title: Gibson's of Moffat

abstract: Gibson's of Moffat was a bus and coach operator in Dumfries & Galloway, Scotland. It is no longer in business.

text:
# Gibson's of Moffat

**Gibson's of Moffat** was a bus and coach operator in Dumfries & Galloway, Scotland. It is no longer in business.

## History

Gibson's of Moffat was formed by James and Elizabeth Gibson in 1919. It initially operated a service between Moffat and Dumfries.

The war saw heavy loading on buses on the Dumfries services, which served army camps on route. Moffat served as a training area for many nationalities throughout the Second World War. By 1946 the firm had six vehicles, employed five conductresses and four drivers.

A new route between Whitehead and Dumfries railway station was introduced in 1986 following deregulation. This route later passed to MacEwan's.

In 1993 a humanitarian trip was undertaken to war-torn Croatia and the 2,500 mile round trip lasted 10 days. Clothing and money donated by the people of south west Scotland were taken to give to the needy there.

On 21 November 2007, Gibsons of Moffat ceased trading.

## Vehicles

Gibson's first vehicle was a Ford Model T which carried both passengers and goods. Fleet renewal before and after the Second World War saw four Albion PK115s and a PHl14 along with an Irvine-bodied Leyland LTSA in service by 1948. By 1949 the firm had a Leyland TD4c and a Leyland-bodied Leyland PD2 demonstrator, that was actually paid for with a suitcase full of £750 in notes. Two Scottish Aviation-bodied Albions joined the fleet in 1950, followed in 1950 by a Guy Arab 1-decker in 1954 and a Guy Arab IV in 1963.

New Ford R-Series coaches were bought in the 1970s – one was a fairly rare Willowbrook 002 model, after which a Plaxton Panorama Elite example and two with Duple Dominant body's were added. After the Fords, a Bedford with Van Hool bodywork which was destined not to operate in the fleet after type approval issues caused too much of a delay to its entry into service.

In 1978 the first new heavy weight coach was added to the fleet, OSM 588S, being the first of three 12 metre Leyland Leopards with Plaxton Supreme Bodywork.

While most of the fleet were single-deckers, Gibson's continued a long history of having double deckers in the fleet. An ex-Edinburgh PD2/20 was operated in the early 1970s while the tenth and last double decker, a Northern Counties-bodied Leyland PS1 was bought in 1975 and retired in August 1978. Changes in bus demand and car ownership made the single-deckers the best choice on local bus routes.

A Volvo B10M coach was ordered with Van Hool Alizee bodywork in 1982 and remained in the fleet right up until the end, some 25 years later. The B10M continued to feature in the fleet with various second hand examples being added, including a Berkhof Esprit, and a Duple Caribbean.

The move to rear engined coaches started with the purchase of a new Van Hool Alicron which had an MAN drive train. A second-hand example was also added to the fleet and both coaches went on to give many years of service. There was a brief return to Volvo in 1989 when an Ikarus Danube was added to the fleet,

An example of the rare Volvo C10M was bought in 1994, and was sold on in 1997. New coaches appeared again in 2000 when a new Bova Futura was added to the fleet. Another new example was bought two years later along with two second hand examples in 2003. The biggest intake of new vehicles occurred in 2006 when five new Setras were added to the fleet. These cost of £1.2million to purchase.


title: Griffith Peak

abstract: Griffith Peak is located in the Spring Mountains in Clark County of southern Nevada. It is approximately 28 miles (45 km) northwest of the Las Vegas Strip and 3.9 miles (6.3 km) southeast of Mount Charleston. Griffith Peak is Nevada's 43rd highest peak, and the third highest peak in southern Nevada. It is within Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, Mount Charleston Wilderness and Spring Mountains National Recreation Area. Griffith Peak is accessible by two primary trails: the South Loop Trail and the Harris Springs Trail. The South Loop Trail leads directly to the Griffith Saddle from which both Griffith Peak and Mount Charleston are accessible.

text:
# Griffith Peak

**Griffith Peak** is located in the Spring Mountains in Clark County of southern Nevada. It is approximately 28 miles (45 km) northwest of the Las Vegas Strip and 3.9 miles (6.3 km) southeast of Mount Charleston.

Griffith Peak is Nevada's 43rd highest peak, and the third highest peak in southern Nevada. It is within Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, Mount Charleston Wilderness and Spring Mountains National Recreation Area.

Griffith Peak is accessible by two primary trails: the South Loop Trail and the Harris Springs Trail. The South Loop Trail leads directly to the Griffith Saddle from which both Griffith Peak and Mount Charleston are accessible.

## InfoBox

| Griffith Peak | |
| --- | --- |
| View of Griffith Peak from the top of Trail Canyon | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 11,064 ft (3,372 m)NAVD 88 |
| Prominence | 430 ft (131 m) |
| Coordinates | 36°13′57″N 115°38′46″W / 36.2324638°N 115.6461279°W / 36.2324638; -115.6461279 |
| Geography | |
| Griffith PeakClark County, Nevada, U.S. | |
| Parent range | Spring Mountains |
| Topo map | USGS Griffith Peak |
| Climbing | |
| Easiest route | Trail hike |


title: O.S. Engines

abstract: O.S. Engines is a Japanese model engine manufacturer. The company was founded in 1936 by machinist Shigeo Ogawa for the production of model steam engines. The name of the firm could have either originated from the traditional Japanese family-name-first tradition being the source of the "OS" name, or from the firm's actual Japanese name, "Ogawa Seisakusho". At the suggestion of American buyer Paul Houghton, Ogawa tooled up for his first gasoline-powered engine, the 1.6 cc O.S. Type-1 of which 200 units were produced and exported under the brand name, "Pixie." After World War II, Ogawa Seisakusho expanded to produce the MAX line of engines, which won acclaim for their performance and durability. In 1976, OS pioneered the field of modern four-stroke glow plug ignition model engines with the "FS-60" 10 cm⁳ displacement exposed valve gear engine, and has been one of the top producers of four-stroke glow-plug-ignition model engines worldwide ever since. O.S. Engines produces a much larger line of engines that included the only available Wankel rotary aircraft engine], which was first introduced in 1970, in cooperation with Graupner of Germany. Since Graupner's demise in 2012, O.S. continued to makes this 4.9 cm⁳ displacement engine on their own, still under license from NSU. The 1980s brought increasing competition, which increased across the 1990s and into the 21st century. O.S. is now a leading manufacturer of single- and multi-cylinder model aircraft engines ranging from the small.10 LA two-stroke to the FF-320 four-stroke "giant-scale" flat four-cylinder and the FR7-420 Sirius7 7-Cylinder Radial Engine "giant-scale" radial. O.S. engines in current production include the.21 TM, the.18 TZ, the.46 AX and many others. O.S. also makes required accessories for their engines including glow plugs, exhausts/mufflers and air filters. O.S. has also extended their expertise to model cars, offering many reliable and powerful engines for these vehicles. Typical engines include OS 18 CV-R and OS 30VG. Four-strokes include FS26-C-S and FS40-C-S, with an updated FS26-C-S II currently out of production. It is very easy to decode some facts from the engine name. In the above-mentioned four-stroke models, the C means car. This is to avoid confusing them with the aircraft engines they are based on. Additionally, an X in the name denotes a recoil start. O.S. Engines' main competitor for both two- and four-stroke model engines is Yamada Engines (YS), also designed and produced in Japan, with the Saito Seisakusho firm being a stronger rival than the YS firm, in volume production of popular four-stroke model engines. O.S. has also produced model steam locomotives, but has stopped production on 31st March, 2021.

text:
# O.S. Engines

**O.S. Engines** is a Japanese model engine manufacturer.

The company was founded in 1936 by machinist Shigeo Ogawa ("Ogawa Shigeo" in the Japanese surname-first tradition) for the production of model steam engines. The name of the firm could have either originated from the traditional Japanese family-name-first tradition being the source of the "OS" name, or from the firm's actual Japanese name, "Ogawa Seisakusho". At the suggestion of American buyer Paul Houghton, Ogawa tooled up for his first gasoline-powered engine, the 1.6 cc O.S. Type-1 of which 200 units were produced and exported under the brand name, "Pixie." After World War II, Ogawa Seisakusho expanded to produce the MAX line of engines, which won acclaim for their performance and durability.

In 1976, OS pioneered the field of modern four-stroke glow plug ignition model engines with the "FS-60" 10 cm3 displacement exposed valve gear engine, and has been one of the top producers of four-stroke glow-plug-ignition model engines worldwide ever since.

O.S. Engines produces a much larger line of engines that included the only available Wankel rotary aircraft engine\], which was first introduced in 1970, in cooperation with Graupner of Germany. Since Graupner's demise in 2012, O.S. continued to makes this 4.9 cm3 displacement engine on their own, still under license from NSU.

The 1980s brought increasing competition, which increased across the 1990s and into the 21st century. O.S. is now a leading manufacturer of single- and multi-cylinder model aircraft engines ranging from the small .10 LA two-stroke to the FF-320 four-stroke "giant-scale" flat four-cylinder and the FR7-420 Sirius7 7-Cylinder Radial Engine "giant-scale" radial.

O.S. engines in current production include the .21 TM, the .18 TZ, the .46 AX and many others. O.S. also makes required accessories for their engines including glow plugs, exhausts/mufflers and air filters.

O.S. has also extended their expertise to model cars, offering many reliable and powerful engines for these vehicles. Typical engines include OS 18 CV-R and OS 30VG. Four-strokes include FS26-C-S (0.26 ci displacement, meant to replace 0.12-0.15 two-strokes) and FS40-C-S (0.40 ci displacement, meant to replace 0.21-and-up two-strokes), with an updated FS26-C-S II currently out of production.

It is very easy to decode some facts from the engine name. In the above-mentioned four-stroke models, the C means car. This is to avoid confusing them with the aircraft engines they are based on. Additionally, an X in the name denotes a recoil start.

O.S. Engines' main competitor for both two- and four-stroke model engines is Yamada Engines (YS), also designed and produced in Japan, with the Saito Seisakusho firm being a stronger rival than the YS firm, in volume production of popular four-stroke model engines.

O.S. has also produced model steam locomotives, but has stopped production on 31st March, 2021.

## InfoBox

O.S. Engines Mfg. Co., Ltd
|
|  |
| Company type | Subsidiary |
| Founded | December 10, 1941 (1941-12-10) in Higashisumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan |
| Founder | Shigeo Ogawa |
| Headquarters | Higashisumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan |
| Key people | Seiichi Arata |
| Total assets | 90,000,000 JPY (2012) |
| Number of employees | 60 (2012) |
| Parent | Futaba Corporation |
| Website | www.os-engines.co.jp |


title: Mexican Federal Highway 150

abstract: Federal Highway 150 or colloquially called Carretera Puebla - Tehuacan, Carretera Tehuacan - Orizaba, is a Federal Highway of Mexico. The highway travels from Mexico City in the west to Veracruz, Veracruz in the east. Federal Highway 150 is one of five Mexican Federal Highways that terminate in Mexico's capital city.

text:
# Mexican Federal Highway 150

**Federal Highway 150** (*Carretera Federal 150*) or colloquially called Carretera Puebla - Tehuacan, Carretera Tehuacan - Orizaba, is a Federal Highway of Mexico. The highway travels from Mexico City in the west to Veracruz, Veracruz in the east. Federal Highway 150 is one of five Mexican Federal Highways that terminate in Mexico's capital city.

## InfoBox

| Federal Highway 150 | |
| --- | --- |
| *Carretera federal 150* | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by Secretariat of Communications and Transportation | |
| Length | 461.24 km (286.60 mi) |
| Major junctions | |
| East end | Veracruz |
| West end | Mexico City |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | Mexico |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| Fed. 147   Fed. 160 | |


title: Paul Colman Trio

abstract: Paul Colman Trio are an Australian contemporary Christian music group formed in 1998, composed of Paul Colman on lead vocals and guitars, Phil Gaudion on drums and vocals, and Grant Norsworthy on bass guitar and vocals. The band released five studio albums and had Christian radio hit singles including "Turn", "The Selfish Song", and "Fill My Cup". Their major-label studio album, New Map of the World (2002), received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album. They disbanded in February 2004 and re-united in April 2009.

text:
# Paul Colman Trio

**Paul Colman Trio** (often stylised as **pc3**) are an Australian contemporary Christian music group formed in 1998, composed of Paul Colman on lead vocals and guitars, Phil Gaudion on drums and vocals, and Grant Norsworthy on bass guitar and vocals. The band released five studio albums and had Christian radio hit singles including "Turn", "The Selfish Song", and "Fill My Cup". Their major-label studio album, *New Map of the World* (2002), received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album. They disbanded in February 2004 and re-united in April 2009.

## History

Paul Colman had started his music career as a solo artist, releasing two albums in the late 1990s. His trio, pc3, was formed in Melbourne in 1998 with Colman joined by Phil Gaudion on drums and vocals, and Grant Norsworthy on bass guitar and vocals. They issued two studio albums and two live albums, before breaking into the United States market with *pc3 – Live Acoustic* album in 2001. The group relocated to Memphis and performed at contemporary Christian music festivals. Norsworthy described the US scene, "it's bigger than the entire Australian music scene over there in America, and there's amazing infrastructure – radio stations, TV stations, magazines totally dedicated to Christian music."

Paul Colman Trio issued two more studio albums, including *New Map of the World* in 2002. This received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album. Colman told Mick Bunworth of *The 7.30 Report* that he wrote lyrics "set against the backdrop of a faith, of the fact that God made the universe." The trio undertook international tours before disbanding in February 2004 as they would be "taking a break as a recording/performing band", citing "financial and family considerations" as primary reasons.

In April 2009 Paul Colman Trio re-formed after a five-year break for a reunion show at Easterfest in Toowoomba. Early in January 2011 pc3 spent a week in Nashville and recorded a new album, *Return*, which was released in April that year. They supported the release with a national tour.

## Discography

* *Serious Fun*, 1999
* *Turn*, 2000
* *pc3 – Live Acoustic*, 2001
* *pc3 – Live Electric*, 2001
* *pc3 – Live* (USA version), 2001
* *New Map of the World*, 2002
* *One*, 2003 (two different versions exist—11 song and 12 song—The 11 song is a New Zealand / Australian edit that includes the songs "Your Love" and "Love this Life" but removes "Pray", "Live it!" and "Save my Soul".)
* *Return*, 2011

## InfoBox

| Paul Colman Trio | |
| --- | --- |
| Also known as | pc3 |
| Origin | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia |
| Genres | Contemporary Christian music |
| Years active | 1998 (1998)–2004 (2004), 2009–present |
| Labels | Essential |
|  | |
| Members |  |
|  | |
| Website | paulcolmantrio.com |


title: Marry the Girl (1928 film)

abstract: Marry the Girl is a 1928 American silent drama film directed by Phil Rosen. The 56-minute film was written by Wyndham Gittens and Frances Guihan, shot by cinematographer Herbert Kirkpatrick and was produced by Sterling Pictures.

text:
# Marry the Girl (1928 film)

***Marry the Girl*** (released in Europe as *The House of Deceit*) is a 1928 American silent drama film directed by Phil Rosen. The 56-minute film was written by Wyndham Gittens and Frances Guihan, shot by cinematographer Herbert Kirkpatrick and was produced by Sterling Pictures.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| Marry the Girl | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Phil Rosen |
| Screenplay by | Frances Guihan (screenplay)
Wyndham Gittens (story) |
| Produced by | Joe Rock |
| Starring | Barbara Bedford
Robert Ellis
DeWitt Jennings |
| Cinematography | Herbert Kirkpatrick |
| Edited by | Leotta Whytock |
| Distributed by | Sterling Pictures |
| Release date | * March 1, 1928 (1928-03-01) (USA) |


title: Jonathan Chaves

abstract: Jonathan Chaves, B.A. Brooklyn College, 1965; M.A. Columbia University, 1966; PhD Columbia University, 1971, is Professor of Chinese Language and Literature at The George Washington University in Washington, D.C. He is a translator of classic Chinese poetry.

text:
# Jonathan Chaves

**Jonathan Chaves** (born June 8, 1943), B.A. Brooklyn College, 1965; M.A. Columbia University, 1966; PhD Columbia University, 1971, is Professor of Chinese Language and Literature at The George Washington University in Washington, D.C. He is a translator of classic Chinese poetry.

## Translations

He published the first books in English or any Western language on such masters as Mei Yaochen 梅堯臣 (1002–60); Yang Wanli 楊萬里 (1127–1206); Yuan Hongdao 袁宏道 (1568–1610); the painter Wu Li 吳歷(1632–1718; as a poet); and Zhang Ji 張籍 (c.766-c.830). Eliot Weinberger, in his book *19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei*, cites Chaves among the 4 best scholar-translators of Chinese poetry in English, placing him with translators Burton Watson, A.C. Graham and Arthur Waley.

## Awards

He is the 2014 recipient of the American Literary Translators Association's Lucien Stryk Prize for his book *Every Rock a Universe: The Yellow Mountains and Chinese Travel Writing*. His book *Pilgrim of the Clouds: Poems and Essays from Ming China by Yuan Hung-tao and His Brothers* was a finalist for the National Book Award in the translation category. He and co-author J. Thomas Rimer won the 1998 Japan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature for their translation of the Wakan rōeishū titled *Japanese and Chinese Poems to Sing: The Wakan Rōei Shū* (Columbia University Press, 1997).

## Research

Chaves’ research has emphasized the relationship between poetry and painting in China, encompassing comparisons with Japanese and Western poetry and painting. He was invited to curate an exhibition on the interrelationships between painting, poetry and calligraphy at The China Institute in America (New York), which took place in 2000, and produced a catalog from that exhibit called *The Chinese Painter as Poet*.

Chaves also has published on Chinese-language poetry Kanshi in Japan. In 1997, he and J. Thomas Rimer published the first translation and study in any Western language (English) of the bilingual (Japanese and Chinese) anthology of the early 11th century, *Japanese and Chinese Poems to Sing: The Wakan Rōei Shū* (Columbia University Press, 1997). This won the 1998 Japan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature.

He has also published original poetry, both in modernist style and in neo-formalist metrical forms with rhyme, in such literary magazines as IRONWOOD, 19 (1982, pp. 134–135), THE GREENFIELD REVIEW (Vol. 11, 1 & 2 double issue, 1983, pp. 145–146), and CHRONICLES: A Magazine of American Culture (May, 2009, pp. 12, 26–27; September, 2015, p. 17; October, 2016, pp. 15 and 41; November, 2017, p. 24; June, 2019, pp.   20 and 41; July, 2020, pp. 22 and 42 ), ACADEMIC QUESTIONS, July, 2020 (three poems). In 2023 he published a book of his poems, "Surfing the Torrent," Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Resource Publications.

## Selected translations

* "Every Rock a Universe: The Yellow Mountains and Chinese Travel Writing", Floating World Editions, 2013
* "West Cliff Poems: The Poetry of Weng Chüan", Ahadada Books, 2010
* "Cloud Gate Song: The Verse of Tang Poet Zhang Ji", Floating World Editions, 2006
* "Heaven My Blanket, Earth My Pillow: Poems from Sung Dynasty China by Yang Wan-li", Weatherhill, Tokyo, 1975. New edition, 2004

## Selected bibliography

* Chaves, J. (1975). Heaven My Blanket, Earth My Pillow: Poems from Sung-Dynasty China by Yang Wan-li. Tokyo: Weatherhill. ISBN 0834801035
* Chaves, J. (1976). Mei Yao-chʻen and the Development of Early Sung Poetry. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231039659
* Chaves, J. (1978). Pilgrim of the Clouds: Poems and Essays from Ming-Dynasty China by Yüan Hung-tao and His Brothers. Tokyo: Weatherhill. ISBN 0834801345
* Chaves, J. (1986). The Columbia Book of Later Chinese Poetry: Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties (1279–1911). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231061483
* Chaves, J., J. Thomas Rimer, Stephen Addiss, and Hiroyuki Suzuki. (1991). Shisendō: Hall of the Poetry Immortals. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill. ISBN 0834802414
* Chaves, J. (1993). Singing of the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese painter Wu Li. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780585338170
* Chaves, J. and J. Thomas Rimer. (1997). Japanese and Chinese Poems to Sing: The Wakan Rōei Shū. New York, Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231107021
* Chaves, J. and Stephen Addiss. (2000). Old Taoist: The Life, Art and Poetry of Kodojin. New York, Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231504003
* Chaves, J. (2000). The Chinese Painter as Poet. New York: China Institute Gallery, China Institute. ISBN 9780965427043
* Chaves, J. (2006). Cloud Gate Song: The Verse of Tang Poet Zhang Ji. Warren, CT: Floating World Editions. ISBN 978-1891640445
* Chaves, J. (2011). West Cliff Poems: The Poetry of Weng Chüan. Tokyo: Ahadada Books. ISBN 978-0981274461
* Chaves, J. (2013). Every Rock a Universe: The Yellow Mountains and Chinese Travel Writing. Warren, CT: Floating World Editions. ISBN 1891640704
* Chaves, J. (2017). Cave of the Immortals: The Poetry and Prose of Bamboo Painter Wen Tong (1019–1079). Warren, CT: Floating World Editions. ISBN 978-1-891640-90-2
* Chaves, J. (2023). What Painter Could Ever Capture This? Poetry of the Four Lings of Song China. Warren, CT: Floating World Editions.
* Chaves, J. (2023). Surfing the Torrent. Eugene, Oregon: Resource Publications. ORIGINAL POETRY by Jonathan Chaves.
* Chaves, J. and Matthew Fraleigh. (2024) The Same Moon Shines on All: The Lives and Selected Poems of Yanagawa Seigan and Kōran. New York: Columbia University Press.

* Festschrift for Chaves published Fall 2017


title: WS FTP

abstract: WinSock File Transfer Protocol, or WS_FTP, is a secure file transfer software package produced by Ipswitch, Inc. Ipswitch is a Massachusetts-based software producer established in 1991 that focuses on networking and file sharing. WS_FTP consists of an FTP server and an FTP client and has over 40 million users worldwide. In 2019, Ipswitch Inc was acquired by Progress Software Corporation, who is the current owner of the product.

text:
# WS FTP

**WinSock File Transfer Protocol**, or **WS\_FTP,** is a secure file transfer software package produced by Ipswitch, Inc. Ipswitch is a Massachusetts-based software producer established in 1991 that focuses on networking and file sharing. WS\_FTP consists of an FTP server and an FTP client and has over 40 million users worldwide.

In 2019, Ipswitch Inc was acquired by Progress Software Corporation, who is the current owner of the product.

## History

John A. Junod, a decorated Army master sergeant, developed WS\_FTP in 1993. WS\_FTP was originally released as Shareware. The rights were sold to Ipswitch in 1996, when Junod retired from the Army and joined Ipswitch.

## Overview

File Transfer Protocols are used to transfer large files. FTP clients add stability and encryption options over traditional FTP transfers. The WS\_FTP client has a "classic" GUI with two panes, one showing the local computer and the other accessing the remote host, though newer versions of the software have updated interfaces, including a web browser interface. The WS\_FTP secure server encrypts files using SSL/FTPS, SSH, or SCP2 and HTTPS transfers. It is self-contained, eliminating the need for an external database. WS\_FTP's additional built-in capabilities include email client integration, alerts and notifications, server failover, and transfer scheduling.

## InfoBox

WS\_FTP
|
|  |
| Developer(s) | Ipswitch, Inc. (Now part of Progress Software) |
| Initial release | 1993 |
|  | |
| Stable release | WS\_FTP Professional 12.9<br>WS\_FTP Server 2022.07 (8.8.7) / June 14, 2023 for client, April 24, 2024 for server |
|  | |
| Operating system | Microsoft Windows |
| Available in | English |
| Website | WS\_FTP Site |


abstract: Van Buren Township is one of eleven townships in Monroe County, Indiana, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population was 11,981 and it contained 5,347 housing units.

text:
# Van Buren Township, Monroe County, Indiana

**Van Buren Township** is one of eleven townships in Monroe County, Indiana, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population was 11,981 and it contained 5,347 housing units.

## History

Van Buren Township was established in 1837.

## Geography

According to the 2010 census, the township has a total area of 34.85 square miles (90.3 km2), all land.

### Cities, towns, villages

### Unincorporated towns

(This list is based on USGS data and may include former settlements.)

### Cemeteries

The township contains these two cemeteries: Harmony and Keller.

### Major highways

### Airports and landing strips

## School districts

* Monroe County Community School Corporation

## Political districts

* Indiana's 9th Congressional district
* State House District 60
* State Senate District 40

* "Van Buren Township, Monroe County, Indiana". *Geographic Names Information System*. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
* United States Census Bureau 2008 TIGER/Line Shapefiles
* IndianaMap

1. "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. October 25, 2007. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
2. "Census Bureau profile: Van Buren Township, Monroe County, Indiana". United States Census Bureau. May 2023. Retrieved March 21, 2024.
3. "Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2010 - County -- County Subdivision and Place -- 2010 Census Summary File 1". United States Census. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2013.
4. Blanchard, Charles (1884). *Counties of Morgan, Monroe and Brown, Indiana: Historical and Biographical*. F.A. Battey & Company. pp. 381.

## InfoBox

| Van Buren Township | |
| --- | --- |
| Township | |
| Township hall, located in Stanford | |
| Location in Monroe County | |
| Coordinates: 39°07′23″N 86°37′58″W / 39.12306°N 86.63278°W / 39.12306; -86.63278 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Indiana |
| County | Monroe |
| Government | |
| Type | Indiana township |
| Area | |
| Total | 34.85 sq mi (90.3 km2) |
| Land | 34.85 sq mi (90.3 km2) |
| Water | 0 sq mi (0 km2)  0% |
| Elevation | 820 ft (250 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 12,802 |
| Density | 343.8/sq mi (132.7/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| ZIP codes | 47403, 47404 |
| Area code(s) | 812, 930 |
| GNIS feature ID | 453950 |


title: Motor landing craft

abstract: The motor landing craft (MLC) was a vessel used in the 1920s and 30s. It was specifically designed to deliver a tank to shore and may be considered the predecessor of all Allied landing craft mechanised (LCM). The MLC also saw action in the first year of the Second World War. Its primary purpose was to ferry tanks, troops and stores from ships to shore. The craft derived from discussions of the Landing Craft Committee; the prototype was designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes. Manufactured of steel, this shallow-draught, barge-like boat could ferry its cargo to shore at a speed of up to five knots. For a short journey, from shore to shore, the cargo could be rolled or carried into the boat over its ramp. On longer journeys, ship to shore, a derrick would lower the MLC into the sea from the transporting vessel. The derrick would then lower the vehicle or cargo load. Upon touching down on shore, soldiers or vehicles exited by the bow ramp.

text:
# Motor landing craft

The **motor landing craft (MLC)** was a vessel used in the 1920s and 30s. It was specifically designed to deliver a tank to shore and may be considered the predecessor of all Allied landing craft mechanised (LCM). The MLC also saw action in the first year of the Second World War. Its primary purpose was to ferry tanks, troops and stores from ships to shore. The craft derived from discussions of the Landing Craft Committee; the prototype was designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes.

Manufactured of steel, this shallow-draught, barge-like boat could ferry its cargo to shore at a speed of up to five knots. For a short journey, from shore to shore, the cargo could be rolled or carried into the boat over its ramp. On longer journeys, ship to shore, a derrick would lower the MLC into the sea from the transporting vessel. The derrick would then lower the vehicle or cargo load. Upon touching down on shore, soldiers or vehicles exited by the bow ramp.

## Design and development

In Britain, the need for a purpose-built landing craft had been apparent to military and naval staff officers since the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War. Unfortunately, a good deal of argument between the Army and Royal Navy had not settled whose budget should fund landing craft construction. Both Army and Navy finally agreed to form a landing craft committee comprising "representatives of all the authorities interested and that they should make recommendations on the design of landing craft." After pooling the desired attributes the committee wished to see in a landing craft, the Director of Naval Construction was requested to draw up a design. However, because of fiscal stringency no landing craft was built for some years.

A prototype motor landing craft (*MLC1*) was built and first sailed in 1926, finishing trials in 1927. It weighed 16 tons, with a draught of 6.5 ft (2 m). The MLC was box-like in appearance, having a square bow and stern. It was also extremely noisy. In order to prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a simple waterjet propulsion system was devised by White's designers. A Hotchkiss petrol engine drove a centrifugal pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern, and steering it, according to how the jet was directed. Speed was 5-6 knots and its beaching capacity was good. By 1930, three MLC were operated by the Royal Navy.

Early MLCs were powered by single Hotchkiss petrol engines. Later craft were powered by single Gill petrol engines.

## Service history

At the outbreak of the Second World War, six MLCs were based in Britain and three more were with British forces in Malta.

### Norwegian Campaign

On 29 April 1940, in the Norwegian Campaign, three MLCs accompanied a Landing Craft Mechanised Mk 1 (LCM) Mark I and four Landing Craft Assault (LCA)s to the Narvik area. Shortly afterwards, two more MLCs arrived. In early May, one of the first tasks accomplished by an MLC was landing French 75mm guns to support Chasseurs in the Gratangen area.

At Hol, on or about 11 May, one MLC sank due to a loading accident when a 13-ton Hotchkiss H39 tank drove off a jetty directly into the cargo well. Both went to the bottom.

The first use of British landing craft in the Second World War, in an opposed landing, saw the disembarkation of French Foreign Legionnaires of the 13th Demi-Brigade (13e DBLE) and supporting French Hotchkiss H39 tanks on the beach at Bjerkvik, eight miles (13 km) above Narvik, on 13 May during the Norwegian campaign. The army commander, *Général de brigade* Antoine Béthouart, responsible for capturing the area north of Rombaksfjorden, realized that a landing behind German lines, in Herjangsfjorden, a part of Ofotfjorden north of Narvik was required to force the enemy to retire. The plan agreed involved a pre-landing naval bombardment, followed by the landing of three tanks - two from MLCs, and one from the new LCM(1), then the landing of an initial wave of infantry from LCAs, and lastly a follow-on force carried in barges and towed by motor torpedo boats. On 12 May, at about 23:40, Royal Navy destroyers commenced a bombardment of the town intending to destroy all buildings on the foreshore. The plan became somewhat frustrated by the slow deployment of the MLCs (and their tank cargoes), from the davits of the battleship *Resolution*, then serving as their transport ship. The LCAs landed after the LCM(1) had delivered a tank to the beach. The LCA crews manoeuvred their craft in the small hamlet to the vest of the village of Bjerkvik, the intended landing place, and under a slight rise in the ground in order to spare the soldiers casualties from opposing machine gun fire. Although touchdown was in the early hours of the new day the midnight sun illuminated the battle-field. Once ashore, the 13e DBLE's companies deployed to seize the high ground to the north and south of the town.

The MLCs, along with towed ship's boats and other landing craft types, then turned to landing the rest of 13e DBLE and its supporting elements.

The small flotilla of MLCs, LCAs and an LCM(1) had added greatly to the Allies' tactical latitude.

All the MLCs used at Narvik were lost in operations, fell victim to the sea and weather, or were destroyed and abandoned before the Allied withdrawal.

### Dunkirk

Two motor landing craft participated in Operation Dynamo, evacuating soldiers of the British Expeditionary Force off the beaches to the east of Dunkirk harbour. The MLCs worked alongside an LCM(1) and a number of LCAs. MLC12 was abandoned at Dunkirk on 2 June 1940, and a day later MLC17 met the same fate.

Notes Citations  1. Maund, p. 5
2. Buffetaut, p. 33
3. Maund, p.4
4. Buffetaut, p 33
5. Bruce, p. 11
6. Buffetaut, p.34
7. Fergusson, p.43
8. Ladd, 1976, p.18
9. Maund, p. 37
10. Maund, p. 17
11. Maund, p. 33
12. Buffetaut 1994, p. 27
13. Maund 1949, p. 41
14. Maund, p. 41
15. Porch, p. 469
16. Maund, p. 42
17. "British vessels lost at sea in World War 2 - landing ships and craft, LSI, LST, LCT, LCG, LCV, LCVP etc".
* Bruce, Colin J *Invaders*, Chatham Publishing, London, 1999. ISBN 1-84067-533-0
* Buffetaut, Yves *D-Day Ships*, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-152-1
* The Chief of Combined Operations *Combined Operations Staff Notebook*, HMSO, 1945.
* Fergusson, Bernard *The Watery Maze; the story of Combined Operations*, Holt, New York, 1961.
* Ladd, JD *Assault From the Sea: 1939-1945*, Hippocrene Books, Inc., New York, 1976. ISBN 0-88254-392-X
* Ladd, James D. *Commandos and Rangers of World War 2* Macdonalds and Jane's, London, 1978. ISBN 0-356-08432-9.
* Ladd, JD *Royal Marine Commando*, Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., London, 1982. ISBN 0-600-34203-4
* Lavery, Brian *Assault Landing Craft*, Seaforth Publishing., Barnsley, UK, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84832-050-5
* Lund, Paul, and Ludlam, Harry *War of the Landing Craft*, New English Library, London 1976. ISBN 0-450-03039-3
* Maund, LEH *Assault From the Sea*, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London 1949.
* Saunders, Hilary A. St. George *Combined Operations: The Official Story of the Commandos*. New York: Macmillan, 1943.
* US Navy ONI 226 *Allied Landing Craft and Ships*, US Government Printing Office, 1944.

## InfoBox

| Motor landing craft prints from 1942 | |
| --- | --- |
| Class overview | |
| Name | Motor landing craft |
| Builders | J. Samuel White of Cowes |
| Operators | Royal Navy |
| Preceded by | Lighters and Horse Boats |
| Succeeded by | LCM (1) |
| Built | 1926–1938 |
| Completed | 9 |
| Lost | all (1939–1945) |
| General characteristics | |
| Type | Landing craft |
| Displacement | 20 long tons (20,321 kg) |
| Draught | 4.5 ft (1.4 m) |
| Ramps | 1 |
| Propulsion | 1x Hotchkiss petrol engine, water jet propulsion |
| Speed | 5–6 kn (9.3–11.1 km/h; 5.8–6.9 mph) |
| Capacity | 10 long tons (10,160 kg) |
| Armament | None |
| Armour | None 1926. In 1936, bulletproof plate added to steering shelter |


title: Van Beek

abstract:
Van Beek is a toponymic surname of (southern) Dutch origin. Though translating as "of the stream", the absence of an article suggests that the original bearer originated from a town called Beek rather than lived near a stream. There are several towns which are or were named Beek in Gelderland, Limburg and North Brabant and also one in the municipality Bree in Belgium near the Dutch border. The name is quite common in the Netherlands, ranking 38th in 2007. Related names include Beek, Van Beeck, Ter Beek, Van der Beek, and Verbeek. People with this surname include:
  - Arie van Beek, Dutch conductor
  - Bernard van Beek (1875–1941), Dutch landscape painter
  - Gijs van Beek, Dutch sport shooter
  - Gys van Beek (1919–2015), Dutch resistance member and American inventor
  - Harold van Beek, Dutch racewalker
  - Jackie van Beek, New Zealand film director, writer and actress
  - Jan van Beek (1880–1954), Dutch footballer
  - Logan van Beek, New Zealand-born Dutch cricketer
  - Lotte van Beek, Dutch speed skater
  - Martin van Beek, Dutch politician
  - Rinus van Beek (1947–2018), Dutch swimmer
  - Rob Van Beek, Canadian lacrosse player
  - Sven van Beek, Dutch footballer
  - Svenja van Beek, Dutch pop singer
  - Willibrord van Beek, Dutch politician
  - Bontjes van Beek
  - Cato Bontjes van Beek (1920–1943), German resistance member
  - Van Beeck
  - Franz Jozef van Beeck (1930–2011), Dutch Jesuit theologian
  -
  - Von Beeck
  - Peter von Beeck, German (Aachen) historian

text:
# Van Beek

**Van Beek** is a toponymic surname of (southern) Dutch origin. Though translating as "of the stream", the absence of an article suggests that the original bearer originated from a town called Beek rather than lived near a stream. There are several towns which are or were named Beek in Gelderland, Limburg and North Brabant and also one in the municipality Bree in Belgium near the Dutch border. The name is quite common in the Netherlands, ranking 38th in 2007 (17,148 people). Related names include Beek, *Van Beeck*, *Ter Beek*, *Van der Beek*, and *Verbeek*. People with this surname include:

Bontjes van Beek Van Beeck *

Von Beeck


title: Van Beethoven (train)

abstract: The Van Beethoven was an international train linking the Dutch capital Amsterdam and the West German capital Bonn. The train was named after the Bonn-born composer Ludwig van Beethoven. The Van Beethoven was the successor of the TEE Rhein–Main on the same route and schedule. The route of the Rhein–Main was shortened to Amsterdam - Bonn in the autumn of 1971, thus ending the relation with the Main eventually resulting in renaming the TEE to Van Beethoven. Travellers wanting to go to Frankfurt am Main in the evening could proceed from Bonn using the TEE Saphir arriving in Frankfurt eight minutes later than the former Rhein-Main. On request of German members of parliament the route was extended to Nürnberg in 1976, resulting in an arrival around 1:30 a.m. In 1978, the Deutsche Bundesbahn decided to reinstate the Amsterdam Frankfurt service with timed connections to Nürnberg arriving at a decent time (23:58). On 26 May 1979, the Van Beethoven was converted in a two-class InterCity. The Van Beethoven was continued as international service until 1983 and afterwards served several different routes in Germany until the end of 2002.

text:
# Van Beethoven (train)

The ***Van Beethoven*** was an international train linking the Dutch capital Amsterdam and the West German capital Bonn. The train was named after the Bonn-born composer Ludwig van Beethoven.

The *Van Beethoven* was the successor of the *TEE Rhein–Main* on the same route and schedule. The route of the *Rhein–Main* was shortened to Amsterdam - Bonn in the autumn of 1971, thus ending the relation with the Main eventually resulting in renaming the TEE to *Van Beethoven*. Travellers wanting to go to Frankfurt am Main in the evening could proceed from Bonn using the TEE Saphir arriving in Frankfurt eight minutes later than the former *Rhein-Main*. On request of German members of parliament the route was extended to Nürnberg in 1976, resulting in an arrival around 1:30 a.m.

In 1978, the Deutsche Bundesbahn decided to reinstate the Amsterdam Frankfurt service with timed connections to Nürnberg arriving at a decent time (23:58). On 26 May 1979, the *Van Beethoven* was converted in a two-class InterCity. The *Van Beethoven* was continued as international service until 1983 and afterwards served several different routes in Germany until the end of 2002.

## Works cited

* Hajt, Jörg (2001). *Das grosse TEE Buch* (in German). Bonn/Königswinter: Heel Verlag. ISBN 3-89365-948-X.
* Mertens, Maurice; Malaspina, Jean-Pierre (2007). *La Légende des Trans Europ Express* (in French). Vannes: LR Presse. ISBN 978-29-036514-5-9.
* Goette, Peter (2008). *TEE-Züge in Deutschland* (in German). Freiburg: EK-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-88255-698-8.

## InfoBox

Van Beethoven
| Overview | |
| --- | --- |
| Service type | Trans Europ Express (TEE)
(1972–1979)
InterCity(IC)
(1979– 2002) |
| Locale | Germany
Netherlands |
| Predecessor | *TEE Rhein - Main* |
| First service | 28 May 1972 (1972-05-28) |
| Last service | 14 December 2002 (2002-12-14) |
| Current operator(s) | Deutsche Bundesbahn
Deutsche Bahn |
| Technical | |
| Track gauge | 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+12 in) |
| Electrification | 1500 V DC (Netherlands)
15 kV 16,7 Hz (Germany) |
| Route map | |


title: Granulifusus pulchellus

abstract: Granulifusus pulchellus is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Fasciolariidae, the spindle snails, the tulip snails and their allies.

text:
# Granulifusus pulchellus

***Granulifusus pulchellus*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Fasciolariidae, the spindle snails, the tulip snails and their allies.

## Description

## Distribution

* Hadorn R. & Chino M. 2005. *A new Granulifusus (Gastropoda: Fasciolariidae) from Japan*. Novapex 6(4): 111-113

## InfoBox

| *Granulifusus pulchellus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Fasciolariidae |
| Genus: | *Granulifusus* |
| Species: | ***G. pulchellus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Granulifusus pulchellus***<br>Hadorn & Chino, 2005 | |
|


title: Motor system

abstract: The motor system is the set of central and peripheral structures in the nervous system that support motor functions, i.e. movement. Peripheral structures may include skeletal muscles and neural connections with muscle tissues. Central structures include cerebral cortex, brainstem, spinal cord, pyramidal system including the upper motor neurons, extrapyramidal system, cerebellum, and the lower motor neurons in the brainstem and the spinal cord. The motor system is a biological system with close ties to the muscular system and the circulatory system. To achieve motor skill, the motor system must accommodate the working state of the muscles, whether hot or cold, stiff or loose, as well as physiological fatigue.

text:
# Motor system

The **motor system** is the set of central and peripheral structures in the nervous system that support motor functions, i.e. movement. Peripheral structures may include skeletal muscles and neural connections with muscle tissues. Central structures include cerebral cortex, brainstem, spinal cord, pyramidal system including the upper motor neurons, extrapyramidal system, cerebellum, and the lower motor neurons in the brainstem and the spinal cord.

The motor system is a biological system with close ties to the muscular system and the circulatory system. To achieve motor skill, the motor system must accommodate the working state of the muscles, whether hot or cold, stiff or loose, as well as physiological fatigue.

## Pyramidal motor system

The pyramidal motor system, also called the pyramidal tract or the corticospinal tract, start in the motor center of the cerebral cortex. There are upper and lower motor neurons in the corticospinal tract. The motor impulses originate in the giant pyramidal cells or Betz cells of the motor area; i.e., precentral gyrus of cerebral cortex. These are the upper motor neurons (UMN) of the corticospinal tract. The axons of these cells pass in the depth of the cerebral cortex to the corona radiata and then to the internal capsule, passing through the posterior branch of internal capsule and continuing to descend in the midbrain and the medulla oblongata. In the lower part of the medulla oblongata, 90–95% of these fibers decussate (pass to the opposite side) and descend in the white matter of the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord on the opposite side. The remaining 5–10% pass to the same side. Fibers for the extremities (limbs) pass 100% to the opposite side. The fibers of the corticospinal tract terminate at different levels in the anterior horn of the grey matter of the spinal cord. Here, the lower motor neurons (LMN) of the corticospinal cord are located. Peripheral motor nerves carry the motor impulses from the anterior horn to the voluntary muscles.

## Extrapyramidal motor system

The extrapyramidal motor system consists of motor-modulation systems, particularly the basal ganglia and cerebellum. For information, see extrapyramidal system.


title: Motor theory of speech perception

abstract: The motor theory of speech perception is the hypothesis that people perceive spoken words by identifying the vocal tract gestures with which they are pronounced rather than by identifying the sound patterns that speech generates. It originally claimed that speech perception is done through a specialized module that is innate and human-specific. Though the idea of a module has been qualified in more recent versions of the theory, the idea remains that the role of the speech motor system is not only to produce speech articulations but also to detect them. The hypothesis has gained more interest outside the field of speech perception than inside. This has increased particularly since the discovery of mirror neurons that link the production and perception of motor movements, including those made by the vocal tract. The theory was initially proposed in the Haskins Laboratories in the 1950s by Alvin Liberman and Franklin S. Cooper, and developed further by Donald Shankweiler, Michael Studdert-Kennedy, Ignatius Mattingly, Carol Fowler and Douglas Whalen.

text:
# Motor theory of speech perception

The **motor theory of speech perception** is the hypothesis that people perceive spoken words by identifying the vocal tract gestures with which they are pronounced rather than by identifying the sound patterns that speech generates. It originally claimed that speech perception is done through a specialized module that is innate and human-specific. Though the idea of a module has been qualified in more recent versions of the theory, the idea remains that the role of the speech motor system is not only to produce speech articulations but also to detect them.

The hypothesis has gained more interest outside the field of speech perception than inside. This has increased particularly since the discovery of mirror neurons that link the production and perception of motor movements, including those made by the vocal tract. The theory was initially proposed in the Haskins Laboratories in the 1950s by Alvin Liberman and Franklin S. Cooper, and developed further by Donald Shankweiler, Michael Studdert-Kennedy, Ignatius Mattingly, Carol Fowler and Douglas Whalen.

## Origins and development

The hypothesis has its origins in research using pattern playback to create reading machines for the blind that would substitute sounds for orthographic letters. This led to a close examination of how spoken sounds correspond to the acoustic spectrogram of them as a sequence of auditory sounds. This found that successive consonants and vowels overlap in time with one another (a phenomenon known as coarticulation). This suggested that speech is not heard like an acoustic "alphabet" or "cipher," but as a "code" of overlapping speech gestures.

### Associationist approach

Initially, the theory was associationist: infants mimic the speech they hear and that this leads to behavioristic associations between articulation and its sensory consequences. Later, this overt mimicry would be short-circuited and become speech perception. This aspect of the theory was dropped, however, with the discovery that prelinguistic infants could already detect most of the phonetic contrasts used to separate different speech sounds.

### Cognitivist approach

The behavioristic approach was replaced by a cognitivist one in which there was a speech module. The module detected speech in terms of hidden distal objects rather than at the proximal or immediate level of their input. The evidence for this was the research finding that speech processing was special such as duplex perception.

### Changing distal objects

Initially, speech perception was assumed to link to speech objects that were both

* the invariant movements of speech articulators
* the invariant motor commands sent to muscles to move the vocal tract articulators

This was later revised to include the phonetic gestures rather than motor commands, and then the gestures intended by the speaker at a prevocal, linguistic level, rather than actual movements.

### Modern revision

The "speech is special" claim has been dropped, as it was found that speech perception could occur for nonspeech sounds (for example, slamming doors for duplex perception).

### Mirror neurons

The discovery of mirror neurons has led to renewed interest in the motor theory of speech perception, and the theory still has its advocates, although there are also critics.

## Support

### Nonauditory gesture information

If speech is identified in terms of how it is physically made, then nonauditory information should be incorporated into speech percepts even if it is still subjectively heard as "sounds". This is, in fact, the case.

* The McGurk effect shows that seeing the production of a spoken syllable that differs from an auditory cue synchronized with it affects the perception of the auditory one. In other words, if someone hears "ba" but sees a video of someone pronouncing "ga", what they hear is differentsome people believe they hear "da".
* People find it easier to hear speech in noise if they can see the speaker.
* People can hear syllables better when their production can be felt haptically.

### Categorical perception

Using a speech synthesizer, speech sounds can be varied in place of articulation along a continuum from /bɑ/ to /dɑ/ to /ɡɑ/, or in voice onset time on a continuum from /dɑ/ to /tɑ/ (for example). When listeners are asked to discriminate between two different sounds, they perceive sounds as belonging to discrete categories, even though the sounds vary continuously. In other words, 10 sounds (with the sound on one extreme being /dɑ/ and the sound on the other extreme being /tɑ/, and the ones in the middle varying on a scale) may all be acoustically different from one another, but the listener will hear all of them as either /dɑ/ or /tɑ/. Likewise, the English consonant /d/ may vary in its acoustic details across different phonetic contexts (the /d/ in /du/ does not technically sound the same as the one in /di/, for example), but all /d/'s as perceived by a listener fall within one category (voiced alveolar plosive) and that is because "linguistic representations are abstract, canonical, phonetic segments or the gestures that underlie these segments." This suggests that humans identify speech using categorical perception, and thus that a specialized module, such as that proposed by the motor theory of speech perception, may be on the right track.

### Speech imitation

If people can hear the gestures in speech, then the imitation of speech should be very fast, as in when words are repeated that are heard in headphones as in speech shadowing. People can repeat heard syllables more quickly than they would be able to produce them normally.

### Speech production

* Hearing speech activates vocal tract muscles, and the motor cortex and premotor cortex. The integration of auditory and visual input in speech perception also involves such areas.
* Disrupting the premotor cortex disrupts the perception of speech units such as plosives.
* The activation of the motor areas occurs in terms of the phonemic features which link with the vocal track articulators that create speech gestures.
* The perception of a speech sound is aided by pre-emptively stimulating the motor representation of the articulators responsible for its pronunciation .
* Auditory and motor cortical coupling is restricted to a specific range of neuronal firing frequency.

### Perception-action meshing

Evidence exists that perception and production are generally coupled in the motor system. This is supported by the existence of mirror neurons that are activated both by seeing (or hearing) an action and when that action is carried out. Another source of evidence is that for common coding theory between the representations used for perception and action.

## Criticisms

The motor theory of speech perception is not widely held in the field of speech perception, though it is more popular in other fields, such as theoretical linguistics. As three of its advocates have noted, "it has few proponents within the field of speech perception, and many authors cite it primarily to offer critical commentary".p. 361 Several critiques of it exist.

### Multiple sources

Speech perception is affected by nonproduction sources of information, such as context. Individual words are hard to understand in isolation but easy when heard in sentence context. It therefore seems that speech perception uses multiple sources that are integrated together in an optimal way.

### Production

The motor theory of speech perception would predict that speech motor abilities in infants predict their speech perception abilities, but in actuality it is the other way around. It would also predict that defects in speech production would impair speech perception, but they do not. However, this only affects the first and already superseded behaviorist version of the theory, where infants were supposed to learn *all* production-perception patterns by imitation early in childhood. This is no longer the mainstream view of motor-speech theorists.

### Speech module

Several sources of evidence for a specialized speech module have failed to be supported.

* Duplex perception can be observed with door slams.
* The McGurk effect can also be achieved with nonlinguistic stimuli, such as showing someone a video of a basketball bouncing but playing the sound of a ping-pong ball bouncing.
* As for categorical perception, listeners can be sensitive to acoustic differences within single phonetic categories.

As a result, this part of the theory has been dropped by some researchers.

### Sublexical tasks

The evidence provided for the motor theory of speech perception is limited to tasks such as syllable discrimination that use speech units not full spoken words or spoken sentences. As a result, "speech perception is sometimes interpreted as referring to the perception of speech at the sublexical level. However, the ultimate goal of these studies is presumably to understand the neural processes supporting the ability to process speech sounds under ecologically valid conditions, that is, situations in which successful speech sound processing ultimately leads to contact with the mental lexicon and auditory comprehension." This however creates the problem of " a tenuous connection to their implicit target of investigation, speech recognition".

## Birds

It has been suggested that birds also hear each other's bird song in terms of vocal gestures.


title: Vellan Kumaran

abstract: Vellan Kumaran, diksa name Chaturanana Pandita, was a Kerala commander in the Chola army and a close confidant of prince Rajaditya. He was probably one of the few Chola commanders to have survived the battle of Takkolam in 948/49 AD. Kumaran is best known for engraving his own tragic autobiography in an inscription at Tiruvotriyur, Madras. Kumaran was the son of Rajasekhara, the chieftain of Valluvanatu in Kerala. He is also described as a native of "Nandikkarai Puttur" in Kerala. The inscriptions say that he went to Chola country after completing education in his boyhood and became a commander to prince Rajaditya in the Chola army. After the battle of Takkolam, he became an ascetic and settled at Tiruvotriyur as the disciple of certain Niranjana Guru. Eventually Kumaran, now known as Chaturanana Pandita, became the founder of a matha at Tiruvotriyur. The true significance of the life of Kumaran was discovered by historian V. Raghavan.

text:
# Vellan Kumaran

**Vellan Kumaran** (*fl.* mid-10th century AD), diksa name **Chaturanana Pandita**, was a Kerala commander in the Chola army and a close confidant of prince Rajaditya. He was probably one of the few Chola commanders to have survived the battle of Takkolam in 948/49 AD. Kumaran is best known for engraving his own tragic autobiography in an inscription at Tiruvotriyur, Madras (around 10 years after he had become an ascetic).

Kumaran was the son of Rajasekhara, the chieftain of Valluvanatu in Kerala. He is also described as a native of "Nandikkarai Puttur" in Kerala. The inscriptions say that he went to Chola country after completing education in his boyhood and became a commander to prince Rajaditya in the Chola army. After the battle of Takkolam, he became an ascetic and settled at Tiruvotriyur as the disciple of certain Niranjana Guru. Eventually Kumaran, now known as Chaturanana Pandita, became the founder of a matha (the Kalamukha monastery) at Tiruvotriyur.

The true significance of the life of Kumaran was discovered by historian V. Raghavan.

## Background

### Chola defeat at Takkolam

The battle of Takkolam (948/49 AD) was a military engagement between a contingent of troops led by Chola prince Rajaditya and another led by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (939–967 AD). The battle resulted in the death of Rajaditya on the battlefield and the defeat of the Chola garrison at Takkolam.

The Rashtrakutas conquered eastern and northern parts of the Chola empire and advanced up to Rameswaram. As per the Karhad copper plates of Krishna III (959 AD) the king "uprooted the Cholas, distributed their territory among his followers, and extracted tribute from the Chera and Pandya kings" during his campaign. The Sravana Belgola record of Ganga king Marasimha (963 - 975 AD) also claims victory of the Chera king for his predecessor Bhutuga II.

The death of prince Rajaditya is unusually commemorated by the Cholas. The Chola version of the events can be found in Larger Leiden Grant (1006 CE) of Rajaraja I and Tiruvalangadu Plates (1018 CE) of Rajendra I.

### Kerala military personnel at Takkolam

Prince Rajaditya was the son of the Ko Kizhan Atikal, the Chera/Perumal princess, and the Chola king Parantaka I (907–955 AD). It is known that the Ko Kizhan Atikal, mother of prince Rajaditya, was present at Rajadityapura (Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur) (in the 28th year of Parantaka, c. 935 AD) with her entire entourage for some time.

Prince Rajaditya commanded a whole contingent of Kerala military personnel in Tirumunaippati Natu as early as the 930s.

| Country | Chiefdom or clan name | Location inside chiefdom | Name |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Malaiyala | Maluvacchar (Kizhamalai Natu?) |  | Attankan Chattan |
| Malaiyala | Netunkalai Natu | Isanamangalam (Iswaramangalam?) | Manavallan Kannan |
| Malaiyala |  |  | Iravi Kotai |
| Malaiyala | Netumpuraiyur Natu (Netumpuram Tali) | Vakkanatu, Mankarai | Kantan Kaman |
| Malaiyala | Kantiyur Vel Kula (Venatu?) |  | Sundaran |
| Malaiyala |  | Tirukunrappozha (Thrikkunnappuzha) | Parivarattu Chevakan, Chenta Kumaran |
| Malai Natu | Matai Vazhkai |  | Iyakkan Iraman |

According to historians, the mid-10th century witnessed a large migration of Kerala people into the Chola country in search of "commercial profit and military adventure". A warrior known as Malaiyana Otrai Chevakan shows up in the army of prince Arikulaseri from a record from Kizhur, South Arcot. Several merchants from Kodungallur in Malai Natu are present in inscriptions from Kudumiya Malai (Pudukkottah), Tirucchanur (South Arcot), Udaiyargudi (South Arcot), Tirumalpurarm (North Arcot) and Tiruvenkatu.

## Inscriptions of Vellan Kumaran or Chaturanana Pandita

### As Vellan Kumaran

| Inscription | Date | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Gramam, South Arcot | 29th regnal year of Parantaka I (936 AD) | * Records a gift of sheep for perpetual lamp in the shrine of Srimulasthanattu Mahadeva at Atrutali in Tirumutiyur by Vellan Kumaran of Nandikkarai Puttur in Malai Natu (who was a commander - perumpatai nayakan - of prince Rajaditya). |
| Gramam, South Arcot | 36th regnal year of Parantaka I (943 AD) * Kali Year - 4044 * Kali Day - 1477037 | * Vellan Kumaran, the Kerala commander of prince Rajaditya, built a stone temple of Atruttali Mahadeva at Mauligrama (Mutiyur) on the Pennai river. * Adjectives of Vellan Kumaran - "Chamu Nayaka", "Cholarkal Mulabhrtya", "Perumpatai Nayaka" and "Uttamah Keralanam". * Birthplace is mentioned as "Puttur". |

### As Chaturanana Pandita (Valabha Guha)

| Inscription | Date | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Tiruvotriyur, Madras |  | * Chaturanana Pandita as the recipient of a donation to the temple. |
| Tiruvotriyur, Madras |  | * Found on a slab in the floor of Shiva temple at Tiruvotriyur. * Described as "Valabha Rashtra Natha". * Says that Valabha, resembling god Guha (Kumaran), son of Rajasekhara, chieftain of Vallabha Rashtra in Kerala, went to Chola country after completing education (in his boyhood) and became a loyal subordinate of Rajaditya. * Since Valabha was not fortunate enough to die along with his master (in the battle of Takkolam), he felt that he had disgraced his caste, (Vallabha) family, father (Rajasekhara) and master (Rajaditya) by his action and turned away from life. After the bath at Triveni (on the Ganges) he accepted vratas from Niranjana Guru and assumed the name of Chaturanana. * Chaturanana donated 100 nishkas (pieces) of gold to the sabha of Narasimha Mangalam (an agrahara) on his birthday on dhanishta naksatra. * The interest (three mashas per nishka per year) on the 100 nishkas gold was to fund the performance of a special puja to Siva at Tiruvotriyur on the occasion of his natal constellation, the dhanishta naksatra. * Chaturanana Pandita is described as chief abbot of the Kalamukha Saiva monastery in Tiruvotriyur |

## InfoBox

| Vellan Kumaran | |
| --- | --- |
| Tiruvorriyur Inscription of Chaturanana Pandita | |
| Nickname(s) | Chaturanana Pandita |
| Born | Nandikkarai Puttur (Kerala) |
| Allegiance | Chola Empire |
| Rank | Perumpatai Nayaka |
| Battles/wars | Battle of Takkolam (948–49 CE) |
| Relations | Rajasekhara (father, chieftain of Valluvanatu) |


title: Vellamperambur

abstract: Vellamperambur is a village in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India.

text:
# Vellamperambur

**Vellamperambur** is a village in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India.

## InfoBox

| Vellamperambur | |
| --- | --- |
| village | |
| Coordinates: 10°50′35″N 79°03′20″E / 10.84306°N 79.05556°E / 10.84306; 79.05556 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Tamil Nadu |
| District | Thanjavur |
| Languages | |
| Official | Tamil |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |


title: Vardges Ulubabyan

abstract:
Vardges Ulubabyan is a Deputy to Nagorno-Karabakh legislature.
He is also the director of the Nagorno-Karabakh State Archives.
In September 2011 he led a diplomatic mission to Transnistria.

text:
# Vardges Ulubabyan

**Vardges Ulubabyan** is a Deputy to Nagorno-Karabakh legislature. He is also the director of the Nagorno-Karabakh State Archives. In September 2011 he led a diplomatic mission to Transnistria.

1. "About the Meetings of the Leadership of the PMR's MFA with Foreign Delegations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
2. "Republic's Guests: In Pridnestrovie One Can Learn Tolerance and Respect for Personality of an Individual". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. 2011-09-03. Retrieved 2013-10-17.

## InfoBox

| Vardges Ulubabyan | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Nagorno-Karabakh |
| Occupation | legislator |


title: Graves of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine

abstract: The Graves of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine are several burial mounds dating from the 6th century BC, located near the town of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine in the Côte-d'Or department in eastern France.

text:
# Graves of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine

The **Graves of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine** are several burial mounds dating from the 6th century BC, located near the town of Sainte-Colombe-sur-Seine in the Côte-d'Or department in eastern France.

## Description

The burials are associated with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture. In the 19th century they were excavated at the request of Napoleon III, revealing elite wagon burials containing gold jewellery and prestigious imported artefacts. The first to be excavated, located at La Garenne, provided a magnificent bronze lebes of Etruscan origin, which is now displayed in the Musée du Pays Châtillonnais in Châtillon-sur-Seine. In another, at La Butte, gold bracelets and earrings were discovered in the grave of a woman who had been laid to rest on a luxurious iron-clad funerary wagon. These gold items are now kept at the National Archeological Museum in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

In the middle of the 20th century René Joffroy (1958) postulated that the elites buried under the tumuli of La Butte and La Garenne had Mont Lassois as their place of residence. However, geomagnetic surveys carried out in 2015 revealed the presence of several large buildings in the vicinity of the Sainte-Colombe burial mounds, apparently belonging to a single architectural complex, suggesting that elites may have also lived nearby.


title: Gravesano

abstract: Gravesano is a municipality in the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

text:
# Gravesano

**Gravesano** is a municipality in the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

## History

Gravesano is first mentioned in 1254 as *de Gravaxana*.

Gravesano also includes the hamlet of Grumo, that was home to a medieval castle that ruled over both villages as well as Manno and Bedano. The castle, which was on the road from Ponte Tresa to Monte Ceneri Pass, was visited in 1004 by Emperor Henry II and later by Frederick Barbarossa during his Italy campaign in 1162. The monastery of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro of Pavia and the Bishop of Como both held property and rights in Gravesano. The S. Pietro parish, which also included Manno and Bedano, was set up in 1609 in Gravesano. The church is mentioned in 1192, and the present building dates from the late 16th Century. In 1893, the Foundation Matteo Rusca established a secondary school and art school in the village.

The former farming village of Gravesano has, in recent decades, seen a strong growth in the industrial, trade and services sectors. This development was influenced by the inclusion of the municipality in the growing belt of suburbs around Lugano as well as the proximity to the A2 motorway and the Swiss Federal Railways tracks leading to the freight station of Bioggio.

## Geography

Gravesano has an area, as of 1997, of 0.69 square kilometers (0.27 sq mi). Of this area, 0.4 km2 (0.15 sq mi) or 58.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.16 km2 (0.062 sq mi) or 23.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.33 km2 (0.13 sq mi) or 47.8% is settled (buildings or roads).

Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 2.9% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 36.2% and transportation infrastructure made up 4.3%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.4% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 2.9%. Out of the forested land, 17.4% of the total land area is heavily forested and 5.8% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 20.3% is used for growing crops, while 1.4% is used for orchards or vine crops and 36.2% is used for alpine pastures.

The municipality is located in the Lugano district, in the mid-Vedeggio valley. It consists of Gravesano and the hamlet of Grumo.

## Coat of arms

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is *Azure a sword downpointing argent hilted and pommed or between two keys of the second wards down and inwards.* The key and sword are the attributes of the patron saints of the church, St. Peter and St. Paul.

## Demographics

Gravesano has a population (as of December 2020) of 1,359. As of 2008, 16.3% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of 7.7%.

Most of the population (as of 2000) speaks Italian (87.9%), with German being second most common (8.2%) and French being third (1.2%). Of the Swiss national languages (as of 2000), 84 speak German, 12 people speak French, 898 people speak Italian. The remainder (28 people) speak another language.

As of 2008, the gender distribution of the population was 48.5% male and 51.5% female. The population was made up of 477 Swiss men (39.9% of the population), and 102 (8.5%) non-Swiss men. There were 535 Swiss women (44.8%), and 80 (6.7%) non-Swiss women.

In 2008 there were 17 live births to Swiss citizens and 1 birth to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 9 deaths of Swiss citizens. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 8 while the foreign population increased by 1. There were 2 Swiss men and 3 Swiss women who immigrated back to Switzerland. At the same time, there was 1 non-Swiss man and 6 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 40 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 6 people. This represents a population growth rate of 4.0%.

The age distribution, as of 2009, in Gravesano is; 128 children or 10.7% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 120 teenagers or 10.1% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 116 people or 9.7% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 173 people or 14.5% are between 30 and 39, 207 people or 17.3% are between 40 and 49, and 156 people or 13.1% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 156 people or 13.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 91 people or 7.6% are between 70 and 79, there are 47 people or 3.9% who are over 80.

As of 2000, there were 402 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. In 2000 there were 214 single family homes (or 71.1% of the total) out of a total of 301 inhabited buildings. There were 53 two family buildings (17.6%) and 26 multi-family buildings (8.6%). There were also 8 buildings in the municipality that were multipurpose buildings (used for both housing and commercial or another purpose).

The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2008, was 0%. In 2000 there were 468 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was the 4 room apartment of which there were 172. There were 9 single room apartments and 172 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 401 apartments (85.7% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 61 apartments (13.0%) were seasonally occupied and 6 apartments (1.3%) were empty. As of 2007, the construction rate of new housing units was 6.1 new units per 1000 residents.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

## Politics

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the FDP which received 32.27% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Ticino League (20.18%), the SP (17.91%) and the CVP (14.68%). In the federal election, a total of 370 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 47.8%.

In the 2007 *Gran Consiglio* election, there were a total of 775 registered voters in Gravesano, of which 489 or 63.1% voted. 2 blank ballots were cast, leaving 487 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 153 or 31.4% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the LEGA (with 92 or 18.9%), the SSI (with 83 or 17.0%) and the PPD+GenGiova (with 57 or 11.7%).

In the 2007 *Consiglio di Stato* election, 2 blank ballots and 2 null ballots were cast, leaving 485 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 151 or 31.1% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the LEGA (with 124 or 25.6%), the SSI (with 62 or 12.8%) and the PPD (with 59 or 12.2%).

## Economy

As of  2007, Gravesano had an unemployment rate of 4.48%. As of 2005, there were people employed in the primary economic sector and about businesses involved in this sector. 186 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 14 businesses in this sector. 348 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 36 businesses in this sector. There were 498 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 38.8% of the workforce.

In 2000, there were 546 workers who commuted into the municipality and 405 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 29.1% of the workforce coming into Gravesano are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 10.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 71.7% used a private car.

## Religion

From the 2000 census, 791 or 77.4% were Roman Catholic, while 81 or 7.9% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There are 135 individuals (or about 13.21% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), and 15 individuals (or about 1.47% of the population) did not answer the question.

## Education

The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Gravesano about 77.1% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a *Fachhochschule*).

In Gravesano there were a total of 207 students (as of 2009). The Ticino education system provides up to three years of non-mandatory kindergarten and in Gravesano there were 44 children in kindergarten. The primary school program lasts for five years and includes both a standard school and a special school. In the municipality, 65 students attended the standard primary schools and 2 students attended the special school. In the lower secondary school system, students either attend a two-year middle school followed by a two-year pre-apprenticeship or they attend a four-year program to prepare for higher education. There were 49 students in the two-year middle school, while 17 students were in the four-year advanced program.

The upper secondary school includes several options, but at the end of the upper secondary program, a student will be prepared to enter a trade or to continue on to a university or college. In Ticino, vocational students may either attend school while working on their internship or apprenticeship (which takes three or four years) or may attend school followed by an internship or apprenticeship (which takes one year as a full-time student or one and a half to two years as a part-time student). There were 11 vocational students who were attending school full-time and 16 who attend part-time.

The professional program lasts three years and prepares a student for a job in engineering, nursing, computer science, business, tourism and similar fields. There were 3 students in the professional program.

As of 2000, there were 289 students in Gravesano who came from another municipality, while 111 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

## InfoBox

| Gravesano | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
|  | |
| Location of Gravesano | |
| GravesanoGravesano | |
| Coordinates: 46°3′N 8°55′E / 46.050°N 8.917°E / 46.050; 8.917 | |
| Country | Switzerland |
| Canton | Ticino |
| District | Lugano |
| Government | |
| Mayor | *Sindaco* |
| Area | |
| Total | 0.6 km2 (0.2 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 387 m (1,270 ft) |
| Population (31 December 2018) | |
| Total | 1,386 |
| Density | 2,300/km2 (6,000/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (Central European Time) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (Central European Summer Time) |
| Postal code(s) | 6929 |
| SFOS number | 5187 |
| ISO 3166 code | CH-TI |
| Surrounded by | Alto Malcantone, Bedano, Lamone, Manno |
| Website | gravesano.ch
SFSO statistics |


title: Grays Harbor

abstract: Grays Harbor is an estuarine bay located 45 miles (72 km) north of the mouth of the Columbia River, on the southwest Pacific coast of Washington state, in the United States. It is a ria, which formed at the end of the last ice age, when sea levels flooded the Chehalis River. The bay is 17 miles (27 km) long and 12 miles (19 km) wide. The Chehalis River flows into its eastern end, where the city of Aberdeen stands at that river's mouth, on its north bank, with the somewhat smaller city of Hoquiam immediately to its northwest, along the bayshore. Besides the Chehalis, many lesser rivers and streams flow into Grays Harbor, such as the Hoquiam River and Humptulips River. A pair of low peninsulas separate it from the Pacific Ocean, except for an opening about two miles (3 km) in width. The northern peninsula, which is largely covered by the community of Ocean Shores, ends in Point Brown. Facing that across the bay-mouth is Point Chehalis, at the end of the southern peninsula upon which stands the town of Westport. Grays Harbor is named after Captain Robert Gray, who entered it on May 7, 1792, in the course of his fur-trading voyages along the north Pacific coast of North America. Gray named the bay Bullfinch Harbor, but it was afterward named Gray's Harbor by Captain George Vancouver, whose contemporaneous explorations of the region—the ships of the two captains had met at sea, only days earlier—were well publicised at the time, while Gray's voyages were not. Gray's Harbor was the name that stuck. A few days later, on May 11, Gray found a navigable channel into the estuary of the Columbia River, and sailed into it, the first white man known to have done so. Settlement of the area began in the early 1870s and was largely dependent on the lumber industry. As the forests of the eastern United States depleted, many loggers from the East and the Midwest migrated to the Grays Harbor area, as well as many Scandinavians and Finns from Europe. Grays Harbor National Wildlife Refuge is located on 1,500 acres (6.1 km⁲) of intertidal mudflats, salt marsh, and uplands around Hoquiam. The Daily Washingtonian was a daily newspaper in Grays Harbor founded by Otis M. Moore.

text:
# Grays Harbor

**Grays Harbor** is an estuarine bay located 45 miles (72 km) north of the mouth of the Columbia River, on the southwest Pacific coast of Washington state, in the United States. It is a ria, which formed at the end of the last ice age, when sea levels flooded the Chehalis River. The bay is 17 miles (27 km) long and 12 miles (19 km) wide. The Chehalis River flows into its eastern end, where the city of Aberdeen stands at that river's mouth, on its north bank, with the somewhat smaller city of Hoquiam immediately to its northwest, along the bayshore. Besides the Chehalis, many lesser rivers and streams flow into Grays Harbor, such as the Hoquiam River and Humptulips River. A pair of low peninsulas separate it from the Pacific Ocean, except for an opening about two miles (3 km) in width. The northern peninsula, which is largely covered by the community of Ocean Shores, ends in Point Brown. Facing that across the bay-mouth is Point Chehalis, at the end of the southern peninsula upon which stands the town of Westport.

Grays Harbor is named after Captain Robert Gray, who entered it on May 7, 1792, in the course of his fur-trading voyages along the north Pacific coast of North America. Gray named the bay Bullfinch Harbor, but it was afterward named Gray's Harbor by Captain George Vancouver, whose contemporaneous explorations of the region—the ships of the two captains had met at sea, only days earlier—were well publicised at the time, while Gray's voyages were not. Gray's Harbor was the name that stuck (the apostrophe was omitted under US Board on Geographic Names guidelines). A few days later, on May 11, Gray found a navigable channel into the estuary of the Columbia River, and sailed into it, the first white man known to have done so.

Settlement of the area began in the early 1870s and was largely dependent on the lumber industry. As the forests of the eastern United States depleted, many loggers from the East and the Midwest migrated to the Grays Harbor area, as well as many Scandinavians and Finns from Europe.

Grays Harbor National Wildlife Refuge is located on 1,500 acres (6.1 km2) of intertidal mudflats, salt marsh, and uplands around Hoquiam.

The *Daily Washingtonian* was a daily newspaper in Grays Harbor founded by Otis M. Moore.

## Islands and sandbars

Islands include:

Protection Island (46°56′39″N 124°07′34″W / 46.94417°N 124.12611°W / 46.94417; -124.12611) is listed by USGS, but as of 2018 is listed by the City of Ocean Shores as an accreted landform called Damon Point, a 61-acre (25 ha) park attached to Point Brown.

Named bars include Whitcomb Flats (46°54′39″N 124°04′54″W / 46.91083°N 124.08167°W / 46.91083; -124.08167), near Westport. A large unnamed bar or island (46°54′40″N 124°00′25″W / 46.911°N 124.007°W / 46.911; -124.007) also stands off of Markham at the mouth of Johns River.

Sand Island, Goose Island and Whitcomb Flats are included in Washington Natural Areas Program. Johns River Wildlife Area, managed by Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife, includes the Markham island.

## Historic events

In the early 20th century, Grays Harbor was the largest lumber shipyard in the world. The Industrial Workers of the World led strikes in the area in 1912, 1917, and 1923. Some of these labor actions were militant, such as an armed union ship in 1906 shooting at the *Fearless*, a scab ship.

The schooner *Annie Larsen* was seized at Grays Harbor on 25 June 1915 by US customs officials, later leading to what was at the time the most expensive trial in US legal history.

During World War II, harbor defenses including searchlights, 12-inch coast defense mortar, 155 mm howitzers and other guns were emplaced around Grays Harbor by Western Defense Command (see 56th Air Defense Artillery Regiment).

46°57′02″N 124°03′04″W / 46.95056°N 124.05111°W / 46.95056; -124.05111


title: Mount Hamilton (California)

abstract: Mount Hamilton is a mountain in the Diablo Range in Santa Clara County, California. The mountain's peak, at 4,265 feet (1,300 m), overlooks the heavily urbanized Santa Clara Valley and is the site of Lick Observatory, the world's first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory. The asteroid 452 Hamiltonia, discovered in 1899, is named after the mountain. Golden eagle nesting sites are found on the slopes of Mount Hamilton. On clear days, Mount Tamalpais, the Santa Cruz Mountains, Monterey Bay, the Monterey Peninsula, and even Yosemite National Park are visible from the summit of the mountain.

text:
# Mount Hamilton (California)

**Mount Hamilton** is a mountain in the Diablo Range in Santa Clara County, California. The mountain's peak, at 4,265 feet (1,300 m), overlooks the heavily urbanized Santa Clara Valley and is the site of Lick Observatory, the world's first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory. The asteroid 452 Hamiltonia, discovered in 1899, is named after the mountain. Golden eagle nesting sites are found on the slopes of Mount Hamilton. On clear days, Mount Tamalpais, the Santa Cruz Mountains, Monterey Bay, the Monterey Peninsula, and even Yosemite National Park are visible from the summit of the mountain.

## History

On August 26, 1861, while working for Josiah D. Whitney on the first California Geological Survey, William H. Brewer invited local San Jose preacher (and Brewer's personal friend) Laurentine Hamilton to join his company on a trek to a nearby summit. Nearing completion of their journey, Hamilton, in good humor, bounded for the summit ahead of the rest of the men and claimed his stake. In fact, Brewer suggested the mountain be named after Hamilton, only after Whitney declined to have the mountain named after him (a different mountain was later named Mount Whitney).

The Spanish name for Mt. Hamilton was the **Sierra de Santa Isabel** and the highest point was originally known as Mount Isabel instead of Mount Hamilton. William Henry Brewer and his fellow geologist, Charles F. Hoffmann, did not know it already had a name, and named it Mt. Hamilton, although they did place Isabel Valley on their map to the east. The "Hotel Santa Ysabel" was built on the road up the mountain in 1885 on Smith Creek. When in 1895, the USGS realized that the peak two miles southeast of Mt. Hamilton was as tall (4,193 ft or 1,278 m), they named it Mt. Isabel.

## Climate

These mountains are high enough to receive snowfall in the winter, perhaps up to a dozen times. Occasionally, when a cold, wet storm comes in from the Gulf of Alaska or Canada, Mt. Hamilton and the surrounding peaks get significant snowfall. In February 2001, 30 inches (76 cm) of snow fell, and in March 2006, the peak was left with over a foot (30 cm) of snow in one night.

The National Weather Service has had a cooperative weather station on the summit of Mount Hamilton almost since the time that the Lick Observatory opened. It has provided a glimpse of the extreme weather conditions that occur on the Diablo Range, especially in the winter months.

February is the coldest month on average on Mount Hamilton with an average high of 48.7 °F (9.3 °C) and an average low of 37.8 °F (3.2 °C). The warmest month on average is July with an average high of 78.7 °F (25.9 °C) and an average low of 65.1 °F (18.4 °C). Due to frequent thermal inversions during the summer, it is often warmer on Mount Hamilton than in San Jose. The record high temperature of 103 °F (39 °C) was on August 5, 1978. The record low temperature of 7 °F (−14 °C) was on December 21, 1990. The average days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher is 2.8 days. The average days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower is 44.9 days.

Annual precipitation averages 23.71 inches (602 mm). Measurable precipitation occurs on an average of 78.2 days each year. The most precipitation in a month was 21.55 inches (547 mm) in December 1955; no rainfall has been common during the summer months. The maximum rainfall in 24 hours was 6.87 inches (174 mm) on December 23, 1955.

Annual snowfall averages 18.1 inches (46 cm). The maximum snowfall in a year was 59.0 inches (150 cm) in 1955. The maximum snowfall in a month was 33.6 inches (85 cm) in January 1950. The 24-hour maximum snowfall of 16.0 inches (41 cm) occurred on April 10, 1965. The deepest daily snow depth was 24 inches (61 cm) in December 1970. Measurable snow has been recorded in every month from October through May.

| Climate data for Mount Hamilton, California (Station Elevation 4,206ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 74
(23) | 73
(23) | 77
(25) | 84
(29) | 91
(33) | 94
(34) | 100
(38) | 103
(39) | 99
(37) | 93
(34) | 81
(27) | 76
(24) | 103
(39) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 65.0
(18.3) | 63.8
(17.7) | 66.3
(19.1) | 72.3
(22.4) | 78.4
(25.8) | 85.5
(29.7) | 89.4
(31.9) | 89.0
(31.7) | 86.8
(30.4) | 80.3
(26.8) | 71.2
(21.8) | 63.3
(17.4) | 91.6
(33.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 49.6
(9.8) | 48.7
(9.3) | 51.2
(10.7) | 55.2
(12.9) | 62.3
(16.8) | 71.1
(21.7) | 78.7
(25.9) | 78.5
(25.8) | 74.5
(23.6) | 65.5
(18.6) | 54.7
(12.6) | 48.6
(9.2) | 61.6
(16.4) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 44.4
(6.9) | 43.2
(6.2) | 45.1
(7.3) | 48.0
(8.9) | 54.9
(12.7) | 63.5
(17.5) | 71.9
(22.2) | 71.5
(21.9) | 67.4
(19.7) | 58.9
(14.9) | 49.1
(9.5) | 43.3
(6.3) | 55.1
(12.8) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 39.1
(3.9) | 37.8
(3.2) | 38.9
(3.8) | 40.7
(4.8) | 47.4
(8.6) | 55.9
(13.3) | 65.1
(18.4) | 64.6
(18.1) | 60.3
(15.7) | 52.4
(11.3) | 43.4
(6.3) | 38.0
(3.3) | 48.6
(9.2) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | 25.7
(−3.5) | 25.6
(−3.6) | 26.4
(−3.1) | 27.6
(−2.4) | 32.8
(0.4) | 37.4
(3.0) | 50.2
(10.1) | 50.0
(10.0) | 41.4
(5.2) | 36.3
(2.4) | 29.8
(−1.2) | 25.6
(−3.6) | 21.6
(−5.8) |
| Record low °F (°C) | 10
(−12) | 12
(−11) | 17
(−8) | 19
(−7) | 25
(−4) | 28
(−2) | 34
(1) | 38
(3) | 35
(2) | 20
(−7) | 18
(−8) | 7
(−14) | 7
(−14) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 5.03
(128) | 4.79
(122) | 4.42
(112) | 2.22
(56) | 1.30
(33) | 0.28
(7.1) | 0.00
(0.00) | 0.05
(1.3) | 0.17
(4.3) | 1.34
(34) | 2.99
(76) | 4.72
(120) | 27.31
(694) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 4.2
(11) | 5.3
(13) | 3.8
(9.7) | 1.8
(4.6) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.0
(0.0) | 0.9
(2.3) | 2.1
(5.3) | 18.1
(46) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 12.1 | 11.9 | 11.2 | 8.4 | 5.5 | 2.0 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 4.3 | 8.5 | 12.1 | 78.2 |
| Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 2.3 | 2.6 | 2.3 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 10.8 |
| Source 1: NOAA | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Source 2: National Weather Service | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## Geography

### Copernicus Peak

Mount Hamilton is one summit along a mile-long ridge. Other than Hamilton, peaks along the ridge have astronomical names, such as Kepler. The highest peak on the ridge is **Copernicus Peak**, with elevation 4,360+ ft (1,330+ m). Copernicus Peak is located 0.8 miles (1.3 km) to the northeast from Mount Hamilton, and is the highest point in Santa Clara County. Unlike Mount Hamilton's limited prominence, Copernicus Peak has a prominence of 3,080 ft (940 m).

### Mount Hamilton Road

The sinuous 19-mile (31 km) Mt. Hamilton Road (part of State Route 130) is commonly used by bicyclists and motorcyclists. Built in 1875–76 in anticipation of the observatory, and the need to carry materials and equipment up the mountain in horse-drawn wagons, the grade seldom exceeds 6.5 percent. The road rises over 4,000 feet (1,200 m) in three long climbs from San Jose to the mountain top. On a clear day at the summit it is possible to see the Sierra Nevada.

Cyclists commonly use the road because of the long but not overly challenging nature of the climb, sparse vehicular traffic over most of its length, and the views of San Jose and the Santa Clara Valley below. There is an annual cycling challenge climb in April. Thanksgiving consistently draws hundreds of cyclists and is frequently the final climb in the annual Low-Key Hillclimb Series which attracts some of the region's best climbers.

The bicycle ride is just over 19 miles (31 km) from the Alum Rock Avenue junction. The upward trek is interrupted by two descents, first into Grant Ranch County Park, and again to cross Smith Creek. Quimby Road offers a shorter way from San Jose to Grant Ranch, but is considerably steeper. The main observatory building offers free 15-minute guided tours of the Great Lick refracting telescope.

## Geology and hydrology

Much of the foothill slopes of Mount Hamilton is underlain by Miocene age sandstone of the Briones formation: this bedrock is locally soft and weathered in the upper few feet, but grades locally to very hard at depth. Depth to groundwater on these foothill areas of Mount Hamilton is approximately 240 feet (73 m). The Babb Creek drainage comprises some of the watershed draining the slopes of Mount Hamilton. The Calaveras and Hayward active earthquake faults traverse the slopes of Mount Hamilton.

## Ecology and conservation

Several rare species can be seen on Mount Hamilton. The Mount Hamilton jewelflower (*Streptanthus callistus*) is endemic to the area. In June 2011, five juvenile California condors flew over Mt. Hamilton and landed on the Lick Observatory, the species' first sighting in the area in at least 30 years.

In 1978, California Department of Fish and Game warden Henry Coletto urged the department to choose the Mount Hamilton area as one of California's relocation sites under a new statewide effort to restore tule elk (*Cervus canadensis ssp. nannodes*).

The Nature Conservancy "Mount Hamilton Project" has acquired or put under conservation easement 100,000 acres (400 km2) of land towards its 500,000 acres (2,000 km2) goal for habitat conservation within a 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km2) area encompassing much of eastern Santa Clara County.

## The community

Mount Hamilton has its own zip code, 95140. It is generally open space with a population in 2000 of 35. Mount Hamilton Elementary was a small one classroom school that closed in 2006.

## InfoBox

| Mount Hamilton | |
| --- | --- |
| Sierra de Santa Isabel | |
| Lick Observatory is visible atop Mount Hamilton; hillsides show typical early-autumn golden (dry) vegetation | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 4,265 ft (1,300 m)NAVD 88 |
| Prominence | 16 m (52 ft) |
| Coordinates | 37°20′30.2″N 121°38′34.2″W / 37.341722°N 121.642833°W / 37.341722; -121.642833 |
| Geography | |
| Mount Hamilton | |
| Location | Santa Clara County, California, U.S. |
| Parent range | Diablo Range |
| Topo map | USGS Lick Observatory |
| Geology | |
| Age of rock | Upper Cretaceous |
| Climbing | |
| First ascent | 1861 |
| Easiest route | Hike |


title: Mount Hallgren

abstract: Mount Hallgren is a mountain, largely ice-covered, with a steep, rocky northern face, situated 27 nautical miles (50 km) southwest of the Neumayer Cliffs in the Kirwan Escarpment, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1949–1952) and additional air photos (1958–59), and named for Stig E. Hallgren, a photographer with the expedition.

text:
# Mount Hallgren

**Mount Hallgren** (73°23′S 3°22′W / 73.383°S 3.367°W / -73.383; -3.367) is a mountain, largely ice-covered, with a steep, rocky northern face, situated 27 nautical miles (50 km) southwest of the Neumayer Cliffs in the Kirwan Escarpment, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1949–1952) and additional air photos (1958–59), and named for Stig E. Hallgren, a photographer with the expedition.

This article incorporates public domain material from "Hallgren, Mount". *Geographic Names Information System*. United States Geological Survey.