title: Portrait of Ambroise Vollard (Cézanne)

abstract: Portrait of Ambroise Vollard is an 1899 oil-on-canvas portrait by Paul Cézanne of his art dealer Ambroise Vollard. It was bequeathed by Vollard on his death to the Petit Palais in Paris, where it is still housed today. Like many of his portraits, the Portrait of Ambroise Vollard displays the significant role of the subject in Cézanne's life, and specifically, the artist's gratitude for promoting his work and establishing his reputation as an artist.

text:
# Portrait of Ambroise Vollard (Cézanne)

***Portrait of Ambroise Vollard*** is an 1899 oil-on-canvas portrait by Paul Cézanne of his art dealer Ambroise Vollard. It was bequeathed by Vollard on his death to the Petit Palais in Paris, where it is still housed today. Like many of his portraits, the *Portrait of Ambroise Vollard* displays the significant role of the subject in Cézanne's life, and specifically, the artist's gratitude for promoting his work and establishing his reputation as an artist.

## Background

Ambroise Vollard was instrumental in raising Cézanne from an obscure painter to a renowned artist. Like many modern masters of the 19th Century, Cézanne benefited from Vollard's reputation and influence as an avant-garde and anti-establishment art dealer. After noticing Cezanne's work in the window of Julien (Père) Tanguy's paint shop in Montmartre, Vollard was instantly struck by it and had the ambition to exhibit the artist's work. He recalled, "I felt as though I had been punched in the stomach." At the time, Cézanne was in his mid-sixties, living in Provence, and was still unknown within the art world. However, Vollard managed to track him down. He secured approximately 150 works from Cézanne's son, who acted as his father's business manager. Vollard hosted Cézanne's first solo exhibition in November 1895, which transformed Cézanne's status and solidified his reputation as a master. Following the exhibition, many artists purchased Cézanne's artwork. The exhibition not only made Vollard wealthy, but also established Cézanne as one of the most influential artists of his time. Vollard presented Cézanne's work in at least two subsequent exhibitions and acted as dealer for about two-thirds of his work.

Cézanne's approach to portraiture has been likened to his still life paintings of fruit, in that he rendered the subject in terms of round geometric forms and was only interested in depicting what he could see in front of him, rather than conveying the subject's mood or status. For this portrait, Vollard was made to sit completely still in silence for hours (from roughly 8 a.m. till as late as 11:30 p.m.) over the course of 115 sessions, by balancing on a stool on top of a platform. He recalled how Cézanne reacted when, during one long sitting, he shifted his position, causing the artist to demand, "Do I have to tell you again you must sit like an apple? Does an apple move?"

The *Portrait of Ambroise Vollard* is one of the first portraits of Vollard and was the only portrait to have been commissioned by him. Despite the long hours invested in its creation, the work was eventually abandoned by Cézanne and remained unfinished. The painting was treasured by Vollard until his death, at which point he bequeathed it to the Petit Palais.

## Description

The portrait depicts Vollard in a seated pose, with one leg crossed over the other, one hand placed on a book laid in his lap and the other in his pocket. The subject wears a brown suit and bow tie and displays a blank stare that has been attributed to exhaustion from sitting for too many long hours. Vollard is depicted seated in Cézanne's studio and is partly illuminated by the window on the left of the painting. The painting is oil on canvas in the Post-Impressionist style. The dimensions of the canvas are 101 × 81 cm.

Vollard's portrait was created using bright patches of colour to highlight his face and large forehead, in stark contrast to his black eyes, which have been described as having an inhuman and alienated quality. Vollard's eyes have been likened to holes in a mask, a common trait seen in many of Cézanne's portraits.

The painting features two patches of bare canvas, which are hardly noticeable, but can be seen on the right hand of the subject. During his sittings for the portrait, Vollard asked Cézanne about the two unfinished patches on the hand, but was told that the artist would need more time to return to the Louvre, in order to spend time studying the Old Masters. Cézanne explained that, "If the copy I'm making at the Louvre turns out well, perhaps I will be able tomorrow to find the exact tone to cover up those spots. Don't you see, Monsieur Vollard, that if I put something there by guesswork, I might have to paint the whole canvas over starting from that point?" The patches were never painted by Cézanne, who maintained his refusal to add more color to avoid the possibility of ruining the portrait and having to start the entire painting again. The unfinished state of the painting is therefore considered to be an example of his perfectionist approach and willingness to accept unfinished paintings that satisfied him.

## Other portraits of Vollard

As a prominent art dealer, Ambroise Vollard had great influence on the fortunes of many great artists of the period, including Edgas Degas, Paul Gauguin, Maurice Deni, André Derain, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Pablo Picasso. He was therefore depicted in various portraits by several of these artists. Pierre Bonnard painted *Dinner at Vollard's* (*Vollard's Cellar*; c.1907) in which Vollard appears at the head of the table. He was also painted in several portraits by Renoir in 1899, 1908 and 1917, and also in a Cubist portrait by Picasso in 1910. Picasso stated, "the most beautiful woman who ever lived never had her portrait painted, drawn, or engraved any oftener than Vollard".

## InfoBox

| Portrait of Ambroise Vollard | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Artist | Paul Cézanne |
| Year | 1899 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 101 cm × 81 cm (40 in × 32 in) |
| Location | Petit Palais, Paris |


title: Urban rail transit

abstract: Urban rail transit is a wide term for various types of local rail systems providing passenger service within and around urban or suburban areas. The set of urban rail systems can be roughly subdivided into the following categories, which sometimes overlap because some systems or lines have aspects of multiple types.

text:
# Urban rail transit

**Urban rail transit** is a wide term for various types of local rail systems providing passenger service within and around urban or suburban areas. The set of urban rail systems can be roughly subdivided into the following categories, which sometimes overlap because some systems or lines have aspects of multiple types.

## Types

### Tram

A *tram*, *streetcar*, or *trolley* system is a rail-based transit system that runs mainly or completely along streets (with street running), with a relatively-low capacity and frequent stops; however, modern trams have a greater passenger capacity than traditional trams. Passengers usually board at the street or curb level, but low-floor trams may allow level boarding. Longer-distance lines are called *interurbans* or *radial railways*. Modern trams also operate as self-propelled trains coupled through a multiple unit instead of individual trams and are often included within the broader term light rail; however, they differ in that trams frequently share the platform with vehicular traffic and do not have signal priority.

The term "tram" is used in most parts of the world. In North America, such systems are referred to as "streetcar" or "trolley" systems. In Germany, such systems are called *Straßenbahn*, which literally translates as "street train" or "street railway".

### Light rail

A light rail system is a rail-based transit system that has higher capacity and speed than a tram, usually by operating in an exclusive right-of-way separated from automobile traffic, but it is not, unlike rapid transit, fully grade-separated from other traffic. Light rail also generally operates with multiple-unit trains, rather than single tramcars. It emerged as an evolution of trams/streetcars. Light rail systems vary significantly in terms of speed and capacity and range from slightly improved tram systems to systems that are essentially rapid transit but with some level crossings.

The term "light rail" is the most common term especially in Americas, but German systems are called *Stadtbahn*, which translates to "city railway". Additionally "tram-train" systems are called *Regionalstadtbahn* and "semi-metro" systems are called *U-Stadtbahn* or *U-Strab*.

### Rapid transit

A rapid transit system is a railway, usually in an urban area, with high passenger capacities and frequency of service and (usually) full grade separation from other traffic, including other rail traffic. It is sometimes known as "heavy rail" to distinguish it from light rail. Both heavy and light often refer to the capacity and sometimes to investment costs.

In most parts of the world, such systems are known as a "metro", short for "metropolitan", which is itself short for "Metropolitan Railway", the first such system in the world. The term "subway" is used in many American systems, as well as in Glasgow and in Toronto. The system in London is named the "Underground" and is commonly nicknamed the "tube". Systems in Germany are called "U-Bahn", which stands for *Untergrundbahn* ("underground rail"). Many systems in East, Southeast and South Asia like Taipei, Chennai and Singapore, are called "MRT", which stands for "mass rapid transit". Systems that are predominantly elevated may be referred to as "L", as in Chicago, or "Skytrain", as in Bangkok and Vancouver. Other less common names include "T-bane", which stands for "tunnelbana" (in Scandinavia, literally *tunnel track*) and "MTR" (mass transit railway).

### Monorail

A monorail is a railway in which the track consists of a single rail, as opposed to the traditional track with two parallel rails.

The term possibly comes from 1897, from German engineer Eugen Langen, who called an elevated railway system with wagons suspended the *Eugen Langen One-railed Suspension Tramway* (Einschieniges Hängebahnsystem Eugen Langen).

### Commuter rail

A commuter rail, regional rail or suburban rail system operates on mainline trackage, which may be shared with intercity rail and freight trains. Systems tend to operate at lower frequencies than rapid transit or light rail systems but tend to travel at higher speeds, have more widely spaced stations and cover longer overall distances. They have high passenger capacities per single train.

Though many European and East Asian commuter rail systems operate with frequencies and rolling stock similar to that of rapid transit, they do not qualify as such because they share tracks with intercity/freight trains, or they have at grade crossings. For example, S-trains are hybrid systems combining the characteristics of both rapid transit and commuter rail systems. Generally, S-trains share tracks with mainline passenger and freight trains, but the distances between stations and the service headway resemble metro systems.

### Automated guideway transit

Automated guideway transit systems tend to operate with medium passenger capacities.

Larger systems span a variety of conceptual designs, from subway-like advanced rapid transit (ART) systems to smaller (typically two to six passengers) vehicles known as personal rapid transit (PRT) which offer direct point-to-point travel along a switched network.

### Funicular

A funicular is a cable-driven inclined railway that uses the weight of descending cars to help pull the ascending cars up the slope.

The term *funicular* derives from the Latin word *funiculus*, the diminutive of *funis*, meaning 'rope'.

### Cable car

A cable car, in the context of mass transit, is a system using rail cars that are hauled by a continuously moving cable that runs at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping the cable as required. Cable cars are distinct from funiculars (whose cars are permanently attached to the cable) and cable railways (which are similar to funiculars but have rail vehicles that are attached and detached manually).

### Classification issues

Transit agencies' names for lines do not necessarily reflect their technical categorization. For example, the Green Line in Boston is referred to as a *subway* although it is mostly made up of above-ground portions. Conversely, the Docklands Light Railway in London, C Line in Los Angeles, and some metro lines in China are referred to as "Light Rail" but qualify as rapid transit because they are fully grade-separated and provide a high frequency of service.

Many cities use names such as *subway* and *elevated railway* to describe their entire systems, even if they combine both methods of operation. Slightly less than half of the London Underground's tracks, for example, are actually underground. The New York City Subway also combines elevated and subterranean stations, and the Chicago "L" and the Vancouver SkyTrain use tunnels to run through central areas.

### Other types of services

#### Guided bus

A bus shares many characteristics with light rail and trams but does not run on rails. Trolleybuses are buses that are powered from overhead wires. Vehicles that can travel both on rails and on roads have been tried experimentally but are not in common use. The term bus rapid transit is used to refer to various methods of providing faster bus services and the systems that use it have similar characteristics to light rail. Guided buses are buses capable of being steered by external means, usually on a dedicated track or roll way that excludes other traffic. Some cities experimenting with guided bus technologies, such as Nancy, have chosen to refer to them as 'trams on tires' (rubber-tired trams) and given them tram-like appearances.

## Economics

In a 2006 article, the political scientist Ted Balaker and the urban planner Cecilia Juong Kim stated that public rail transit provides certain benefits for a community but also that the goals of policymakers are not often met. They also note some American economists claim that contrary to popular belief, rail transit has failed to improve the environment, serve the poor, or reduce highway congestion in the United States. They also claim economists are somewhat more optimistic about rail transit's impact on economic development.

## Further reading


title: Neurectomy

abstract: A neurectomy, or nerve resection is a neurosurgical procedure in which a peripheral nerve is cut or removed to alleviate neuropathic pain or permanently disable some function of a nerve. The nerve is not intended to grow back. For chronic pain it may be an alternative to a failed nerve decompression when the target nerve has no motor function and numbness is acceptable. Neurectomies have also been used to permanently block autonomic function, and special sensory function not related to pain. A temporary nerve block with an anesthetic is usually performed before surgery to confirm the diagnosis of neuropathic pain. Risks include numbness, neuroma, and complications due to lack of innervation.

text:
# Neurectomy

A **neurectomy**, or **nerve resection** is a neurosurgical procedure in which a peripheral nerve is cut or removed to alleviate neuropathic pain or permanently disable some function of a nerve. The nerve is not intended to grow back. For chronic pain it may be an alternative to a failed nerve decompression when the target nerve has no motor function and numbness is acceptable. Neurectomies have also been used to permanently block autonomic function (e.g. excessive sweating in hands or involuntary muscle movement causing cramps), and special sensory function not related to pain (e.g. vestibular nerve dysfunction causing vertigo).

A temporary nerve block with an anesthetic is usually performed before surgery to confirm the diagnosis of neuropathic pain. Risks include numbness, neuroma, and complications due to lack of innervation.

## Procedures

### Presacral neurectomy

A presacral neurectomy is typically conducted to decrease severe pain and menstrual cramps in the lower abdomen. Pain in this region is difficult to treat with noninvasive treatments. Endometriosis is the most common cause for this severe pain. One solution that doctors often mistakenly recommend as a cure is a hysterectomy, or removal of the uterus. However, this often does not relieve endometriosis pain because the disease is left behind on other organs such as the bladder, bowels, or pelvic side walls, and it can thrive on its own hormone supply. Another is to perform a presacral neurectomy. This is a procedure that interrupts the nerves going towards and/or around the uterus. Pain located on either side of the lower abdomen (but not mid line) should not be treated with a neurectomy. Only individuals with pain that is not relieved by the use of NSAIDs should consider this procedure. Techniques have been developed for this procedure to be performed laparoscopically.

The incision is typically directly under the navel. Normally three small holes are made in the lower abdomen to allow for the instruments and other various surgical tools. Nerve tissue that runs to the uterus is interrupted at the sacral promontory; a point at which spine and tailbones meet. This is the best area to access and obtain a clear view of the nerves in the uterus. Proper precautions must be taken as to avoid unnecessary complications with the major blood vessels surrounding the uterus. Some of the complications post-operation include urinary retention, as well as constipation. Neither has been reported to cause lasting effects.

Recent technological advances have allowed this same procedure to be done robotically, a minimally invasive technique similar to laparoscopy. The outcome of the procedure is identical to an open approach (laparotomy), but the incisions are much smaller allowing for less post-operation pain. Less pain following this surgery allows for a quicker recovery period too; two weeks as opposed to six weeks, on average.

### Vestibular neurectomy

A vestibular neurectomy is an operation that severs the vestibular nerve, which contributes to balance, while sparing the cochlear nerve, which contributes to hearing. The procedure has the potential to relieve vertigo, but may preserve the ability to hear. It is important to note that this procedure will not reverse the effects of deafness. The risks include: hearing loss, tinnitus, dizziness, facial weakness, spinal fluid leak, and various infections. There are several different surgical approaches that can be used to complete this procedure: the middle cranial fossa, retrolabrynthine, retrosigmoid, and translabrynthine. The middle cranial fossa approach is one that most often requires neurosurgical expertise. The advantage of this procedure is that the vestibular nerve is clearly visible and can be sectioned without harming the cochlear nerve fibers.

The general procedure begins by positioning the patient supine with the head turned to the side with surgical ear upright. An incision is made at the lower portion of the zygomatic root to the area of the temporal region for roughly seven centimeters. Precautions are taken by clamping flaps of tissue as to not impede further actions. To expose the IAC (Inner Auditory Canal) properly, portions of bone from the metal fundus and also the tegmen tympani must be removed. The SVN (superior vestibular nerve) is then identified and cut at the point furthest from the vestibular crest. Along with the SVN, Scarpa's ganglion is also cut and removed.

In cases of Ménière's disease, a neurectomy may be needed when no other medical treatment is sufficient for over six months. In bilateral Ménière's disease, the procedure is done on the worse-off ear. Some procedures are done on both ears, but the risk of hearing loss then becomes significantly greater.

### Pulsed radiofrequency ablation neurectomy

Some ablations that have been previously performed laparoscopically are also now offered via the pulsed radiofrequency technique. Pulsed radiofrequency ablation relies on delivering an electrical field specifically to neural tissue in order to damage it while minimizing injury to the surrounding area. For example, this technique has been used in patients with chronic shoulder pain as a way to perform a neurectomy of the suprascapular nerve with less risk of damage to nearby muscles within the rotator cuff. There is still a lack of evidence directly comparing the efficacy and safety of this technique compared to the traditional laparoscopic method, but there is evidence that it improves range of motion and pain compared to placebo or sham surgery.

### Neurectomy for nerve entrapment

Neurectomy can be an alternative to a nerve decompression for nerve entrapment, such as when the nerves have no motor function and numbness along the dermatome is acceptable. A neurectomy is not a mutually exclusive option to a decompression as a neurectomy can also be used after a failed decompression.

There are many nerves in the human body that are purely sensory such as the cutaneous nerves, which provide innervation to all parts of the skin. The cutaneous nerves are especially susceptible to compression from wearables or injuries due to their superficial location. Some examples of wearable-induced irritation are supraorbital neuralgia from tight goggles, superficial radial neuropathy from handcuffs, and meralgia paresthetica from tight pants. As cutaneous nerves cover all areas of the skin, and any surgery which requires incisions may inadvertently cause injury or scarring, now entrapping a cutaneous nerve.

A common tradeoff when electing to a neurectomy is that numbness along the nerve distribution is expected. Studies that have measured how bothersome numbness is to patients have found that most patients are not bothered at all by the numbness, and the ones that are find the numbness minimally bothering.

#### Intercoastal cutaneous nerve neurectomy

Intercoastal neuralgia is a neuropathic condition that involves the intercoastal nerves. The primary symptom is pain and it may be localized to the distribution of one or more of the intercoastal nerves, manifesting as chest and abdominal pain. No treatment modality prior to neurectomy (e.g. systemic medications, cryoablation, therapeutic nerve blocks, and radioablation) has given effective pain relief and none have been curative.

The success outcome is typically measured as a 50% or more decrease in visual analog scale (VAS) scores, which are numerical pain scores from 0 - 10 or 0-100. Success rates are often reported as 70%. Studies reporting on intercoastal neurectomy often report cure rates (100% reduction in symptoms), even though it's not the primary success outcome. For example, patients may say they are cured or report pain scores of zero. There is a wide span of the reported cure rates, ranging from 22 - 67%. A double-blind, randomized, controlled surgery trial found a 22% cure rate for the surgery group and a 4% cure rate for the sham surgery group, suggesting that these cure rates cannot be purely attributable to the natural history of the disease or a placebo effect.

#### Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve neurectomy

Lateral femoral cutaneous neuralgia, often known as Meralgia Paresthetica, involves neuropathic pain on the outer thigh. The use of a nerve decompression or neurectomy to treat nerve pain along the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve is a firmly established surgical treatment. However, the more effective treatment between a decompression and neurectomy is still being researched.

Between a nerve decompression and a neurectomy, the neurectomy is associated with a higher success rate which has been validated by two Cochrane reviews. The reviews found decompressions beneficial in 88% of cases and neurectomy beneficial in 94% of cases. A German national cohort study found similar results where complete pain relief from decompression was seen in 63% of cases but complete pain relief from neurectomy was seen in 85%.

## Use in horses

Neurectomy is also used in equine medicine, primarily for cases of persistent lameness that is non-responsive to other forms of treatment. It is most commonly used for animals with navicular syndrome and suspensory ligament desmitis.

## Further reading

* Surgical treatment of Ménière's disease.
* Candiani, Giovanni Battista; Fedele, Luigi; Vercellini, Paolo; Bianchi, Stefano; Nola, Giuliana Di (1992). "Presacral neurectomy for the treatment of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis: A controlled study". *American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology*. **167** (1): 100–3. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(11)91636-6. PMID 1442906.
* Castro-Lopes, Josém.; Tavares, Isaura; Coimbra, Antonio (1993). "GABA decreases in the spinal cord dorsal horn after peripheral neurectomy". *Brain Research*. **620** (2): 287–91. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(93)90167-L. PMID 8369960. S2CID 22796876.
* Tjaden, B; Schlaff, W. D.; Kimball, A; Rock, J. A. (1990). "The efficacy of presacral neurectomy for the relief of midline dysmenorrhea". *Obstetrics and Gynecology*. **76** (1): 89–91. PMID 2193272.
* Perez, J. J. (1990). "Laparoscopic presacral neurectomy. Results of the first 25 cases". *The Journal of Reproductive Medicine*. **35** (6): 625–30. PMID 2141645.
* Halmagyi, G. M.; Curthoys, I. S.; Cremer, P. D.; Henderson, C. J.; Todd, M. J.; Staples, M. J.; d'Cruz, D. M. (1990). "The human horizontal vestibulo-ocular reflex in response to high-acceleration stimulation before and after unilateral vestibular neurectomy". *Experimental Brain Research*. **81** (3): 479–90. doi:10.1007/BF02423496. PMID 2226683. S2CID 21010844.

## InfoBox

| Neurectomy | |
| --- | --- |
| Specialty | Neurology |


title: National Front (Switzerland)

abstract: The National Front was a far-right party in Switzerland that flourished during the 1930s. At its peak the group had as many as 9,000 members, according to the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, and "may have had a membership of 25,000 or so", according to the Simon Wiesenthal Center. The party was financed by the Reich Ministry of Propaganda. It became defunct in 1940 and was banned by the Swiss Federal Council in 1943.

text:
# National Front (Switzerland)

The **National Front** was a far-right party in Switzerland that flourished during the 1930s. At its peak the group had as many as 9,000 members, according to the *Historical Dictionary of Switzerland*, and "may have had a membership of 25,000 or so", according to the Simon Wiesenthal Center. The party was financed by the Reich Ministry of Propaganda. It became defunct in 1940 and was banned by the Swiss Federal Council in 1943.

## Formation

The party began life amongst a number of debating clubs at ETH Zurich, where antisemitism, Swiss nationalism and support for ideas similar to those later adopted in the racial policy of Nazi Germany had become popular among some of the young academics. A number of these groups (all of which co-operated in a loose federation) were formally brought together by Robert Tobler in 1930 to form the Neue Front although this group was not fully committed to fascism. A more radical group, under the leadership of Hans Vonwyl, broke away in the autumn of 1930 to establish the National Front, which aimed to expand its operations outside the university.

## Growth

Initially the National Front did not grow far outside the confines of the university but soon the party newspaper, *Der Eiserne Besen* (The Iron Broom), became widely read and its antisemitic message found an audience. Chaired by Ernst Biedermann, the group experienced growth and in April 1933 formed an alliance with the Neue Front which, under the leadership of Tobler, Paul Lang and Hans Oehler, had itself radicalised and become more open to fascism. The National Front absorbed its counterpart the following month although the Neue Front leadership quickly took charge of the combined movement, with Rolf Henne emerging as chairman. Emil Sonderegger, a former member of the Swiss General Staff, was a prominent speaker and propagandist of the National Front at this time. The party continued to grow and soon won seats on Zürich council, as well as the support of well-known Swiss writers of the time, such as Jakob Schaffner. In all they held 10 seats on Zürich municipal council following the September 1933 election. Ernst Leonhardt, the party's organiser in the North-West, left soon after this after an internal dispute but the move had no impact on the growth of the Front, with a party newspaper, *Die Front*, established soon afterwards. By 1935, the party claimed 10,000 members.

They did not come out completely in favour of any regime and instead sought to unite German, French and Italian speakers in a common Swiss identity (they maintained links with a minor Romansh far right group, although the National Front did not campaign amongst the Romansh). Nonetheless, their support was more or less wholly confined to German-speakers, with other groups picking up the support of fascist-inclined voters in the other linguistic groups (*Union Nationale* for the French and *Lega Nazionale Ticinese* for Italians). Eventually they reached accommodations with the other groups and abandoned campaigning in non-German areas altogether. The party's main support base was in Schaffhausen where it gained seats in the local council, as well as electing a single member of the National Assembly in 1935. The seat was held by Robert Tobler.

The party came under the leadership of Rolf Henne in 1934 and began to pursue a more openly Nazi ideology, in keeping with Henne's personal beliefs. Taking advantage of the direct democracy model used in Swiss politics the National Front forced a referendum on a constitutional amendment in 1935 that sought to redesign the system of government on more nationalist, racial and authoritarian lines. The proposal was heavily defeated.

## Decline

The Front experienced decline as fascism came to be characterised in the media as decidedly "un-Swiss" and there was a popular backlash against the movement. In the Berne Trial, the party faced charges that *The Protocols of the Elders of Zion* violated Swiss law against obscene publications. Despite these setbacks, the National Front reacted by hardening their approach further, establishing a militia group and taking more directly from Nazism as an ideology. Their 26-point programme, published in 1935, underlined the party's fascist credential, calling for the corporate state and containing strong attacks on Bolshevism, socialism, Jewry, Freemasonry and the media. They were able to gain a seat in the National Council for Zürich in the 1935 federal election (Robert Tobler), although results elsewhere were poor.

Internal wrangling followed that led to further decline, with the revelation that the party had received over 10,000 Swiss francs from Nazi Germany's Ministry of Propaganda for its press activity, leading to many members leaving over what they saw as a compromise of Swiss independence. Counter-claims were also made that leaders of the moderate tendency were secretly Freemasons, resulting in further internal strife. Henne was dismissed as leader in 1938 and he, along with Oehler, Schaffner and their supporters, left to form the *Bund Treuer Eidgenossen Nationalsozialistischer Weltanschauung*, which openly espoused Nazism. This group would ultimately emerge as the National Movement of Switzerland. Meanwhile, those more predisposed towards the Italian model of fascism tended to support the groups of former NF member Colonel Arthur Fonjallaz.

With Henne gone, Tobler assumed leadership duties in 1938, although in that year's local elections and the federal election the following year they lost all of their seats. However, Tobler's moderation did not avert the suspicions of the Swiss government, and police investigations into their activities followed. In 1940, the party was formally dissolved, after Tobler was briefly imprisoned for espionage. Tobler would reform the group as *Eidgenössische Sammlung* soon afterwards, although this too was gone by 1943, after the Federal Council decided to crack down on groups linked to the Axis powers.

## Federal elections

Federal Assembly of Switzerland
| Election | \# of total votes | % of popular vote | \# of seats won |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1935 | 13,740 | 1.5% | 1 |

## Footnotes

## InfoBox

| National Front *Nationale Front* (German)
*Front National* (French)
*Fronte Nazionale* (Italian) | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Leader | Hans Vonwyl and Ernst Biedermann (1933–1934)
Rolf Henne (1934–1938)
Robert Tobler (1938–1940) |
| Founded | 1933 |
| Dissolved | 1940 |
| Succeeded by | Eidgenössische Sammlung |
| Headquarters | Zürich |
| Newspaper | "Der Eiserne Besen" |
| Paramilitary wing | *Harste* |
| Membership (1935) | 9,000 |
| Ideology | Nazism |
| Political position | Far-right |
| Party flag | |
|
 | |
|  | |


title: Violeta Guzmán

abstract: Violeta Guzmán Magaña is a Mexican hammer thrower. She failed to qualify for the final at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Her personal best, from 2004, is 64.21 metres, a former national record. Her older brother, Guillermo Guzmán, was also a hammer thrower.

text:
# Violeta Guzmán

**Violeta Guzmán Magaña**  (born 14 May 1977 in Mexico City) is a Mexican hammer thrower. She failed to qualify for the final at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Her personal best, from 2004, is 64.21 metres, a former national record. Her older brother, Guillermo Guzmán, was also a hammer thrower.

## Competition record

| Year | Competition | Venue | Position | Event | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Representing  Mexico | | | | | |
| 1996 | Ibero-American Championships | Medellín, Colombia | 7th | Hammer | 47.68 m |
| | Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships | San Salvador, El Salvador | 1st | Hammer | 51.46 m |
| 1997 | Central American and Caribbean Championships | San Juan, Puerto Rico | 3rd | Hammer | 52.70 m |
| | Universiade | Catania, Italy | 18th (q) | Hammer | 49.64 m |
| 1998 | Ibero-American Championships | Lisbon, Portugal | 3rd | Hammer | 56.92 m |
| | Central American and Caribbean Games | Maracaibo, Venezuela | 4th | Hammer | 56.09 m |
| 1999 | Central American and Caribbean Championships | Bridgetown, Barbados | 2nd | Hammer | 56.72 m |
| | Pan American Games | Winnipeg, Canada | 8th | Hammer | 56.26 m |
| 2000 | NACAC U25 Championships | Monterrey, Mexico | 3rd | Hammer | 58.84 m |
| 2001 | Central American and Caribbean Championships | Guatemala City, Guatemala | 3rd | Hammer | 54.92 m |
| 2002 | Central American and Caribbean Games | San Salvador, El Salvador | 2nd | Hammer | 58.48 m |
| 2003 | Central American and Caribbean Championships | St. George's, Grenada | 1st | Hammer | 55.72 m |
| | Pan American Games | Santo Domingo, Dom. Rep. | 7th | Hammer | 58.31 m |
| | Universiade | Daegu, South Korea | 14th | Hammer | 52.70 m |
| 2004 | Ibero-American Championships | Huelva, Spain | 7th | Hammer | 60.58 m |
| | Olympic Games | Athens, Greece | 36th (q) | Hammer | 62.76 m |

1. Violeta Guzmán Bio, Stats, and Results Olympics at Sports-Reference.com
2. Violeta Guzmán at World Athletics
3. Non-championship event