of imitationand adaptationof classical sources that had informed the poetic compositions of *La Pléiade*, French humanist writers recommended that tragedy should be in five acts and have three main characters of noble rank; the play should begin in the middle of the action (in medias res), use noble language and not show scenes of horror on the stage. Some writers (like Lazare de Baïf and Thomas Sébillet) attempted to link the medieval tradition of morality plays and farces to classical theatre, but Joachim du Bellay rejected this claim and elevated classical tragedy and comedy to a higher dignity. Of greater difficulty for the theorists was the incorporation of Aristotle's notion of "catharsis" or the purgation of emotions with Renaissance theatre, which remained profoundly attached to both pleasing the audience and to the rhetorical aim of showing moral examples (exemplum).

Étienne Jodelle's *Cléopâtre captive* (1553) tells the impassioned fears and doubts of Cleopatra contemplating suicide  has the distinction of being the first original French play to follow Horace's classical precepts on structure (the play is in five acts and respects more or less the unities of time, place and action) and is extremely close to the ancient model: the prologue is introduced by a shade, there is a classical chorus which comments on the action and talks directly to the characters, and the tragic ending is described by a messenger.

Mellin de Saint-Gelais's translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino's *La Sophonisbe*the first modern regular tragedy based on ancient models which tells the story of the noble Sophonisba's suicide (rather than be taken as captive by Rome)was an enormous success at the court when performed in 1556.

**Select list of authors and works of humanist tragedy:**

(See the playwrights Antoine de Montchrestien, Alexandre Hardy and Jean de Schelandre for tragedy around 1600–1610.)

### Comedy

Alongside tragedy, European humanists also adapted the ancient comedic tradition and as early as the 15th century, Renaissance Italy had developed a form of humanist Latin comedy. Although the ancients had been less theoretical about the comedic form, the humanists used the precepts of Aelius Donatus (4th century AD), Horace, Aristotle and the works of Terence to elaborate a set of rules: comedy should seek to correct vice by showing the truth; there should be a happy ending; comedy uses a lower style of language than tragedy; comedy does not paint the great events of states and leaders, but the private lives of people, and its principle subject is love.

Although some French authors kept close to the ancient models (Pierre de Ronsard translated a part of Aristophanes's "Plutus" at college), on the whole the French comedic tradition shows a great deal of borrowing from all sources: medieval farce (which continued to be immensely popular throughout the century), the short story, Italian humanist comedies and "La Celestina" (by Fernando de Rojas).

**Select list of authors and works of Renaissance comedy:**

In the last decades of the century, four other theatrical modes from Italy  which did not follow the rigid rules of classical theatre – flooded the French stage:

* the Commedia dell'arte \- an improvisational theatre of fixed types (Harlequin, Colombo) created in Padua in 1545; Italian troupes were invited in France from 1576 on.
* the Tragicomedy \- a theatrical version of the adventurous novel, with lovers, knights, disguises and magic. The most famous of these is Robert Garnier's *Bradamante* (1580), adapted from Ariosto's Orlando furioso.
* the Pastoral \- modeled on Giambattista Guarini's "Pastor fido" ("Faithful Shepard"), Tasso's "Aminta" and Antonio Ongaro "Alceo" (themselves inspired by Jacopo Sannazaro and Jorge de Montemayor). The first French pastorals were short plays performed before a tragedy, but were eventually expanded into five acts. Nicolas de Montreux wrote three pastorals: *Athlette* (1585), *Diane* (1592) *Arimène ou le berger désespéré* (1597).
* the Ballets de cour (Court Ballet) - an allegorical and fantastic mixture of dance and theatre. The most famous of these is the "Ballet comique de la reine" (1581).

By the end of the century, the most influential French playwrightby the range of his styles and by his mastery of the new formswould be Robert Garnier.

All of these eclectic traditions would continue to evolve in the "baroque" theatre of the early 17th century, before French "classicism" would finally impose itself.

## Early modern theatres and theatrical companies

In addition to public theatres, plays were produced in private residences, before the court and in the university. In the first half of the century, the public, the humanist theatre of the colleges and the theatre performed at court showed extremely divergent tastes. For example, while the tragicomedy was fashionable at the court in the first decade, the public was more interested in tragedy.

The early theatres in Paris were often placed in existing structures like tennis courts; their stages were extremely narrow, and facilities for sets and scene changes were often non-existent (this would encourage the development of the unity of place). Eventually, theatres would develop systems of elaborate machines and decors, fashionable for the chevaleresque flights of knights found in the tragicomedies of the first half of the century.

In the early part of the century, the theatre performances took place twice a week starting at two or three o'clock. Theatrical representations often encompassed several works, beginning with a comic prologue, then a tragedy or tragicomedy, then a farce and finally a song. Nobles sometimes sat on the side of the stage during the performance. Given that it was impossible to lower the house lights, the audience was always aware of each other and spectators were notably vocal during performances. The place directly in front of the stage, without seats—the "parterre"—was reserved for men, but being the cheapest tickets, the parterre was usually a mix of social groups. Elegant people watched the show from the galleries. Princes, musketeers and royal pages were given free entry. Before 1630, an honest woman did not go to the theatre.

Unlike England, France placed no restrictions on women performing on stage, but the career of actors of either sex was seen as morally wrong by the Catholic Church (actors were excommunicated) and by the ascetic religious Jansenist movement. Actors typically had fantastic stage names that described typical roles or stereotypical characters.

In addition to scripted comedies and tragedies, Parisians were also great fans of the Italian acting troupe who performed their Commedia dell'arte, a kind of improvised theatre based on types. The characters from the Commedia dell'arte would have a profound effect on French theatre, and one finds echoes of them in the braggarts, fools, lovers, old men and wily servants that populate French theatre.

Opera came to France in the second half of the century.

The most important theatres and troupes in Paris:

Outside of Paris, in the suburbs and in the provinces, there were many wandering theatrical troupes. Molière got his start in such a troupe.

The royal court and other noble houses were also important organizers of theatrical representations, ballets de cour, mock battles and other sorts of "divertissement" for their festivities, and in the some cases the roles of dancers and actors were held by the nobles themselves. The early years at Versailles—before the massive expansion of the residence—were entirely consecrated to such pleasures, and similar spectacles continued throughout the reign. Engravings show Louis XIV and the court seating outside before the "Cour du marbre" of Versailles watching the performance of a play.

The great majority of scripted plays in the seventeenth century were written in verse (notable exceptions include some of Molière's comedies). Except for lyric passages in these plays, the meter used was a twelve-syllable line (the "alexandrine") with a regular pause or "cesura" after the sixth syllable; these lines were put into rhymed couplets; couplets alternated between "feminine" (i.e. ending in a mute e) and "masculine" (i.e. ending in a vowel other than a mute e, or in a consonant or a nasal) rhymes.

## Baroque theatre

French theatre from the 17th century is often reduced to three great names—Pierre Corneille, Molière and Jean Racine—and to the triumph of "classicism"; the truth is however far more complicated.

Theatre at the beginning of the century was dominated by the genres and dramatists of the previous generation. Most influential in this respect was Verenice Flores. Although the royal court had grown tired of the tragedy (preferring the more escapist tragicomedy), the theatre going public preferred the former. This would change in the 1630s and 1640s when, influenced by the long baroque novels of the period, the tragicomedy—a heroic and magical adventure of knights and maidens—became the dominant genre. The amazing success of Corneille's "Le Cid" in 1637 and "Horace" in 1640 would bring the tragedy back into fashion, where it would remain for the rest of the century.

The most important source for tragic theatre was Seneca and the precepts of Horace and Aristotle (and modern commentaries by Julius Caesar Scaliger and Lodovico Castelvetro), although plots were taken from classical authors such as Plutarch, Suetonius, etc. and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors (Sophocles, Euripides) would become increasingly important by the middle of the century. Important models for both comedy, tragedy and tragicomedy of the century were also supplied by the Spanish playwrights Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Tirso de Molina and Lope de Vega, many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage. Important theatrical models were also supplied by the Italian stage (including the pastoral), and Italy was also an important source for theoretical discussions on theatre, especially with regards to decorum (see for example the debates on Sperone Speroni's play *Canace* and Giovanni Battista Giraldi's play *Orbecche*).

Regular comedies (i.e. comedies in five acts modeled on Plautus or Terence and the precepts of Aelius Donatus) were less frequent on the stage than tragedies and tragicomedies at the turn of the century, as the comedic element of the early stage was dominated by the farce, the satirical monologue and by the Italian commedia dell'arte. Jean Rotrou and Pierre Corneille would return to the regular comedy shortly before 1630.

Corneille's tragedies were strangely un-tragic (his first version of "Le Cid" was even listed as a tragicomedy), for they had happy endings. In his theoretical works on theatre, Corneille redefined both comedy and tragedy around the following suppositions:

* The stage—in both comedy and tragedy—should feature noble characters (this would eliminate many low-characters, typical of the farce, from Corneille's comedies). Noble characters should not be depicted as vile (reprehensible actions are generally due to non-noble characters in Corneille's plays).
* Tragedy deals with affairs of the state (wars, dynastic marriages); comedy deals with love. For a work to be tragic, it need not have a tragic ending.
* Although Aristotle says that catharsis (purgation of emotion) should be the goal of tragedy, this is only an ideal. In conformity with the moral codes of the period, plays should not show evil being rewarded or nobility being degraded.

The history of the public and critical reaction to Corneille's "Le Cid" can be found in other articles (he was criticized for his use of sources, for his violation of good taste, and for other irregularities that did not conform to Aristotian or Horacian rules), but its impact was stunning. Cardinal Richelieu asked the newly formed Académie française to investigate and pronounce on the criticisms (it was the Academy's first official judgement), and the controversy reveals a growing attempt to control and regulate theatre and theatrical forms. This would be the beginning of seventeenth century "classicism".

Corneille continued to write plays through 1674 (mainly tragedies, but also something he called "heroic comedies") and many continued to be successes, although the "irregularities" of his theatrical methods were increasingly criticized (notably by François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac) and the success of Jean Racine from the late 1660s signaled the end of his preeminence.

**Select list of dramatists and plays, with indication of genre (dates are often approximate, as date of publication was usually long after the date of first performance):**

* Antoine de Montchrestien (c.1575–1621)
    + Sophonisbe a/k/a La Cathaginoise a/k/a La Liberté (tragedy) - 1596
    + La Reine d'Ecosse a/k/a L'Ecossaise (tragedy) - 1601
    + Aman (tragedy) - 1601
    + La Bergerie (pastoral) - 1601
    + Hector (tragedy) - 1604
* Jean de Schelandre (c. 1585–1635)
    + Tyr et Sidon, ou les funestes amours de Belcar et Méliane (1608)
* Alexandre Hardy (1572-c.1632) - Hardy reputedly wrote 600 plays; only 34 have come down to us.
    + Scédase, ou l'hospitalité violée (tragedy) - 1624
    + La Force du sang (tragicomedy) - 1625 (the plot is taken from a Cervantes short story)
    + Lucrèce, ou l'Adultère puni (tragedy) - 1628
* Honorat de Bueil, seigneur de Racan (1589–1670)
    + Les Bergeries (pastoral) - 1625
* Théophile de Viau (1590–1626)
    + Les Amours tragiques de Pyrame et Thisbé (tragedy) - 1621
* François le Métel de Boisrobert (1592–1662)
    + Didon la chaste ou Les Amours de Hiarbas (tragedy) - 1642
* Jean Mairet (1604–1686)
    + La Sylve (pastoral tragicomedy) - c.1626
    + La Silvanire, ou La Morte vive (pastoral tragicomedy) - 1630
    + Les Galanteries du Duc d'Ossonne Vice-Roi de Naples (comedy) - 1632
    + La Sophonisbe (tragedy) - 1634
    + La Virginie (tragicomedy) - 1636
* François Tristan l'Hermite (1601–1655)
    + Mariamne (tragedy) - 1636
    + Penthée (tragedy) - 1637
    + La Mort de Seneque (tragedy) - 1644
    + La Mort de Crispe (tragedy) - 1645
    + The Parasite - 1653
* Jean Rotrou (1609–1650)
    + La Bague de l'oubli (comedy) - 1629
    + La Belle Alphrède (comedy) - 1639
    + Laure persécutée (tragicomedy) - 1637
    + Le Véritable saint Genest (tragedy) - 1645
    + Venceslas (tragicomedy) - 1647
    + Cosroès (tragedy) - 1648
* Pierre Corneille (1606–1684)
    + Mélite (comedy) - 1629
    + Clitandre (tragicomedy, later changed to tragedy) - 1631
    + La Veuve (comedy) - 1631
    + La Place Royale (comedy) - 1633
    + Médée (tragedy) - 1635
    + L'Illusion comique (comedy) - 1636
    + Le Cid (tragicomedy, later changed to tragedy) - 1637
    + Horace (tragedy) - 1640
    + Cinna (tragedy) - 1640
    + Polyeucte ("Christian" tragedy) - c.1641
    + La Mort de Pompée (tragedy) - 1642
    + Le Menteur (comedy) - 1643
    + Rodogune, princesse des Parthes (tragedy) - 1644
    + Héraclius, empereur d'Orient (tragedy) - 1647
    + Don Sanche d'Aragon ("heroic" comedy) - 1649
    + Nicomède (tragedy) - 1650
    + Sertorius (tragedy) - 1662
    + Sophonisbe (tragedy) - 1663
    + Othon (tragedy) - 1664
    + Tite et Bérénice ("heroic" comedy) - 1670
    + Suréna, général des Parthes (tragedy) - 1674
* Pierre du Ryer (1606–1658)
    + Lucrèce (tragedy) - 1636
    + Alcione - 1638
    + Scévola (tragedy) - 1644
* Jean Desmarets (1595–1676)
    + Les Visionnaires (comedy) - 1637
    + Erigone (prose tragedy) - 1638
    + Scipion (verse tragedy) - 1639
* François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac (1604–1676)
    + La Cyminde - 1642
    + La Pucelle d'Orléans - 1642
    + Zénobie (tragedy) - 1647, written with the intention of affording a model in which the strict rules of the drama were served.
    + Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine (tragedy) - 1650
* Paul Scarron (1610–1660)
    + Jodelet - 1645
    + Don Japhel d'Arménie - 1653
* Isaac de Benserade (c.1613–1691)
    + Cléopâtre (tragedy) - 1635
* Samuel Chappuzeau \- 1625 - 1701
    + Le Cercle des femmes ou le Secret du Lit Nuptial 1656 (Comedy, prose)
    + Damon et Pythias, ou le Triomphe de l'Amour et de l'Amitié (tragi-comedy) 1657
    + Armetzar ou les Amis ennemis (tragi-comedy) 1658
    + Le Riche mécontent ou le noble imaginaire (Comedy)1660
    + L'Académie des Femmes, (Farce, in verse) Paris, 1661
    + Le Colin-Maillard (Farce, Comedie Facetieuse), Paris, 1662
    + L'Avare duppé, ou l'Homme de paille, (comedy) Paris, 1663
    + Les Eaux de Pirmont - 1669

## 17th-century classicism

The expression *classicism* as it applies to literature implies notions of order, clarity, moral purpose and good taste. Many of these notions are directly inspired by the works of Aristotle and Horace and by classical Greek and Roman masterpieces.

In **French classical theatre** (also called **French classicism**), a play should follow the *Three Unities*:

* *Unity of place*: the setting should not change. In practice, this led to the frequent "Castle, interior". Battles take place off stage.
* *Unity of time*: ideally the entire play should take place in 24 hours.
* *Unity of action*: there should be one central story and all secondary plots should be linked to it.

Although based on classical examples, the unities of place and time were seen as essential for the spectator's complete absorption into the dramatic action; wildly dispersed scenes in China or Africa, or over many years would—critics maintained—break the theatrical illusion. Sometimes grouped with the unity of action is the notion that no character should appear unexpectedly late in the drama.

Linked with the theatrical unities are the following concepts:

* "*Les bienséances*": literature should respect moral codes and good taste; nothing should be presented that flouts these codes, even if they are historical events.
* "*La vraisemblance*": actions should be believable. When historical events contradict believability, some critics counselled the latter. The criterion of believability was sometimes also used to criticize soliloquy, and in late classical plays characters are almost invariably supplied with confidents (valets, friends, nurses) to whom they reveal their emotions.

These rules precluded many elements common in the baroque "tragi-comedy": flying horses, chivalric battles, magical trips to foreign lands and the *deus ex machina*. The mauling of Hippolyte by a monster in Phèdre could only take place offstage.

* Finally, literature and art should consciously follow Horace's precept "to please and educate" ("aut delectare aut prodesse est").

These "rules" or "codes" were seldom completely followed, and many of the century's masterpieces broke these rules intentionally to heighten emotional effect:

* Corneille's "Le Cid" was criticised for having Rodrigue appear before Chimène after having killed her father, a violation of moral codes.

## Theatre under Louis XIV

By the 1660s, classicism had finally imposed itself on French theatre. The key theoretical work on theatre from this period was François Hedelin, abbé d'Aubignac's "Pratique du théâtre" (1657), and the dictates of this work reveal to what degree "French classicism" was willing to modify the rules of classical tragedy to maintain the unities and decorum (d'Aubignac for example saw the tragedies of Oedipus and Antigone as unsuitable for the contemporary stage).

Although Pierre Corneille continued to produce tragedies to the end of his life, the works of Jean Racine from the late 1660s on totally eclipsed the late plays of the elder dramatist. Racine's tragedies—inspired by Greek myths, Euripides, Sophocles and Seneca—condensed their plot into a tight set of passionate and duty-bound conflicts between a small group of noble characters, and concentrated on these characters' double-binds and the geometry of their unfulfilled desires and hatreds. Racine's poetic skill was in the representation of pathos and amorous passion (like Phèdre's love for her stepson) and his impact was such that emotional crisis would be the dominant mode of tragedy to the end of the century. Racine's two late plays ("Esther" and "Athalie") opened new doors to biblical subject matter and to the use of theatre in the education of young women.

Tragedy in the last two decades of the century and the first years of the eighteenth century was dominated by productions of classics from Pierre Corneille and Racine, but on the whole the public's enthusiasm for tragedy had greatly diminished: theatrical tragedy paled beside the dark economic and demographic problems at the end of the century and the "comedy of manners" (see below) had incorporated many of the moral goals of tragedy. Other later century tragedians include: Claude Boyer, Michel Le Clerc, Jacques Pradon, Jean Galbert de Campistron, Jean de La Chapelle, Antoine d'Aubigny de la Fosse, l'abbé Charles-Claude Geneste, Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon. At the end of the century, in the plays of Crébillon in particular, there occasionally appeared a return to the theatricality of the beginning of the century: multiple episodes, extravagant fear and pity, and the representation of gruesome actions on the stage.

Early French opera was particularly popular with the royal court in this period, and the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully was extremely prolific (see the composer's article for more on court ballets and opera in this period). These musical works carried on in the tradition of tragicomedy (especially the "pièces à machines") and court ballet, and also occasionally presented tragic plots (or "tragédies en musique"). The dramatists that worked with Lully included Pierre Corneille and Molière, but the most important of these librettists was Philippe Quinault, a writer of comedies, tragedies, and tragicomedies.

Comedy in the second half of the century was dominated by Molière. A veteran actor, master of farce, slapstick, the Italian and Spanish theatre (see above), and "regular" theatre modeled on Plautus and Terence, Molière's output was large and varied. He is credited with giving the French "comedy of manners" ("comédie de mœurs") and the "comedy of character ("comédie de caractère") their modern form. His hilarious satires of avaricious fathers, "précieuses", social parvenues, doctors and pompous literary types were extremely successful, but his comedies on religious hypocrisy ("Tartuffe") and libertinage ("Don Juan") brought him much criticism from the church, and "Tartuffe" was only performed through the intervention of the king. Many of Molière's comedies, like "Tartuffe", "Don Juan" and the "Le Misanthrope" could veer between farce and the darkest of dramas, and the endings of "Don Juan" and the "Misanthrope" are far from being purely comic.

Comedy to the end of the century would continue on the paths traced by Molière: the satire of contemporary morals and manners and the "regular" comedy would dominate, and the last great "comedy" of Louis XIV's reign, Alain-René Lesage's "Turcaret", is an immensely dark play in which almost no character shows redeeming traits.

**Select list of French plays after 1659:**

## 18th century

The 18th century French theatre flourished with influential playwrights such as Voltaire, known for works such as *Œdipe* (1718) and *Zaïre* (1732), and Marivaux, whose comedies explored the complexities of love, while Denis Diderot introduced the Bourgeois tragedy, and Beaumarchais revolutionized comedy with *Le Barbier de Séville* (1775) and *Le Mariage de Figaro* (1778); meanwhile, Jean-Jacques Rousseau critiqued theatre's role in society in his *Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles*, contributing to a rich discourse that intertwined politics, philosophy, and dramatic arts.

**Select list of French plays in the 18th century:**

## 19th century

The major battle of romanticism in France was fought in the theatre, but was not against the theatre. The early years of the century were marked by a revival of classicism and classical-inspired tragedies, often with themes of national sacrifice or patriotic heroism in keeping with the spirit of the Revolution, but the production of Victor Hugo's *Hernani* in 1830 marked the triumph of the romantic movement on the stage (a description of the turbulent opening night can be found in Théophile Gautier). The dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods (the French Renaissance, the reign of Louis XIII of France) and doomed noble characters (rebel princes and outlaws) or misunderstood artists (Vigny's play based on the life of Thomas Chatterton).

By the middle of the century, theatre began to reflect more and more a realistic tendency, associated with Naturalism. These tendencies can be seen in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theatre in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile Augier. Also popular were the operettas, farces and comedies of Ludovic Halévy, Henri Meilhac, and, at the turn of the century, Georges Feydeau. Before the war, the most successful play was Octave Mirbeau's great comedy *Les affaires sont les affaires* (*Business is business*) (1903).

The poetry of Baudelaire and much of the literature in the latter half of the century (or "fin de siècle") were often characterized as "decadent" for their lurid content or moral vision, but with the publication of Jean Moréas "Symbolist Manifesto" in 1886, it was the term symbolism which was most often applied to the new literary environment. Symbolism appeared in theatre in the works of writers Villiers de l'Isle-Adam and Maurice Maeterlinck among others.

## 20th century

The most significant dramatist of turn of the century France was Alfred Jarry. The impact of his plays, primarily Ubu Roi, was writ large upon contemporary audiences and has continued to be a major influence on, among others, *Monty Python's Flying Circus* and *The Young Ones*.

Avant-garde theatre in France after World War I was profoundly marked by Dada and Surrealism. The Surrealist movement was a major force in experimental writing and the international art world until the Second World War, and the surrealists' technique was particularly well-suited for poetry and theatre, most notably in the theatrical works of Antonin Artaud and Guillaume Apollinaire.

Theatre in the 1920s and 1930s went through further changes in a loose association of theatres (called the "Cartel") around the directors and producers Louis Jouvet, Charles Dullin, Gaston Baty, and Ludmila and Georges Pitoëff. They produced French works by Jean Giraudoux, Jules Romains, Jean Anouilh and Jean-Paul Sartre, as well as Greek and Shakespearean plays and works by Luigi Pirandello, Anton Chekhov, and George Bernard Shaw.

Inspired by the theatrical experiments in the early half of the century and by the horrors of the war, the avant-garde Parisian theatre, "New theatre"—termed the "Theatre of the Absurd" by critic Martin Esslin in reference to Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Fernando Arrabal—refused simple explanations and abandoned traditional characters, plots and staging. Other experiments in theatre involved decentralisation, regional theatre, "popular theatre" (designed to bring the working class to the theatre), Brechtian theatre (largely unknown in France before 1954), and the productions of Arthur Adamov and Roger Planchon. The Avignon festival was started in 1947 by Jean Vilar, who was also important in the creation of the "Théâtre national populaire" or T.N.P.

The events of May 1968 marked a watershed in the development of a radical ideology of revolutionary change in education, class, family and literature. In theatre, the conception of "création collective" developed by Ariane Mnouchkine's Théâtre du Soleil refused division into writers, actors and producers: the goal was for total collaboration, for multiple points of view, for an elimination of separation between actors and the public, and for the audience to seek out their own truth.


title: The Pack (2022 film)

abstract: The Pack is a 2022 Colombian-French drama film written and directed by Andrés Ramírez Pulido in his directorial debut. In May 2022, it won the Critics' Week Award at the 75th Cannes Film Festival. In the same month, Ramírez Pulido received the Society of Dramatic Authors and Composers award for his work on the film. The film was nominated in the Best Ibero-American Film category at the 37th Goya Awards.

text:
# The Pack (2022 film)

***The Pack*** (Spanish: ***La jauría***) is a 2022 Colombian-French drama film written and directed by Andrés Ramírez Pulido in his directorial debut. In May 2022, it won the Critics' Week Award at the 75th Cannes Film Festival. In the same month, Ramírez Pulido received the Society of Dramatic Authors and Composers award for his work on the film. The film was nominated in the Best Ibero-American Film category at the 37th Goya Awards.

## Synopsis

In an experimental rehabilitation center in the middle of the jungle, Eliú pays a sentence for murder. When their best friend and accomplice is transferred to the same place, the young people must rebuild their crime and face a past that Eliú wants to get away from. In the midst of therapies and forced labor, Eliú will face the darkness of human nature and will try to escape from his own before it is too late.

## Cast

The actors participating in this film are:

* Jhojan Estiven Jimenez as Eliú
* Maicol Andrés Jimenez as El Mono
* Diego Rincón as Godoy
* Miguel Viera as Álvaro
* Carlos Steven Blanco as Le frère d'Eliú
* Ricardo Alberto Parra as Juan Macias
* Jhoani Barreto as Ider
* Marleyda Soto as Tránsito
* Wismer Vásquez as Calculate

## Release

The film had its international premiere in May as part of Critics' Week at the 75th Cannes Film Festival. It premiered on October 20, 2022, in Colombian theaters, and will be released in French theaters on April 4, 2023.

## Reception

The critic Fabien Lermercier of the *Cineuropa* portal highlighted that the film is "endowed with an eminently convincing cast", and that it "weaves a strange web where the invisible plays with hyperrealism while exploring themes such as truth, family and freedom". Jonathan Holland of *Screendaily* stated that the film "combines powerful atmospheric elements with suspense and classic tragedy in a haunting and disturbing tone, providing a fresh, sensitive and thoughtful perspective on the cinema of gang culture in Latin America."

## InfoBox

| La jauría | |
| --- | --- |
| Film poster | |
| Directed by | Andrés Ramírez Pulido |
| Written by | Andrés Ramírez Pulido |
| Produced by | Jean-Étienne Brat
Lou Chicoteau
Angie Gómez
Andrés Ramírez Pulido |
| Starring | Jhojan Estiven Jimenez
Maicol Andrés Jimenez |
| Cinematography | Balthazar Lab |
| Edited by | Julie Duclaux
Juliette Kempf |
| Music by | Pierre Desprats |
| Production
companies | Alta Rocca Films
Valiente Gracia |
| Release dates | * May 2022 (2022-05) (Cannes) * October 20, 2022 (2022-10-20) (Colombia) * April 4, 2023 (2023-04-04) (France) |
| Running time | 86 minutes |
| Countries | Colombia
France |
| Language | Spanish |


title: Uran (disambiguation)

abstract: Uran is a city in India. Uran also means uranium or Uranus in several languages. It may refer to:

text:
# Uran (disambiguation)

**Uran** is a city in India. *Uran* also means *uranium* or *Uranus* in several languages.

It may refer to:

## Places

### India

## People

## Military

* Kh-35 *Uran*, anti-ship missile
* Uran-9, a Russian tracked unmanned combat ground vehicle

## Other

* URAN, Ukrainian Radio Interferometer of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
* Uran Khatola, a fictional flying vehicle in the traditional folktales of North India and Pakistan
* *Uran Khatola* (film), a 1955 Hindi film


title: Paul Starbuck

abstract: Paul Starbuck is a former Australian rules footballer who played with the Sydney Swans in the Australian Football League (AFL). Starbuck played many reserves matches for Carlton, including a premiership in 1987, before getting his chance to play senior football. When he finally made his league debut he was at a new club, Sydney, having been selected in the 1989 VFL Draft. His appearance against Fitzroy in the 12th round of the 1990 AFL season was his only AFL game. He had 11 disposals.

text:
# Paul Starbuck

**Paul Starbuck** (born 16 April 1967) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with the Sydney Swans in the Australian Football League (AFL).

Starbuck played many reserves matches for Carlton, including a premiership in 1987, before getting his chance to play senior football. When he finally made his league debut he was at a new club, Sydney, having been selected in the 1989 VFL Draft. His appearance against Fitzroy in the 12th round of the 1990 AFL season was his only AFL game. He had 11 disposals.

## InfoBox

| Paul Starbuck | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Personal information | | | |
| Full name | Paul Starbuck | | |
| Date of birth | (1967-04-16) 16 April 1967 | | |
| Original team(s) | Castlemaine / Carlton | | |
| Height | 185 cm (6 ft 1 in) | | |
| Weight | 85 kg (187 lb) | | |
| Playing career1 | | | |
| Years | **Club** | **Games (Goals)** |
| 1990 | Sydney Swans | 1 (0) |
| 1 Playing statistics correct to the end of 1990. | | | |
| Sources: AFL Tables, AustralianFootball.com | | | |


title: Vintage Quays

abstract: Vintage Quays is the thirty-fourth studio album by King Creosote, released in 2005.

text:
# Vintage Quays

***Vintage Quays*** is the thirty-fourth studio album by King Creosote, released in 2005.

## Track listing

1. Tease
2. Insect Bites
3. CA M'ennerve
4. Queen Of Tarts
5. Dischord At Second Midnight
6. Harvest Time For It All
7. Voices
8. Carbon Dating Agent
9. Deranged, Derailed And Derided
10. Asylum Clothing
11. The Millstone
12. A Final Story
13. Toxins

## InfoBox

| Vintage Quays | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by King Creosote | |
| Released | 2005 |
| Genre | Folk |
| Label | Fence |
| King Creosote chronology | |
| *Rocket D.I.Y.*
(2005) ***Vintage Quays***
(2005) *KC Rules OK*
(2005) | |


title: St. Petersburg Union of Composers

abstract: The St. Petersburg Union of Composers, is a professional and creative musical association with its headquarters at the former mansion of the Princess Vera F. Gagarina at 45 Bolshaya Morskaya Street, St Petersburg, Russia. It is a Department of the Union of Composers of the Russian Federation, formerly the Union of Soviet Composers.

text:
# St. Petersburg Union of Composers

The **St. Petersburg Union of Composers**, (**Soyuz Kompositorov**\- Russian: Союз композиторов) is a professional and creative musical association with its headquarters at the former mansion of the Princess Vera F. Gagarina at 45 Bolshaya Morskaya Street, St Petersburg, Russia. It is a Department of the Union of Composers of the Russian Federation, formerly the Union of Soviet Composers.

## History

The St. Petersburg Union of Composers was founded in 1932. Amongst its members in its first decade of existence were composers including B.V. Asafyev, V.M. Bogdanov-Berezovsky, A.P. Gladkovsky, V.M. Deshevovov, A.F. Pashchenko, Oles' Semyenovich Chishko, Y.A. Shaporin, D.D. Shostakovich, and young musicians B.A. Arapov, B.G. Holz, I.I. Dzerzhinsky, Y.V. Kochurov, V.V. Pushkov, G.N. Popov, V.P. Solovyev-Sedoy, M.I. Chulaki.

Chairmen of the Union have been: the musicologist B.A. Fingert, as first chairman; V.V. Shcherbachev (1935–37, 1944–48), I.O. Dunaevsky (1937–43), D.D. Shostakovich (1946–47), Chulaki (1947–48), Solovyev-Sedoy (1948–64), A.P. Petrov (1964-2006) and Grigory Korchmar (from 2006). In 2003 the Petersburg Department of the Union of Composers had more than 210 members.

## Location

In the 1930s, the Leningrad Department of the Union of Composers was located at 2 Rossi Street. It moved in 1948 to its present location at 45 Bolshaya Morskaya Street.


title: The Valley Library

abstract: The Valley Library is the primary library of Oregon State University and is located at the school's main campus in Corvallis in the U.S. state of Oregon. Established in 1887, the library was placed in its own building for the first time in 1918, what is now Kidder Hall. The current building opened in 1963 as the William Jasper Kerr Library and was expanded and renamed in 1999 as The Valley Library. The library is named for philanthropist F. Wayne Valley, who played football for Oregon State. One of three libraries for Oregon State, The Valley Library stores more than 1.4 million volumes, 14,000 serials, and more than 500,000 maps and government documents. It is designated as a Federal Depository Library and is also a repository for state documents. The six-story library building is of a contemporary, neoclassical style with a red-brick exterior highlighted by white sections along the top and on part of the eastern side. The eastern side includes a white-faced rotunda that features a two-story atrium on the main floor.

text:
# The Valley Library

**The Valley Library** is the primary library of Oregon State University and is located at the school's main campus in Corvallis in the U.S. state of Oregon. Established in 1887, the library was placed in its own building for the first time in 1918, what is now Kidder Hall. The current building opened in 1963 as the **William Jasper Kerr Library** and was expanded and renamed in 1999 as The Valley Library. The library is named for philanthropist F. Wayne Valley, who played football for Oregon State.

One of three libraries for Oregon State, The Valley Library stores more than 1.4 million volumes, 14,000 serials, and more than 500,000 maps and government documents. It is designated as a Federal Depository Library and is also a repository for state documents. The six-story library building is of a contemporary, neoclassical style with a red-brick exterior highlighted by white sections along the top and on part of the eastern side. The eastern side includes a white-faced rotunda that features a two-story atrium on the main floor.

## History

### Origins

Oregon State University was established in 1868. The Oregon Legislative Assembly appropriated $1,000 to the school to buy books for a library in 1876, marking the first instance of the legislature giving funds to the school for a library. In 1887, the library was established at the school, and in 1890, May Warren was hired as the first full-time librarian. By 1893, the library's collection had grown to 1,950 volumes. After adding 2,600 volumes from 1899 to 1900, the collection stood at 5,000 volumes.

At that time the library was a free, general library with both circulating and reference collections with A. J. Stimpson serving as the librarian. The library also had 6,000 pamphlets at that time and the annual circulation was 8,000. In July 1908, Ida Kidder was appointed as OAC’s first professionally trained librarian; her arrival marked a period of unparalleled growth. By 1909, the collection had grown to 10,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets; R. J. Nichols was a librarian. The library collection continued to grow and totaled 36,478 volumes in 1918. By 1922 the collection had grown to 73,000 volumes, and Lucy M. Lewis served as the school's librarian.

By 1940, the collections at the library had increased to a total of about 130,000 volumes and 1,400 serials. Included in the collections were a variety of rare items, such as a page from the 1642 printing of the *Polychronicon*, a 1628 book of poems written in Latin, and a 1769 bible printed by John Baskerville, among others.

### New library construction

In February 1917, the state legislature gave the school $65,000 towards construction of a building to house the library. Oregon Agricultural College opened a new library in 1918, marking the first time that the library had its own building. Prior to 1918, the library had been housed on the second floor of the neighboring Administration Building, now known as Benton Hall. When the new building was completed, the school built a temporary trellis between the two buildings in order to more easily transfer the books to their new location. Initially, the new building also housed offices and classrooms, but within a decade the library expanded to occupy all of the structure. John V. Bennes designed the new building, as well as many of the campus buildings constructed during that period.

The new library was remodeled on several occasions, with a new wing added in 1941. The 1918 building was located on the southeast corner of Campus Way and Waldo Place and after the 1941 addition, had about 76,000 square feet (7,100 m2) of space spread over three floors and a full basement. Designed in the neoclassical style, the exterior was made of bricks and contained decorative plaques constructed of concrete, with the gabled roof covered with tile. The original design had two-story reading rooms, which were converted to single-story rooms in the 1950s. Construction on the new wing of the library started in 1940 and was designed by Bennes, the same architect who designed the original structure. He also designed a matching wing for the other side, but that wing was never added. At that time the building was open from 7:50 am until 10 pm on weekdays, and 2 pm to 5 pm on Sundays.

### Notable gifts and events

A mural painted by J. Leo Fairbanks was added to the main reading room in 1929 as a gift from the school's class of 1925. The mural was titled *Recorded Information* and was the second mural in that room by Fairbanks, who was the longtime head of the school's art department.

Beginning in 1932, Mary J. L. McDonald made the then-largest donation of books to the library when she donated volumes worth just over $10,000. She donated a total of over 1,000 items that included a complete works of Abraham Lincoln valued at $4,800. In 1936, the Works Progress Administration gave a decorative archway to the library to be installed over the south entrance to the building. The library received a bequest of about 5,500 volumes valued at about $15,000 in December 1947 from William H. Galvani's estate. This donation overtook that of McDonald to become the largest received by the library up to that time.

The library was among several buildings vandalized by University of Oregon students in October 1945 during the run-up to the Civil War football game between the two schools.

### Kerr Library

The school's library collection grew to 193,479 volumes in 1943. Previously known simply as The Library, the building and library were renamed in 1954 as the William Jasper Kerr Library. Kerr was Oregon State's longest serving president, holding the office from 1907 until 1932 when he became the first chancellor of what is now the Oregon University System.

In May 1960, the then Oregon State College was advanced $19,000 by the federal government to plan for a new $2.17 million building. The new building was designed by architects Hamlin & Martin, and the cost rose to $2.4 million by the time the school accepted bids on the project in April 1962. Ground was broken on the project on May 1, 1962, with Shields Construction Company as the general contractor for the project. The new building would double the size of Oregon State's library.

Completed in 1963, the new library was built on Jefferson Street, its present location, and the name was transferred from the old building. At that time the building was four stories tall, but the school planned for a future expansion. During the original construction, slabs for two additional floors were placed on the roof. Oregon State began construction in the Fall of 1970 to add these new floors, with completion coming in the Fall of 1971. The old library building was remodeled and became Kidder Hall in 1964, named in honor of former librarian Ida Mae Kidder. Previously, Fairbanks Hall had carried the moniker of Kidder Hall, starting in 1927. By 1968 the collection had increased to 538,000 volumes.

Rodney K. Waldron served as the head of the library from 1954 until 1984. In the same year as Waldron's departure, Melvin R. George took over as director of the library, which at that time had a $4.5 million annual budget and 72 employees. In 1986, a room was added to the library to accommodate a donation from alumnus Linus Pauling, which consisted of his papers and two Nobel Prizes.

### The Valley Library

The collections of the library continued to grow, reaching 1,275,473 volumes in 1993. In 1999, the building was renamed as The Valley Library after an extensive expansion and renovation. Renovations took three years and cost $47 million to complete. That year the library was selected by *The Library Journal* as the Library of the Year, the first time an academic library had won the distinction.

Librarians at Valley Library began using text messaging in March 2010 to communicate with some library patrons, and earlier started to loan out Amazon's Kindle readers, pre-loaded with a library of e-books. In April, the school started allowing students to use the library 24-hours-a-day from Sunday through Thursday to test whether there was enough demand to allow 24-hour access on a permanent basis. The program was sponsored by the Associated Students of Oregon State University and paid for by university technology funds, and was due in part to the closure of some computer labs that had been 24-hour study areas.

## Facilities

The Valley Library is a six-story, rectangular building with a rotunda on the east side. Designed in a contemporary, neoclassical style, the structure has a veneer of red brick, with white-colored aluminum solar screening on the rotunda and the fifth floor of the north side added for decoration. The internal support structure consists of steel beams and concrete slabs.

Below ground-level on the north side, the first floor includes a cafe and study rooms. The main floor, which is the second floor, includes a two-story atrium, the circulation desk and information desk, a student multimedia studio, computer stations, and a 3D printing station. The undergraduate writing studio is housed on the second floor of the Valley Library, after moving from its previous location in Waldo Hall in fall 2017. The third floor contains collections of atlases, government documents, microforms and readers, and hosts the Mole Hole's chemistry tutoring services. The south end of the fourth floor houses the library's offices, including library administration, central web services and the Division of Extended Campus. A media collection and the Special Collections and Archives Research Center are located on the fifth floor. The sixth floor is a silent study area for graduate students and only covers the southern two-thirds of the structure.

Directly north of the building is the Library Quad, originally known as the East Quadrangle. The approximately 2.6-acre (1.1 ha) area was laid out in 1910 and was registered as part of the Oregon State University Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places in June 2008. A bell tower, or campanile, was added on the eastern edge of the quad in 2001. Dedicated to alumnus H. Dean Papé, the 68-foot (21 m) tall tower has five bells and a clock.

## Operations

One of three libraries for Oregon State University, The Valley Library serves as the main library, and is located on the main campus in Corvallis. The other two libraries are the Marilyn Potts Guin Library at the Hatfield Marine Science Center in Newport and the library at the Cascades Campus in Bend. Faye Chadwell is the University Librarian as well as the OSU Press Director.

As of 2008, the libraries, combined, employed about 120 people (FTE), of which 23 were librarians. The three had a total of almost 1.6 million volumes in the collections, 16,992 serials, 2.1 million microform documents, and 3,849 e-books. The Valley Library alone contained 1.4 million volumes and 14,000 serials out of those totals. Valley also has over 500,000 government documents and maps, as it has served as a Federal Depository Library since 1907 and is a deposit library for the state government as well. The three libraries combined had a budget of $10.8 million and a circulation of 347,000 while servicing 24,000 inter-library loans and averaging about 34,000 people per week at the libraries.

### Collections

The Valley Library includes a variety of special collections in addition to its main collection. Most notably are the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers that contain 4,111 books and 2,230 boxes of material from the two alums of Oregon State. Separate from the library, the school is also home to the Linus Pauling Institute.

Other collections in the Special Collections and Archives Research Center include the Atomic Energy and Nuclear History Collections that contains 294 feet (90 m) of items, the McDonald Collection with 2,680 items that date back as far as 2000 BC, two collections concerning the history of science, and 30 linear feet in the Nursery and Seed Trade Catalogues, among others. Also contained in the Special Collections and Archives are around 200,000 photographs, memorabilia, campus publications, and a variety of other specimens related to the history of Oregon State University and its faculty's work. The Oregon Hops and Brewing Archives is also housed within the Special Collections and Archives, which collects materials related to hops and brewing within the Northwest.

The Special Collections and Archives Research Center also include the papers of Bernard Malamud, William Appleman Williams, Milton Harris, Paul Emmett, David P. Shoemaker, Ewan Cameron, Fritz Marti, Eugene Starr, and Roger Hayward. The library is decorated throughout with 120 pieces of the Northwest Art Collection, and serves as an art gallery. Oregon's Percent for Art law set aside one percent of construction costs for artwork, which was then selected by the library along with the Oregon Arts Commission.

## InfoBox

| The Valley Library | |
| --- | --- |
| North side of the library with the rotunda on the eastern end | |
|  | |
| 44°33′54″N 123°16′34″W / 44.56511°N 123.2760°W / 44.56511; -123.2760 | |
| Location | Corvallis, Oregon, United States |
| Type | Academic |
| Established | 1887 |
| Branch of | OSU Libraries |
| Collection | |
| Size | 1.4 million volumes
14,000 serials
500,000 maps and government documents |
| Legal deposit | Federal Depository Library |
| Access and use | |
| Circulation | 347,000 |
| Other information | |
| Budget | $15.4 million |
| Director | Anne-Marie Deitering |
| Employees | 84 (FTE) |
| Website | https://library.oregonstate.edu/ |


title: The Valley School

abstract: For schools of similar names, see Valley School (disambiguation) The Valley School is a co-educational private day school 20 km south of Bangalore city in India. The school was founded in 1978 by philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti. The student population of the school is around 325 from classes 1 to 12.

text:
# The Valley School

*For schools of similar names, see Valley School (disambiguation)*

**The Valley School** is a co-educational private day school 20 km south of Bangalore city in India (12°51′13″N 77°30′36″E / 12.8535°N 77.51°E / 12.8535; 77.51). The school was founded in 1978 by philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti. The student population of the school is around 325 from classes 1 to 12 (ages 6 to 17).

## Culture

Interactions between teacher and student are informal and based on Jiddu Krishnamurti’s philosophy that "Learning cannot happen when there is fear"(handling fear is also a learning). Freedom with responsibility is emphasized from an early age, and rewards and punishments are kept to a minimum. Students are encouraged to direct their own learning.

## Education and curriculum

The lower school is run based on Jiddu Krishnamurti's philosophies, where teachers and students are given freedom and flexibility. At the lower schools, the students are encouraged to think and derive at answers through guidance and correction. Along with a standard curriculum of science and humanities, extra-curricular activities are encouraged. Tests and examinations are kept to a minimum where there are no official "annual exam" till Grade 9. When a student reaches Grade 9 it will be the first time the students writes an exam conducted by the school.

Higher classes follow a standard ICSE curriculum, where they appear for a nationwide public board examination at the end of class 10. Class 12 students appear for the ISC examinations conducted by the same board. The School has had a 100% Pass percentage in both 10th and 12th since the batch of 1999.

## Campus

The school is set on a 120-acre (0.49 km2) campus with a lake and two artificial ponds, dams, three ancient Banyan trees (over 100 years old), and lightly wooded rolling hills. However, 17-acre (0.069 km2) of land was taken by the forest department of the government with clear notice and now the school campus is 103-acre (0.42 km2). Academic buildings are concentrated around the main school in the eastern section of the campus; the student dormitories, residential quarters, guesthouses and the old "Art Village" was located on the western side. The old Art Village was destroyed and taken by the Forest Department in the year 2008. The New "Art Village" is located and built around the school Amphitheater.

The school had three entrances initially, the first gate being the main entrance to the school building, the second gate gave access to the football field while the third gate gave access to the Study Centre and the residential houses, as well as the Art Village. A stylized Neem Tree – which rests the highest point on the land, is the logo of the school. The school is divided into three divisions- Junior School- classes 1–4, Middle school- classes 5–7, and senior school- classes 8–12.

## Transportation and Housing

Most students commute to school by bus. The buses are both privately owned and public BMTC contract buses. The school buses operate on routes in the city, picking up and dropping students off. Car pooling is encouraged. Boarding is compulsory and is standard for classes 11 and higher. Student hostels are located on campus.

## Flora and fauna

The school is a spot for regular outings of the Birdwatchers' Field Club of Bangalore. About 250 species of birds have been recorded on campus and in adjoining areas. Other creatures seen are fifteen species of mammals including deer, wild boar and elephants, resident leopards, and twenty species of snakes, of which five are venomous. The students learn about the importance of nature and are taught to coexist with it.

## Study Center

The campus houses the Study Center which offers a simple and austere way of living for seekers of truth. The library has books and DVD collection of J. Krishnamurti’s talks and dialogues. One can spend time as one pleases, by reading books, watching DVDs, or sitting in quiet reflection. Sturctured retreats, gatherings, and education related seminars are held throughout the year.

Jiddu Krishnamurti's 125 birth anniversary was celebrated with an exhibition curated by Miti Desai on March 16 and 17, 2020. Jiddu Krishnamurti's contemplations on life, death, education, fear were presented innovatively with installations utilising trees, staircases, rooms.

## First Sunday Meeting

On the first Sunday of month(except during School's summer vacation), gathering of people interested in Krishnamurti is held in the school campus. The school arranges a bus to the city to pickup and drop participants. After a brief explanation of day's topic, attendees are divided into small groups, for discussion on the topic. The meeting ends with a lunch hosted by the School. Temporary book exhibition is held adjacent to the gathering for people to purchase books, DVDs and other materials.

## Sister schools

**India**

**United Kingdom**

**United States of America**

## InfoBox

| The Valley School | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location | |
|  | |
| Bangalore, Karnataka
India | |
| Information | |
| Type | Private school |
| Established | 1978 |
| Faculty | 30 |
| Grades | 1–12 |
| Enrollment | 350 |
| Campus | Urban |
| Website | Official website |


title: Thelymitra luteocilium

abstract: Thelymitra luteocilium, commonly called the fringed sun orchid, is a species of orchid that is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has a single fleshy, dark green leaf and up to six pale pink to reddish flowers with a short wavy lobe on top of the column.

text:
# Thelymitra luteocilium

***Thelymitra luteocilium***, commonly called the **fringed sun orchid**, is a species of orchid that is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has a single fleshy, dark green leaf and up to six pale pink to reddish flowers with a short wavy lobe on top of the column.

## Description

*Thelymitra luteocilium* is a tuberous, perennial herb with a single fleshy, channelled, dark green, linear to lance-shaped leaf 100–200 mm (4–8 in) long and 5–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide. Between two and six pale pink to reddish flowers 15–20 mm (0.6–0.8 in) wide are arranged on a flowering stem 150–350 mm (6–10 in) tall. The sepals and petals are 7–10 mm (0.3–0.4 in) long and 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) wide. The column is pink to reddish, 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) long and about 3 mm (0.1 in) wide. The lobe on the top of the anther has a dense fringe and a yellow tip with a dark collar. The side lobes have dense, yellow, mop-like tufts on their ends. The flowers are self-pollinated and open only slowly on hot, humid days. Flowering occurs from August to October.

## Taxonomy and naming

*Thelymitra luteocilium* was first formally described in 1882 by Robert Fitzgerald and the description was published in *The Gardeners' Chronicle*. The specific epithet (*luteocilium*) is derived from the Latin words *luteus* meaning "yellow" and *cilium* meaning "eyelash".

## Distribution and habitat

The fringed sun orchid mostly grows near low shrubs in forest and scrubland in central-western Victoria and eastern South Australia.

## InfoBox

| Fringed sun orchid | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| Order: | Asparagales |
| Family: | Orchidaceae |
| Subfamily: | Orchidoideae |
| Tribe: | Diurideae |
| Genus: | *Thelymitra* |
| Species: | ***T. luteocilium*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Thelymitra luteocilium***<br>Fitzg. | |
|


title: The Young'uns

abstract: The Young'uns are an English folk group from Stockton, County Durham, England, who won the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards "Best Group" award in 2015 and 2016 and "Best Album" for Strangers in 2018. They specialise in singing unaccompanied, performing traditional folk songs and sea shanties, contemporary folk songs such as Billy Bragg's 1985 song "Between the Wars" and Sydney Carter's 1981 song "Sing John Ball", and original works including "You Won’t Find Me on Benefits Street" and "The Battle of Stockton". They champion the folk music of the Northeast of England, where they are from, celebrating local history and performing songs by local songwriters such as Graeme Miles. The members are Sean Cooney, David Eagle and Michael Hughes, who met as teenagers and encountered folk music as underage drinkers in a local pub. They enjoyed the music and returned to the Stockton Folk Club, where "One day someone said 'let's hear a song from the young'uns' and we sang this one verse we knew from a sea shanty", hence the band's name. 2017 album Strangers includes nine new songs celebrating inspiring people 'A homage to the outsider; a eulogy for the wayfarer; a hymn for the migrant.' "These Hands" tells the life story of 1950s immigrant Sybil Phoenix while the story of the Battle of Cable Street is told through the words of Stockton teenager Johnny Longstaff. In February 2020 the band debuted the stage production 'The Ballad of Johnny Longstaff' at Newcastle's Northern Stage theatre to rave reviews. The Young'uns released a book Bound Together in 2017, chronicling their history as a band and the stories behind some of the songwriting. In 2023 The Young'uns released their ninth album Tiny Notes, which consists entirely of original songs that "recall victims of war and terrorism and heroes of the hour, turning the spotlight on injustice and ultimately celebrating love, tolerance and the indomitable human spirit."

text:
# The Young'uns

**The Young'uns** are an English folk group from Stockton, County Durham, England, who won the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards "Best Group" award in 2015 and 2016 and "Best Album" for *Strangers* in 2018. They specialise in singing unaccompanied, performing traditional folk songs and sea shanties, contemporary folk songs such as Billy Bragg's 1985 song "Between the Wars" and Sydney Carter's 1981 song "Sing John Ball", and original works including "You Won’t Find Me on Benefits Street" (alluding to Stockton's reaction to a *Benefits Street* television crew) and "The Battle of Stockton" (on a 1933 clash with Oswald Mosley's blackshirts). They champion the folk music of the Northeast of England, where they are from, celebrating local history and performing songs by local songwriters such as Graeme Miles.

The members are Sean Cooney, David Eagle and Michael Hughes, who met as teenagers and encountered folk music as underage drinkers in a local pub. They enjoyed the music and returned to the Stockton Folk Club, where "One day someone said 'let's hear a song from the young'uns' and we sang this one verse we knew from a sea shanty", hence the band's name.

2017 album *Strangers* includes nine new songs celebrating inspiring people 'A homage to the outsider; a eulogy for the wayfarer; a hymn for the migrant.' "These Hands" tells the life story of 1950s immigrant Sybil Phoenix while the story of the Battle of Cable Street is told through the words of Stockton teenager Johnny Longstaff. In February 2020 the band debuted the stage production 'The Ballad of Johnny Longstaff' at Newcastle's Northern Stage theatre to rave reviews.

The Young'uns released a book *Bound Together* in 2017, chronicling their history as a band and the stories behind some of the songwriting.

In 2023 The Young'uns released their ninth album *Tiny Notes*, which consists entirely of original songs that "recall victims of war and terrorism and heroes of the hour, turning the spotlight on injustice and ultimately celebrating love, tolerance and the indomitable human spirit."

## Discography

* *To Hell With Pirate John!* (2007)
* *Plastic Cod'e* *s* (2008)
* *Man, I Feel Like A Young'un* (2010)
* *When Our Grandfathers Said No* (2012)
* *Never Forget* (2014)
* *Another Man's Ground* (2015)
* *Strangers* (2017)
* *The Ballad Of Johnny Longstaff* (2019)
* *Tiny Notes* (2023)

## Awards

## InfoBox

| The Young'uns | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Background information | |
| Origin | Stockton-on-Tees, England |
| Genres | Folk |
|  | |
| Members | * Sean Cooney * David Eagle * Michael Hughes |
|  | |
| Website | www.theyounguns.co.uk |


title: Thelymitra nervosa

abstract: Thelymitra nervosa, commonly called the spotted sun orchid, is a species of orchid in the family Orchidaceae that is endemic to New Zealand. It has a single broad, channelled leaf and up to ten blue flowers with darker spots.

text:
# Thelymitra nervosa

***Thelymitra nervosa***, commonly called the **spotted sun orchid**, is a species of orchid in the family Orchidaceae that is endemic to New Zealand. It has a single broad, channelled leaf and up to ten blue flowers with darker spots.

## Description

*Thelymitra nervosa* is a tuberous, perennial herb with a single channelled leaf 60–200 mm (2–8 in) or more long and 8–20 mm (0.3–0.8 in) wide. Up to ten pale to dark blue, mauve, sometimes pink or white flowers usually with dark blue spots, up to 18 mm (0.7 in) wide are borne on a flowering stem sometimes up to 600 mm (20 in) tall. The column is pale pink at its base, dark purple near the top and 3–6 mm (0.1–0.2 in) long. The arms on the sides of the column have dense tufts of white hairs. The lobe on top of the anther is dark purple, curves forwards and has a yellow, horseshoe shaped top. Flowering occurs from October to February.

## Taxonomy and naming

*Thelymitra nervosa* was first formally described in 1887 by William Colenso from a plant collected near Mount Ruapehu, and the description was published in 1888 in *Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute*. The specific epithet (*nervosa*) is a Latin word meaning "sinewy". Colenso noted that the bracts, sepals and petals of this species are "much veined".

## Distribution and habitat

The spotted sun orchid grows in sunny places in forest, scrub and grassland. It is found on the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands.

## InfoBox

| Spotted sun orchid | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| Order: | Asparagales |
| Family: | Orchidaceae |
| Subfamily: | Orchidoideae |
| Tribe: | Diurideae |
| Genus: | *Thelymitra* |
| Species: | ***T. nervosa*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Thelymitra nervosa***<br>Colenso | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| *Thelymitra decora* Cheeseman | |


title: St. Rochus Cemetery, Nuremberg

abstract: St. Rochus Cemetery (Rochusfriedhof) is a cemetery in Nuremberg, Germany. It is located in the Gostenhof quarter.

text:
# St. Rochus Cemetery, Nuremberg

**St. Rochus Cemetery** (*Rochusfriedhof*) is a cemetery in Nuremberg, Germany. It is located in the Gostenhof quarter.

## History

The cemetery was created in late 1510s to bury the victims of the plague epidemic of 1517–18. To avoid spreading the disease, city authorities decided to build the cemetery at some distance from the city, so St. Rochus is located outside the old city wall. The cemetery was finally consecrated on 21 March 1519. St. Rochus Chapel (*Rochuskapelle*), a small chapel, was built in 1520–21. The architect was Hans Beheim the Elder, who also built a chapel for Johannisfriedhof, another old Nuremberg cemetery.

## Notable interments

49°26′51″N 11°03′37″E / 49.44750°N 11.06028°E / 49.44750; 11.06028

## InfoBox

| Rochusfriedhof | |
| --- | --- |
| St. Rochus Cemetery viewed from northwest. | |
|  | |
| Details | |
| Established | c.1517 |
| Location | Nuremberg |
| Country | Germany |
| Type | Protestant Cemetery |
| Size | ? |
| No. of graves | ? |
| Website | https://st-johannisfriedhof-nuernberg.de/infos-rochusfriedhof/ |
| Find a Grave | Rochusfriedhof |


title: The Weakness (album)

abstract: The Weakness is the third studio album by American singer-songwriter Ruston Kelly, released on April 7, 2023. It is a pivot from his previous albums, incorporating influences from pop punk and has a different producer.

text:
# The Weakness (album)

Professional ratings
| Review scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| AllMusic |  |
| *Spectrum Culture* | 67% |
| *Sputnikmusic* | 4.0/5.0 |

***The Weakness*** is the third studio album by American singer-songwriter Ruston Kelly, released on April 7, 2023. It is a pivot from his previous albums, incorporating influences from pop punk and has a different producer.

## Track listing

Adapted from Tidal

| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "The Weakness" | Ruston Kelly | 3:27 |
| 2. | "Hellfire" | Bryan Dawley, Calvin Knowles, John Chong, Juan Soloranzo, R. Kelly, Tim Kelly | 4:02 |
| 3. | "St. Jupiter" | R. Kelly | 2:21 |
| 4. | "Let Only Love Remain" | R. Kelly | 3:51 |
| 5. | "Michael Keaton" | R. Kelly | 3:19 |
| 6. | "Mending Song" | R. Kelly | 3:50 |
| 7. | "Dive" | R. Kelly | 2:15 |
| 8. | "Breakdown" | Nate Mercereau, R. Kelly | 3:04 |
| 9. | "Holy Shit" | John Feldman, R. Kelly | 3:28 |
| 10. | "Better Now" | Matthew Koma, R. Kelly | 3:08 |
| 11. | "Wicked Hands" | R. Kelly | 4:37 |
| 12. | "Cold Black Mile" | R. Kelly | 3:31 |
| Total length: | | | 40:51 |

## InfoBox

| The Weakness | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Ruston Kelly | |
| Released | April 7, 2023 |
| Recorded | 2023 |
| Genre | Folk rock, alternative country, Americana |
| Length | 40:51 |
| Label | Rounder Records |
| Producer | Nate Mercereau |
| Ruston Kelly chronology | |
| *Shape & Destroy*
(2020) ***The Weakness***
(2023) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *The Weakness* | |
| 1. "The Weakness"
Released: January 17, 2023 2. "Mending Song"
Released: February 23, 2023 3. "Michael Keaton"
Released: March 16, 2023 | |
|  | |


title: Theopompa

abstract: Theopompa is an Asian genus of praying mantids: in the subfamily Gonypetinae.

text:
# Theopompa

***Theopompa*** is an Asian genus of praying mantids: in the subfamily Gonypetinae.

## Species

The *Mantodea Species File* lists:

1. *Theopompa borneana* Giglio-Tos, 1917
2. *Theopompa burmeisteri* Haan, 1842
3. *Theopompa ophthalmica* Olivier, 1792
4. *Theopompa schulzeorum* Schwarz, 2021
5. *Theopompa servillei* de Haan, 1842 \- **type species**
6. *Theopompa tosta* Stal, 1877

1. Roskov Y.; Kunze T.; Orrell T.; Abucay L.; Paglinawan L.; Culham A.; Bailly N.; Kirk P.; Bourgoin T.; Baillargeon G.; Decock W.; De Wever A. (2011). Didžiulis V. (ed.). "Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2011 Annual Checklist". Species 2000: Reading, UK. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
2. Mantodea Species File (Version 5.0/5.0 retrieved 11 July 2021)
* Media related to *Theopompa* at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| *Theopompa* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Theopompa servillei* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Mantodea |
| Family: | Gonypetidae |
| Subfamily: | Gonypetinae |
| Genus: | *Theopompa*<br>Stal, 1877 |
|


title: Theophysics

abstract: In philosophy, theophysics is an approach to cosmology that attempts to reconcile physical cosmology and religious cosmology. It is related to physicotheology, the difference between them being that the aim of physicotheology is to derive theology from physics, whereas that of theophysics is to unify physics and theology.

text:
# Theophysics

In philosophy, **theophysics** is an approach to cosmology that attempts to reconcile physical cosmology and religious cosmology. It is related to physicotheology, the difference between them being that the aim of physicotheology is to derive theology from physics, whereas that of theophysics is to unify physics and theology.

## Usage

Paul Richard Blum (2002) uses the term in a critique of physicotheology, i.e. the view that arguments for the existence of God can be derived from the existence of the physical world (e.g. the "argument from design"). Theophysics would be the opposite approach, i.e. an approach to the material world informed by the knowledge that it is created by God.

Richard H. Popkin (1990) applies the term to the "spiritual physics" of Cambridge Platonist Henry More and his pupil and collaborator Lady Anne Conway, who enthusiastically accepted the new science, but rejected the various forms of materialist mechanism proposed by Descartes, Hobbes and Spinoza to buttress it, as these, More and Conway argued, were incapable of explaining productive causality. Instead, More and Conway offered what Popkin calls "a genuine important alternative to modern mechanistic thought", "a thoroughly scientific view with a metaphysics of spirits to make everything operate". Materialist mechanism triumphed, however, and today their spiritual cosmology, as Popkin notes, "looks very odd indeed".

The term has been applied by some philosophers to the system of Emanuel Swedenborg. William Denovan (1889) wrote in *Mind*: "The highest stage of his revelation might be denominated *Theophysics*, or the science of Divine purpose in creation." R. M. Wenley (1910) referred to Swedenborg as "the Swedish theophysicist".

Pierre Laberge (1972) observes that Kant's famous critique of physicotheology in the *Critique of Pure Reason* (1781; second edition 1787) has tended to obscure the fact that in his early work, *General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens* (1755), Kant defended a physicotheology that at the time was startlingly original, but that succeeded only to the extent that it concealed what Laberge terms a theophysics ("ce que nous appellerons une *théophysique*").

Theophysics is a fundamental concept in the thought of Raimon Panikkar, who wrote in *Ontonomía de la ciencia* (1961) that he was looking for "a theological vision of Science that is not a Metaphysics, but a Theophysics.... It is not a matter of a Physics 'of God', but rather of the 'God of the Physical'; of God the creator of the world... not the world as autonomous being, independent and disconnected from God, but rather ontonomicly linked to Him". As a vision of "Science as theology", it became central to Panikkar's "cosmotheandric" view of reality.

Frank J. Tipler's Omega Point theory (1994), which identifies concepts from physical cosmology with theistic concepts, is sometimes referred to by the term, although not by Tipler himself. Tipler was an atheist when he wrote *The Anthropic Cosmological Principle* (1986, co-authored with John D. Barrow, whose many popular books seldom mention theology) and *The Physics of Immortality* (1994), but a Christian when he wrote *The Physics of Christianity* (2007). In 1989, Wolfhart Pannenberg, a liberal theologian in the continental Protestant tradition, welcomed Tipler's work on cosmology as raising "the prospect of a rapprochement between physics and theology in the area of eschatology". In subsequent essays, while not concurring with all the details of Tipler's discussion, Pannenberg has defended the theology of the Omega Point.

## Further reading

* Theophysics. A website mainly about Tipler's Omega Point Theory, with links to short nontechnical articles mostly by Tipler, but also some by Deutsch and Pannenberg.
* entertheophysics, A website containing the 12 principles of Theophysics as explained by the author, training consultant and conference speaker Lawrence Poole. Poole also relates several applications of Theophysics including a "unified field formula".


title: St. Roch's Church (Staten Island)

abstract: The Church of St. Roch is a Roman Catholic parish church in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York, located at 602 Port Richmond Avenue, Staten Island, New York City. It was established in 1922. It is sometimes confused with St. Roch's Church St. in the Bronx, which was established in 1899.

text:
# St. Roch's Church (Staten Island)

The **Church of St. Roch** is a Roman Catholic parish church in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York, located at 602 Port Richmond Avenue, Staten Island, New York City. It was established in 1922. It is sometimes confused with St. Roch's Church St. in the Bronx, which was established in 1899.

## History

St. Roch Church began as a mission of Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church. The parish was founded in September 1922; Fr Catello Terrone was the first pastor. The altar stone held relics of St. Roch, St. Anthony, St. Lucy, St. Rita and St. Ann. Around 1928 the congregation had grown sufficiently that parishioners went door to door to selling "bricks" for $1 to finance a larger building to replace the small wooden church. The new church building was dedicated in 1929.

In 2015, the parish of St Roch merged with St. Adalbert.

### Pastors

* Fr. Catello Terrone, 1922 - 1949
* Fr Pasquale Cannizzaro, 1950 - March 1972
* Fr. Francis Massarone, 1972 - 1983
* Father Alfred Pucci, September 1983
* Fr. Leo R. Prince
* Fr. James H. Hauver, 2011 - 2016

### School

Before the opening of the parish school, students were taught in the parish hall. The school was dedicated by Francis Cardinal Spellman in May 1960. The school was staffed by the Sisters of St. John the Baptist. After almost a decade a declining enrollment, it was among twenty-seven designated by the Archdiocese of New York to close in June 2011.

40°37′42.76″N 74°8′31.94″W / 40.6285444°N 74.1422056°W / 40.6285444; -74.1422056

## InfoBox

| The Church of St. Roch | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Town or city | New York City |
| Country | United States |
| Client | Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York |


title: Thermophis zhaoermii

abstract: Thermophis zhaoermii, the Sichuan hot-spring keelback, is a species of snake in the family, Colubridae. It is found in China.

text:
# Thermophis zhaoermii

***Thermophis zhaoermii***, the **Sichuan hot-spring keelback**, is a species of snake in the family, Colubridae. It is found in China.

## InfoBox

| *Thermophis zhaoermii* | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Endangered  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Colubridae |
| Genus: | *Thermophis* |
| Species: | ***T. zhaoermii*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Thermophis zhaoermii***
Guo, Liu, Feng, & He, 2008 | |
|


title: St. George Opera House

abstract: The St. George Opera House, also known as the St. George Social Hall, is a historic building in St. George, Utah. It was originally built by the St. George Gardeners' Club as a wine cellar. As wine demand decreased, the building was expanded to host theatrical productions. It operated in this capacity until sold to the Utah-Idaho Sugar Company in 1936. It was restored to an opera house in 1988 and is again open to the public.

text:
# St. George Opera House

The **St. George Opera House**, also known as the **St. George Social Hall**, is a historic building in St. George, Utah. It was originally built by the St. George Gardeners' Club as a wine cellar. As wine demand decreased, the building was expanded to host theatrical productions. It operated in this capacity until sold to the Utah-Idaho Sugar Company in 1936. It was restored to an opera house in 1988 and is again open to the public.

## History

In 1861, Brigham Young sent three hundred Mormon families to the south reaches of Utah Territory to establish a new settlement. Young envisioned a Mormon state that was completely self-sufficient, and one important goal in this regard was the production of cotton. The region settled was much warmer than the northern Salt Lake City, and it was thought that this would be good weather for cotton. Unfortunately for the settlers, this was not the case. The climate was too hot during the summer, producing only small harvests of cotton.

The original function of the St. George Opera House was a wine cellar. Grape production was an important secondary source of income for the settlers. The St. George Gardeners' Club formed in the mid-1860s to provide community support for farmers. In 1864, as one of their first projects, they built the cellar as a cool place to store surplus wine and to process grapes. It was mostly constructed below-ground along a hillside.

As wine demand diminished due to closing mines and pressure from the church, new plans were made for the cellar building. The Gardener's Club sold it to the Social Hall Company in the late 1870s. Extensions were added on the top and to the west of the main cellar to create a stage and seating for up to four hundred patrons. The performing arts were an important part of Mormon culture, and Young always ensured that artisans were among the families sent when organizing new settlements. Miles P. Romney was president of the Social Hall Company and the St. George Dramatic Association, occasionally performing in some of the plays. Shortly after it opened, Mormon missionaries shipped materials from a bankrupt opera house in New York City to the St. George Social Hall. The hall hosted its first opera 1886.

The hall was deeded to the local LDS church in 1900, as it was hopelessly in debt to it. However, the church continued to run productions in it. The Great Depression forced the church to sell the property to the Utah-Idaho Sugar Company in 1936. They used the building to process sugar beet seeds, an important source of income for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. They sold the property to the St. George Neighborhood Redevelopment Agency in 1988, who restored the building to again function as an opera house.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| St. George Social Hall | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | 212 N. Main St.,<br>St. George, Utah |
| Coordinates | 37°6′43″N 113°34′56″W / 37.11194°N 113.58222°W / 37.11194; -113.58222 |
| Built | 1864 |
| NRHP reference No. | 91000360 |
| Added to NRHP | April 3, 1991 |


title: St John the Baptist's Church, Brighton

abstract: St John the Baptist's Church is a Roman Catholic church in the Kemptown area of the English city of Brighton and Hove. It was the first Roman Catholic church built in Brighton after the process of Catholic Emancipation in the early 19th century removed restrictions on Catholic worship. Located on Bristol Road, a main road east of the city centre, it is one of 11 Catholic churches in Brighton and Hove. The Classical-style building, which was funded by Maria Fitzherbert and completed in 1835, has been listed at Grade II* by English Heritage for its architectural and historical importance.

text:
# St John the Baptist's Church, Brighton

**St John the Baptist's Church** is a Roman Catholic church in the Kemptown area of the English city of Brighton and Hove. It was the first Roman Catholic church built in Brighton after the process of Catholic Emancipation in the early 19th century removed restrictions on Catholic worship. Located on Bristol Road, a main road east of the city centre, it is one of 11 Catholic churches in Brighton and Hove. The Classical-style building, which was funded by Maria Fitzherbert and completed in 1835, has been listed at Grade II\* by English Heritage for its architectural and historical importance.

## History

Laws against Roman Catholic worship were in place in Britain until the early 19th century, although some restrictions were relaxed by the passing of Acts of Parliament in 1778 (the Papists Act) and 1791 (the Roman Catholic Relief Act). The 1791 Act allowed Catholic churches to be built for the first time, although there were restrictions on their design and appearance: no bells or steeples were allowed.

Brighton's Roman Catholic community at the time of the Relief Act was small, but two factors caused it to grow in the 1790s. Many refugees from the French Revolution settled in Brighton after escaping from France; and Maria Fitzherbert, a twice-widowed Catholic, began a relationship with the Prince Regent (and secretly married him in 1785 in a ceremony which was illegal according to the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Royal Marriages Act 1772). She accompanied the Prince Regent whenever he visited Brighton, and had her own house (Steine House on Old Steine).

The first Catholic place of worship in Brighton was established above a shop in 1798; it was one of the earliest in Britain. In 1805 the priest in charge, a French émigré, started to raise money for a permanent building; a site on High Street, east of the Royal Pavilion and Old Steine, was found, and the Classical-style church was completed in 1807. It was demolished in 1981.

In 1818 the new rector, a friend of Maria Fitzherbert, wanted to extend the church. Mrs Fitzherbert donated £1,000 for this purpose, but before any action could be taken the events of 1829, when Catholic emancipation was fully achieved, encouraged Brighton's Catholic community to seek a new site for a larger, more elaborate church. A piece of undeveloped land on the estate of the Marquess of Bristol was bought for £1,050, and William Hallett, later a mayor of Brighton, designed and built the new church of St John the Baptist. It was consecrated on 7 July 1835 and opened on 9 July 1835. Many of the 900 Catholic churches opened in England since the 1791 Roman Catholic Relief Act had not been consecrated by that stage, so St John the Baptist's was only the fourth new church to be consecrated in England since the Reformation in the 16th century.

Maria Fitzherbert died in 1837 and was buried at the church. A memorial stone and sculpture, showing her wearing three wedding rings, were placed in the nave. In the 1850s, a school bearing the church's name was opened and a Sisters of Mercy convent was built next to the church. A physical connection to the church was built in 1866. The church closed during 1875 while an extension was built on the eastern side, creating a new sanctuary and side chapels. The land cost £1,100, and construction work cost £2,000. It was reopened on 31 October 1875. More changes were made in 1887, with several new interior fittings added, although a major remodelling and redesign proposed during the same year was not carried out. The designs were displayed at the Royal Academy, however. The church has seen little change since then, although a set of 17th-century altar rails taken from a Belgian church were installed in 1957.

The church is licensed for worship in accordance with the Places of Worship Registration Act 1855 and has the registration number 8131.

The Benedictine Sisters of Our Lady of Grace and Compassion, a community of Benedictine nuns founded in 1954, were based at a chapel (St Benedict's) at the junction of Manor Road and Bristol Gardens. The community was within St John the Baptist's parish. The nuns left the convent in 2009 and demolition of the building was authorised in 2013.

## Architecture

William Hallett, the architect, is not known to have been responsible for any other buildings in Brighton or elsewhere, and he based the design of St John the Baptist's very closely on that of St Mary Moorfields in London, completed in 1820. In particular, the southern frontage  which faces Bristol Road  is almost identical to that of St Mary's. The church is Classical in style, with a stuccoed exterior and a large pediment above the entrance. The shallow roof is made of slate. The entrance porch is flanked by two columns with accompanying pilasters, and there are two more pilasters at the corner of the building. Blind doorways between the two sets of pilasters have small pediments and two deep-set windows above them. Below the main pediment and dentil cornice is a Latin inscription: DEO SUB INVOC. S. JOANNIS BAPT. ("To God, under the invocation of St. John the Baptist.") There is a side entrance in the western face, again with a pediment above it.

## The church today

St John the Baptist Catholic School moved away from its original site next to the church in 1989, when a new building was provided on Whitehawk Hill. The convent chapel is now used as a rest home, although its origins as a chapel are still apparent. The church holds Masses on Saturday evenings, Sunday mornings and Holy Days of Obligation.

The church has been listed at Grade II\* since 13 October 1952. As of February 2001, it was one of 70 Grade II\*-listed buildings and structures, and 1,218 listed buildings of all grades, in the city of Brighton and Hove.

## Bibliography

## InfoBox

| St John the Baptist, Brighton | |
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| 50°49′10″N 0°07′34″W / 50.8194°N 0.1261°W / 50.8194; -0.1261 | |
| Denomination | Roman Catholic |
| History | |
| Dedication | St John the Baptist |
| Administration | |
| Province | Southwark |
| Diocese | Arundel and Brighton |
| Deanery | Brighton |
| Parish | St John the Baptist, Brighton |
| Clergy | |
| Priest(s) | Revd David Foley |