title: Murder of Cameron Blair

abstract: Cameron Blair was an Irish man who was fatally stabbed in the neck at a house party on the Bandon Road in Cork, Ireland on 16 January 2020. As the perpetrator was seventeen years old at the time of the killing, his name cannot be published under Irish law. The seventeen-year-old was reported to have gatecrashed the party alongside two other teenagers who were charged with less serious offences. Blair was transported to Cork University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead a short time later. The teenage killer is currently serving a life sentence in prison. The ages of the victim and perpetrator, together with the murder taking place shortly after the killing of teenager Keane Mulready-Woods, resulted in the case becoming highly publicized in Ireland. On 4 September 2020, several months after the murder took place, Noel Barry called Blair's father making threatening and offensive remarks, including threatening to kill members of Blair's family. He was sentenced to a total of three years in prison. In total, six people were charged with offences related to the incident: one for murder, one for violent disorder and production of an article capable of causing serious harm, one for violent disorder, one for making threatening remarks, and two for contempt of court.

text:
# Murder of Cameron Blair

**Cameron Blair** (18 June 1999 – 16 January 2020) was an Irish man who was fatally stabbed in the neck at a house party on the Bandon Road in Cork, Ireland on 16 January 2020. As the perpetrator was seventeen years old at the time of the killing, his name cannot be published under Irish law. The seventeen-year-old was reported to have gatecrashed the party alongside two other teenagers who were charged with less serious offences. Blair was transported to Cork University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead a short time later. The teenage killer is currently serving a life sentence in prison. The ages of the victim and perpetrator, together with the murder taking place shortly after the killing of teenager Keane Mulready-Woods, resulted in the case becoming highly publicized in Ireland.

On 4 September 2020, several months after the murder took place, Noel Barry (from Togher, Cork) called Blair's father making threatening and offensive remarks, including threatening to kill members of Blair's family. He was sentenced to a total of three years in prison. In total, six people were charged with offences related to the incident: one for murder, one for violent disorder and production of an article capable of causing serious harm, one for violent disorder, one for making threatening remarks, and two for contempt of court.

## Background

Cameron Blair was a 20-year-old man from Ballinascarthy, Cork. A keen athlete, Blair was involved in rugby and athletics, and held a black belt in karate. He had attended Bandon Grammar School before going to college. At the time of his death he was living in Bishopstown while undertaking an undergraduate degree in engineering in the Cork Institute of Technology (now part of the Munster Technological University). On the night of his death, three of his friends came to his apartment for drinks before proceeding to a party on the Bandon Road. The party took place on the last night of University College Cork's "Fresher's Week".

## Night of the murder

class=notpageimage|Location of the Bandon Road in Cork

On 16 January 2020, Cameron Blair was attending a student house party on the Bandon Road in Cork, Ireland. At approximately 7 p.m. a heavily intoxicated man in his forties forced his way into the house. Blair, who did not reside at the property, at one stage pushed the man out of the house. However, the latch on the front door was broken, and the man repeatedly attempted to return to the party, culminating in Darren O'Leary, one of the residents of the house, hitting the man, who fell onto the ground.

This was witnessed by a trio of local teenagers consisting of two unnamed teenagers, one seventeen-year-old and one fourteen-year-old, as well as eighteen-year-old Scott O'Connor. The seventeen-year-old and the fourteen-year-old cannot be named due to Irish law surrounding the identification of minors involved in criminal proceedings. The trio confronted Blair and O'Leary, which resulted in Blair convincing O'Leary to allow the group to join the party inside. During the party, O'Connor sourced cannabis for another party-goer. There followed a dispute surrounding the price of the drugs, which reportedly changed the atmosphere of the party. At roughly 9 p.m., O'Leary reportedly wanted all party-goers—"uninvited people" in particular—to leave the premises. The three teenagers left, but tensions escalated outside about whether the party was actually over or whether just the three of them were being made to leave. Pushing and shoving followed at the door of the house, with the seventeen-year-old and fourteen-year-old in particular trying to get back into the house. The fourteen-year-old punched a girl who was asking them to leave, prompting the trio to laugh at her. Blair has consistently been described as acting as a "peacemaker" in this altercation, trying to keep things calm and to break up the fight. The seventeen-year-old himself later admitted in court that "Cameron was nothing \[other\] than nice to me on the night, he did nothing wrong to me. It was never my intention for this to happen."

Just before 9:20 p.m., the trio of teenagers started alluding to knives they were carrying, which they then produced, before starting to threaten the occupants of the house. The knife which would be used by the seventeen-year-old to murder Blair was 21 centimetres (8.3 in) long. O'Connor was in possession of a 6 inches (15 cm)-long copper-coated kitchen knife, which he had taken from the house that was hosting the party. While O'Connor was later charged with producing an article capable of causing serious harm, the fourteen-year-old wielded a butter knife and so was not charged with the same offense.

Blair was murdered at approximately 9:20 p.m. when the seventeen-year-old lunged forward and fatally stabbed him in the neck, before fleeing the scene on foot with the other two teenagers. Blair staggered backwards into the property, reportedly unaware he had been stabbed. Blair lost consciousness, and was brought by ambulance to Cork University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 10.20 p.m. His last words were "Don't worry lad, I don't want to be fighting."

The fourteen-year-old later returned to the scene, before once again fleeing on foot. He was apprehended shortly afterward.

## Trials

### Seventeen-year-old

#### District Court

The seventeen-year-old was arrested on 23 January 2020, and brought before a special sitting of the Cork District Court the following night. He was charged with the murder of Blair by Judge Olann Kelleher. Detective Garda Rory O'Connell gave evidence of the arrest of the teenager, who made no reply to the charge. The hearing lasted two minutes. The seventeen-year-old was remanded to Oberstown Children Detention Campus.

#### Circuit Court

On 31 January and 21 February 2020, the seventeen-year-old appeared before the Cork Children's Court, a branch of the Circuit Court, on Angelsea Street. A a psychological assessment of the teenager was requested at both hearings.

All three teenagers appeared before Cork Children's Court for a hearing on 5 March 2020, whereupon they were remanded to the Central Criminal Court. The seventeen-year-old was remanded in custody; the fourteen-year-old and O'Connor on bail.

#### Central Criminal Court

On 13 March 2020, the seventeen-year-old appeared before the Central Criminal Court, with Mr Justice Paul McDermott presiding. The trial took place in Dublin, despite a request from the deceased's family for the proceedings to take place in Cork. The seventeen-year-old pleaded guilty to the charge of murdering Blair. The court adjourned until April, when a sentencing hearing took place. In the interim, the seventeen-year-old was returned to Oberstown Children Detention Campus and underwent psychological evaluation.

On 3 April 2020, the seventeen-year-old appeared before a sentencing hearing of the Central Criminal Court. Blair's father, mother, and brother delivered victim impact statements. The seventeen-year-old presented the Blair family with a letter of apology.

The seventeen-year-old was sentenced to life imprisonment on 20 April 2020, backdated to 24 January 2020. The sentence will be reviewed in 2032, meaning that the earliest the teenager could be released from prison is 24 January 2033. Mr Justice McDermott described the manner in which Blair was killed as "vicious, deliberate, and cowardly", noting that Blair was unarmed, not anticipating the attack, made no effort of self-defense, and "was not a threat" to his assailant.

On 22 April 2020, the teenager lodged an appeal against his life sentence. While life imprisonment is the mandatory sentence in Ireland for adults found guilty of murder, there is no such mandate for the sentencing of minors.

#### Appeal Court

In May 2023, Blair's murderer's appeal against the validity of his incarceration came before the Irish Court of Appeal. An error in the sentencing of the unnamed teenager had resulted in his receiving of the sentence of detention for life with a review after thirteen years. In Ireland, adults cannot be sentenced to detention, and imprisonment was not an option before the sentencing court. As a result, the Director of Public Prosecutions made the case that the only option the appeal court had was to make "no order" which would "result in the immediate release of the applicant". A trio of appeal court judges led by Ms Justice Isobel Kennedy ruled that if the Appeal Court found that an error had been made in the sentencing of a juvenile, the court would not be in the position to impose a new sentence upon that child having turned eighteen. It was reported that had the sentencing been found to have been improper, the killer may have been permitted to walk free. In December 2023, the killer's appeal was rejected by the court. The court found that the sentencing judge had set an appropriate sentence, and had taken adequate account of the killer's immaturity and other mitigating factors.

Due to the appeal beginning when the killer was an adult, Blair's parents sought the right for his name to be published. There was initially some confusion as to whether an adult who committed a crime as a child was entitled to anonymity if still before the courts as an adult. In January 2024, the court ruled that children before the courts for a criminal offence are only granted anonymity until they turn eighteen, after which point they may be publicly named. Considered a landmark ruling in Ireland, it has implications for all child-offenders who fail to finish their trials before they turn eighteen, including the perpetrators of the high-profile Murder of Ana Kriégel, both of whom were fourteen at the time of the killing and will be appearing before the courts as adults in the coming years. On 15 February the killer appealed the ruling, and he will remain anonymous at least until the Supreme Court rules on the matter.

### Fourteen-year-old

The fourteen-year-old's lawyer, Timothy O'Leary, described him as "an impressionable and impulsive young person with a lack of emotional development".

#### Circuit Court

On 5 March 2020, the fourteen-year-old was brought before Judge Mary Dorgan, along with the other two suspects. The fourteen-year-old was charged with violent disorder and production of an article capable of inflicting serious harm. He did not respond to the charges, and was remanded on bail. His role in Blair's death reportedly made him a pariah in his community while he awaited trial.

#### Central Criminal Court

On Friday 28 May 2021, the boy pleaded guilty to the charge of committing violent disorder, but refuted the claim that he had produced a knife capable of causing harm. Initially, the teenager's defense claimed that while the seventeen-year-old and O'Connor were armed with knives, the fourteen-year-old was not. The fourteen-year-old later conceded he had been in possession of a butter knife. Witnesses claimed that they heard the fourteen-year-old express a desire to "shank people with it". Two witnesses involved in the trial left the country to avoid testifying. The trial subsequently "collapsed", with the DPP deciding not to proceed with the charge. As a result, his sentencing was based only on the charge of committing violent disorder.

On Friday 23 July 2021, the fourteen-year-old teenager, who was sixteen at the time of sentencing, was sentenced to two years detention followed by two years of community supervision.

#### Uncooperative witnesses

During the trial of the youngest suspect, two witnesses left Ireland to avoid testifying in court. Darragh O'Connor and Craig O'Donoghue travelled to Ayia Napa, Cyprus in order to avoid giving evidence. Upon their return to Ireland in July 2021, both men were charged with what O'Connor's sentencing judge described as "calculated and deliberate" contempt of court, and were each jailed for two months in two separate hearings. O'Donoghue was also ordered to pay a €1,000 fine.

In August 2021, having served less than one month of his sentence, O'Donoghue was accidentally released from prison. A system error calculated that O'Donoghue was entitled to remission, but this is not available to prisoners jailed for contempt of court in Ireland. Within a week of his release, Gardaí arrived at his home to re-arrest him, but he wasn't there. The following day, the 17 August, O'Donoghue went to Cork Prison of his own volition to be re-committed.

#### Release

The teenager who was fourteen-years-old at the time of the murder was released in January 2023, then aged eighteen-years-old. He received a 25% remission on his sentence, an automatic entitlement for prisoners in Ireland who are not found guilty of further offences while incarcerated. Initially due to receive a further five-week remission, this was rescinded following complaints from Blair's parents.

### Scott O'Connor

#### Circuit Court

On 5 March 2020, Scott O'Connor, of Churchfield, Cork, was brought before Judge Mary Dorgan, along with the seventeen-year-old murder suspect and the fourteen-year-old offender. Judge Dorgan refused to deal with O'Connor as, given that he was 18 years old, he did not qualify to appear before the Children's Court. O'Connor was instead referred to the Cork District Court, where he was dealt with by Judge Olann Kelleher. He was charged with producing a knife and engaging in violent disorder. In response to the charges, O'Connor claimed that he "wasn't involved". He was remanded on bail.

#### Central Criminal Court

On 5 July 2021, O'Connor appeared before Mr Justice David Keane of the Central Criminal Court. Ronan Munro, O'Connor's defense counsel, admitted to the court that his client had been "clearly threatening violence" on the night of Cameron's murder, and had been brandishing a knife. This was a deviation from previous comments made by O'Connor to his probation officer, in which he had minimized his role in the altercation with Blair. Mr. Munro told the court that the defendant accepted the sequence of events presented by the prosecution.

O'Connor pleaded guilty to committing violent disorder and to producing an article capable of inflicting serious injury. Mr Justice Keane originally set a headline sentence of seven years for the charge of violent disorder, but reduced it to five due to mitigating factors including O'Connor's history of mental health issues. Of the five years, three were suspended. Mr Justice Keane also set a headline sentence of three years regarding the production of the knife, which he reduced to two years. O'Connor was sentenced to two years for violent disorder and two years for the production of the knife. The teenager's sentences are to run concurrently and were backdated to when he went into custody.

#### Appeal by Director of Public Prosecutions

In March 2022, the Director of Public Prosecutions appealed Mr Justice Keane's decision regarding the reduction of O'Connor's sentence, arguing that the judge was too lenient when he suspended three years of O'Connor's five-year sentence. Though O'Connor was not Blair's killer, the prosecution have alleged that he instigated the confrontation which resulted in Blair's death. Mr Justice John Edwards presided over the hearing in the Court of Appeal, alongside Ms Justice Isobel Kennedy and Mr Patrick McCarthy. On 5 April 2022, the court ruled in favour of the DPP and reduced the suspended portion of O'Connor's sentence from three to two years, effectively increasing his stay in prison by one year. In a statement delivered by Kennedy, the court said that it agreed with the DPP's argument that suspending three years of O'Connor's sentence had constituted a "substantial difference from the norm".

## Aftermath

### Memorial

Rev Anne Suske, who had been the chaplain at the secondary school Blair had attended, led a memorial service for him at St Peter's Church, Bandon, on 26 January 2020. His body was then taken to Kilbeg Cemetery for burial. Approximately 800 people attended the memorial service. Dr Paul Colton, Bishop of the Church of Ireland Diocese of Cork Cloyne and Ross offered his condolences to the family.

### Political response

After Blair's death, which occurred during a period of unusually high rates of violent crime both in Cork and across Ireland, increased pressure was placed on Taoiseach Leo Varadkar's government to reduce violent crime in Ireland. Micheál Martin, then leader of the opposition, claimed that Varadkar's government was "losing control" of the nation. This, combined with gangland shootings in Dublin, made violent crime a central election issue in the 2020 Irish general election.

In October 2021, Blair's parents met with Justice Minister Heather Humphreys to discuss the possibility of launching a campaign aimed at educating secondary school students about the dangers of knife crime. According to the Blairs, Humphreys reportedly said that she thought the Blairs' idea of a campaign which would show second-level students graphic depictions of knife violence was a "brilliant idea", though her department did not commit themselves to the campaign. The minister is reportedly also examining the possibility of making the parents of young offenders more responsible for the actions of their children.

#### Knife crime in Ireland

Despite reports in 2020 that knife crime was a growing issue in Ireland, Garda Commissioner Drew Harris, speaking in February 2021, denied claims made by the media that between 2019 and 2020 that Ireland had experienced a "huge spike in knife crime". Though the number of knife attack victims hospitalised in Ireland grew by 14 between 2018 and 2019, representing a growth of 8.5%, the numbers remained lower across the 2012–2019 period than the period spanning 2006–2011. Despite a "dramatic" growth in knife seizures between 2016 and 2020, this has not been linked by the commissioner or the media to an increase in knife attacks, but rather a change from a paper to an electronic recording system and the numbers of the Garda force reaching an all-time high. Furthermore, according to Garda statistics, knives accounted for an all-time low proportion of objects seized by Gardaí. In Ireland, one in every six knives seized by Gardaí is taken from children aged between twelve and seventeen.

The homicide rate in Ireland was 23rd lowest in the world in 2019, and historically the proportion of underage perpetrators of homicide in Ireland has been comparatively low. (~10%). However, the use of a sharp object in committing homicide is significantly higher among this age group, accounting for 53% of homicides perpetrated by this age group, as opposed to 26.8% overall.

### Threats to family

On 4 September 2020, a man named Noel Barry made "grossly offensive and menacing" phone calls to the Blair family. Though it was later revealed that Barry was under the influence of alcohol at the time of the calls, the sentencing judge noted that Barry had researched his crime beforehand by obtaining Noel Blair's phone number. Barry rang Noel Blair, Cameron's father, four times and threatened to burn his wife, Kathy, and surviving son, Alan, to death, among other threats. He said that the Blair family would "never be safe", and that Noel Blair had "better be standing beside \[his\] wife and other son with a fire extinguisher" threatening that they would "be burned at the petrol station." Barry initially denied making the threats. On 23 April 2021 he confessed to making the threatening calls. He pleaded guilty to two charges of threatening to kill or cause serious harm to named members of Blair's family, and one charge of sending a menacing message by phone to a named member of the Blair family. On 20 May 2021, Barry was sentenced to three years in prison, with the final year suspended. He further mandated that Barry have no contact with the Blairs for five years. The sentencing judge described the case as "almost incomprehensible".

In October 2021, the abuse Barry directed at the Blair family was provided by journalist Frank Coughlan as an example of ongoing anti-Protestant sectarianism in Ireland. Along with threats against the safety of his family, Noel Blair had been told to "fuck off back to England", and to get his "Loyalist friends" so that Barry and Blair could "sort this out on the streets of Shankill Road". Barry was released in 2023.

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68. "Knife crime on the rise among young people". *Irish Examiner*. 9 July 2020. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
69. O'Keefe, Cormac (26 February 2021). "Data does not show a knife crime epidemic, according to Garda Commissioner". *Irish Examiner*. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
70. Lally, Conor (3 April 2021). "What is the reality of knife crime in Ireland?". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
71. Lally, Conor (16 November 2020). "Rise in seizures appears to show growth of knife-carrying culture". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
72. "Analysis of Knife Crime Data" (PDF). *Garda*. February 2021. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
73. Gallagher, Conor (15 July 2019). "Ireland has 11th lowest homicide rate in Europe – UN report". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
74. Dooley, Dr. Enda (2001). *Homicide in Ireland: 1992 – 1996* (PDF). Dublin: The Stationery Office. pp. 11–15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
75. Heylin, Liam (7 September 2020). "Man accused of menacing calls to family of murdered Cameron Blair remanded in custody". *Irish Examiner*. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
76. Roche, Barry (20 May 2021). "Man jailed for making threats to family of murdered student Cameron Blair". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
77. Heylin, Liam (20 May 2021). "Man who threatened family of murdered Cork student Cameron Blair jailed for two years". *Irish Examiner*. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
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79. Heylin, Liam (23 April 2021). "Man confesses to threatening to kill family of murdered Cork student Cameron Blair". *Irish Examiner*. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
80. Barry, Roche (23 April 2021). "Man (46) pleads guilty to threatening to kill the family of murder victim". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
81. Roche, Barry (20 May 2021). "Man jailed for making threats to family of murdered student Cameron Blair". *The Irish Times*. Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
82. Coughlan, Frank (26 October 2021). "Bully bigots of Eden Heaslip who remind us of a shameful legacy". *Independent*. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
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## Further reading

### Night of the murder

### Threats to family

## InfoBox

| Cameron Blair | |
| --- | --- |
| Blair c. 2015 | |
| Born | (1999-06-18)18 June 1999<br>Cork, Ireland |
| Died | 16 January 2020(2020-01-16) (aged 20)<br>Bandon Road, Cork, Ireland |
| Cause of death | Stabbing |
| Resting place | Kilbeg Cemetery, Kilbeg North, Bandon, Cork, Ireland<br>51°45′24″N 8°43′16″W / 51.7567°N 8.7212°W / 51.7567; -8.7212 |
| Known for | Murder victim |
| Parent(s) | Noel and Kathy Blair |


title: Murder of Stacey Mitchell

abstract: Stacey Mitchell was a British-born girl living in Australia who was murdered at the age of 16, on 18 December 2006, by couple Jessica Stasinowsky and Valerie Parashumti. She was bludgeoned with a concrete block and strangled with a chain. Her corpse was found in a wheelie bin shortly afterwards. Stasinowsky and Parashumti had known Mitchell for three days, and claimed they murdered her because they found her irritating.

text:
# Murder of Stacey Mitchell

**Stacey Mitchell** (17 June 1990 – 18 December 2006) was a British-born girl living in Australia who was murdered at the age of 16, on 18 December 2006, by couple Jessica Stasinowsky and Valerie Parashumti. She was bludgeoned with a concrete block and strangled with a chain. Her corpse was found in a wheelie bin shortly afterwards. Stasinowsky and Parashumti had known Mitchell for three days, and claimed they murdered her because they found her irritating.

## Murder

Stacey Mitchell was born in Dorset, England, but emigrated to Australia at the age of 10. At the age of 16, she ran away from her family home and stayed with 19-year-old Parashumti and 21-year-old Stasinowsky.

Parashumti was accused by Stasinowsky of flirting with Mitchell. She planned to kill Mitchell to prove to Stasinowsky she was not attracted to her. The three of them spent the evening drinking whisky before Parashumti hit Mitchell over the back of the head with a concrete block. Stasinowsky then strangled her with a dog chain. As she lay dying, the two women kissed over her body and filmed her on a mobile phone. Earlier attempts to kill Mitchell by Stasinowsky included putting broken glass in her drink and spilling oil on the bathroom floor.

## Trial

The two women were tried at the Perth Supreme Court. During the trial they "smiled, giggled and whispered at each other". Parashumti's lawyer stated that she had a severe personality disorder and had grown up with an abusive father. She had also had an obsession with the vampire subculture, and a penchant for drinking people's blood since the age of 10. Parashumti's father had previously been in prison for beating his wife.

Both women pleaded guilty, and revealed that after Mitchell's death, they had visited a hardware store to look for a chainsaw and some spades. In 2008, both women were sentenced to strict security life imprisonment, with a 24-year minimum term. Stasinowsky subsequently appealed her sentence. Her appeal was unanimously rejected by the WA Court of Appeal. David Ross John Haynes, who also lived with them, was sentenced to two years' imprisonment for being an accessory. Although he had been fully aware of the plan to kill Mitchell, he agreed to go to his bedroom and listen to music.

## Imprisonment

It was discovered in 2009 that the two women were continuing their relationship in prison, reportedly spending up to 90 minutes together on weekdays, and seven hours a day on weekends. Parashumti was consequently moved to a separate prison. They attempted to maintain contact by sending letters, using fellow inmate Catherine Birnie as a go-between. In 2012, three prison officers were injured following their intervention in a fight involving Parashumti and another inmate. In 2013 Parashumti attempted to escape from prison, but failed to leave the grounds. It was reported she would consequently face a police charge.

## Other charges

In 2014, 20 charges against Stasinowsky, which pre-dated the murder, were dropped.


title: Murder of Sophie Collombet

abstract: On 27 March 2014, 21-year-old French student Sophie Collombet was raped and bludgeoned to death in Kurilpa Point Park in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. She had been on her way home from a three-hour lecture at Griffith University where she was studying her Masters of Business. On 7 April Australian citizen Benjamin James Milward from Ipswich, Queensland was arrested and charged with her murder and rape. He was given a life sentence for the murder and rape on 25 October 2016 at the Supreme Court of Queensland in Brisbane. He had been using the illegal drug "ice" at the time of her murder. The case attracted adverse commentary about Australian society as Collombet was believed to be still alive when Milward left her; a number of people had walked past her naked body, which was covered with newspapers and Milward's jacket, but took no action believing her to be a homeless person, many of whom slept in that area. It was a homeless person who eventually checked on Collombet and found no pulse; CPR was attempted without success. Police were also criticised for failing to make the Kurilpa Point Park a safe place despite a number of recent crimes reported there. The park is beside the Brisbane River immediately between the busy William Jolly Bridge and the Gallery of Modern Art at the northern end of the Queensland Cultural Precinct. A popular riverbank walking/cycling track passes through the park. On 10 April 2014, over 2,000 people participated in a march and candlelight vigil in memory of Collombet. The march commenced at King George Square in front of Brisbane City Hall with speeches and then proceeded to the Kurilpa Point Park where the candlelight vigil was held. The organisers of the march said one of the purposes of the march was "to show that Brisbane cares about violence against women”. There was also criticism of the location of a Catholic Ozcare hostel for homeless men and those recently paroled from prison for offences including murder and rape as being too close to Brisbane's major cultural precinct. Milward had been living at the hostel but had failed to return by the curfew on the night of the murder. He had obtained the drug "ice" which fuelled his attack on Collombet from another resident of the hostel. Sophie Collombet was buried in her hometown of Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. Her funeral was a large event where 1200 villagers took part in a grant funeral procession behind her casket with a 120-piece brass band playing Chopin's mournful Marche Funebre.

text:
# Murder of Sophie Collombet

On 27 March 2014, 21-year-old French student **Sophie Collombet** was raped and bludgeoned to death in Kurilpa Point Park in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. She had been on her way home from a three-hour lecture at Griffith University where she was studying her Masters of Business. On 7 April Australian citizen Benjamin James Milward from Ipswich, Queensland was arrested and charged with her murder and rape. He was given a life sentence for the murder and rape on 25 October 2016 at the Supreme Court of Queensland in Brisbane. He had been using the illegal drug "ice" at the time of her murder.

The case attracted adverse commentary about Australian society as Collombet was believed to be still alive when Milward left her; a number of people had walked past her naked body, which was covered with newspapers and Milward's jacket, but took no action believing her to be a homeless person, many of whom slept in that area. It was a homeless person who eventually checked on Collombet and found no pulse; CPR was attempted without success. Police were also criticised for failing to make the Kurilpa Point Park a safe place despite a number of recent crimes reported there. The park is beside the Brisbane River immediately between the busy William Jolly Bridge and the Gallery of Modern Art at the northern end of the Queensland Cultural Precinct. A popular riverbank walking/cycling track passes through the park.

On 10 April 2014, over 2,000 people participated in a march and candlelight vigil in memory of Collombet. The march commenced at King George Square in front of Brisbane City Hall with speeches and then proceeded to the Kurilpa Point Park where the candlelight vigil was held. The organisers of the march said one of the purposes of the march was "to show that Brisbane cares about violence against women”.

There was also criticism of the location (27°28′26″S 153°00′53″E / 27.4739°S 153.0148°E / -27.4739; 153.0148 (Ozcare Hostel)) of a Catholic Ozcare hostel for homeless men and those recently paroled from prison for offences including murder and rape as being too close to Brisbane's major cultural precinct. Milward had been living at the hostel but had failed to return by the curfew on the night of the murder. He had obtained the drug "ice" which fuelled his attack on Collombet from another resident of the hostel.

Sophie Collombet was buried in her hometown of Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. Her funeral was a large event where 1200 villagers took part in a grant funeral procession behind her casket with a 120-piece brass band playing Chopin's mournful Marche Funebre (funeral march).

27°28′12″S 153°00′59″E / 27.4699°S 153.0165°E / -27.4699; 153.0165 (Kurilpa Point Park)

## InfoBox

| Murder of Sophie Collombet | |
| --- | --- |
| Location | Kurilpa Point Park, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia |
| Date | 27 March 2014 (2014-03-27) |
| Weapon | Bludgeoning |
| Victim | Sophie Collombet |
| Perpetrator | Benjamin James Milward |


title: Murdoch Dryden

abstract: Murdoch Dryden is a New Zealand rower. Dryden is the son of New Zealand Olympic rower Alistair Dryden and grandson of New Zealand amateur wrestling champion and Empire Games silver medallist Jim Dryden. At the 1995 World Rowing Championships in Tampere, Finland, Dryden won a silver medal in the coxed four, with Chris White, Andrew Matheson, Chris McAsey, and Michael Whittaker as cox.

text:
# Murdoch Dryden

**Murdoch Dryden** is a New Zealand rower. Dryden is the son of New Zealand Olympic rower Alistair Dryden and grandson of New Zealand amateur wrestling champion and Empire Games silver medallist Jim Dryden.

At the 1995 World Rowing Championships in Tampere, Finland, Dryden won a silver medal in the coxed four, with Chris White, Andrew Matheson, Chris McAsey, and Michael Whittaker as cox.

## InfoBox

Murdoch Dryden
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Relative(s) | Alistair Dryden (father)<br>Jim Dryden (grandfather) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Rowing |
| Club | Auckland Rowing Club |
| Medal record      Men's rowing  Representing  New Zealand  World Championships  1995 Tampere, Finland  Coxed four | |


title: Villa Saluzzo Serra

abstract: The Villa Saluzzo Serra is a civil building in the Nervi district, in via Capolungo, in the municipality of Genoa. Municipal property, and located in the parks of Nervi, it has been the seat of the Genoa's Gallery of Modern Art (GAM) since 1928.

text:
# Villa Saluzzo Serra

The **Villa Saluzzo Serra** is a civil building in the Nervi district, in via Capolungo, in the municipality of Genoa. Municipal property, and located in the **parks of Nervi**, it has been the seat of the Genoa's Gallery of Modern Art (GAM) since 1928.

## History

The construction of the building dates back to the 17th century and, over the centuries, belonged to the families of the Saluzzo marquises, then to the Morando, the Serra (1815) and finally the shipowner Carlo Barabino who sold it to the Municipality of Genoa in 1926 for the value of 2,200,000 lire. It was the Serra family (in the person of Gerolamo Serra) who mostly restructured the primary villa with expansions and modifications on several occasions, and transformed the original land of olive and citrus fruit into one of the most admired gardens of the Nervi park.

Among the illustrious personalities who visited or stayed in the villa are the daughter Luisa Maria Amalia of King Ferdinand IV of the Two Sicilies, Frederick William III of Prussia, Queen Maria Cristina of Spain and the French historian Jules Michelet. Near the villa there is a noble chapel.

## Garden

In 2018, the garden was part of Euroflora.

The gallery, where extemporaneous themed exhibitions are also organized, houses more than two thousand and seven hundred sculptures, paintings, engravings and drawings. All the material, collected from 1850, can be dated between the beginning of the 19th century and the contemporary era. Initially constituted by the collection of works of art of Prince Oddone Eugenio Maria of Savoy. The gallery displays works by Nicolò Barabino, Ernesto Rayper, Tammar Luxoro, Giacomo Delcroix, Pompeo Mariani, Cesare Viazzi, Alfredo D’Andrade, Vincenzo Cabianca, Plinio Nomellini, Rubaldo Merello, Fortunato Depero, Felice Casorati, Filippo De Pisis, Francesco Messina, Eugenio Baroni, Arturo Martini, Renato Guttuso, Mario Mafai, Corrado Cagli.

44°22′56″N 9°2′44″E / 44.38222°N 9.04556°E / 44.38222; 9.04556

## InfoBox

| Villa Saluzzo Serra | |
| --- | --- |
| Villa Saluzzo Serra | |
|  | |


title: Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia

abstract: Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Viterbo in the Italian region of Latium, located about 60 kilometres northwest of Rome and about 15 km (9 mi) southwest of Viterbo. Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia borders the following municipalities: Barbarano Romano, Blera, Vetralla.

text:
# Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia

**Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia** is a *comune* (municipality) in the Province of Viterbo in the Italian region of Latium, located about 60 kilometres (37 miles) northwest of Rome and about 15 km (9 mi) southwest of Viterbo.

Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia borders the following municipalities: Barbarano Romano, Blera, Vetralla.

## InfoBox

| Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
| Comune di Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia | |
| Villa San Giovanni in TusciaLocation of Villa San Giovanni in Tuscia in ItalyVilla San Giovanni in TusciaVilla San Giovanni in Tuscia (Lazio) | |
| Coordinates: 42°16′N 12°3′E / 42.267°N 12.050°E / 42.267; 12.050 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Lazio |
| Province | Viterbo (VT) |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Fabio Latini |
| Area | |
| Total | 5.3 km2 (2.0 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 329 m (1,079 ft) |
| Population (31 December 2012) | |
| Total | 1,305 |
| Density | 250/km2 (640/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Sangiovannesi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 01010 |
| Dialing code | 0761 |
| Patron saint | St. John the Baptist |
| Saint day | First Sunday in August |
| Website | Official website |


title: Viral pneumonia

abstract: Viral pneumonia is a pneumonia caused by a virus. Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation in one or both of the lungs. The pulmonary alveoli fill with fluid or pus making it difficult to breathe. Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Viruses are the most common cause of pneumonia in children, while in adults bacteria are a more common cause.

text:
# Viral pneumonia

**Viral pneumonia** is a pneumonia caused by a virus. Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation in one or both of the lungs. The pulmonary alveoli fill with fluid or pus making it difficult to breathe. Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Viruses are the most common cause of pneumonia in children, while in adults bacteria are a more common cause.

## Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of viral pneumonia include fever, productive cough, runny nose, chest pain and systemic symptoms (e.g. myalgia, headache). Different viruses cause different symptoms.

## Diagnosis

Diagnosis, like with any infection, relies on the detection of the infectious cause. With viral pneumonia, samples are taken from the upper and/or lower respiratory tracts. The samples can then be run through polymerase chain reaction (PCR), allowing for amplification of the virus as that allows better detection if present in the sample. Other ways for a diagnosis to be obtained is by ordering a chest x-ray, blood tests, pulse oximetry, and a medical/family history to see if there are any known risks or previous exposures to a person with viral pneumonia. If the person is in serious condition and in the hospital there are more invasive studies that can be run to diagnose the person.

## Cause

Common causes of viral pneumonia are:

Rarer viruses that commonly result in pneumonia include:

Viruses that primarily cause other diseases, but sometimes cause pneumonia include:

The most commonly identified agents in children are *respiratory syncytial virus*, *rhinovirus*, *human metapneumovirus*, *human bocavirus*, and *parainfluenza viruses*.

## History

In the pre-antibiotic age, pneumonias had been treated with specific anti-serums of highly variable therapeutic effect and undesirable side-effects (a practice eliminated by the advent of sulfamides in 1936 and the beginning availability of penicillin in the 1940s).

Viral pneumonia was first described by Hobart Reimann in 1984, in an article published by JAMA, *An Acute Infection of the Respiratory Tract with Atypical Pneumonia: a disease entity probably caused by a filtrable virus.* Reimann, Chairman of the Department of Medicine at Jefferson Medical College, had established the practice of routinely typing the pneumococcal organism in cases where pneumonia presented. Out of this work, the distinction between viral and bacterial strains was noticed.

## Pathophysiology

Viruses must invade cells in order to reproduce. Typically, a virus will reach the lungs by traveling in droplets through the mouth and nose with inhalation. There, the virus invades the cells lining the airways and the alveoli. This invasion often leads to cell death either through direct killing by the virus or by self-destruction through apoptosis.

Further damage to the lungs occurs when the immune system responds to the infection. White blood cells, in particular lymphocytes, are responsible for activating a variety of chemicals (cytokines) which cause leaking of fluid into the alveoli. The combination of cellular destruction and fluid-filled alveoli interrupts the transportation of oxygen into the bloodstream.

In addition to the effects on the lungs, many viruses affect other organs and can lead to illness affecting many different bodily functions. Some viruses also make the body more susceptible to bacterial infection; for this reason, bacterial pneumonia often complicates viral pneumonia.

## Prevention

The best prevention against viral pneumonia is vaccination against influenza, chickenpox (varicella zoster), herpes zoster, measles, respiratory syncytial virus vaccine (RSV), rubella, and adenovirus vaccine. Besides vaccination there are no other ways to prevent viral pneumonia besides basic hygiene skills like covering the mouth when coughing or sneezing, staying home when sick, and washing your hands frequently.

## Treatment

In cases of viral pneumonia where influenza A or B are thought to be causative agents, patients who are seen within 48 hours of symptom onset may benefit from treatment with oseltamivir, or zanamivir, or peramivir. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) has no direct acting treatments, but ribavirin is indicated for severe cases. Ribavirin has also been known to be used as a treatment for parainfluenza virus, and adenovirus. Herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus infections are usually treated with acyclovir, whilst ganciclovir is used to treat cytomegalovirus. There is no known efficacious treatment for pneumonia caused by SARS coronavirus, MERS coronavirus, or hantavirus. Other forms of care are largely supportive like oxygen supplementation, treatment of comorbidities, and controlling other symptoms, fever and cough, with medications.

## Epidemiology

There are roughly 450 million cases of pneumonia every year. Of those case, viral pneumonia counts for about 200 million cases which includes about 100 million children and 100 million adults. Viral pneumonia is more prevalent in the very young, less than 5 years old, and in the very old, more than 75 years old. Developing countries have a higher rate of incidence when it comes to viral pneumonia. On average, developing countries have an incidence rate five times higher than that of developed countries. Being pregnant can also affect the chances of developing viral pneumonia. As with all infectious diseases, viral pneumonia preys on the immunocompromised as well as individuals with one or more comorbidities especially those with:

## InfoBox

| Viral pneumonia | |
| --- | --- |
| Specialty | Infectious disease, respirology |


title: Munhak Sports Complex station

abstract: Munhak Sports Complex Station is a subway station on Line 1 of the Incheon Subway in Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, South Korea.

text:
# Munhak Sports Complex station

**Munhak Sports Complex Station** is a subway station on Line 1 of the Incheon Subway in Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, South Korea.

## Station layout

| **G** | Street Level |  |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **L1** | Concourse | Faregates, Ticketing Machines, Station Control |
| **L2
Platforms** | Side platform, doors will open on the right | |
| | Westbound | **Incheon Line 1** toward Gyeyang (Incheon Bus Terminal) |
| | Eastbound | **Incheon Line 1** toward Songdo Moonlight Festival Park (Seonhak) |
| | Side platform, doors will open on the right | |

## Exits

| Exit No. | Image | Destinations |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **1** |  | Seonhak-dong |
| **2** |  | Munhak Sports Complex
Children's museum
Munhak Information high school |

## InfoBox

| Munhak Sports Complex
(Grand Ostium) | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Korean name | |
| Hangul | 문학경기장역 |
| Hanja |  |
| Revised Romanization | *Munhakgyeonggijangyeok* |
| McCune–Reischauer | *Munhakkyŏnggijangyŏk* |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Location | 117-1 Seonhak-dong,
Jiha2, Yesullo, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon |
| Coordinates | 37°26′5.59″N 126°41′52.27″E / 37.4348861°N 126.6978528°E / 37.4348861; 126.6978528 |
| Operated by | Incheon Transit Corporation |
| Line(s) | Incheon Line 1 |
| Platforms | 2 |
| Tracks | 2 |
| Construction | |
| Structure type | Underground |
| Other information | |
| Station code | I127 |
| History | |
| Opened | October 6, 1999 |
| Passengers | |
|  | |
| 2017 | 4,343 |
|  | |
|  | |
| Services | |
| Preceding station Incheon Subway Following station  Incheon Bus Terminaltowards Gyeyang  Incheon Line 1  Seonhaktowards Songdo Moonlight Festival Park | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Vinod Mathur

abstract: Vinod Mathur is an Indian computer hardware engineer who played for Rajasthan cricket team from 1971 to 1985. He played 83 first-class and four List A matches. He was named in Rajasthan High Court panel of selectors for selection of senior cricket teams.

text:
# Vinod Mathur

**Vinod Mathur** (born 11 November 1953 in Jaipur, Rajasthan) is an Indian computer hardware engineer who played for Rajasthan cricket team from 1971 to 1985. He played 83 first-class and four List A matches. He was named in Rajasthan High Court panel of selectors for selection of senior cricket teams.

## InfoBox

Vinod Mathur
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Vinod Mathur |
| Born | (1953-10-11) 11 October 1953<br>Jaipur, Rajasthan |
| Batting | Right-handed |
| Bowling | Right-arm medium-fast |
| Role | All-rounder |
| Source: ESPNcricinfo | |


title: Villar Pellice

abstract: Villar Pellice is a comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Turin. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 1,213 and an area of 60.9 square kilometres (23.5 sq mi). Villar Pellice borders the following municipalities: Perrero, Prali, Angrogna, Bobbio Pellice, Torre Pellice, Rorà, Bagnolo Piemonte, and Crissolo.

text:
# Villar Pellice

**Villar Pellice** (Vivaro-Alpine: *Lo Vilar de Pèlis*) is a *comune* (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Turin. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 1,213 and an area of 60.9 square kilometres (23.5 sq mi).

Villar Pellice borders the following municipalities: Perrero, Prali, Angrogna, Bobbio Pellice, Torre Pellice, Rorà, Bagnolo Piemonte, and Crissolo.

## Demographic evolution

1. "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
2. "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
3. All demographics and other statistics: Italian statistical institute Istat.

## InfoBox

| Villar Pellice *Lo Vilar de Pèlis* | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
| Comune di Villar Pellice | |
|  | |
| Location of Villar Pellice | |
| Villar PelliceLocation of Villar Pellice in ItalyVillar PelliceVillar Pellice (Piedmont) | |
| Coordinates: 44°48′N 7°10′E / 44.800°N 7.167°E / 44.800; 7.167 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Piedmont |
| Metropolitan city | Turin (TO) |
| Area | |
| Total | 60.9 km2 (23.5 sq mi) |
| Population (Dec. 2004) | |
| Total | 1,213 |
| Density | 20/km2 (52/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Villaresi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 10060 |
| Dialing code | 0121 |


title: Villar Perosa

abstract: Villar Perosa is a comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Turin. Villar Perosa borders the following municipalities: Pinasca, San Pietro Val Lemina, Inverso Pinasca, San Germano Chisone, Porte. Once a predominantly agricultural center, it is now an industrial hub with two SKF plants and one of ZF Sachs.

text:
# Villar Perosa

**Villar Perosa** (Occitan *Lhi Vialars*; French: *Grand-Villars*) is a *comune* (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Turin.

Villar Perosa borders the following municipalities: Pinasca, San Pietro Val Lemina, Inverso Pinasca, San Germano Chisone, Porte. Once a predominantly agricultural center, it is now an industrial hub with two SKF plants and one of ZF Sachs.

## History

## Agnelli family estate

The area is often associated with the Agnelli family of Fiat fame as the family estate is located there. Members of the Agnelli family have lived in the country house since 1811. Marella Agnelli, widow of Gianni Agnelli, lived there.

The family estate has a football pitch which is sometimes used by Juventus for friendlies or training. It hosts an annual intra-squad friendly between the first team and the Primavera.

## Twin towns

1. "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
2. All demographics and other statistics: Italian statistical institute Istat.
3. "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
4. "Benvenuti a Villar Perosa, l'ultima reggia d'Italia (Welcome to Villar Perosa, the last palace of Italy)". *Il Giornale* (in Italian). 30 January 2015.
5. "An Enchanting Estate in Northern Italy". *Architectural Digest*. September 2014.

## InfoBox

| Villar Perosa Lhi Vialars | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
| Comune di Villar Perosa | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Villar Perosa | |
| Villar PerosaLocation of Villar Perosa in ItalyVillar PerosaVillar Perosa (Piedmont) | |
| Coordinates: 44°55′N 7°15′E / 44.917°N 7.250°E / 44.917; 7.250 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Piedmont |
| Metropolitan city | Turin (TO) |
| *Frazioni* | Artero, Azzario, Barbos, Bolombardo, Campassi, Cappelleria, Careiria, Casavecchia, Cascina Grossa, Cascina Marronea, Caserme, Cavallari, Ciabot, Ciabot Comba, Ciardossina, Ciardossini, Ciarriere, Comborsiera, Didiera, Droglia, Frieri, Gottieri, Icle, La Croce, Miandassa, Molliere, Morana, Muretti, Odriva, Pra Martino, Prietti, Russa, Saretto, Sartetti, Serre, Vignassa, Vinçon |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Marco Ventre |
| Area | |
| Total | 11.42 km2 (4.41 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 489 m (1,604 ft) |
| Population (1 January 2017) | |
| Total | 4,062 |
| Density | 360/km2 (920/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Villaresi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 10069 |
| Dialing code | 0121 |
| Website | Official website |


title: Virginia State Route 119

abstract: State Route 119 is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia. Known as Calvary Road, the state highway runs 3.08 miles (4.96 km) from the North Carolina state line, where the highway continues as North Carolina Highway 119, north to U.S. Route 58/US 360 at Delila.

text:
# Virginia State Route 119

**State Route 119** (**SR 119**) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia. Known as **Calvary Road**, the state highway runs 3.08 miles (4.96 km) from the North Carolina state line, where the highway continues as North Carolina Highway 119 (NC 119), north to U.S. Route 58 (US 58)/US 360 at Delila.

## Route description

SR 119 begins at the North Carolina state line in southwestern Halifax County. The highway continues south as NC 119 through the northeastern corner of Caswell County to Semora. SR 119 heads north as a two-lane undivided road through a mix of forest and farmland. The state highway passes Calvary Cemetery about halfway between the state line and the highway's northern terminus at US 58/US 360 (Philpott Road) at the hamlet of Delila between Danville and South Boston.

## Major intersections

The entire route is in Halifax County.

| Location | mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 0.00 | 0.00 |
NC 119 south | North Carolina state line; southern terminus |
| Delila | 3.08 | 4.96 |
US 58 / US 360 (Philpott Road) / SR 694 north (Medley Road) Danville, South Boston | Northern terminus |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi
 | | | | | |

Template:Attached KML/Virginia State Route 119KML is from Wikidata

## InfoBox

| State Route 119 | |
| --- | --- |
| Calvary Road | |
|  | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by VDOT | |
| Length | 3.08 mi (4.96 km) |
| Existed | 1964–present |
| Major junctions | |
| South end | NC 119 near Delila |
| North end | US 58 / US 360 / SR 694 at Delila |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Virginia |
| Counties | Halifax |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| SR 118   SR 120 | |


title: Viral shunt

abstract: The viral shunt is a mechanism that prevents marine microbial particulate organic matter (POM) from migrating up trophic levels by recycling them into dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can be readily taken up by microorganisms. The DOM recycled by the viral shunt pathway is comparable to the amount generated by the other main sources of marine DOM. Viruses can easily infect microorganisms in the microbial loop due to their relative abundance compared to microbes. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic mortality contribute to carbon nutrient recycling through cell lysis. There is evidence as well of nitrogen regeneration. This nutrient recycling helps stimulate microbial growth. As much as 25% of the primary production from phytoplankton in the global oceans may be recycled within the microbial loop through the viral shunt.

text:
# Viral shunt

The **viral shunt** is a mechanism that prevents marine microbial particulate organic matter (POM) from migrating up trophic levels by recycling them into dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can be readily taken up by microorganisms. The DOM recycled by the viral shunt pathway is comparable to the amount generated by the other main sources of marine DOM.

Viruses can easily infect microorganisms in the microbial loop due to their relative abundance compared to microbes. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic mortality contribute to carbon nutrient recycling through cell lysis. There is evidence as well of nitrogen (specifically ammonium) regeneration. This nutrient recycling helps stimulate microbial growth. As much as 25% of the primary production from phytoplankton in the global oceans may be recycled within the microbial loop through the viral shunt.

## Discovery and impact

Viral shunt was first described in 1999 by Steven W. Wilhelm and Curtis A. Suttle. Their original paper has since been cited over 1000 times. For his contributions to understanding of viral roles in marine ecosystems, Suttle has received numerous awards, including being named a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, receiving the A.G. Huntsman Award for Excellence in Marine Science, and the Timothy R. Parsons Medal for Excellence in Ocean Sciences from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Both Suttle and Wilhelm have been elected Fellows of the American Academy of Microbiology as well as the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO).

The field of marine virology has rapidly expanded since the mid-1990s, coinciding with the first publication of viral shunt. During this time, further studies have established the existence of the viral shunt as a "fact" of the field. The recycling of nutrients in the viral shunt has indicated to scientists that viruses are a necessary component in new models of global change. Virologists in soil sciences have begun to investigate the application of viral shunt to explain nutrient recycling in terrestrial systems. More recently, new theories concerning the potential role of viruses in carbon export - grouped under the idea of the "viral shuttle" have emerged. While perhaps at odds on the surface, these theories are not mutually exclusive.

## Bacterial growth efficiency

There is evidence to suggest that the viral shunt system can directly control bacterial growth efficiency (BGE) in pelagic regions. Carbon flow models indicated that decreased BGE could be largely explained by the viral shunt, which caused the conversion of bacterial biomass to DOM. The biodiversity in these pelagic environments are so tightly coupled that the production of viruses depends on their bacterial host metabolisms, so any factors that limit bacterial growth also limit viral growth.

Enrichment of nitrogen has been observed to allow for an increase in viral production (up to 3-fold) but not bacterial biomass. Through the viral shunt a high viral-induced mortality relative to bacterial growth resulted in the effective generation of DOC/DOM that is available for microbial re-consumption and offers an effective way to recycle key nutrients within the microbial food web.

Data extracted from other aquatic regions such as the Western-North Pacific displayed large variability, which may be a result of methodologies and environmental conditions. Nonetheless, a common trend appeared to be a reduced BGE with an increasing viral shunt pathway. From carbon flow models it is clear that viral shunting allows bacterial biomass to be converted to DOC/DOM that are ultimately recycled such that the bacteria may consume the DOC/DOM, indicating that the viral shunt pathway is a major regulator of BGE in marine pelagic waters.

### Microbial loop

The microbial loop acts as a pathway and connection between different relationships in an ecosystem. The microbial loop connects the pool of DOM to the rest of the food web, specifically various microorganisms in the water column. This allows for constant cycling of this dissolved organic matter. Stratification of the water column due to the pycnocline affects the amount of dissolved carbon in the upper mixing layer, and the mechanisms shows seasonal variation.

The microbial loop is based on micro-interactions between different trophic levels of microbes and organisms. When nutrients enter the microbial loop, they tend to remain in the photic zone longer, due to the location, and slow sinking rates of microbes. Eventually, through varying processes, DOM, through use of available nutrients, is produced by phytoplankton, as well as consumed by bacteria. Bacteria utilize this DOM, yet are then preyed on by larger microbes, such as microflagellates, which helps to regenerate nutrients.

Viruses tend to outnumber bacterial abundance by about ten times and phytoplankton by about a hundred times in the upper mixing layer and bacterial abundance tends to decrease with depth, while phytoplankton remain closer to shallow depths. The effects of the viral shunt are more pronounced in the upper mixing layer. Viruses found can be non-specific (broad host range), abundant, and can infect all forms of microbes. Viruses are a magnitude higher in abundance in almost all aquatic locations compared to their microbial hosts, allowing high rates/levels of microbial infection.

The impact of the viral shunt varies seasonally as many microbes show seasonal abundance maximums in temperate and oligotrophic waters during different times of the year, meaning viral abundance also varies with season.

### Biological pump

The viral shunt may result in increased respiration from the system. It also helps export carbon through the biological pump. This is a very significant process as approximately 3 gigatonnes of carbon may be sequestered per year due to lysed and virus-infected cells having faster sinking rates. The biological pump has an important role at sequestering carbon to the benthic zone, thereby impacting global carbon cycles, budget, and even affecting temperature. Crucial nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, cellular components, such as amino acids and nucleic acids, would be sequestered through the biological pump in the event of cells sinking. Viral shunting helps increase the efficiency of the biological pump by mostly altering the proportion of carbon that is exported to deep water (such as the recalcitrant carbon-rich cell walls from virally lysed bacteria) in a process called the *Shunt and Pump*. This allows the crucial nutrients to be retained in the surface waters. Concurrently, a more efficient biological pump also results in an increase in nutrient influx towards the surface, which is beneficial to primary production, especially in more oligotrophic region. Despite viruses being in the smallest scales of biology, the viral shunt pathway has a profound effect on food webs across marine environments as well as on a more macro scale on the global carbon budget.

## Recycling of nutrients

### Carbon cycling

Viral shunt influences carbon cycling in marine environments by infecting microbes and redirecting the type of organic matter that enters the carbon pool. Phototrophs constitute a large population of primary production in marine environments and are responsible for a large flux of carbon entering the carbon cycle in marine environments. However, bacteria, zooplankton and phytoplankton, (and other free-floating organisms) also contribute to the global marine carbon cycle. When these organisms eventually die and decompose, their organic matter either enters the pool of particulate organic matter (POM) or dissolved organic matter (DOM). Much of the POM generated is composed of carbon-rich complex structures that is unable to be decomposed effectively by most prokaryotes and archaea in the oceans. Export of carbon-rich POM from the upper surface layer to deep oceans causes increased efficiency of the biological pump due to a higher carbon-to-nutrient ratio.

DOM is smaller and tends to stay mixed within the euphotic zone of the water column. The labile DOM is easier for microbes to digest and recycle, allowing incorporation of carbon into biomass. As microbial biomass increases due to the incorporation of DOM, most microbial populations such as heterotrophic bacteria will be preyed on by organisms at higher trophic levels such as grazers or zooplankton. However, about 20 to 40 percent of the bacterial biomass (with similar and relative amounts of eukaryotes) will become infected by viruses. The effect of this energy flow results is less carbon entering higher trophic levels and a significant portion being respired and cycled between the microbes in the water column.

Based on this mechanism, as more carbon enters the DOM pool, most of the matter is used for increasing microbial biomass. When the viral shunt kills a portion of these microbes, it decreases the amount of carbon that gets transferred to higher trophic levels by converting it back to DOM and POM. Most of the generated POM is recalcitrant and will eventually make it down to the deep oceans where it accumulates. The resulting DOM that re-enters the DOM pool to be used by phototrophs and heterotrophs is less than the amount of DOM that originally entered the DOM pool. This phenomenon is due to the unlikeliness of organic matter being 100% DOM after a viral lytic infection.

### Nitrogen cycling

#### Nitrogen cycle

Viral shunt is a big component to the cycling of nitrogen in marine environments. Nitrogen gas from the atmosphere gets dissolved into surface of the water. Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria, such as *Trichodesmium* and *Anabaena,* convert the nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonium (NH4+) for microbes to use. The process of converting nitrogen gas to ammonia (and related nitrogen compounds) is called nitrogen fixation. The process of uptake of ammonium by microbes to be used in protein synthesis is called nitrogen assimilation. The viral shunt causes mass death of heterotrophic bacteria. The decomposition of these microbes releases particulate organic nitrogen (PON) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), which either stay in the upper mixing layer or sink to the deeper parts of the ocean. In the deep ocean, PON and DON are converted back into ammonium by remineralisation. This ammonium can be used by deep ocean microbes, or undergo nitrification and be oxidized into nitrites and nitrates. The sequence of nitrification is:

NH4+ → NO2 → NO3

Dissolved nitrates can be consumed by microbes to become re-assimilated, or revert in nitrogen gas by denitrification. The resultant nitrogen gas can then be fixed back into ammonium for assimilation or exit the ocean reservoir and back into atmosphere.

#### Ammonium regeneration

Viral shunt is also able to increase ammonium production. The basis for this claim is based on fluctuating carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N in atoms) ratios caused by the viral shunt. Susceptible microorganisms such as bacteria in the water column are more likely to be infected and killed off by viruses, releasing DOM and nutrients containing carbon and nitrogen (about 4C:1N). The remaining microbes that are still alive are assumed to be resistant to that viral infection episode. The DOM and nutrients generated from the death and lysis of susceptible microorganisms are available for uptake by virus-resistant eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The resistant-bacteria uptakes and utilizes the DOC, regenerate ammonium, thereby lowering the C:N ratio. When C:N ratios decrease, ammonium (NH4+) regeneration increases. The bacteria begin converting the dissolved nitrogen into ammonium, which can be used by phytoplankton for growth and biological production. As phytoplankton use up the ammonium (and subsequently limited by nitrogen-species), the C:N ratio begins increasing again and NH4+ regeneration slows down. The phytoplankton also shows enhanced growth rates due to uptake of ammonium. The viral shunt is continuously causing changes to the C:N ratio, affecting the composition and presence of nutrients at any given time.

### Iron cycling

A significant fraction of the world's oceans are iron limited, thus the regeneration of iron-nutrients is an important process that is needed for sustaining an ecosystem in this environment. Viral infection of microorganisms (mostly heterotrophs and cyanobacteria) is hypothesized to be an important process in the maintenance of high-nutrient low chlorophyll (HNLC) marine environments. The viral shunt plays a key role in releasing assimilated iron back into the microbial loop which helps sustain primary productivity in these ecosystems. Dissolved iron usually binds with organic matter to form an organic-iron complex that enhances bioavailability of this nutrient to plankton. Some species of bacteria and diatoms are capable of high uptake rates of these organic-iron complexes. Continued viral activity by the viral shunt helps sustain growing ecosystems in iron-limited HNLC regions.

## Effect on the marine food web

Viral shunt increases the supply of organic and inorganic nutrients to the pelagic food web. These nutrients increase growth rates of picophytoeukaryotes, particularly in multivore systems. Crucial nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and DOM found within cells are lysed by the viral shunt pathway, and these nutrients remain within the microbial food web. Naturally, this prevents the export of biomass such as POM to higher trophic levels directly, by diverting the flow of carbon and nutrients from all microbial cells into a DOM pool, recycled and ready for uptake.

Viruses that specifically target cyanobacteria known as cyanophages (found in surface waters) directly affects the marine food web by "short-circuiting" the amount of organic carbon that is transferred to higher trophic levels. These nutrients are made available for uptake by heterotrophic bacteria and phytoplankton alike.

The most common nutrient limiting primary productivity in marine waters is nitrogen, and others such as iron, silica, and vitamin B12 have also been discovered to limit growth rate of specific species and taxa. Studies have also identified that heterotrophic bacteria are commonly limited by organic carbon, however some nutrients that limit growth may not limit in other environments and systems. Therefore, viral lysis of these nutrients will have different effects on microbial food webs found in different ecosystems. Another important point to note (on a smaller scale) is that cells contain different fractions of nutrients and cellular components; this will result in different bioavailability of certain nutrients in the microbial food web.

### Important organisms

There are many different microbes present in aquatic communities. Phytoplankton, specifically *Picoplankton,* are the most important organism in this microbial loop. They provide a foundation as primary producers; they are responsible for the majority of primary production in the ocean and around 50% of primary production of the entire planet.

Generally, marine microbes are useful in the microbial loop due to their physical characteristics. They are small, and have high surface area to biomass ratios, allowing for high rates of uptake, even in low concentrations of nutrients. The microbial loop is considered a sink for nutrients such as carbon. Their small size allows for more efficient cycling of nutrients and organic matter compared to larger organisms. Additionally, microbes tend to be pelagic, floating freely in photic surface waters, before sinking down to deeper layers of the ocean. The microbial food web is important because it is the direct target of the viral shunt pathway and all subsequent effects are based on how the viruses affect their microbial hosts. Infection of these microbes through lysis or latent infection have a direct impact of the nutrients recycled, availability, and export within the microbial loop, which can have resonating effects throughout the trophic levels.

### Shallow water hydrothermal vents

Shallow water hydrothermal vents found in the Mediterranean Sea contain a diverse and abundant microbial community known as "hotspots". These communities also contain temperate viruses. An increase in these viruses can cause large mortality of vent microbes, thereby reducing chemoautotrophic carbon production, while at the same time enhancing the metabolism of heterotrophs through recycling of DOC. These results indicate a tight coupling of viruses and primary/secondary production found in these hydrothermal vent communities, as well as having a major effect on the food web energy transfer efficiency to higher trophic levels.

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## Further reading