title: The Peasant War in Germany

abstract: The Peasant War in Germany by Friedrich Engels is a short account of the early-16th-century uprisings known as the German Peasants' War (1524–1525). It was written by Engels in London during the summer of 1850, following the revolutionary uprisings of 1848–1849, to which it frequently refers in a comparative fashion. "Three centuries have flown by since then," he writes, "and many a thing has changed; still the peasant war is not as far removed from our present-day struggles as it would seem, and the opponents we have to encounter remain essentially the same."

text:
# The Peasant War in Germany

***The Peasant War in Germany*** (German: *Der deutsche Bauernkrieg*) by Friedrich Engels is a short account of the early-16th-century uprisings known as the German Peasants' War (1524–1525). It was written by Engels in London during the summer of 1850, following the revolutionary uprisings of 1848–1849, to which it frequently refers in a comparative fashion. "Three centuries have flown by since then," he writes, "and many a thing has changed; still the peasant war is not as far removed from our present-day struggles as it would seem, and the opponents we have to encounter remain essentially the same."

## Background

The book was written by Engels in London during the summer of 1850, following the revolutionary uprisings of 1848–49, to which it frequently refers in a comparative fashion. "Three centuries have flown by since then," he writes, "and many a thing has changed; still the peasant war is not as far removed from our present-day struggles as it would seem, and the opponents we have to encounter remain essentially the same."

Engels praises the historian Wilhelm Zimmermann's book *The History of the Great Peasant War* (1841–1843) as "the best compilation of factual data" regarding the Peasant War of 1525 and acknowledges that most of the material relating to the peasant revolts and to Thomas Müntzer has been taken from Zimmermann's book. *The Peasant War in Germany* originally appeared in the fifth and sixth issues of the *Neue Rheinische Zeitung-Revue*, a political economic review edited by Karl Marx in Hamburg, and was later reissued in book forms.

Drawing upon the aims and methods of historical materialism, Engels downplays the importance of political and religious causes for the war traditionally cited, focusing instead on material, economic factors. "This book," Engels writes in the preface to the second edition,

> undertakes ... to prove that the political and religious theories were not the causes \[of the conflict\], but the result of that stage of development of agriculture, industry, land and waterways, commerce and finance, which then existed in Germany. This, the only materialistic conception of history, originates, not from myself but from Marx, and can be found in his works on the French Revolution of 1848–9...."

Engels details the complex class structure of Germany in the era of the peasant war, and explores the ambiguous role in it of the knights, lesser noblemen whose commitment to preserving their feudal powers overrode their alliances with the peasants. Similarly, Engels offers a scathing critique of Martin Luther as an opportunistic "middle-class" reformer and a betrayer not just of the revolution but of some of his own best-known Christian tenets:

> Luther had given the plebeian movement a powerful weapon—a translation of the Bible. Through the Bible, he contrasted feudal Christianity of his time with moderate Christianity of the first century. In opposition to decaying feudal society, he held up the picture of another society which knew nothing of the ramified and artificial feudal hierarchy. The peasants had made extensive use of this weapon against the forces of the princes, the nobility, and the clergy. Now Luther turned the same weapon against the peasants, extracting from the Bible a veritable hymn to the authorities ordained by God—a feat hardly exceeded by any lackey of absolute monarchy. Princedom by the grace of God, passive resistance, even serfdom, were being sanctioned by the Bible.

Depending on the historians' own perspective, the war could be interpreted, as Friedrich Engels does, as a case in which an emerging bourgeoisie (the urban class) failed to assert a sense of its own autonomy in the face of princely power, and left the rural classes to their fate.

## Contents

### Social classes in the 16th-century Holy Roman Empire

#### Princes

Sixteenth century Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire, a decentralized entity in which the Holy Roman Emperor himself had little authority outside of his own dynastic lands, which covered only a small fraction of the whole. There were hundreds of largely independent secular and ecclesiastical territories in the empire, most of which were ruled by a noble dynasty (though several dozen were city states). Many were autocratic rulers who barely recognized any other authority within their territories. Princes had the right to levy taxes and borrow money as they saw fit. The growing costs of administration and military upkeep impelled the princes to keep raising their subjects' cost of living. The lesser nobility and the clergy paid no taxes and often supported their local prince. Many towns had privileges that exempted them from paying taxes, and so the bulk of the burden of taxation fell on the peasants. Princes often attempted to force their freer peasants into serfdom through increasing taxes and the introduction of Roman Civil law. Roman Civil law was advantageous to those princes who sought to consolidate their power, because it brought all land into their personal ownership and eliminated the feudal concept of the land as a trust between lord and peasant that conferred rights as well as obligations on the latter. By maintaining the remnants of the ancient law which legitimized their own rule, they not only elevated their wealth and position in the empire through the confiscation of all property and revenues, but also their dominion over their peasant subjects. Under this ancient law, the peasants had little recourse beyond passive resistance. Even so, the prince now had absolute control over all his serfs and their possessions. Uprisings generally remained isolated, unsupported and easily put down until Thomas Müntzer and similar radicals began to reject the legitimizing factors of ancient law and invoked the concept of "Godly Law" as a vehicle for rousing the people.

#### Lesser nobility

The evolving military technology of the late medieval period began to render the lesser nobility of knights obsolete. The introduction of military science and the growing importance of gunpowder and infantry lessened the importance of their role as heavy cavalry, as well as reducing the strategic importance of their castles. Their luxurious lifestyle drained what little income they had as prices kept rising. They exercised their ancient rights in order to wring what income they could from their territories. The knights became embittered as they grew progressively impoverished and fell increasingly under the jurisdiction of the princes. Thus these two classes were in constant conflict. The knights also considered the clergy to be an arrogant and superfluous estate, while envying the privileges and wealth that the church statutes secured. In addition, the knights, who were often in debt to the towns, were constantly in conflict with the town patricians.

#### Clergy

The clergy, or prelate class, was losing its place as the intellectual authority over all matters within the state. The progress of printing (especially of the Bible) and the expansion of commerce, as well as the spread of renaissance humanism raised literacy rates throughout the Empire. The Catholic monopoly on higher education was accordingly also reduced. Over time, Catholic institutions had slipped into corruption. Clerical ignorance and the abuses of simony and pluralism (holding several offices at once) were rampant. Some bishops, archbishops, abbots and priors were as ruthless in exploiting their subjects as the regional princes. In addition to the sale of indulgences, they set up prayer houses and directly taxed the people. Increased indignation over Church corruption had led the monk Martin Luther to post his 95 Theses on the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517, as well as impelling other reformers to radically rethink Church doctrine and organization.

#### Patricians

As the guilds grew and urban populations rose, the town patricians faced increasing opposition. The patricians consisted of wealthy families that sat alone in the town councils and held all the administrative offices. Like the princes, they could seek to secure revenues from their peasants by any possible means. Arbitrary road, bridge and gate tolls could be instituted at will. They gradually revoked the common lands and made it illegal for a farmer to fish or log wood in what was once land held in common. Guild taxes were exacted. All revenues collected were not subject to formal administration, and civic accounts were neglected. Thus embezzlement and fraud were commonly practiced and the patrician class, bound by family ties, became ever richer and more exploitative.

#### Bürgers

The town patricians were increasingly criticized by the growing bürger class, which consisted of well-to-do middle-class citizens who often held administrative guild positions or worked as merchants. To the bürgers, their own growing wealth was reason enough to claim the right to control civic administration. They openly demanded a town assembly made up of both patricians and burghers, or at least a restriction of simony and the allocation of several seats to bürgers. The bürgers also opposed the clergy, who they felt had overstepped their bounds and failed to uphold their religious duties. They demanded an end to the clergy's special privileges, such as their exemption from taxation, as well as a reduction in their number. The bürgermaster (guild master, or artisan) now owned both the workshop and its tools, which he allowed his apprentices to use, and provided the materials that his workers needed to make their products. In exchange, they received payments whose size the bürger determined after taking into account how long their labour had taken, as well as the quality of their workmanship and the quantity of products produced. Journeymen lost the opportunity to rise in the ranks of the guild and were thereby deprived of their civic rights.

#### Plebeians

The plebeians comprised the new class of urban workers, journeymen and vagabonds. Ruined petty burghers also joined their ranks. Although technically potential burghers, the journeymen were barred from higher positions by the wealthy families that ran the guilds. Thus their "temporary" position devoid of civic rights tended to become permanent. The plebeians did not have property like ruined burghers or peasants. They were landless, rightless citizens, and a symptom of the decay of feudal society. It was in Thuringia that the revolution which centered around Müntzer would give the plebeian working class the greatest expression. They demanded complete social equality as they began to believe, with Müntzer's encouragement, that the evolution of their society should be driven by themselves from below, not from above. The authorities hastened to put down such explosive aspirations, which posed the greatest threat to their traditional authority.

#### Peasants

The lowest stratum of society continued to be occupied by peasants, who were heavily taxed. In the early 16th century, no peasant could hunt, fish or chop wood freely, as the lords had recently taken these common lands for their own purposes. The lord had the right to use his peasant's land as he wished; the peasant could do nothing but watch as his crops were destroyed by wild game and by nobles galloping across his fields in the course of their chivalric hunts. When a peasant wished to marry, he needed not only the lord's permission, but to pay a tax. When the peasant died, the lord was entitled to his best cattle, his best garments and his best tools. The justice system, operated by the clergy or wealthy burgher and patrician jurists, gave the peasant no redress. Generations of traditional servitude and the autonomous nature of the provinces limited peasant insurrections to local areas. The peasant's only hope was the unification of aspirations across provincial lines. Müntzer was to recognize that the recently diluted class structures provided the lower stratum of society with a greater claim to legitimacy in their revolt, as well as more scope for political and socio-economic gains.

### Rise of social conflict

The emergence of the newer classes and their respective interests began to soften the structure of authority of the old feudal system. Increased international trade and industry not only put the princes in conflict with the interests of the growing merchant capitalist class, but also broadened the base of lower-class interests (the peasants plus the new urban workers). The interposition of the burghers and the necessary plebeian class weakened feudal authority, as both these classes opposed the top of the hierarchy while also being in natural opposition to each other. The emergence of the plebeian class strengthened lower-class interests in several ways. Instead of the peasantry being the only oppressed and traditionally servile estate, the plebeians added a new dimension that shared similar class interests, but did so without a history of outright oppression.

Opposition to the privileges of the Catholic clergy was rising among several classes in the new late-medieval hierarchy, including the peasantry. Many burghers and nobles also despised the perceived laziness and looseness of clerical life. As members of the more privileged classes by virtue of entrepreneurship and tradition respectively, they felt that the clergy was reaping benefits (such as tax exemption and ecclesiastical tithes) to which they were not entitled. When the situation suited, even princes would abandon Catholicism in order to gain political and financial independence and increase their power within their territories.

After thousands of articles of complaints were compiled and presented by the lower classes in numerous towns and villages to no avail, the revolt broke out. The parties split into three distinct groups. The Catholic camp consisted of the clergy plus those patricians and princes who resisted any opposition to the Catholic-centred social order. The moderate reforming party consisted mainly of burghers and princes. The burghers saw an opportunity to gain power in the urban councils, as Luther's proposed reformed church would be highly centralized within the towns, as well as condemning the nepotistic practices by which the patricians held a firm grip on the bureaucracy. Similarly, the princes stood to gain additional autonomy not only from the Catholic emperor Charles V, but from the demands of the Catholic Church in Rome. Plebeians, peasants and those sympathetic to their cause made up the third camp, which was led by preachers like Thomas Müntzer. This camp wished to break the shackles of late medieval society and forge a new one in the name of God.

Germany's peasants and plebeians compiled lists of articles outlining their complaints. The famous 12 Articles of the Black Forest were ultimately adopted as the definitive set of grievances. The articles' statement of social, political and economic grievances in the increasingly popular Protestant movement unified the population in the massive uprising that broke out first in Lower Swabia in 1524, then quickly spread to other parts of Germany.

### Ultimate failure of the rebellion

The peasant movement ultimately failed, with cities and nobles making separate peaces with the princely armies that restored the old order in a frequently still-harsher incarnation under the nominal overlordship of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, represented in German affairs by his younger brother Ferdinand.

The religious dissident Martin Luther, already condemned as a heretic by the 1521 Edict of Worms and accused at the time of fomenting the strife, rejected the demands of the rebels and upheld the right of Germany's rulers to suppress the uprisings. Luther based his attitude on the peasant rebellion on St. Paul's doctrine of Divine Right of Kings in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7, which says that all authorities are appointed by God, and should not be resisted. His former follower Thomas Müntzer, on the other hand, came to the fore as a radical agitator in Thuringia.

### Anabaptists

On December 27, 1521, three Zwickau prophets, both influenced by and influencing Thomas Müntzer, appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau: Thomas Dreschel, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stübner. Luther's reform was not radical enough for them. Like the Roman Catholic Church, Luther practiced infant baptism, which the Anabaptists considered to be "neither scriptural nor primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission into a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance, faith, spiritual illumination and free surrender of self to Christ."

The reformist theologian and associate of Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, who was powerless against the enthusiasts with whom his co-reformer Andreas Karlstadt sympathized, appealed to Luther, who was still hiding in the Wartburg. Luther was cautious in not condemning the new doctrine out of hand, but advised Melanchthon to treat its supporters gently and to test their spirits, in case they should be of God. There was confusion in Wittenberg, whose schools and university had sided with the "prophets" and were closed. From this arises the allegation that the Anabaptists were enemies of learning, which is contradicted by the fact that two of them, Haetzer and Denck, produced and printed the first German translation of the Hebrew prophets in 1527. The first leaders of the movement in ZürichConrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, Balthasar Hubmaierwere learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew.

On March 6, 1522, Luther returned to Wittenberg, where he interviewed the prophets, scorned their "spirits", banished them from the city, and had their adherents ejected from Zwickau and Erfurt. Denied access to the churches, the latter preached and celebrated the sacrament in private houses. Having been driven from the cities, they swarmed across the countryside. Compelled to leave Zwickau, Müntzer visited Bohemia, lived for two years at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some time in Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his revolutionary religious and political doctrines with increasing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were concerned, with growing success.

The Peasants' War began chiefly as a revolt against feudal oppression, but under the leadership of Müntzer it became a war against all constituted authorities in a forcible attempt to establish Müntzer's ideal of a Christian commonwealth based on absolute equality and the community of goods. The total defeat of the rebels at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525), followed by the execution of Müntzer and several other leaders, proved to be a merely temporary check on the Anabaptist movement. Scattered throughout Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands were zealous propagandists whose teachings many were prepared to follow as soon as another leader emerged.

### Primary sources

### Secondary sources

* Ernest Belfort Bax (1899). *The Peasants War in Germany, 1525-1526*, from Internet Archive. HTML source.
* Peter Blickle, (1985), *The Revolution of 1525: The German Peasants War from a New Perspective*, Translated by Thomas A. Brady Jr. and H. C. Midelfort, New York, Johns Hopkins University Press
* Friedrich Engels (1850). *The Peasant War in Germany*. HTML source
* Gunther Franz (1956), *Der Deutsche Bauernkrieg*, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgeselschaft
* Hillay Zmora (1997), *State and Nobility in Early Modern Germany: The knightly feud in Franconia 1440-1567*, Cambridge University Press, 1997 (hardback), 2002 (paperback), ISBN 0521561795
* Tom Scott and Robert W. Scribner (1991). *The German Peasants' War: A History in Documents*, Humanities Press International, New Jersey, ISBN 0-391-03681-5


title: Jacques-Alexis Thuriot de la Rosière

abstract: Jacques-Alexis Thuriot, known as Thuriot de la Rosière, and later as chevalier Thuriot de la Rosière, chevalier de l'Empire was an important French statesman of the French Revolution, and a minor figure under the French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte.

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# Jacques-Alexis Thuriot de la Rosière

**Jacques-Alexis Thuriot** (French pronunciation: \[ʒak alɛksi tyʁjo\]), known as Thuriot de la Rosière, and later as chevalier Thuriot de la Rosière, chevalier de l'Empire (1 May 1753 - 20 June 1829) was an important French statesman of the French Revolution, and a minor figure under the French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte.

## Early life and the French Revolution

Thuriot was born in Sézanne, Marne, France in 1753. Admitted to the bar in Paris in 1778, he practiced law at Reims before the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. He took part in the events of 14 July 1789, acting as a negotiator on behalf of the revolutionaries, meeting with the governor of the Bastille just before the royal fortress was stormed. In 1790 during the term of the National Assembly, he was named a tribunal judge for the district of Sézanne, and he joined the Jacobin Club.

He was elected to the Legislative Assembly (1791–1792) as a representative of the département of Marne. As the French monarchy tottered during 1792, he was named deputy member of the Extraordinary Commission of Twelve (18 June 1792 - 21 September 1792).

Soon after Louis XVI was deposed, Thuriot was elected (3 September 1792) to the new National Convention (1792–1795) as deputy for Marne. He voted for the death sentence in the trial of Louis XVI. He was one of the more radical members, often speaking against the Girondist faction, and even calling Maximilien Robespierre "moderate". He served as Vice-President (9 April - 18 April 1793) and President (27 June - 11 July 1793), and was elected to the increasingly powerful Committee of Public Safety (10 July - 20 September 1793). He resigned from the committee as the Reign of Terror began.

## Thermidorean reaction

Thuriot was one of the bolder opponents of Maximilien Robespierre. The scholar Georges Lefebvre counts him as a key ally of Danton, who was executed by the machinations of Robespierre on 5 April 1794. During the Festival of the Supreme Being (8 June 1794), Thuriot said of Robespierre presiding: “Look at the bugger; it’s not enough for him to be master, he has to be God.” During the fateful session of the Convention on 9 Thermidor, Year II (27 July 1794), Thuriot presided in the absence of then-president Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois, and by refusing to allow Robespierre to make a speech, he sealed the fate of the Robespierrist faction.

In the days immediately following Thermidor he was elected president of the Jacobin Club (5 August - 24 August 1794) and exercised an important restraining influence on one of France's most radical bodies. He was among those who replaced the purged members of the Committee of Public Safety during his second term (31 July - 5 December 1794).

In 1795, he soon turned against the new political order, disgruntled by the abandonment of the Constitution of 1793 and the rehabilitation of the Girondists. On 5 April 1795, in the wake of the Jacobin-led Germinal Insurrection which he was accused of preparing, Thuriot's name was included among the many arrests ordered, but he eluded capture. A second order of arrest was issued on 21 May after the even more violent Prairial Insurrection, and this time a large force was dispatched into the faubourgs to find where Thuriot was in hiding with Pierre-Joseph Cambon. Once again he escaped and went into hiding until the amnesty of 26 October, which signalled the end of the National Convention and the Thermidorian Reaction and the beginning of the Directory.

## Later career

Thuriot was appointed (14 November 1796) as a commissioner to the civil and criminal tribunals of Marne, and he later served as deputy judge and judge in the criminal tribunal of Seine. During the French Empire he held positions in the imperial court of appeals, and Bonaparte named him Thuriot de la Rosière, chevalier de l'Empire on 16 May 1813. Under the Bourbon Restoration, he was banished in 1816 as a regicide and died in exile in Liège, Netherlands (now in Belgium).

## InfoBox

| Jacques-Alexis Thuriot | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 21st President of the National Convention | |
| **In office**
27 June 1793  11 July 1793 | |
| Preceded by | Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois |
| Succeeded by | Jeanbon Saint-André |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1753-05-01)1 May 1753
Sézanne, Kingdom of France |
| Died | 20 June 1829(1829-06-20) (aged 76)
Liège, Kingdom of the Netherlands |
| Political party | The Mountain |
|  | |


title: Nettie Metcalf

abstract: Nettie Metcalf was an American farmer from Warren, Ohio. She is best known for creating the Buckeye chicken breed, which was officiated by the American Poultry Association in February 1905. Metcalf attended poultry meetings across North America and became President of the American Buckeye Club. She is the only woman recorded by the American Poultry Association to create a chicken breed.

text:
# Nettie Metcalf

**Nettie Metcalf** (née **Williams**; October 13, 1859 – 1945) was an American farmer from Warren, Ohio. She is best known for creating the Buckeye chicken breed, which was officiated by the American Poultry Association in February 1905. Metcalf attended poultry meetings across North America and became President of the American Buckeye Club. She is the only woman recorded by the American Poultry Association to create a chicken breed.

## Personal life

Nettie Williams was born in Warren, Ohio in 1859. She was a descendant of William Williams, a Connecticut politician and Founding Father who signed the Declaration of Independence.

On March 6, 1879, she married Francis "Frank" C. Metcalf. They had three children.

Metcalf may have experienced occupational burnout as a result of the high demands for Buckeyes, leading to her move from Ohio to California. In 1917, she explained:

> The demand created for this breed caused me, the originator, such strenuous work that I gave all my time to chickens entirely and tried to supply the demand for the Buckeyes until my health was breaking down...

By 1917, she had moved to California with her husband. Her husband died on November 17, 1929.

## Buckeye chickens

Metcalf created the Buckeye chicken breed in the 1890s, which she first named "Buckeye Reds." She described them as having "a modified Cornish shape, with the very darkest of red plumage."

Her goal was to create a practical breed that was able to survive harsh Ohio winters.

### Creation of breed

In 1879, she began housekeeping with a flock of Brown Leghorn chickens. However, she was dissatisfied with their temperament, stating they "scratched and destroyed more than their necks were worth, laid only in the spring, and hid their nests then in the most out-of-the-way places they could find." When Metcalf would suggest slaughtering them, her husband would claim it was the wrong time of year, because according to Metcalf, "they were always scrawny and in poor condition."

After reading poultry literature, she tried domesticating Black Langshans and Plymouth Barred Rocks for a profit. She then mixed the Barred Rocks with Buff Cochins to produce what she called "a big, lazy fowl." Afterwards, she bought eggs from a breeder of B. B. Red Games, later speculating that his chickens were not purebred and mixed with Indian Game. That year's mating produced red birds, which were new to Ohio. She tried to reproduce the red birds and was "laughed at" presumably by neighbors for the attempt, but "determined to 'show folks' or die trying." She worked in a 9 foot by 12 foot coop in her 100-acre farm.

While attempting to replicate the red birds, Metcalf was concerned with the negative effects of inbreeding, and her surmises were proven correct when the four progenitors produced an irregular flock with "Green legs and feathered legs, buff chicks, black chicks, and even red and black barred chicks; single combs and pea combs, and no combs at all, but fighters from away back."

Metcalf's neighbors were amused by the flock, but she claimed one neighbor "quit laughing and decided to help me out." However, the neighbor's husband, Van, "didn't want any of those Metcalf mongrels on the place."

The neighbor's husband, Van, put a Barred Rock rooster on one side of a high fence and the buckeye game on the other and went in for tea and supper. When the neighbor expressed concern, her husband replied, "Let them fight; my big rooster will soon knock the spots off that little scamp." However, later in the day, they found the Barred Rock rooster dead with his eyes gouged out and the Buckeye on top. Van said, "Well, I swan" (a euphemism for "I swear"). Van went on to become a breeder of buckeyes.

### Rhode Island Reds

In the winter of 1896, Metcalf learned of the existence of Rhode Island Reds, which were bred during the second half of the 19th century. Realizing other farmers had also attempted to breed red chickens, Metcalf exchanged birds and eggs with East Coast breeders to discover that the Buckeyes were a darker mahogany color, and Buckeyes had single and pea combs as opposed to rose and single combs.

### Officiating breed

In 1902, Metcalf exhibited her breed at a poultry show in Cleveland, Ohio. On August 24, 1903, the president and secretary of the American Poultry Association inspected the buckeye breed and advised Metcalf to continue breeding them, as it was a distinct breed from Rhode Island Reds.

In 1904, she and her husband displayed the chickens at a poultry show in Rochester, New York. Buckeyes were admitted as an American Poultry Association breed in February 1905.

In 1907, she attended the American Poultry Association's first mid-summer meeting in Niagara Falls, which involved sending telegrams to other members. The 1908 APA revision committee advised that Buckeye should be dropped from the standard, but this was voted down in Niagara, New York in 1909.

## Legacy

In 1909, the American Buckeye Club was established to preserve the Buckeye breed. As of 2024, the website of the organization is accessible.

The 2001 *Encyclopedia of Historic and Endangered Livestock and Poultry Breeds* mentions Nettie Metcalf and claims she created Buckeyes by crossing Cornish Games, Brahmas, and Black Breasted Gamefowl.

In the early 21st century, the Shumaker Farm Buckeye Chickens website compiled images relevant to Nettie Metcalf's life and work.

In 2003, the Buckeye breed became endangered, with less than 72 breeding birds on record. In 2005, the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy began a program to restore the breed as backyard birds.

In 2013, Nettie Metcalf's life and chicken breed was the episode topic of agriculture podcast *The Urban Chicken*.

## InfoBox

| Nettie Metcalf | |
| --- | --- |
| Metcalf c.1910s | |
| Born | Nettie Williams
(1859-10-13)October 13, 1859
Warren, Ohio, U.S. |
| Died | 1945 (aged 8586) |
| Known for |  |


title: Gaius Asinius Rufus

abstract:
Gaius Asinius Rufus was a notable in Lydia in 134 and 135 who became a Roman Senator in 136. He was probably the son of Gaius Asinius Frugi, monet. of Phrygia between 98 and 116. He married Julia, daughter of A. Julius Claudius Charax, granddaughter of C. Julius Lupus T. Vibius Varus Laevillus and wife Julia Quadratilla, and through her great-granddaughter of Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, suffect consul in 105, and wife Julia, Princess of Cilicia. They had the following issue:
  - Gaius Asinius Nicomachus, married to his cousin Julia Quadratilla, parents of:
    - Gaius Asinius Rufus
    - Gaius Asinius Protimus Quadratus, Proconsul of Achaea c. 211 or in 220
    - Gaius Julius Asinius Quadratus, married and had:
      - Gaius Asinius Quadratus, a Historian in 200

text:
# Gaius Asinius Rufus

**Gaius Asinius Rufus** (c. 110 – after 136) was a notable in Lydia in 134 and 135 who became a Roman Senator in 136. He was probably the son of Gaius Asinius Frugi (born c. 80), monet. of Phrygia between 98 and 116.

He married Julia, daughter of A. Julius Claudius Charax (c. 115 – after 147), granddaughter of C. Julius Lupus T. Vibius Varus Laevillus (c. 95 – after 132) and wife Julia Quadratilla (born c. 100), and through her great-granddaughter of Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, suffect consul in 105, and wife Julia, Princess of Cilicia (born c. 80).

They had the following issue:

## Sources

* Anthony Wagner, Pedigree and Progress, Essays in the Genealogical Interpretation of History, London, Philmore, 1975. Rutgers Alex CS4.W33.


title: New York State Route 14

abstract: New York State Route 14 (NY 14) is a state highway located in western New York in the United States. Along with NY 19, it is one of two routes to transect the state in a north–south fashion between the Pennsylvania border and Lake Ontario. The southern terminus is at the state line in the Chemung County town of Ashland, where it continues south as Pennsylvania Route 14 (PA 14). Its northern terminus is at a cul-de-sac on Greig Street in the Wayne County village of Sodus Point. NY 14 has direct connections with every major east–west highway in western New York, including Interstate 86 (I-86) and NY 17, U.S. Route 20 (US 20) and NY 5, and the New York State Thruway (I-90). It passes through two cities—Elmira and Geneva—and serves many villages as it traverses the state. NY 14 was assigned in 1924 to an alignment extending from Elmira to Sodus Point via Watkins Glen, Penn Yan, and Geneva. It was extended south to Pennsylvania by 1926 and realigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to follow its modern routing alongside Seneca Lake between Watkins Glen and Geneva. Its former routing via Penn Yan became NY 14A, NY 14's lone suffixed route. While the general routing of NY 14 has not changed since 1930, it has been realigned several times within the Elmira area. When it was first assigned, it used several different city streets, including Broadway, Main Street in Elmira, Lake Street, and Main Street in Horseheads. It was gradually reconfigured into its current routing over the years, with the last change coming c. 2004 when the route was shifted onto most of the Clemens Center Parkway. The portion of NY 14 on Corning Road and College Avenue in Horseheads and Elmira has had several designations over the years. From 1924 to c. 1935, it was part of NY 17. NY 17 was altered c. 1935 to follow a more easterly alignment through the area while NY 328 was extended north from Southport to Horseheads over NY 17's old alignment. NY 14 replaced NY 328 along this stretch c. 1978.

text:
# New York State Route 14

**New York State Route 14** (**NY 14**) is a state highway located in western New York in the United States. Along with NY 19, it is one of two routes to transect the state in a northsouth fashion between the Pennsylvania border and Lake Ontario. The southern terminus is at the state line in the Chemung County town of Ashland, where it continues south as Pennsylvania Route 14 (PA 14). Its northern terminus is at a cul-de-sac on Greig Street in the Wayne County village of Sodus Point. NY 14 has direct connections with every major east–west highway in western New York, including Interstate 86 (I-86) and NY 17, U.S. Route 20 (US 20) and NY 5, and the New York State Thruway (I-90). It passes through two cities—Elmira and Geneva—and serves many villages as it traverses the state.

NY 14 was assigned in 1924 to an alignment extending from Elmira to Sodus Point via Watkins Glen, Penn Yan, and Geneva. It was extended south to Pennsylvania by 1926 and realigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to follow its modern routing alongside Seneca Lake between Watkins Glen and Geneva. Its former routing via Penn Yan became NY 14A, NY 14's lone suffixed route. While the general routing of NY 14 has not changed since 1930, it has been realigned several times within the Elmira area. When it was first assigned, it used several different city streets, including Broadway, Main Street in Elmira, Lake Street, and Main Street in Horseheads. It was gradually reconfigured into its current routing over the years, with the last change coming c.2004 when the route was shifted onto most of the Clemens Center Parkway.

The portion of NY 14 on Corning Road and College Avenue in Horseheads and Elmira has had several designations over the years. From 1924 to c.1935, it was part of NY 17. NY 17 was altered c.1935 to follow a more easterly alignment through the area while NY 328 was extended north from Southport to Horseheads over NY 17's old alignment. NY 14 replaced NY 328 along this stretch c.1978.

## Route description

Most of NY 14 is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT); however, two sections of the route are locally maintained. In the Chemung County city of Elmira, the highway is maintained by the city from the junction of College and Woodlawn avenues north to the city limits. In the Ontario County city of Geneva, NY 14 is entirely city-maintained.

### Chemung County

The highway descends South Mountain along the South Creek valley from Pennsylvania, where the route becomes PA 14. As NY 14, the road heads northwestward through the valley, traversing isolated and sparsely populated areas of the town of Southport. It proceeds to the southern outskirts of the city of Elmira, where it crosses Seeley Creek and intersects the northern terminus of NY 328. At this point, the two-lane NY 14 turns northeast onto the Clemens Center Parkway, a four-lane divided highway that cuts through the center of Elmira. The route follows the northern bank of Seeley Creek for roughly 1 mile (1.6 km) to an intersection with Cedar Street, which carries NY 427 east of this point. Past NY 427, NY 14 curves to the north and begins to pass through densely populated residential neighborhoods as it crosses into the city limits.

In the southern half of Elmira, the parkway winds its way through residential and commercial areas before crossing over the Chemung River to reach the city's downtown district. Here, NY 14 intersects with both directions of NY 352, routed along Water Street eastbound and Church Street westbound. The route continues on, traversing commercial and industrial neighborhoods on the fringe of downtown on its way to a junction with Thurston Street. At this point, NY 14 leaves the parkway to follow Thurston Street and Woodlawn Avenue—collectively one two-lane street—west for three blocks to College Avenue. The route turns again here, following College Avenue north past Eldridge Park to the adjacent village of Elmira Heights. While in the village, NY 14 passes through gradually more residential areas as it heads north. Outside of Elmira Heights, the highway becomes Corning Road and proceeds toward the nearby village of Horseheads.

Just inside of Horseheads, NY 14 meets exit 52 on the Southern Tier Expressway, carrying I-86 and NY 17. North of here, it follows Westinghouse Road through the village until it reaches a T-intersection with Main Street near an area known locally as the Holding Point. From here, the highway turns north to follow Watkins Road into the Catharine Creek valley and out of Horseheads. As NY 14 heads through the less populated valley, it serves Pine Valley, a hamlet situated on the CatlinVeteran town line, and Millport, a small village in the town of Veteran, before crossing into Schuyler County.

### Schuyler and Yates counties

NY 14 continues through the rural creek valley to the village of Montour Falls, where the Catharine Creek valley widens to hold the nearby Seneca Lake. In Montour Falls, NY 14 intersects NY 224, a highway leading to the far southeastern reaches of Schuyler County. The route continues on to the neighboring village of Watkins Glen, where it runs concurrently with NY 414 through much of the village. The part of this stretch between NY 329 and NY 409 was part of the original Watkins Glen Grand Prix race course. The main entrance to Watkins Glen State Park is also located within this stretch, and the park's 400-foot-deep gorge is visible from the highway. In Watkins Glen, NY 14 is known as Franklin Street and serves as the eastern terminus for both NY 329 and NY 409. The overlap with NY 414 ends in the village center at 4th Street, the same junction where NY 409 comes to an end.

North of Watkins Glen, NY 14 runs along a ridge overlooking the west shore of Seneca Lake, which begins just north of Watkins Glen. As it does so, the route begins to parallel a branch line of the Finger Lakes Railway (FGLK), located adjacent to the lake shore at the base of the ridge. NY 14 heads into the heart of the wine region of the Finger Lakes, where a spur—NY 14A—branches off to the west at an interchange in Reading. It continues north along the lakeshore, providing access to several lakeside homes and communities at the east end of local roads leading to and from NY 14. The route itself continues across farmland, however, as it passes into Yates County about 3 miles (5 km) north of the NY 14A junction through the Town of Starkey. In Milo, the FGLK exits the valley and crosses NY 14 at a grade crossing to reach the hamlet of Himrod, situated 0.5 miles (0.8 km) west of the highway.

At Himrod, the FGLK connects to the Norfolk Southern Railway's Corning Secondary, which leaves the hamlet to the north and slowly converges on NY 14. The two cross about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of Himrod, at which point the rail line turns to parallel NY 14 as both head toward Geneva and points north. After another 5 miles (8 km) of nondescript farmland, the route reaches the lakeside village of Dresden. While the Corning Secondary goes through the community, NY 14 bypasses Dresden to the west, meeting the northern terminus of NY 54 at a junction west of the village center. Past Dresden, the route descends into the lake valley, closely following the rail line for another 6 miles (10 km) to the Ontario County line.

### Ontario and Wayne counties

The road and the railroad run alongside the lakeshore to the city of Geneva, which NY 14 enters on South Main Street near the campus of Hobart and William Smith Colleges, which are known collectively as The Colleges of the Seneca. There is an interchange with US 20 and NY 5, locally referred to as Routes 5 and 20, near the northeastern corner of the campus. At this point, the Corning Secondary turns northeast to follow US 20 and NY 5 around the eastern edge of the city while NY 14 continues north through densely populated neighborhoods to downtown Geneva. Here, NY 14 turns east, following Castle Street across four blocks of the city's central business district before continuing to the northeast on Exchange Street. At North Street, the last major east–west street that NY 14 meets in the city, Exchange Street turns due north, setting the alignment that most of the route follows from this point north.

Outside of Geneva, the Corning Secondary rejoins NY 14, which closely follows the route for much of the next 7 miles (11 km). There are few curves north of Geneva, as the terrain is much flatter north of the Finger Lakes than it is in the southern portions of the highway. As such, it follows a linear north–south alignment to the town of Phelps, where it connects to NY 96 by way of an interchange and NY 318 at a junction just 0.25 miles (0.40 km) north of NY 96. The latter intersection also provides access to the New York State Thruway (I-90) at exit 42. North of the Thruway, NY 14 loosely follows the outlet of Canandaigua Lake through rural, isolated areas as it proceeds toward the Wayne County line. About 1 mile (1.6 km) south of the county line, the rail line veers to the northeast to follow the nearby Erie Canal into Lyons.

NY 14, however, continues on a northerly track as it enters Wayne County and Lyons, becoming Geneva Street upon crossing into the latter. Here, it passes over the Rochester Subdivision, CSX Transportation's main line across western New York, just south of a junction with NY 31 in a commercial area south of the center of the hamlet. The CSX main line serves as the north end of the Corning Secondary, which ends 0.5 miles (0.8 km) east of the NY 14 overpass. The route continues on, crossing over the Erie Canal and passing through the halet's major commercial and residential areas on Geneva and Phelps streets before exiting Lyons. Another 10 miles (16 km) of rolling, open terrain brings the highway to the town of Sodus, where it intersects NY 104 south of the hamlet of Alton.

The route continues into the small hamlet, one of many communities located along Ridge Road. NY 14 joins the old road for one block westward before leaving Alton to the north. From Ridge Road north to Lake Road in Sodus Point, NY 14 is part of the Seaway Trail, a National Scenic Byway. This stretch of NY 14 heads due north across cultivated fields for 2 miles (3.2 km) before curving to the northwest to avoid Sodus Bay. At this point, the farmlands are gradually replaced by waterside homes and communities as NY 14 closes in on the bay's shoreline. It reaches the water's edge as it enters Sodus Point, where it initially follows South Fitzhugh Street. At Lake Road, the Seaway Trail heads west to follow the southern edge of Lake Ontario while NY 14 turns east onto Bay Street. After three blocks, Bay Street gives way to Greig Street, a dead-end street leading out onto a peninsula protruding into the mouth of Sodus Bay. The street and the route both end in a cul-de-sac at the east end of the peninsula.

## History

### Origins and early changes

In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 12, an unsigned legislative route that extended from Horseheads to Lyons via Watkins Glen, Dundee, Penn Yan, and Geneva. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, legislative Route 12 became the basis for NY 14, which continued south to Elmira and north to the mouth of Sodus Bay at Sodus Point via the hamlet of Alton. By 1926, the route was extended south through Elmira to the Pennsylvania state line at Ashland. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, the portions of NY 14 north of Geneva and south of Watkins Glen were unchanged; however, the Watkins Glen–Geneva segment was realigned to follow the west shore of Seneca Lake and serve the lakeside village of Dresden. The former alignment of NY 14 via Dundee and Penn Yan became NY 14A.

The original alignment of NY 14 through Elmira took the designation along Broadway and Fulton, Hudson, Main, Water, and Lake streets. Outside of Elmira, it continued north through Elmira Heights to Horseheads on Lake Road and Main Street. At the time, NY 17 entered Horseheads on Big Flats Road and proceeded south to downtown Elmira by way of Corning Road, Oakwood Avenue, Thurston Street, College Avenue, Park Place, and Main Street. By 1932, NY 14 was rerouted to follow Pennsylvania Avenue into downtown Elmira, from where it continued to Horseheads on Madison Avenue, Church, William, Lake, and Division streets, and Grand Central Avenue. From Water Street to Horseheads, NY 14 overlapped with a realigned NY 17. Most of NY 14's former routing along Broadway became part of an extended NY 328.

By the following year, the path of NY 14 and NY 17 through Elmira was modified to consist only of Pennsylvania Avenue and Lake Street. Outside of Elmira, the two routes followed Lake Road and Main Street to Horseheads. NY 328, meanwhile, was extended north to Horseheads c.1934, utilizing the Oakwood Avenue and Corning Road portions of NY 17's original routing. By 1938, NY 328 was moved onto all of NY 17's original alignment through the city while NY 14 and NY 17 were realigned back onto Division Street and Grand Central Avenue between downtown Elmira and Horseheads.

### Realignments through Elmira

NY 14 was significantly altered by 1947 to follow Broadway past Pennsylvania Avenue to Walnut Street. Here, the route turned to head north through the city on Walnut Street, Roe Avenue, and Davis Street to Elmira Heights, where Davis Street became Oakwood Avenue. At 14th Street, NY 14 turned east, following the street for several blocks in order to rejoin Grand Central Avenue. NY 328, meanwhile, was shifted eastward onto College Avenue between Oakwood Avenue and Thurston Street and realigned south of the Chemung River to follow Pennsylvania Avenue and Main Street by this time. NY 14 was rerouted c.1961 to bypass the center of Horseheads to the west on NY 17 and Westinghouse Road.

The route was altered again at some point between 1962 and 1964 to follow Pennsylvania Avenue from Southport to downtown Elmira, where it turned east onto Water Street (then-NY 17E) and followed it to what is now exit 56 of the Southern Tier Expressway (NY 17). Here, NY 14 joined the expressway, following it north and west to Grand Central Avenue. The realignment created an overlap with NY 328 from Southport to Main Street and extended the overlap with NY 17 southeast to Water Street. NY 328 was truncated south to its junction with NY 14 in Southport c.1978. Its former routing from Southport to Horseheads became part of a realigned NY 14.

In the late 1970s, construction started on the Elmira Arterial, a four-lane divided highway through the center of Elmira that was later renamed the Clemens Center Parkway. The first segment, from Pennsylvania Avenue (NY 14) north to Washington Avenue, was completed c.1979. An extension of the highway north to Grand Central Avenue was completed by 1990 while another south to Cedar Street (NY 427) was opened to traffic c.1999. The last section from Broadway to Cedar Street was completed c.2002. The highway was initially designated as NY 961M, an unsigned reference route. NY 14 was realigned c.2004 to follow the Clemens Center Parkway from Broadway to Woodlawn Avenue, where it turned west to follow Woodlawn Avenue for three blocks to College Avenue. NY 961M was subsequently truncated to consist only of the 0.20-mile (0.32 km) portion of the highway north of Woodlawn Avenue.

## Major intersections

| County | Location | mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Chemung | Ashland | 0.00 | 0.00 |
PA 14 south | Continuation into Pennsylvania |
| | Southport | 4.47 | 7.19 |
NY 328 south (Pennsylvania Avenue) | Northern terminus of NY 328; hamlet of Southport |
| | 5.26 | 8.47 |

NY 427 east (Caton Avenue) to NY 17 | Western terminus of NY 427 |
| | City of Elmira | 7.43 | 11.96 |

NY 352 east (Water Street) to NY 17 east |  |
| | 7.63 | 12.28 |

NY 352 west (Church Street) to NY 17 west |  |
| | 9.15 | 14.73 | East Thurston Street ( NY 961M east) | Western terminus of unsigned NY 961M |
| | Village of Horseheads | 13.33 | 21.45 | I-86 / NY 17 / Southern Tier Expressway Elmira, Binghamton, Corning, Jamestown | Exit 52 (I-86 / NY 17); access via NY 962E |
| Schuyler | Montour Falls | 27.22 | 43.81 |
NY 224 south (Dawson Boulevard) Odessa | Northern terminus of NY 224 |
| | Watkins Glen | 29.41 | 47.33 |

NY 414 south to I-86 west | Southern terminus of NY 414 overlap |
| | 29.69 | 47.78 |
NY 329 west (Old Corning Street) | Eastern terminus of NY 329 |
| | 30.06 | 48.38 |

NY 409 west / NY 414 north (4th Street) | Eastern terminus of NY 409; northern terminus of NY 414 overlap |
| | Reading | 33.32 | 53.62 |
NY 14A north Penn Yan | Southern terminus of NY 14A; interchange; northbound entrance only |
| | 33.62 | 54.11 |

To NY 14A north | Access via NY 962C |
| Yates | Dresden | 52.21 | 84.02 |
NY 54 south Penn Yan | Northern terminus of NY 54 |
| | Torrey | 52.71 | 84.83 |
To NY 54  Penn Yan | Southbound entrance only; access via NY 961H |
| Ontario | City of Geneva | 64.99 | 104.59 | US 20 / NY 5 (Hamilton Street) Waterloo, Canandaigua |  |
| | Town of Phelps | 71.12 | 114.46 | NY 96 Waterloo, Phelps, Clifton Springs | Cloverleaf interchange |
| | 71.68 | 115.36 |
I-90 / New York Thruway / NY 318 east Buffalo, Albany, Auburn | Exit 42 (I-90 / Thruway); western terminus of NY 318 |
| Wayne | Lyons | 79.02 | 127.17 | NY 31 (Forgham Street) Newark, Clyde | Hamlet of Lyons |
| | Town of Sodus | 89.38 | 143.84 | NY 104 Rochester, Oswego |  |
| | 89.82 | 144.55 | CR 143 east (Ridge Road) / Great Lakes Seaway Trail | Hamlet of Alton; former routing of US 104 |
| | 89.90 | 144.68 | CR 143 west (Ridge Road) | Former routing of US 104 |
| | Sodus Point | 93.3 | 150.2 | Lake Road / Great Lakes Seaway Trail |  |
| | 95.24 | 153.27 | Greig Street cul-de-sac | Northern terminus |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
 | | | | | |

## NY 14A

NY 14A (35.99 miles or 57.92 kilometres) is an alternate route of NY 14 between Watkins Glen and Geneva, accessing Penn Yan. It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York.

## NY 14 Truck

| New York State Route 14 Truck | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location | Geneva |

**New York State Route 14 Truck** (NY 14 Truck) is a truck route of NY 14 in the city of Geneva. NY 14 Truck begins at the interchange between NY 14 and US 20 and NY 5 and follows US 20 and NY 5 northeast to Lake Street. At Lake Street, NY 14 Truck turns west to rejoin NY 14 two blocks later. The truck route bypasses a pair of sharp turns on NY 14 in downtown Geneva.

Template:Attached KML/New York State Route 14KML is from Wikidata

## InfoBox

| New York State Route 14 | |
| --- | --- |
| Map of central New York with NY 14 highlighted in red, and NY 14 Truck in blue (Concurrency with Clemens Center Parkway is NY 961M) | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by NYSDOT and the cities of Elmira and Geneva | |
| Length | 95.24 mi (153.27 km) |
| Existed | 1924–present |
| Tourist
routes | Great Lakes Seaway Trail |
| Major junctions | |
| South end | PA 14 at the Pennsylvania state line in Ashland |
| Major intersections |  |
| North end | Greig Street cul-de-sac in Sodus Point |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| State | New York |
| Counties | Chemung, Schuyler, Yates, Ontario, Wayne |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| NY 13A   NY 14A | |


title: Potentilla drummondii

abstract: Potentilla drummondii is a species of cinquefoil known by the common name Drummond's cinquefoil. It is native to North America from Alaska to California, where it grows in many types of moist habitat. It is perhaps better described as a species complex containing many intergrading subspecies that readily hybridize with other Potentilla species. The plant is variable, growing decumbent or erect, small and tufted or up to 60 centimeters tall, hairless to woolly. The leaves are divided into several leaflets, which may be cut into lobes or toothed. The inflorescence is a cyme of several flowers. Each has a small corolla of yellow petals, each petal one half to one centimeter in length.

text:
# Potentilla drummondii

***Potentilla drummondii*** is a species of cinquefoil known by the common name **Drummond's cinquefoil**. It is native to North America from Alaska to California, where it grows in many types of moist habitat. It is perhaps better described as a species complex containing many intergrading subspecies that readily hybridize with other *Potentilla* species. The plant is variable, growing decumbent or erect, small and tufted or up to 60 centimeters tall, hairless to woolly. The leaves are divided into several leaflets, which may be cut into lobes or toothed. The inflorescence is a cyme of several flowers. Each has a small corolla of yellow petals, each petal one half to one centimeter in length.

## InfoBox

| *Potentilla drummondii* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Rosaceae |
| Genus: | *Potentilla* |
| Species: | ***P. drummondii*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Potentilla drummondii***
Lehm. | |
|


title: Urban township (Michigan)

abstract: An urban township was a designation of a unit of local government in the U.S. state of Michigan as prescribed by section 2 of Public Act 281 of 1986, being section 125.2152 of the Michigan Compiled Laws. The act was repealed in 2018 and took effect January 1, 2019. The designation allowed a general law township or charter township to be considered a municipality under the auspices of the act, and create what is known as a "local development finance authority," in the same way a city or village is entitled. This authority was created in order to, according to the long title of the act, "encourage local development to prevent conditions of unemployment and promote economic growth." Powers that were entitled to such authorities included the issuance of municipal bonds and tax increment financing. There were five different methods in which a township could be designated an urban township by the state. Common requirements between all methods were a population requirement, which usually mandated that there be 20,000 residents in a township—though that number could be as low as 10,000—and in one case, the population requirement was not of the township, but the county; the population of said county must have been over 1,000,000. This, however, only applied to two counties in 2003.

text:
# Urban township (Michigan)

An **urban township** was a designation of a unit of local government in the U.S. state of Michigan as prescribed by section 2 of Public Act 281 of 1986, being section 125.2152 of the Michigan Compiled Laws. The act was repealed in 2018 and took effect January 1, 2019. The designation allowed a general law township or charter township to be considered a municipality under the auspices of the act, and create what is known as a "local development finance authority," in the same way a city or village is entitled. This authority was created in order to, according to the long title of the act, "encourage local development to prevent conditions of unemployment and promote economic growth." Powers that were entitled to such authorities included the issuance of municipal bonds and tax increment financing.

There were five different methods in which a township could be designated an urban township by the state. Common requirements between all methods were a population requirement, which usually mandated that there be 20,000 residents in a township—though that number could be as low as 10,000—and in one case, the population requirement was not of the township, but the county; the population of said county must have been over 1,000,000. This, however, only applied to two counties in 2003 (Wayne and Oakland).


title: The Phantom Express (1925 film)

abstract: The Phantom Express is a 1925 American silent action crime film directed by John G. Adolfi and starring Ethel Shannon, David Butler, and Frankie Darro.

text:
# The Phantom Express (1925 film)

***The Phantom Express*** is a 1925 American silent action crime film directed by John G. Adolfi and starring Ethel Shannon, David Butler, and Frankie Darro.

## Plot

As described in a film magazine review, a young railroad engineer, who is in love with the daughter of another engineer, takes the throttle of his company’s fastest train after his sweetheart’s father becomes demented over a wreck. The young man drives the train without mishap for a while and then almost has a wreck. However, the near wrecking of the train reveals the man who caused the wreck and nearly ruined the young man’s happiness.

## Cast

## Bibliography

* Munden, Kenneth White. *The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States, Part 1*. University of California Press, 1997.

## InfoBox

| The Phantom Express | |
| --- | --- |
| Still with Frankie Darro and George Periolat | |
| Directed by | John G. Adolfi |
| Written by | Tom J. Hopkins |
| Starring |  |
| Cinematography |  |
| Production<br>company | Banner Productions |
| Distributed by |  |
| Release date | * November 1925 (1925-11) |
| Running time | 50 minutes |
| Country | United States |
| Language | Silent (English intertitles) |


title: Jacques-Alphonse Mahul

abstract: Jacques-Alphonse Mahul was a French columnist and politician. A liberal activist, he was affiliated with the Carbonari, and was imprisoned for some time at La Force Prison. He participated in the editing of many liberal newspapers such as the Revue encyclopédique.

text:
# Jacques-Alphonse Mahul

**Jacques-Alphonse Mahul** (31 July 1795 - 25 August 1871) was a French columnist and politician. A liberal activist, he was affiliated with the Carbonari, and was imprisoned for some time at La Force Prison. He participated in the editing of many liberal newspapers such as the *Revue encyclopédique*.

## Biography

Jacques-Alphonse Mahul was Master of Requests at the Conseil d'État (1835), prefect of Haute-Loire (1835-1837), then of Vaucluse (1837-1840) and of Haute-Garonne (1841), general director of the police (1840). He was deputy of the Aude from 1831 to 1834 and from 1846 to 1848, serving in the majority supporting the July Monarchy.

## Works

* *Notice sur quelques articles négligés dans tous les dictionnaires historiques*, Paris : Mme Hérissant le Doux, 1818, 34 p.
* *Annuaire nécrologique, ou Supplément annuel et continuation de toutes les biographies ou dictionnaires historiques*, Paris: Baudouin frères, 5 annuaires de 1821 à 1826. The third year, 1822, is available on line. Paris : Ponthieu, 1823 .
* *Histoire de la loi des élections et des projets du gouvernement*, Paris : Baudouin frères, 1820, in-8°, 55 p.
* *Des Partis en France et dans la Chambre des Députés pendant la session de 1822*, Paris : Pélicier, 1822, in-8°, 40 p.
* *Tactique électorale à l'usage de l'opposition, où sont indiqués et développés tous les moyens légaux de diriger et concentrer les forces de l'opposition dans les collèges électoraux, et faire triompher son candidat*, Paris : Brissot-Thivars, 1822, in-8°, 44 p.
* *Du Silence considéré comme tactique parlementaire*, Paris : impr. de Boucher, 1823, in-8°, 15 p.
* *Éclaircissements touchant les motifs et les circonstances de la détention de M. Alphonse Mahul ; suivis d'observations sur les prisons de la Force et de la Conciergerie*, Paris : Ponthieu, 1823, in-8°, 118 p.
* *Instructions électorales à l'usage des Français constitutionnels, où sont indiqués et développés tous les moyens légaux de diriger et concentrer les forces de l'opposition dans les collèges électoraux, et de faire triompher son candidat*, Paris : Ponthieu, 1824, in-8°, 44 p.
* *Explications de M. Mahul, ex-préfet de la Haute-Garonne, sur les derniers événements de Toulouse*, Paris : F. Didot frères, (s.d.), in-4°, 4 p.
* *Cartulaire et archives des communes de l'ancien diocèse et de l'arrondissement administratif de Carcassonne — villes, villages, églises, abbayes, prieurés, châteaux, seigneuries, fiefs, généalogies, blasons, métairies, lieux bâtis, quartiers ruraux, notes statistiques*, 8 vol. (avec fig., pl. et cartes ; le 6e volume contient 2 parties en 2 tomes), Paris : Didron et Dumoulin, 1857-1882.

### Bibliography

* "Jacques-Alphonse Mahul", in Adolphe Robert and Gaston Cougny, *Dictionnaire des parlementaires français (1789-1891)*, Bourloton, Paris, 1889 Edition details Wikisource

## InfoBox

| Jacques-Alphonse Mahul | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | François-Antoine-Eugène de Planard
31 July 1795
Carcassonne (Aude) |
| Died | 25 August 1871(1871-08-25) (aged 76)
Villardonnel (Aude) |
| Occupation | Politician |


title: Neumarkt in der Steiermark

abstract: Neumarkt in der Steiermark is a municipality in the district of Murau in Styria, Austria.

text:
# Neumarkt in der Steiermark

**Neumarkt in der Steiermark** is a municipality in the district of Murau in Styria, Austria.

## International relations

### Twin towns – Sister cities

Neumarkt is twinned with:

## InfoBox

| Neumarkt in der Steiermark | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
| View of Neumarkt | |
|  | |
| Neumarkt in der SteiermarkLocation within Austria | |
| Coordinates: 47°04′15″N 14°25′22″E / 47.07083°N 14.42278°E / 47.07083; 14.42278 | |
| Country | Austria |
| State | Styria |
| District | Murau |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Josef Maier (ÖVP) |
| Area | |
| Total | 163.55 km2 (63.15 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 847 m (2,779 ft) |
| Population (1 January 2016) | |
| Total | 5,068 |
| Density | 31/km2 (80/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 8820 |
| Area code | 03584 |
| Vehicle registration | MU |
| Website | www.neumarkt.steiermark.at |


title: Meloe ajax

abstract: Meloe ajax is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae. It is found in North America.

text:
# Meloe ajax

***Meloe ajax*** is a species of blister beetle in the family Meloidae. It is found in North America.

## Further reading

* Arnett, R. H. Jr.; Thomas, M. C.; Skelley, P. E.; Frank, J. H., eds. (21 June 2002). *American Beetles, Volume II: Polyphaga: Scarabaeoidea through Curculionoidea*. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.
* Arnett, Ross H. (30 July 2000). *American Insects: A Handbook of the Insects of America North of Mexico*. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0212-1.
* White, Richard E. (1983). *Peterson Field Guides: Beetles*. Houghton Mifflin Company.

## InfoBox

| *Meloe ajax* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Meloidae |
| Genus: | *Meloe* |
| Species: | ***M. ajax*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Meloe ajax***<br>Pinto, 1998 | |
|


title: Hexachaeta venezuelana

abstract: Hexachaeta venezuelana is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus Hexachaeta of the family Tephritidae.

text:
# Hexachaeta venezuelana

***Hexachaeta venezuelana*** is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus *Hexachaeta* of the family Tephritidae.

## InfoBox

| *Hexachaeta venezuelana* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Family: | Tephritidae |
| Genus: | *Hexachaeta* |
| Species: | ***H. venezuelana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Hexachaeta venezuelana***<br>Lima, 1953 | |
|


title: Portlandville, New York

abstract: Portlandville is a hamlet in Otsego County, New York, United States. The community is located along the Susquehanna River and New York State Route 28, 7.3 miles (11.7 km) northeast of Oneonta. Portlandville has a post office with ZIP code 13834, which opened on April 9, 1828.

text:
# Portlandville, New York

**Portlandville** is a hamlet (and census-designated place) in Otsego County, New York, United States. The community is located along the Susquehanna River and New York State Route 28, 7.3 miles (11.7 km) northeast of Oneonta. Portlandville has a post office with ZIP code 13834, which opened on April 9, 1828.

## InfoBox

| Portlandville, New York | |
| --- | --- |
| Hamlet and CDP | |
| Portlandville, New YorkPortlandville, New York | |
| Coordinates: 42°31′49″N 74°58′02″W / 42.53028°N 74.96722°W / 42.53028; -74.96722 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | New York |
| County | Otsego |
| Town | Milford |
| Elevation | 1,152 ft (351 m) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| ZIP code | 13834 |
| Area code | 607 |
| GNIS feature ID | 961002 |


title: Goldrausch

abstract: Goldrausch is a card game published in 1990 by Hans im Glück. It is one of the first published games by prolific game designer Reiner Knizia, the rules, using two decks of regular playing cards, were first published in his book New Tactical Games With Dice and Cards.

text:
# Goldrausch

***Goldrausch*** (also called *Gold Rush* and *Gold Digger*) is a card game published in 1990 by Hans im Glück. It is one of the first published games by prolific game designer Reiner Knizia, the rules, using two decks of regular playing cards, were first published in his book New Tactical Games With Dice and Cards.

## Contents

*Goldrausch* is a card game about the California Gold Rush.

## Reception

Mark R Green reviewed *Gold Rush* for *Games International* magazine, and gave it a rating of 6 out of 10, and stated that "*Gold Rush* is a good game with some tension and a degree of simple decision making."

*Goldrausch* was nominated for the 1990 Deutscher Spiele Preis.

## Reviews


title: Kireçköy

abstract: Kireçköy is a neighbourhood of the municipality and district of Göksun, Kahramanmaraş Province, Turkey. Its population is 96 (2022). It is located south of Göksun, and is surrounded by mountains.

text:
# Kireçköy

**Kireçköy** is a neighbourhood of the municipality and district of Göksun, Kahramanmaraş Province, Turkey. Its population is 96 (2022). It is located south of Göksun, and is surrounded by mountains.

## InfoBox

| Kireçköy | |
| --- | --- |
| Neighbourhood | |
| KireçköyLocation in Turkey | |
| Coordinates: 37°58′34″N 36°30′11″E / 37.97611°N 36.50306°E / 37.97611; 36.50306 | |
| Country | Turkey |
| Province | Kahramanmaraş |
| District | Göksun |
| Population (2022) | 96 |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (TRT) |


title: Harateen

abstract: Harateen or harrateen was a woolen material of the 18th and early 19th-century produced in England. It was a furnishing material with a pattern used in upholstery.

text:
# Harateen

**Harateen** or **harrateen** was a woolen material of the 18th and early 19th-century produced in England. It was a furnishing material with a pattern used in upholstery.

## Fabrication

Harateen was a plain weave fabric manufactured with coarser weft than the warp yarns. Then undergoes a procedure of watering and stamping. The two layers of cloth were pressed together with a hot press. Imprinted, thicker horizontal strands produce a distinct wavy pattern.

## Use

This fabric was used for curtains and bed hangings.


title: Villers-Bouton

abstract: Villers-Bouton is a commune in the Haute-Saône department in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.

text:
# Villers-Bouton

**Villers-Bouton** is a commune in the Haute-Saône department in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.

## InfoBox

| Villers-Bouton | |
| --- | --- |
| Commune | |
| The church in Villers-Bouton | |
| Location of Villers-Bouton | |
| Villers-BoutonVillers-Bouton | |
| Coordinates: 47°27′08″N 5°58′47″E / 47.4522°N 5.9797°E / 47.4522; 5.9797 | |
| Country | France |
| Region | Bourgogne-Franche-Comté |
| Department | Haute-Saône |
| Arrondissement | Vesoul |
| Canton | Rioz |
| Area**1** | 5.26 km2 (2.03 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | 177 |
| Density | 34/km2 (87/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| INSEE/Postal code | 70560 /70190 |
| Elevation | 307–421 m (1,007–1,381 ft) |
| **1** French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers \> 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |


abstract: The Modern Reader's Japanese–English Character Dictionary is a kanji dictionary published with English speakers in mind. Although a revised edition by John H. Haig, The New Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary, was published in 1997, it is still in print, now under the title The Original Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary – Classic Edition The dictionary contains about 5,000 entries, listing characters with their on and kun readings, compounds and English definitions. The entries are arranged by a system devised by the author as an extension of the traditional radical system.

text:
# The Modern Reader's Japanese–English Character Dictionary

***The Modern Reader's Japanese–English Character Dictionary (最新漢英辞典, *Saishin Kan-Ei jiten*)*** is a kanji dictionary published with English speakers in mind. Although a revised edition by John H. Haig, *The New Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary*, was published in 1997, it is still in print, now under the title *The Original Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary – Classic Edition*

The dictionary contains about 5,000 entries, listing characters with their *on* and *kun* readings, compounds and English definitions. The entries are arranged by a system devised by the author as an extension of the traditional radical system.

## InfoBox

The Modern Reader's Japanese–English Character Dictionary
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Andrew N. Nelson |
| Language | English–Japanese |
| Subject | Japanese–English character dictionary |
| Publisher | C. E. Tuttle Co. |
| Publication date | 1962 |
| Publication place | Japan, United States of America |
| Media type | Print |
| Pages | 1048 |
| Awards | 1969 Prize for the Society for the Promotion of International Cultural Relations *(Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai)* |
| LC Class | PL679 .N4 |


title: Jacques-André Jacquelin

abstract: Jacques-André Jacquelin was a French playwright, lyricist, chansonnier, goguettier and poet.

text:
# Jacques-André Jacquelin

**Jacques-André Jacquelin** (18 March 1776 – 13 August 1827) was a French playwright, lyricist, chansonnier, goguettier and poet.

## Biography

A chief clerk at the Ministry of War, he became inspector of secondary theaters of Paris.

Jacquelin authored about forty plays, all of which are now long forgotten, and the *Dictionnaire historique abrégé des hommes célèbres depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours*.

He was a member of the société du Caveau of which he became general secretary in 1815.

## Works

Theatre  * *La Nièce de ma tante Aurore, ou la Manie des romans*, one-act comedy, Paris, Théâtre de la rue de Thionville, 7 March 1794
* *Les Fureurs de l'amour*, tragédie burlesque in 7 scenes and in verse, with Joseph-Henri Flacon Rochelle, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 9 June 1798
* *Jean La Fontaine*, comédie anecdotique in 1 act and i prose, mingled with vaudevilles, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 23 September 1798
* *L’Enfant de l’amour*, suite des *Fureurs de l’amour*, tragédie burlesque in 1 act and in verse, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 2 March 1799
* *Jean Racine avec ses enfants*, comédie anecdotique in 1 act and in prose, mingled with vaudevilles, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 21 April 1799
* *L'Antiquomanie, ou le Mariage sous la cheminée*, one-act comedy in prose, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 27 May 1799 Text online
* *La Clef forée*, comédie anecdotique in 1 act and in prose, mingled with vaudevilles, with François-Pierre-Auguste Léger, Paris, 4 July 1799
* *Le Peintre dans son ménage*, two-act comedy in prose, mingled with vaudevilles, with A.-M. Lafortelle, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 21 October 1799
* *Pradon sifflé, battu et content*, comédie anecdote in 1 act and in vaudevilles, with Joseph-Henri Flacon Rochelle, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 4 August 1800
* *Le Tableau de Raphaël, ou À trompeur trompeur et demi*, comédie-proverbe in 1 act and in vaudevilles, with Joseph-Henri Flacon Rochelle, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 9 October 1800
* *Le Hasard corrigé par l’amour, ou la Fille en loterie*, arlequinade in 1 act and in vaudevilles, with Joseph-Henri Flacon Rochelle, Paris, Théâtre des Jeunes-Artistes, 12 January 1801
* *Molière avec ses amis, ou le Souper d'Auteuil*, historical comedy in 2 acts and in vaudevilles, with Antoine-François Rigaud, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 28 January 1801 Text online
* *Cinq et deux font trois, ou le Marchand d'esprit*, comédie proverbe in 1 act in verse and in vaudevilles, Paris, Jeunes-Artistes, 18 December 1801
* *Gille en deuil*, opera in 1 act, with Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Désaugiers and Armand Croizette, music by Niccolò Piccinni, Paris, Théâtre Montansier, 3 August 1802
* *Cric-crac, ou l'Habit du Gascon*, comédie-vaudeville in 1 act, with Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Désaugiers, Paris, Montansier, 17 January 1803
* *L’Amour à l'anglaise*, comédie vaudeville in 1 act in prose, with Michel-Nicolas Balisson de Rougemont, Paris, Théâtre des jeunes élèves de la rue de Thionville, 24 February 1803 Text online
* *Le Magister et le Meunier, ou les Escobarderies villageoises*, comédie-vaudeville in 1 act, from an ancient fabliau, with Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Désaugiers, Paris, Théâtre de la rue Dauphine, 10 March 1803
* *La Mort de Néron*, folie anecdotique in 1 act and in prose, mingled with vaudevilles, Paris, Théâtre des jeunes élèves de la rue de Thionville, 6 May 1803
* *Le Jalou de village, ou le Petit bonnet jaune*, opéra-vaudeville in 1 act, Paris, 22 February 1804
* *Pelisson, ou C'est le diable*, comédie anecdotique in 1 act and in vaudevilles, with Joseph-Henri Flacon Rochelle, Paris, Montansier, 18 April 1807
* *Levez la toile !*  pièce épisodique in 1 act and in vaudevilles, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique, 31 May 1820
* *L’Écarté, ou Un lendemain de bal*, one-act comedy, mingled with vaudevilles, with Maurice Ourry and René de Chazet, Paris, Théâtre du Vaudeville, 25 September 1822
* *Le Passage militaire, ou la Désertion par honneur*, one-act entertainment, with Antoine-Marie Coupart, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 24 August 1823
* *Les Deux Proscrits, ou l'Hospitalité généreuse*, one-act play, Paris, 25 August 1823, fêtes municipales offertes à Sa Majesté par M. le préfet de la Seine
* *Fête à la halle ! ou le Retour de nos braves*, tableau épisodique in 1 act, with Antoine-Marie Coupart, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 13 December 1823
* *Le Retour d'un brave*, vaudeville in 1 act, with Antoine-Marie Coupart and E. F. Varez, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 24 August 1824
* *La Fête d'automne*, tableau villageois in 1 act, with Antoine-Marie Coupart and E.-F. Varez, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 4 November 1824
* *L'Entrée à Reims*, one-act entertainment, with Antoine-Marie Coupart and Armand Joseph Overnay, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 29 May 1825
* *Les Fils de Pharamond, ou la Forêt enchantée*, vaudeville féerie in 3 acts extravaganza, Paris, Théâtre d'élèves, 7 June 1825
* *Bravoure et Clémence, ou les Vertus de Henri IV*, pantomime in 3 acts, Paris, Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 8 June 1825
* *Un trait de Charlemagne, ou Éginard et Imma*, drame héroïque in 3 acts, Paris, fêtes municipales offertes par la ville de Paris à S. M. Charles X, à l'occasion de la Saint-Charles, 3 November 1825
* *Le Petit Postillon de Fimes, ou Deux fêtes pour une*, à propos historique in 1 act, with Antoine-Marie Coupart and E.-F. Varez, Paris, Ambigu-Comique, 4 November 1825
* *Le Béarnais, ou l'Enfance de Henri IV*, à-propos mingled with couplets, with Eugène Hyacinthe Laffillard, Paris, Théâtre Seveste, 4 November 1826
* *La Circulaire*, one-act comedy in 1 act and in prose, with Gabriel-Alexandre Belle, Paris, Théâtre de la Gaîté, 10 June 1828
* *La Comédie au château*, one-act play mingled with couplets, with Antoine-Marie Coupart and E.-F. Varez, Paris, Théâtre des Jeunes-Artistes of M. Louis Comte, 26 May 1829

Varia * 1802-1803: *Honorine, ou Mes vingt-deux ans, histoire véritable de Mlle D\****
* 1804-1808: *Almanach des Grâces, ou les Hommages à la beauté*
* 1805: *Histoire des Templiers, ouvrage impartial recueilli des meilleurs écrivains* Text online
* 1809-1810: *Le Chansonnier de la cour et de la ville*
* 1810: *La Lyre maçonnique*, étrennes aux francs-maçons et à leurs sœurs, for the year M.DCCC.IX
* 1811: *Ode sur la naissance du roi de Rome*
* 1811: *Pot-pourri chanté*, 11 August 1811, à la fête de Mme Jacquelin, *née* Suzanne Davesne
* 1814: *Le Chansonnier des Bourbons*, with Michel-Nicolas Balisson de Rougemont Text online
* 1815: *Recueil de chansons, choisies et chantées par Jacquelin*
* 1816: *Le Chansonnier franc-maçon, composé de cantiques de banquet, échelles d'adoption, rondes, vaudevilles chansons et couplets*
* 1816: *Chansons chantées aux Champs-Élysées pour la fête du Roi, le 25 août 1816*, with Marc-Antoine Désaugiers
* 1816: *La Galerie des badauds célèbres, ou Vivent les enfants de Paris !*, chansonnette biographique, étrennes parisiennes for 1816
* 1819: *Le Sang des Bourbons*, galerie historique des rois et princes de cette maison depuis Henri IV jusqu'à nos jours
* 1825: *Manuel de biographie, ou Dictionnaire historique abrégé des hommes célèbres depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, composé sur le plan du* Dictionnaire de la fable *by Chompré* Text online

## InfoBox

| Jacques-André Jacquelin | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 18 March 1776
Paris |
| Died | 13 August 1827(1827-08-13) (aged 51)
Paris |
| Occupation(s) | Playwright, lyricist, chansonnier, poet |


title: Neukölln

abstract: Neukölln is one of the twelve boroughs of Berlin, Germany. It is located south of Berlin's centre and stretches southeastwards to the city boundary, encompassing the localities of Neukölln, Britz, Buckow, Rudow and Gropiusstadt. Neukölln borough was part of the American sector during the Four-Power occupation of the city. It is characterised by having one of the highest percentages of immigrant residents in Berlin. An influx of students and artists since the mid-2000s has led to gentrification.

text:
# Neukölln

**Neukölln** (German: \[nɔʏˈkœln\] ) is one of the twelve boroughs of Berlin, Germany. It is located south of Berlin's centre and stretches southeastwards to the city boundary, encompassing the localities of Neukölln, Britz, Buckow, Rudow and Gropiusstadt.

Neukölln borough was part of the American sector during the Four-Power occupation of the city. It is characterised by having one of the highest percentages of immigrant residents in Berlin. An influx of students and artists since the mid-2000s has led to gentrification.

## History

The Berlin district of Neukölln has a long and varied history that reflects the city's changing political and cultural landscape.

Located in the south of the city, Neukölln was originally a small village on the outskirts of Berlin. Neukölln's independence ended on 1 October 1920 when it was incorporated into Berlin. During the German revolution it was the centre of a soldier and worker's council which controlled all local government departments, abolished the municipal authorities, took over the banks and declared housing to be communal property.

In September 1929, Goebbels led his men into Neukölln, a KPD stronghold, and the two warring parties exchanged pistol and revolver fire. During World War II, Neukölln was the location of a subcamp of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp for Jewish and Romani women.

After World War II, Neukölln underwent significant transformation as a result of the city's division by the Berlin Wall. The neighborhood was located in West Berlin and became a center of industry and commerce, with many factories and warehouses. From 1966 to 1975 the Gropiusstadt was built, a "Trabantenstadt" or city-within-a-city housing estate, designed by architect Walter Gropius. In the 1980s and 1990s, Neukölln underwent a process of gentrification, with many artists, students, and young professionals moving into the area. In recent years, Neukölln has become known for its diverse and vibrant cultural scene, with a mix of traditional and alternative businesses and a thriving arts and music scene.

Today, Neukölln is a popular destination for tourists and locals alike, with a diverse array of restaurants, cafes, and shops, as well as a number of cultural attractions and events. Despite its gentrification, Neukölln remains a working-class neighborhood with a diverse and multicultural population.

## Locality subdivisions

Hufeisensiedlung, 2017Britzer Garten in Neukölln's South

Neukölln is subdivided into five localities:

| Locality
 | Area
(km2)
 | Inhabitants
 | Density
(Inhabitants/km2)
 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0801 Neukölln
 | 11.71 | 155,950 | 13,318 |
| 0802 Britz
 | 12.40 | 39,029 | 3,148 |
| 0803 Buckow
 | 6.35 | 38,219 | 6,019 |
| 0804 Rudow
 | 11.81 | 40,733 | 3,449 |
| 0805 Gropiusstadt
 | 2.67 | 35,751 | 13,390 |

## Public transport

Neukölln is served by three operational sections of urban rail.

U-Bahn:

Part of each of the following S-Bahn routes share an east–west-running section of Ringbahn track through Neukölln:

Among the numerous rail stations in Neukölln three act as interchanges:

## Demographics

As of 2010, the borough had a population of 310,283, of whom 121,000 (38.9%) were of non-German ethnicity. The percentage is significantly higher in the locality of the same name, Neukölln. The borough is known for its large Turkish, Arab and Kurdish communities, which together make up roughly 18% of the borough's population. Recently, there has been an influx of Romani people and Sub-Saharan Africans.

| Population by migration background | |
| --- | --- |
| Ethnic Germans | 60% (189,000) |
| Middle Eastern origin | 18% (55,000) |
| non-German European origin | 11% (33,000) |
| Afro-Germans | 4% (12,400) |
| Others (East Asians, Americans, etc.) | 6.5% (21,000) |

### Gentrification

A trend is the rapid gentrification of certain neighbourhoods within the borough. There has been an influx of students, creatives and other young professionals of mostly Western origin avoiding higher rents which are charged in other parts of Berlin. This has caused a knock-on effect, with rents rising in some parts of Neukölln. Northern Neukölln, just to the south of the Kreuzberg area, has become informally referred to as "Kreuzkölln" as the area becomes increasingly fashionable.

## Politics

### District council

The governing body of Neukölln is the district council (*Bezirksverordnetenversammlung*). It has responsibility for passing laws and electing the city government, including the mayor. The most recent district council election was held on 26 September 2021, and the results were as follows:

| Party | | Lead candidate | Votes | % | +/- | Seats | +/- |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Social Democratic Party (SPD) | Martin Hikel | 41,104 | 28.7 | 1.7 | 18 | 1 |
|  | Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | Susann Worschech | 25,238 | 17.6 | 2.7 | 11 | 2 |
|  | Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | Falko Liecke | 24,191 | 16.9 | 0.6 | 10 | ±0 |
|  | The Left (LINKE) | Sarah Nagel | 21,525 | 15.0 | 2.8 | 9 | 2 |
|  | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | Julian Potthast | 10,125 | 7.1 | 5.7 | 4 | 4 |
|  | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | Roland Leppek | 6,971 | 4.9 | 0.6 | 3 | 1 |
|  | | | | | | | |
|  | Tierschutzpartei |  | 4,101 | 2.9 | 0.7 | 0 | ±0 |
|  | Die PARTEI |  | 2,909 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 0 | ±0 |
|  | dieBasis |  | 1,787 | 1.2 | New | 0 | New |
|  | Klimaliste |  | 1,451 | 1.0 | New | 0 | New |
|  | Volt Germany |  | 1,431 | 1.0 | New | 0 | New |
|  | Free Voters |  | 1,061 | 0.7 | New | 0 | New |
|  | We are Berlin |  | 843 | 0.6 | New | 0 | New |
|  | Ecological Democratic Party |  | 235 | 0.2 | New | 0 | New |
|  | Liberal Conservative Reformers |  | 192 | 0.1 | New | 0 | New |
| Valid votes | | | 143,164 | 98.9 |  |  |  |
| Invalid votes | | | 1,655 | 1.1 |  |  |  |
| Total | | | 144,819 | 100.0 |  | 55 | ±0 |
| Electorate/voter turnout | | | 225,767 | 64.1 | 6.5 |  |  |
| Source: Elections Berlin | | | | | | | |

### District government

The district mayor (*Bezirksbürgermeister*) is elected by the Bezirksverordnetenversammlung, and positions in the district government (Bezirksamt) are apportioned based on party strength. Martin Hikel of the SPD was elected mayor on 21 March 2018. Since the 2021 municipal elections, the composition of the district government is as follows:

| Councillor | Party | | Portfolio |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Martin Hikel |  | SPD | District Mayor
Civil Service and Logistics |
| Jochen Biedermann |  | GRÜNE | Deputy Mayor
Urban Development, Environment and Traffic |
| Falko Liecke |  | CDU | Social Affairs |
| Karin Korte |  | SPD | Education, Culture and Sport |
| Mirjam Blumenthal |  | SPD | Youth and Health |
| Sarah Nagel |  | LINKE | Public Order |
| Source: Berlin.de | | | |

## Notable people

## Twin towns – sister cities

Neukölln is twinned with:

## InfoBox

| Neukölln | |
| --- | --- |
| Borough of Berlin | |
|  | |
| Location of Neukölln in Berlin | |
| Neukölln Neukölln | |
| Coordinates: 52°29′N 13°27′E / 52.483°N 13.450°E / 52.483; 13.450 | |
| Country | Germany |
| State | Berlin |
| City | Berlin |
| Subdivisions | 5 localities |
| Government | |
| Borough Mayor | Martin Hikel (SPD) |
| Area | |
| Total | 44.93 km2 (17.35 sq mi) |
| Population (2023-12-31) | |
| Total | 330,017 |
| Density | 7,300/km2 (19,000/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| Vehicle registration | B |
| Website | Official homepage |


title: Herybert Menzel

abstract: Herybert Menzel was a German poet and writer during the time of National Socialism as well as a member of the Bamberg poet circle.

text:
# Herybert Menzel

**Herybert Menzel** (10 August 1906 in Obornik in II Reich – February 1945 in Tirschtiegel in III Reich) was a German poet and writer during the time of National Socialism as well as a member of the Bamberg poet circle.

## Life

Menzel was the son of a postal secretary and grew up in the border town of Tirschtiegel. After the Abitur in Crossen he studied two semesters of law at University of Breslau and Humboldt University of Berlin . He then settled in his hometown as a freelance writer In 1926 he published his first independent publication, the volume of poetry  *Mond, Sonne und Stern und Ich. Kleine Lieder*.

The tensions between Poles and Germans in the border region of Poznań and West Prussia shaped his artistic work. Menzel inter alia relies on this conflict-laden atmosphere in his home region. in the works Grenzmärkische sagas (1929), Der Grenzmark-Rappe. Grenzmärkische sagas, stories, ballads and poems (1933) as well as in his first novel Controversial Earth (1930). The latter brought it to several editions with a total of at least 56,000 copies by 1943. With the novel

> “It is aesthetically, but also ideologically, a simply knitted text that uses an undemanding friend-foe dichotomy. It takes place around 1918/20, towards the end of the First World War and in the following twelve months, in the province of Poland and deals with the conflict between the previous German ruling class and their opponent, the Polish population. The concrete historical reference point is the \[…\] Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919). "

Already before 1933 Menzel joined the NSDAP (membership number 1.043.489) and the Sturmabteilung (in 1943 he achieved the rank of Sturmbannführer). After the "seizure of power" by the National Socialists, Menzel was best known for his poems, songs, and cantatas. In October 1933 he was one of the 88 writers who gave the "Pledge of the most loyal allegiance" to Adolf Hitler. Poems in his volume of poetry  *Im*   *March step of the SA*  (1933) contributed to his reputation as "Homer of the SA" at. His productions found their way into mass media literature as propaganda contributions:

Vorm Bild des Führers
Wenn ich nur zweifle, schau ich auf dein Bild,
Dein Auge sagt mir, was allein uns gilt.
So manche Stunde sprech ich wohl mit dir,
Als wärst du nah und wüßtest nun von mir.
Wo immer einer still wird vor der Tat,
Er kommt zu dir, du bester Kamerad.
In deinem Antlitz steht es ernst und rein,
Was es bedeutet, Deutschlands Sohn zu sein.

Menzel published in the newspaper "Völkischer Beobachter", in the series "Junge Volk" and contributed to the HJ yearbook "The young team". On the occasion of the 6th anniversary of Horst Wessel 's death in 1936 he wrote the cantata "Ewig lives the SA", which was performed on 23 February 1936 in 739 cities of the German Reich. From 1933 to 1935 he was a board member of the Reich Association of German Writers. From 29 March 1936 he belonged to the Reichstag, which was insignificant during the time of National Socialism. In 1938 he became a member of the Bamberg Poets' Circle.

During his (first) military service for the "Third Reich", Menzel suffered such serious injuries in France in June 1940 that he had to be treated in hospitals for almost a year and after his service in a convalescent hospital Company was finally discharged from military service in November 1941. Menzel now fully devoted himself to his work as a freelance writer and now also wrote dramatic and prose texts as well as a chamber play. In his last published volume of poetry, 'Anders kehren wir wieder' (1943), Menzel's disparaging, inhuman attitude towards the Slavic (especially Polish) population is revealed again. This becomes clear, for example, from the following verses, which refer to the Warsaw captured by the Wehrmacht and its inhabitants.

> \[…\] Da das Feuer schon Ruß ward, / Der Leichendunst sich verzog, das Überlebende / Schon wieder schachert und lacht und lüstet / Und alles dies leugnet; rot sind die Münde, / Die Gier wuchert im Grauen; dies war reif, / O, überreif zur Verdammnis. \[…\] / \[…\], wir zwingen zum / Gleichschritt wieder uns alle, wir Sieger. / Stiefel, bestaubter, durch Staub weiter! Du triffst / Nichts, was verworfen nicht war.

The writer also pursued Propaganda in the sense of the Nazi regime on his lecture tours to Norway (1941) and Bulgaria (1942). Poems by him found their way into the flag and battle slogans of the Hitler Youth.

It can be assumed that Menzel was drafted into the Volkssturm at the beginning of 1945 as a reaction to the Winter Offensive of the Red Army and died in battle. An exchange of letters shows that in 1946 Menzel's mother, for fear of an upcoming house search, consented to the burning of her son's estate, which also contained unpublished writings.

After the end of National Socialism, his writings were placed on the List of literature to be segregated in the Soviet Occupation Zone and in the German Democratic Republic.

Jan-Pieter Barbian counts Menzel to the  *guard of Nazi apologists ... who expressed the political guidelines of those in power in and with their works.*

Menzel was a close friend of the Siewert sisters, the painter Clara Siewert and especially the writer Elisabeth Siewert, after whose death in 1930 he wrote an obituary in the Ostdeutsche Monatshefte.

A poem by Menzel with the title "Der Kamerad" was used by Konrad Kujau as an alleged Hitler poem in the context of the Hitler diaries forged by him.

## Honours

## Writing

* *Mond und Sonne und Stern und ich. Kleine Lieder*, 1926
* *Im Bann. Gedichte*, 1930
* *Umstrittene Erde*, Roman, 1930
* *Franz Lüdtke, der ostdeutsche Mensch und Dichter*, 1932
* *Der Grenzmark-Rappe. Grenzmärkische Sagen, Erzählungen, Balladen und Gedichte*, 1933
* *Im Marschschritt der SA. Gedichte*, 1933
* *Wir sind der Sieg!*, 1934
* *Die große Ernte. Kantate*, 1935
* *Das große Gelöbnis. Eine Kantate*, 1935
* *In unsern Fahnen lodert Gott. Kantate*, 1935
* *Gedichte der Kameradschaft*, 1936
* *Wenn wir unter Fahnen stehen. Lieder der Bewegung*, 1938
* *Alles Lebendige leuchtet. Gedichte eines Jahrzehnts*, 1938
* *Deutschland, heiliges Deutschland! Das große Gelöbnis*, 1938
* *Ewig lebt die SA. Eine Feier*, 1938
* *Herrn Figullas Schaufenster. Heitere Geschichten*, 1941
* *Das Siebengestirn*, Roman, 1942
* *Das Friedensschiff. Satire in 3 Akten*, 1943
* *Anders kehren wir wieder. Gedichte*, 1943
* *Noch einmal Napoleon? Komödie*, 1943
* *Einführung* in Hermann Harz, *Das Erlebnis der Reichsautobahn. Ein Bildwerk*, Widmung: „Dem Schöpfer der Reichsautobahnen Reichsminister Dr. Fritz Todt zum Gedächtnis." Vorwort Albert Speer. Hg. Reichsministerium Speer, Georg D. W. Callwey, o. J. (1943) München
* *Der Brief. Ein Kammerspiel in 3 Akten*, 1944

## Literature

* Lisa Lader, Wulf Segebrecht: *Herybert Menzel.* In: *Der Bamberger Dichterkreis 1936–1943.* Peter Lang, Frankfurt (Main) 1987 ISBN 3-8204-0104-0 S. 192–197
* Hans Sarkowicz, Alf Mentzer: *Literatur in Nazi-Deutschland. Ein biografisches Lexikon.*, erw. Neuausgabe, Europa, Hamburg 2002, S. 309–311
* Erich Stockhorst: *5000 Köpfe. Wer war was im 3. Reich.* Arndt, Kiel 2000, ISBN 3-88741-116-1 (Unveränderter Nachdruck der ersten Auflage von 1967).
* Rolf Düsterberg: *Tod und Verklärung. Der NS-Propagandadichter Herybert Menzel.* Internationales Archiv für Sozialgeschichte der deutschen Literatur IASL, 35 (2010), H. 2, Verlag Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010 ISSN 0340-4528; elektronisch: ISSN 1865-9128
* Rolf Düsterberg: *Herybert Menzel – der Sänger der „ostmärkischen SA“.* In: Derselbe (Hrsg.): *Dichter für das „Dritte Reich“*, Bd. 2, Aisthesis, Bielefeld 2011 ISBN 978-3-89528-855-5 S. 143–173


title: Hibret

abstract: Hibret(Ge'ez: ሕብረት), is a village town in Asgede district in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia located 52 km west of Shire in the way from Inda Aba Guna to Hitsats. The town is the administrative center of the Hibret subdistrict (tabia) home to more than 10,000 residents. During the Tigray war on 29 April 2021, more than 20 civilians were killed by the Ethiopian National Defence Forces in this village town.

text:
# Hibret

**Hibret**(Ge'ez: ሕብረት), is a village town in Asgede district in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia located 52 km west of Shire in the way from Inda Aba Guna to Hitsats. The town is the administrative center of the Hibret subdistrict (tabia) home to more than 10,000 residents. During the Tigray war on 29 April 2021, more than 20 civilians were killed by the Ethiopian National Defence Forces in this village town.

## InfoBox

| Hibret ሕብረት | |
| --- | --- |
| Town | |
| HibretLocation within Ethiopia | |
| Coordinates: 14°02′50″N 38°01′59″E / 14.047315233441314°N 38.03292848247641°E / 14.047315233441314; 38.03292848247641 | |
| Country | Ethiopia |
| Region | Tigray |
| Zone | Northwestern Zone |
| Woreda | Hibret |
| Elevation | 1,320.698 m (4,332.999 ft) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 10,604 |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (EAT) |


title: Goldpokal der Stadt Bremerhaven

abstract: Goldpokal der Stadt Bremerhaven was a basketball tournament played in the town of Bremerhaven in Bremen in West Germany, consisting of a men's tournament played between 1964 and 1983 and a men's tournament played between 1965 and 1969. The tournament was open both to club teams and national teams.

text:
# Goldpokal der Stadt Bremerhaven

**Goldpokal der Stadt Bremerhaven** was a basketball tournament played in the town of Bremerhaven in Bremen in West Germany, consisting of a men's tournament played between 1964 and 1983 and a men's tournament played between 1965 and 1969. The tournament was open both to club teams and national teams.

## Winners

### Men

### Women

## InfoBox

| Goldpokal der Stadt Bremerhaven | |
| --- | --- |
| Status | active |
| Genre | sporting event |
| Frequency | annual |
| Country | West Germany |
| Inaugurated | 1964 (1964) |
| Most recent | 1983 (1983) |