title: International Socialist Commission

abstract: The International Socialist Commission, also known as the International Socialist Committee or the Berne International was a coordinating committee of socialists parties that adhered to the idea of the Zimmerwald Conference of 1915.

text:
# International Socialist Commission

The **International Socialist Commission**, also known as the **International Socialist Committee** or the **Berne International** was a coordinating committee of socialists parties that adhered to the idea of the Zimmerwald Conference of 1915.

## Early history

The Zimmerwald Conference elected Angelica Balabanoff, Odino Morgari and Charles Naine to the Commission, with the Swiss socialist Robert Grimm as chairman and Balabanoff as interpreter. The Committee was charged with setting up a temporary secretariat and publishing a bulletin. The ISCs initial purpose was to act as an intermediary between the affiliated groups in their struggle for peace. It was not to act as a replacement for the International Socialist Bureau and dissolve as soon as the ISB could begin functioning normally. Other adherents of the Zimmerwald movement, such as Vladimir Lenin, saw it as the beginning of a new International.

The Commissions activity in the first months of its existences consisted of translating the manifesto and resolutions of the conference and distributing them as widely as possible. To that end they first forwarded copies of the first number of their *Bulletin* to the socialist and trade union papers of the neutral countries. Within the belligerent countries the ISC was able to have the full documents published in Italy, Russia, France, England and Bulgaria but only summaries in Austria and Germany. They also sent a circular to all the parties adhering to the ISB announcing their existence and the objects of the group. Only the Danish party replied, officially disapproving of the Zimmerwald venture. However, at the Congress of the Swiss Socialist Democratic Party at Aarau November 20–21, the delegates declared their adherence to the ISC and granted the organization 300 francs.

On September 27, 1915, ISC sent out a confidential circular (which was nevertheless leaked to the unfriendly press) suggesting that the adhering groups appoint up to three extra delegates to join the Commissioners as part of an Enlarged Committee. The first session of this Enlarged Committee of the International Socialist Commission was held in Berne February 5–8, 1916. No official list of attendees was published and sources disagree about who was present. Fainsod lists the following: Robert Grimm and Fritz Platten from the Swiss Social Democratic Party; Lenin and Zinoviev from the Bolsheviks; Julius Martov and Pavel Axelrod from the Mensheviks; David Riazanov of the Mezhraiontsy (also known as the Inter-District Committee); Feliks Kon and Pawel Lewinson from the Polish Socialist Party - Left; Bertha Thalheimer, Adolf Hoffman and Georg Ledebour, dissidents from the German Social Democratic Party; Serrati, Modigliani and Angelica Balabanoff from the Italian Socialist Party; Christian Rakovsky from the Social Democratic Party of Romania and Edmondo Peluso from the Social Democratic Party of Portugal. However, the Hoover Institution adds Alexander Martynov, for the Mensheviks, Franz Koritschoner, a dissident member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria; Henri Guilbeaux, editor of the *Demain*; Karl Radek of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania; and Willi Münzenberg, secretary of the International Socialist Youth League. Furthermore, there was apparently a representative of the Dutch Zimmerwaldists present, or one of the above may have held the Dutch mandate. The identity of this person remains unclear.

After some debate the meeting decided to issue a circular (though not a full manifesto as the Zimmerwald Lefts had advocated) on the basis of a draft written by Grimm and extensively rewritten by a commission consisting of Zinoviev, Rakovsky, Serrati, Martov, Grimm and two delegates representing Germany and the ISC whose identity is not apparent. The Lefts were still not entirely satisfied with the circular, but considered it an improvement over the Zimmerwald Manifesto. The meeting also decided to arrange a new conference, drew up conditions for participation in it and a provisional agenda.

## Kienthal to the Russian Revolution

The ISC set to work arranging for a new congress of Zimmerald adherents which met at Kienthal, Switzerland on April 24, 1916. Forty three delegates met at this conference, representing Germany, France, Italy, Russia, Poland, Switzerland, Serbia, Portugal and Great Britain. The ISC publicly announced that the Conference was going to be held in the Netherlands to avoid passport denial or secret police surveillance, but a number of delegates were prevented from attending anyway.

The Kienthal Conference adopted another manifesto and some important resolutions, but it declined to advocate a policy to be followed by its adherents toward the conference of Neutral Socialists scheduled to meet at the Hague that summer. This was deferred to the second meeting of the ISC Enlarged Committee on May 2. Each organization that participated in the Kienthal Conference was represented by one delegate. This meeting "considered some administrative matters, authenticated the Kienthal resolutions, and discussed matters of parliamentary action" as well as the Hague Conference. One group, headed by Martov, advocated participation, arguing that no opportunity should be missed to expose to the workers the "cause of the failure" of the International Socialist Bureau. Zinoviev argued against, claiming it would only confuse the workers. The meeting ultimately became deadlocked, with five votes for each proposition, so it was decided that each party should make up its own mind whether to attend, but they should uphold the Zimmerwald resolutions if they did.

The ISC Enlarged Committee attempted to meet again at Olten on February 1, 1917 to consider a proposed Paris conference of Entente socialist parties. The ISC called a meeting of the Enlarged Committee members of the Allied countries, but only those groups with a presence in Switzerland were able to attend. The meeting therefore, only issued a non-binding declaration recommending its affiliates not to attend. An official list of delegates was, again, not published, but the official communique stated "only those delegates of the three Russian socialist parties, who were in Switzerland - the representatives of the National Committee of the Polish Socialist Party (the Levitsa) and of the Bund, as well as a representative of *La Vie Ouvriere* in Paris, who resides in Switzerland - came to the conference." The editors of the Hoover Institutions *The Bolsheviks and the World War*, however, state specifically that the organizations represented included the Bolsheviks, the Mensheviks, and the Russian Social Revolutionaries, as well as Henri Guilbeaux and Willi Münzenberg.

## The Russian Revolution and Stockholm

After the March Revolution in Russia the ISC decided to transfer its headquarters to Stockholm, to be closer to the center of revolutionary activity. Grimm left Switzerland on April 20, and arrived at Stockholm on April 24. Three days before he left, however, Grimm had agreed to an appeal of assistance from the Central Committee for the Return of Political Exiles to Russia to intervene on their behalf with the Russian Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet for their return to Russia in exchange for German civil prisoners in Russia. However, Grimm was denied entry into Russia for the moment on the suspicion that he was a German spy. In the meantime, Grimm and the ISC learned that several affiliated parties had declared themselves sympathetic to the movement for a general socialist congress at Stockholm and issued an appeal on May 10 to all the European Zimmerwaldist parties to meet in a third Zimmerwaldist conference in Stockholm for May 31 to decide the Zimmerwald movements attitude toward the proposed Stockholm Conference.

A train full of Russia exiles arrived from Switzerland in mid-May, carrying fellow ISC member and interpreter Angelica Balabanoff, as well as Martov, Riazanov, Pavel Axelrod and a number of other Russian socialist luminaries. Grimm boarded this train and set off for the Russian frontier. Before he got to the Russian border he learned that the foreign minister who denied him a visa, Pavel Milyukov had resigned, and three more socialists had entered the Provisional Government. The new government issued him a visa but it did not get to him until *after* he had crossed the Russian border under the protection of the Helsingfors Soviet. Grimm and Balabanoff arrived in Petrograd in time to speak at the All-Russian Conference of the Menshevik party and convince that organization to approve attending the Third Zimmerwald Conference (they also voted to advocate participation at the proposed Stockholm Congress).

On May 28–29 they had an informal conference with members of Zimmerwaldist parties in the city. According to Balabanoff's notes this was attended by Lenin, Zinoviev and Kamenev of the Bolsheviks; Bobrov of the Social Revolutionaries; Grigorii Bienstock, Martov, Martynov, and Larin of the Mensheviks; Raphael Abramovitch of the Bund; Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Urinovich and Riazanov of the Inter-District Committee; Lapinski of the Polish Socialist Party - Left and Christian Rakovsky of the Romanian Social Democrats. According to her notes Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev, Riazanov and herself were opposed to participation in the purposed Stockholm conference, while Rakovsky, Grimm, Bobrov and Martynov were for attending. In any case, decision would have to wait until the next Zimmerwaldist Conference. The Bolshevik delegation also tried to prevail on the ISC to issue a condemnation of socialists serving as ministers in the Provisional Government. While most at the meeting who gave an opinion were against socialist participation in the Provisional Government, there was also a broad consensus that the ISC did not have the authority to make such a statement without first consulting its affiliates.

## The "Grimm Affair"

While in Petrograd both Balabanoff and Grimm were vigorously criticized in the press as being German agents working for a separate peace between Germany and Allied countries. Balabanoff was accused of negotiating with the Germans on behalf the Italian Socialist Party, but the Party quickly cleared her. However, Robert Grimm faced a more substantial charge. On May 26/27 he sent a telegram to Swiss Federal Councilor Arthur Hoffmann stating that there was a general desire for peace in Russia and that the only thing that could hinder it was a German offensive. Hoffmann responded on June 3, stating that people he spoke to in the German government would not launch an offensive while there was still a possibility of peace, as well as comment on possible territorial exchanges involving Poland, Lithuania and Galicia. The Provisional Government published these exchanges on June 16 and ordered Grimm deported. The event caused a scandal and opponents of the Zimmerwaldist movement from many sides used it as evidence that Zimmerwald movement was part of a German conspiracy.

On June 20 Grimm resigned as Chairman of the International Socialist Commission. On the same day Carl Hoglund, acting on behalf of the Swedish Left Social Democratic Party and Youth League, appointed a commission of three to look after the affairs of the ISC -- Zeth Höglund, Ture Nerman and Carl Carlson. The first act of this new leadership was to recall Balabanoff from Russia. She would thenceforth be the secretary of the ISC. The ISC then appointed a commission of inquiry to look into the "Grimm affair". The membership of this commission consisted of Carl Lindhagen and Zeth Höglund of Sweden; Kirkov of Bulgaria; Karl Radek of Poland; Christian Rakovsky of Romania; Orlovsky of Russia; and Karl Moor of Switzerland

The commission found that Grimm had made the telegraphic exchange without the knowledge of Balabanoff or any of the other Zimmerwaldists in Petrograd, and, while condemning him for practicing a kind of secret diplomacy, absolved him of attempting to reach a separate peace with Germany. It also absolved the International Socialist Commission itself, as no other member besides Grimm knew about the telegraphs.

The "affair" also had repercussions in Switzerland. Councilor Hoffman resigned on June 19. When Grimm returned he faced another commission of inquiry, this time appointed by the presidium of the Swiss Social Democratic Party. On September 1, 1917 the presidium voted 18-15 to accept the majority report of the commission, which came to most of the same conclusions as the Stockholm commission and recommended Grimm be restored to his previous party posts. A minority report signed by Charles Naine, Grimms former ISC colleague, was more condemnatory and denied the right of the presidium to restore Grimm to his previous mandates.

## The Third Zimmerwald Conference

Meanwhile, the ISC in Stockholm held a meeting at the office of the *Stormklocken* newspaper on July 3, with representatives of the Soviets to attempt to clarify the situation. Present at this meeting were Linstrom, Lindhagen and Hoglund for Sweden; Olausen for Norway; Otto Lang for Switzerland; Karl Kautsky, Hugo Haase, Luise Zietz, and Oskar Cohn for Germany; Sirola for Finland; Orlovsky, Radek and Hanecki for the Bolsheviks; Boris Reinstein for the US Socialist Labor Party; Kirkov for Bulgaria and Balabanoff in her capacity as secretary of the ISC. The representatives of the Soviet were Goldenberg, Vladimir Rozanov and "Smirnov". At this meeting Balabanoff, Orlavsky and Reinstien stated their objections to the invitation of the majority Socialist parties to the proposed Stockholm conference. Goldberg replied that the proposed conference was open to socialist parties without conditions, and would include minorities as well as majorities. Radek re-emphasized the Bolshevik party's disapproval of the Stockholm Conference and the Party's determination to quit the Zimmerwald movement if the Third Zimmerwald Conference chose to participate. Haase, of the Independent Socialist Party of Germany, however, was for the Conference and stated that his party would attend. Again, Balabanoff reminded everybody that no single party could dictate the ISCs position, which would be decided by the third Zimmerwald Conference. On the next day the conclave resumed, this time without the Soviet delegates. A statement was adopted in the name of the "Bureau of the International Socialist Commission" to the effect that the Third Zimmerwald Conference would take place five days before the proposed general Stockholm Conference, but should the conference not meet by September 15, 1917 the commission was empowered to call a conference of affiliates anyway.

On July 9, once their meetings with the Dutch-Scandinavian Committee (the organization planning the Stockholm conference) were finished, the Soviet delegation tried once again to enlist the ISC in the preparation work for the Stockholm Conference. This meeting, held at the ISCs "quarters" was between Balabanoff, Hoglund and Carlson for the ISC and Hendrik Ehrlich and another representative The Soviet delegation did not get a formal answer until July 11, when the ISC sent them a formal letter stating that they would not be able to participate in the preparations because the Stockholm Conference invitations had been "altered" to include the pro-war socialist parties and that the breaking of the "civil peace" was not a requirement of the parties to the conference

On July 13, according to Fainsod, there was another meeting of the ISC with Zimmerwaldists in Stockholm. Participants reported included Radek, Alexandra Kollontai, Orowski, Martinov and Jermanski of Russia, "Mohr of Switzerland", Sirola of Finland, Storm and Kilborn of Sweden. Radek and Kollantai are supposed to have argued against going to the proposed Stockholm Conference while it was still reiterated that only the Third Zimmerwald Conference could decide that.

On July 18 Balabanoff did issue a revised invitation to the Third Zimmerwald Conference. The invitation gave the date as August 10, 1917 and included a provisional agenda, stated that the condition for participation were the same as those published in Bulletin #3 and also included an invitation to a socialist women's conference to be held in connection with the Zimmerwald conference

On August 1 another meeting of the ISC with Zimmerwald adherents in Stockholm decided to call the Third Zimmerwald Conference and meet in Stockholm on September 5 regardless of what happened to the movement for the proposed general Conference. The participants at this meeting included Lindhagen, Lindstorm, and Otto Strom of Sweden; Osip Arkadievich Ermanski of the Menshiviks; Yrjo Sirola of Finland; J. Eads How of the United States; Ledebour of Germany; and Radek and Hanecki "representing both the Bolsheviks and the Social Democracy of Poland and Lithuania"

Finally, the Third Zimmerwald Conference met at Stockholm on September 5–12, 1917. It had a smaller number of participants than any of the previous Zimmerwaldist Conferences, with only about thirty delegates from Russia, Germany, Poland, Finland, Rumania, Switzerland, the United States, Sweden and Norway, as well as the members of the ISC itself. By this point the question of attending the proposed general Stockholm Conference had been rendered practically moot because of the inability of the organizers to realize the project. The question was discussed anyway because some delegates felt that the issues raised by the movement for the Stockholm Congress were of a "fundamental" nature and the proletarians needed to be educated as to why the proposal foundered. No resolution was passed on the issue, though the movement for the Stockholm Conference is condemned, in passing, in the Conferences manifesto.

## Final months in Stockholm

The manifesto itself caused some trouble for the ISC. It was agreed that it would not be immediately released because it contained a call for co-ordinated mass action against the war by the proletarians of all countries. The Conference felt it would be best to postpone publication until all the Zimmerwaldist groups had consented to this. A messenger was to memorize the text in English and go to London where he would deliver the manifesto orally. There it would be translated into French, memorized by another messenger who would travel to Paris. Meanwhile, on September 28, Louise Zeitz of the German Independent Socialists arrived in Stockholm and the ISC met to discuss her request that the publication of the manifesto be postponed further. The ISP had been getting into trouble lately because of mutinies in the German navy led by alleged party members. The group's parliamentary leaders denied responsibility and pleaded that they were only for legal action. The publication of the manifesto at this time might lead to the dissolution of the party by the government. Karl Radek, on the other hand, argued for immediate publication. The Commission decided to postpone issuing the manifesto for the time being. The ISC would publish it only after personal or telegraphic communication with the ISP and, barring that, on its own discretion. Radek threatened to publish the manifesto himself—and he did so, in a Finnish newspaper that November.

The ISC held a meeting with a visiting Serb delegation on October 10. The Serbs were represented by Kaslerovic and Popvic. In addition to the Serbs, the following were present: Christian Rakovsky of Romania; Katerina Tinev of the Bulgarian Trade Union Federation and Kharlokov of the opposition with the "Broad" Bulgarian socialist party; Radek, Orlovsky and Haneki of the Bolsheviks; Yrjo Sirola of Finland and Fritz Rosen of the Socialist Propaganda League of America. No decisions or resolutions appear to have been made at this meeting. The Serb delegation were there to submit a memorandum to the Dutch-Scandinavian committee.

The ISC held two meetings on November 8, 1917, the day after the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd. Present, beside the formal members of the Commission, were Radek, Racovsky, Tinev and Kharlakov. At the first it was moved that the ISC send a telegram of congratulations to the Petrograd Soviet in the name of all the affiliated parties. Racovsky protested against this, suggesting they wait until the situation in Russia was clear and all the parties were able to take a stand on what happened. He was overruled. Radek offered an already written appeal that he wanted issued jointly by the Bolsheviks and the ISC which urged workers around the world to strike and form soviets to defend the Russian revolution from counter-revolution and defend peace. It also asked all the parties which approved of the revolution to send delegates to Stockholm. This was approved. At a second meeting later that night the publication of the manifesto adopted at the Third Zimmerwald Conference was approved.

The ISC spent the remainder of its existence publishing its newsletter and other material supportive of the Bolshevik revolution. In March 1918 its published a special illustrated "Zimmerwald Russia Review", *Frieden, Brot, Freiheit* in twelve languages. It also published a pamphlet of Bukharin, *Thesen über der sozialistische Revolution und die Aufgaben des Proletariats während seiner Diktatur in Russland*. The final issue of *Nachrichten* was published on September 1, 1918 and contained an appeal to the workers in German, French, Swedish, Italian and English. That month Balabanoff went on a tour of several countries to try to revive the influence of the ISC and fight off calls for its return to Switzerland. She was not especially successful, being expelled from Switzerland and denied reentry into Sweden. As secretary of the International Socialist Commission, she consented into its formal dissolution into the Communist International at its first congress in March 1919.

## Publications

### Periodicals

### Pamphlets

* *Das Wiedererwachen der Internationale* by Christian Rakovsky Bern: Internationale Sozialistische Kommission, 1916
* *Lenin: am Tage nach der Revolution* by Fritz Platten Zürich : Genossenschaftsdruckerei, 1918

## Affiliates

Two membership lists of organizations adhering to Zimmerwald were published in *Bulletins* #3 and #4. Not included in either lists were the opposition sections within the German and French socialist parties. Additionally, the Finnish Social Democrats adhered in the summer of 1917. There were also other groups whose allegiance to the ISC and Zimmerwald was ambiguous.

### Entente countries (other than Russia)

### Czarist Russia

### Neutral countries

### Central Powers


title: Lawrence Bruner

abstract: Lawrence Bruner was an American entomologist and ornithologist.

text:
# Lawrence Bruner

**Lawrence Bruner** (March 2, 1856  January 30, 1937) was an American entomologist and ornithologist.

## Biography

Bruner's parents emigrated to West Point, Nebraska when he was a child. While growing up, he collected various insects and small animals, and his parents let him use a small carriage house behind the main home to house his collections. His father Uhriah Bruner became a regent of the University of Nebraska, and at age 15, Lawrence enrolled at the school. He received an appointment as assistant on the United States Entomological Commission in 1880, and as field agent for the United States Department of Agriculture at the University of Nebraska in 1888, where he became instructor in entomology in 1890 and professor in 1895. He also assisted with ornithology at the university, and is credited for his importance in founding the Nebraska Ornithologists' Union. In 1897 and 1898, he traveled in Argentina as field agent again for the United States Department of Agriculture. Lawrence married Marcia A. Dewell on Christmas Day 1881.

Lawrence died in Berkeley, California on January 30, 1937. He is buried in the Wyuka Cemetery in Lincoln, Nebraska.

## Honors

He is a member of the Nebraska Hall of Agricultural Achievement.

## Works

* *The Destructive Locust of Argentina* (2 reports, 1898 and 1900)
* *Locusts of Paraguay* (1906)
* *South American Tetrigidae* (1912)
* *New Elementary Agriculture*, co-author (9th ed., 1911)

* This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Bruner, Lawrence". *Encyclopedia Americana*.
* Mallis, Arnold (1971). *American Entomologists*. Rutgers University Press. pp. 191–95.
* Swenk, Myron H. (1937). "In Memoriam, Lawrence Bruner". *Nebraska Bird Review*. **5** (2): 35–48.

## InfoBox

| Lawrence Bruner | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1856-03-02)March 2, 1856
Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, US |
| Died | January 30, 1937(1937-01-30) (aged 80)
Berkeley, California, US |
| Known for | Entomology
Ornithology
Taxidermy |


title: Graham C. Greene

abstract: Graham C. Greene, CBE, was a British publisher who was managing director of Jonathan Cape from 1962 to 1990. He was described by The Times as being among the most influential publishers of his generation, who "belied his quiet and modest manner to become a fierce champion of liberal values and a free press". He was chairman of the British Museum. He was the nephew of novelist Graham Greene.

text:
# Graham C. Greene

**Graham C. Greene**, CBE (10 July 1936 – 10 October 2016), was a British publisher who was managing director of Jonathan Cape from 1962 to 1990. He was described by *The Times* as being among the most influential publishers of his generation, who "belied his quiet and modest manner to become a fierce champion of liberal values and a free press". He was chairman of the British Museum. He was the nephew of novelist Graham Greene.

## Early life and career

Graham Carleton Greene was born in Berlin, Germany, to Hugh Carleton Greene (who was *The Daily Telegraph*'s correspondent, and later Director-General of the BBC) and Helga Guinness. Most of his childhood was spent in the United Kingdom, with his education taking place at Eton College and University College, Oxford.

After a period with the Guinness Mahon family bank in London and New York City, Graham decided to move into publishing. He was always referred to in the book trade as "Graham C Greene" to avoid confusion with his novelist uncle.

## Publishing

### Secker & Warburg

Beginning with Secker & Warburg in 1958, he became a sales manager for the company. However, he was unable to persuade Fred Warburg to publish Vladimir Nabokov's controversial novel *Lolita*. Following Tom Maschler's move to Jonathan Cape from Penguin in 1960, Greene decided to join him there in 1962.

### Jonathan Cape

Greene worked at Managing Director of Jonathan Cape, where he re-issued *The Future of Socialism* by Anthony Crosland. Greene also published Richard Crossman's diaries in 1975, despite the threat of court action by the Attorney General.

### CBVC Group

In 1969, Jonathan Cape joined with Chatto & Windus and later Bodley Head and Virago Books to act as the CBVC Group. Maschler and Greene were the two biggest shareholders and decided to sell the group to Random House. After the sale Greene resigned, working part-time as a literary agent with Ed Victor, serving on the board of Ed Victor Ltd from the time the company was founded, in 1976.

## Other activities

### South Africa and China

Greene's publishing work took him to South Africa, where he worked with anti-Apartheid activists such as Nadine Gordimer, who was published by Jonathan Cape. In his role as Publishers’ Association president, Greene worked to establish copyright treaties with China, this brought him into contact with Deng Xiaoping.

### British Museum

For 24 years from 1978, Greene served on the board of the British Museum. Along with museum director Robert Anderson and Sir Claus Moser, Greene helped raise £110 million for the museum. There was pressure for his dismissal from the board after the wrong type of stone was allegedly used on the south portico of the courtyard. He also displeased the Department of Culture, Media and Sport when he refused to impose admission charges.

### Brewing

Greene also served as a director at the family brewery, Greene King.

## Personal life

Greene was married to Judith Gordon-Walker, the marriage was dissolved in 1976. His second marriage was to Sally Eaton, which was dissolved in 1984. He had a son named Alexander, a stepdaughter named Charlotte and a stepson. Greene was a nephew of writer Graham Greene and mountaineer Raymond Greene.

## Further reading

* Jeremy Lewis, *Shades of Greene: One Generation of an English Family*, London: Jonathan Cape, 2010, ISBN 978-0224079211.

## InfoBox

| Graham C. GreeneCBE | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Graham Carleton Greene
10 July 1936
Berlin, Germany |
| Died | 10 October 2016(2016-10-10) (aged 80)
England |
| Nationality | British |
| Alma mater | Eton College; University College, Oxford |
| Occupation | Publisher |
| Employer(s) | Secker & Warburg; Jonathan Cape; CBVC Group |
| Board member of | Greene King; British Museum; CBVC Group |
| Spouse(s) | Judith Gordon-Walker (dissolved 1976); Sally Eaton (dissolved 1984) |
| Children | 3 |
| Parents |  |
| Relatives | Graham Greene (uncle); Raymond Greene (uncle) |


title: USS Pawtuxet

abstract: USS Pawtuxet was a side wheel steamer of the Union Navy during the American Civil War. Launched by the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 19 March 1864, she was delivered to the Navy at New York City on 18 May 1864, and commissioned on 26 August 1864, Comdr. J. H. Spotts in command. She was named after a river in Rhode Island.

text:
# USS Pawtuxet

**USS *Pawtuxet*** was a side wheel steamer of the Union Navy during the American Civil War. Launched by the Portsmouth Navy Yard on 19 March 1864, she was delivered to the Navy at New York City on 18 May 1864, and commissioned on 26 August 1864, Comdr. J. H. Spotts in command. She was named after a river in Rhode Island.

## Service history

Following commissioning *Pawtuxet* was ordered to the Grand Banks to join the quest for the Confederate raider *Tallahassee*, but before she could get underway *Tallahassee* had returned safely to Wilmington. *Pawtuxet* was then ordered south to join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Joining the 3rd Division in October she was ordered to cruise off the Carolina coast, primarily between Capes Lookout and Fear. At the end of December she bombarded the defenses at Wilmington in support of the first assault against Fort Fisher. Returning on 13 January 1865, she again turned her guns on that fort; sent men and boats to participate in the successful assault on the 15th; then resumed blockade duties. Shifted to the Virginia coast in April, she decommissioned at New York on 15 June 1865, and was sold on 15 October 1867.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| History | |
| United States | |
| Name | USS *Pawtuxet* |
| Builder | Portsmouth Navy Yard |
| Launched | 19 March 1864 |
| Acquired | 18 May 1864 |
| Commissioned | 26 August 1864 |
| Decommissioned | 15 June 1865 |
| Fate | Sold, 15 October 1867 |
| General characteristics | |
| Class and type | *Sassacus*-class gunboat |
| Tonnage | 974 long tons (990 t) |
| Length | 205 ft (62 m) |
| Beam | 35 ft (11 m) |
| Draft | 9 ft 3 in (2.82 m) |
| Depth of hold | 11 ft 6 in (3.51 m) |
| Speed | 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph) |
| Armament |  |


title: Ralston, Nebraska

abstract: Ralston is a city in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 6,494 at the 2020 census. A suburb of Omaha, Ralston is surrounded on three sides by the city of Omaha by 84th, 72nd, and L Streets, and by Sarpy County on the south side.

text:
# Ralston, Nebraska

**Ralston** is a city in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 6,494 at the 2020 census. A suburb of Omaha, Ralston is surrounded on three sides by the city of Omaha by 84th, 72nd, and L Streets, and by Sarpy County (Harrison Street) on the south side.

## History

The area of the townsite was established on May 23, 1907, with the sale of 282.7 acres (114.4 ha; 1,144,000 m2) of land owned by Omaha newspaper editor George L. Miller to the Ralston Investment Company. A year later the town was platted by future Omaha mayor Roy N. Towl. A petition to incorporate the property as a village was submitted to the Douglas County Board of Commissions on June 22, 1912, which was adopted by the Board two days later on June 24.

The still nascent village experienced a devastating blow to its development on Easter, March 23, 1913, when a tornado tore through the downtown area. The 1913 Easter Tornado was part of a March 1913 tornado outbreak sequence that ripped through the Southern and Midwestern regions of the United States.

In 1934, following a fire that destroyed half a city block, Ralston declared bankruptcy; it was one of the first cities in the United States to do so.

## Geography

Ralston is located at 41°12′8″N 96°2′14″W / 41.20222°N 96.03722°W / 41.20222; -96.03722 (41.202198, -96.037168).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.65 square miles (4.27 km2), of which 1.64 square miles (4.25 km2) is land and 0.01 square miles (0.03 km2) is water.

The nearest hospital is Bergan Mercy Hospital (3.7 miles) located in Omaha.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1920 | 455 |  |  |
| 1930 | 809 |  | 77.8% |
| 1940 | 834 |  | 3.1% |
| 1950 | 1,300 |  | 55.9% |
| 1960 | 2,977 |  | 129.0% |
| 1970 | 4,731 |  | 58.9% |
| 1980 | 5,143 |  | 8.7% |
| 1990 | 6,236 |  | 21.3% |
| 2000 | 6,314 |  | 1.3% |
| 2010 | 5,943 |  | −5.9% |
| 2020 | 6,494 |  | 9.3% |
| U.S. Decennial Census
2013 Estimate | | | |

### 2020 census

The 2020 United States census counted 6,494 people, 3,092 households, and 1,805 families in Ralston. The population density was 4,084.3 per square mile (1,577.0/km2). There were 3,237 housing units at an average density of 2,035.8 units per square mile (786.0 units/km2). The racial makeup was 78.66% (5,108) white, 3.73% (242) black or African-American, 0.91% (59) Native American, 1.74% (113) Asian, 0.05% (3) Pacific Islander, 6.19% (402) from other races, and 8.73% (567) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race was 13.0% (953) of the population.

Of the 3,092 households, 26.3% had children under the age of 18; 42.6% were married couples living together; 27.7% had a female householder with no husband present. 33.1% of households consisted of individuals and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.4 and the average family size was 3.0.

23.9% of the population was under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.9 years. For every 100 females, the population had 96.3 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 95.6 males.

The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $60,106 (with a margin of error of +/- $3,994) and the median family income $73,826 (+/- $7,307). Males had a median income of $41,763 (+/- $4,565) versus $34,464 (+/- $6,447) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $37,321 (+/- $4,055). Approximately, 4.4% of families and 8.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.1% of those under the age of 18 and 4.0% of those ages 65 or over.

### 2010 census

At the time of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 5,943 people. There was a total of 2,581 households, of which 1,560 households were made of families. The population density was 3,623.8 inhabitants per square mile (1,399.2/km2). There were 2,711 housing units at an average density of 1,653.0 units per square mile (638.2 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 89.7% White, 2.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 4.6% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.0% of the population.

There were 2,581 households, of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.6% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39.6% were non-families. 32.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.94.

The median age in the city was 40 years. 22.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.1% were from 25 to 44; 27.7% were from 45 to 64; and 16.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.1% male and 50.9% female.

### 2000 census

As of the census of 2000, there were 6,314 people, 2,538 households, and 1,697 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,725.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,438.5/km2). There were 2,601 housing units at an average density of 1,534.8 units per square mile (592.6 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.96% White, 1.24% African American, 0.16% Native American, 1.16% Asian, Pacific Islander, 1.58% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.39% of the population.

There were 2,538 households, out of which 32.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.1% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.00.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.6% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.1 males.

As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $47,252, and the median income for a family was $58,360. Males had a median income of $35,898 versus $27,475 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,230. About 0.6% of families and 1.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 3.2% of those age 65 or over.

## Education

The local school district is Ralston Public Schools. Ralston High School opened on Lakeview Drive in 1954; it is now at 8969 Park Drive. The old high school building was converted to the middle school. In 2006, Ralston High School's enrollment jumped from 850 students to 1090 students.

The Ralston Public Library opened in 1922 and was first located in the Stewart Real Estate Office. Two years later it was moved to the Centennial room in the basement level of City Hall. In 1963, the library moved to 7900 Park Lane. In May 1999, it returned to the downtown area and was renamed the Baright Public Library; it is currently at 5555 South 77th Street.

## Attractions

The Ralston Arena opened October 19, 2012 and serves as the home of the Omaha Lancers hockey team, the Omaha Beef indoor football team, and was the home of UNO Mavericks men's basketball team until Baxter Arena opened in 2015. On January 1, 2022, the arena's was officially renamed the Liberty First Credit Union Arena.

## Local Businesses

## Transportation

Transit service to the city is provided by Metro Transit.

## InfoBox

| Ralston, Nebraska | |
| --- | --- |
| City | |
| Main Street in Ralston, March 2017 | |
|  | |
| Location of Ralston within Nebraska and Douglas County | |
| Coordinates: 41°12′02″N 96°02′08″W / 41.20056°N 96.03556°W / 41.20056; -96.03556 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Nebraska |
| County | Douglas |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Donald A. Groesser |
| Area | |
| Total | 1.60 sq mi (4.14 km2) |
| Land | 1.59 sq mi (4.11 km2) |
| Water | 0.01 sq mi (0.03 km2) |
| Elevation | 1,093 ft (333 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 6,494 |
| Density | 4,085.53/sq mi (1,580.04/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-5 (CDT) |
| ZIP code | 68127 |
| Area code(s) | 402 and 531 |
| FIPS code | 31-40605 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2396309 |
| Website | http://cityofralston.com/ |


title: Mayoralty of Fiorello La Guardia

abstract: Fiorello La Guardia served as the 99th Mayor of New York City from January 1, 1934, to January 1, 1946. His mayoralty presided over New York City during the Great Depression and World War II. He is considered the builder of modern New York City due to his numerous infrastructure projects. He replaced John P. O'Brien and was succeeded by William O'Dwyer. Before La Guardia's election as mayor in 1933, Tammany Hall had controlled the mayoralty for the past twelve years. He would win reelection two times and became the first Mayor of New York City to serve three terms. During his three terms as mayor he oversaw government reforms, fought against Tammany Hall, increased the budget by over $200 million, oversaw the development and completion of multiple infrastructure projects, and collaborated with President Franklin D. Roosevelt on multiple New Deal policies. La Guardia is regarded as the best mayor in New York City's history and one of the best mayors in American history, according to The New York Times. The Guardian, in its obituary of La Guardia, stated that he was "the most remarkable mayor of a great city in American history". Another Republican would not win election as Mayor of New York City until John Lindsay won in the 1965 election and a Republican would not serve more than one term as mayor until Rudy Giuliani.

text:
# Mayoralty of Fiorello La Guardia

Fiorello La Guardia served as the 99th Mayor of New York City from January 1, 1934, to January 1, 1946. His mayoralty presided over New York City during the Great Depression and World War II. He is considered the builder of modern New York City due to his numerous infrastructure projects. He replaced John P. O'Brien and was succeeded by William O'Dwyer.

Before La Guardia's election as mayor in 1933, Tammany Hall had controlled the mayoralty for the past twelve years. He would win reelection two times and became the first Mayor of New York City to serve three terms. During his three terms as mayor he oversaw government reforms, fought against Tammany Hall, increased the budget by over $200 million, oversaw the development and completion of multiple infrastructure projects, and collaborated with President Franklin D. Roosevelt on multiple New Deal policies.

La Guardia is regarded as the best mayor in New York City's history and one of the best mayors in American history, according to *The New York Times*. *The Guardian*, in its obituary of La Guardia, stated that he was "the most remarkable mayor of a great city in American history". Another Republican would not win election as Mayor of New York City until John Lindsay won in the 1965 election and a Republican would not serve more than one term as mayor until Rudy Giuliani.

## Tenure

### City government

Fiorello La Guardia wrote legislation in 1934, which would have reformed New York City's government, but it failed as it lacked a two-thirds majority with 81 members of the New York State Assembly voting in favor and 61 voting against. An almost identical version of the legislation was put up again, but failed with 93 members voting in favor and 50 members voting against. Another version of the legislation, which was described by La Guardia as a "puny, anaemic and undersized baby", passed in the Assembly with 120 members voting in favor and 23 members voting against. The legislation passed in the New York State Senate and was signed into law by Governor Herbert H. Lehman on April 10, 1934.

Fred C. Lemmerman, a commissioner of the Triborough Bridge Authority and who had been appointed by the pro-Tammany Hall Mayor John P. O'Brien, was placed under investigation and accused of receiving $930 as a brokerage fee for consummating a lease for bridge authority offices. Lemmerman later resigned from his position and La Guardia appointed George Vincent McLaughlin to fill the vacancy. La Guardia later fired Commissioner John Stratton O'Leary and replaced him with Robert Moses causing the Triborough Bridge Authority to only have one pro-Tammany Hall member, Nathan Burkan, on the board. Burkan, who was an influential district leader in Tammany Hall, died on June 6, 1936.

La Guardia instituted civil service reforms during his tenure. The number of civil servants with unclassified positions fell from 15,000 to 1,500 from 1933 to 1940, and civil service applications rose from 6,327 in 1933, to over 250,000 by 1939. Irish-Americans, who dominated civil service leadership and patronage under Tammany, fell from being heads of 25-40% of departments to 5% under La Guardia.

La Guardia appointed William Bowne Parsons to succeed Raymond J. O'Sullivan, secretary of Tammany Hall, on the Board of Assessors.

La Guardia served as president of the United States Conference of Mayors from 1935 to 1945.

### Civil rights and race

La Guardia appointed Eugene Faulkner as a New York City Marshal, in 1935, making him the second black person and first black Republican to hold that position. He appointed Jane Bolin as a judge in 1939, making her the first black woman to serve as a judge in the United States.

La Guardia's efforts to improve racial relations were awarded by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History in 1940. However, he was criticized by Adam Clayton Powell Jr. who accused La Guardia of ignoring the concerns of black people as he no longer needed their votes and stated that La Guardia was "one of the most pathetic figures on the current American scene".

The Quinn-Ives Act, which prohibited discrimination in hiring and established a committee to investigate complaints, was signed into law by Governor Thomas E. Dewey in March 1945, and La Guardia created the Mayor's Committee to Integrate Baseball with Branch Rickey serving on the committee.

### Crime

La Guardia appointed John F. O'Ryan then Lewis Joseph Valentine to serve as New York City Police Commissioner. O'Ryan resigned after disputes between him and La Guardia about the police response to union strikes and accused La Guardia of encouraging "Communists and the vicious elements of the city". La Guardia appointed Austin MacCormick to serve as Commissioner of the New York City Department of Correction and during their tenure they oversaw the development and completion of Rikers Island Penitentiary to replace Welfare Island Penitentiary as New York City's jail.

La Guardia fought against Frank Costello's gambling empire and ordered raids that confiscated hundreds of slot machines. Costello converted 15,000 of his slot machines into candy machines and gained a court injunction against further raids. La Guardia continued the confiscations and had Paul Windels appeal the injunction. Anna Jurovaty was arrested for having one of the machines on her property and La Guardia found her guilty using his powers as a magistrate. Costello and Phillip Kastel later moved their gambling activities to Louisiana.

Following the Harlem riot of 1935, which resulted in over $2 million worth of property damage, La Guardia created an interracial commission to study the conditions that led to the riot occurring. The commission, which included Oswald Garrison Villard, Countee Cullen, Hubert Thomas Delany, A. Philip Randolph, and E. Franklin Frazier, reported after an eight-month investigation that the lack of social services, employment discrimination, police brutality, and overcrowded schools led to the riot. Following the Harlem riot of 1943, La Guardia instituted a curfew of 10:30 P.M., the last curfew instituted in New York City until the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, and had it enforced by 6,000 police and 1,500 civilian volunteers.

La Guardia stated in 1935, that New York City was no longer the crime capital of the United States and that Chicago now held the highest crime rate in the United States. However, Wilbert Crowley, the First Assistant State's Attorney, criticized La Guardia's statement and said that "we consider ourselves in a splendid position" and asked for where La Guardia got his crime statistics from.

La Guardia commissioned a report by the New York Academy of Medicine in 1938, to study the effects of marijuana. The report was released in 1944, and showed that marijuana was not physically addictive, not a gateway drug, and did not lead to crime.

La Guardia appointed William Fellowes Morgan Jr. to serve as Commissioner of Public Markets to prevent racketeering in New York City's markets and Morgan appointed Michael Fiaschetti to clear racketeers out of the markets.

### Development policy

La Guardia revealed a plan in 1934, to develop a $101 million municipal power plant in New York City starting on February 1, 1935. However, the Consolidated Gas Company filed a lawsuit to prevent a proposed referendum on whether or not to build the municipal plant and the courts ruled in favor of the Consolidated Gas Company.

The Independent Subway System (IND) was opened in 1932, but New York City did not assume control of the system until 1940, under La Guardia and would remain under political control until the system was given to the New York City Transit Authority in 1953. He sought a $57,639,000 loan from the Public Works Administration to construct the Sixth Avenue Line in 1935, started construction on March 23, 1936, and the project was completed at a cost of $59,500,000 in 1940.

La Guardia formed the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in 1934, by consolidating the five boroughs' independent parks departments and placing it under the control of Moses as its commissioner. During his tenure 1,800 engineers and designers, along with 70,000 workers in 1934, were employed, using money from New Deal programs, to expand and modernize public spaces.

Sixty playgrounds were constructed within La Guardia's first year as mayor and Moses completed Central Park Zoo in 1934. He opened the High School of Music & Art in 1936. The New York City Center was converted from a meeting place of the Shriners to a performing arts centers during La Guardia's tenure as mayor and he himself led the New York Philharmonic in The Star-Spangled Banner when the center was officially converted on December 11, 1943.

La Guardia called for the creation of a municipal airport in 1935. The New York City Board of Estimate voted twelve to one, with only George U. Harvey voting against, on November 2, 1939, to rename the Municipal Airport to La Guardia Field. Following the death of General Alexander E. Anderson the New York City Council voted to name an airport after him. La Guardia vetoed the legislation, but his veto was overridden by the council.

#### Federal projects

Historian Henry Graff stated that La Guardia mastered "the art of spending public money, before that skill became commonplace". La Guardia helped plan the Civil Works Administration and Travis Harvard Whitney was appointed by La Guardia's suggestion. 20% of the jobs created by the CWA nationally, 200,000, were in New York City. The CWA, Works Progress Administration, and Public Works Administration spent more than $1.1 billion in New York City from 1934 to 1939. Harry Hopkins gave New York City independent administrative control over WPA relief operations in 1936, and Hugh S. Johnson was appointed as its administrator at La Guardia's advice.

La Guardia presented an outline for a $1 billion public works program to President Franklin D. Roosevelt which would be completed using part of the $4 billion in Roosevelt's national work relief plan. The $1 billion proposal called for educational, sewage, highway, fire department, hospital, housing, and power plants funding. Included in the plan was allocations of $30 million towards the building of municipal power plants, $19 million for 500 steel subway cars, $57,639,000 for the Sixth Avenue subway line, $2,189,000 for the completion of the city subway system, $25,245,000 for sewage treatment works on Wards Island, $9 million for elevated highways, $12 million for the Queens Civic Centre in Jamaica, $18,500,000 for Central Criminal Courts, $9 million for Brooklyn College, $5 million for Brooklyn Public Library, $69 million for thirty-seven sewage treatment plants, $805,000 for nine new fire buildings, $82,241,000 for 142 elementary schools, and $38,508,000 for twenty-two high schools.

Moses' leadership of the Triborough Bridge Authority was opposed by Roosevelt as the two had been political enemies in state politics. He sought the removal of Moses or else federal funds would be withdrawn from the project. Moses ran for governor of New York in 1934, which prevented the president from removing federal funding in order to avoid being see as politically motivated. After the election Harold L. Ickes issued PWA Administrative General Order No. 129 which was targeted at Moses. La Guardia initially promised to not reappoint Moses, but did not. The order threatened La Guardia's plans using $310 million in funding from the PWA and further plans using $100 million. Moses made the issue public, but Roosevelt and Ickes maintained their position despite media criticism. A compromise was reached in which the order would not apply retroactively. The announcement was focused around allowing Langdon Post, chair of the Municipal Housing Authority and Tenement House Commissioner of New York, to maintain his positions while only one sentence was dedicated to Moses. The Triborough Bridge Authority was later given $1.6 billion in federal funding.

> Hereafter no funds shall be advanced to any authority, board or commission constituting an independent corporation or entity created for a specific project wholly within the confines of a municipality, any of the members of the governing body of which authority, board or commission holds any public office under said municipality.
>
> PWA Administrative General Order No. 129

### Economic policy

New York City had a budget of $550,961,960.06 in 1935, a budget of $545,541,842 in 1936, a budget of $554,998,917.10 in 1937, a budget of $587,980,567 in 1938, a budget of $578,509,839 in 1939, a budget of $581,048,834.10 from 1940 to 1941, a budget of $573,740,594.13 from 1941 to 1942, a budget of $656,314,369 from 1942 to 1943, a budget of $753,071,123.40 from 1943 to 1944, a budget of $737,400,923 from 1944 to 1945, and a budget of $759,266,401.82 in 1945.

La Guardia inherited a $31 million budget deficit from Mayor O'Brien upon taking office and he reduced the deficit by $19 million during 1934. He reduced spending through budget cuts and eliminating over 1,000 positions. A lawsuit was filed regarding the 1938 budget of $589,980,567, which La Guardia was against, and the court ruled five to one in favor of retaining the budget and invalidating the lower budget proposed by La Guardia.

La Guardia vetoed legislation which would have created an eight hour workday for members of the New York City Fire Department. He supported legislation which would have created an eight hour workday for nurses.

### Foreign policy

Prior to taking office La Guardia had participated in a rally to protest Nazi Germany's discrimination against Jews. While giving the keynote address at the American National Conference Against Racial Persecution in Germany he stated that Adolf Hitler was "a perverted maniac". After taking office as Mayor of New York City he supported a boycott of German products which was being organized by Jews in New York.

Paul Marchandeau, the Mayor of Reims, France, and the head of the Association of the Mayors of France, visited New York City in 1934, and was greeted by La Guardia.

James Clement Dunn, chief of the Division of Western European affairs in the United States Department of State, delivered an apology to Hans Thomsen, counselor of the German embassy in the United States, on behalf of the Department of State in regards to a statement made by La Guardia about Adolf Hitler.

La Guardia served as one of the vice presidents of the Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League to Champion Human Rights. La Guardia and Allen Wardwell, the chairman of the Greater New York Campaign of Russian War Relief, announced Russian War Relief Week on June 20, 1942, in which they called for people to donate to buy medical supplies for the army of the Soviet Union fight the Nazis.

He supported changing the name of Manhattan's Sixth Avenue to Avenue of the Americas, stating that it would be an expression of the "love and affection… for our sister republics of Central and South America". La Guardia signed a bill to officially rename the avenue on October 2, 1945. The move was criticized as "propaganda" by those who wanted to return to the original name.

### Housing policy

La Guardia created the New York City Housing Authority in 1934, and received up to $25 million in earmarked funding from the PWA. From 1934 to 1943, fourteen low rent public housing projects, which housed 17,040 families, were built.

In 1934, New York City had 17 square miles of slums, which 10 square miles of was "unfit for human habitation", which housed 516,000 families. La Guardia announced that he would remove 67,000 tenement buildings which housed 650,000 people and constituted the slums of New York City. In 1935, he asked for $150 million to $200 million in federal funding for low-rental housing projects in New York City and stated that it would cost $1,500,000,000 to properly house the 500,000 families currently living in sub-standard houses. He later asked the state legislature in 1939, to lend $120 million to municipalities for housing programs, with $100 million going to New York City for the rehousing of 1,500,000 people living in sub-standard conditions. In 1937, La Guardia was among two hundred mayors who wrote an open letter supporting the United States Conference of Mayors' slum clearance and rehousing plans and asked for the establishment of a permanent federal agency for slum clearance and low-rent housing programs.

When the Castle Village was completed in 1939, it was dedicated by La Guardia who stated that it was a "magnificent housing unit, which will afford the sunshine, scenery and comforts of a millionaire's living quarters to those without a millionaire's income". La Guardia signed a $6 million contract for the construction of the Riverton Houses by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company in 1944.

## Elections

### 1933

La Guardia had run for the Republican nomination in the 1921 mayoral election despite Samuel S. Koenig, the boss of the Republican Party in Manhattan, telling him "Don't do it, Fiorello. The town isn't ready for an Italian mayor." La Guardia lost to Henry Curran in the Republican primary and did not place first in any of the boroughs. La Guardia later ran in the 1929 mayoral election, but the leaders of the Republican Party chose to abstain from the election or gave their support to Mayor Jimmy Walker who defeated La Guardia and placed first in all sixty-two assembly districts. La Guardia lost reelection to the United States House of Representatives in the 1932 election against James J. Lanzetta, who was backed by Tammany Hall. He announced that he would run for the Republican nomination in the 1933 mayoral election.

Mayor Walker resigned on September 1, 1932, following investigations into corruption by the Hofstadter Committee under the leadership of Samuel Seabury. La Guardia stated that "this is a great day for our country" after being told of Walker's resignation. O'Brien, another Tammany backed candidate, was elected to succeed Walker in the 1932 special election. The Fusion Conference Committee, a group of reformers and Republicans was formed to select a candidate to oppose Tammany Hall in the mayoral election. La Guardia sought their support, but they instead chose to give their support to O'Ryan after other candidates declined. La Guardia later defeated O'Ryan and his supporters during the nomination selection of the Republican Mayoralty Committee and gained the nominations of the Republican and City Fusion parties while O'Ryan withdrew from the election.

La Guardia won the nomination of the Republican and City Fusion parties. He defeated O'Brien, former Mayor Joseph V. McKee, and other minor political candidates in the election with a plurality of the popular vote. Tammany Hall had controlled the mayoralty for the past twelve years prior to La Guardia's victory. It was the first time a fusion candidate had been elected mayor since John Purroy Mitchel's victory in the 1913 election.

### 1937

La Guardia announced that he would seek reelection as Mayor of New York City in the 1937 election and he was opposed for the Republican nomination by Almbert Fairchild, Thomas J. Curran, and Charles G. Bond. All 475 delegates of the City Fusion Party voted unanimously to give their party's nomination to La Guardia, the American Labor Party voted unanimously to give its nomination to La Guardia, and he won the Republican primary. He had won the Republican nomination despite his support for President Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election.

The Socialist Party initially selected to give its nomination to Norman Thomas, but he withdrew and the party endorsed La Guardia. He was endorsed by the Communist Party USA, but LaGuardia disavowed their support. He defeated Jeremiah T. Mahoney, the Democratic nominee, with over 60% of the popular vote. La Guardia was able to win the election due to his results from the American Labor ballot line.

### 1941

La Guardia stated in 1939, that he would not seek reelection in the 1941 mayoral election. However, he announced that he would seek reelection to a third term in 1941. He defeated Democratic nominee William O'Dwyer while running on the ballot lines of the Republican, American Labor, City Fusion, and United City parties. La Guardia's election victory made him the first mayor in New York City history to serve three terms.

## Works cited

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| **Mayoralty of Fiorello La Guardia**<br>January 1, 1934  January 1, 1946 | |
| Mayor | Fiorello La Guardia |
| Party | Republican<br>American Labor Party<br>City Fusion Party |
| Election | 1933 <br>1937 <br>1941 |
|  | |
| ---  <br>Seal of New York City, New York | |


title: Hemmo Kallio

abstract: Herman "Hemmo" Kallio was a Finnish stage and film actor and playwright.

text:
# Hemmo Kallio

**Herman "Hemmo" Kallio** (19 April 1863 – 8 September 1940) was a Finnish stage and film actor and playwright.

## Career

Born **Herman Puttonen**, he officially changed his surname to Kallio in 1906. Herman began his professional career as a print shop director. He began his acting career in 1882 at the Helsinki Arkadia theater, then moved to the Finnish Theatre (now, the Finnish National Theatre), where he was engaged until he retired from the stage in the late 1930s. His long stint at the theater included a repertoire of over four hundred roles. From the 1920s Kallio began appearing in roles in Finnish films, often cast in fatherly roles. The first of which was the 1920 Teuvo Puro-directed drama *Ollin oppivuodet*. One of his most popular film roles was that of Anna-Liisa's father in the 1922 Teuvo Puro and Jussi Snellman-directed silent film drama *Anna-Liisa*, based on the eponymously titled 1895 play by Finnish writer Minna Canth. Most of his silent film roles of the 1920s are now lost.

Hemmo Kallio died in Helsinki in 1940. He is the grandfather of Finnish actor Ismo Kallio.

## Filmography

| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1920 | *Ollin oppivuodet* | suutari Jokela |  |
| 1921 | *Se parhaiten nauraa, joka viimeksi nauraa* | sahanomistaja Kustaa Penttilä, Martin eno |  |
| 1922 | *Anna-Liisa* | Kortesuon isäntä |  |
| 1927 | *Noidan kirot* | Esa |  |
| 1927 | *Vaihdokas* | Haukka |  |
| 1931 | *Rovastin häämatkat* | Benjamin Jaakkola |  |
| 1931 | *Tukkipojan morsian* | Kustaa Koski |  |
| 1934 | *Meidän poikamme ilmassa - me maassa* | Erkin isä |  |
| 1935 | *Roinilan talossa* | Meri-Matti |  |
| 1936 | *Pohjalaisia* | Herastuomari | (final film role) |

## InfoBox

| Hemmo Kallio | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Herman Puttonen
(1863-04-19)19 April 1863
Rural Municipality of Jyväskylä, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire |
| Died | 8 September 1940(1940-09-08) (aged 77)
Helsinki, Finland |
| Occupation(s) | Actor, playwright |
| Years active | 1882–1936 |


abstract: This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Choctaw County, Mississippi. This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Choctaw County, Mississippi, United States. Latitude and longitude coordinates are provided for many National Register properties and districts; these locations may be seen together in a map. There are 5 properties and districts listed on the National Register in the county.           This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted October 4, 2024.

text:
# National Register of Historic Places listings in Choctaw County, Mississippi

This is a list of the **National Register of Historic Places listings in Choctaw County, Mississippi**.

This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Choctaw County, Mississippi, United States. Latitude and longitude coordinates are provided for many National Register properties and districts; these locations may be seen together in a map.

There are 5 properties and districts listed on the National Register in the county.

*This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted October 4, 2024.*

## Current listings

|  | Name on the Register | Image | Date listed | Location | City or town | Description |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Choctaw Lake Ranger House |  | July 25, 2001
(#01000753) | Address restricted
 | Ackerman | Constructed c. 1936 |
| 2 | Colonel James Drane House |  | July 21, 1983
(#83000950) | Natchez Trace Parkway
33°17′43″N 89°24′02″W / 33.295278°N 89.400556°W / 33.295278; -89.400556 (Colonel James Drane House) | French Camp | Constructed c. 1847 |
| 3 | Janet's Mound |  | January 11, 1991
(#90002125) | Address restricted
 | French Camp |  |
| 4 | Old Natchez Trace (230-3H) |  | November 7, 1976
(#76000159) | South of Mathiston at Natchez Trace Parkway milepost 198
33°28′32″N 89°12′04″W / 33.475556°N 89.201111°W / 33.475556; -89.201111 (Old Natchez Trace (230-3H)) | Mathiston | Segment of the Natchez Trace located at a Natchez Trace Parkway interpretive stop. |
| 5 | Col. John Weir House |  | November 7, 1997
(#97001378) | 102 Ann Street
33°15′28″N 89°17′19″W / 33.257778°N 89.288611°W / 33.257778; -89.288611 (Col. John Weir House) | Weir | Constructed in 1878 |


title: Hart 420 engine

abstract: The Hart 420R and the Hart 420S are four-stroke, naturally aspirated, 2.0 L (120 cu in), four-cylinder engine, designed, developed and made by Hart Racing Engines, and tuned by Brian Hart, for Formula 2 and sports prototype racing applications, between 1975 and 1980. The 420R is based on the Cosworth FVA, while the 420S is based on the Cosworth BDG, with the design knowledge being taken and used on both. The Hart 420R F2 engine owes much to the Cosworth BDA series, being essentially an aluminium-block derivative using similar heads. Both the 420R and 420S were naturally-aspirated, 2-litre, 16-valve DOHC, fuel-injected, straight-four engines. Displacement is 1,994 cc (121.7 cu in), and maximum power output is between 290–305 hp at 9,500 rpm, with the motor being failsafe to just over 10,000 rpm. The bore is 93.5 mm (3.68 in), and the stroke is 72.6 mm (2.86 in).

text:
# Hart 420 engine

The **Hart 420R** and the **Hart 420S** are four-stroke, naturally aspirated, 2.0 L (120 cu in), four-cylinder engine, designed, developed and made by Hart Racing Engines, and tuned by Brian Hart, for Formula 2 and sports prototype racing applications, between 1975 and 1980. The **420R** is based on the Cosworth FVA, while the **420S** is based on the Cosworth BDG, with the design knowledge being taken and used on both. The Hart 420R F2 engine owes much to the **Cosworth BDA** series, being essentially an aluminium-block derivative using similar heads. Both the **420R** and **420S** were naturally-aspirated, 2-litre, 16-valve DOHC, fuel-injected, straight-four engines. Displacement is 1,994 cc (121.7 cu in), and maximum power output is between 290–305 hp (216–227 kW; 294–309 PS) at 9,500 rpm, with the motor being failsafe to just over 10,000 rpm. The bore is 93.5 mm (3.68 in), and the stroke is 72.6 mm (2.86 in).

## Background

With Ford's withdrawal from F2 in the mid-1970s, Hart began to concentrate on building their own designs. The first engine to bear the Hart name alone was the twin-cam, four-cylinder Hart 420R F2 unit, which appeared in 1976 and powered race-winning cars until the end of the decade. In 1978, the Toleman team agreed to a partnership program, with Toleman providing finance to develop further Hart engine designs. The fruits of this collaboration resulted in Toleman taking a one-two finish in the 1980 European Formula Two Championship.

The Hart-tuned Ford FVA and BDA engines were successful in Formula Two, with Ronnie Peterson winning the European title with an FVA in 1971 and Mike Hailwood taking the same title in 1972 with a BDA. The arrival in F2 of BMW and Renault left Ford reluctant to increase its involvement, so Hart chose to develop his own F2 engine - the 420R - which was first raced in a Chevron sportscar in 1976. This engine was a race winner in F2 in 1977 and 1978.

The off-season of 1978-79 brought the next step in the development of Brian Hart Limited, when the Toleman F2 team committed to providing finance for R&D. Toleman-Hart dominated the European F2 Championship in 1980, with Brian Henton and Derek Warwick finishing 1st and 2nd in the championship standings.

## InfoBox

| Hart 420R/420S | |
| --- | --- |
| Overview | |
| Manufacturer | Hart |
| Production | 1975–1980 |
| Layout | |
| Configuration | I4, naturally-aspirated |
| Displacement | 2.0  (122 cu in) |
| Cylinder bore | 93.5 mm (3.68 in) |
| Piston stroke | 72.6 mm (2.86 in) |
| Cylinder block material | Aluminum alloy |
| Cylinder head material | Aluminum alloy |
| Valvetrain | 16-valve, DOHC, four-valves per cylinder |
| Combustion | |
| Fuel system | fuel injection |
| Output | |
| Power output | 290–305 hp (216–227 kW) @ 9500 rpm |


title: Intelligence and the Japanese Civilian

abstract: Intelligence and the Japanese Civilian was a 1945 film produced by the US Marine Corps, to instruct Marines on how they should handle the civilian population of Japan during the post-war occupation. The film begins by describing the difficulties the civilian population posed during the Battle of Saipan including the famous mass suicide of Japanese who believed the US would torture them. As the Marianas campaign progressed though, the Marines learned to use the Intelligence Division (ID) to handle the Japanese civilians, and by the time the Marines reached Okinawa, the ID had become a routine part of the operation. The Marianas and Okinawa, pre-war Japanese possessions, had large Japanese civilian populations at the time of their occupation, whereas other islands, like Tarawa, Guam or Iwo Jima, were either uninhabited by civilians, or only by indigenous civilians. The ID used a variety of techniques to handle the Japanese civilians: they first made loudspeaker announcements in Japanese to coax them into surrendering; once a group surrendered they found a community leader or someone in a position of authority to make more loudspeaker broadcasts to encourage further surrenders. Camps are set up, and made self-sufficient as much as possible. Later, other roles of the civilians are explored, especially the use of captured documents and the need to find out who had been a collaborator with the militarist regime.

text:
# Intelligence and the Japanese Civilian

***Intelligence and the Japanese Civilian*** was a 1945 film produced by the US Marine Corps, to instruct Marines on how they should handle the civilian population of Japan during the post-war occupation.

The film begins by describing the difficulties the civilian population posed during the Battle of Saipan including the famous mass suicide of Japanese who believed the US would torture them. As the Marianas campaign progressed though, the Marines learned to use the Intelligence Division (ID) to handle the Japanese civilians, and by the time the Marines reached Okinawa, the ID had become a routine part of the operation. The Marianas and Okinawa, pre-war Japanese possessions, had large Japanese civilian populations at the time of their occupation, whereas other islands, like Tarawa, Guam or Iwo Jima, were either uninhabited by civilians, or only by indigenous civilians.

The ID used a variety of techniques to handle the Japanese civilians: they first made loudspeaker announcements in Japanese to coax them into surrendering; once a group surrendered they found a community leader or someone in a position of authority to make more loudspeaker broadcasts to encourage further surrenders. Camps are set up, and made self-sufficient as much as possible. Later, other roles of the civilians are explored, especially the use of captured documents and the need to find out who had been a collaborator with the militarist regime.

## InfoBox

| Intelligence and the Japanese Civilian | |
| --- | --- |
| Production<br>company | US Marine Corps |
| Release date | * 1945 (1945) |
| Country | United States |


title: Lawrence Buildings

abstract: Lawrence Buildings in Mount Street, Manchester, England, is a Victorian office block constructed for the Inland Revenue in 1874–76 by Pennington and Bridgen in the Gothic Revival style. It is a Grade II* listed building as of 2 October 1974. The building is of sandstone ashlar with a slate roof. Its skyline is dramatic, with "tourelles and slated spirelet, tall crocketed gable(s), low dormers and tall chimneys". Heavily decorated, it displays a statue of Queen Victoria beneath a canopy on the central front, together with a doorcase flanked by "a lion and a unicorn on pedestals, with an elaborate two-storey oriel window above". Lawrence Buildings forms a group with St Andrew's Chambers, to the right, in a similar style. As of 2024, the ground floor is a café, and the remaining building, floors 1–5, are occupied by flexible office space company, incspaces.

text:
# Lawrence Buildings

**Lawrence Buildings** in Mount Street, Manchester, England, is a Victorian office block constructed for the Inland Revenue in 1874–76 by Pennington and Bridgen in the Gothic Revival style. It is a Grade II\* listed building as of 2 October 1974.

The building is of sandstone ashlar with a slate roof. Its skyline is dramatic, with "tourelles and slated spirelet, tall crocketed gable(s), low dormers and tall chimneys". Heavily decorated, it displays a statue of Queen Victoria beneath a canopy on the central front, together with a doorcase flanked by "a lion and a unicorn on pedestals, with an elaborate two-storey oriel window above".

Lawrence Buildings forms a group with St Andrew's Chambers, to the right, in a similar style.

As of 2024, the ground floor is a café, and the remaining building, floors 1–5, are occupied by flexible office space company, incspaces.

* Hartwell, Clare (2001), *Manchester*, Pevsner Architectural Guides, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-071131-7

53°28′43″N 2°14′44″W / 53.4786°N 2.2455°W / 53.4786; -2.2455

## InfoBox

| Lawrence Buildings | |
| --- | --- |
| Lawrence Buildings, Mount Street | |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Architectural style | Gothic Revival |
| Address | 2 Mount Street, Manchester, M2 5WQ |
| Year(s) built | 1874–76 |
| Technical details | |
| Material | sandstone ashlar |
| Design and construction | |
| Architect(s) | Pennington and Bridgen |
| Designations |  |
| Listed Building – Grade II\* | |
| Official name | Lawrence Buildings |
| Designated | 2 October 1974 |
| Reference no. | 1220257 |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Motorcycle lift

abstract: A motorcycle lift is a lift table that is designed to handle motorcycles. Many repair shops use such lifts to bring the vehicle off of the ground and up to a level so that the mechanic does not have to put any strain on his or her back or lay upon the ground to perform any kind of work upon the vehicle. Also, motorcycle enthusiasts have put these lifts into their home garages so that they can perform simple maintenance jobs such as changing the oil and cleaning the bike without having to get down on the ground. These lifts are typically made of steel and powered by air or hydraulic cylinders that handle load capacities up to 1,500 lb (680 kg).

text:
# Motorcycle lift

A **motorcycle lift** is a lift table that is designed to handle motorcycles. Many repair shops use such lifts to bring the vehicle off of the ground and up to a level so that the mechanic does not have to put any strain on his or her back or lay upon the ground to perform any kind of work upon the vehicle. Also, motorcycle enthusiasts have put these lifts into their home garages so that they can perform simple maintenance jobs such as changing the oil and cleaning the bike without having to get down on the ground. These lifts are typically made of steel and powered by air or hydraulic cylinders that handle load capacities up to 1,500 lb (680 kg).

## Variations

There are many different variations and styles of motorcycle lifts. Some are simple and only large enough to handle a simple motorbike. Others have front and side extensions that make them long enough for a chopper and wide enough for an All-terrain vehicle. Most lifts come with a clamp for the front wheel to help stabilize the bike so that it stands upright on its own. Other options that these motorcycle lift tables have are the rear wheel drop out that allows the back of the table to be taken away so that a person can perform maintenance on their rear tire without it touching the table.


title: Uesugi Kagekatsu

abstract: Uesugi Kagekatsu was a Japanese samurai daimyō during the Sengoku and Edo periods. He was the adopted son of Uesugi Kenshin and Uesugi Kagetora’s brother in law.

text:
# Uesugi Kagekatsu

**Uesugi Kagekatsu** (上杉 景勝, 8 January 1556 – 19 April 1623) was a Japanese samurai *daimyō* during the Sengoku and Edo periods. He was the adopted son of Uesugi Kenshin and Uesugi Kagetora’s brother in law.

## Early life and rise

Kagekatsu was the son of Nagao Masakage, the head of the Ueda Nagao clan and husband of Uesugi Kenshin's elder sister, Aya-Gozen. After his father died, he was adopted by Kenshin. His childhood name was Unomatsu.

In 1577, he participated in Battle of Tedorigawa. Upon Kenshin's death in 1578, Kagekatsu battled Kenshin's other adopted son Uesugi Kagetora for the inheritance, defeating Kagetora in the 1578 Siege of Otate.

In 1579, he forced Kagetora to commit suicide, and became head of the Uesugi clan. Kagekatsu married Takeda Katsuyori's sister (Takeda Shingen's daughter) after the Siege of Otate.

## Conflict with Oda

By 1579, Kagekatsu had gained the upper hand and forced Kagetora to commit suicide. This bloody division allowed Oda Nobunaga's generals (headed by Shibata Katsuie) to conquer the Uesugi's lands in Kaga, Noto, and Etchu.

In 1582, Kagekatsu led an army into Etchu and was defeated by Oda forces at the Battle of Tenjinyama. He hastily returned to Echigo when he learned that Oda general Mori Nagayoshi had raided Echigo in his absence.

When Oda forces under Shibata Katsuie and Sassa Narimasa laid siege to Uozu castle in Etchu, in the course of which a number of important Uesugi retainers were killed, Kagekatsu's fortunes appeared bleak. Kagekatsu sent a letter to Satake Yoshishige, his allies. It was like a suicide note.

*Please don't worry about us.* *I was born in a good era. We will fight against over 60 provinces of Japan with only this Echigo province.* *If we survive, I'll become an unmatched hero. Even if we are destroyed, my name will go down in history.*

Uozu castle fell on June 3, 1582, and Oda Nobunaga would die eighteen days later, in Kyoto. The Uesugi were given a reprieve with the death of Nobunaga shortly afterwards.

## Service under Hideyoshi

Kagekatsu made friendly overtures to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and attacked Shibata Katsuie's northern outposts during the Shizugatake Campaign (1583) and went on to support Hideyoshi during the Komaki Campaign (1584), in which he played a limited role by launching a foray into Shinano.

As a general under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Kagekatsu took part in the Odawara campaign 1590 under Maeda Toshiie, and rise to prominence to become a member of the Council of Five Elders. Originally holding a 550,000 *koku* fief in Echigo Province, Kagekatsu received the fief of Aizu, worth a huge 1.2 million *koku* when Hideyoshi redistributed holdings in 1598. After Hideyoshi's death, that year, Kagekatsu then allied himself with Ishida Mitsunari, against Tokugawa Ieyasu, as the result of some political dispute.

## Sekigahara Campaign

The Sekigahara Campaign 1600 can be said to have begun, at least in part, with Kagekatsu, who was the first *daimyō* to openly defy the Tokugawa clan. He built a new castle in Aizu, attracting the attention of Ieyasu, who demanded that he explain his conduct at the capital. Kagekatsu refused, and Tokugawa began plans to lead a 50,000 man army north against him. Ishida and Uesugi hoped to occupy Tokugawa Ieyasu with this fighting in the north, distracting him from Ishida Mitsunari's attacks in the west. Anticipating this, Ieyasu remained to engage Mitsunari; his generals Mogami Yoshiaki and Date Masamune would fight Kagekatsu in Tōhoku (northern region Honshū, Japan's main island). Kagekatsu had intended to move his force south, attacking the Tokugawa from the north-east while Ishida attacked from the west, but he was defeated very early in the campaign, at his castle in the Siege of Shiroishi and later in the end of campaign at Siege of Hasedo.

## Service under Tokugawa

He declaring his allegiance to Tokugawa following his defeat in the Sekigahara campaign, Kagekatsu became a *tozama* (outsider) *daimyō*; he was given the Yonezawa han, worth 300,000 *koku*, in the Tōhoku region. Kagekatsu fought for the Tokugawa shogunate against the Toyotomi clan in the Osaka Campaign 1614–1615.

## Death

On March 20, 1623, Kagekatsu died in Yonezawa. He was 67–69 years old. He was succeeded by Uesugi Sadakatsu, his illegitimate son.

Kagekatsu's remains were laid at Shojoshin-in Temple at Mount Kōya, Koya city, while his ashes and court dress and kabuto were kept at the mausoleum of the Uesugi family located in Yonezawa, Yamagata Prefecture.

## Yamatorige sword

**Yamatorige** (山鳥毛, "feather of a copper pheasant"), equally known as **Sanchōmō** by its Sino-Japanese reading, is a *tachi* (Japanese greatsword) forged during the middle Kamakura period (13th century). The set of the blade and its *koshirae* (mountings) is a National Treasure of Japan. It was wielded by Uesugi Kagekatsu, and had been inherited by his clan.

## Further reading

* Frederic, Louis (2002). *Japan Encyclopedia*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
* Sansom, George (1961). *A History of Japan: 1334–1615*. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
* Turnbull, Stephen (1998). *The Samurai Sourcebook*. London: Cassell & Co.

## InfoBox

| Uesugi Kagekatsu
上杉 景勝 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Head of Uesugi clan | |
| **In office**
1580–1623 | |
| Preceded by | Uesugi Kenshin |
| Succeeded by | Uesugi Sadakatsu |
| Lord of Yonezawa | |
| **In office**
1601–1623 | |
| Succeeded by | Uesugi Sadakatsu |
| Lord of Aizu | |
| **In office**
1598–1601 | |
| Preceded by | Gamō Hideyuki |
| Succeeded by | Gamō Hideyuki |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Unomatsu
January 8, 1556
Echigo Province, Japan |
| Died | April 19, 1623(1623-04-19) (aged 67)
Yonezawa, Japan |
| Spouse | Kikuhime |
| Children | Uesugi Sadakatsu |
| Parents |  |
| Relatives | Uesugi Kenshin (adoptive father)
Uesugi Kagetora (brother-in-law) |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | Uesugi clan
Toyotomi clan
Western Army
Tokugawa shogunate |
| Unit | Uesugi clan |
| Battles/wars | Battle of Tedorigawa
Siege of Otate
Battle of Tenjinyama
Siege of Uozu
Siege of Hachiōji
Siege of Hachigata
Siege of Odawara
Sekigahara campaign
Siege of Osaka |
|  | |


title: Katrina Keenan

abstract: Katrina Marie Keenan is a New Zealand former cricketer who played as a right-arm medium-fast bowler. She appeared in 5 Test matches and 54 One Day Internationals for New Zealand between 1995 and 2000. Her final WODI appearance was in the final of the 2000 Women's Cricket World Cup. She played domestic cricket for Canterbury. She coached Japan at the 2010 Asian Games. Keenan was a contestant on season 4 of The Great Kiwi Bake Off, and was the first baker eliminated from the show.

text:
# Katrina Keenan

**Katrina Marie Keenan** (née **Withers**; born 24 February 1971) is a New Zealand former cricketer who played as a right-arm medium-fast bowler. She appeared in 5 Test matches and 54 One Day Internationals for New Zealand between 1995 and 2000. Her final WODI appearance was in the final of the 2000 Women's Cricket World Cup. She played domestic cricket for Canterbury. She coached Japan at the 2010 Asian Games.

Keenan was a contestant on season 4 of *The Great Kiwi Bake Off*, and was the first baker eliminated from the show.

## InfoBox

Katrina Keenan
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Katrina Marie Keenan |
| Born | (1971-02-24) 24 February 1971<br>Christchurch, New Zealand |
| Batting | Right-handed |
| Bowling | Right-arm medium-fast |
| Role | Bowler |
| International information | |
| National side |  |
| Test debut (cap 104) | 7 February 1995 v England |
| Last Test | 15 July 1996 v England |
| ODI debut (cap 63) | 12 February 1995 v India |
| Last ODI | 23 December 2000 v Australia |
|  | |
| Domestic team information | |
| Years | Team |
| 1991/92–1999/00 | Canterbury |
|  | |
| Career statistics | |
| Competition WTest WODI WFC WLA  Matches 5 54 22 111  Runs scored 32 348 439 1,149  Batting average 32.00 12.88 20.90 19.47  100s/50s 0/0 0/1 0/1 1/3  Top score 26 57 75 112  Balls bowled 903 2,701 3,170 5,042  Wickets 15 70 56 139  Bowling average 23.20 17.82 16.57 16.96  5 wickets in innings 1 0 3 0  10 wickets in match 0 0 1 0  Best bowling 6/73 4/5 6/27 4/5  Catches/stumpings 4/– 9/– 11/– 17/– | |
|  | |
| Source: CricketArchive, 28 April 2021 | |


title: Mayoral elections in Washington, D.C.

text:
# Mayoral elections in Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., is a political division coterminous with the District of Columbia, the federal district of the United States.  The enactment of the District of Columbia Home Rule Act in 1973 provided for an elected mayor for the first time in nearly a century. Starting in 1974, there have been thirteen elections for mayor and six people have held the office. The Democratic Party has immense political strength in the district. In each of the mayoral elections, the district has solidly voted for the Democratic candidate, with no margin less than 14 percentage points.

The mayor serves a four-year term. In 1994, residents approved a ballot measure limiting the mayor to two consecutive terms, despite simultaneously electing Marion Barry to his fourth term. In 2001, the D.C. Council repealed the measure, abolishing term limits for all elected positions.

## Mayoral elections

| Key for parties |
| --- |
| Democratic Party – (D)   D.C. Statehood Green Party – (STG)   D.C. Statehood Party – (ST)   Independent candidate – (I)   Republican Party – (R)   U.S. Labor Party – (L) |

Mayoral elections in the District of Columbia 1974 to present
| Year | Winner | | | | Runner-up | | | | Other candidate | | | | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Candidate | | Votes | % | Candidate | | Votes | % | Candidate | | Votes | % | |
| 1974 |  | Walter Washington (D) | 84,676 | 80.50% |  | Sam Harris (I) | 7,514 | 7.14% |  | Jackson R. Champion (R) | 3,703 | 3.52% |  |
| 1978 |  | Marion Barry (D) | 68,354 | 70.16% |  | Arthur Fletcher (R) | 27,366 | 28.09% |  | Susan Pennington (L) | 1,066 | 1.09% |  |
| 1982 |  | Marion Barry (D) | 95,007 | 80.99% |  | E. Brooke Lee Jr. (R) | 16,501 | 14.07% |  | Dennis S. Sobin (I) | 2,673 | 2.28% |  |
| 1986 |  | Marion Barry (D) | 79,142 | 61.37% |  | Carol Schwartz (R) | 42,354 | 32.84% |  | Brian Moore (I) | 3,518 | 2.73% |  |
| 1990 |  | Sharon Pratt (D) | 140,011 | 86.12% |  | Maurice Turner (R) | 18,653 | 11.47% |  | Alvin C. Frost (ST) | 1,116 | 0.69% |  |
| 1994 |  | Marion Barry (D) | 102,884 | 56.02% |  | Carol Schwartz (R) | 76,902 | 41.87% |  | |  |  |  |
| 1998 |  | Anthony A. Williams (D) | 92,504 | 66.16% |  | Carol Schwartz (R) | 42,280 | 30.24% |  | John Gloster (ST) | 2,312 | 1.65% |  |
| 2002 |  | Anthony A. Williams (D) | 79,841 | 60.61% |  | Carol Schwartz (R) | 45,407 | 34.47% |  | Steve Donkin (STG) | 3,240 | 2.46% |  |
| 2006 |  | Adrian Fenty (D) | 106,848 | 88.58% |  | David Kranich (R) | 7,517 | 6.23% |  | Chris Otten (STG) | 4,914 | 4.07% |  |
| 2010 |  | Vincent C. Gray (D) | 97,978 | 74.2% |  | Write-ins | 29,599 | 22.42% |  | Carlos Allen (I) | 2,279 | 1.73% |  |
| 2014 |  | Muriel Bowser (D) | 96,666 | 55.15% |  | David Catania (I) | 61,388 | 35.02% |  | Carol Schwartz (I) | 12,327 | 7.03% |  |
| 2018 |  | Muriel Bowser (D) | 171,608 | 76.39% |  | Ann Wilcox (STG) | 20,950 | 9.33% |  | Dustin Canter (I) | 15,478 | 6.89% |  |
| 2022 |  | Muriel Bowser (D) | 147,433 | 74.62% |  | Rodney Grant (I) | 29,531 | 14.95% |  | Stacia Hall (R) | 11,510 | 5.83% |  |

### Graph

The following graph shows the margin of victory of the Democratic Party over the runner-up in the 13 mayoral elections Washington, D.C., has held.

1. Grogg, Robert (2013). "Introduction: Where Oh Where Should the Capital Be?". *White House Historical Association*. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved August 7, 2021.
2. "The District's Home Rule History and Statehood Goal". *The Washington Informer*. September 30, 2020. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
3. Mathews, Jay; Bowman, LaBarbara (November 6, 1974). "Washington Winner in Mayoral Election". *The Washington Post*. p. A1. ProQuest 146114074.
4. Code of the District of Columbia § 1–204.21.
5. "November 8 General Election". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 18, 1994. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
6. Chan, Sewell (October 1, 2008). "When a City Council Repealed Term Limits". *The New York Times*. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
7. "DC Mayor Race - Nov 05, 1974". *OurCampaigns*. September 16, 2010. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
8. Scammon, Richard M.; McGillivray, Alice V. (1979). *America Votes 13*. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 380. ISBN 978-0871871831.
9. "DC Mayor Race - Nov 02, 1982". *OurCampaigns*. September 16, 2010. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
10. "DC Mayor Race - Nov 04, 1986". *OurCampaigns*. September 16, 2010. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
11. Scammon, Richard M.; McGillivray, Alice V. (1991). *America Votes 19: A Handbook of Contemporary Election Statistics*. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 487. ISBN 978-0871875587.
12. "November 13 General Election". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 13, 1998. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
13. "Certification Summary - Candidate". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 21, 2002. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
14. "Certified Official Results Report" (PDF). District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 21, 2006. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
15. Austermuhle, Martin (November 3, 2010). "Fenty Write-In Campaign Drives Mayoral Write-Ins To Nearly 23 Percent". *DCist*. Archived from the original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
16. Fisher, Max (September 15, 2010). "The Rise and Fall of DC Mayor Adrian Fenty". *The Atlantic*. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
17. "General Election 2010 - Certified Results". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 19, 2010. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
18. "General Election 2014 - Certified Results". District of Columbia Board of Elections. December 3, 2014. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
19. "General Election 2018 - Certified Results". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 15, 2018. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
20. "General Election 2022 - Certified Results". District of Columbia Board of Elections. November 30, 2022. Retrieved December 26, 2022.


title: Pistius

abstract: Pistius is a genus of crab spiders with nine described species. Most occur in Asia, only P. truncatus has a palaearctic distribution.

text:
# Pistius

***Pistius*** is a genus of crab spiders with nine described species. Most occur in Asia, only *P. truncatus* has a palaearctic distribution.

## Species

## Bibliography

* Schrank, F. von P., 1795 - *Naturhistorische und ökonomische Briefe über das Donaumoor*. Mannheim, pp. 133–148
* Schrank, F. von P., 1803 - *Fauna Boica. Durch dachte Geschichte der in Baiern einheimischen und Zahmen Tiere*. Landshut vol.**3** (1), pp. 229–244
* Walckenaer, C.A., 1805 - *Tableau des aranéides ou caractères essentiels des tribus, genres, familles et races que renferme le genre Aranea de Linné, avec la désignation des espèces comprises dans chacune de ces divisions*. Paris, 88pp.
* Prach, H., 1866 - *Monographie der Thomisiden (Krabben-spinnen) der Gegend von Prag, mit einem Anhange, das Verzeichniiss der Umgebung unserer Haupstadt aufgefunden Araneen enthaltend*. Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien vol.**16**, pp. 597–638
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## InfoBox

| *Pistius* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Pistius truncatus* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Araneae |
| Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
| Family: | Thomisidae |
| Genus: | *Pistius*
Simon, 1875 |
|
| Type species | |
| *Aranea truncata*
Pallas, 1772 | |
| Species | |
| See text | |
| Diversity | |
| 11 species | |


title: Nalmexone

abstract: Nalmexone is a semisynthetic, opioid partial agonist or mixed agonist-antagonist with both analgesic and narcotic antagonist properties that was never marketed. In clinical studies it was found to have comparable analgesic efficacy to morphine, though with several-fold reduced potency. In addition, nalmexone's side effects, the most common of which were sleepiness and sweating, were reported to be similar to those of morphine, albeit with a noticeably higher degree of incidence.

text:
# Nalmexone

**Nalmexone** (INN; also known as **nalmexone hydrochloride** (USAN) or by the development codes **EN-1620A** and **UM-592**) is a semisynthetic, opioid partial agonist or mixed agonist-antagonist with both analgesic and narcotic antagonist properties that was never marketed. In clinical studies it was found to have comparable analgesic efficacy to morphine, though with several-fold reduced potency. In addition, nalmexone's side effects, the most common of which were sleepiness and sweating, were reported to be similar to those of morphine, albeit with a noticeably higher degree of incidence.

## Synthesis

Nalmexone can be synthesized from oxymorphone:

## InfoBox

Nalmexone
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Clinical data | |
| ATC code | * None |
| Identifiers | |
| IUPAC name * (5α)-3,14-dihydroxy-17-(3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl)-4,5-epoxymorphinan-6-one | |
| CAS Number |  |
| PubChem CID |  |
| ChemSpider |  |
| UNII |  |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) |  |
| Chemical and physical data | |
| Formula | C21H25NO4 |
| Molar mass | 355.434 g·mol−1 |
| 3D model (JSmol) |  |
| SMILES * O=C4\[C@@H\]5Oc1c2c(ccc1O)C\[C@H\]3N(CC\[C@\]25\[C@@\]3(O)CC4)C\C=C(/C)C | |
| InChI * InChI=1S/C21H25NO4/c1-12(2)6-9-22-10-8-20-17-13-3-4-14(23)18(17)26-19(20)15(24)5-7-21(20,25)16(22)11-13/h3-4,6,16,19,23,25H,5,7-11H2,1-2H3/t16-,19+,20+,21-/m1/s1 * Key:OHKCLOQPSLQCQR-MBPVOVBZSA-N | |