title: Peter Chalmers Mitchell

abstract: Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell was a Scottish zoologist who was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 1903 to 1935. During this time, he directed the policy of the Zoological Gardens of London and created the world's first open zoological park, Whipsnade Zoo.

text:
# Peter Chalmers Mitchell

**Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell** CBE FRS FZS (23 November 1864 – 2 July 1945) was a Scottish zoologist who was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 1903 to 1935. During this time, he directed the policy of the Zoological Gardens of London and created the world's first open zoological park, Whipsnade Zoo.

## Early life

Peter Chalmers Mitchell was the son of the Rev. Alexander Mitchell, a Presbyterian minister in Dunfermline, Scotland, and Marion Chalmers. Mitchell gained an MA at the University of Aberdeen, and moved to Christ Church, Oxford, where he read for natural science, specialising in zoology. After success in the honours examination of 1888, he was appointed University Demonstrator in Zoology.

In 1896, he was the anonymous author of an article in the *Saturday Review* entitled "A Biological View of English Foreign Policy" which proposed the inevitability of a final battle between Britain and Germany, in which one would have to be destroyed. (Having acknowledged his authorship during World War I, he still declared himself "unrepentant" about it in a letter to *The Times* in May 1939, describing the article as "prophetic").

In April 1916, now an army Captain, he was responsible for setting up a specialist department MI7(B)4 to oversee the production of military propaganda to be dropped from the air over enemy lines.

## Zoo

Despite a tenure of 32 years, Mitchell was not the longest-serving Secretary of the Zoological Society. His predecessor, Philip Lutley Sclater, had been in office over forty years, from 1860 to 1902. Mitchell was succeeded by Julian Huxley.

Mitchell's brainchild, Whipsnade Park, was opened in 1931 on the Dunstable Downs, in the heart of Bedfordshire. Whipsnade is an open air zoo in the countryside, where animals occupy large enclosures rather than cages. The park is involved in a variety of conservation activities.

In 1933 he was one of eleven people involved in the appeal that led to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), an organisation for the study of birds in the British Isles.

## Lectures

In 1911, Mitchell delivered the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on *The Childhood of Animals*.

In February 1915, Mitchell gave three lectures on the subject of evolution and foreign policy at the Royal Institution that expanded upon his 1896 article. These were combined and published in the form of a book entitled *Evolution and the War* in May 1915.

## Málaga

On retiring from the zoo, Mitchell moved to Málaga, staying there during the first six months or so of the Spanish Civil War, until the city was taken on behalf of the rebels by Italian troops. An account of his last days in Málaga, including his arrest along with Arthur Koestler, is included in Koestler's book *Spanish Testament* and in Mitchell's own memoir, *My House in Málaga*, published in 1938.

## Politics

Mitchell stood as an independent candidate at the 1938 Combined Scottish Universities by-election, but took last position, with 13.5% of the votes cast.

## Death

Mitchell died on 2 July 1945, aged 80, after being injured in an accident on 29 June outside the London Zoo. After stepping off a bus, he was struck by a taxicab. A jury ruled the death accidental.

## Legacy

A species of South American worm lizard, *Amphisbaena mitchelli*, is named in his honour. He also proved, in a now classic treatise, namely, “On the Intestinal Tract of Mammals,” that the caecum of Mammals is directly homologous with the paired caeca of Birds; that is to say, a pair being the original state.

## Publications

### As author

* 1900. *Thomas Henry Huxley: a Sketch of his Life and Work*. Putnam's, London & N.Y; 2nd ed. Methuen, London 1913.
* 1911. *Official Guide to the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London*, Zoological Society of London, London.
* 1912. *The Childhood of Animals*. Heinemann; Penguin.
* 1915. *Evolution and the War*. J. Murray, London.
* 1930. *Materialism and Vitalism in Biology*. Oxford.
* 1931. *A Centenary History of the London Zoo*.
* 1937. *My Fill of Days*. Faber & Faber, London.
* 1938. *My House in Málaga*. Faber & Faber, London. (Republished 2019, The Clapton Press, London).

### As Translator

* 1903. *The Nature of Man: Studies in Optimistic Philosophy*, by Élie Metchnikoff, G.P. Putnam's Sons, London. The original title in French was *Études sur la nature humaine*, (1903).
* 1934. *The Seven Pillars*, by Wenceslao Fernández Flórez.
* 1935. *Mr Witt Among the Rebels: The Story of a Reluctant Revolutionist in the Days of Victoria*, by Ramón J. Sender, Faber and Faber, London. The original title in Spanish was *Mr. Witt en el cantón*, (1935).
* 1936. *Seven Red Sundays*, by Ramón J. Sender, Faber & Faber, London. The original title in Spanish was *Siete domingos rojos*, (1932).
* 1937. *The War in Spain: a personal narrative,* by Ramón J. Sender, Faber & Faber, London. The original title in Spanish was *Contraataque* (1937).
* 1944. *The Forge*, by Arturo Barea, Faber and Faber, London. The original title in Spanish was *La Forja* (1941).

In addition, like Henry Scherren FZS, Chalmers Mitchell made a number of contributions to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica under the initials "P.C.M.". Chalmers Mitchell was critical of Scherren's history of the ZSL, but was in turn criticised by John Bastin for his work on the same subject.

## Bibliography

* Crook, D.P. (1989). "Peter Chalmers Mitchell and antiwar evolutionism in Britain during the Great War". *Journal of the History of Biology*. **22** (2): 325–356. doi:10.1007/bf00139517. S2CID 85087144.

1. Hindle, E. (1947). "Peter Chalmers Mitchell. 1864–1945". *Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society*. **5** (15): 367–372. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1947.0005. S2CID 191584762.
2. Chalmers Mitchell, P. (1931). *A Centenary History of the London Zoo*.
3. "Obituary: Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell – Thirty Years Secretary of the Zoo". *The Times*.
4. Chalmers Mitchell, P. (1937). *My Fill of Days*. London: Faber & Faber.
5. "Saturday Review, London, February 1896 - *A Biological View of English Foreign Policy*".
6. "Observers of Birds" (PDF). *The Times*. 1 July 1933.
7. Chalmers Mitchell, P. (1915). *Evolution and the War*. London: John Murray.
8. "Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell, *My House in Málaga*, (1938), London, The Clapton Press". 29 May 2019.
9. "Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell – Death from Accidental Causes". *The Times*. 6 July 1945. p. 2.
10. Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). *The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Mitchell, P.C.", p. 180).
11. PCM's Contributions to 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition.
12. Bastin, John (1970). "The First Prospectus of the Zoological Society of London: New Light on the Society's Origins". *Archives of Natural History* **5** (5): 369–388. Edinburgh University Press, 1 October 1970. Deepdyve

## InfoBox

| Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | (1864-11-23)23 November 1864
Dunfermline, Scotland |
| Died | 2 July 1945(1945-07-02) (aged 80)
London, England |
| Known for | Founding Whipsnade Zoo |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Zoology |
|  | |


title: Nihalgarh, Phagwara

abstract: Nihalgarh is a village located in Phagwara Tehsil, Kapurthala district in Punjab, India. It is located 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Kapurthala and 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Phagwara. The village is administered by a sarpanch, an elected representative.

text:
# Nihalgarh, Phagwara

**Nihalgarh** is a village located in Phagwara Tehsil, Kapurthala district in Punjab, India. It is located 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Kapurthala and 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Phagwara. The village is administered by a sarpanch, an elected representative.

## Demography

As of 2011, Nihalgarh has 92 houses with a population of 479 people, with 250 men and 229 women. The literacy rate of Nihalgarh is 78.14%, higher than the state average of 75.84%. Children 0–6 years number 49, which is 10.23% of the total population. The child sex ratio is approximately 1130, higher than the state average of 846.

## Transport

The nearest railway stations to Nihalgarh are Phagwara Junction Railway Station and Mauli Halt Railway Station. Jalandhar Railway station is 24 km away from the village. Nihalgarh is 117 km away from Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport in Amritsar, while Ludhiana Airport is located 37 km away. Phagwara, Jandiala, Jalandhar, and Phillaur are the closest urban centres to Nihalgarh.

## InfoBox

| Nihalgarh | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| NihalgarhLocation in Punjab, IndiaNihalgarhNihalgarh (India) | |
| Coordinates: 31°32′17″N 75°24′30″E / 31.538019°N 75.408251°E / 31.538019; 75.408251 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Punjab |
| District | Kapurthala |
| Government | |
| Type | Panchayati raj (India) |
| Body | Gram panchayat |
| Population (2011) | |
| Total | 590 |
|  | Sex ratio 307/283/ |
| Languages | |
| Official | Punjabi |
| Other spoken | Hindi |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
| PIN | 144401 |
| Telephone code | 01822 |
| ISO 3166 code | IN-PB |
| Vehicle registration | PB-09 |
| Website | kapurthala.gov.in |


title: Hurst exponent

abstract: The Hurst exponent is used as a measure of long-term memory of time series. It relates to the autocorrelations of the time series, and the rate at which these decrease as the lag between pairs of values increases. Studies involving the Hurst exponent were originally developed in hydrology for the practical matter of determining optimum dam sizing for the Nile river's volatile rain and drought conditions that had been observed over a long period of time. The name "Hurst exponent", or "Hurst coefficient", derives from Harold Edwin Hurst (1880–1978), who was the lead researcher in these studies; the use of the standard notation H for the coefficient also relates to his name. In fractal geometry, the generalized Hurst exponent has been denoted by H or Hq in honor of both Harold Edwin Hurst and Ludwig Otto Hölder (1859–1937) by Benoît Mandelbrot (1924–2010). H is directly related to fractal dimension, D, and is a measure of a data series' "mild" or "wild" randomness. The Hurst exponent is referred to as the "index of dependence" or "index of long-range dependence". It quantifies the relative tendency of a time series either to regress strongly to the mean or to cluster in a direction. A value H in the range 0.5–1 indicates a time series with long-term positive autocorrelation, meaning that the decay in autocorrelation is slower than exponential, following a power law; for the series it means that a high value tends to be followed by another high value and that future excursions to more high values do occur. A value in the range 0 – 0.5 indicates a time series with long-term switching between high and low values in adjacent pairs, meaning that a single high value will probably be followed by a low value and that the value after that will tend to be high, with this tendency to switch between high and low values lasting a long time into the future, also following a power law. A value of H=0.5 indicates short-memory, with (absolute) autocorrelations decaying exponentially quickly to zero.

text:
# Hurst exponent

The **Hurst exponent** is used as a measure of long-term memory of time series. It relates to the autocorrelations of the time series, and the rate at which these decrease as the lag between pairs of values increases. Studies involving the Hurst exponent were originally developed in hydrology for the practical matter of determining optimum dam sizing for the Nile river's volatile rain and drought conditions that had been observed over a long period of time. The name "Hurst exponent", or "Hurst coefficient", derives from Harold Edwin Hurst (1880–1978), who was the lead researcher in these studies; the use of the standard notation *H* for the coefficient also relates to his name.

In fractal geometry, the **generalized Hurst exponent** has been denoted by *H* or *Hq* in honor of both Harold Edwin Hurst and Ludwig Otto Hölder (1859–1937) by Benoît Mandelbrot (1924–2010). *H* is directly related to fractal dimension, *D*, and is a measure of a data series' "mild" or "wild" randomness.

The Hurst exponent is referred to as the "index of dependence" or "index of long-range dependence". It quantifies the relative tendency of a time series either to regress strongly to the mean or to cluster in a direction. A value *H* in the range 0.5–1 indicates a time series with long-term positive autocorrelation, meaning that the decay in autocorrelation is slower than exponential, following a power law; for the series it means that a high value tends to be followed by another high value and that future excursions to more high values do occur. A value in the range 0 – 0.5 indicates a time series with long-term switching between high and low values in adjacent pairs, meaning that a single high value will probably be followed by a low value and that the value after that will tend to be high, with this tendency to switch between high and low values lasting a long time into the future, also following a power law. A value of *H*=0.5 indicates short-memory, with (absolute) autocorrelations decaying exponentially quickly to zero.

## Definition

The Hurst exponent, *H*, is defined in terms of the asymptotic behaviour of the rescaled range as a function of the time span of a time series as follows;

$\mathbb {E} \left\[{\frac {R(n)}{S(n)}\right\]=Cn^{H}{\text{ as }n\to \infty \\,,}}$ where

* $R(n)$ is the range of the first $n$ cumulative deviations from the mean
* $S(n)$ is the series (sum) of the first n standard deviations
* $\mathbb {E} \left\[x\right\]\\,$ is the expected value
* $n$ is the time span of the observation (number of data points in a time series)
* $C$ is a constant.

## Relation to Fractal Dimension

For self-similar time series, *H* is directly related to fractal dimension, *D*, where 1 \< *D* \< 2, such that *D* = 2 - *H*. The values of the Hurst exponent vary between 0 and 1, with higher values indicating a smoother trend, less volatility, and less roughness.

For more general time series or multi-dimensional process, the Hurst exponent and fractal dimension can be chosen independently, as the Hurst exponent represents structure over asymptotically longer periods, while fractal dimension represents structure over asymptotically shorter periods.

## Estimating the exponent

A number of estimators of long-range dependence have been proposed in the literature. The oldest and best-known is the so-called rescaled range (R/S) analysis popularized by Mandelbrot and Wallis and based on previous hydrological findings of Hurst. Alternatives include DFA, Periodogram regression, aggregated variances, local Whittle's estimator, wavelet analysis, both in the time domain and frequency domain.

### Rescaled range (R/S) analysis

To estimate the Hurst exponent, one must first estimate the dependence of the rescaled range on the time span *n* of observation. A time series of full length *N* is divided into a number of nonoverlapping shorter time series of length *n*, where *n* takes values *N*, *N*/2, *N*/4, ... (in the convenient case that *N* is a power of 2). The average rescaled range is then calculated for each value of *n*.

For each such time series of length $n$, $X=X\_{1},X\_{2},\dots ,X\_{n}\\,$, the rescaled range is calculated as follows:

1. Calculate the mean; $m={\frac {1}{n}\sum \_{i=1}^{n}X\_{i}\\,.}$
2. Create a mean-adjusted series; $Y\_{t}=X\_{t}-m\quad {\text{ for }t=1,2,\dots ,n\\,.}$
3. Calculate the cumulative deviate series $Z$; $Z\_{t}=\sum \_{i=1}^{t}Y\_{i}\quad {\text{ for }t=1,2,\dots ,n\\,.}$
4. Compute the range $R$; $R(n)=\operatorname {max} \left(Z\_{1},Z\_{2},\dots ,Z\_{n}\right)-\operatorname {min} \left(Z\_{1},Z\_{2},\dots ,Z\_{n}\right).$
5. Compute the standard deviation $S$; $S(n)={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{n}\sum \_{i=1}^{n}\left(X\_{i}-m\right)^{2}.}}}$
6. Calculate the rescaled range $R(n)/S(n)$ and average over all the partial time series of length $n.$

The Hurst exponent is estimated by fitting the power law $\mathbb {E} \[R(n)/S(n)\]=Cn^{H}$ to the data. This can be done by plotting $\log\[R(n)/S(n)\]$ as a function of $\log n$, and fitting a straight line; the slope of the line gives $H$. A more principled approach would be to fit the power law in a maximum-likelihood fashion. Such a graph is called a box plot. However, this approach is known to produce biased estimates of the power-law exponent. For small $n$ there is a significant deviation from the 0.5 slope. Anis and Lloyd estimated the theoretical (i.e., for white noise) values of the R/S statistic to be:

$\mathbb {E} \[R(n)/S(n)\]={\begin{cases}{\frac {\Gamma ({\frac {n-1}{2})}{{\sqrt {\pi }\Gamma ({\frac {n}{2})}\sum \limits \_{i=1}^{n-1}{\sqrt {\frac {n-i}{i},&{\text{for }n\leq 340\\\{\frac {1}{\sqrt {n{\frac {\pi }{2}\sum \limits \_{i=1}^{n-1}{\sqrt {\frac {n-i}{i},&{\text{for }n\>340\end{cases}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$

where $\Gamma $ is the Euler gamma function. The Anis-Lloyd corrected R/S Hurst exponent is calculated as 0.5 plus the slope of $R(n)/S(n)-\mathbb {E} \[R(n)/S(n)\]$.

### Confidence intervals

No asymptotic distribution theory has been derived for most of the Hurst exponent estimators so far. However, Weron used bootstrapping to obtain approximate functional forms for confidence intervals of the two most popular methods, i.e., for the Anis-Lloyd corrected R/S analysis:

| Level | Lower bound | Upper bound |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 90% | 0.5 − exp(−7.35 log(log M) + 4.06) | exp(−7.07 log(log M) + 3.75) + 0.5 |
| 95% | 0.5 − exp(−7.33 log(log M) + 4.21) | exp(−7.20 log(log M) + 4.04) + 0.5 |
| 99% | 0.5 − exp(−7.19 log(log M) + 4.34) | exp(−7.51 log(log M) + 4.58) + 0.5 |

and for DFA:

| Level | Lower bound | Upper bound |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 90% | 0.5 − exp(−2.99 log M + 4.45) | exp(−3.09 log M + 4.57) + 0.5 |
| 95% | 0.5 − exp(−2.93 log M + 4.45) | exp(−3.10 log M + 4.77) + 0.5 |
| 99% | 0.5 − exp(−2.67 log M + 4.06) | exp(−3.19 log M + 5.28) + 0.5 |

Here $M=\log \_{2}N$ and $N$ is the series length. In both cases only subseries of length $n\>50$ were considered for estimating the Hurst exponent; subseries of smaller length lead to a high variance of the R/S estimates.

## Generalized exponent

The basic Hurst exponent can be related to the expected size of changes, as a function of the lag between observations, as measured by E(|*X**t*+*τ**X**t*|2). For the generalized form of the coefficient, the exponent here is replaced by a more general term, denoted by *q*.

There are a variety of techniques that exist for estimating *H*, however assessing the accuracy of the estimation can be a complicated issue. Mathematically, in one technique, the Hurst exponent can be estimated such that: $H\_{q}=H(q),$ for a time series $g(t),t=1,2,\dots $ may be defined by the scaling properties of its structure functions $S\_{q}$ ( $\tau $): $S\_{q}=\left\langle \left|g(t+\tau )-g(t)\right|^{q}\right\rangle \_{t}\sim \tau ^{qH(q)},$ where $q\>0$, $\tau $ is the time lag and averaging is over the time window $t\gg \tau ,$ usually the largest time scale of the system.

Practically, in nature, there is no limit to time, and thus *H* is non-deterministic as it may only be estimated based on the observed data; e.g., the most dramatic daily move upwards ever seen in a stock market index can always be exceeded during some subsequent day.

In the above mathematical estimation technique, the function *H*(*q*) contains information about averaged generalized volatilities at scale $\tau $ (only *q* = 1, 2 are used to define the volatility). In particular, the *H*1 exponent indicates persistent (*H*1 \> 12) or antipersistent (*H*1 \< 12) behavior of the trend.

For the BRW (brown noise, $1/f^{2}$) one gets $H\_{q}={\frac {1}{2},}$ and for pink noise ( $1/f$) $H\_{q}=0.$

The Hurst exponent for white noise is dimension dependent, and for 1D and 2D it is $H\_{q}^{1D}={\frac {1}{2},\quad H\_{q}^{2D}=-1.}$

For the popular Lévy stable processes and truncated Lévy processes with parameter α it has been found that

$H\_{q}=q/\alpha ,$ for $q\<\alpha $, and $H\_{q}=1$ for $q\geq \alpha $. Multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis is one method to estimate $H(q)$ from non-stationary time series. When $H(q)$ is a non-linear function of q the time series is a multifractal system.

### Note

In the above definition two separate requirements are mixed together as if they would be one. Here are the two independent requirements: (i) stationarity of the increments, *x*(*t*+*T*) − *x*(*t*) = *x*(*T*) − *x*(0) in distribution. This is the condition that yields longtime autocorrelations. (ii) Self-similarity of the stochastic process then yields variance scaling, but is not needed for longtime memory. E.g., both Markov processes (i.e., memory-free processes) and fractional Brownian motion scale at the level of 1-point densities (simple averages), but neither scales at the level of pair correlations or, correspondingly, the 2-point probability density.

An efficient market requires a martingale condition, and unless the variance is linear in the time this produces nonstationary increments, *x*(*t*+*T*) − *x*(*t*) ≠ *x*(*T*) − *x*(0). Martingales are Markovian at the level of pair correlations, meaning that pair correlations cannot be used to beat a martingale market. Stationary increments with nonlinear variance, on the other hand, induce the longtime pair memory of fractional Brownian motion that would make the market beatable at the level of pair correlations. Such a market would necessarily be far from "efficient".

An analysis of economic time series by means of the Hurst exponent using rescaled range and Detrended fluctuation analysis is conducted by econophysicist A.F. Bariviera. This paper studies the time varying character of Long-range dependency and, thus of informational efficiency.

Hurst exponent has also been applied to the investigation of long-range dependency in DNA, and photonic band gap materials.

## Implementations


title: Laboratory NT2

abstract: Laboratory NT2 is a research group based in Quebec that hosts a database of more than 4000 works of electronic literature with an emphasis on Francophone works. The full name is Laboratories de recherche sur les arts et les littératures numériques, or in English, the laboratory for research into digital arts and literatures.

text:
# Laboratory NT2

**Laboratory NT2** is a research group based in Quebec that hosts a database of more than 4000 works of electronic literature with an emphasis on Francophone works. The full name is *Laboratories de recherche sur les arts et les littératures numériques*, or in English, the laboratory for research into digital arts and literatures.

## Background and philosophy

The NT2 is both a physical space, a research laboratory at UQAM, and a virtual space, the NT2 website, which is a hub for hypermedia literature and art. Their mission is to promote the study, understanding, creation, and archiving of new forms of hypermedia literature and art. Its main focus is the assessment and promotion of new expressions of cyberculture, as well as the development of novel strategies for ongoing research relating to new forms of art or text.

As such, the NT2 pursues three overarching research objectives:

1. To develop novel research methodologies in the arts and literature
2. To bear witness to the manifestations of cyberculture
3. To promote the research activities of the research community, Figura (Research Center on Texts and the Imaginary) and its Observatory of the Contemporary Imaginary (OIC).

Their main interests are hypermedia art (often known as Internet Art or net.art), new media and electronic literature. The archiving of these relatively new forms, thus allowing for long-term study, is central in the NT2's range of activities.

Through ongoing projects and collaborations NT2 focuses on promoting a community of interest and a network of researchers. This revolves around the study of contemporary imaginaries, and the exploration of novel research methodologies, adapted to contemporary contexts and technologies.

## Hypermedia Art and Literature (HAL) Directory

The NT2's main project has been the creation of the Hypermedia Art and Literature (HAL) Directory, which began in 2006. An index and showcase of hypermedia works, the database was created in response to the inadequacy of established tools of description for literature, cinema and art, as well as the lack of a substantial repertory for the institutionalisation and collection of these new works.

The Directory was created using the open source content management system, Drupal. It is populated by hypertext and hypermedia literary and art works, with a particular emphasis on French language works. For each piece, an entry presents bibliographic information and a description of the work or site, including a classification based on the nature of the piece, its type of interactivity, and its general format. Certain cases also include research or technical notes and navigation screenshots.

The directory presents comprehensive reviews of each creative work. The HAL Directory lists works that have mainly been presented on the internet, as well as some available on CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and, for older pieces, on diskette. In October 2015, the Directory included over 4,100 works, ranging from some closer to literature and others incorporating cinematographic, artistic and theatrical expression as well as animation, cartooning, graffiti, and video games.

According to an article written by Figura's director Bertrand Gervais in 2009, three main challenges that arose whilst developing the HAL Directory were:

1. Multidisciplinary: Since hypermedia works are formed from and inhabit the intersections between disciplines, and since a field of study dedicated to hypermedia literature and art does not yet exist, NT2 had to compile multidisciplinary teams to describe and organize the works in the database.
2. Location and Identification: Since there is no previously existing database of hypermedia works, NT2 had to develop new strategies for locating and identifying the works cataloged.
3. Specialized Description Protocols- Due to a lack of formalized vocabulary specific to hypermedia works, the HAL Directory is organized around a unique bibliographic system, employing hypermedia-specific vocabulary, and a set of key words based on the pieces themselves rather than on preexisting research taxonomies. The key words relating to interactivity, for example, include 39 options that aim to describe as accurately as possible, a user's experience with a particular work.

## Other activities and collaborations


title: Tselfatia

abstract: Tselfatia is an extinct genus of Cretaceous bony fish. Originally described from Djebl Tselfat in Morocco, it has since been discovered at sites in several other countries. The type species, Tselfatia formosa, was named and described in 1943 by French paleontologist Camille Arambourg. A second species, T. dalmatica, was named in 1980 from the Dalmatian Coast of Croatia. The enormous dorsal fin as well as the large anal fin both feature one much enlarged ray, characteristic for the genus. These fish are never common and more work needs to be done on the known specimens.

text:
# Tselfatia

***Tselfatia*** is an extinct genus of Cretaceous bony fish. Originally described from (and named after) Djebl Tselfat in Morocco, it has since been discovered at sites in several other countries (Texas/USA, Germany, Mexico, Italy and the former Yugoslavia). The type species, *Tselfatia formosa*, was named and described in 1943 by French paleontologist Camille Arambourg. A second species, *T. dalmatica*, was named in 1980 from the Dalmatian Coast of Croatia.

The enormous dorsal fin as well as the large anal fin both feature one much enlarged ray, characteristic for the genus. These fish are never common and more work needs to be done on the known specimens.

## InfoBox

| *Tselfatia*
Temporal range: Late Cretaceous, | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *T. formosa* specimen | |
|  | |
| Reconstruction | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Tselfatiiformes |
| Family: | Plethodidae |
| Genus: | *Tselfatia*
Arambourg, 1943 |
|
| Type species | |
| ***Tselfatia formosa***
Arambourg, 1943 | |
| Other species | |
| * *T. dalmatica* Bardack & Teller-Marshall, 1980 | |


title: Anadromidae

abstract: Anadromidae is an extinct family of gastropods in the clade Eupulmonata.

text:
# Anadromidae

**Anadromidae** is an extinct family of gastropods in the clade Eupulmonata (according to taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005).

## Taxonomy

The family Anadromidae is classified within the informal group Sigmurethra, itself belonging to the clade Stylommatophora within the clade Eupulmonata (according to taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005).

The family Anadromidae consists of the following subfamilies:

## Genera

*Anadromus*

*Lychnus*

*Nicolasia*

## InfoBox

| Anadromidae | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| (unranked): | clade Heterobranchia clade Euthyneura
clade Panpulmonata
clade Eupulmonata
clade Stylommatophora

informal group Sigmurethra |
| Superfamily: | Clausilioidea |
| Family: | **Anadromidae** |
|
| Genera | |
| See text. | |


title: Virginia State Route 207

abstract: State Route 207 is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia. Known for most of its length as Rogers Clark Boulevard, the state highway runs 11.93 miles (19.20 km) from U.S. Route 1 in Ruther Glen east to US 301 and SR 2 in Bowling Green. SR 207 is a divided highway connection between Interstate 95 (I-95) north of Richmond and US 301, which heads toward Fort A.P. Hill, the Northern Neck, and the Potomac River Bridge to Southern Maryland.

text:
# Virginia State Route 207

**State Route 207** (**SR 207**) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia. Known for most of its length as Rogers Clark Boulevard, the state highway runs 11.93 miles (19.20 km) from U.S. Route 1 (US 1) in Ruther Glen east to US 301 and SR 2 in Bowling Green. SR 207 is a divided highway connection between Interstate 95 (I-95) north of Richmond and US 301, which heads toward Fort A.P. Hill, the Northern Neck, and the Potomac River Bridge to Southern Maryland.

## Route description

SR 207 begins at an intersection with US 1 (Emancipation Highway) in Ruther Glen, in an area also known as Carmel Church, in western Caroline County. The state highway heads east as Rogers Clark Boulevard, a four-lane divided highway that passes through a commercial area with services catering to travellers. Within the commercial area, SR 207 has a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-95. East of Ruther Glen, the state highway heads northeast toward Bowling Green. SR 207 crosses over CSX's RF&P Subdivision railroad line and the Mattaponi River north of the village of Milford. Southwest of Bowling Green, the state highway meets the western end of SR 207 Business, which takes the name Rogers Clark Boulevard toward the town of Bowling Green. SR 207 continues east as the Bowling Green Bypass to the route's eastern terminus. The state highway crosses over US 301 and SR 2 (Richmond Turnpike) and ends at a two-way ramp between the northsouth road and the bypass. The Bowling Green Bypass continues northeast as US 301 toward Fort A.P. Hill. The two-way ramp, which is part of US 301, leads to the Richmond Turnpike, which heads south toward Richmond as US 301 and SR 2 and north into the town of Bowling Green as SR 2 and US 301 Business.

## History

Under a previous numbering system, SR 207 was known as **State Route 613** from 1929-1933. This SR 613 initially ran only from US 1 at Carmel Church to the Mattaponi River but, in 1930-31, was extended east to the current US 301 Business and SR 2 intersection in Bowling Green. The route was renumbered in 1933 as SR 207, which itself had been a previous designation of part of what is now SR 24 near Roanoke. In addition to the current path of SR 207, the 1933 route included what is now SR 639 in Caroline County from Chilesburg to Ladysmith but this was renumbered as SR 229 by 1937. The route was enlarged by 1937 with the addition of a second section running from a point 2 miles (3.2 km) east of Bowling Green through Port Royal to an intersection with SR 3 at Office Hall. Part of this route had been SR 229 from 1933. In 1941, this new section became part of US 301 which it remains today.

## Major intersections

The entire route is in Caroline County.

| Location | mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Carmel Church | 0.00 | 0.00 | US 1 (Jefferson Davis Highway) / SR 658 (Jericho Road) Richmond, Fredericksburg, Washington, D.C. | Western terminus |
|  | 0.46 | 0.74 | I-95 Fredericksburg, Richmond | Exit 104 (I-95) |
| Milford | 10.48 | 16.87 |

SR 207 Bus. east (Rogers Clark Boulevard) to SR 2 Bowling Green, Fredericksburg | Western terminus of SR 207 Bus. |
| Bowling Green | 11.93 | 19.20 | US 301 (Bowling Green Bypass) Port Royal, Baltimore, Richmond, Fort A.P. Hill | Eastern terminus |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
 | | | | | |

## Bowling Green business route

| State Route 207 Business | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location | Bowling Green |
| Length | 1.27 mi (2.04 km) |

State Route 207 Business (SR 207 Business) is a business route of SR 207 in Bowling Green. The two-lane highway, which has a length of 1.27 miles (2.04 km), begins at SR 207, which heads west as Rogers Clark Boulevard and east as the Bowling Green Bypass. SR 207 Business heads northeast as Rogers Clark Boulevard and becomes Broaddus Avenue on entering the town limits of Bowling Green. The business route reaches its eastern terminus at SR 2 (Main Street). US 301 Business also heads south on Main Street and east on Broaddus Avenue to its northern end between Bowling Green and Fort A.P. Hill.

Template:Attached KML/Virginia State Route 207KML is from Wikidata

## InfoBox

| State Route 207 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by VDOT | |
| Length | 11.93 mi (19.20 km) |
| Existed | 1933–present |
| Major junctions | |
| West end | US 1 / SR 658 in Ruther Glen |
| Major intersections | I-95 in Ruther Glen |
| East end | US 301 / SR 2 in Bowling Green |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Virginia |
| Counties | Caroline |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| SR 206   SR 208 | |


title: Norwich CEYMS F.C.

abstract: Norwich Church of England Young Men's Society Football Club, commonly called Norwich CEYMS, is a football club based in Swardeston, near Norwich, in Norfolk, England. They are currently members of the Anglian Combination Premier Division, having previously played in the Eastern Counties League. It has been suggested that the world's oldest football song, "On The Ball, City", was used for CEYMS before being adopted by Norwich City. The club is affiliated to the Norfolk County FA.

text:
# Norwich CEYMS F.C.

**Norwich Church of England Young Men's Society Football Club**, commonly called **Norwich CEYMS**, is a football club based in Swardeston, near Norwich, in Norfolk, England. They are currently members of the Anglian Combination Premier Division, having previously played in the Eastern Counties League. It has been suggested that the world's oldest football song, "On The Ball, City", was used for CEYMS before being adopted by Norwich City.

The club is affiliated to the Norfolk County FA.

## History

Formed by the local branch of the Church of England Young Men's Society on 22 August 1888, the club was known locally as "Churches". They won the Norfolk Senior Cup in 1891–92 and 1896–97. In 1897 they were founder members of the Norfolk & Suffolk League, winning it in 1899–1900, losing only a single match. They then won the Senior Cup three times in a row between 1900 and 1902. Frustrated by a perceived lack of ambition, in 1902 the team's captain (Robert Webster) and vice-captain (Joseph Cowper Nutchey) left to form a new club, Norwich City, which also joined the Norfolk & Suffolk League. City finished above CEYMS in their first season, and although CEYMS won the league again in 1906–07 and 1910–11, Norwich City went on to become the dominant team in Norwich.

The club won the Norfolk & Suffolk League again in 1935–36, and joined the Eastern Counties League in 1937 and finished eighth in 1937–38 and twelfth in 1938–39. The 1939–40 season was abandoned due to the outbreak of World War II, and due to the high travelling costs the club left the league before it resumed in 1946, rejoining the Norfolk & Suffolk League. They were invited to rejoin the Eastern Counties League in 1963, but after initially accepting the offer, it was later turned down. When the Norfolk & Suffolk League merged into the Anglian Combination in 1964 they were placed in the Premier Division, but were relegated to Division One at the end of the 1969–70 season, and to Division Two at the end of 1973–74. They were promoted back to Division One in 1984–85, but were relegated at the end of the following season.

In 2005–06 CEYMS finished as runners-up in Division Three and were promoted to Division Two. However, they were relegated the following season. In 2007–08 they won Division Three to make an immediate return to Division Two. CEYMS gained promotion to Division One at the end of the 2010–11 season. In 2012–13 the club won Division One with a record points total, earning promotion to the Premier Division.

## Grounds

The club initially played at "The Rec" on Earlham Road, a ground which also reportedly included the best cycle track in England. After World War II they moved to Norwich City's old Newmarket Road ground, now owned by Town Close School. They remained at the site until the school required the ground for its own use, at which point they moved to another ground on Newmarket Road known as the Civil Service Ground. In 1988 they relocated to their current site in Swardeston.

## Honours

* **Norfolk & Suffolk League**
    + Champions 1899–1900, 1906–07, 1910–11, 1935–36
* **Norfolk Senior Cup**
    + Winners 1891–92, 1896–97, 1899–1900, 1901–02, 1903–04
* **East Anglian Cup**
    + Winners 1984–85
* **Anglian Combination**
    + Division One champions 2012–13
    + Division Two champions 1985–86, 2010–11
    + Division Three champions 2007–08

## Records

* Best FA Cup performance: Fourth qualifying round, 1906–07

52°34′59.48″N 1°15′13.12″E / 52.5831889°N 1.2536444°E / 52.5831889; 1.2536444

## InfoBox

Norwich CEYMS
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Norwich CEYMS Football Club |
| Nickname(s) | Church |
| Founded | 22 August 1888 |
| Ground | Hilltops Sports Ground, Swardeston |
| League | Anglian Combination Premier Division |
| 2023–24 | Anglian Combination Premier Division, 10th of 16 |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Mike Palagyi

abstract: Michael Raymond Palagyi was an American Major League Baseball pitcher who pitched for the Washington Senators. He is in a group of over 1,500 players who have appeared in exactly one Major League game. At the time of his death, he was the oldest of those one-game players.

text:
# Mike Palagyi

**Michael Raymond Palagyi** (July 4, 1917 – November 21, 2013) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher who pitched for the Washington Senators. He is in a group of over 1,500 players who have appeared in exactly one Major League game. At the time of his death, he was the oldest of those one-game players.

## Early life

Palagyi was one of ten children born to Joseph and Anna Palagyi. His seven brothers were Jim, John, George, Lewis, Andrew, Peter and Joseph. Mike's sisters included Anna Yusko, Ethel Vento, and Helen who died at birth and twin to brother Andrew. Mike was not the only member to play professional baseball in the family. His brother George Palagyi played minor league ball for the Cleveland Indians as a pitcher. Mike would later go on to marry his wife Margaret. They had one child Michael, who died in a plane crash in the 1970s. Mike was a devote Catholic and belonged to Corpus Christi Parish in Conneaut. He attended mass regularly at St. Mary Church and was buried out of St. Frances Cabrini Church. He was the last living of his brothers.

## Career

Standing 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) and weighing 185 pounds (84 kg), Palagyi made his major league pitching debut August 18, 1939 for the Washington Senators as a relief pitcher in a game against the Boston Red Sox. Coming in to the game to start the top of the ninth, with the Red Sox ahead 3-1, he began by walking Doc Cramer. Then Palagyi faced three future Hall of Fame members: Jimmie Foxx, Ted Williams and Joe Cronin. He hit Foxx with a pitch and walked Williams and Cronin. The walk to Cronin forced Cramer across the plate; Palagyi was lifted from the game at this point. Two other runners allowed by Palagyi would also score, and the Senators would lose the game by a final score of 6-2, but Palagyi did not receive the loss in that game. He would never play in another major league game. In an interview for Richard Tellis' book, *Once Around the Bases*, Palagyi said that he "threw but 2 strikes out of 15 pitches — a very short big league career".

After leaving baseball, Palagyi served during World War II. Palagyi lived in Conneaut until his death in 2013.

## Distinctions

Since Palagyi allowed three earned runs without retiring a batter, his career earned run average (ERA) is infinite. He is one of at least 19 pitchers with an infinite ERA.

Palagyi and Mark Wagner are the only major-league players born in Conneaut. Both players pitched in exactly one game in relief. Wagner, however, appeared in other games as a shortstop.

## InfoBox

| Mike Palagyi | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| **Pitcher** | |
| **Born:** (1917-07-04)July 4, 1917
Conneaut, Ohio, U.S. | |
| **Died:** November 21, 2013(2013-11-21) (aged 96)
Conneaut, Ohio, U.S. | |
| **Batted:** Right**Threw:** Right | |
| MLB debut | |
| August 18, 1939, for the Washington Senators | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| August 18, 1939, for the Washington Senators | |
| MLB statistics | |
| Win–loss record | 0–0 |
| Earned run average | infinite |
| Strikeouts | 0 |
|  | |
| Teams | |
|  | |


title: Wanderer (Heaven Shall Burn album)

abstract: Wanderer is the eighth album by German extreme metal band Heaven Shall Burn, released on 16 September 2016 through Century Media Records. The album was released with 12 tracks; a deluxe version was also released with a cover of Sodom's song "Agent Orange" as a bonus track, plus a bonus disc which is a compilation of covers that the band recorded since its inception and also included in previous releases. The tracks "Bring the War Home" and "Downshifter" were released as promotional singles, including a lyric video for "Bring the War Home."

text:
# Wanderer (Heaven Shall Burn album)

***Wanderer*** is the eighth album by German extreme metal band Heaven Shall Burn, released on 16 September 2016 through Century Media Records. The album was released with 12 tracks; a deluxe version was also released with a cover of Sodom's song "Agent Orange" as a bonus track, plus a bonus disc which is a compilation of covers that the band recorded since its inception and also included in previous releases.

The tracks "Bring the War Home" and "Downshifter" were released as promotional singles, including a lyric video for "Bring the War Home."

## Track listing

All tracks are written by Heaven Shall Burn

| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "The Loss of Fury" | 2:21 |
| 2. | "Bring the War Home" | 4:20 |
| 3. | "Passage of the Crane" | 3:57 |
| 4. | "They Shall Not Pass" | 5:33 |
| 5. | "Downshifter" | 5:59 |
| 6. | "Prey to God" (feat. George Fisher of Cannibal Corpse) | 3:08 |
| 7. | "Agent Orange" (Sodom cover; bonus track on deluxe edition) | 6:08 |
| 8. | "My Heart Is My Compass" | 1:10 |
| 9. | "Save Me" | 4:57 |
| 10. | "Corium" | 5:28 |
| 11. | "Extermination Order" | 3:20 |
| 12. | "A River of Crimson" | 4:28 |
| 13. | "The Cry of Mankind" (My Dying Bride cover) | 7:35 |
| 14. | "Battle of Attrition" (bonus track on Ltd. deluxe edition) | 3:48 |
| Total length: | | 58:44 |

Too Good to Steal From Edition
| No. | Title | Original artist (date) | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Whatever That Hurts" | Tiamat (1994) | 6:02 |
| 2. | "Valhalla" (feat. Hansi Kürsch from Blind Guardian) | Blind Guardian (1989) | 5:30 |
| 3. | "Black Tears" | Edge of Sanity (1994) | 3:06 |
| 4. | "European Super State" (feat. Katharina Radig) | Killing Joke (2010) | 4:32 |
| 5. | "Straßenkampf" (German for "Street Fight"; feat. Patrick Schleitzer) | Die Skeptiker (1991) | 2:02 |
| 6. | "Nowhere" | Therapy? (1994) | 2:27 |
| 7. | "True Belief" | Paradise Lost (1993) | 4:31 |
| 8. | "Not My God" | Hate Squad (1995) | 3:55 |
| 9. | "Destroy Fascism" | Endstand (1998) | 1:55 |
| 10. | "Dislocation" | Disembodied (1998) | 3:35 |
| 11. | "Auge um Auge" (German for "An eye for an eye"; feat. Mille Petrozza from Kreator) | Dritte Wahl (1994) | 2:52 |
| 12. | "Downfall of Christ" | Merauder (1996) | 3:11 |
| 13. | "River Runs Red" | Life of Agony (1993) | 1:51 |
| Total length: | | | 45:30 |

## Personnel

Heaven Shall Burn * Marcus Bischoff – vocals
* Alexander Dietz – guitars, production, engineer
* Maik Weichert – guitars, co-production
* Eric Bischoff – bass
* Christian Bass – drums

Additional musicians

## Charts

| Chart (2016) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) | 9 |
| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) | 57 |
| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia) | 97 |
| German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) | 3 |
| Japanese Albums (Oricon) | 200 |
| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade) | 15 |
|

## InfoBox

| Wanderer | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Heaven Shall Burn | |
| Released | 16 September 2016 (2016-09-16) |
| Recorded | 2015–2016 |
| Studio | Chemical Burn Studios, Germany (recording), Antfarm Studio, Denmark (mixing) |
| Genre | Melodic metalcore, melodic death metal, thrash metal |
| Length | 58:44 |
| Language | English, German |
| Label | Century Media |
| Producer | Alexander Dietz, Maik Weichert |
| Heaven Shall Burn chronology | |
| *Veto*
(2013) ***Wanderer***
(2016) *Of Truth and Sacrifice*
(2020) | |


title: Peter Chamberlin

abstract: Peter Hugh Girard Chamberlin, most commonly known as Joe Chamberlin, was a post-War English architect most famous for his work on the Barbican Estate in London.

text:
# Peter Chamberlin

**Peter Hugh Girard Chamberlin** CBE RA FRIBA (31 March 1919, London – 23 May 1978, Berkshire), most commonly known as **Joe Chamberlin**, was a post-War English architect most famous for his work on the Barbican Estate in London.

## Biography

Chamberlin was born on 31 March 1919. He attended Bedford School and Pembroke College, Oxford, where he read Politics, Philosophy and Economics. During the Second World War he was a conscientious objector. After the War, he attended Kingston School of Art's School of Architecture, qualifying as an architect in 1948.

He married Jean Bingham in 1940.

He became the dominant force in the architectural partnership of Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, responsible for designing the Barbican Estate in London.

In 1963, he was awarded the RIBA Distinction in Town Planning; in 1974, he was made a CBE. In 1975, he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, becoming a full RA in 1978, two weeks before his death.

Chamberlin died on 23 May 1978 before the Barbican Estate was completed.


title: Hodge Hall

abstract: Hodge Hall is a historic academic building located on the campus of South Carolina State University at Orangeburg, Orangeburg County, South Carolina. It was built in 1928 in the Palladian style. It is a two-story, nine nay, brick building with a full basement, a flat roof and a parapet. The front facade features a flat-roofed portico with paired fluted columns and pilasters. The building has two large, modern brick rear additions. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. It is located included in the South Carolina State College Historic District.

text:
# Hodge Hall

**Hodge Hall** is a historic academic building located on the campus of South Carolina State University at Orangeburg, Orangeburg County, South Carolina. It was built in 1928 in the Palladian style. It is a two-story, nine nay, brick building with a full basement, a flat roof and a parapet. The front facade features a flat-roofed portico with paired fluted columns and pilasters. The building has two large, modern brick rear additions.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. It is located included in the South Carolina State College Historic District.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Hodge Hall | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. Historic district<br>Contributing property | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | South Carolina State College campus, Orangeburg, South Carolina |
| Coordinates | 33°29′51″N 80°51′06″W / 33.497615°N 80.851643°W / 33.497615; -80.851643 |
| Built | 1928 (1928) |
| Architect | Whittaker, Miller F. |
| Architectural style | Palladian |
| MPS | Orangeburg MRA |
| NRHP reference No. | 85002320 |
| Added to NRHP | September 20, 1985 |


title: November 12 in the Roman Martyrology

abstract: In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, the Roman Martyrology is a directory of liturgical commemorations for each day of the year. There are two editions of the Martyrology currently authorized for use: the 2004 edition and the 1960 revision of the 1956 edition. The following commemorations are listed for November 12 in each respective edition:

text:
# November 12 in the Roman Martyrology

| \<\< | November | | | | | \>\> |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Su | Mo | Tu | We | Th | Fr | Sa |
|  |  |  |  |  | 01 | 02 |
| 03 | 04 | 05 | 06 | 07 | 08 | 09 |
| 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 |
| 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 |
| 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 |
|
|

In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, the *Roman Martyrology* is a directory of liturgical commemorations for each day of the year. There are two editions of the *Martyrology* currently authorized for use: the 2004 edition (the most recent) and the 1960 revision of the 1956 edition (as permitted under *Summorum Pontificum*). The following commemorations are listed for November 12 in each respective edition:

## Ordinary form (2004 edition)

### General calendar

### Martyrology only

## Extraordinary form (1960 edition)

### General calendar

### Martyrology only

== References ==

1. Świątek, Jędrzej (2001). "W poszukiwaniu historycznej prawdy o Pięciu Braciach". *Tygodnik katolicki „Niedziela”* (in Polish). O najnowszych badaniach nad problemem lokalizacji pustelni mówili także dr Danuta Zydorek i prof. Tomasz Jasiński z UAM. Według nich większość historyków opowiada się dzisiaj za przekonaniem, iż pierwsi w Polsce pustelnicy założyli klasztor nieopodal Międzyrzecza, uznając jednocześnie, iż próby sytuowania tego klasztoru w Kazimierzu pod Szamotułami bądź w Kazimierzu Biskupim są mniej prawdopodobne.
2. "Preghiera d'intercessione all'eremita francescano Giovanni Cini della Pace". *San Francesco* (in Italian). Il beato Della Pace (Pisa, 1270 - Pisa 1340) divenne padre spirituale di molte persone, che riuscì a convertire e ad avvicinare a Dio. Fu così che aderirono alla regola del Terz'Ordine Regolare francescano.

## Sources

### 2004 edition

### 1960 edition

* *Martyrologium Romanum* (in Latin) (revised post-typical 4th ed.). Justitias Books. 2017 \[1956 with 1960 revisions\]. p. 278.
* *The Roman Martyrology*. Translated by O'Connell, Canon J.B. (revised post-typical 4th ed.). Westminster: Newman Press. 1962. pp. 246–247.


title: Laboratory Investigation

abstract: Laboratory Investigation is a peer-reviewed medical journal of pathology published by Elsevier. It is the official journal of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology. The journal is published monthly, with one supplemental issue per year. According to the Journal Citation Reports, Laboratory Investigation has a 2022 impact factor of 5.0, ranking it 14th out of 76 in the category Pathology.

text:
# Laboratory Investigation

***Laboratory Investigation*** is a peer-reviewed medical journal of pathology published by Elsevier. It is the official journal of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology. The journal is published monthly, with one supplemental issue per year.

According to the *Journal Citation Reports*, *Laboratory Investigation* has a 2022 impact factor of 5.0, ranking it 14th out of 76 in the category *Pathology*.

## Aims and Scope

*Laboratory Investigation* offers prompt publication of high-quality original research that advances the understanding and classification of human disease.

***Types of Articles***

*Research Article:* Research that elucidates the pathogenesis or classification of human disease, including original mechanistic or correlative studies that translate experimental, observational, computational, or technologic research findings.

*Review Article:* Review Articles require prior approval of the Editor. Review articles must be of general interest to pathologists and contain original, in-depth analysis of the chosen topic.

## Abstracting and indexing

*Laboratory Investigation* is abstracted and indexed in the following databases

## InfoBox

*Laboratory Investigation*
| Discipline | Pathology |
| --- | --- |
| Language | English |
| Edited by | David M. Berman |
| Publication details | |
| Publisher | Elsevier |
| Frequency | Monthly |
| Impact factor | 5.0 (2022) |
| Standard abbreviations
 | |
| ISO 4 | *Lab. Investig.* |
| NLM | *Lab Invest* |
| Indexing
 | |
| ISSN | 0023-6837 (print)
1530-0307 (web)
 |
| Links | |
|  | |


title: Truskolasy, Silesian Voivodeship

abstract: Truskolasy is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wręczyca Wielka, within Kłobuck County, Silesian Voivodeship, in southern Poland. It lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) west of Wręczyca Wielka, 11 km (7 mi) south-west of Kłobuck, and 68 km (42 mi) north of the regional capital Katowice. Between 1975 and 1998 Truskolasy belonged to Częstochowa Voivodeship. The village has a wooden Baroque church.

text:
# Truskolasy, Silesian Voivodeship

**Truskolasy** \[truskɔˈlasɨ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wręczyca Wielka, within Kłobuck County, Silesian Voivodeship, in southern Poland. It lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) west of Wręczyca Wielka, 11 km (7 mi) south-west of Kłobuck, and 68 km (42 mi) north of the regional capital Katowice. Between 1975 and 1998 Truskolasy belonged to Częstochowa Voivodeship.

The village has a wooden Baroque church.

## Notable residents

The Polish footballer Jakub Błaszczykowski and former head coach of the Poland national football team Jerzy Brzęczek were born in Truskolasy.

## InfoBox

| Truskolasy | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Baroque church in Truskolasy | |
| Truskolasy | |
| Coordinates: 50°51′04″N 18°49′38″E / 50.85111°N 18.82722°E / 50.85111; 18.82722 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Silesian |
| County | Kłobuck |
| Gmina | Wręczyca Wielka |


title: Anadoras regani

abstract: Anadoras regani is a species of thorny catfish found in the Oyapock and Amazon basins of Brazil, French Guiana, and Colombia. This species grows to a length of 11.0 centimetres (4.3 in) SL. The IUCN Red List considers it a junior synonym of Anadoras weddellii. Although the patronym was not identified it is probably in honor of ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan (1878–1943), of the Natural History Museum in London.

text:
# Anadoras regani

***Anadoras regani*** is a species of thorny catfish found in the Oyapock and Amazon basins of Brazil, French Guiana, and Colombia. This species grows to a length of 11.0 centimetres (4.3 in) SL. The IUCN Red List considers it a junior synonym of *Anadoras weddellii*.

Although the patronym was not identified it is probably in honor of ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan (1878–1943), of the Natural History Museum in London.

## InfoBox

| *Anadoras regani* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Siluriformes |
| Family: | Doradidae |
| Genus: | *Anadoras* |
| Species: | ***A. regani*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Anadoras regani***<br>(Steindachner, 1908) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Doras regani* Steindachner, 1908 | |


title: Vishnuprayag Dam

abstract: The Vishnuprayag Dam lies in Chamoli district at the confluence of Alaknanda River and Dhauliganga River, in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, India.

text:
# Vishnuprayag Dam

The **Vishnuprayag Dam** lies in Chamoli district at the confluence of Alaknanda River and Dhauliganga River, in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, India.

## Geography

The geographical coordinates of this dam are 30.34°N 79.34°E. From the mean sea level, the dam has an average altitude of 1372 meters. This river engenders from the snow-flecked mountain peak of the Chowkhambha mountain, according to geographical location.

## Vishnuprayag Hydroelectric Project

It is located in Uttarakhand. The accurate location of this project is near to the hanuman Chatti. This project included 17 m high concrete flexion dam, a tunnel of 4 meters, desilting compartments, a steel lined pressure knob of 1491 meter long.

An efficiency of 40 MV power producing HydroElectric plant is situated on this site. At the power plant, two small units of 20 MV (each) capacity have been installed. There is no problem in the supply of water on normal days. As the water supply increases during the rainy season, the electricity production is also increases. In the form of barrage 10 gates have been built at the place, to regulate the water discharge. By each unit of the plant, more than that of 327 CUSEC water is employed. In the production of electricity the support of nature is very helpful, so that the target of 409MW electricity production is never diminishes. Later, JAYPEE group of Industries taken over this project.

1. "Vishnuprayag Hydroelectric Dam, India - Our Projects | Encardio Rite". *www.encardio.com*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
2. "Vishnuprayag, Uttarakhand, India · NH 58, VishnuPrayag, Uttarakhand 246443, India". *Vishnuprayag, Uttarakhand, India · NH 58, VishnuPrayag, Uttarakhand 246443, India*. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
3. Sunil Sethi (July 15, 2013). "Will the Vishnuprayag project go the way of Silent Valley?". *India Today*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
4. "Dhruv Malhotra - Dams & Floods in Uttarakhand". *dhruvmalhotra.com*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
5. "Vishnuprayag hydel project suffers extensive damage". *www.downtoearth.org.in*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
6. "Vishnuprayag Power Project". *www.infraline.com*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
7. "vishnuprayag hydro project dam, india". *Photography by Tristan Savatier*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
8. Sanjay Dutta (Feb 7, 2021). "NTPC hydel project may be all but gone in Uttarakhand glacier burst | India News - Times of India". *The Times of India*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
9. Bhaskar, Utpal (2021-02-10). "Hydro projects lower generation to protect turbine blades". *mint*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
10. "Vishnuprayag Project | Welcome to Uttarakhand Irrigation Department". *www.uttarakhandirrigation.com*. Retrieved 2021-05-25.

## InfoBox

| Vishnuprayag Dam | |
| --- | --- |
| Location of Vishnuprayag Dam in UttarakhandVishnuprayag Dam (India) | |
| Country | India |
| Location | Chamoli District |
| Coordinates | 30°34′01″N 79°32′48″E / 30.5669°N 79.5468°E / 30.5669; 79.5468 |
| Status | Operational |
| Opening date | 2013 |
| Construction cost | Rs. 1900 Crore |
| Owner(s) | Jaiprakash Power Ventures Limited |
| Dam and spillways | |
| Type of dam | Embankment |
| Impounds | Alaknanda River |
| Height | 1,372 m (4,501 ft) |


title: Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface

abstract:
Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface is a chemically passivated silicon substrate where the surface Si atoms are bonded to hydrogen. The hydrogen-terminated surfaces are hydrophobic, luminescent, and amenable to chemical modification. Hydrogen-terminated silicon is an intermediate in the growth of bulk silicon from silane: This termination is significant in the semiconductor industry due to its role in preventing oxidation and contamination of silicon surfaces, which is crucial for various applications including microelectronics and nanotechnology.
  - SiH4 → Si + 2 H2

text:
# Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface

**Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface** is a chemically passivated silicon substrate where the surface Si atoms are bonded to hydrogen. The hydrogen-terminated surfaces are hydrophobic, luminescent, and amenable to chemical modification. Hydrogen-terminated silicon is an intermediate in the growth of bulk silicon from silane: This termination is significant in the semiconductor industry due to its role in preventing oxidation and contamination of silicon surfaces, which is crucial for various applications including microelectronics and nanotechnology.

SiH4 → Si + 2 H2

## Preparation

Silicon wafers are treated with solutions of electronic-grade hydrofluoric acid in water, buffered water, or alcohol. One of the relevant reactions is simply removal of silicon oxides:

SiO2 \+ 4 HF → SiF4 \+ 2 H2O

The key reaction however is the formation of the hydrosilane functional group.

atomic force microscope (AFM) has been used to manipulate hydrogen-terminated silicon surfaces.

## Properties

Hydrogen termination removes dangling bonds. All surface Si atoms are tetrahedral. Hydrogen termination confers stability in ambient environments. So again, the surface is both clean (of oxides) and relatively inert. These materials can be handled in air without special care for several minutes.

The Si-H bond in fact is stronger than the Si-Si bonds. Two kinds of Si-H centers are proposed, both featuring terminal Si-H bonds. One kind of site has one Si-H bond. The other kind of site features SiH2 centers.

Like organic hydrosilanes, the H-Si groups on the surface react with terminal alkenes and diazo groups. The reaction is called hydrosilylation. Many kinds of organic compounds with various functions can be introduced onto the silicon surface by the hydrosilylation of a hydrogen-terminated surface. The infrared spectrum of hydrogen-terminated silicon shows a band near 2090 cm−1, not very different from νSi-H for organic hydrosilanes.

## Potential applications

One group proposed to use the material to create digital circuits made of quantum dots by removing hydrogen atoms from the silicon surface. The hydrogen-terminated silicon surface is widely used in the fabrication of semiconductor devices. It serves as a precursor for various surface functionalization techniques and is also essential in the formation of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers.

## Stability & Reactivity

Despite its stability, hydrogen-terminated silicon can gradually oxidize when exposed to air, forming a thin oxide layer. This process can be monitored using techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM).


title: Peter J. Parsons

abstract: Peter John Parsons, was a British classicist and academic specialising in papyrology. He was Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford from 1989 to 2003.

text:
# Peter J. Parsons

**Peter John Parsons**, FBA (24 September 1936 – 16 November 2022) was a British classicist and academic specialising in papyrology. He was Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford from 1989 to 2003.

## Early life and education

Parsons was born on 24 September 1936 in Surbiton, Surrey, England, to Robert John Parsons and Ethel Ada (née Frary). He was educated at Raynes Park County Grammar School, an all-boys grammar school in Wimbledon, London. He sat the Oxford entrance examination in December 1953, and his success meant he was the first in his family to attend university. From 1954 to 1958, he studied classics at Christ Church, Oxford, where his tutors included John Gould, David Malcolm Lewis and J. Gwyn Griffiths. He graduated with a double first Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1958: as per tradition, his BA was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA Oxon) degree in 1961.

## Academic career

Having completed his undergraduate degree, Parsons was encouraged by E. R. Dodds to undertake research in either papyrology or Greek religion; he chose the former. Between 1958 and 1960, he maintained Christ Church, Oxford as his base, while also spending time at the University of Michigan learning documentary papyrology under Herbert Youtie. In 1960, he was appointed to the newly created post of lecturer in papyrology at the University of Oxford. His position at Christ Church was formalised in 1964 when he was made a research student (i.e. a research fellow, "student" being the name of fellows at the college). He worked on the Oxyrhynchus Papyri with John Rea between 1965 and 1989.

In 1989, he was appointed Regius Professor of Greek, one of Oxford's most senior professorships, in succession to Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones. Parsons supported the Joint Association of Classical Teachers Greek summer school at Bryanston in Dorset, acting as a tutor on a number of occasions, and he was also Director of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri Project. He stepped down as Regius Professor in 2003 and was succeeded by Christopher Pelling.

Parsons had wide ranging interests within the field of classical studies, including ancient Greek language, Greek poetry, Latin poetry, history of the Roman Empire, and Roman Egypt. His studies of papyrology were not restricted to Greek language fragments but also to Latin ones.

## Personal life and death

In 2006, Parsons married Barbara Macleod (née Montagna); she had had a diagnosis of cancer before they married and she died the same year. Barbara was the widow of Colin William MacLeod (1943–1981), a classical scholar at Christ Church, Oxford.

On 16 November 2022, Parsons died at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, at the age of 86. His funeral was held at Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, on 2 December 2022.

## Honours

In 1977, Parsons was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA). In 2007, he was awarded the John D. Criticos Prize by the London Hellenic Society for his book *City of the Sharp-Nosed-Fish: Greek Lives in Roman Egypt*. In 2019, Parsons was awarded the Kenyon Medal by the British Academy.

A conference was held in Oxford in September 2006 to celebrate his 70th birthday. An associated *Festschrift* was published in 2011, titled "*Culture in pieces: essays on ancient texts in honour of Peter Parsons*", and edited by Dirk Obbink and Richard Rutherford.

## Selected works

* Barns, J. W. B.; Parsons, P. J.; Rea, John; Turner, E. G. (1966). *The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. Part XXXI*. London: Egypt Exploration Society.
* Lloyd-Jones, Hugh; Parsons, Peter, eds. (1983). *Supplementum Hellenisticum*. Berolini: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110081718.
* Parsons, Peter (2007). *City of the sharp-nosed fish: Greek lives in Roman Egypt*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0297645887.
* Bowman, A. K.; Coles, R. A.; Gonis, N.; Obbink, D. D.; Parsons, P. J., eds. (2007). *Oxyrhynchus: a city and its texts*. London: Egypt Exploration Society. ISBN 978-0856981777.
* Parsons, Peter John; Maehler, Herwig; Maltomini, Francesca, eds. (2014). *The Vienna Epigrams Papyrus (G 40611)*. Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110354522.

## InfoBox

| ProfessorPeter J. ParsonsFBA | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Regius Professor of Greek
University of Oxford | |
| **In office**
1989–2003 | |
| Preceded by | Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones |
| Succeeded by | Christopher Pelling |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Peter John Parsons
(1936-09-24)24 September 1936 |
| Died | 16 November 2022(2022-11-16) (aged 86)
Oxford, England |
| Citizenship | United Kingdom |
| Nationality | British |
| Spouse | Barbara Macleod  (m. 2006; died 2006) |
| Awards | Fellow of the British Academy (1977) |
|  | |


title: History of rail transport in Japan

abstract:
Kyoto Electric Railway
  - This article is part of the history of rail transport by country series. The history of rail transport in Japan began in the late Edo period. There have been four main stages:
  - Stage 1, from 1872, the first line, from Tokyo to Yokohama, to the end of the Russo-Japanese war;
  - Stage 2, from nationalization in 1906-07 to the end of World War II;
  - Stage 3, from the postwar creation of Japanese National Railways to 1987;
  - Stage 4, from privatization to the present, with JNR split among six new railway operators for passengers and one for freight.

text:
# History of rail transport in Japan

*This article is part of the history of rail transport by country series.*

The  **history of rail transport in Japan** began in the late Edo period. There have been four main stages:

1. Stage 1, from 1872, the first line, from Tokyo to Yokohama, to the end of the Russo-Japanese war;
2. Stage 2, from nationalization in 1906-07 to the end of World War II;
3. Stage 3, from the postwar creation of Japanese National Railways to 1987;
4. Stage 4, from privatization to the present, with JNR split among six new railway operators for passengers and one for freight.

## Stage 1: early development, 1872–1906

The development of the Japanese railway network commenced shortly after the country opened its borders to formal international contact after a shogunate-imposed isolation of about 250 years, and was initiated (along with many other changes to Japanese society at the time) so that Japan could achieve rapid modernization.

Though rail transport had been known through limited foreign contact such as with Dutch traders in Dejima, Nagasaki, the impact of model railroads brought by foreigners such as Yevfimiy Putyatin and Commodore Matthew C. Perry was huge. The British also demonstrated a steam locomotive in Nagasaki. Saga Domain, a Japanese feudal domain (*han*), made a working model and planned to construct a line. Bodies such as the Satsuma Domain and the Tokugawa shogunate reviewed railway construction from Edo to Kyoto via an inland route, but a line did not come to reality before the Meiji Restoration.

Whilst the Emperor of Japan, based in Kyoto, was the titular ruler of the country, since circa 1600 Japan had been effectively ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate, based in Edo. In 1866 the shogunate proposed a railway from Edo to Kyoto via an inland route, but in 1868 the Meiji Restoration saw the Emperor returned as an effective leader of the country, relocating his permanent residence to the renamed Tokyo ("Eastern Capital"). Just before the fall of the shogunate, the Tokugawa regime issued a grant to the American diplomat Anton L. C. Portman to construct a line from Yokohama to Edo (soon to be renamed Tokyo), but this grant was not continued by the new regime.

In 1868 Thomas Blake Glover, an Anglo-Scottish merchant, was responsible for bringing the first steam locomotive, "Iron Duke", to Japan, which he demonstrated on an 8-mile track in the Ōura district of Nagasaki. However, after about 250 years of a culture of distrust of foreigners, construction of the premier railway connecting Japan's former and new capitals by non-Japanese was considered politically unacceptable to the new Japanese regime, and so the government of Japan decided to build a railway from the major port of Yokohama to Tokyo using British financing and 300 British and European technical advisors: civil engineers, general managers, locomotive builders and drivers. In order to undertake its construction, foreign experts were contracted, with the specific intent that such experts would educate Japanese co-workers so that Japan could become self-sufficient in railway construction expertise, at which time the foreign contractors were expected to leave the country. On September 12, 1872, the first railway, between Shimbashi (later Shiodome) and Yokohama (present Sakuragichō) opened. (The date is in Tenpō calendar, October 14 in present Gregorian calendar). A one-way trip took 53 minutes in comparison to 40 minutes for a modern electric train. Service started with nine round trips daily.

British engineer Edmund Morel (1841-1871) supervised construction of the first railway on Honshu during the last year of his life, American engineer Joseph U. Crowford (1842-1942) supervised construction of a coal mine railway on Hokkaidō in 1880, and German engineer Herrmann Rumschottel (1844-1918) supervised railway construction on Kyushu beginning in 1887. All three trained Japanese engineers to undertake railway projects. Shikoku was relatively resource-poor and maintained fewer railways than the other major islands, with the only major ones being found near the ports of Takamatsu and Tokushima. Honshu had both private and public rails, which often began in Osaka and Tokyo and radiated outwards to other major urban centers, whereas private and resource extraction-oriented railways were more common in Kyushu, Hokkaido, and Shikoku. Two men trained by Crowford later became presidents of Japan National Railways. A bronze bust of Morel in Yokohama, a bronze statue of Crowford in the Temiya Railway Memorial Museum, and a bust of Rumschottel in Hakata commemorate their contributions to Japan's railways.

The precise reason why a track gauge of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) (also known as "Cape gauge" from its use in the Cape Colony in South Africa) came to be selected remains uncertain. It could be because this gauge was supposed to be cheaper to build than the internationally more widely used "Stephenson gauge" of 4 ft 8+12 in (1,435 mm), or because the first British agent, whose contract was later cancelled, ordered iron sleepers made for the narrower gauge. It seems most likely, however, that Morel's previous experience building Cape gauge railways in similar New Zealand terrain was a significant influence, and Cape gauge became the *de facto* standard.

### Network expansion

The next line constructed was from another port, Kobe, to the major commercial city of Osaka (opening in 1874), and then to Kyoto (1877) and Otsu (1880) at the southern end of Lake Biwa. A line was constructed from Tsuruga, on the Sea of Japan, to Ogaki (connecting to a canal to Nagoya) via Nagahama on the northern end of Lake Biwa, opening in 1884 and utilizing trans-shipment onto water-going vessels to connect the Sea of Japan to Osaka, Kyoto and Nagoya.

Linking Tokyo to Nagoya and Kyoto became the next priority. Initially, the proposed route was inland, from Tokyo north to Takasaki, then west through the Usui Pass to Karuizawa and the Kiso River valley. At this time the Nippon Railway Co. (NRC) became the first to be granted a concession to operate what became the Tohoku Main Line from Ueno to Aomori, with a branch line from Omiya to Takasaki. Construction of both lines was undertaken by the Government at the company's expense, with the government having running rights on the Takasaki-Ueno section. The line to Takasaki opened in 1884, as did the Tohoku line as far as Utsunomiya.

The NRC also financed a new line linking to the Yokohama line which was built from Akabane via Shinjuku to Shinagawa (with the NRC gaining track usage rights at the government station at Shinagawa). This was the first section of what has become the Yamanote Line, and opened in 1885.

The government-funded line from Takasaki reached Yokokawa at the base of the Usui Pass in 1885, and initial surveys indicated a ruling grade of 10% (later improved to 6.67%) and extensive tunnelling was required to reach Karuizawa.

Construction also started on another line from the Sea of Japan, commencing at Naoetsu and opening to Karuizawa via Nagano in 1888.

As the costs of construction through the mountainous interior of Japan became apparent, in 1886 the construction of what became the Tokaido line was approved, approximately paralleling the southern coastline (and Tokaido road) as far as Nagoya. Although ~238 km longer, it was projected to cost 13% less, this saving then being allocated to construct a line from Otsu along the eastern side of Lake Biwa to Nagahama to remove the need for trans-shipment, which opened in 1889, as did the final section of the Tokaido Line via Gotemba. Until the opening of the Tokaido Shinkansen in 1964, this was the most important main line in Japan.

In the meantime, the Tohoku line reached Sendai in 1887 and Aomori in 1891.

### Consolidating the network

In 1888 the San'yō Railway Co. (SRC) was granted a charter to build the San'yō Main Line from Kobe west to Shimonoseki, a port providing a connection to the port of Moji on Kyushu, from which the Kyushu Railway Co (KRC) built its line to Hakata and Kumamoto opening between 1889 and 1891, extended to Yatsushiro in 1896. The SRC line reached Hiroshima in 1894, and Shimonoseki in 1901.

Other private endeavours included the Mito Railway, which opened the first section of the Joban Line in 1889 and was acquired by the NRC in 1892 which extended to Sendai via an east coastal route in 1905 and the Bantan Railway, which built a 52 km line north from Himeji between 1894 and 1901, and was acquired by the SRC in 1903.

The success of the Nippon Railway Co and other private companies led to a Japanese situation akin to the UK Railway Mania. From the mid-1880s until 1891 new railway companies had little difficulty in attracting funding, usually through issuing shares. However, in 1891 the failure of a company proposing to build a line from Gotenba to Matsumoto ended the "mania", and the Government realized a more planned approach to the network expansion it desired was required.

### Evolving policy

In 1887 the Japanese Army proposed building its own lines to ensure routes of military significance were given priority. The Railway Department deflected that proposal by commencing the development of a policy for a comprehensive national network. The Japanese Government became increasingly interested in policy formulation following the completion of the Tokaido Main Line in 1889, the creation of the National Diet in 1890 and the financial panic of 1891.

1891 also saw construction start on the Usui Pass section, the ~11 km section to Karuizawa requiring 26 tunnels, 18 viaducts and to be worked using the Abt rack railway system to cope with the 6.67% ruling grade. The line opened in 1893, linking Naoetsu and Nagano to Tokyo.

In 1892 the Railway Construction Act (RCA) listed a series of priority routes on Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku (Hokkaido was covered separately in 1896 legislation), with the specific policy that private construction of such routes would be encouraged, with the Japanese Government only funding routes not able to be privately constructed. By that year the privately owned network was ~2,124 km compared to the government-owned sections totalling ~887 km. While this figure seemed to indicate the potential for further private funding of railway construction (notwithstanding the routes already targeted by private companies), subsequent events demonstrated otherwise.

A two-phase approach was adopted in the RCA, with 40 routes totalling ~3,000 km included in the "phase one" 12-year program, with phase 2 covering another ~4,000 km of proposed lines, the priorities being set based on economic development and/or military strategic importance.

A specific outcome of the RCA was that every prefecture would be served by railway communication. The major routes proposed under the act for government construction included;

* The Chuo line, an inland connection from Tokyo to Nagoya favoured by the military (detailed below);
* The Ou line, also detailed below;
* Extension of the line from Tsuruga to Kanazawa and Toyama (Hokuriku Main Line) opened 1896-1899;
* A connection from the Chuo line at Shiojiri to Matsumoto and Nagano (Shinonoi Line) opened in 1900-1902; and
* The original inland line from Kagoshima to Yatsushiro (now the Nippo Main Line and Hisatsu Line) opened 1901-1909

The Chuo line, the route which approximated the initial proposed inland line between Tokyo and Nagoya, was favoured by the military as its inland alignment protected it from the perceived risk of bombardment by enemy vessels. A privately built line from Shinjuku to the silk industry centre of Hachioji opened in 1889, and this became the starting point for government construction.

The newly determined route was via Kofu (through the 4,657 m Sasago tunnel, which was the longest in Japan until the Shimizu Tunnel opened in 1931), Shiojiri and then via the Kiso River valley to Nagoya. Construction was undertaken from both ends, with sections opening sequentially from 1900 until the lines were connected in 1911.

The Ou line from Fukushima to Yamagata, Akita and Aomori, serving the poorer northern Sea of Japan coastal prefectures, was seen as a priority for national development that was commercially unattractive. The government commenced construction from Aomori towards Hirosaki in 1894, and at the southern end from Fukushima in 1899, the lines connecting in 1905.

Tellingly, most of the major routes proposed under the act for private construction were not so funded and were ultimately constructed by the government, including;

* Oita – Miyazaki, opened 1911–1923 as part of the Nippo Main Line;
* Takamatsu – Kochi – Yawatahama (a 44 km section was built privately in 1889-1897, the remaining ~300 km route opened 1914-1951 as parts of the Yosan Line, Dosan Line and Yodo Line);
* Okayama – Yonago, opened 1919–1928 as the Hakubi Line;
* Shinjo – Sakata, opened 1913–1914 as the Rikuu West Line;
* Morioka – Omagari, partially opened as a light railway in 1921, upgraded and completed in 1966 as the Tazawako Line and now part of the Akita Shinkansen line.

A few of the lines that were privately funded included Tsubata – Nanao, opened in 1898 as the Nanao Line, and the Kabe Line from Hiroshima, opened 1909–1911 as a 2'6" gauge light railway, the proposed destination of Hamada on the Sea of Japan coast never being reached.

In contrast, the major naval port of Kure was proposed to be served by a government line from Hiroshima, opened as a private line in 1903 only to be nationalized in 1906.

The development and in particular the financing of the railway network featured an ongoing debate about the merits of private vs public railway ownership, with an example of this situation being the Horonai Railway on Hokkaido, which was constructed using public funds in 1880, privatized in 1889 and re-nationalized in 1906.

Construction continued on routes already secured by private companies, including a direct Osaka – Nagoya line opened in 1898 by the Kansai Railway Co.

Railway policy development had evolved rapidly as the learnings about, and benefits of the railway became apparent, and as the Japanese government realized it could not afford to finance all the railway construction desired. However, even as it facilitated private railway development, some government representatives advocated for all railways to be nationally owned.

Given the Japanese government could not fund all construction on the main island of Honshu, let alone the rest of Japan, it is no surprise the construction of the initial lines on Hokkaido, Shikoku and Kyushu was undertaken by the Prefectural government and private companies respectively, and then the Hokkaido line was sold to a private operator in 1889, though the government built the line from Hakodate to Otaru in 1903-04, which connected to the private line to Sapporo.

By 1905, ~80% of the Japanese railway network was privately owned, and included joint operations such as an overnight sleeper train from Tokyo to Shimonoseki, changing from JGR to SRC operation at Kobe.

Politicians such as Inoue Masaru stated all the railway lines should be nationalized. However, the government was financially strained after the Satsuma Rebellion, making the expansion of the network slow. Politicians then wanted to allow private companies to build railways. Consequently, Nippon Railway was founded as a private entity, strongly affecting the government's projects. It expanded railways fairly quickly, completing the main line between Ueno and Aomori (present Tōhoku Main Line) in 1891. With the success of Nippon Railway, private companies were also founded. San'yō Railway, Kyūshū Railway, Hokkaidō Colliery and Railway, Kansai Railway and Nippon Railway were called the "major five private railways" at the time. At the same time, the national railway opened lines, including the current Tōkaidō Main Line in 1889, but most of its lines were subsidiary to major private lines. In 1892, the Imperial Diet promulgated the Railway Construction Act, which listed 33 railway routes that should be constructed by either the government or private entities.

Railways were introduced to provide both inter-city and intra-city transport. The first horsecar line in Japan was built in Tokyo in 1882. The first tram was the Kyoto Electric Railway (京都電気鉄道, *Kyōto Denki Tetsudō*), which opened in 1895.

Some operators began to use EMUs rather than locomotives for inter-city transport. Many such railway companies, modelled after interurbans in the United States, are the origins of the current private railway operators.

## Stage 2, 1906–1945

### 1906 nationalization

The military expressed concern about the delays in troop movements that occurred during the 1904–05 Russo-Japanese War, and attributed such delays to the mix of private and government railway ownership. The attribution tipped the balance in favour of the nationalization of the major railway companies, and in 1906 the Government proposed to nationalize 42 railway companies, though ultimately 17 companies were involved, including the "Big 5" companies (Nippon, San'yō, Kyushu and Kansai Railway companies and the Hokkaido Coal & Railway Co), and covering virtually all main intercity/regional routes.

The major shareholders of the railway companies being nationalized welcomed the move, for differing reasons. In the case of the "Big 5" companies, dividend payments had predominated over capital expenditure on maintenance and improvements, and such deferred expenditure was a looming liability had nationalization not occurred. In the case of smaller companies which had not been as profitable as the "Big 5", the market for Government bonds (which were used to pay for the nationalization) was usually better than for shares in the smaller railways, as well as providing at least the same, if not a better rate of return.

The legislation authorizing the nationalization also provided for the continuation of private railways (and the creation of new companies) providing local (i.e. non-mainline) rail transport. However, as most such lines would be less (or un)profitable branch lines, the 1910 Light Railways Act was required to authorize the construction of lower-cost lines, including 2'6" gauge lines, to enable the provision of railways to smaller and/or more remote communities.

Some of the resulting lines initially constructed to 2'6" gauge were later regauged to 3'6" where there was economic justification to do so.

### Pre-war development

Locomotives for the early railways were usually built in the country of the designing engineer. The first railways on Honshu used locomotives built in the United Kingdom. Locomotives from the United States arrived in Hokkaidō in 1888 and from Germany arrived in Kyushu in 1889. Early British locomotives were often tank locomotives, while the earliest American locomotives were 2-6-0 and 4-4-0 types with tenders. German manufacturers produced a number of smaller tank locomotives including some for 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge. Richard Trevithick's grandson Francis Henry Trevithick became locomotive superintendent for JNR in the late 19th century and ordered locomotives from the United Kingdom including numerous 4-4-0 types. His brother Richard Francis Trevithick designed the first locomotive to be manufactured in Japan in 1893. Japanese manufacturers initially depended heavily on imported locomotive parts. JNR ceased importing locomotives in 1912. Thereafter, with the exception of a few experimental locomotives manufactured by Orenstein & Koppel or American Locomotive Company, production locomotives were JNR designs built by Japanese manufacturers.

Private railway companies were the major players in the early stages. However, after the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, the government planned to directly control the unified railway network for strategic purposes. In 1906 the Railway Nationalization Act was promulgated, nationalizing many trunk railway lines. From this time, the nationalized railway became the major Japanese network.

However, having used its money for nationalizing, the government did not have enough money to expand the network to the countryside. It passed the Light Railway Act, encouraging smaller private operators to build light railways (軽便鉄道, *keiben tetsudō*).

Larger private railway operators developed their businesses, modelled on interurbans. Hanshin Express Electric Railway (the current Hankyu Railway) built its own department store connected to its terminus; the management model is still used. Unlike interurban operators in the United States, which suffered from motorization as early as the 1910s, Japanese counterparts did not experience the phenomenon until the 1960s, giving them stable development and allowing their survival.

The first subway in Asia (the current Tokyo Metro Ginza Line) opened in 1927. The first trolleybus appeared in 1928.

In the territories of the Japanese Empire at the time, railways in Korea, Taiwan, and Sakhalin were built by the Japanese. In Manchukuo, a nation in Northeast China virtually controlled by the Japanese, South Manchuria Railway operated its railway network.

One of the achievements in this period in railway technology was the conversion of link and pin couplers of locomotives and cars to automatic couplers in July 1925 in Honshū and Kyūshū after considerable preparation. On April 1, 1930, the Ministry of Railways adopted the metric system, replacing Imperial units, for the measuring of railways.

### Wartime situation

After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War (World War II), the railways came under military control. In 1938, the government decided to unify private railways into regional blocks, making larger companies such as Tokyo Kyuko Electric Railway (called *Great Tōkyū* in comparison with postwar Tōkyū) and Kinki Nippon Railway.

In this period there was a second wave of nationalization. Twenty-two railway companies were forcibly acquired by the government in 1943 and 1944. Unlike the first wave in 1906–1907, which integrated trunk lines into government control, this wave mainly targeted railways with industrial value. The acquired lines include the Tsurumi Line, the Hanwa Line and the Iida Line.

On October 11, 1942, the Ministry of Railways adopted the 24-hour clock following its use in the military.

From 1943, the national railway reduced its civilian passenger service, giving priority to military transport. In 1944, it abolished all the limited express trains, first-class cars, dining cars, and sleeping cars. Under the Ordinance for Collection of Metals (金属類回収令, *Kinzokurui Kaishū Rei*, Imperial Ordinance No. 835 of 1941), some railway operators were forced to remove one track from double track lines and others were forced to discontinue their business to satisfy the military demand for steel.

On January 29, 1940, a train fire at Ajikawaguchi Station on the Nishinari Line resulted in 189 deaths. This is the deadliest rail accident in Japan if excluding the explosion of a military train of the Okinawa Prefectural Railways on December 11, 1944, that resulted in about 220 deaths.

The war, especially strategic bombings by the United States, damaged the railways heavily. The worst case was in Okinawa, which lost its railways until the opening of Okinawa Urban Monorail in 2003. In most cases, railways resumed operations fairly quickly. Some lines of the national railway resumed after the day of Tokyo bombing. San'yō Main Line resumed two days after the atomic bombing in Hiroshima, while Hiroshima Electric Railway resumed three days after.

* 1942 – Adoption of the 24-hour clock
* 1942 – Opening of Kanmon Tunnel connecting Honshū and Kyūshū
* 1945 – End of World War II; railways were severely damaged

## Stage 3, 1945–1987: Post-war recovery and development

It took several more years for the railways to fully recover. After the defeat, the lack of materials caused facilities to not be properly maintained. The lack of materials necessitated people buying wholesale resulting in a rapid increase in passengers. Train services were further reduced due to the lack of coal. Overcrowded trains resulted in numerous accidents. Transport related to U.S. General HQ (GHQ) was given priority, with many "Allies Personnel Only" trains.

In 1949, under the directive of the GHQ, Japanese Government Railways, which had been directly operated by the Ministry of Transport, was reorganized as Japanese National Railways (JNR), a statutory corporation.

Beginning in the 1950s, the electrification of trunk lines began to progress. Electrification of Tōkaidō Main Line was completed in 1956, the San'yō Main Line in 1964, and the Tōhoku Main Line in 1968. In 1954, the government decided to abolish steam haulage, and most were decommissioned by 1976. Many trains were converted from locomotive-hauled services to electric or diesel multiple units. The "New Performance Trains" (新性能電車, *Shin-seinō densha*), such as 101 series EMU developed in 1957, symbolize the phenomenon.

The 1960s saw great improvement in the economy, including the railways. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen, the first modern high-speed rail line, opened in 1964. Many limited express trains and overnight trains started to cross the nation, marking the golden age of railways.

However, Japan finally began to experience motorization, and tram networks in cities were treated as obstacles to vehicles. They quickly disappeared, partly replaced by rapidly built subway networks. The first monorail, the Ueno Zoo Monorail, opened in 1957.

With the expanding economy, the number of commuters using railways rapidly increased, especially in the Greater Tokyo Area. JNR tried to increase its capacity by the Five Directions of Commuting Campaign (通勤五方面作戦, *Tsūkin Go-hōmen Sakusen*) to redevelop major five lines in the area by making them quadruple track. This improved passenger flow through the network tremendously.

The cost of the campaign and the construction of the Shinkansen and other lines further increased debt. The confrontation between the unions and management was serious, resulting in many strikes. To resolve the situation, JNR was privatized in 1987, separated into seven separate companies known collectively as the Japan Railways Group (JR Group).

## Stage 4, 1987–present: The current situation

After the privatization, the JR Group companies tried to improve their services, some of them being successful. At the same time, many local lines with lower ridership closed, since JRs are now private companies. Decades after motorization, railways in the countryside, often inconvenient with infrequent services, became less important for locals. The share of railways in total passenger kilometres fell from 66.7 percent in 1965 to 42 percent in 1978 and 29.8 percent in 1990.

Fierce competition between railway operators put a great emphasis on efficiency, possibly more so than safety. Some think the Amagasaki derailment in 2005, which killed more than 100 passengers, is the result of such a trend.

Rail transport in Japan retains its reputation for efficiency, capacity, punctuality, and technology through continuous improvements. The Port Liner, one of the first Automated guideway transit systems in the world, opened in 1981. In 1988 the zairaisen (3'6" gauge) networks of Hokkaido and Shikoku were connected to Honshu following the opening of the Seikan Tunnel (the longest railway tunnel in the world until 2016) and the Great Seto Bridge, with the Shinkansen network extended to Hakodate following the dual-gauging of the Seikan Tunnel in 2016. SCMaglev reached its world record speeds of 581 km/h (361 mph) in 2003 and 603 km/h (375 mph) in 2015, while the much slower Linimo, debuted in 2005, is the first maglev metro in the world.

The development of Japan since 1872 is analogous to that of its rail network. Over this period, railways became the most important means of transport – especially for the movement of passengers – and they retain this role in larger cities today. With many suburban cities having been developed by railway operators, the unchallenged importance of rail is something unique in the world.

## Further reading

* Aoki, Eiichi; Imashiro, Matsuhide; et al. (2000). *A History of Japanese Railways, 1872–1999*. Tokyo: East Japan Railway Culture Foundation. ISBN 4875130899.
* Daito, Eisuke. "Railways and scientific management in Japan 1907–30." *Business History* 31.1 (1989): 1-28.
* Ericson, Steven J. *The sound of the whistle: railroads and the state in Meiji Japan* (Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1996)
* Free, Dan (2008). *Early Japanese Railways 1853–1914: Engineering Triumphs That Transformed Meiji-era Japan*. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9784805310069.
* Kinzley, W. Dean. "Merging Lines: Organising Japan's National Railroad, 1906–1914." *Journal of Transport History* 27.2 (2006): 39-59.
* Kodama, Riotaro. *Railway Transportation in Japan* (1898) online
* Tanaka, Tokihiko. "Meiji Government and the Introduction of Railroads." *Contemporary Japan* (1966) 28#3 pp 567–589.
* Tanaka, Tokihiko. "Meiji Government and the Introduction of Railroads." *Contemporary Japan* (1966) 28#4 pp 750–788.
* How the Railroad is Modernising Asia, The Advertiser, Adelaide, S. Australia, March 22, 1913. N.B.: The article is about 1,500 words, covering about a dozen Asian countries.
* Winchester, Clarence, ed. (1936), "The railroads of Japan", *Railway Wonders of the World*, pp. 206–214 illustrated description of the development of Japanese railways to 1936

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