title: Presbyterian Burying Ground

abstract: The Presbyterian Burying Ground, also known as the Old Presbyterian Burying Ground, was a historic cemetery which existed between 1802 and 1909 in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in the United States. It was one of the most prominent cemeteries in the city until the 1860s. Burials there tapered significantly after Oak Hill Cemetery was founded nearby in 1848. The Presbyterian Burying Ground closed to new burials in 1887, and about 500 to 700 bodies were disinterred after 1891 when an attempt was made to demolish the cemetery and use the land for housing. The remaining graves fell into extensive disrepair. After a decade of effort, the District of Columbia purchased the cemetery in 1909 and built Volta Park there, leaving nearly 2,000 bodies buried at the site. Occasional human remains and tombstones have been discovered at the park since its construction. A number of figures important in the early history of Georgetown and Washington, D.C., military figures, politicians, merchants, and others were buried at Presbyterian Burying Ground.

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# Presbyterian Burying Ground

The **Presbyterian Burying Ground**, also known as the **Old Presbyterian Burying Ground**, was a historic cemetery which existed between 1802 and 1909 in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in the United States. It was one of the most prominent cemeteries in the city until the 1860s. Burials there tapered significantly after Oak Hill Cemetery was founded nearby in 1848. The Presbyterian Burying Ground closed to new burials in 1887, and about 500 to 700 bodies were disinterred after 1891 when an attempt was made to demolish the cemetery and use the land for housing. The remaining graves fell into extensive disrepair. After a decade of effort, the District of Columbia purchased the cemetery in 1909 and built **Volta Park** there, leaving nearly 2,000 bodies buried at the site. Occasional human remains and tombstones have been discovered at the park since its construction. A number of figures important in the early history of Georgetown and Washington, D.C., military figures, politicians, merchants, and others were buried at Presbyterian Burying Ground.

## Founding the cemetery

In 1780, Reverend Stephen Bloomer Balch established the Presbyterian Congregation in Georgetown (now known as Georgetown Presbyterian Church). The new Presbyterian congregation originally met in a local home, but in 1782 it built its first church home on the southeast corner of 30th and M Streets NW. It was the only Protestant church in the District of Columbia until 1805. The congregation grew swiftly, and the church was enlarged in 1793 and 1802. Originally, a small parish graveyard existed alongside the church, but it quickly filled to capacity.

The Presbyterian Burying Ground was established by Georgetown Presbyterian Church on August 22, 1802, in an area now bounded by 4th, 5th, Market and Frederick Streets (now Volta Place NW and P, 33rd, and 34th Streets NW). Land for both the cemetery and a new Georgetown Presbyterian Church were donated by Dr. Charles Beatty, who provided a building lot of 1,500 square feet (140 m2) on the block. Beatty required that the property be used for either a church or a cemetery, and that the property should revert to Beatty's heirs if not used for either purpose. (Furthermore, the act of Congress of March 28, 1806, under which Georgetown Presbyterian Church was incorporated stipulated that the graveyard could not be used for any other purpose or disposed of.) Dr. Beatty also donated a building lot on the block to the Methodist Episcopal Church, but this land became an annex of cemetery when the Methodists declined to build there. Dr. Beatty soon donated six more lots to Georgetown Presbyterian for use as a cemetery, giving the grounds a little over 3 acres (12,000 m2). The burying ground (the term "cemetery" did not come into use until mid-century) was located in a middle-class neighborhood. On the south side of 4th Street in the southeast corner were the "20 Buildings"—two-story brick rowhouses constructed by Scottish workers who labored on the construction of the United States Capitol.

Presbyterian Burying Ground was laid out simply, similar to most cemeteries of the day. The cemetery had two gravel paths, lined with fir trees, one which bisected the grounds east–west and another which extended from 4th Street north to the center of the block. The main entrance was in the east on Market Street. Black locust trees were planted about the grounds. A winding, somewhat circular path occupied the intersection of the two fir-lined gravel walkways. No other footpaths were laid out, however, and access to most graves, vaults, and mausoleums were via informal dirt ruts in the lawn. Vandals and children were kept out by a high wooden fence. A church was erected in 1855 on the east side of the property in the middle of the block. Sources differ as to its height (one or two stories) and its adornment (play or Gothic Revival). It contained high-back pews and a high pulpit, and served as Georgetown Presbyterian Church's primary place of worship. After the congregation erected a new church home in 1821, this small brick structure served as the cemetery chapel.

According to the *Washington Federalist* newspaper, "lots at present will be sold low for cash in order to defray present expenses, but when these are discharged they will rise much higher in price." Interments began almost immediately, due to the low prices the church offered, and the cemetery was instantly popular. Most of the graves were in the northern half of the cemetery, which sloped gently downward to Q Street. Families erected small headstones and, later, large funerary monuments. Some private brick mausoleums were constructed, and the church itself built a burial vault (for those who wanted above-ground burial but without the cost of erecting their own tomb) "near a corner" of the cemetery. (The exact location of this "public vault" is not known.) The largest mausoleums in the cemetery were erected by the Kincaids, a large and wealthy Georgetown family, and the Kurtzes, a banking and insurance family. The burying ground attracted most of Georgetown's aristocratic families, including the Campbells and Morfeats (families who founded the town) and the Eastburns. By some counts, there were more than 70 above-ground mausoleums. But the Presbyterian Burying Ground wasn't just for the wealthy. It became the primary cemetery for all Georgetown residents. Many middle-class families built vaults for their loved ones. These were single or double-wide graves, usually lined with brick, into which one or more bodies were interred. The vault had a marble or brick lid, usually raised up off the ground by three or four courses. Many vaults were 3 to 4 feet (0.91 to 1.22 m) high, and surrounded by brick walls 5 to 9 feet (1.5 to 2.7 m) high. At the cemetery's height, there were more than 100 vaults at Presbyterian Burying Ground.

The Presbyterian Burying Ground was, in its prime, considered beautiful and a socially desirable place for interment. The cemetery "was one of the prettiest to be found anywhere", said *The Washington Post*. In the 1840s and 1850s, it was considered the equal of Oak Hill or Glenwood in terms of its beauty and social standing. "During its day the cemetery was \[also\] looked upon as the most select in the District." The Reverend Thomas Bloomer Balch said that the cemetery was, from its inception into the 1860s, a symbol of "the pride and wealth and glory of aristocratic Georgetown".

## Operational history of the cemetery

Burials began at the cemetery in 1806. In January 1812, lots in the northwest corner of the cemetery were set aside for the burial of African Americans.

Although Presbyterian Burying Ground was beautiful, it did not retain its popularity for long. In 1807, the 35.75-acre (144,700 m2) Congressional Cemetery was established on the east side of the city on the shores of the Anacostia River. Despite being one of the largest cemeteries in the District of Columbia, Presbyterian Burying Ground quickly came to be seen as too small and crowded to permit the construction of the large funerary monuments favored by Americans in the Victorian era. Large, open Congressional Cemetery, however, provided ample land for memorials. As Congressional Cemetery grew in popularity, the Presbyterian Burying Ground fell into disrepair. By 1847, thickets of weeds and shrubs had taken over the cemetery. The cemetery's large public vault, never adequately sealed, reeked of decay.

A fire at the Balch's home destroyed many of cemetery's burial records in 1831.

Another blow to the Presbyterian Burying Ground occurred in 1848, when 12.5 acres (51,000 m2) Oak Hill Cemetery opened just five blocks to the northwest. This garden cemetery with beautiful landscaping, terraces, spacious grounds, and magnificent chapel—created and financed by the city's richest businessman, William Wilson Corcoran—deeply appealed to the residents of Georgetown and Washington. Over the next several years, Oak Hill became not only the cemetery of choice for new burials, but many families disinterred their loved ones at the Presbyterian Burying Ground and reburied them at Oak Hill. Oak Hill quickly expanded, and by 1867 had more than 25 acres (100,000 m2) of space for burials. Bounded by city streets and existing homes, Presbyterian Burying Ground was limited in size. A large increase in burials at Presbyterian Burying Ground occurred during a cholera epidemic of 1834. Georgetown resident Charles H. Trunnel, who lived during the period, said that the dead were brought to the cemetery in cartloads. The dead arrived in such numbers so quickly that cemetery officials did not keep accurate records as to where corpses were buried. Many bodies were buried in the middle of the streets surrounding the cemetery, because church officials worried about filling the cemetery with cholera victims. Another upsurge in burials occurred during the American Civil War, as they did at all regional cemeteries, but otherwise the number of burials at the cemetery remained fairly constant and low.

The cemetery was only gradually enclosed after 1811. Although the fence was repaired in 1840, by 1849 the fence had almost completely collapsed and the cemetery was in a significant state of disrepair.

A fire at the sexton's home destroyed the cemetery's burial records in 1860.

The cemetery remained in general disrepair during the 1850s. But in 1860, a letter appeared in a local Georgetown newspaper which attacked the state of the graveyard. Fences were down, the gates open, cattle grazed on the property, and many of the funerary monuments and headstones vandalized. Women at Georgetown Presbyterian Church were scandalized. They formed a committee, led by Miss Mary Thomas, and asked that the cemetery be given into their care. The church leaders agreed, and the Thomas committee quickly made major repairs to the fences and walkways. The grounds were cleared of weeds and sod planted where the earth was bare. Until Thomas' death in 1890, the cemetery remained in good repair. The neighborhood surrounding Presbyterian Burying Ground, however, deteriorated after the American Civil War. Once home to upper-middle-class families, by 1891 it was surrounded mostly by homes leased by poor African Americans, and crime, vandalism, public drunkenness, and violence were common in the area.

## Closure and 1891 attempt at demolition

Sextons' records showed that between 1860 and 1887, more than 1,200 burial plots were sold at Presbyterian Burying Ground. Each plot could hold as many as three people.

The cemetery, however, was in deteriorating condition. A number of bodies were buried in the public burial vault (described as on Market Street adjoining the chapel). But the odor of these decomposing bodies was so strong that the D.C. Board of Public Health declared the vault a nuisance and ordered it closed on April 10, 1874. On January 27, 1876, workmen digging the foundation of a house near the corner of 5th and Market (the northwest corner of the cemetery) discovered between eight and 10 skeletons. These were bodies buried during the 1834 cholera epidemic, and they were reburied further back on the lot.

It is not clear when the last interment was made at Presbyterian Burying Ground. *The Washington Post* reported it was a six-year-old child, buried in 1886, but D.C. public health records show it may have been a one-year-old child named Charles Frederick Watkins, buried on July 11, 1887. Presbyterian Burying Ground closed to new burials in 1887, at which time it contained an estimated 2,700 bodies. The closure significantly impacted the cemetery's finances. For thirty years, the cemetery had used the income generated by the sale of lots to keep the graveyard in good repair. Excess income, however, was not placed in a trust but rather used for other charitable purposes. The cemetery's sexton died about 1887 as well, and the church—with little incentive to appoint a new one—allowed the ground to once more fall into disrepair.

On August 1, 1891, trustees of the cemetery agreed to close it. The president of the board of trustees, S. Thomas Brown, said that Georgetown Presbyterian Church had no funds for the upkeep of the cemetery. The board agreed to revoke the burial permits of all those who had been buried in the cemetery. The buyers of burials plots thought they held fee simple title to their plots. But the trustees discovered that the cemetery had actually issued revocable permits. To revoke the permits, the trustees needed to publicize the cemetery's closure, and then ensure that unclaimed bodies were "decently interred". The trustees said it would advertise in regional newspapers to ask families to remove their loved ones' remains from the Presbyterian Burying Ground. The deadline for removal of bodies was November 1891, after which all remaining bodies would be disinterred and buried in a mass grave elsewhere.

The District of Columbia's public health officer, Dr. O.M. Hammett, quickly issued authorizations to families to permit disinterments—with most of the reburials, he said, happening at Oak Hill Cemetery. A few other reburials occurred at The Methodist Cemetery in the Tenleytown neighborhood or at Congressional Cemetery. One hundred and fifty permits were issued by October 30, and another 50 by November 7. A local undertaker offered to disinter and rebury any unclaimed body found in the cemetery, if someone purchased a burial plot for the body some place else in the city. The first disinterment was the six-year-old child buried in 1886. J.E. Libbey applied to remove about a dozen bodies from his family's crypt, and Mrs. Jean Gibson asked to remove 10 of her relatives. There was concern, however, because of the cemetery's age. The trustees believed that the majority of those interred at Presbyterian Burying Ground had no living relatives.

Some graves were rediscovered during the disinterments. On October 21, 1891, workers found the grave of Mary Stevens Livingston, wife of Robert R. Livingston (Founding Father, the former U.S. Minister to France, and the former Chancellor of New York \[the highest judicial officer in that state\]). Other discoveries were about who was not buried at the cemetery. Originally, it was believed that eight to 10 soldiers of the Union Army had been buried at the graveyard during the American Civil War. An anonymous donor pledged to pay for their disinterment, and offered 16 burial plots at Graceland Cemetery. But officials with the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union Army veterans organization, said they examined war-time records and found no evidence that any Union soldiers had been buried there. (*The Washington Post* claimed in 1896 that the organization exhumed the bodies of all Civil War soldiers buried there.)

Winter weather delayed most of the disinterments, and by spring 1892 at least 200 graves remained to be opened, with about 660 bodies to be removed. In May, undertaker Joseph F. Birch removed 34 pre-Civil War soldiers from the cemetery. Approximately another 120 disinterments occurred by the end of June, and cemetery officials that all removals would be completed in time to meet the fall deadline. A few disinterments occurred in September. By October, however, these had almost all stopped. By the end of the year, no more disinterment orders from living relatives remained to be fulfilled.

The abandoned Presbyterian Burying Ground became something of a tourist destination, with curiosity-seekers coming by every day to see the open graves and scattered tombstones. A portion of the cemetery remained in use, however. The chapel continued to be used by Georgetown Presbyterian Church as a classroom and choir facility for African American children attending the church's segregated "Mission Church".

## Post-1891 deterioration

Presbyterian Burying Ground deteriorated significantly after the 1891 disinterments. By mid-1893, it had become densely overgrown with grass, weeds, bushes, and sapling trees. Sporadic disinterments continued, but nearly all the former graves were left open rather than filled in, leaving sunken pits all over the area. Some graves had been opened by mistaken and not recovered, while other human remains were scattered over the ground. The entire place reeked of decomposition. On July 8, 1893, the District of Columbia Health Department ordered that no more removals occur for at least three months. It demanded that the cemetery's trustees remove all bodies from open graves and have them interred elsewhere, and that the entire cemetery grounds be disinfected. Twelve months later, the cemetery's wooden outer fence had almost completely fallen to the ground, the weeds and brush were so thick the grounds could not be traversed, and the grounds still reeked of decomposition. Local citizens attempted to contact the trustees to demand that they do something, but they could not be reached.

When the cemetery reopened, disinterments continued to occur sporadically. The Campbells and Morfeats were removed from their respective family vaults in May 1894. Yet, the *Washington Evening Star* reported that only 200 bodies had been removed from the site, and nearly 2,000 corpses still remained. Three bodies belonging to the Tenney family (a famous Georgetown banking and construction supply family) were removed in January 1895. The tomb of Benjamin Homans was dismantled in August 1895, and his body reinterred elsewhere.

Georgetown Presbyterian Church abandoned upkeep of the cemetery in 1895. The lack of a fence and the despoiled look of the cemetery led to widespread desecrations of the remaining tombs and graves. Poverty-stricken local citizens ripped down mausoleums for their bricks. On November 2, 1895, the large Kincaid family vault was torn apart in the space of just a few hours. Only three smaller mausoleums remained.

In August 1895, human remains were found at the site. Workmen were digging a trench to lay water pipes, and uncovered bones belonging to a large number of human bodies. The remains were reburied deep below the ground in the middle of an adjacent street. The incident angered local residents, who demanded that Congress appropriate funds to buy the cemetery and clear the land. But the heirs of Dr. Charles Beatty (the donor of the cemetery land) claimed that the land much revert to them if not actively used as a church or cemetery. They threatened to sue if the cemetery were sold. In February 1896, Georgetown Presbyterian Church established a "committee on church property" to dispose of the cemetery. The church agreed to advertise Presbyterian Burying Ground's closure once more, and to demand that all remains be claimed by September 1, 1896. The church agreed that all bodies which went unclaimed would be reinterred at another cemetery at church expense. The church said the property would be subdivided into housing lots and sold.

The deterioration of Presbyterian Burying Ground continued into 1896. Local people began using the cemetery as a garbage dump, throwing old wire, pieces of metal, tin cans, carcasses, and household ashes onto the grounds. There were open graves everywhere, and in some cases coffins protruded from the ground. In May 1896, a strong storm blew the roof off the cemetery chapel. Georgetown Presbyterian Church had appointed Andrew Goldsmith sexton of the cemetery, but he was unable to deal with the cemetery's many problems.

On September 5, 1896, the Presbyterian Burying Ground trustees announced that, the removal deadline having passed, all remaining bodies at the cemetery would be disinterred and moved to Beechment Cemetery in Montgomery County, Maryland. But no disinterments occurred.

The cemetery further deteriorated in 1897. By April, the high wooden fence on R Street had been torn down by residents of the area, while the fence on 34th Street had fallen in places. In the past year, looters had town down the brick walls surrounding all the vaults, and removed the brick courses supporting vault lids. (Bricks from cemetery mausoleums and vaults, *The Washington Post* reported, were used as building materials in nearly all the nearby homes.) Almost all the marble vault lids were shattered, and vandals had toppled or broken funerary monuments, tossed pieces into open graves, and thrown headstones around. Of the cemetery's large mausoleums, only the Eastburn structure remained standing. Since almost none of the graves opened for disinterments had been filled in, large holes existed all over the cemetery. Local residents filled them with trash, animal carcasses, and ashes. Children using the cemetery as a playground had trampled grave mounds so that it was no longer possible to distinguish graves from lawn.

By the fall of 1898, conditions at Presbyterian Burying Ground had no improved. Georgetown Presbyterian Church no longer had a sexton appointed to oversee the grounds, and a rank odor was coming out of many of the open graves. In September 1898, at the behest of Georgetown residents, the City Commissioners of the District of Columbia introduced legislation to make it a crime to allow property to become a public nuisance. Whether the legislation passed or not is unclear, but little was done to rectify the problems at the cemetery.

On December 9, 1898, a road crew working on a street adjacent to Presbyterian Burying Ground unearthed four skeletons. *The Washington Post* reported that these were likely victims of the 1834 cholera epidemic. Since the street had been regraded, many of these bodies were now very close to the surface.

## 1909 demolition

Beginning in 1899, a second attempt was made to demolish Presbyterian Burying Ground and turn the land into usable space. This process took a decade, but was eventually successful.

The second demolition effort began in March 1899, when parishioners at Georgetown Presbyterian Church indicated they would be willing to turn title to the land over to someone else provided the church received funds in return. By May, the Georgetown Citizens Association (GCA) was working on a plan to achieve the graveyard's closure. Members of the GCA attempted to meet with the cemetery trustees to work out a deal, but the negotiations were quickly terminated. The *Washington Evening Star* reported that church members were suddenly "sentimental" about the cemetery and did not wish to part with it, although later it was learned that a local realtor had attempted to purchase the land instead and that this sudden interest made parishioners reluctant to sell.

Unable to purchase the cemetery outright, the GCA began working on a plan to have Congress pass legislation condemning the land and turning it over to the District of Columbia for some public use. On May 7, 1899, a GCA subcommittee formed to handle cemetery issues issued a report requesting that Presbyterian Burying Ground be turned into a public playground, and that the City Commissioners be prevailed upon to push this legislation in Congress.

But despite the GCA's efforts, no action was taken on this legislative initiative. Georgetown Presybeterian Church sold the chapel to the West Washington Methodist Episcopal Church South (an all-black congregation) in 1901. The cemetery's condition in 1901 was very poor. More than 100 vaults had been broken open, all the mausoleums had been looted of their brick and torn down, and headstones scattered widely. Only about 500 to 700 of the 2,700 people buried there had been removed, and half of all burials could not be located because the markers were gone. Some relatives secured a disinterment permit, only to discover that the grave of their loved ones could not be identified. Those who remained belonged to both wealthy and poor families. A great number of remains had been unearthed, and bone fragments lay on the surface of the cemetery.

Although *The Washington Post* reported in May 1901 that a settlement with the Beatty heirs was expected soon, no settlement was forthcoming. In April 1903, the GCA formed a committee to again investigate the possibility of obtaining a condemnation law from Congress. These efforts were spearheaded by the Reverend Zed H. Copp, a nationally known Presbyterian author and evangelist. Copp determined that Georgetown Presbyterian Church members were willing to part with the cemetery provided that the bodies were reinterred elsewhere, and that church members preferred to have the land condemned rather than sold. To win the support of the City Commissioners for the legislative effort, the GCA submitted a 2,000-signature petition asking the city to condemn the land and have it turned into a public park. To bolster their case, several citizens of Georgetown formally complained to the Metropolitan Police Department, asserting that the cemetery was not only unsightly but that it had become a garbage dump and that the numerous bodies there were creating health problems. A city investigation concluded that unburied bodies were not problem, but agreed that local residents were using the cemetery for trash disposal. The investigation also noted that most of the vaults were in a state of collapse; numerous memorials and headstones had been broken, vandalized, or fallen over; and that the cemetery was heavily overgrown. The city commissioners agreed to contact Georgetown Presbyterian Church to urge them to maintain the property, but little else could be done. Although the City Commissioners gave the GCA a hearing in April, the following months the commissioners expressed concern that if the cemetery were removed, title to the land would revert to the Beatty heirs. The heirs, however, were demanding a large sum of money for the land, and the GCA urged the city to pursue condemnation.

Although negotiations continued between 1903 and 1907, the Beattys continued to object to any sale of the land. Three generations of Beattys were still buried at Presbyterian Burying Ground, and the family wanted the land back. In 1906, Congress appropriated $75,000 for playgrounds in the District of Columbia. After making the expenditures required by Congress, $30,000 remained which the City Commissioners agreed to spend in acquiring Presbyterian Burying Ground for a municipal playground. In May 1907, Allen W. Mallery, agent for the church, agreed to sell the cemetery to the city, but the Beatty family objected and the sale cancelled. For reasons which are not clear, the sale was consummated on June 20, 1907, for $27,969.25. The city, however, required the church to provide clear title and title insurance, and to clear the property of all bodies. The city was forced to spend $14,000 of the $30,000, however, leaving just $16,000 to pay the church. The 15 Beatty heirs continued to object to the sale, however, and the City Commissioners asked the city's legal counsel to investigate the Beattys' claim.

The city's legal counsel determined in October 1907 that the Beattys had a proper claim on the Presbyterian Burying Ground. So the city began condemnation proceedings, and that same month Georgetown Presbyterian Church began removing trees and tombstones from the property. (The underbrush by now was 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 m) high.) The Beattys opposed the condemnation proceedings. Their attorney, William H. Monogue, claimed in November that the church had conducted no search for graves, had destroyed monuments and memorials, and had scattered human remains. He also claimed bones had been carted off-site to hide evidence of their desecration. Monogue further alleged that in grading the cemetery, the church had destroyed grave-mounds and obliterated any evidence of burials. The City Commissioners held a meeting to discuss Monogue's accusations, but determined that most of them were inaccurate. Undertaker Isaac Birch, however, estimated that at least undertaker Burch said at least 300 bodies still remained on the cemetery's northern half. Mallery denied that any remains had been scattered during grading, but did admit that some graves had been uncovered. One grave was found and opened, but no bones remained in the coffin. A vault was discovered, and when opened two skulls were found. The relatives were contacted, and a permit secured from the city to disinter the skulls and release them to the family. The vault of Valentine Reintzell, former Master Mason of Potomac Lodge No. 5 and head of Grand Lodge of District of Columbia, was rediscovered by workmen and his remains disinterred. The grave of Joseph Carleton, an officer in the American Revolutionary War, was also rediscovered and his remains removed.

Charles Beatty and 11 other Beatty family heirs sued Georgetown Presbyterian Church on November 24, 1907, to prevent the sale of the cemetery. The suit was heard by Ashley M. Gould, sitting as Associate Justice in Equity Court No. 2 of the Supreme Court of the District of Columba on January 20, 1908.

The outcome of *Charles A. Beatty et al. vs. Trustees of the Presbyterian Congregation of Georgetown* is not known. It is unclear whether the Beatty heirs won their suit, whether the city won its condemnation effort, or whether the heirs lost their suit and the church sold the property. However, on September 29, 1908, the City Commissioners recommended the purchase of the Presbyterian Burying Ground for $32,000. Some time in late June or early July 1909, the sale finally was consummated for $30,000. The city paid $20,000, while private donations came up with the remaining $10,000.

During preparation of the area for conversion to a playground, 30 more bodies were uncovered. These were sent to an undertaker for cremation and burial. But more than 2,000 corpses remained buried at the site. Noted D.C. historian John Proctor Clagett claimed in 1942 that most of the bodies near 34th Street NW had probably all been removed, but the central, southern, and southeastern portions remained untouched. The total cost of the Georgetown Municipal Playground (now named Volta Park) was cost playground $35,000, of which $30,000 was needed for the land and $5,000 for equipment. The new playground opened on October 30, 1909, and proved immediately popular.

## Post-conversion issues

With so many bodies still lying in the earth at Volta Park, it is not uncommon for additional remains or for funerary monuments to be uncovered. About 1920, the Eden family living at 3311 Q Street NW uncovered nine bodies buried in the dirt floor of their basement. The family reburied them in the local street (at the time, a dirt road). Workmen digging a ditch for new fresh water lines uncovered human remains at the playground in September 1942. The bones were placed into boxes and interred at Blue Plains, a pauper's burial ground maintained by the city. About 1944, workmen digging a trench to lay sewer pipes across the southern part of the park exposed a brick burial vault. A large number of bones were removed from the vault, and taken away. Local residents often found tombstones or pieces of funerary monuments in the park. Carl Ernst, whose home was located at 1522 33rd Street NW, found numerous headstones in the 1930s and 1940s, some dating as far back as 1790. *The Washington Post* reported in 1949 that he embedded them in a cement wall on his property. In the early 1950s, workmen at the park unearthed the skeleton of a girl with long red hair and still wearing her funeral dress.

In 1957, diggers constructing a basement near the corner of 33rd and Q Streets NW unearthed six headstones. Not realizing their importance, they broke them up and disposed of them. Nonetheless, at the same time, some local boys found an intact small brown tombstone in the park close to where the men were digging. The tombstone, inscribed "E. S. 1825", was donated to the Historical Society of Washington, D.C.

In March 1958, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) placed a commemorative marker in Volta Park to recognize those American Revolutionary War soldiers whose remains had never been disinterred from Presbyterian Burying Ground. While at least 13 Revolutionary War soldiers had been buried in the cemetery, historian Selden M. Ely said that six had never been disinterred. That same year, workers constructing an addition to 3317 Q Street NW found a skull while excavating the foundations. The family buried the remains in their back yard.

Remains continued to be found nearly a century after the cemetery was demolished. In 2005, workers rebuilding the foundation of a home at 3319 Q Street NW found a jawbone with most of the teeth intact, a few joints, and some ribs buried behind boards in the foundation wall. The remains turned over to city authorities. In September 2012, workers regrading a driveway between 3333 and 3329 Q Street NW uncovered a wooden coffin and intact skeleton. Forensic scientists from the Smithsonian Institution said the bones were likely those of a 35-year-old adult male. Archeologists from the D.C. Historic Preservation Office determined that the bones belonged to those of a 25-to-35-year-old African-American man. Additional archeological digging in the property's back yard uncovered several more "cemetery shafts". The archeologists discovered pine boxes containing the remains of four African-Americans.

## Notable interments

Many of Georgetown's most influential families had mausoleums at Presbyterian Burying Ground. These included the Beatty, Elliott, Hepburn, Holtzman, Mackey, Magruder, McPherson, Melvin, Murray, Peters, Reed, and Zevely families. Several ministers important in the founding and early settlement of Georgetown were also buried there, as was the man to kill the last Native American in the area. Of particular note, an unidentified Imperial Russian ambassador to the United States buried two of his infant children in the center of the cemetery beneath a marble pyramid. (There is no record of their having been disinterred prior to the cemetery's destruction.)

* John Adlum (1759-1836), father of American viticulture (disinterred c.1852 and reburied at Oak Hill Cemetery)
* Stephen Bloomer Balch (1747-1833), minister and founding preacher, Georgetown Presbyterian Church (originally interred at Georgetown Presbyterian Church at 30th and M Streets NW; disinterred and reburied at Presbyterian Burying Ground in spring 1873; disinterred and reburied on June 18, 1874, at Oak Hill Cemetery)
* John Barnes (1730-1826), founder of the Georgetown Industrial School (a poorhouse) and a major philanthropist (grave never identified, not disinterred)
* George Beall (1729-1807), colonel in the U.S. Army and prominent Georgetown landowner (no record of disinterment)
* Thomas Beall (1748-1819), prominent Georgetown landowner (no record of disinterment)
* Charles Beatty (1762-1838), physician and donor of the land for Presbyterian Burying Ground (no record of disinterment)
* Joseph Carleton (?-1812), U.S. Army paymaster in the American Revolutionary War and Georgetown merchant (disinterred November 1907 and reburied at Arlington National Cemetery)
* Thomas Corcoran (1754-1830), mayor of Georgetown in 1796, 1808–1810, and 1812 (likely buried at Presbyterian Burying Ground; disinterred circa 1850 and reburied at Oak Hill Cemetery)
* John Cox (1775-1849), mayor of Georgetown from 1823 to 1845 (no record of disinterment)
* Francis Dodge (1809-1881), first major importer in Georgetown and collector of tax duties at the Port of Georgetown for 20 years (no record of disinterment)
* Uriah Forrest (1746-1805), American Revolutionary War soldier; Member, U.S. House of Representatives; and mayor of Georgetown from 1792 to 1793 (date of disinterment not known, reburied at Oak Hill Cemetery)
* James Gillespie (1747-1805), American Revolutionary War soldier and Member, U.S. House of Representatives (disinterred April 1892 and reburied at Congressional Cemetery)
* John Haydock (1780-1807), chief stonecutter during the construction of the United States Capitol (headstone found, but no record of disinterment)
* Cecelia Ashton Stuart Hedgman (c.1812-1870), wife of noted Georgetown businessman John G. Hedgman (disinterred in May 1894, reburial location not known)
* David Hepburn (?-1805), prominent Georgetown landowner and noted early American horticulturalist (no record of disinterment)
* Benjamin Homans (1826-?), senior clerk in the United States Department of War and founder, *Columbian Gazette* (disinterred August 1895, reburial site not known)
* James House (?-1834), Brevet Brigadier General in the U.S. Army during the American Revolutionary War (disinterred 1902 and reburied at Arlington National Cemetery)
* J.P.C. de Krafft (1756-1804), German baron, American Revolutionary War soldier, and cartographer of the District of Columbia (disinterred with his wife in May 1892 and reburied at Congressional Cemetery)
* John Kurtz (1822-1877), Georgetown council member; president, Farmers' and Mechanics' National Bank and Potomac Insurance Company (disinterred August 1893, reburial site not known)
* Alexander Macomb (1782–1841), Commanding General of the U.S. Army from 1828 to 1841 (disinterred in 1850, and reburied at Congressional Cemetery)
* Thomas Mason (?-1813), brigadier general in the U.S. Army during the American Revolutionary War (disinterred 1902 and reburied at Arlington National Cemetery)
* James Mitchell (?-1862), captain of Potomac River boats *Columbia* and *Osceola* (disinterred along with his wife, daughter, son, and daughter-in-law in July 1892 and reburied in Oak Hill Cemetery)
* Robert Peter (1726-1806), first mayor of Georgetown from 1790 to 1791 (no record of disinterment)
* Daniel Reintzel (1755-1828), mayor of Georgetown from 1796 to 1797, from 1799 to 1804, and from 1806 to 1807 (disinterred in November 1907 and reburied November 1907 in the Masonic Circle at Glenwood Cemetery)
* Valentine Reintzell (1761-1817), Master Mason present at the laying of the cornerstone of the United States Capitol (disinterred in November 1907 and reburied November 1907 at Glenwood Cemetery)
* Clotworthy Stephenson (?-1820), American Revolutionary War soldier and builder of several original houses on F Street NW
* Caleb Swan (?-1809), U.S. Army paymaster in the American Revolutionary War (disinterred 1902 and reburied at Arlington National Cemetery)
* John Threlkeld (1757-1830), mayor of Georgetown from 1793 to 1794 (no record of disinterment)
* William Theobald Wolfe Tone (1791-1828), soldier and son of Irish patriot Wolfe Tone (disinterred September 1891 and reburied first at Mount Olivet Cemetery and then Green-Wood Cemetery)
* William Waters (1766-1859), American Revolutionary War soldier and Georgetown magistrate (no record of disinterment)

Notes Citations  1. Clark 1912, p. 80-81.
2. Jackson 1878, p. 145-146.
3. Jackson 1878, p. 145.
4. Callis 1959, p. 231.
5. Pippenger 2004, pp. 1, 5.
6. "George-Town, August 22, 1802". *Washington Federalist*. September 3, 1802.
7. "Title to Old Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. November 24, 1907. p. 5.
8. Jackson 1878, p. 268.
9. Bailey 2000, p. 62.
10. Pippenger 2004, pp. 1–2.
11. District of Columbia 1941, p. 171.
12. "Object to the Transfer". *Washington Evening Star*. May 29, 1907. p. 11.
13. "Litigation Probable Over Old Presbyterian Graveyard". *Washington Evening Star*. September 4, 1895. p. 12.
14. "All In Shocking Ruin". *The Washington Post*. May 14, 1901. p. 12.
15. "Dilapidated Affairs". *Washington Evening Star*. August 11, 1894. p. 5.
16. "Told in Old Epitaphs". *The Washington Post*. March 31, 1896. p. 11.
17. Pippenger 2004, p. 2.
18. "An Old Graveyard". *Washington Evening Star*. October 10, 1891. p. 13.
19. Nevin 1884, p. 251.
20. Boyle, Dorothy E. (November 27, 1949). "On the Move: Volta Place Tied Closely With Past". *The Washington Post*. p. S11.
21. Lesko, Babb & Gibbs 1991, p. 16.
22. "Taking Up the Dead". *The Washington Post*. September 4, 1896. p. 10.
23. "On Altar of Greed". *Washington Evening Star*. November 3, 1907. p. 2.
24. "Cemetery Vaults Despoiled". *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1895. p. 4.
25. "To Be Removed". *Washington Evening Star*. August 24, 1893. p. 8.
26. "Affairs in Georgetown". *Washington Evening Star*. May 16, 1894. p. 7.
27. "Graveyard Vandals". *The Washington Post*. April 26, 1897. p. 10.
28. Proctor, John Clagett (October 4, 1942). "Georgetown's Most Historic Cemetery". *The Sunday Star*. p. 31.
29. Jackson 1878, p. 269.
30. "Up From Their Graves". *The Washington Post*. September 26, 1891. p. 8.
31. Proctor, John Clagett (November 6, 1949). "Old Washington Cemeteries". *The Sunday Star*. p. 49.
32. Pippenger 2004, p. 1.
33. Bryan 1914, p. 313.
34. Mitchell 1986, p. 45.
35. "Four Skeletons Unearthed". *The Washington Post*. December 10, 1898. p. 2.
36. Pippenger 2004, pp. 2–3.
37. Pippenger 2004, p. 3.
38. "Resurrection in Georgetown". *The Washington Post*. March 2, 1896. p. 3.
39. Pippenger 2004, p. 4.
40. "The Old Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. March 11, 1892. p. 8.
41. "The Board of Health". *Washington Evening Star*. April 11, 1874. p. 4.
42. "Human Skeletons Exhumed". *Washington Evening Star*. January 27, 1876. p. 4.
43. Pippenger 2004, p. 5.
44. Callis 1959, pp. 231–232.
45. "The Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. August 1, 1891. p. 5.
46. "Removals From the Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. September 25, 1891. p. 8.
47. "To Be Removed to Congressional Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. April 8, 1892. p. 9.
48. "The Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. September 23, 1903.
49. "Sent to Brooklyn for Interment". *Washington Evening Star*. October 30, 1891. p. 8.
50. "Dead Nearly A Century". *The Washington Post*. November 7, 1891. p. 4.
51. "A Generous Offer". *Washington Evening Star*. October 12, 1891. p. 6.
52. "Found in a Cemetery". *The Washington Post*. October 22, 1891. p. 4.
53. "A Burial Lot Offered". *Washington Evening Star*. October 13, 1891. p. 5.
54. "Caring for Dead Soldiers". *Washington Evening Star*. October 14, 1891. p. 6.
55. "The Old Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. May 16, 1892. p. 8.
56. "The Old Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. June 25, 1892. p. 16.
57. "Notes". *Washington Evening Star*. October 6, 1892. p. 7.
58. "No More Bodies Removed". *Washington Evening Star*. December 30, 1892. p. 3.
59. "The Pleasure Travel Heavy". *Washington Evening Star*. April 10, 1893. p. 10.
60. "Mission Childrern's Entertainment". *Washington Evening Star*. May 17, 1893. p. 9.
61. "The Old Presbyterian Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. July 8, 1893. p. 16.
62. "Old Bones Reburied". *Washington Evening Star*. August 24, 1895. p. 5.
63. "Notes". *Washington Evening Star*. January 7, 1895. p. 12.
64. "Story From the Grave". *The Washington Post*. August 2, 1895. p. 3.
65. "Action Taken on Old Presbyterian Graveyard". *Washington Evening Star*. February 17, 1896. p. 3.
66. "Havoc Done By Yesterday's Storm". *Washington Evening Star*. May 29, 1896. p. 7.
67. "Beechment Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. September 5, 1896. p. 8.
68. "The Beechmont Cemetery". *The Washington Post*. July 7, 1895. p. 7.
69. Maryland Bureau of Industrial Statistics 1899, p. 182.
70. "Items of News Gathered West of Rock Creek". *Washington Evening Star*. September 27, 1898. p. 2.
71. "Affairs in Georgetown". *Washington Evening Star*. March 4, 1899. p. 12.
72. "Want The Cemetery Closed". *The Washington Post*. March 4, 1899. p. 7.
73. "Citizens' Association Meeting". *The Washington Post*. May 4, 1899. p. 16.
74. "Declared to Be a Nuisance". *Washington Evening Star*. May 6, 1898. p. 9.
75. "Citizens' Movement to Secure a Public Park". *Washington Evening Star*. April 7, 1903. p. 8.
76. "Georgetown Citizens Meet". *The Washington Post*. May 7, 1899. p. 10.
77. Pippenger 2004, p. 6.
78. "Affairs in Georgetown". *Washington Evening Star*. April 11, 1903. p. 3; "Made Plea for Parks". *The Washington Post*. April 16, 1903. p. 10.
79. "In Bad Condition". *Washington Evening Star*. April 23, 1903.
80. "Regarding Georgetown Park". *Washington Evening Star*. May 15, 1903. p. 16.
81. "To Be Used As Playground". *Washington Evening Star*. October 24, 1907. p. 17.
82. "Offer Accepted". *Washington Evening Star*. June 20, 1907. p. 2.
83. "Large Sum for Play". *The Washington Post*. September 24, 1907. p. 16.
84. "Not Desecrating Graves". *The Washington Post*. November 3, 1907. p. 12.
85. "Night for 'Star' at Masonic Lodge". *Washington Evening Star*. May 21, 1922. p. 8.
86. "Would Enjoin Trustees". *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1907. p. 10; "The Legal Record". *The Washington Post*. November 24, 1907. p. F7; "The Legal Record". *The Washington Post*. January 18, 1908. p. 12; "The Legal Record". *The Washington Post*. January 19, 1908. p. R6.
87. Sluby & Wormley 1990, p. xiv.
88. "Seeks Playground Sites". *The Washington Post*. September 30, 1908. p. 16.
89. "Where 'Kiddies' Romp". *The Washington Post*. November 28, 1909. p. CA8.
90. Wilgoren, Debbi (January 29, 2005). "Unearthing the Secrets of the Past". *The Washington Post*. p. A1. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
91. Kelly, John (October 7, 2004). "Looking for the Stories of a Century". *The Washington Post*. p. C11. Retrieved June 5, 2014.
92. Pippenger 2004, p. 6-7.
93. Casey, Phil (September 7, 1957). "New Playground Game: Digging for Tombstones". *The Washington Post*. p. B3.
94. "A Buried Graveyard Pops Up Again". *Washington Daily News*. September 7, 1957. p. 5.
95. "DAR to Unveil Marker at Cemetery Site". *The Sunday Star*. March 2, 1958. p. 28.
96. "Pioneers Fought for Vote". *The Sunday Star*. May 26, 1929. p. 22.
97. Courtney, Shaun (September 17, 2012). "Smithsonian: Georgetown Human Remains are 'Obviously Historic'". *Georgetown Patch*. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
98. Devaney, Robert (September 19, 2012). "Human Bones Discovered at Q Street". *The Georgetowner*. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
99. Lucero, Kat (August 28, 2013). "City Looks at Former Cemetery Sites". *Georgetown Current*. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
100. Gahn 1938, p. 136-137.
101. "Dr. Balch's Career". *Washington Evening Star*. April 1, 1893. p. 11.
102. Jackson 1878, p. 270.
103. "Story of Benj. Homans". *Washington Evening Star*. August 1, 1895. p. 5.
104. Balch 1899, p. 37.
105. Proctor, John Clagett (March 27, 1932). "Old Georgetown in History of District". *The Sunday Star*. p. 67.
106. Balch 1899, p. 57.
107. MMJ 1899, p. 93.
108. Ely 1918, p. 133.
109. Pippenger 2004, p. 245.
110. "Removed to Congressional Cemetery". *Washington Evening Star*. April 13, 1892. p. 4.
111. "Affairs in Georgetown". *Washington Evening Star*. May 3, 1894. p. 7.
112. "Historic Graves of Arlington". *Washington Evening Star*. September 24, 1905. p. 46.
113. Decker & McSween 1892, p. 94.
114. Herringshaw 1914, p. 455.
115. Proctor, Black & Williams 1930, p. 872.
116. "Removed to Oak Hill". *Washington Evening Star*. July 27, 1892. p. 3.
117. Reinsel, Robert (2002). "Genealogy Data Page 55 (Notes Pages)". *RootsWeb*. Retrieved August 17, 2014.
118. "Master Masons Meet". *Washington Evening Star*. December 19, 1907. p. 4.
119. "The Rambler Writes of Capt. Stephenson and Other F Street Pioneers". *The Sunday Star*. March 10, 1918. p. 38.
120. Hurley 1997, p. 42.
121. Proctor, John Clagett (February 8, 1942). "Mount Hope Lives Again". *The Sunday Star*. p. 29.
122. "The Irish-American Union". *Washington Evening Star*. March 26, 1892. p. 6.

## Bibliography

## InfoBox

| Presbyterian Burying Ground | |
| --- | --- |
| Presbyterian Burying Ground as it appeared in 2014, transformed into Volta Park | |
|  | |
| Details | |
| Established | August 22, 1802 |
| Location | Georgetown,
Washington, D.C. |
| Country | United States |
| Coordinates | 38°54′44″N 77°04′01″W / 38.91224°N 77.067077°W / 38.91224; -77.067077 |
| Type | Closed 1887;
demolished August 1909 |
| Owned by | Georgetown Presbyterian Church |
| Size | 400 by 350 feet (120 by 110 m)
(3.2 acres (13,000 m2)) |
| No. of graves | about 2,700 |


title: Visigothic art and architecture

abstract: The Visigoths entered Hispania in 415 and they rose to be the dominant people there until the Umayyad conquest of Hispania of 711 brought their kingdom to an end. This period in Iberian art is dominated by their style. Visigothic art is generally considered in the English-speaking world to be a strain of Migration art, while the Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking worlds generally classify it as Pre-Romanesque. Branches of Visigothic art include their architecture, crafts, and their script.

text:
# Visigothic art and architecture

The Visigoths entered Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) in 415 and they rose to be the dominant people there until the Umayyad conquest of Hispania of 711 brought their kingdom to an end.

This period in Iberian art is dominated by their style. Visigothic art is generally considered in the English-speaking world to be a strain of Migration art, while the Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking worlds generally classify it as Pre-Romanesque.

Branches of Visigothic art include their architecture, crafts (especially jewellery), and their script.

## Visigothic architecture

The only remaining examples of Visigothic architecture from the 6th century are the church of San Cugat del Vallés in Barcelona, the hermitage and church of Santa Maria de Lara in Burgos, Saint Frutuoso Chapel in Braga, the church of São Gião in Nazaré and the few remnants of the church at Cabeza de Griego in Cuenca. However, their style developed over the next centuries, though the prime remaining examples of it are mostly rural and often run-down. Some of the characteristics of their architecture are:

* Generally basilican in layout, sometimes a Greek cross plan or, more rarely, a combination of the two. The spaces are highly compartmentalised.
* Horseshoe arches without keystones.
* A rectangular, exterior apse.
* Use of columns and pillars with Corinthian capitals of unique design.
* Barrel vaults with cupolas at the crosses.
* Frequent use of marble as material.
* Walls of ashlar blocks, occasionally alternating with Roman brickwork.
* Decoration commonly of animal or plant motifs.

Examples include:

* Diego Marin, La Civilizacion Espanola, pp. 34 -47, 1969, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.

* Bradley Smith, Spain: A History In Art, pp. 52-56, Doubleday & Company, Garden City, NY, no publication date given, about 1971.


title: Umm Ruweim

abstract: Umm Ruweim is an archaeological ruin site 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from Ghazali in present-day Sudan. Consisting of two forts and some cemeteries, the site is situated just south of the Nile's Fourth Cataract at Wadi Abu Dom. There are two documented forts of the Meroitic period. The Umm Ruweim I measures 50 by 50 metres and has four towers. Umm Ruweim II, 400 metres (1,300 ft) to the southeast, has a simpler plan consisting only of a perimeter wall. The function of these forts may have been military, but is uncertain. In the vicinity of the sites, there are small cemeteries that have been partially excavated. Umm Ruweim was unknown until the 50s, when its Christian antiquities were surveyed. An ongoing survey by Angelika Lohwasser of the University of Münster since 2009 in the Wadi Abu Dom area includes documentation of the ruins of Umm Ruweim.

text:
# Umm Ruweim

**Umm Ruweim** is an archaeological ruin site 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from Ghazali in present-day Sudan. Consisting of two forts and some cemeteries, the site is situated just south of the Nile's Fourth Cataract at Wadi Abu Dom. There are two documented forts of the Meroitic period (300 BC to 300 AD). The Umm Ruweim I measures 50 by 50 metres (160 ft × 160 ft) and has four towers. Umm Ruweim II, 400 metres (1,300 ft) to the southeast, has a simpler plan consisting only of a perimeter wall. The function of these forts may have been military, but is uncertain. In the vicinity of the sites, there are small cemeteries that have been partially excavated. Umm Ruweim was unknown until the 50s, when its Christian antiquities were surveyed. An ongoing survey by Angelika Lohwasser of the University of Münster since 2009 in the Wadi Abu Dom area includes documentation of the ruins of Umm Ruweim.

* H.N. Chittick: "An Exploratory Journey in the Bayuda Region", In *Kush* 3, 1955 pp. 86-92
* Ossama el-Nur, Hassan Bandi: "The Potential of the IVth Cataract Archaeological Project I: Mound-Graves at Umm Ruweim and Khor al-Greyn", in: *Hommages à Jean Leclant*. Volume 2: Nubie, Soudan, Éthiopie. Contributions réunies par Catherine Berger, Gisèle Clerc et Nicolas Grimal, Le Caire, Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 1994 = Bibliothèque d'étude, 106/1-4. ISBN 2-7247-0134-8, pp. 323-331.

18°24′38″N 31°59′25″E / 18.4106°N 31.9903°E / 18.4106; 31.9903


title: Troy (song)

abstract: "Troy" is the debut single by Irish singer-songwriter Sinéad O'Connor, released in 1987 from her debut studio album The Lion and the Cobra. Written by O'Connor, the lyric is based on the poem No Second Troy by William Butler Yeats. In 2002, a dance version of the song was released as "Troy", becoming a top-ten hit on several international dance charts, including the US Dance Club Songs chart.

text:
# Troy (song)

"**Troy**" is the debut single by Irish singer-songwriter Sinéad O'Connor, released in 1987 from her debut studio album *The Lion and the Cobra*. Written by O'Connor, the lyric is based on the poem *No Second Troy* by William Butler Yeats. In 2002, a dance version of the song was released as "Troy (The Phoenix from the Flame)", becoming a top-ten hit on several international dance charts, including the US Dance Club Songs chart.

## Critical reception

AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted in his review that songs like "Troy", "Jackie" and "Jerusalem" "are compelling because of their hushed, quiet intensity". Mark Richardson from *Pitchfork* described the song as an "epic and visceral psychodrama", adding it is "lushly orchestrated, painting the story of desire and betrayal on a wall-sized canvas". Sal Cinquemani from *Slant* wrote: "...the fierce melodrama of young love and betrayal is imbued with the surrounding violence in 'Troy,' the song's crumbling romance equated with the burning of the famous Greek city." He added the song "is, perhaps, the album's defining moment, exhibiting all of the traits—vulnerability, fury, conviction, theatricality—the infamously outspoken singer-songwriter would become known for in the years that followed". In the documentary *Sinead O'Connor - Nothing Compares* (2022), she explained that the song is about a traumatic experience during her childhood involving her mother.

## Music video

The video featured O'Connor, completely bald and covered with gold and silver body paint, singing to a background of moving images including flames. The building featured in several shots is on Montpelier Hill, just south of Dublin, known as the Hell Fire Club.

## Live performances

O'Connor sang "Troy" live only during the year after it was released at Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands, subsequently refusing to do so  until 2008, when she performed at the Night of the Proms in Belgium and the Netherlands.

"In Dublin I was doing this show one night," she recalled, "and somebody yelled out, 'Troy, Troy.' And I went, I'm fucking *troying*."

## Charts

## InfoBox

| "Troy" | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Single by Sinéad O'Connor | |
| from the album  *The Lion and the Cobra* | |
| B-side | "Still Listening" |
| Released | 19 October 1987 |
| Recorded | 1986 |
| Studio | Oasis Studios
(London, England) |
| Genre |  |
| Length | 6:34 |
| Label | Chrysalis |
| Songwriter(s) | Sinéad O'Connor |
| Producer(s) | * Sinéad O'Connor * Kevin Moloney |
| Sinéad O'Connor singles chronology | |
| "Heroine"
(1986) "**Troy**"
(1987) "Mandinka"
(1987) | |
|  | |
| Music video | |
| "Troy" on YouTube | |
|  | |


title: When It's Just You and Me (album)

abstract: When It's Just You and Me is a studio album by American country artist Dottie West. It was released in July 1977 via United Artists Records and contained 11 tracks. It was the 24th studio album in West's career and her first for the United Artists label. Of its 11 songs, four of them were spawned as singles: the title track, "Every Word I Write", "Tonight You Belong to Me" and "That's All I Wanted to Know". The title track reached the top 20 on the US and Canadian country singles charts. The album was reviewed positively by Billboard magazine following its original release.

text:
# When It's Just You and Me (album)

***When It's Just You and Me*** is a studio album by American country artist Dottie West. It was released in July 1977 via United Artists Records and contained 11 tracks. It was the 24th studio album in West's career and her first for the United Artists label. Of its 11 songs, four of them were spawned as singles: the title track, "Every Word I Write", "Tonight You Belong to Me" and "That's All I Wanted to Know". The title track reached the top 20 on the US and Canadian country singles charts. The album was reviewed positively by *Billboard* magazine following its original release.

## Background, recording and content

Dottie West had first found success at the RCA Victor label during the 1960s and early 1970s. With producer Chet Atkins, West recorded much of her own material and it was combined with the Nashville Sound musical style. At the label she had top ten singles with "Here Comes My Baby" (1964), "Paper Mansions" (1967) and "Country Sunshine" (1973). In 1976, West moved to United Artists Records where she would have her greatest commercial success. Her first United Artists album would be 1977's *When It's Just You and Me*.

The album was recorded at the Jack Clement Recording Studio located in Nashville, Tennessee in sessions held between September 1976 and February 1977. The project consisted of 11 tracks. Included was a cover of Tammy Wynette's chart-topping US country song "'Til I Get It Right". It also featured a cover of the standard "Tonight You Belong to Me". Remaining tracks were new material. Among its new recordings was "The Lovin' Kind", which was co-written by the album's producer Larry Butler.

## Release and critical reception

*When It's Just You and Me* was originally released in July 1977 on United Artists Records. It was West's 24th studio album in her career. The label originally distributed it as a vinyl LP, featuring five songs on "side 1" and six songs on "side 2". It was later be re-released digitally via Capitol Records Nashville. *When It's Just You and Me* was reviewed positively by *Billboard* magazine in July 1977. "If you can get past the cover, which doesn't say much for the artist, you'll find some interesting material included inside," the publication wrote. The magazine also made note of the album's use of both uptempo material and ballads. Although no formal review was given, AllMusic named the title track, "By Your Side" and "Save a Little for the Morning" as "AllMusic track picks".

## Chart performance and singles

*When It's Just You and Me* spent three weeks on the US *Billboard* Top Country Albums chart. Making its debut on July 30, 1977, the album later reached the number 44 position by August. It was West's fifteenth album to make the Billboard country chart and was among her lowest-charting albums there. A total of four singles were spawned from *When It's Just You and Me*. The title track was first released as the lead single in October 1976. In early 1977, it reached number 19 on the US Hot Country Songs chart and number 12 on the Canadian *RPM* Country Tracks chart. "Every Word I Write" was issued as the album's second single in March 1977. By May 1977, it reached the number 28 position on the US country chart and number 33 on the Canadian country chart. "Tonight You Belong to Me" was issued as the third single in June 1977. It later reached number 30 on the US country chart and number 42 on the Canadian country chart. The fourth and final single would be "That's All I Wanted to Know". It reached number 57 on the US country chart in November 1977.

## Track listing

Side one
| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "When It's Just You and Me" | K. O'Dell | 3:04 |
| 2. | "That's All I Wanted to Know" |  | 3:07 |
| 3. | "Tonight You Belong to Me" |  | 2:13 |
| 4. | "You're a Beautiful Place to Be" | V. Stephenson | 2:47 |
| 5. | "By Your Side" | B. Peters | 2:32 |

Side two
| No. | Title | Writer(s) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Every Word I Write" |  | 2:56 |
| 2. | "All Night Long" | * R. Mainegra * M. Blackford | 2:50 |
| 3. | "Save a Little for the Morning" | * M.A. Leiken * G. Sklerov | 3:22 |
| 4. | "The Lovin' Kind" |  | 2:55 |
| 5. | "'Til I Get It Right" |  | 2:45 |
| 6. | "Tiny Fingers" | J. Chesnut | 3:05 |

## Personnel

All credits are adapted from the liner notes of *When It's Just You and Me*.

## Chart performance

| Chart (1977) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| US Top Country Albums (*Billboard*) | 44 |
|

## Release history

| Region | Date | Format | Label | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| North America | July 1977 | Vinyl LP | United Artists Records |  |
| | | | South Africa |  |
| North America | circa 2023 | * Music download * streaming | Capitol Records Nashville |  |
|

## InfoBox

| When It's Just You and Me | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Dottie West | |
| Released | July 1977 |
| Recorded | September 1976–February 1977 |
| Studio | Jack Clement Recording (Nashville, Tennessee) |
| Genre |  |
| Label | United Artists |
| Producer | Larry Butler |
| Dottie West chronology | |
| *Carolina Cousins*
(1975) ***When It's Just You and Me***
(1977) *Dottie*
(1978) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *When It's Just You and Me* | |
| 1. "When It's Just You and Me"
Released: October 1976 2. "Every Word I Write"
Released: March 1977 3. "Tonight You Belong to Me"
Released: June 1977 4. "That's All I Wanted to Know"
Released: September 1977 | |
|  | |


title: Tattoo ink

abstract: Tattoo inks consist of pigments combined with a carrier, used in the process of tattooing to create a tattoo in the skin. These inks are also used for permanent makeup, a form of tattoo. Professional tattoo inks are available in many colors and use a wide variety of pigments, including inorganic pigments, such as carbon black, and synthetic organic pigments, such as brightly-colored azo-chemicals. Commercial manufacturers combine pigments with carriers such as ethyl alcohol or distilled water to create liquid inks. They may include preservatives to reduce risk of contamination and other additives to adjust the viscosity of the ink. Pigments and preservatives in tattoo ink can cause allergic reactions in skin. A portion of pigment applied in a tattoo may migrate to other places in the body, such as lymph nodes. Some common tattoo pigments are chemicals that may cause cancer, but longer-term studies would be needed to determine whether these chemicals increase risk of cancer if embedded in the skin. The European Union has started to prohibit use of certain pigments in tattoo inks due to safety concerns. In the United States, tattoo inks are subject to regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which generally does not investigate commercial inks unless it receives complaints about specific safety issues, such as contamination. The FDA has not specifically approved any pigments for cosmetic tattoos. Tattooing is an ancient practice, and archeologists have found evidence of tattoos made with soot among people in multiple continents thousands of years ago. Especially after the invention of the electric tattoo machine in the late 1800s, tattoo artists experimented with many chemicals to identify durable pigments that could produce a range of colors without causing bad reactions, often testing inks in their own skin. Most tattoo inks are intended to be permanent, but there are commercial methods for creating semi-permanent tattoos. There are also traditions of temporary tattoos applied to the surface of the skin using pigments such as mehndi.

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# Tattoo ink

**Tattoo inks** consist of pigments combined with a carrier, used in the process of tattooing to create a tattoo in the skin. These inks are also used for permanent makeup, a form of tattoo.

Professional tattoo inks are available in many colors and use a wide variety of pigments, including inorganic pigments, such as carbon black, and synthetic organic pigments, such as brightly-colored azo-chemicals. Commercial manufacturers combine pigments with carriers such as ethyl alcohol or distilled water to create liquid inks. They may include preservatives to reduce risk of contamination and other additives to adjust the viscosity of the ink.

Pigments and preservatives in tattoo ink can cause allergic reactions in skin. A portion of pigment applied in a tattoo may migrate to other places in the body, such as lymph nodes. Some common tattoo pigments are chemicals that may cause cancer, but longer-term studies would be needed to determine whether these chemicals increase risk of cancer if embedded in the skin.

The European Union has started to prohibit use of certain pigments in tattoo inks due to safety concerns. In the United States, tattoo inks are subject to regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which generally does not investigate commercial inks unless it receives complaints about specific safety issues, such as contamination. The FDA has not specifically approved any pigments for cosmetic tattoos.

Tattooing is an ancient practice, and archeologists have found evidence of tattoos made with soot among people in multiple continents thousands of years ago. Especially after the invention of the electric tattoo machine in the late 1800s, tattoo artists experimented with many chemicals to identify durable pigments that could produce a range of colors without causing bad reactions, often testing inks in their own skin.

Most tattoo inks are intended to be permanent, but there are commercial methods for creating semi-permanent tattoos. There are also traditions of temporary tattoos applied to the surface of the skin using pigments such as mehndi.

## Components of professional inks

Tattoo inks are available in a range of colors that can be thinned or mixed together to produce other colors and shades. Most professional tattoo artists purchase inks pre-made (known as predispersed inks), while some artists mix their own using a dry pigment and a carrier.

In the United States, tattoo ink manufacturers are not required to reveal their ingredients, or to prove that a voluntarily-published ingredients list is accurate. Their recipes may be proprietary. Tattoo inks from different manufacturers vary widely in formulation, quality, and safety.

### Pigments

Many tattoo inks contain pigments originally manufactured for industrial purposes, such as dyeing textiles, automotive paint, or for printer's ink. Many professional inks mostly contain organic colorants, such as azo dyes and pigments. Inks also often contain heavy metals as pigments, sometimes mixed in to adjust the shade of a color. Pigments can be small bits of solids or discrete molecules, such as titanium dioxide or iron oxide.

| Color | Pigments |
| --- | --- |
| Black | May contain: |
| White | May contain: These have mostly replaced more toxic pigments such as barium sulphate and white lead. |
| Red | May contain: |
| Orange | Can be considered a shade of red |
| Yellow | May contain: * Cadmium sulphide * Azo compounds * Pigments used for white ink, to brighten the yellow color |
| Green | May contain: |
| Blue | May contain: |
| Purple | May contain: |
| Brown | May contain iron oxides, such as ochre |

Other elements found in trace amounts in some ink include antimony, arsenic, beryllium, selenium, and aluminium. Titanium dioxide is slightly abrasive and can cause microscopic bits of nickel and chromium to wear off tattoo needles and get into the skin.

Tattoo ink manufacturers often blend metal pigments and/or use lightening agents (such as lead or titanium) to reduce production costs. Tattoo inks contaminated with metal allergens have been known to cause severe allergenic reactions, sometimes years later, when the original ink is not available for testing.

#### Blacklight ink

Blacklight tattoo ink does not glow in the dark, but reacts to non-visible UV light, producing a visible glow by fluorescence. A typical blacklight ink formula includes microspheres of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) containing fluorescent dye. This ink may cause irritation and inflammation, and tattoo artists are divided on whether they consider it safe to use.

#### Glow in the dark ink

Glow-in-the-dark tattoo ink absorbs and retains light, and then glows in darkened conditions by process of phosphorescence. The phosphorus in this type of ink may cause skin rashes and may be carcinogenic, and many tattoo artists consider this ink unsafe to use.

### Carriers

A carrier acts as a solvent for the pigment, to "carry" the pigment from the point of needle insertion (typically using a tattoo machine) to the surrounding epidermis and sometimes dermis. Carriers keep the ink evenly mixed and free from pathogens, and aid application.

Solvents are often ethyl alcohol or distilled water; methanol, propylene glycol, and glycerin are also used, along with denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol. When an alcohol is used as part of the carrier base in tattoo ink or to disinfect the skin before application of the tattoo, it increases the skin's permeability, helping to transport more pigment into the skin.

#### Additives

Preservatives such as benzoic acid may be added to tattoo ink to prevent contamination. Some inks contain formaldehyde as a preservative, which is a carcinogen and may cause dermatitis in the skin. Other inks may use benzoisothiazolinone, which is a skin irritant.

To help the carrier serve as a vehicle for delivering pigment, commercial formulations may include wetting agents, pH-regulating chemicals, stabilizers, and thickening agents.

Ink manufacturers may add witch hazel to help the skin heal after the tattooing process.

### Vegan inks

Some tattoo ink manufacturers produce vegan-friendly inks that do not contain any animal by-products, such as bone char, glycerin, gelatin, and shellac.

## Traditional inks

The world's oldest tattoos known to date, those of the Tyrolean Iceman known as Ötzi, were applied 5300 years ago with soot and/or ground charcoal based pigments.

Traditional Ainu tattoos used soot as pigment, which reflected significant beliefs related to the hearth of a home.

In traditional Filipino tattooing, *batok*, historical examples include inks made from a range of materials: pounded leaves of a native tomato plant mixed with soot and water; pig bile and soot; or soot made by burning resinous wood. Some ink was made by combining soot and sugarcane juice, left to ferment for a short time to develop some alcohol. Recent practices include combining soot with water in a coconut half-shell.

Inuit women have a tradition of *kakiniit*, tattoos historically made with qulliq lampblack and seal suet. In the 21st century revival of this tradition, practitioners use manufactured tattoo inks.

Japanese *horimono* practices include *tebori* tattoos made by hand using *sumi* ink. This ink is made with soot from burning particular woods, bound with animal glue, and the method of application results in a greenish black color in the skin.

In the Māori tattoo practice, *tā moko,* tattoo experts have made ink from the ashes of resinous tree parts (such as kauri gum) or caterpillar fungus, mixed with oil from plants.

## Homemade inks

In amateur "stick and poke" tattoos done for amusement or as a hobby, people often use improvised ink, which adds risk of infection and scarring. Prison tattooing also typically uses improvised ink. Pigments may be made from ballpoint pen ink, hobby ink such as India ink, or soot. Homemade or amateur inks may use Listerine, vodka, or isopropyl alcohol as carriers, with glycerin added to prevent the ink from drying out.

## Health effects

Components of tattoo ink may cause allergic reactions in skin, including red, green, yellow and blue pigments. Colored inks, such as red, seem to cause allergic reactions more often than black ink, likely due to small amounts of mercury sulfide in some red pigments. Some yellow pigments contain cadmium sulfide, a light-sensitive compound, and upon exposure to sun this can cause photodermatitis, although rare.

Inks may be contaminated with bacteria, such as *Mycobacterium chelonae*, which can cause infection in the skin.

Several commonly-used ingredients are potential carcinogens — for example, most black inks contain carbon black, which may contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Many of the particles used in tattoo inks are less than 100 nanometers in diameter, making it easier for them to penetrate cells and possibly cause cancer. Under UV light, azo pigments may degrade into primary aromatic amines (PAAs), which may be carcinogenic. However, a review article in 2012 said "The number of skin cancers arising in tattoos is seemingly low, and this association has to be considered thus far as coincidental."

After application of a tattoo, a portion of the ink is carried away by blood vessels and the lymphatic system, and some of it may be excreted or stored elsewhere in the body. Tattoo pigments may migrate into lymph nodes, including toxic elements in ink such as chromium. Long-term studies would be needed to determine if pigments in human lymph nodes have harmful effects.

In medical imaging, such as mammography, pigments in lymph nodes may be accidentally interpreted as abnormal results, giving false positive results for cancer. Treatment of cancer may include using blue dye in the body to detect a sentinel lymph node, so existing tattoo pigments in lymph nodes may cause difficulty in identifying and treating sentinel nodes.

In rare cases, a person undergoing a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) exam may feel temporary discomfort or irritation around tattoos made with iron oxide pigments. Looping or circular patterns may contribute to this effect. Large amounts of ink in the skin, such as in blackout tattoos, may also increase the risk of this side effect.

## Regulations

### European Union

The European Union requires tattoo ink makers to indicate any hazardous ingredients on product labels. In 2021, the EU established rules requiring certain green and blue pigments, Blue 15:3 and Green 7, to be phased out of tattoo inks.

### United States

In the United States, tattoo inks are subject to regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The inks are regulated as cosmetics (which do not require pre-market approval), and the pigments are regulated as color additives. FDA regulations say that color additives intended for injection must show convincing evidence that they are safe to be injected, in order to be approved for this purpose. The FDA has not yet approved any color additives for injection. The FDA does not generally exercise this regulatory authority because of other higher priorities and insufficient evidence of specific color additives causing safety problems in tattoo ink.

The FDA does investigate tattoo inks if they receive reports of safety concerns, such as bacterial contamination, and they sometimes issue product recalls for specific inks.

Under the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, the FDA requires cosmetics manufacturers to disclose ingredients on products sold to retail customers, but not products used by professionals. Tattoo ink manufacturers typically sell their products to professional tattoo artists, and they are not required to disclose ingredients.

In California, Proposition 65 requires that Californians be warned before exposure to certain harmful chemicals. In 2004, an environmental nonprofit sued several tattoo ink manufacturers for violating this law. A judge ordered two of the companies to put warning labels on their products and in their catalogs to tell California customers that tattoo inks contain heavy metals known to cause cancer, birth defects, and other reproductive harm.

## History

Ancient tattooing practices typically used dark pigments derived from vegetable and animal materials. Alongside the development of more complex technology for tattooing, such as electric tattoo machines, tattoo artists developed inks with pigments derived from colorful minerals, both natural and synthetic. People who continue to practice traditional tattooing methods and styles may make their own pigments or purchase manufactured ink. The history of tattoo ink development is connected to the history of pigment development.

### Ancient

People throughout ancient history practiced tattooing, as seen in tattooed human mummies found in many countries. Many used carbon-based pigments, such as soot, bone char, and charcoal. Carbon continues to be a principal ingredient in modern tattoo ink.

One of the oldest known examples of human tattooing is the 5,300-year-old ice mummy known as Ötzi, discovered in 1991 near the border between Austria and Italy. Researchers examined skin samples from several of Ötzi's tattoos and determined that his tattoos were created using carbon-based pigments derived from soot and ash. Microscopic quartz crystals identified among the carbon particles may have originated from stones around the fireplace where the carbon was collected.

Found in southern Peru, in the Chiribaya cultural area, a 1000-year-old mummy of a woman showed decorative and symbolic tattoos made with soot and plant material.

### 18th and 19th centuries

By the 1750s, and likely much before, Japanese *horimono* artists used a variety of colored inks for large, artistically complex tattoos. In 1897, Gambier Bolton said that the Japanese tattoo artist Hori Chyo had pioneered use of a brown ink, along with the usual black and vermilion inks.

In sailor tattoo traditions dating at least to 1700, English sailors used gunpowder to create blue-black designs in their skin. In 1897, Bolton noted that sailors had recently started to use India ink and cochineal red (carmine), and that English tattoo artist Sutherland Macdonald had found an ultramarine blue and a green ink. Sutherland also experimented on himself to try to find durable lavender and yellow inks.

### 20th century

The invention of electric tattoo machines in the late 1800s supported the growing popularity of tattoos, linked to the development of new inks. In the early 1900s, American tattoo artist Amund Dietzel used ink made with carbon black, "China red" (vermilion), "Casali's green" (viridian), Prussian blue, and a yellow pigment that may have been arylide yellow.

Sailor Jerry, who started working as a tattoo artist in the 1930s, mixed D&C dry color pigments (approved for use in drugs and cosmetics) with isopropyl alcohol and benzalkonium chloride. He worked with Bob Palm, a tattoo artist who had studied chemistry, to find pigments that would expand his color range, including by tattooing himself and seeing if he had a bad reaction. He introduced use of phthalo green, and he used a purple pigment that he kept secret from other artists.

Around the 1950s, artists started more commonly using industrial organic colorants, including aniline dyes (synthetic dyes originally made from coal tar) such as arylide yellow and Malachite green.

## Permanence

Tattoo ink is generally permanent, in the sense that it fades very gradually over a lifetime. The reason for this permanence is that tattoo ink is hydrophobic. Tattoo removal is difficult and painful, and the degree of success depends on the materials used.

### Removable ink

R. Rox Anderson developed a tattoo ink to simplify tattoo removal, designed to be easier to remove by laser treatments than traditional inks, called "InfinitInk". The ink is encapsulated in tiny plastic beads; the encapsulated ink is stable in normal light, but under the kind of laser light used in laser tattoo removal, the ink is released from the beads and is absorbed. Anderson co-founded a company called Freedom-2 to bring the ink to market with assistance from Edith Mathiowitz, Joshua Reineke and A. Peter Morello of Brown University.

### Semi-permanent ink

A company in New York City, Ephemeral, advertised its proprietary tattoo ink as fading 9–15 months after application. Some customers complained that their tattoos were still strongly visible after 15 months or longer.

## Temporary tattoo pigments

Mehndi body art involves applying henna dye externally to create a temporary tattoo on the surface of the skin, typically producing a brown color that fades in a few weeks. Health Canada and the US FDA have advised against the use of "black henna" pigment that contains para-phenylenediamine (PPD), an ingredient in hair dyes. Allergic reactions to PPD include rashes, contact dermatitis, itching, blisters, open sores, scarring and other potentially harmful effects.

Jagua tattoos are a form of temporary tattoo made with a fruit-based dye. This dye is derived from a Central and South American fruit *(Genipa americana)* traditionally used for a variety of purposes including medicine and body art. Jagua ink creates a blue-black color that fades in a couple weeks. Jagua is sometimes promoted as a healthier alternative to black henna.

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## Further reading