title: Long-range acoustic device

abstract: A long-range acoustic device (LRAD), acoustic hailing device (AHD) or sound cannon is a specialized loudspeaker that produces sound at high power for communicating at a distance. It has been used as a method of crowd control, which has caused permanent hearing damage, having an extremely high decibel capacity. Other uses have included for negotiations in siege situations; to deal with piracy at sea; for mass notification during natural disasters or other emergencies; and by defense forces, including several navies.

text:
# Long-range acoustic device

A **long-range acoustic device** (**LRAD**), **acoustic hailing device** (AHD) or **sound cannon** is a specialized loudspeaker that produces sound at high power for communicating at a distance. It has been used as a method of crowd control, which has caused permanent hearing damage, having an extremely high decibel capacity (up to 160 dB measured at one meter from the device). Other uses have included for negotiations in siege situations; to deal with piracy at sea; for mass notification during natural disasters or other emergencies; and by defense forces, including several navies.

## Overview

Acoustic hailing devices are acoustic devices capable of outputting intelligible sound at very high volumes. The distance at which acoustic hailing can be effective varies based on several factors including the sound level, directionality, and frequency of the acoustic source, the sensitivity and directionality of the receiver, and the transmission channel environment. The sound level diminishes or attenuates with distance. Consequently, as a general rule, higher source levels have greater range. Acoustic hailing devices can come in two forms;

1. Directional models: These AHDs are characterized by their ability to create long-range, directional voice communications and warning tones. Their directionality is typically 5° to 60° radius conical at a 2kHz tone.
2. Omnidirectional models: These acoustic hailing devices are capable of creating 360° voice communications and warning tones. These devices are capable of being heard over 2.4 kilometres (1.5 mi) away from the emitter head.

### Origin

The term *acoustic hailing device* came into common use following the suicide attack on the USS *Cole* while it was at a port in Yemen in 2000. Following this attack, the United States Navy established a requirement for an acoustic hailing device. The intent of this AHD was to provide the Navy with a means to establish the intent of an approaching vessel at a distance such that defensive measures could be taken should the vessel not heed a warning. One unique aspect of this requirement was that the sound needed to be focused so that it could be clearly directed at the approaching vessel.

### Present

Since their inception in 2002, acoustic hailing devices have grown into a variety of applications. AHD uses include checkpoints, crowd control, maritime shipping, mass notification, early warning systems, critical infrastructure protection, military applications and wildlife protection and control. Acoustic hailing devices are now fielded all over the world by various commercial, law enforcement, and military groups.

## History

In October 2000 the USS *Cole*, an American guided missile destroyer, was bombed in an attack by al-Qaeda operatives, using a small boat packed with explosives. The naval personnel on Cole were unable to be sure that their messages could be heard by the approaching boat at a sufficient distance to possibly avert the attack. The ship was badly damaged, with 17 U.S. Navy sailors killed and 37 injured.

Following this attack, navies around the world made several policy changes, while the American Technology Corporation (which was rebranded to LRAD Corporation in 2010 and to Genasys in late October 2019) created and developed the AHD market, which included the launch of its proprietary Long Range Acoustic Device, a type of acoustic hailing device, in 2003. Using this new technology, it became possible for naval personnel to contact approaching vessels which did not respond to radio calls from a distance of over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), enabling them to respond appropriately in a timely manner and avert danger.

Since then the technology has developed and expanded. Genasys launched its voice-based mass notification systems in 2012, and in 2019 its unified multichannel Critical Communications and Enterprise Safety system.

LRAD devices have become widely used for communications, and increasingly for crowd control in a range of settings, including civil disturbances and protests.

## Characteristics and measurements

Acoustic hailing devices differ from conventional speaker systems in three key ways: volume, clarity, and directionality. AHD manufacturers use different methods to measure their products, but a common standard has emerged.

### Volume

Since sound attenuates with distance, extremely high outputs are required to achieve the required range. Acoustic hailing devices have an output of 135 decibels (dB) or greater. The acoustic level of the source is commonly expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level or SPL. SPL is a logarithmic measure of the rms sound pressure of a sound relative to a reference value. It is measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference level. For reference, at a distance of 1 meter, a normal talking voice is approximately 50 dB and a jet engine at 30 meters is 150 dB.

### Clarity

A principal weakness of common speaker systems and bullhorns is their clarity. Their horns and cones create sound that is distorted or out of phase. This results in the common "Charlie Brown" effect, where the message is muffled and misunderstood, analogous to the muted brass squawks representing the unintelligible voices of adults in animated *Peanuts* specials. AHDs create sound that is in phase. Because of this, sound emitted from acoustic hailing devices is intelligible at distance. Clarity is difficult to measure, since it is a subjective reference. However, different scales have been created to compare devices. A common measurement is the Speech Transmission Index (STI). STI ratings range from 0–1.0, with 1.0 being perfect clarity.

### Focus

AHDs are lastly characterized by directionality. To ensure messages are broadcast to the target, AHDs shape sound into a 30–60° audio beam. This shaping is accomplished through the design of the transducers as well as various reflective horns. The focus of an AHD is typically measured at the frequency of peak directionality. This is typically in the 1–2 kHz range. Not all frequencies of sound are able to be directed equally. Lower frequencies in the bass range are difficult to form. As such, their directionality may be a 40 degree radius or more depending on the design of the AHD.

## Specifications and functionality

LRAD devices are made by Genasys. As of 2022, the company claims its LRAD products meet the following specifications:

* 30° audible transmission ranges out to 5,000 meters
* 60º–360° audible mass notification coverage over areas up to 14 km2 (5.4 sq mi)

LRAD devices include hand-held devices, as well as those mounted on helicopters, motor vehicles and ships.

The parameter "ka", which is the wave number multiplied by the speaker radius, is often used to characterize sound source directivity. For this source, ka=19 at 2.5 kHz, and according to the LRAD data sheet, the beam angle of about 30 degrees total is what is predicted for a regular loudspeaker.

Small spherical "point-source" acoustic devices follow the known inverse square law, which predicts the loss of 6 decibels (dB) per doubling of distance from the source, solely due to geometric spreading. Large speakers (or large arrays), such as these, have an interference pattern in the nearfield which produces peaks 6 dB higher than the output pressure and nulls where the pressure is essentially zero. The larger the speaker, and the higher the frequency, the longer the effective nearfield. The nearfield for this device is approximately 8 metres (26 ft). An LRAD can thus emit a targeted "beam" of sound at very high volume, up to 160 dB at one meter from the device. This is louder than standing behind a jet engine taking off, or a nearby gunshot.

## Use

Following the impetus for its initial development, 25 navies have adopted the use of LRADs as of 2022, to provide protection for their vessels. Navy personnel can contact approaching vessels from over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and respond defensively if necessary. They are also used by coast guards, naval bases, commercial vessels, and in ports.

Genasys offers its products for the following categories of use on its U.S. website: defense, law enforcement, fire and rescue services, border security, protection of critical infrastructure, and maritime safety. As of 2022 its products are in use in 100 countries. The Asia-Pacific website is focused on emergency management during natural disasters such as bushfires. It is not categorized as a defense item, and does not require an export license.

The technology can also be used to deter wildlife from airport runways, as at Changi Airport in Singapore, and to protect gas and oil platforms from fishing boats, birds and security threats.

There are two basic ways of using LRAD devices: for voice amplification and as an alert. The technology used in "siren mode" (called an "alert tone" by Genasys), primarily for usage in emergency situations, has also been used for crowd control. In this mode, it allows sound transmission at around 2,000–4,000 Hertz, which causes maximum discomfort for the people targeted, as this is the frequency range at human hearing is most sensitive. Although sometimes referred to as an Active Denial System, the latter is based on a different technology, in which millimetre-wave radiation causes nerve receptors in the skin to feel heat, via dielectric heating.

## Risks

Acoustic hailing devices have the potential to be used as non-lethal weapons. The human ear can typically stand a sound pressure level of 120 dB before feeling pain. AHDs are capable of 135 dB or more of acoustic energy. OSHA states that any sound pressure level over 90 dB requires hearing protection. As volume increases so does the chance of hearing loss. The effective non-lethal range of an AHD depends on the total acoustic output of the unit. Typically, this range is 50 metres (160 ft) or less.

In addition to its "voice" feature, which acts as a loudspeaker, the LRAD has an "alert" feature, which emits loud chirping or beeping sounds, which can be used at the top of the decibel range of the device. These sounds have been reported to cause pain and hearing damage. The use of the alert function for crowd control has been described as a "sound cannon" or sonic weapon, although this has been denied by the manufacturer. The sound can be targeted within a narrow and specific range that does not impact those operating the device or standing next to it. Civil liberties organizations are concerned about its use by police forces, and its use has been contested in law courts in the United States. One concern is that police officers are not receiving enough training in its use.

Law enforcement organizations and the manufacturer claim that LRAD systems are primarily designed for long-range communications; however, the device has an extremely high decibel capacity and has been controversially used as a less-lethal weapon for crowd control. Police usually use models that are not quite as powerful as the military-grade version; however, generating levels ranging from 137 dB to 154 dB, they are capable of causing pain, disorientation, nausea, migraines, and permanent damage.

The NYPD's LRAD use was to be challenged in US federal court in 2020. Due to potential risks and a lack of studies on the health impact of sonic weapons, the American Civil Liberties Union recommended in a fact sheet that their use in protests be suspended.

## Deployments and uses by emergency services

### Australia

By mid-2016, most Australian police forces had acquired LRADs (Queensland Police said that they had been using it since 2009), and concerns were raised about their use for crowd control. However, before 2020, there was no use of the LRAD in public situations; most usage had been by the various police forces for communications during natural disasters or for negotiations with hostage-takers in a siege, where it was too dangerous to approach a suspect. In June 2020, during the Black Lives Matter protests in New South Wales, NSW Police used LRADs in a different way for the first time, and it has been used at other anti-racism protests in Australia.

The device came to the attention of the wider public when it was used at the 2022 anti-vaccine mandate Canberra protests in "loud hailer" mode for voice messages to be announced to the protesters, and there was speculation among protesters regarding purported harms from its use. However, there was no evidence that it was used as a siren. In addition, some reports appeared to confuse the LRAD with other crowd control devices, such as the Active Denial System; one activist claimed that "supersonic weapons" had been used.

### Czech Republic

On June 26, 2015, Czech Special Forces Police may have deployed an LRAD 500X during anti-immigration and anti-Islam protests in Brno, the second largest city in the Czech Republic.

Police in Prague used a vehicle-mounted LRAD on November 17, 2020, to repeatedly alert protesters on Wenceslas Square to follow COVID restrictions and wear masks. On that day, police supervised several rallies, meetings and demonstrations. Thousands of participants gathered at the largest protests in the Old Town Square. The police and a Prague City Hall representative used an LRAD to repeatedly call upon demonstrators to follow COVID public safety protocols and to comply with security measures.

During a November 25, 2021 march from the center of Prague to the local soccer stadium for a Europa Conference League match, Prague police and regional Czech law enforcement officers utilized vehicle mounted LRADs to broadcast frequent warnings against the use of pyrotechnics by the large crowds.

Prague police officers utilized a vehicle-mounted LRAD to issue more than 500 warnings to revelers not to set off pyrotechnics during downtown December 31, 2021 - January 1, 2022 New Year's Eve celebrations.

A vehicle-mounted LRAD was deployed by police in Prague on March 11, 2023, to communicate to and warn away demonstrators from the National Museum.

### Germany

In the first half of 2020, Bad Homburg's fire brigade and city police used an LRAD 100X system more than 60 times to deliver COVID-19 information.

### Greece

Hellenic Police acquired two LRAD systems to be used at the Evros border. These were tested after the March 2020 migrant crisis at the border, triggered by the Turkish government. They are to be used as a deterrent against illegal border entry, as a notification system, as well as to handle aggressive actions against the Hellenic Armed Forces.

### Japan

Japan's Coast Guard used Long Range Acoustic Devices and other methods to expel a North Korean fishing flotilla from its waters in September 2017.

In February 2009, the Japanese whaling fleet operating in Antarctic waters near Australia installed LRADs on their vessels. The device was used against activists of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. The Japanese fleet later escalated the use of LRAD, deploying it against a Sea Shepherd helicopter carrying a camera crew. Sea Shepherd noted that they had an LRAD of their own, but as of early 2010, had not put it into use other than to play a recording of "Ride of the Valkyries" in the manner of attacking U.S. Army helicopters depicted in the 1979 film *Apocalypse Now*.

### New Zealand

During the dispersion of New Zealand's parliament protest in March 2022, LRAD were used by New Zealand police against the protesters. A document released under the Official Information Act (OIA), revealed two long range acoustic devices (LRADs) were deployed at the Parliament protest on March 2.

### Poland

LRAD was present, but not used because of current legal regulations during protests in Poland, including Million Marijuana March 2011 and Marsz Niepodległości (National Independence Day March) 2011 and 2012. Lacking a way to utilize the LRADs purchased to their full potential sparked an investigation suspecting corruption behind their acquisition. National Police Headquarters spokesman Mariusz Sokolowski defended the purchase of LRAD. He also stressed that the police decided to make this investment because, "We needed good sound reinforcement equipment. With numerous demonstrations and gatherings, police need a public address system that allows you to reach thousands of people."

Municipal police in Gdańsk, Poznań, Kołobrzeg and other cities in Poland used LRAD systems to deliver COVID-19 notifications.

### Singapore

LRAD is used by the Singapore Changi Airport to disperse birds and wildlife from runways.

### Spain

Local police in Leganés, Spain used a vehicle-mounted LRAD to deliver alerts and notifications to residents during the country-wide COVID-19 lockdown. According to Citizen Security, Communication and local government spokesman, Oscar Oliveira, "Because the acoustic device can be heard inside of houses, we can inform older residents with mobility issues that all municipal resources are available through the Citizen Attention Service by calling 010."

### United Kingdom

It was confirmed by the Ministry of Defence on May 11, 2012, that an LRAD would be deployed in London during the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. It was spotted fixed to a landing craft on the River Thames.

### United States

An LRAD was present, but not used, during protests of the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City. LRAD was present and used when the New York City Police department raided and destroyed the Occupy Wall Street encampment from Zuccotti Park to disrupt and disperse the crowd before arresting or ejecting them on the morning of 15 November 2011. On December 5, 2014, the NYPD utilized an LRAD, notifying approximately 100 protestors to disperse, during the protest of the police killing of Eric Garner in Midtown Manhattan. The NYPD used a Long Range Acoustic Device during the Baltimore solidarity rally in Union Square on April 29, 2015. An NYPD pickup truck equipped with an LRAD parked near protesters and broadcast a looped warning message about staying off the streets and not blocking the sidewalks. Rochester NY police used verbal warnings and an LRAD to help disperse disorderly crowds during the August 2019 Puerto Rican Festival. Rochester, NY police used a Long Range Acoustic Device to make announcements to protesters that they were unlawfully in the roadway and obstructing traffic on September 12, 2020. The device was also used at the September 16, 2020 protest in front of Rochester city hall.

The Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Police Department used a LRAD at the January 21, 2017 Women's March. Protesters at the June 1, 2020 Washington, D.C. George Floyd protests said police gave little or no warning before employing aggressive tactics against them. A 2015 settlement requires federal police to give large crowds several loud dispersal orders before deploying chemical irritants and other dispersion tools. Using an LRAD to issue loud protest dispersal orders would have complied with the 2015 settlement requirement. In September 2020, it was revealed that federal officials had explored the use of the device and the Active Denial System ("heat ray") to disperse civilians protesting outside the White House in June of that year, but had been advised that the National Guard was not currently in possession of either device.

LRAD was reportedly used by the Oakland Police Department during the clearance of the Occupy Oakland encampment on the morning of 25 October 2011. Police in San Diego, California, used an LRAD on May 27, 2016, to order anti-Trump protesters to disperse. The Mendocino County (California) Board of Supervisors approved the purchase of a Long Range Acoustic Device for the Mendocino County Sheriff's Office on April 18, 2017. Sheriff Tom Allman said the device would aid in searches for missing persons, most often hunters and mushroom pickers, which cost the county tens of thousands of dollars. He said the LRAD might have made the intense 2011 manhunt for Aaron Bassler a little easier, and that it could be used to warn of a tsunami. MCSO found LRAD useful out of a low-flying plane, and it could help in a barricaded-person situation to communicate from the outside of the building.

The Greensboro, North Carolina Police Department (GPD) purchased an LRAD 300X and demonstrated it for reporters in November 2015. Jonathan Franks, a GPD captain, said that it could be used for alerts for everything from riots to missing children to weather disasters, and that it could save lives in some cases. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina Police Department Crisis Intervention Team and SWAT negotiators used a long-range acoustic device to talk a man down from an energized electrical tower.

The Phoenix, Arizona city council approved the purchase of two LRAD 500X systems in November 2018 "to give clear and concise messages to groups of people whenever we find it necessary". Police utilized a Long Range Acoustic device to declare an unlawful assembly in downtown Phoenix, Arizona, on May 28, 2020, during the George Floyd protests. Multiple announcements were made in English and Spanish.

The Salisbury, Maryland Police Department acquired an LRAD in October 2013 with proceeds from their speed cameras. On February 17, 2017, the Princess Anne Police Department deployed its LRAD system at the request of the Maryland State Police to disperse an unruly concert crowd on the campus of the University of Maryland Eastern Shore.

The Columbus, Ohio Police Department (CPD) demonstrated a Long Range Acoustic Device to the local media on November 21, 2016. CPD expects to use the device for crowd control, barricaded suspect operations, and to communicate to residents during emergencies and natural disasters. The Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Department purchased Long Range Acoustic Devices to improve the department's ability to issue dispersal orders clearly over long distances. The purchases resulted from the department's after-action report of the May 30, 2020 riot in downtown Cleveland, Ohio.

The Seattle Police Department in Washington purchased an LRAD in response to claims that it did not adequately communicate orders to demonstrators during the summer 2020 protests. SPD's use of its LRAD was alleged to have caused ear damage to a peaceful demonstrator, although an internal SPD review deemed the allegations to be unsustained. After receiving feedback from protesters who said commands from on-scene officers were not clear or loud enough, the Seattle, Washington mayor's office recommended purchasing an LRAD.

LRADs were used by the Pittsburgh PD in Pennsylvania during protests at the G20 Summit in September 2009. This was the first time the LRAD was used during a protest in the U.S.

LRAD was deployed during a march against NATO's actions and policies in Chicago, Illinois on May 20, 2012, at Michigan Ave. & Cermack.

St. Louis County police used LRAD during protests surrounding the police shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri.

Myrtle Beach, South Carolina police obtained two LRAD systems through a federal grant in March 2015. Myrtle Beach police captain Marty Brown told the Myrtle Beach city council that "his department is getting the LRADs to enhance their communication capabilities be it with large crowds or for emergency announcements such as evacuation orders."

The New Jersey State Police used an armored-vehicle-mounted LRAD to communicate with crowds denied entry to a June 7, 2015 concert after they began throwing bottles and tried to rush the gates outside MetLife Stadium.

Police from several agencies, including North Dakota state troopers, the National Guard, and other law enforcement agencies from surrounding counties and states deployed two LRADs to clear a protest camp and blockades along Highway 1806. "Long Range Acoustic Devices, which emit an ear-splitting whine, were used intermittently throughout the day" one reporter wrote. An LRAD was present again on November 20, 2016, at the bridge just north of the protesters camp on highway 1806.

During the same period, the LRAD was used at a protest in front of the Arkansas State Capitol.

The Portland Police Bureau in Oregon used a vehicle-mounted LRAD during the protests there following the murder of George Floyd on June 4, 2020, and on other occasions during the protests.

A BearCat-mounted LRAD was used to emit voice messages and high-pitched sirens in Kenosha, Wisconsin on August 24, 2020, in front of the Kenosha County Courthouse to disperse crowds assembled in Civic Center Park as part of the Jacob Blake protests.

On March 6, 2021, the Boulder Police Department used a toned warble noise from an LRAD in an effort to disperse a crowd of up to 800 students from the University of Colorado Boulder. The University Hill Incident occurred when code enforcement and members of Boulder Police's Neighborhood Impact Team were unable to disperse partygoers who were congregating against Boulders public health order. LRAD was used after students and other partygoers began throwing rocks at SWAT vehicles and officers.

On April 12, 2021, the Brooklyn Center, Minnesota Police Department deployed a vehicle mounted LRAD outside of its headquarters to announce curfew violations and dispersal orders to a large crowd protesting the death of Daunte Wright.

On July 3, 2021, Massachusetts State Police utilized an LRAD to secure a group of 11 suspects involved in the Sovereign Citizen movement. The group identified themselves as part of the "Rise of the Moors" movement, or "Moorish Americans". The self styled militia group was traveling between Rhode Island and Maine when an MSP trooper came across their convoy refueling. The group had multiple firearms in their possession, and admitted to not having proper carrying requirements. Several fled into the surrounding forest, at which point the LRAD was deployed. The group was taken into custody without further incident.

The Oklahoma County, Oklahoma Sheriff's Office Tactical Team used a vehicle-mounted LRAD on November 22, 2021, to serve a search warrant on a residence suspected of being used for drug trafficking.

## Mass notification

### Australia

Genasys has supplied its NEWS mass notification service in Australia since 2013, when it partnered with Nokia to deliver emergency notifications via SMS, following the disastrous consequences of the Black Saturday bushfires in 2009.

### United States

Menlo Park and Atherton, California police and fire officials attended a 'sound off' between a siren installation and an LRAD 360XT mobile voice mass notification system in April 2018. "The side by side test was very helpful and everyone agreed that the LRAD system completely outperformed the older siren system," said Fire District Emergency Manager Ryan Zollicoffer. "Not only because of the voice capability, but the modular-mobility benefit is something that appeals to first responders because it can be used for a variety of public safety purposes and better moved around if that's needed or desired."

The Menlo Park Fire District demonstrated its Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) community notification system on April 18, 2019. The fire district also showed how the ShakeAlert system could eventually be tied together with its LRAD to provide area wide audible alerts for earthquake, flood, fire and other emergencies. "ShakeAlert will notify and protect our Station firefighters, but we also believe coupled with the LRAD public address system, it can help to bridge the 'notification gap' as another important public safety tool and option for community early warning messaging for earthquakes as well as for fire and flooding information and evacuation signaling," said Fire Chief Harold Schapelhouman.

The City of Laguna Beach, California, installed LRAD speaker sirens in 2018. The systems alert the downtown and Main Beach areas during an emergency where the public needs to take immediate action.

In June 2019, Mill Valley, California, became the first city in the Bay Area to replace its sirens with LRAD community notification systems. The combined siren loudspeakers receive emergency messages via satellite and have backup batteries if the power fails.

The Mill Valley Fire Department began testing its city's new LRAD installations on June 27, 2019. LRAD systems project both siren and voice recordings to alert and inform community members during large-scale disasters. The Long Range Acoustic Devices replaced siren-only systems in five Mill Valley, California locations. "We believe that the purchase and installation of LRAD goes a long way to improve the resiliency and redundancy of our communication systems," Mill Valley Fire Chief Tom Welch said. "LRAD systems are highly effective in communicating warnings, instructions, and notifications throughout incident sites and over vast areas during life-threatening events."

The City of Newport Beach plans to spend $200,000 to replace three rusty tsunami warning sirens on the Balboa Peninsula with LRAD siren/public address systems. The LRAD systems are expected to be installed by the end of 2019.

In October 2020, Laguna Beach, California, tested its expanded outdoor warning system of 13 Long Range Acoustic Devices mounted on buildings throughout the city. The solar-powered devices broadcast recorded evacuation messages in case cell service is disabled during a disaster.

Seven new LRAD emergency siren systems are scheduled for installation in southern Marin County in 2022.

The Berkeley, California city council approved the installation of a Genasys outdoor warning system to alert residents of fires, earthquakes, tsunamis and other disasters. The system is capable of running on solar-powered battery backup and being controlled remotely via satellite.

Public safety officials in Berkeley, California unveiled the city's new Genasys emergency warning network during the September 17, 2023 Fire Ready Fest. Ten systems that broadcast both sirens and voice messages have been installed on buildings throughout Berkeley to provide another layer of reaching residents and visitors in the event of serious emergencies. Five more systems are projected to be installed by early 2024.

## High seas anti-piracy

On November 5, 2005, the luxury cruise ship *Seabourn Spirit* employed an LRAD to repel pirates who attacked the vessel with rocket-propelled grenades about 115 kilometres (71 mi) off the coast of Somalia. The effectiveness of this device during the attack is not completely clear, but the pirates did not succeed in boarding the vessel and eventually fled.

The Liberian-flagged vessel MV *Biscaglia* was attacked on November 28, 2008. The security detachment aboard *Biscaglia* was reported to have used an LRAD device in an effort to repel attackers armed with assault rifles and rocket-propelled grenades. Following a one-sided shootout, the ship was seized and the unarmed security contractors abandoned ship leaving the ship and crew to the pirates. The incident caused the usefulness of LRADs to be called into question by *Lloyd's List*. The security detachment's reported use of LRAD is not completely clear as *The Wall Street Journal* makes no mention of LRAD being used during the incident.

In January 2011, the *Spirit of Adventure*, a cruise ship sailing through the Indian Ocean, deployed an LRAD system as part of its defensive measures when being pursued by pirates.

S/Y Hideaway used an LRAD in 2016 to deter suspected pirates in the Gulf of Aden.

## Major users


title: List of Lambda Iota Tau chapters

abstract: Lambda Iota Tau was an international honor society for literature. It was founded at Michigan State University in 1953 and operated until it merged into Sigma Tau Delta in 2016. Following is an incomplete list Lambda Iota Tau chapters, with Inactive chapters and institutions indicated in italics.

text:
# List of Lambda Iota Tau chapters

Lambda Iota Tau was an international honor society for literature. It was founded at Michigan State University in 1953 and operated until it merged into Sigma Tau Delta in 2016. Following is an incomplete list Lambda Iota Tau chapters, with Inactive chapters and institutions indicated in *italics*.

| Chapter | Charter date and range | Institution | Location | Status | References |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *Alpha* | December 3, 1953 | Michigan State University | East Lansing, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Beta* | 1954 | Aquinas College | Grand Rapids, Michigan | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| Gamma | March 15, 1954 | University of Sioux Falls | Sioux Falls, South Dakota | Inactive |  |
| *Delta (Second ?)* | 1964 | Webber International University | Babson Park, Florida | Inactive |  |
| *Epsilon* (*First)* (see *Gamma Lambda*) | March 25, 1954 – 19xx ? | Purdue University | West Lafayette, Indiana | Reassigned, Reestablished |  |
| *Epsilon (Second)* | 1964 | University of South Dakota | Vermillion, South Dakota | Inactive, Reassigned |  |
| *Epsilon (Third)* |  | Brenau University | Gainesville, Georgia | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
|  | 1954 | Eastern Michigan University | Ypsilanti, Michigan | Inactive |  |
|  | 1954 | University of Detroit | Detroit, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Zeta (Second ?)* | 1968 | Kentucky Wesleyan College | Owensboro, Kentucky | Inactive |  |
| *Eta (Second ?)* | 1968 | University of Mary Washington | Fredericksburg, Virginia | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Theta (Second ?)* | 1968 | *Annhurst College* | South Woodstock, Connecticut | Inactive |  |
| *Iota (First)* | 1954 | *Marygrove College* | Detroit, Michigan | Inactive, Reassigned |  |
| *Iota (Second)* | 1965 | Morehead State University | Morehead, Kentucky | Inactive |  |
| *Lambda* | 1954 | Siena Heights University | Adrian, Michigan | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Mu* | May 1954 | Alma College | Alma, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Nu* | 1954–19xx ? | *Nazareth College* | Kalamazoo, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Xi* | 1960 | Madonna University | Livonia, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Omicron* | October 23, 1954 | Augsburg College | Minneapolis, Minnesota | Inactive |  |
| *Pi* | 1955 | Wheaton College | Wheaton, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Rho (Second ?)* | 1964 | *Tokyo Kyoiku University* | Tokyo, Japan | Inactive |  |
| *Sigma (Second ?)* | 1968 | Chicago State University | Chicago, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Tau* | February 1955 | Anna Maria College | Paxton, Massachusetts | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Upsilon* | 195x ? | Mount Saint Mary's University, Los Angeles | Los Angeles, California | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Phi (First)* | 195x ? | Murray State University | Murray, Kentucky | Inactive |  |
| *Phi (Second)* | 1977 | University of Pikeville | Pikeville, Kentucky | Inactive |  |
| *Chi* | 1955 | College of St. Scholastica | Duluth, Minnesota | Inactive |  |
| *Psi (Second ?)* | 1965 | Barry University | Miami Shores, Florida | Inactive |  |
| *Omega* | 1954 | Baldwin Wallace University | Berea, Ohio | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Alpha* | 195x ? | Adrian College | Adrian, Michigan | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Beta* | 1967 | Hillsdale College | Hillsdale, Michigan | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Gamma* (see *Beta Rho*) | 1965–196x ? | Rosary Hill College | Amherst, New York | Reestablished |  |
| *Alpha Delta* | 195x ? | University of Southern Mississippi | Hattiesburg, Mississippi | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Epsilon* | 1959 | Holy Family University | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Zeta* | 1956 | Fort Hays State University | Hays, Kansas | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Eta* | 1969 | University of St. Francis | Joliet, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Theta* | 1956 | Morgan State University | Baltimore, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Iota* | 1954 | West Virginia State University | Institute, West Virginia | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Kappa* | 1969 | Carroll University | Waukesha, Wisconsin | Inactve |  |
| *Alpha Lambda* | 1966 | Arkansas State University | Jonesboro, Arkansas | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Nu* | December 1969 | Centenary College of Louisiana | Shreveport, Louisiana | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Xi* | 1955 | Lambuth College | Jackson, Tennessee | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Omicron* | 1961 | Southern Illinois University | Carbondale, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Pi* | 1956 | John Carroll University | University Heights, Ohio | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Rho* | 1957 | Mount St. Mary's University | Emmitsburg, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Sigma* | 1957 | Gordon College | Wenham, Massachusetts | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Tau* | 1957 | Immaculata University | Immaculata, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Upsilon* | 1957 | Marian University | Indianapolis, Indiana | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Phi* | 1964 | Kansas Wesleyan University | Salina, Kansas | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Chi* | 19xx ? | Alumni Chapter |  | Inactive |  |
| *Alpha Psi* | 1964 | Geneva College | Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Alpha Omega* | 1964 | Florida Memorial University | Miami Gardens, Florida | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Alpha* | 1966 | *College of Saint Teresa* | Winona, Minnesota | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Beta* | 1967 | Tuskegee University | Tuskegee, Alabama | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Gamma* | 1969 | Carlow University | Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania | Inactve |  |
| *Beta Delta* | 1958 | Florida A&M University | Tallahassee, Florida | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Epsilon* | 1958 | Misericordia University | Dallas, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Zeta* | 1958 | La Salle University | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Eta (First)* | 1961 | Ladycliff College | Highland Falls, New York | Inactive, Reassigned |  |
| *Beta Eta (Second)* | 19xx ? | Elmira College | Elmira, New York | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Theta* | 1969 | Seattle Pacific University | Seattle, Washington | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Iota* | 1965 | Grove City College | Grove City, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Kappa* | 1964 | Shinshu University | Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Lambda* | 1964 | Marywood University | Scranton, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Mu* | 1956–1960; xxxx ? | Colorado State University | Fort Collins, Colorado | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Nu* | 1970 | Bethany College | Lindsborg, Kansas | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Omicron* | 1970 | *Wisconsin State College of Milwaukee* | Milwaukee, Wisconsin | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Pi* | 1970 | Columbus State University | Columbus, Georgia | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Rho* (see *Alpha Gamma*° | 1968 | Daemen College | Amherst, New York | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Sigma* | 1966 | Cabrini University | Radnor Township, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Beta Tau* | 1965 | Aichi University | Aichi Prefecture, Japan | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Phi* | 1966–c. 1974 | *Dominican College of Racine* | Racine, Wisconsin | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Chi* | 1966 | University of Illinois | Champaign–Urbana, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Beta Psi* | December 1967 | Utah State University | Logan, Utah | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Alpha* | 1966 | Grambling State University | Grambling, Louisiana | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Beta* | 1966 | Knoxville College | Knoxville, Tennessee | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Gamma* | 1967 | William Carey College | Hattiesburg, Mississippi | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Delta* | 1970 | Loras College | Dubuque, Iowa | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Epsilon* | 1966–19xx ?; 1981–2016 | Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts | North Adams, Massachusetts | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Zeta* | 1971 | Dickinson State University | Dickinson, North Dakota | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Eta* | 1971 | Westfield State University | Westfield, Massachusetts | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Theta* | 1970 | Georgia State University | Atlanta, Georgia | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Iota* | 1967 | Moravian University | Bethlehem, Pennsylvania | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Kappa* | 1971 | Tsuda University | Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Lambda* (see *Epsilon*) | 19xx ? | Purdue University | West Lafayette, Indiana | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Mu* | 1971 | University of Florida | Gainesville, Florida | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Nu* | 1971 | University of Evansville | Evansville, Indiana | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Xi* | 1971 | Hope College | Holland, Michigan | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Omicron* | 19xx ? | Presbyterian College | Clinton, South Carolina | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Pi* | 1972 | Molloy College | Rockville Centre, New York | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Rho* | 1972 | Ball State University | Muncie, Indiana | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Sigma* | 1972 | Marian University | Indianapolis, Indiana | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Tau* | 1972 | Florida State University | Tallahassee, Florida | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Upsilon* | 1972 | Bethany College | Bethany, West Virginia | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Phi* | 1972 | University of Alabama | Tuscaloosa, Alabama | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Chi* | 1973 | Fisk University | Nashville, Tennessee | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Gamma Psi* | 1973 | University of Tennessee | Knoxville, Tennessee | Inactive |  |
| *Gamma Omega* | 1973 | Maryville College | Maryville, Tennessee | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Alpha* | 1973 | Texas Southern University | Houston, Texas | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Beta* | 1973 | Towson University | Towson, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Gamma* | 1973 | Western Carolina University | Cullowhee, North Carolina | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Delta* | 1974 | Dillard University | New Orleans, Louisiana | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Zeta* | 1974 | St. Cloud State University | St. Cloud, Minnesota | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Eta* | 1974 | Shepherd University | Shepherdstown, West Virginia | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Theta* | 1974 | Worcester State University | Worcester, Massachusetts | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Iota* | 1974 | Delta State University | Cleveland, Mississippi | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Kappa* | 1975 | North Central College | Naperville, Illinois | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Lambda* | 1975 | University of Utah | Salt Lake City, Utah | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Mu* | 1975 | Montana State University | Bozeman, Montana | Inactive |  |
| *Delta Xi* |  | Coppin State University | Baltimore, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Omicron* |  | McDaniel College | Westminster, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Phi* |  | *Wesley College* | Dover, Delaware | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Chi* |  | Gwynedd Mercy University | Gwynedd Valley, Pennsylvania | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Delta Psi* |  | Salisbury University | Salisbury, Maryland | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Epsilon Alpha* |  | Newman University | Wichita, Kansas | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Epsilon Zeta* |  | Southern University and A&M College | Baton Rouge, Louisiana | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Epsilon Xi* |  | Northwestern Oklahoma State University | Enid, Oklahoma | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Eta Alpha* |  | Seattle University | Seattle, Washington | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |
| *Eta Theta* | 1966 | Longwood University | Farmville, Virginia | Merged (**ΣΤΔ**) |  |

1. Anson, Jack L. and Marchesani Jr. Robert F., eds. *Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities, 20h edition.* Indianapolis: Baird's Manual Foundation, 1991*.* pp. VI.39-VI.41*.* ISBN 0-9637159-0-9
2. Cameron, Olivia (April 17, 2019). "Honor society Sigma Tau Delta and its members spread their appreciation for the written word | The English Department". *Florida State University*. Retrieved 2024-08-22.
3. "Lambda Iota Tau Honor Society Chapters, ACHS". *Association of College Honor Societies*. February 13, 2006. Archived from the original on 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via web.archive.org.
4. "Active Chapters". *Lambda Iota Tau*. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via web.archive.org.
5. "Lambda Iota Tau Honor Society- Literature of all Languages - An ACHS Member Society". *Association of College Honor Societies*. January 31, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via web.archive.org.
6. "SFC Takes Part in Forming National Honorary Society". *Argus-Leader*. 1954-02-18. p. 5. Retrieved 2024-08-21.
7. "SFC Officials to Aid in Organizing National Society". *Argus-Leader*. Sioux Falls, South Dakota. 1954-03-04. p. 11. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
8. "National Honorary Installation Set". *Journal and Courier*. Lafayette, Indiana. 1954-03-24. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
9. "Literary Group Honorary Here". *Journal and Courier*. Lafayette, Indiana. 1954-03-20. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
10. "New Honor Group at Marygrove". *Detroit Free Press*. 1954-04-02. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
11. "Honoredat College". *Traverse City Record-Eagle*. 1954-05-08. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
12. "Shirley Richard Joins Literary Honor Group". *The Republican*. Springfield, Massachusetts. 1955-02-10. p. 23. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
13. "Augsburg Installs New Honor Group". *Star Tribune*. Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1954-10-25. p. 25. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
14. "Lambda Iota Tau -- Active Chapters Page". *Association of College Honor Societies*. Archived from the original on 2001-07-10. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via web.archive.org.
15. "USM Chapter of Literature Honorary is Tops in Nation". *Hattiesburg American*. Hattiesburg, Mississippi. 1968-03-02. p. 7. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
16. "College Corner". *The Times*. Hammond, Indiana. 1959-03-01. p. 71. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
17. "Gayle French Chosen for Lambda Iota Tau". *The Jena Times Olla-Tullos Signal*. 1969-12-18. p. 11. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
18. "Honor Fraternity Received Members". *The Jackson Sun*. Jackson, Tennessee. 1958-10-24. p. 5. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
19. "Dr. Blackwell Gets New Post". *Tallahassee Democrat*. 1972-06-07. p. 44. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.
20. "Applications Being Accepted for USU Literary Society". *Student Life*. Logan, Utah. 1967-12-04. p. 5. Retrieved 2024-08-21  via Newspapers.com.
21. Foster, Idalis (April 20, 2016). "Honor societies highlight students academic achievements". *The Beacon*. Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. Archived from the original on 2016-06-17. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via web.archive.org.
22. "Honor Society Established at Dillard U." *The Louisiana Weekly*. New Orleans, Louisiana. 1972-02-26. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-08-22  via Newspapers.com.


title: Yoshikiyo

abstract: Yoshikiyo Koganei Yoshikiyo is a masculine Japanese given name.

text:
# Yoshikiyo

**Yoshikiyo** is a masculine Japanese given name.

## Possible writings

**Yoshikiyo** can be written using many different combinations of kanji characters. Here are some examples:

* 義清, "justice, pure"
* 義潔, "justice, pure"
* 佳清, "skilled, pure"
* 佳潔, "skilled, pure"
* 善清, "virtuous, pure"
* 善潔, "virtuous, pure"
* 吉清, "good luck, pure"
* 吉潔, "good luck, pure"
* 良清, "good, pure"
* 良潔, "good, pure"
* 恭清, "respectful, pure"
* 嘉清, "excellent, pure"
* 嘉潔, "excellent, pure"
* 能清, "capacity, pure"
* 喜清, "rejoice, pure"
* 芳清, "fragrant/virtuous, pure"
* 義紀代, "justice, chronicle, generation"

The name can also be written in hiragana よしきよ or katakana ヨシキヨ.

## Notable people with the name

## InfoBox

Yoshikiyo
| Yoshikiyo Koganei (1859–1944), Japanese anatomist and anthropologist | |
| --- | --- |
| Pronunciation | joɕikʲijo (IPA) |
| Gender | Male |
| Origin | |
| Word/name | Japanese |
| Meaning | Different meanings depending on the kanji used |
| Other names | |
| Alternative spelling | Yosikiyo (Kunrei-shiki) Yosikiyo (Nihon-shiki)<br>Yoshikiyo (Hepburn) |


title: Estonia at the 2017 World Games

abstract: Estonia competed at the World Games 2017 in Wroclaw, Poland, from 20 July 2017 to 30 July 2017.

text:
# Estonia at the 2017 World Games

**Estonia** competed at the **World Games 2017** in Wroclaw, Poland, from 20 July 2017 to 30 July 2017.

## Competitors

| Sports | Men | Women | Total | Events |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Cue sports | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| Dance sports | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| Orienteering | 2 | 2 | 4 | 5 |
|
| Total | 4 | 3 | 7 | 7 |

## Cue sports

## Dance sport

## Orienteering

## InfoBox

| Estonia at the
World Games 2017 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| IOC code | EST |
| in Wroclaw, Poland
20 July 2017 – 30 July 2017 | |
| Competitors | 7 in 3 sports |
| Medals | Gold 0 Silver 0 Bronze 0 Total 0 |
| World Games appearances | |
|  | |


title: Takaaki Kidani

abstract: Takaaki Kidani is a Japanese video game developer and entrepreneur born in Kanazawa, Japan. He is the founder, CEO and president of Bushiroad. Kidani has also served as the chairman of New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). He continues to be involved with NJPW through Bushiroad, in which owns the company.

text:
# Takaaki Kidani

**Takaaki Kidani** (木谷 高明, *Kidani Takaaki*, born June 6, 1960) is a Japanese video game developer and entrepreneur born in Kanazawa, Japan. He is the founder, CEO and president of Bushiroad. Kidani has also served as the chairman of New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). He continues to be involved with NJPW through Bushiroad, in which owns the company.

## Early life

After Kidani graduated from Musashi University with a degree in economics, he worked at Yamaichi Securities. He handled American duties.

## Broccoli

Kidani formerly from Yamaichi Securities in 1994. On March 25 of the same year, he founded Broccoli as a startup company. At first, his business focused on event management, but from 1994 to 1998, he started Comic Castle for dōjinshi. In 1996, he established his first chain of retail stores Gamers. His company has its center focus on anime and video games. Their company performance increased after producing the anime series Di Gi Charat and his company was then listed on the JASDAQ Securities Exchange.

## Bushiroad

He founded Bushiroad in May 2007 as a company that produces card games and assumed the position of president. The origin of the name Bushiroad comes from the failure to make *Neppu Kairiku Bushi Road* into a film due to various reasons when he led the project in the days of Broccoli. The film was restarted in March 2013 with Kidani as the executive producer. The company would create numerous media franchises including *Tantei Opera Milky Holmes* and *BanG Dream!*.

On October 2, 2017, Bushiroad announced that Kidani would be stepping down as the company's Representative Director on October 20 and joining its board of directors.

## Awards

1. "木谷高明 初の著書「煽動者 ～徹底プロモーション 仕掛人の哲学～」". Retrieved 2014-08-01.
2. "新日本プロレス木谷高明取締役会長が辞意を表明。「これからはブシロードグループとして外側からサポートして行く」". Retrieved 2017-01-19.
3. Kidani, Takaaki (November 6, 2018). "ブシロード 木谷高明が語る、『バンドリ！』プロジェクトの軌跡と未来 「何十年も続く作品にしたい」" \[Bushiroad's Takaaki Kitani talks about BanG Dream!'s project trajectory and future: "I want to make a work that will last for decades"\] (Interview) (in Japanese). Interviewed by Kenji Sunaga. Real Sound. Retrieved March 14, 2020.
4. "代表木谷の代表取締役退任について". *Bushiroad* (in Japanese). 2017-10-02. Retrieved 2017-10-04.
5. Meltzer, Dave (January 26, 2015). "Jan. 26, 2015 Wrestling Observer Newsletter: 2014 awards issue w/ results & Dave's commentary, Conor McGregor, and much more". *Wrestling Observer Newsletter*. Campbell, California. p. 33. ISSN 1083-9593.

## InfoBox

| Takaaki Kidani | |
| --- | --- |
| 木谷 高明 | |
|  | |
| Born | (1960-06-06) June 6, 1960<br>Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan |
| Nationality | Japanese |
| Alma mater | Musashi University |
| Occupation(s) | Video game developer, entrepreneur |


title: Liberia National Union

abstract: The Liberia National Union (LINU) is a political party in Liberia. It was formed by Dr. Harry Moniba, who served as Vice President of Liberia from 1984 to 1990. Moniba also helped to create the multi-party election system that the country currently uses. He served as LINU's first standard bearer as well. It participated in the 11 October 2005 elections as part of the three-party United Democratic Alliance (UDA) coalition. Dr. Clarence K. Moniba, the leader of the Liberian National Union (LINU), announced on Thursday, January 19, 2023 at 5 AM his intention to run for the presidency in the 2023 elections.

text:
# Liberia National Union

The **Liberia National Union** (**LINU**) is a political party in Liberia. It was formed by Dr. Harry Moniba, who served as Vice President of Liberia from 1984 to 1990. Moniba also helped to create the multi-party election system that the country currently uses. He served as LINU's first standard bearer as well. It participated in the 11 October 2005 elections as part of the three-party United Democratic Alliance (UDA) coalition.

Dr. Clarence K. Moniba, the leader of the Liberian National Union (LINU), announced on Thursday, January 19, 2023 at 5 AM his intention to run for the presidency in the 2023 elections.


title: Paracossulus thrips

abstract: Paracossulus thrips is a species of moth of the family Cossidae. It is found in Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey. The habitat consists of exclaves of open steppe vegetation on sands or loess and xerophilous grasslands on alkaline substrates. The larvae bore the roots of Artemisia species.

text:
# Paracossulus thrips

***Paracossulus thrips*** is a species of moth of the family Cossidae. It is found in Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey. The habitat consists of exclaves of open steppe vegetation on sands or loess and xerophilous grasslands on alkaline substrates.

The larvae bore the roots of *Artemisia* species.

## InfoBox

| *Paracossulus thrips* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Cossidae |
| Genus: | ***Paracossulus***
Schoorl, 1990 |
| Species: | ***P. thrips*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Paracossulus thrips***
(Hübner, 1818) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Bombyx thrips* Hübner, 1818 * *Catopta thrips* * *Hypopta thrips* * *Cossus fuchsiana* Eversmann, 1832 * *Cossus kindermanni* Freyer, 1836 * *Catopta thrips polonica* Daniel, 1953 | |


title: Masajiro Miyazaki

abstract: Masajiro Miyazaki, CM was a Canadian osteopathic physician who practised in Vancouver prior to World War II. During World War II, he was appointed as a coroner by the British Columbia Provincial Police in the town of Lillooet, British Columbia. In addition to coroner's duties he also served as effective general practitioner in the Lillooet area, including for the area's four wartime "self-supporting centres". Miyazaki's practice also included the Japanese Canadian internment camp at Taylor Lake. Towards the end of his life, Miyazaki was recognized for his services to the community, which included founding the local ambulance service and instigating a proper hospital for Lillooet, by being enrolled in the Order of Canada.

text:
# Masajiro Miyazaki

**Masajiro Miyazaki**, CM (November 24, 1899 – July 23, 1984) was a Canadian osteopathic physician who practised in Vancouver prior to World War II. During World War II, he was appointed as a coroner by the British Columbia Provincial Police in the town of Lillooet, British Columbia. In addition to coroner's duties he also served as effective general practitioner in the Lillooet area, including for the area's four wartime "self-supporting centres". Miyazaki's practice also included the Japanese Canadian internment camp at Taylor Lake. Towards the end of his life, Miyazaki was recognized for his services to the community, which included founding the local ambulance service and instigating a proper hospital for Lillooet, by being enrolled in the Order of Canada.

## Early life

Miyazaki was born in the vicinity of Hikone City in Japan and moved to Canada in 1913 with his father. Graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1925, he was unable to pursue medical training in Canada due to laws preventing post-secondary study by Japanese Canadians and pursued study in the United States, at the Kirksville College of Osteopathy and Surgery in Missouri, graduating in 1929. Dr. Miyazaki received his licence to practise from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia but pursued further training in Los Angeles, ultimately opening an office in Vancouver in 1930. During his time in Vancouver he was active in Japanese Canadian community affairs, and served as treasurer of the Canadian Japanese Association from 1938 to 1941.

## World War II

### Japanese relocation

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Empire on December 7, 1941, wartime paranoia led to the forced evacuation of Japanese and Canadians of Japanese ancestry away from the British Columbia coast to the province's interior and beyond to other provinces farther east. One of the sites chosen for these relocations was a semi-abandoned hydroelectric-development village at Shalalth (then known as Bridge River), one of them at East Lillooet in the Fraser Canyon, across the Fraser River from the town of Lillooet; Miyazaki was first relocated to Bridge River and then upon his appointment as coroner was moved to the town of Lillooet. Other sites in the area were at Minto City, McGillivray Falls. These were not fenced internment camps, like the infamous one at Tashme, and mostly included family groups who had been able to "buy" a better situation in the Interior, with some chance of work, although comings-and-goings were still regulated by police and permits. Many of the Japanese at the "Bridge River" townsite worked for the Pacific Great Eastern Railway and the cartage companies, while those at McGillivray Falls relocated to nearby Devine to work in a sawmill. At Lillooet, the presence of the Japanese helped keep the wartime merchant economy going, and the Japanese interest in market gardening helped rebirth the valley's small produce industry.

### Career in Lillooet

One of the relocatees at Bridge River was Masajiro Miyazaki, a Canadian-trained osteopath whose practice had been thriving in Vancouver before the war. When the town of Lillooet's doctor died and a wartime replacement was not to be had to perform autopsies, the town's provincial costabulary recruited Miyazaki to act in the capacity of coroner.

Special permits were created to allow him to stay in Lillooet instead of at Bridge River. This position quickly evolved into that of all-around town-and-country doctor, dentist and obstetrician, with patients throughout the whole region from Pemberton-Mount Currie to Pavilion and Lytton.

Miyazaki's practice also included the Japanese-Canadian internment camp at Taylor Lake, northeast of 70 Mile House, a long distance away via the tortuous roads of the Fraser Canyon and the Thompson Canyon. His autobiography, *My Sixty Years In Canada*, contains many accounts of harrowing trips on mountain roads and rail lines in difficult weather and adverse conditions.

### Miyazaki House

Miyazaki was invited to use as his surgery and residence Longford House, a late 19th-century manor near the main street owned by one of the town's oldest families (see Caspar Phair). Like many of the relocated Japanese in this district, Miyazaki stayed on after the war and became a major community leader during the 1950s, leading the campaign for a local ambulance service and proper hospital  despite longstanding resistance from the provincial medical establishment over his qualifications, as he was only an osteopath and not a medical doctor.

In 1983, after Miyazaki donated the property to the community when he left Lillooet that year, Longford House was renamed Miyazaki House. The house remains open as a heritage site for tours and still exhibits Miyazaki's office as he left it. His office still contains all original articles, including surgical instruments, medical texts, and skeletal displays. The house also has displays of local artwork and the history of the house before Miyazaki moved there.

## Order of Canada

Towards the end of his life, Miyazaki was recognized for his services to the community by being enrolled in the Order of Canada, an honour shared by one of Lillooet's other notable citizens, Kansas-born Margaret Lally "Ma" Murray.

His Order of Canada commendation reads:

C.M. (Member) December 15, 1976 April 20, 1977

> Retired osteopath who, over a period of 35 years, has given unselfish service to the residents of Lillooet, British Columbia, particularly those of Japanese and Indian backgrounds and who continues to serve his community in spite of ill health.

Miyazaki died of an infection in Kamloops, British Columbia on July 23, 1984.

### Archives

There is a Masajiro Miyazaki fonds at Library and Archives Canada. The archival reference number is R3948.

## InfoBox

| Masajiro Miyazaki | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Canadian |
| Education | Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine |
| Alma mater | University of British Columbia, Kirksville College of Osteopathy and Surgery |
| Occupation(s) | Physician, coroner |


title: Lombard locks

abstract: The Lombard locks were fortification systems that were built at the mouth of valleys on the Italian side of the Alps in ancient times to prevent the invasion of the Po Valley by forces from the rest of Europe. Inherited and consolidated by the Lombards, the Lombard locks were located at the mouth of the Susa valley in the region of the present-day municipality of Chiusa di San Michele. The alpine locks were seldom stone walls; more usually they were sets of minor defensive structures which were arranged to reinforce existing natural obstacles. They are famed for the victory of the Franks led by Charlemagne at the beginning of his Italian campaign against the Lombard king Desiderius in 773, which was recounted by Alessandro Manzoni in Adelchi. Charlemagne's army met the fortifications of Desiderius, but his scouting forces found an alternate route and attacked the defenders from the east. The route Charlemagne used is now a hiking trail known locally as the Path of the Franks. A plaque commemorating the event has been placed in the centre of Conte Verde castle in the village of Condove (Turin).

text:
# Lombard locks

The **Lombard locks** were fortification systems that were built at the mouth of valleys on the Italian side of the Alps in ancient times to prevent the invasion of the Po Valley by forces from the rest of Europe.

Inherited and consolidated by the Lombards, the Lombard locks were located at the mouth of the Susa valley in the region of the present-day municipality of Chiusa di San Michele.

The alpine locks (Latin: *clusae langobardorum*) were seldom stone walls; more usually they were sets of minor defensive structures which were arranged to reinforce existing natural obstacles.

They are famed for the victory of the Franks led by Charlemagne at the beginning of his Italian campaign against the Lombard king Desiderius in 773, which was recounted by Alessandro Manzoni in Adelchi (Act II, scene III). Charlemagne's army met the fortifications of Desiderius, but his scouting forces found an alternate route and attacked the defenders from the east. The route Charlemagne used is now a hiking trail known locally as the *Path of the Franks*. A plaque commemorating the event has been placed in the centre of *Conte Verde* castle in the village of Condove (Turin).

## Archeology

The town of Chiusa di San Michele has always been identified as the site of the fortifications. The reason for this is the topography of the Susa Valley, which is at its narrowest point of its lower section, specifically along a south-north line running from the hamlet of Borgo Pracchio di Chiusa di San Michele on the south side of the valley, to the area of the Conte Verde Castle in the municipality of Condove on the north side.

While some structures built along the Praocchio brook in Chiusa di San Michele have traditionally been regarded as Lombard, their origin is unclear. There is a some evidence of fortification along this imaginary line, but near the central Piazza della Repubblica, has raised the doubts of archaeologists. In a room below a deconsecrated chapel, known as St. Joseph's, ancient walls have been found, of uncertain date, but which may hint at an early medieval fortification, possibly a tower with four corner turrets. It is a square room, with chamfered corners on the four corners suggesting small turrets two metres in diameter.

### Citations

### Bibliography

* Barello, F.; Ferrero, L.; Uggé, S. (2013). "Evidenze archeologiche in Valle di Susa: acquisizioni, bilanci, prospettive di ricerca" \[Archaeological evidence in the Susa Valley: acquisitions, analysis, research perspectives\]. *Segusium* (in Italian) (52).
* *Itinerari di cultura e natura alpina Valle di Susa* (in Italian). Borgone Susa, Turin, Italy: Progetto Tesori d'Arte e Cultura Alpina. 2010.

## InfoBox

Lombard locks
| Chiuse longobarde | |
| --- | --- |
| Location | Chiusa di San Michele, Piedmont, Itay |
| Coordinates | 45°06′N 7°19′E / 45.100°N 7.317°E / 45.100; 7.317 |
| Type | Linear fortification |
| History | |
| Periods | VII Century |
| Events | Charlemain's conquest of the Lombard kingdom |
| Site notes | |
| Condition | Exact location uncertain |


title: List of Korn member solo projects

text:
# List of Korn member solo projects

Most of the members of the nu metal band Korn have their own solo projects of various genres.

## Fear and the Nervous System

**Fear and the Nervous System** is an experimental, industrial rock band formed by Munky in 2008.

Members Other contributors

## Fieldy

Fieldy released the album *Bassically* on November 17, 2017. He stated in an interview that the album is jazz funk fusion, completely instrumental and "nothing like Korn". "A Song for Chi", an instrumental collaboration between various rock and metal musicians, was released under Fieldy's name in August 2009.

## Fieldy's Dreams

**Fieldy's Dreams** is a rap project by Fieldy. The album *Rock'n Roll Gangster* was released on January 22, 2002, featuring the single "Are You Talking to Me".

Despite some controversy and a lengthy departure from Korn, Head has recorded his own solo album entitled *Save Me from Myself*. It was released back in 2008, three years after his departure from the band. "Flush" and "Re-Bel" were released as singles. In February 2012, Welch announced that he was re-branding his solo project Love And Death.

## JDevil

JDevil (also J Devil) (Jonathan Davis of Korn and Jonathan Davis and the SFA fame) is the EDM (electronic dance music) producer, DJ alter ego of Jonathan Davis.

## Jonathan Davis and the SFA

**Jonathan Davis and the SFA** is an experimental rock project formed by Jonathan Davis in 2007. Jonathan wanted to do a solo tour ever since he wrote the songs for the 2002 film, *Queen of the Damned*, he was finally able to do so which in turn formed this project.

Members

## Killbot

Killbot is an American electronic dance music trio formed in January 2012. The lineup includes JDevil (Jonathan Davis producer, DJ alter ego), Tyler Blue, and Sluggo (Nick Suddarth).

## Sexual Gyrations of the Universe

**Sexual Gyrations of the Universe** is Jonathan Davis and Korn back-up vocalist Kalen Chase's side project. Jonathan previewed some songs from the project on his live webcast off of his official website. Working titles include "Anal Butterfly" and "Gay-Sex". It is currently unknown if anything from this project will be released to the public.

Members * Jonathan Davis - vocals, multi-instruments
* Kalen Chase - vocals, multi-instruments

## StillWell

**StillWell** is a rapcore collaboration between rapper Q-Unique and Fieldy formed in early 2006. They put out their first single, "Killing Myself to Live", in October 2007. StillWell's first album *Dirtbag* was released on May 10, 2011.

Members * Q-Unique – vocals
* Fieldy – guitars, production
* Sleeve – guitars
* Chiva – bass
* Wuv – drums


title: Tuena

abstract: Tuena is a town in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia, in Upper Lachlan Shire. It is located on Tuena Creek, tributary of the Abercrombie River, 269 km (167 mi) west of the state capital, Sydney. At the 2016 census, Tuena and the surrounding area had a population of 59. Only nine months after the first payable discovery of gold in Australia at Ophir, gold was found at Tuena.

text:
# Tuena

**Tuena** is a town in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia, in Upper Lachlan Shire. It is located on Tuena Creek, tributary of the Abercrombie River, 269 km (167 mi) west of the state capital, Sydney. At the 2016 census, Tuena and the surrounding area had a population of 59.

Only nine months after the first payable discovery of gold in Australia at Ophir (start of the Australian gold rushes), gold was found at Tuena.

## History

The site was first explored by Dr. Charles Throsby in 1819, with the first landholder, Samuel Blackman, arriving in 1836. In May 1859, Tuena was formally declared a town. It was surveyed and streets were laid out, although with the exception of Bathurst Road, little of the original town plan is evident today.

Gold was discovered at Tuena in November 1851, although gold had been discovered on the Abercrombie River (the Tarshish Diggings), 10 km north some months earlier. The following extract from a contemporary newspaper announces the discovery at Tuena.

> Bathurst Free Press and Mining Journal (Newspaper), 15 November 1851: —
>
> *On the latter part of last week, news arrived on the river, and was quickly circulated through the surrounding country that very, rich diggings had been discovered on Tuena Creek, at one of Mr. Smith's sheep stations, known by the name of the Sapling Hut. He proceeded to the place and found a body of men very busily engaged digging up the bed of one of his sheep-yards and procuring gold in abundance*.

Rapid growth due to the gold rush saw construction of many buildings, a post office and police station in 1852, three pubs including the Goldfields Inn (1866), Parson's store, a courthouse (1860s) and a school (1860). The current school dates only to 1889.

During the years of gold mining, the town received a boost from the discovery of copper and silver ore with some gold, around 1884, at what became the Mount Costigan Mine, to the east of Tuena. The mine closed for the first time in April 1889, to raise more capital, and production resumed later in the same year. The mine was closed again by March 1892. After that the mine seems to have been worked sporadically, by various owners, on a small scale. The last attempt to reopen the mine seems to have been in 1927.

During the 1930s, gold was mined using a gold dredge on Tuena Creek.

The town's last hotel, The Goldfilds Inn, formerly the Tuena Hotel, closed in 2012.

The town also boasts three churches \- St. Mark's Anglican (1886), thought to be the oldest timber 'miner's church' still standing, the stone St. Margaret's Presbyterian (1890), and St. Mary's Catholic Church in 1896 (built of bricks from the old Cordillera mine).

The heavily forested and mountainous countryside, nearby Abercrombie Caves, and presence of the goldfields made Tuena an attraction for bushrangers including Ben Hall, Frank Gardiner, John Vane, Johnny Gilbert, John O'Meally, Cummins, and Lowry.

## InfoBox

| Tuena<br>New South Wales | |
| --- | --- |
| Goldfields Inn | |
| Tuena | |
| Coordinates | 34°02′S 149°20′E / 34.033°S 149.333°E / -34.033; 149.333 |
| Population | 59 (2016 census) |
| Postcode(s) | 2583 |
| Elevation | 490 m (1,608 ft) |
| Location |  |
| LGA(s) | Upper Lachlan Shire |
| Region | Southern Tablelands |
| County | Georgiana |
| Parish | Yarraman |
| State electorate(s) | Goulburn |
| Federal division(s) | Hume |
| **Localities around Tuena:**  Bigga Abercrombie River Jeremy  Bigga Tuena Peelwood  Bigga Crooked Corner Peelwood | |


title: Taipei Gymnasium

abstract: The Taipei Gymnasium is a gymnasium in Songshan District, Taipei, Taiwan.

text:
# Taipei Gymnasium

The **Taipei Gymnasium** (traditional Chinese: 臺北體育館; simplified Chinese: 台北体育馆; pinyin: *Táiběi Tǐyùguǎn*) is a gymnasium in Songshan District, Taipei, Taiwan.

## History

The gymnasium was opened in 1994 and renovated in 2008.

## Architecture

The gymnasium is housed in a 7-story building with a total floor area of 5,128 m2. It consists of facilities and equipment for ball games, conference room, audio center, classrooms for martial arts and aerobic, offices, badminton and billiard room. Ball games area has 1,340 seating capacity and badminton area has 1,000 seating capacity. The building also consists of two basement floors.

## Sporting events

Several major sporting events had been fully or partially held in Taipei Gymnasium, such as:

## Transport

The gymnasium is accessible from Taipei Arena Station of the Taipei Metro.

## InfoBox

Taipei Gymnasium
| 臺北體育館 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | Songshan, Taipei, Taiwan |
| Coordinates | 25°03′04.7″N 121°33′07.5″E / 25.051306°N 121.552083°E / 25.051306; 121.552083 |
| Owner | Taipei City Government |
| Type | gymnasium |
| Capacity | 2,300 visitors |
| Opened | 1994 |


title: Payroll automation

abstract: Payroll automation refers to the use of computers to produce paychecks and manage benefit payments for a company or community. Often, payroll automation is integrated into the company's enterprise resource planning system that provides an overall view of the company's or community's finances; in addition to payroll, it can manage customer relationships, production, personnel resources, invoicing and accounting.

text:
# Payroll automation

**Payroll automation** refers to the use of computers to produce paychecks and manage benefit payments for a company or community. Often, payroll automation is integrated into the company's enterprise resource planning system that provides an overall view of the company's or community's finances; in addition to payroll, it can manage customer relationships, production, personnel resources, invoicing and accounting.

## Payroll activities

Payroll management consists of several stages and procedures that require expertise in financial administration, such as employment contract management. Payroll management performs the following tasks:

* Timekeeping: knowing hours worked, and when (to know when overtime pay applies)
* Calculating and paying wages, settlement of tax withholdings
* Delivery of wage calculations and certificates to the employees
* Compiling statistics for different authorities, and for the purposes of improving activities
* Drawing up employment contracts
* Providing regulatory reports to the tax agencies and insurance companies
* Calculating annual holidays
* Managing deductions for employee benefits

The travel costs and travel invoices from the employees are usually processed together with payroll.

## Methods

Payroll functions can be automated using software to facilitate the collection, organization and storage of all information required for payroll calculations and regulatory agency reportage requirements. If the payroll software is not purchased as part of a comprehensive business management system, it can usually be combined with the company's existing solutions for accounting, sales ledger, working hour management and recruiting. Information that has been captured in one part of the system can be used by other modules. Hours registered in the work management system, for example, are automatically transferred to the wage calculation system.

## Benefits

Effective payroll automation collects all relevant information in one place in electronic format, reducing mistakes by eliminating the need to synchronize and manage otherwise duplicate data sets.

Well planned, modern payroll software provides the following benefits:

* It considers collective labor agreements and employer-specific procedures and exceptions.
* It provides a breakdown of the allowances and other bases for wages in the report, with dedicated rows for each day, week and month.
* It automatically follows the legislated accounting and calculation rules in the calculation of annual holidays.
* It manages the drawing up, posting, archiving and reporting of travel invoices.
* When combined with work shift management software, it can utilize data concerning working hours, overtime, allowances, holidays and absences.

## Sources and references


title: Paracossus furcatus

abstract: Paracossus furcatus is a moth in the family Cossidae. It is found in Burma.

text:
# Paracossus furcatus

***Paracossus furcatus*** is a moth in the family Cossidae. It is found in Burma.

## InfoBox

| *Paracossus furcatus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Cossidae |
| Genus: | *Paracossus* |
| Species: | ***P. furcatus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Paracossus furcatus***<br>Hampson, 1904 | |
|


title: Masak Hijau banana

abstract: Masak Hijau bananas are triploid banana cultivars from Malaysia. It is a member of the commercially important Cavendish banana subgroup. It is a popular banana cultivar in Southeast Asia and the West Indies. It is also known widely as Lacatan in Latin America and the West Indies, but should not be confused with the Philippine cultivar Lakatan. Other common names include Monte Cristo, Giant Fig, Bungulan, and Mestiça, among others.

text:
# Masak Hijau banana

**Masak Hijau** bananas are triploid banana cultivars from Malaysia. It is a member of the commercially important Cavendish banana subgroup. It is a popular banana cultivar in Southeast Asia and the West Indies.

It is also known widely (and erroneously) as **Lacatan** in Latin America and the West Indies, but should not be confused with the Philippine cultivar Lakatan. Other common names include **Monte Cristo**, **Giant Fig**, **Bungulan**, and **Mestiça**, among others.

## Description

The Masak Hijau banana is one of the tallest Cavendish clones, with the pseudostem reaching heights of 12 to 15 ft (3.7 to 4.6 m) tall. It produces bunches consisting of 6 to 12 hands, each with 12 to 20 fingers. The fruits range from 2 to 2.5 cm (0.79 to 0.98 in) in diameter, and 15 to 25 cm (5.9 to 9.8 in) in length. The fruits ripen when the skin is light green to yellow-green, like other Cavendish cultivars.

## Taxonomy

The Masak Hijau banana is a triploid (AAA) cultivar of the Cavendish banana subgroup. Its official designation is *Musa acuminata* (AAA Group) 'Masak Hijau'.

Masak Hijau is also erroneously called "Lacatan" in Latin America and the West Indies. To avoid confusion with the true Lakatan bananas from the Philippines, the latter is usually spelled with a 'k' in botanical literature, while Masak Hijau is usually spelled with a 'c' (Lacatan) or simply called "Jamaican Lacatan".

Other common names for the cultivar in Southeast Asia include "Pisang Buai" and "Pisang Embun Lumut" in Malaysia; "Pisang Ambon Lumut" in Indonesia; "Bungulan" or "Bongolan" in the Philippines; "Kluai Hom Kiau" in Thailand; "Thihmwe in Myanmar; and "Chuoi Tieu Cao #1" in Vietnam. In the Americas it is also known as "Monte Cristo" in Puerto Rico; "Giant Fig", "Bout Rond", and "Congo" in the West Indies; and "Mestiça" in Brazil. In Oceania it is known as "Hamakua" in Hawaii; "Amoa Kauare" in the Cook Islands; and "Viemama" in Fiji.

## InfoBox

| *Musa acuminata* 'Masak Hijau' | |
| --- | --- |
| Species | *Musa acuminata* |
| Cultivar group | Cavendish subgroup of the AAA Group |
| Cultivar | 'Masak Hijau' |
| Origin | Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam |


abstract: The London Agreement on German External Debts, also known as the London Debt Agreement, was a debt relief treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and creditor nations. The Agreement was signed in London on 27 February 1953, and came into force on 16 September 1953.

text:
# London Agreement on German External Debts

The **London Agreement on German External Debts**, also known as the **London Debt Agreement** (German: *Londoner Schuldenabkommen*), was a debt relief treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and creditor nations. The Agreement was signed in London on 27 February 1953, and came into force on 16 September 1953.

## Overview

On 24 May 1951, the US and UK Departments of Foreign Affairs respectively, informed the Allied Countries involved in the settlement, about a new arrangement regarding Germany's External Debts. The content of the dispatch made the main points of discussion clear from the start. The dispatch contained the following texts.

> "4. The three Governments, in order to make an overall settlement of German debts possible, are prepared to modify the priority of their claims in respect of the post-war economic assistance which they furnished to Germany, on condition that the settlement plan is acceptable to them."

> "5. The arrangements contemplated relate to Germany's pre-war public and private indebtedness and to the German debt arising out of post-war economic assistance; they do not relate to claims arising out of the war which can only be dealt with in connexion with a peace treaty."

In response to the Allies, Adenauer informed them about Germany’s desire to repay its debts. The Conference on German External Debts (also known as the London Debt Conference) was held between 28 February and 28 August 1952. The Agreement reached at the Conference was signed in London on 27 February 1953. The Agreement was ratified by the United States, France, and United Kingdom on 16 September 1953, at which point the agreement came into force. The Agreement was firstly turned down by the Bundestag and then approved on a following vote.

## Debts covered by the Agreement

The parties that were involved besides West Germany included Belgium, Canada, Ceylon, Denmark, France, Greece, Iran, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Pakistan, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America, and Yugoslavia. The states of the Eastern Bloc were not involved.

Some amounts owed by Germany arose from its efforts to pay war reparations, and others were associated with large scale loans by the United States. In total, 80 percent of Germany’s external obligations were owed to the United States, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Switzerland.

The Agreement covered loans arising from external investments due to the Dawes Plan, and loans from economic aid to Germany. The support was provided by two major programs, the GARIOA and the Marshall Plan.

Debts that would be settled by different arrangements were excluded from the London Agreement. Claims arising by countries damaged by Germany during World War II were not included. The debts to be settled by the London Agreement included;

* "non-contractual pecuniary obligations, the amount of which was fixed and due before May 8th 1945"
* "pecuniary obligations arising out of loan or credit contracts entered into before May 8th 1945"
* "pecuniary obligations arising out of contracts other than loan or credit contracts and due before May 8th 1945"

The Agreement was based on three important conditions. Firstly, the total amount that Germany was obligated to pay would be greatly reduced. The repayments’ timeframe should be stretched long enough in order to help Germany’s economy grow. Last but not least, the total that was supposed to be paid per year was associated with Germany’s “ability to make transfers”. It can be described as a broad based Agreement as it settled just about every kind of German debt arising from the period before and after the Second World War.

The total under negotiation was 16 billion marks of debt resulting from the Treaty of Versailles after World War I which had not been paid in the 1930s, but which Germany decided to repay to restore its reputation. This money was owed to government and private banks in the U.S., France, and Britain. Another 16 billion marks represented postwar loans by the U.S. According to several commentators, the total of debts arising before World War II were 16.1 billion marks, while debts after the War were calculated to be 16.2 billion marks. Under the London Agreement, the repayable amount was reduced by 50% to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast-growing German economy were of minor impact. An important term of the agreement was that repayments were only due while West Germany ran a trade surplus, and that repayments were limited to 3% of export earnings. The amounts set by the Agreement were meant to be paid by the profit resulting from German exports, not from stockpile or new loaned amounts. This gave Germany's creditors a powerful incentive to import German goods, assisting reconstruction. After the settlement came into force, for the next five years, until 1958, Germany had to pay only debts arising from unpaid interest. This is another example of attempts made to help Germany’s economy grow before starting to pay the owed amounts. This way, the Allies also acknowledged the willingness of Germany to compensate Israel.

After the five-year mark, Germany was under obligation to pay a fixed amount of 765 million Marks per year. As time went by Germany’s exports increased significantly, making fulfilment of payments a lot easier and reducing their negative effects on the economy. Debts covered by the Agreement were almost paid off during the 1970s. Germany continued to pay the fixed amount until the last payment was settled in 1983.

Part of the agreement concerned debts to be paid after the reunification of Germany. For many decades this seemed unlikely to transpire, but in 1990 Deutsche Mark 239.4 million in deferred interest became due. These claims were repaid by means of "Fundierungsschuldverschreibungen" (Funding Debt Securities) with a maturity of 20 years. On 3 October 2010 the final payment of €69.9 million was made on these bonds, the last payment by Germany on known debts from both world wars.

## Negotiations

The negotiations started with the Allies creating a Commission. The Commission's key role was to determine the types of debts that would be addressed by the London Agreement. During the process, the two sides negotiated the terms of the Agreement “as equals”. The first conference was held in Bonn, in June 1951. The next conference was held in London in July 1951.

In February 1952 another conference occurred. This was the most essential moment of the entire negotiation process. The total amounts of debts and the compensations’ deadlines were the main topic of conversation. Germany’s negotiating skills played a huge role in the settlements’ outcome.

In the last parts of negotiations, some “intergovernmental debts” were settled and “detailed technical reports” were produced that were included in the London Agreement.

## Impact

The agreement significantly contributed to the growth of the post-war German economy and re-emergence of Germany as a world economic power. A 2018 study in the *European Review of Economic History* showed that the London Agreement "spurred economic growth in three main ways: creating fiscal space for public investment; lowering costs of borrowing; and stabilising inflation." It allowed Germany to enter international economic institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Another study has shown that the London Agreement can be associated with a "rise in real per capita social expenditure in health, education, housing, and economic development". The stabilization of inflation was a major benefit for the German economy. West Germany's new currency, the Deutsche Mark, was highly unstable until 1953. After the signing of the agreement, it stabilized due to the debt relief. The transition of West Germany from a debtor to a creditor by the middle of the 1950s had an impact on Germany's economic growth as well. The agreement's outcome can be described as a German economic miracle. Germany achieved all of the above, despite being obligated to pay the total amount of war reparations (with interest) prior to the London Conference and despite the presence of an Arbitral tribunal.

## Further reading

* Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan; Anthony Mango (2003). *Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M* (2003 ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-93922-5.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Guinnane, Timothy W. (July 2015). "Financial Vergangenheitsbewältigung: The 1953 London Debt Agreement". *Yale University Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper No. 880*. SSRN 493802.
* Rombeck-Jaschinski, Ursula (2005), *Das Londoner Schuldenabkommen: die Regelung der deutschen Auslandsschulden nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg* (in German and English), Oldenbourg: Deutsches Historisches Institut London, ISBN 9783486575804, Originally presented as the author's habilitation (Düsseldorf) under the title: *Der Weg zum Londoner Schuldenabkommen. Die Regelung der deutschen Auslandsschulden nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg.*
* Timothy W. Guinnane, "Financial Vergangenheitsbewältigung: The 1953 London Debt Agreement" (Economic Growth Center, Yale University, 2004) online