title: Melathiruppanthuruthi

abstract: Melathiruppanthuruthi is a panchayat town in Thanjavur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.South India's Cleanest town panchayat and best in Solid waste management in south zone awarded by central government of India 2019-2020.

text:
# Melathiruppanthuruthi

**Melathiruppanthuruthi** is a panchayat town in Thanjavur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.South India's Cleanest town panchayat and best in Solid waste management in south zone awarded by central government of India (swachh survekshan) 2019-2020 (under 25000 population category).

## Geography

Melathiruppanthuruthi(MTT) is located in latitude and longitude of 10.865887,79.079075. keela thiruppanthruthi in the east and Thiruvalam pozhil in the west side and Kudamurutti river in the south side. Kudamurutti river water is the major sources for Drinking, agriculture and other uses for the entire village.

### Geology

Melathiruppanthuruthi is situated in the bank of Kudamurutti river, a tributary of the Kaveri, is one of the five sacred rivers flows between Thiruvaiyaru and Thanjavur District. Soil is fertile and highly suited for cultivation. Most of the population are depend upon farming as regular income .

## Demographics

### Population

As of 2019 India census, Melathiruppanthuruthi had a population of 25000. Males constitute 47.43% of the population and females 52.56%. Melathiruppanthuruthi has an average literacy rate of 72%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 78%, and female literacy is 66%. In Melathiruppanthuruthi, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.

## Government and politics

### Civic Utility / Amenities / Services

1. Cleanest town panchayat in 2019-2020 (swachh survekshan- 2020- south zone) awarded by central government of India
2. South India's best and Tamil Nadu No: 01 position in Solid waste Management system in the year 2020 (For reference: swachh survekshan- 2020- south zone).
3. Electric vehicles are used for collection of waste from entire area.
4. Segregation of waste while collecting such as Compostable (Paper,wooden pieces, etc.) and non compostible materials (plastic related) and Green (leaves, branches, shrubs, etc.)
5. Zero cost plant- Town panchayat itself giving plant to each and every homes free of cost to make our locality more green.
6. Zero plastics - shops, market, grocery are using only decomposible bags and intimate them to avoid using of plastics.
7. Indian Bank ATM and CUB ATM was available in main road of MTT and HP petrol station available 1.5 Kms from village.
8. 33/11 kV substation by TNEB was available outside (2.5 kms away) from the resident area.

## Economy

Land is suitable for the all kind of crops, but mostly the area cultivates

1. paddy
2. plantain
3. Sugar cane
4. sesame
5. maize
6. Betel Leaf
7. Black gram
8. Coconut tree

## Transport

Capital of Tamil Nadu- Chennai is approximately 325 km distance.

### By Air

Nearby airport is Thiruchirapalli International Airport (IATA Code: TRZ) which is 65 kms from MTT.

### By Rail

Nearby railway station is Thanjavur Railway Station (Railway Code: TJ), 16 kms away from MTT.

### By Road

Thanjavur is nearby city for Melathirupanthuruthi distance of 14 kms, Thiruvaiyaru is nearby town with distance of 5 kms.

1. Thanjavur-14 kms
2. Thirukattupalli-15 kms
3. Basilica of Our Lady of Lourdes (Poondi)-21 kms
4. Kallanai Dam-29 kms
5. Thiruvaiyaru-5 kms

## Education

1. Government higher secondary school (Grade-06 to 12)
2. Government Elementary school (Grade -01 to 05)
3. Crescent Nursery and primary school- Private (Grade LKG To 5)
4. Mahatma Nursery and primary school- Private (Grade LKG To 5)

## InfoBox

| Melathiruppanthuruthi Poonthai | |
| --- | --- |
| Town panchayat | |
| Nickname: MTT | |
| MelathiruppanthuruthiLocation in Tamil Nadu, India | |
| Coordinates: 10°51′57″N 79°04′45″E / 10.865887°N 79.079075°E / 10.865887; 79.079075 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Tamil Nadu |
| District | Thanjavur |
| Population (2011) | |
| Total | 9,074 |
| Languages | |
| Official | Tamil |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |


title: Melathrix

abstract: Melathrix is a monotypic snout moth genus described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1893. Its only species, Melathrix praetextella, was described by Hugo Theodor Christoph in 1877, originally under the genus Pempelia, but was subsequently moved to Melathrix by Ragonot. It is known from Turkmenistan.

text:
# Melathrix

***Melathrix*** is a monotypic snout moth genus described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1893. Its only species, ***Melathrix praetextella***, was described by Hugo Theodor Christoph in 1877, originally under the genus *Pempelia*, but was subsequently moved to *Melathrix* by Ragonot. It is known from Turkmenistan (including Krasnowodsk, the type location).

## InfoBox

| *Melathrix* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Pyralidae |
| Genus: | ***Melathrix***
Ragonot, 1893 |
| Species: | ***M. praetextella*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Melathrix praetextella***
(Christoph, 1877) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Pempelia praetextella* Christoph, 1877 | |


title: Tola Odeyemi

abstract: Omotola Odeyemi is a Nigerian engineer, public administrator and Postmaster General & chief executive officer of the Nigerian Postal Service (NIPOST). In October 2023, she was appointed head of the postal agency by the administration of President Bola Tinubu following the sack of Adeyemi Adepoju. Odeyemi served as a two-time special assistant to the former Lagos State Governor, Akinwumi Ambode, between 2016 and 2019.

text:
# Tola Odeyemi

**Omotola Odeyemi** (born July 31, 1980) is a Nigerian engineer, public administrator and Postmaster General & chief executive officer of the Nigerian Postal Service (NIPOST). In October 2023, she was appointed head of the postal agency by the administration of President Bola Tinubu following the sack of Adeyemi Adepoju.

Odeyemi served as a two-time special assistant to the former Lagos State Governor, Akinwumi Ambode, between 2016 and 2019.

## Early life and education

Odeyemi was born in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, on June 31, 1980. She attended Adesoye College in Offa, Kwara State. She studied Electrical Engineering at the Morgan State University before proceeding to the George Washington University where she obtained a Master's degree in Systems Engineering.

## Career

During the early days of her career, Odeyemi worked with the Lagos State Environmental Fund as an executive secretary. Between 2016 and 2019, she was appointed as a senior special assistant to the Lagos State Governor at the time, Akinwumi Ambode.

In August 2019, she joined ride-hailing company, Uber, as Head of Public Policy.

Until her appointment by the President Tinubu administration, she was Head of Government Affairs (Sub-saharan Africa) at Binance (a cryptocurrency exchange company).

### NIPOST appointment controversy

On October 11, 2023, President Tinubu sacked former NIPOST CEO Adeyemi Adepoju and appointed Tola Odeyemi as the new Postmaster General/CEO of NIPOST.

However, the official  (formerly Twitter) account of NIPOST posted that Adepoju had been reinstated, accompanying it with a signed press statement. This caused confusion and a protest broke out at the agency’s headquarters in Abuja.

## Personal life

Odeyemi was born in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

## InfoBox

| Omotola Odeyemi | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| 11th Post Master General of Nigeria | |
| Nigeria Postmaster General, Nigeria Postal Service | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
October 2023 | |
| Preceded by | Adeyemi Adepoju |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Nationality | Nigerian |
| Alma mater | George Washington University
Morgan State University. |
| Occupation | * Engineer, public policy, government regulations |
| Profession | Public administrator |
| Website | http://www.nipost.gov.ng/ |
|  | |


title: Tmesisternus costulatus

abstract: Tmesisternus costulatus is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1939.

text:
# Tmesisternus costulatus

***Tmesisternus costulatus*** is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1939.

## InfoBox

| *Tmesisternus costulatus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Genus: | *Tmesisternus* |
| Species: | ***T. costulatus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Tmesisternus costulatus***<br>Breuning, 1939 | |
|


title: Gaius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis

abstract: Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Sabinus Regillensis, was a member of the great patrician house of the Claudii at Ancient Rome. He held the consulship in 460 BC.

text:
# Gaius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis

**Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Sabinus Regillensis** (or **Inregillensis**), was a member of the great patrician house of the Claudii at Ancient Rome. He held the consulship in 460 BC.

## Family

Gaius was the younger son of Attius Clausus, a wealthy Sabine merchant who emigrated to Rome with a large following in 504 BC, and was admitted to the patriciate under the name of *Appius Claudius Sabinus*. The elder Claudius became a senator, and held the consulship in 495; he distinguished himself as the leading figure in the aristocratic party, and the fiercest opponent of the plebeians. He had at least two sons: Appius, who was consul in 471, and Gaius, who held the same magistracy in 460.

Almost nothing is known of Gaius Claudius' private life, except for his attachment to his nephew, Appius Claudius Crassus, the decemvir, whom he advised and subsequently defended following the overthrow of the decemvirate.

## Career

Elected consul in 460 with Publius Valerius Poplicola, Claudius and his colleague first had to contend with continuing arguments between Rome's aristocratic and popular interests, concerning a proposal to strictly limit the powers of the consuls. This measure had been brought forward two years earlier by Gaius Terentilius Arsa, one of the tribunes of the plebs; but its consideration had been twice postponed, first at the request of Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, the *praefectus urbi*, who argued that it was treasonous to consider such a law when both consuls were out of the city, and persuaded Terentilius' colleagues to intervene. The following year the law was tabled again following strange omens and a deadlock over a levy of troops by the consuls, followed by the excitement of the trial of Caeso Quinctius Cincinnatus.

Rumours of all kinds flew, none more serious than that Caeso Quinctius, who had fled into exile the previous year, had returned to the city at the head of a conspiracy of young noblemen, intent on the murder of the tribunes of the people, and any others who had opposed the aristocratic party. There was even a rumour that the conspirators were to be aided by the Aequi and the Volsci. Aulus Verginius, the tribune who had brought charges against Caeso, demanded an investigation to put down the conspiracy, before the liberty of the Roman people could be stolen away. But Claudius gave a speech opposing any such investigation, asserting not only that the rumours were false, but that the tribunes themselves were responsible for them, as an excuse to banish other young aristocrats in the same manner that they had Quinctius.

### Revolt of Herdonius

The attention of the city was soon diverted when an army of 2,500 slaves and exiles, headed by a Sabine named Appius Herdonius, seized control of the Capitol under cover of darkness, in an attempt to start a slave revolt. At first, the tribunes of the plebs felt that the subsequent call to arms was being used as another excuse to delay consideration of Terentilius' law, and attempted to block the levy; then the Senate treated the tribunes, rather than the occupying force on the Capitol, as its primary threat. The consul Valerius delivered a sharp rebuke to both sides for failing to treat the situation with the gravity it deserved, and reminding the tribunes of his father's role in establishing the Republic and protecting the rights of the people, he defied them to oppose him.

Before Valerius was ready to assault the Capitol, he was joined by a force of Tusculan soldiers sent by Lucius Mamilius, the dictator of Tusculum, to assist the Romans. While Claudius maintained a watch from the city walls for the approach of further enemies, Valerius and the Tusculans attacked and defeated the occupying army, although both the consul and Herdonius were slain in the fighting. Once peace was restored, the tribunes of the plebs asked once again for a hearing on Terentilius' legislation, which Valerius had promised them. However, Claudius refused to allow discussion of the law until Valerius had been replaced as consul, so the matter remained unresolved until after the elections. The law was never passed, but was probably one of the factors leading to the appointment of the decemvirs, with the goal of drawing up the tables of Roman law.

### Further opposition to the plebeians

Three years after his consulship, in 457 BC, Roman territory was invaded by the Sabines, and an Aequian army took the towns of Corbio and Ortona. The Senate directed the consuls, Gaius Horatius Pulvillus and Quintus Minucius Esquilinus, to levy troops and take the field. However, the tribunes of the plebs, whose attempts to bring about various reforms had been continually frustrated and postponed in the face of one crisis or another, opposed the levy until their legislation could be taken up. The consul Horatius opposed the tribunes for staying the hand of the state at such an inopportune time, and seemed to sway public opinion; but the tribune Verginius asked that if the tribunes agreed to the levy, then the Senate should at least consider another measure to benefit the people of Rome.

Horatius agreed, and Verginius put forward his proposal: that the number of the plebeian tribunes should be doubled from five to ten. Gaius Claudius spoke in opposition to this measure, since in his opinion five tribunes were bad enough; ten should be unbearable, and would only increase the agitation for this concession or that. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, whose son Verginius had forced into exile, nonetheless spoke in support of the proposal, reasoning that a greater number of tribunes would be less likely to agree on a course of action, and thus less troublesome than before. Cincinnatus' opinion prevailed, and the number of tribunes was increased to ten.

The following year, the tribune Lucius Icilius sought to have the Aventine Hill given to the plebeians for building houses. When the consuls continually postponed calling the Senate, Icilius sent one of his attendants to demand their attendance. They sent a lictor to drive away the attendant, but the tribunes seized the lictor and threatened to throw him from the Tarpeian Rock. A delegation of older senators persuaded them to release the man, and the Senate assembled. Icilius proposed his law, and along with it that land which had been fraudulently seized or taken by force should also be returned to the people. This would, he reasoned, ease the pressure for a distribution of land outside the city, which was strongly opposed by the large landowners. Gaius Claudius again spoke in opposition to the bill, but the Senate agreed to the measure, which was soon passed into law.

### The Decemvirate

In 451 BC, a council of ten distinguished Romans of consular rank was appointed in place of the consuls, for the purpose of drawing up tables of Roman law, based on a combination of ancient traditions and Greek models. One of the decemvirs was Gaius' nephew, Appius Claudius Crassus. In their first year, the decemvirs published ten tables of laws, to the general approval of the people. Since the task for which the decemvirate had been created remained incomplete, it was decided to elect a new college of decemvirs for the following year. Although Appius had affected a mild and agreeable demeanor, and won the trust of the plebeians, his colleagues suspected that he might wish to remain in power, and accordingly, they appointed him to name the new college, and resigned their office to set an example.

Instead of resigning, Appius appointed himself decemvir for 450, and surrounded himself with like-minded men and those whom he could easily dominate, deliberately excluding other prominent Roman statesmen, such as Cincinnatus, his brother, Titus Quinctius Capitolinus, or Gaius Claudius. The second college of decemvirs quickly earned a reputation for high-handedness and a Claudian disdain for the common people, publishing two more tables of law containing harsh restrictions on the plebeians. They then dispensed with the elections, continuing in office the following year. When a military emergency required them to convene the Senate, several prominent senators took advantage of the opportunity to criticize the unconstitutional nature of the decemvirs' authority. Gaius Claudius urged the Senate not to take action against the decemvirs, but he also warned his nephew to act in the best interest of his country, and not to abuse the power he held at the cost of the people's liberty.

Gaius' advice to his nephew was ignored, and seeing that any further actions on his part would be futile, he withdrew from Rome, taking up residence at Regillum, his family's ancestral home. Within the year, the decemvirs' arrogance led to their downfall. Appius was disgraced and taken into custody after trying to claim Verginia, the daughter of Lucius Verginius, a notable centurion, as his slave. Gaius returned to Rome to defend his nephew, whom he described as a great man, who would be well-remembered for his contributions to Roman law by future generations, whatever his faults might have been. Nevertheless, he could not prevent Appius from being brought to trial, and his nephew took his own life rather than answer for his crimes.

When the new consuls, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus, applied to the Senate for a triumph after delivering the city from its enemies, Gaius adamantly opposed their request. They had been the leading critics of the decemvirs, whom Gaius had opposed before his nephew's disgrace. Now he accused them of having betrayed the decemvirs into the hands of the plebeian tribunes, after having promised them amnesty, and claimed that his nephew had not taken his own life, but had been murdered by the tribunes before he could be tried and the falsity of the charges against him demonstrated. Gaius and his supporters carried the day, and the Senate denied the consuls' application for a triumph; but Valerius and Horatius took their case to the people, who gave them a triumph in spite of the Senate's refusal.

### Post-decemvirate

Four years after the fall of the decemvirs, in 445 BC, Gaius Claudius again headed the Senatorial opposition to the plebeian tribunes. The tribune Gaius Canuleius proposed a law rescinding the prohibition of intermarriage between patricians and plebeians, which had been enacted by the second decemvirate. Together with eight of his nine colleagues, Canuleius also proposed allowing members of either class to be elected consul. The Senate called for a levy of troops to meet several potential military threats, but the tribunes would not permit the levy to go forward until their measures were considered. Canuleius was able to convince the Senate to support the repeal of the decemvirs' law, and the *lex Canuleia* restored the right of *connubium* between patricians and plebeians.

But Claudius and his supporters would not permit plebeians to be elected to the consulship, and urged that force be employed against the tribunes if they refused to abandon the proposal. Once again, he was opposed by Cincinnatus and his brother, who strongly disapproved of any suggestion that the Senate violate the sanctity of the tribunes. Finally the Senators proposed a compromise; according to Dionysius, Claudius himself suggested it: the consular authority would be shared by three military tribunes, who could be elected from either order. This proved acceptable to the people, and accordingly the first consular tribunes were elected for the year 444.

The establishment of the consular tribunes did not resolve the struggle of the plebeians to obtain the consulship, but postponed the crisis by which it was resolved by nearly seventy years. From 444 to 376 BC, consular tribunes were regularly elected instead of consuls, the choice often depending on the degree of harmony between patricians and plebeians from year to year. Although the office was theoretically open to plebeians, most of the consular tribunes elected before 400 BC were patricians. The consulship was finally opened to the plebeians by the *lex Licinia Sextia* in 367 BC, after the tribunes of the plebs had prevented the election of any magistrates for nine consecutive years.

## Footnotes

1. Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, Commentary on Livy, books 1–5, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 404, 405.
2. *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*, vol. I, p. 767.
3. Livy, ii. 16, 21.
4. Suetonius, "The Life of Tiberius", 1.
5. Dionysius, v. 40, vi. 23.
6. Niebuhr, vol. ii, note 754.
7. Broughton, vol. I, pp. 30, 45.
8. Livy, iii. 10 (Aubrey de Sélincourt, trans.).
9. Livy, iii. 9, 10, 15.
10. Dionysius, x. 2, 5–8.
11. Livy, iii. 15.
12. Dionysius, x. 9–13.
13. Livy, iii. 16–18.
14. Dionysius, x. 14, 15.
15. Livy, iii. 18, 19.
16. Dionysius, x. 16.
17. *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities*, p. 699 ("lex Terentilia").
18. Dionysius, x. 16, 17.
19. Dionysius, x. 26–29.
20. Dionysius, x. 30.
21. Dionysius, x. 31, 32.
22. Livy, iii. 33–35.
23. Dionysius, x. 55–58.
24. Livy, iii. 38–40.
25. Dionysius, x. 58–60, xi. 1–14.
26. Livy, iii. 58.
27. Dionysius, xi. 49, 50.
28. Livy, iv. 1–6.
29. Livy, iv. 6, 7.
30. Dionysius, xi. 55–61.
31. *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities*, pp. 352 *ff*, 1152. ("Consul", "Tribuni Militum cum Consulari Potestate").

## Bibliography

## InfoBox

| Gaius Claudius Ap. f. M. n. Sabinus Regillensis | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Consul of the Roman Republic | |
| **In office**
1 August 460 BC   31 July 459 BCServing with Publius Valerius Poplicola (consul 475 BC) | |
| Preceded by | Publius Volumnius Amintinus Gallus, Servius Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus (consul 461 BC) |
| Succeeded by | Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, Lucius Cornelius Maluginensis Uritinus |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Unknown
Ancient Rome |
| Died | Unknown
Ancient Rome |
|  | |


title: Gaius Clodius Licinus

abstract: Gaius Clodius Licinus was a Roman historian and senator. He served as consul for the second half of the year 4. According to Suetonius, Licinus was a friend and patron of the author Julius Hyginus. His history, which has been lost, seems to have comprised at least 21 books, and began with the end of the Second Punic War. Livy's history preserves a fragment, which is believed to be the gloss of a later writer rather than Livy himself.

text:
# Gaius Clodius Licinus

**Gaius Clodius Licinus** (fl. AD 4) was a Roman historian and senator. He served as consul for the second half of the year 4. According to Suetonius (*De Grammaticis et Rhetoribus*, 20), Licinus was a friend and patron of the author Julius Hyginus.

His history, which has been lost, seems to have comprised at least 21 books, and began with the end of the Second Punic War. Livy's history preserves a fragment, which is believed to be the gloss of a later writer rather than Livy himself.

* Cichorius, Conrad (1900), "Clodius 35", *Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft* (*RE*, *PW*), volume 4, part 1, columns 77–79.
* Oakley, S.P. (1992). "Livy and Clodius Licinus". *The Classical Quarterly*. **42** (2): 547–551. doi:10.1017/S0009838800016190. JSTOR 639434. S2CID 170520217.
* Oakley, S.P. (2013). "C. Clodius Licinus". In T.J. Cornell (ed.). *The Fragments of the Roman Historians*. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 482–483. ISBN 978-0-19-927703-2.
* Syme, Ronald (1978). *History in Ovid*. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN 0-19-814825-9.


title: Tom Sestito

abstract: Tom Sestito is an American former professional ice hockey forward. He most recently played with the Toronto Marlies in the American Hockey League (AHL). He has previously played for the Columbus Blue Jackets, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins, and Vancouver Canucks in the National Hockey League (NHL).

text:
# Tom Sestito

**Tom Sestito** (born September 28, 1987) is an American former professional ice hockey forward. He most recently played with the Toronto Marlies in the American Hockey League (AHL). He has previously played for the Columbus Blue Jackets, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins, and Vancouver Canucks in the National Hockey League (NHL).

## Playing career

As a youth, Sestito played in the 2001 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Syracuse, New York.

Sestito was drafted 85th overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets from the Plymouth Whalers of the Ontario Hockey League, where he had shown his potential by scoring 42 goals in the 2006–07 season with the Whalers.

Sestito signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Blue Jackets on March 29, 2007. After playing with the Blue Jackets AHL affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch, Sestito made his NHL debut with Columbus in the last game of the 2007–08 season against the St. Louis Blues on April 6, 2008.

He scored his first NHL goal on December 15, 2010, against Roberto Luongo of the Vancouver Canucks in a 3–2 overtime loss. He scored his second NHL goal on December 23, 2010, against Cory Schneider, also of the Vancouver Canucks in a 7–3 losing effort. On February 28, 2011, the Blue Jackets traded Sestito to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for forwards Greg Moore and Michael Chaput.

On September 27, 2011, the Flyers placed him on waivers with the intention of having him play for their AHL affiliate, the Adirondack Phantoms.

On October 8, 2012, he signed for EIHL team Sheffield Steelers on a temporary contract during the 2012–13 NHL lockout, joining fellow NHL players Anthony Stewart and Drew Miller who were playing for Nottingham Panthers and Braehead Clan respectively.

On March 1, 2013, Sestito was claimed off waivers by the Vancouver Canucks and on May 29, 2013, he signed a two-year, one-way contract worth US$ 1.5 million.

In his first full NHL season (2013–14), Sestito led the league in penalty minutes with 213, edging out Chris Neil by 2. In the 2014–15 season, with the role of enforcer declining in importance in the NHL, Sestito appeared sparingly in only 3 games with the Canucks before he was reassigned to their AHL affiliate, the Utica Comets. On February 23, 2015, the Vancouver Canucks cut Sestito after 10 games with the Comets.

After sitting out the remainder of the season, Sestito accepted an invitation to attend the Pittsburgh Penguins's training camp on August 26, 2015. Pittsburgh did not offer Sestito a contract at the conclusion of camp, but was offered a try-out with AHL affiliate, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins to begin the 2015–16 season on October 2, 2015. At the midpoint of the season, Sestito was signed by Pittsburgh to a one-year, two-way contract for the remainder of the year on February 1, 2016. He was immediately placed on waivers in order to continue to play in Wilkes-Barre.

Though Sestito was technically a member of the Penguins' 2017 Stanley Cup winning squad, he was ultimately not permitted to hoist the trophy after being a healthy scratch for the entirety of the team's playoff run.

As a free agent prior to the 2018–19 season, Sestito received an offer from an AHL team to continue playing. However, he chose to retire citing his family as his reason. On December 18, 2018, Sestito agreed to attempt a comeback, signing a professional tryout contract with the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, after he was approached by the club to add a physical presence.

### Criticism

During his NHL career, Sestito was referred to as a "talentless thug" and infamously as a "boxing hobo on skates" by ESPN commentator Keith Olbermann. *The Hockey News* referred to Sestito as a "goon with limited hockey talents", noting that he embodied a culture of violence and revenge which the modern game needs to move away from.

While with the Canucks, Sestito made headlines after accumulating twenty-seven combined penalty minutes while officially receiving only one second of total ice time in a game against the Los Angeles Kings on January 13, 2014. Afterwards, ESPN's Olbermann named Sestito "The Worst Person in the Sports World" on his show while stating that Sestito is "not a hockey player". Sestito's teenage sister, Victoria, subsequently attacked Olbermann via Twitter, claiming that "the $7,268 for 1 second of work" was "probably just a little bit more than your liberal left wing ass makes." She added that the Sestito family was looking forward to Olbermann losing his job.

Sestito's penchant for taking ill-advised penalties resulted in a somewhat messy departure from the Canucks organization. The Canucks ultimately announced that Sestito would receive his full pay but would no longer play for the Vancouver Canucks or Utica Comets. Canucks' General Manager Jim Benning stressed that his club needed players who could play in the opposition's end and contribute with more than an occasional fight. Sestito subsequently found work painting a friend's restaurant in Rome, NY.

In late 2014, Sestito received criticism for tweeting that police were justified in the shooting death of an 18-year-old unarmed African American man named Michael Brown. The shooting incident sparked mass riots in Ferguson, MO, and received international media attention. Sestito later deleted the tweets.

Former NHL player John Scott, MVP of the 2016 National Hockey League All-Star Game, said of Sestito in 2019, "I don’t like him. I have never liked him. I just don’t like how he plays the game." Scott noted that Sestito would typically only fight him when he had the opportunity to jump him from behind. "All through the AHL, I’d ask him to fight and he’d be like, 'My hand’s broken,' then he would fight someone else or this and that and he would duck me."

## Personal life

Sestito's older brother Tim, most recently a member of Dinamo Riga of the Kontinental Hockey League, retired in September 2017. He also has a younger sister named Victoria.

## Career statistics

**Bold** indicates led league

|  | | |  | Regular season | | | | |  | Playoffs | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | Team | League | | GP |  |  | Pts | PIM | | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM |
| 2002–03 | Syracuse Stars | EmJHL | | 17 | 5 | 5 | 10 | 80 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2003–04 | Syracuse Stars | EmJHL | | 31 | 13 | 16 | 29 | 137 | | 6 | 5 | 6 | 11 | 32 |
| 2004–05 | Plymouth Whalers | OHL | | 35 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 88 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2005–06 | Plymouth Whalers | OHL | | 57 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 176 | | 13 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 29 |
| 2006–07 | Plymouth Whalers | OHL | | 60 | 42 | 22 | 64 | 135 | | 19 | 11 | 6 | 17 | 57 |
| 2007–08 | Syracuse Crunch | AHL | | 66 | 7 | 16 | 23 | 202 | | 9 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 57 |
| 2007–08 | Columbus Blue Jackets | NHL | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2008–09 | Syracuse Crunch | AHL | | 52 | 8 | 12 | 20 | 168 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2009–10 | Syracuse Crunch | AHL | | 36 | 10 | 7 | 17 | 138 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2009–10 | Columbus Blue Jackets | NHL | | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2010–11 | Springfield Falcons | AHL | | 46 | 11 | 21 | 32 | 192 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2010–11 | Columbus Blue Jackets | NHL | | 9 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 40 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2010–11 | Adirondack Phantoms | AHL | | 11 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 45 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2011–12 | Adirondack Phantoms | AHL | | 34 | 9 | 8 | 17 | 120 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2011–12 | Philadelphia Flyers | NHL | | 14 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 83 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2012–13 | Sheffield Steelers | EIHL | | 17 | 8 | 11 | 19 | 69 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2012–13 | Philadelphia Flyers | NHL | | 7 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 12 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2012–13 | Adirondack Phantoms | AHL | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2012–13 | Vancouver Canucks | NHL | | 23 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 53 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| 2013–14 | Vancouver Canucks | NHL | | 77 | 5 | 4 | 9 | **213** | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2014–15 | Vancouver Canucks | NHL | | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 7 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2014–15 | Utica Comets | AHL | | 10 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 20 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2015–16 | Wilkes–Barre/Scranton Penguins | AHL | | 41 | 5 | 9 | 14 | 104 | | 7 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 52 |
| 2015–16 | Pittsburgh Penguins | NHL | | 4 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 19 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2016–17 | Pittsburgh Penguins | NHL | | 13 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 48 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2016–17 | Wilkes–Barre/Scranton Penguins | AHL | | 33 | 6 | 10 | 16 | 121 | | 5 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 |
| 2017–18 | Wilkes–Barre/Scranton Penguins | AHL | | 37 | 6 | 9 | 15 | 95 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2018–19 | Toronto Marlies | AHL | | 13 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 42 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| AHL totals | | | | 380 | 66 | 94 | 160 | 1249 | | 22 | 3 | 5 | 8 | 122 |
| NHL totals | | | | 154 | 10 | 11 | 21 | 499 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |

## InfoBox

| Tom Sestito | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sestito with the Pittsburgh Penguins in 2016 | | | |
| Born | (1987-09-28) September 28, 1987
Rome, New York, U.S. | | |
| Height | 6 ft 5 in (196 cm) | | |
| Weight | 228 lb (103 kg; 16 st 4 lb) | | |
| Position | Left wing | | |
| Shot | Left | | |
| Played for | Columbus Blue Jackets
Philadelphia Flyers
Sheffield Steelers
Vancouver Canucks
Pittsburgh Penguins | | |
| NHL draft | 85th overall, 2006
Columbus Blue Jackets | | |
| Playing career | 20072019 | | |


title: Tom Sestak

abstract: Thomas Joseph Sestak was an American football defensive tackle who played for the Buffalo Bills of the American Football League (AFL). He played college football for the McNeese State Cowboys. He was named to the AFL All-Time Team.

text:
# Tom Sestak

**Thomas Joseph Sestak** (March 9, 1936 – April 3, 1987) was an American football defensive tackle who played for the Buffalo Bills of the American Football League (AFL). He played college football for the McNeese State Cowboys. He was named to the AFL All-Time Team.

## Early life

Sestak was born in Gonzales, Texas. He had mixed European heritage, with his grandparents on his father's side being from Czechoslovakia while his grandparents on his mother's side being from Poland. Alongside his two brothers, he played in numerous sports as a child, such as football and track. He played tight end in the collegiate ranks at McNeese State University in Lake Charles, Louisiana.

## Career

His talents led to him being drafted in the 17th round by the Buffalo Bills in 1962. He was also drafted by the Detroit Lions in the sixteenth round that year. He was an example of a trend of the young league to draft players from small colleges, which was deemed innovative in part due to its results that it cultivated, which Sestak represented well. He was to play defensive lineman for the Bills, owing to his 6-4 size, speed, and strength.

Sestak was a starter in his rookie year and, until a series of knee injuries ended his career after the 1967 season, used his strength to dominate the line of scrimmage. Sestak was a three-time selection to All-American Football League teams and a unanimous All-AFL defensive tackle in three consecutive years; 1963, 1964 and 1965. Sestak served as the cornerstone of a defense that took the Bills to the playoffs four straight years (1963–1966) and consecutive AFL championships in 1964 and 1965. Over the 1964 and 1965 seasons, Sestak and his defense mates held opposing rushers without a touchdown for seventeen consecutive games, a Professional Football record that still stands. Twice during his outstanding career he realized the defensive lineman's "dream", returning interceptions for touchdowns, and once returned a recovered fumble for a score.

His teammates described his play as *"crazy as hell"*. He notably played a season with three broken ribs, and his knees problems meant that he spent time at a stationary bicycle instead of scrimmage during practice.

During the 1960s, only six professional defensive linemen were unanimous All-League selections for three or more years, Sestak (3), Bob Lily (5), Merlin Olsen (4), Willie Davis (3), Gino Marchetti (3), and Deacon Jones (3). The latter five, all former NFL players, have already been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, while Sestak, a star from the AFL, like many other AFL players has been ignored by the Hall of Fame selectors. He was named to the First Team for his position at defensive tackle, along with Houston Antwine. In contrast, Buck Buchanan (a Second Team selection) is a Hall of Famer while Sestak is not.

In January 1970, Sestak was selected as a member of the All-Time All-AFL Team, and in 2009 as a member of the Bills' 50th Anniversary Team. In 2007, Tom Sestak was inducted into the National Polish American Sports Hall of Fame. In 2011, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Sestak to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2011 In 2019, despite not being in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, he was chosen as a finalist for the NFL's 100th Anniversary Team

Sestak died of a heart attack in 1987.

## InfoBox

Tom Sestak
| No. 70 | |
| --- | --- |
| Position: | Defensive tackle |
| Personal information | |
| Born: | (1936-03-09)March 9, 1936
Gonzales, Texas, U.S. |
| Died: | April 3, 1987(1987-04-03) (aged 51)
Buffalo, New York, U.S. |
| Height: | 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) |
| Weight: | 267 lb (121 kg) |
| Career information | |
| High school: | Gonzales |
| College: | McNeese State |
| NFL draft: | 1962 / round: 16 / pick: 220 |
| AFL draft: | 1962 / round: 17 / pick: 132 |
| Career history | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Career highlights and awards | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Career AFL statistics | |
| Sacks: 52  Fumble recoveries: 2  Interceptions: 2  Defensive touchdowns: 3 | |
|  | |
| Player stats at **PFR** | |
|  | |


title: Gaeth

abstract: Gaeth was an American steam automobile manufactured in Cleveland, Ohio from 1902 until 1911. Bicycle maker Paul Gaeth added stationary engines to his business, and made an experimental steam car in 1898. His gasoline cars were unusual in using a large 3-cylinder horizontal engine of 25/30 hp. Advertised as "the best $3500 car on the market", the 1909 model was a 6423 cc 35/40 hp four-cylinder.

text:
# Gaeth

**Gaeth** was an American steam automobile manufactured in Cleveland, Ohio from 1902 until 1911.

Bicycle maker Paul Gaeth added stationary engines to his business, and made an experimental steam car in 1898. His gasoline cars were unusual in using a large 3-cylinder horizontal engine of 25/30 hp. Advertised as "the best $3500 car on the market", the 1909 model was a 6423 cc 35/40 hp four-cylinder.

* Wise, David Burgess. *The New Illustrated Encyclopedia of Automobiles*.


title: Tobar

abstract: Tobar is a municipality and town located in the province of Burgos, Spain, within the Castile and León region. It is 35 km northwest of Burgos.

text:
# Tobar

**Tobar** (originally *Tovar*) is a municipality and town located in the province of Burgos, Spain, within the Castile and León region. It is 35 km northwest of Burgos.

## General details

Tobar is located in a valley, surrounded of small hills, the Hormazuela river crosses the village from north to south.

The economy is based on agricultural farmers, mainly cultivating cereals, wheat and barley. The soil has much lime, but is fertile, providing good harvests most years.

Tobar has a continental climate, very cold in winter and very hot in summer. The minimum temperature in winter can descend to -10 °C; in summer the temperature can rise to 35 or 40 °C, but summer evenings are cool, even falling to 10 °C.

42°28′59″N 3°55′59″W / 42.483°N 3.933°W / 42.483; -3.933

## InfoBox

| Tobar | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality and town | |
| View of Tobar, 2006 | |
| Municipal location of Tobar in Burgos province | |
| Country | Spain |
| Autonomous community | Castile and León |
| Province | Burgos |
| Comarca | Odra-Pisuerga |
| Area | |
| Total | 12 km2 (5 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 892 m (2,927 ft) |
| Population (2018) | |
| Total | 24 |
| Density | 2.0/km2 (5.2/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 09133 |
| Website | http://www.tobar.es/ |


title: Gaffkaemia

abstract: Gaffkaemia is a bacterial disease of lobsters, caused by the Gram-positive lactic acid bacterium Aerococcus viridans var. homari.

text:
# Gaffkaemia

**Gaffkaemia** (**gaffkemia** in American English) is a bacterial disease of lobsters, caused by the Gram-positive lactic acid bacterium ***Aerococcus viridans* var. *homari***.

## Discovery

Gaffkaemia was first discovered in 1947 in American lobsters (*Homarus americanus*) in a holding tank in Maine. It was originally described as "*Gaffkya homari*" by Hitcher and Snieszko, but the genus name *Gaffkya* was rejected in 1971, and the gaffkaemia bacterium was recognised as a subspecies or variety of *Aerococcus viridans* by Kelly and Evans in 1974.

## Effects

The effects of gaffkaemia infection include lethargy (typically seen as a drooping tail), anorexia and a pink colour on the ventral side of the abdomen, which gives the disease its alternative common name of red tail disease. When lobsters are moribund, they may lie on their sides, and frequently lose appendages. The effects of gaffkaemia are slowed by low temperatures, such that death can occur within two days of infection at 20 °C (68 °F), but can take over 60 days at 3 °C (37 °F).

As few as five bacteria can lead to clinical disease. When they enter the host, the bacteria colonise the heart and hepatopancreas. They may be engulfed by phagocytosis into the lobster's blood cells, but continue to survive within the blood cells, feeding on the cytoplasm. The lobster's blood cell count drops, and the infection develops into septicaemia. The stores of glycogen in the hepatopancreas become depleted, concentrations of glucose and lactic acid in the blood drop, and concentrations of adenosine triphosphate in muscles also fall. In a severe infection, the ability of the lobster's blood pigment haemocyanin to carry oxygen may be reduced by up to 50%.

## Diagnosis

The classical method of diagnosis is to culture aliquots of haemolymph in phenylethyl alcohol broth. Cultures containing *A. viridans* var. *homari* change colour from purple to yellow, and form tetrads of cocci. To reduce the four-day waiting time needed for diagnosis, a method using the indirect fluorescent antibody technique (IFAT) was developed, and, more recently, PCR-based methods have been developed.

## Virulence

Gaffkaemia is enzootic in North America, and causes little harm to wild populations of *H. americanus*. In the European or common lobster, *Homarus gammarus*, however, it is far more destructive. European lobsters held in the same tanks as American lobsters can be killed within days. A number of other crustacean species can be infected with *A. v.* var. *homari*, but do not develop severe disease. They include the shrimp *Pandalus platyceros*, and the crabs *Cancer borealis*, *Cancer irroratus*, *Metacarcinus magister*, *Libinia emarginata*, *Chionoecetes opilio* and *Chaceon quinquedens*. Spiny lobsters appear to be either immune or resistant to gaffkaemia.

## Control

The primary method for controlling the incidence of gaffkaemia is improved hygiene. Other measures include limiting damage to the exoskeleton (preventing the bacterium's entry), reducing the water temperature, and reducing the stocking density. Antibiotics may be effective against the bacterium, but only tetracycline is currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in American lobsters.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| *Aerococcus viridans* var. *homari* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Bacillota |
| Class: | Bacilli |
| Order: | Lactobacillales |
| Family: | Aerococcaceae |
| Genus: | *Aerococcus* |
| Species: | *A. viridans* |
| Subspecies: | ***A. v.* var. *homari*** |
| Trinomial name | |
| ***Aerococcus viridans* var. *homari***<br>(Hitchner & Snieszko, 1947) | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Gaffkya homari* Hitchner & Snieszko, 1947 * *Pediococcus homari* (Hitchner & Snieszko, 1947) Deibel & Niven, 1959 | |


title: Gaffney

abstract:
Gaffney is a surname common to the region of Cavan in Ireland, and now spread across other English-speaking nations. Gaffney comes from the Gaelic septs of Ó Gamhna, Mac Conghamhna and Ó Caibheanaigh. Gaffney more commonly does not appear with the Gaelic prefixes of O' or Mc but there have been Gaffneys recorded with either of the Gaelic prefixes. In Hebrew context the surname Gaffney is used for Jewish people whose ancestors were wine makers as "Geffen" (גפן) is the Hebrew word for vitis. Notable people with the surname include:
  - Beryl Gaffney, Canadian politician
  - Christopher Gaffney (bishop), Irish bishop
  - Chris Gaffney (musician) (1950–2008), American singer–songwriter
  - Christopher Gaffney (archaeologist), British archaeologist
  - Chris Gaffaney, New Zealand cricketer
  - David Gaffney, British writer
  - Dean Gaffney, British actor
  - Derrick Gaffney, American football player
  - Edward Gaffney, American politician
  - Elizabeth Gaffney, American novelist
  - Eric Gaffney, American songwriter
  - Eugene S. Gaffney, American paleontologist
  - F. Drew Gaffney, American doctor
  - Frank Gaffney, American lobbyist
  - Frank Gaffney (1883–1948), American soldier
  - Jabar Gaffney, American football player
  - James Anthony Gaffney, British civil engineer
  - James E. Gaffney (1868–1932), American baseball executive
  - Jim Gaffney (1921–2015), American football player
  - John Gaffney (1855–1913), American baseball umpire and manager
  - Kiley Gaffney, Australian musician
  - Mason Gaffney, (1923–2020), American economist
  - Matt Gaffney,, American crossword puzzle constructor
  - Mo Gaffney, American actress
  - Patricia Gaffney, American writer
  - Robert J. Gaffney, American politician
  - Robbie Gaffney, Irish football player
  - Rose Gaffney (1895–1979), American environmental activist
  - Tony Gaffney, American basketball player

text:
# Gaffney

**Gaffney** is a surname common to the region of Cavan in Ireland, and now spread across other English-speaking nations. Gaffney comes from the Gaelic septs of Ó Gamhna, Mac Conghamhna and Ó Caibheanaigh. Gaffney more commonly does not appear with the Gaelic prefixes of O' or Mc but there have been Gaffneys recorded with either of the Gaelic prefixes.

In Hebrew context the surname Gaffney (Hebrew: גפני, alternative English spellings: Gafni/Gafny) is used for Jewish people whose ancestors were wine makers as "Geffen" (גפן) is the Hebrew word for vitis.

Notable people with the surname include:

## InfoBox

Gaffney
| Origin | |
| --- | --- |
| Region of origin | Cavan, Ireland |


title: Tokarara

abstract: Tokarara is residential suburb located on the North West of Port Moresby, the capital city of Papua New Guinea.

text:
# Tokarara

**Tokarara** is residential suburb located on the North West of Port Moresby, the capital city of Papua New Guinea.

## InfoBox

| Tokarara | |
| --- | --- |
| TokararaLocation within Papua New Guinea | |
| Coordinates: 9°25′50″S 147°9′57″E / 9.43056°S 147.16583°E / -9.43056; 147.16583 | |
| Country | Papua New Guinea |
| Province | NCD |
| City | Port Moresby |
| Time zone | UTC+10 (AEST) |


abstract: This is a list of members of the Australian Senate from 1926 to 1929. Half of its members were elected at the 16 December 1922 election and had terms starting on 1 July 1923 and finishing on 30 June 1929; the other half were elected at the 14 November 1925 election and had terms starting on 1 July 1926 and finishing on 30 June 1932. The process for filling casual vacancies was complex. While senators were elected for a six-year term, people appointed to a casual vacancy only held office until the earlier of the next election for the House of Representatives or the Senate.

text:
# Members of the Australian Senate, 1926–1929

> **Senate composition at 1 July 1926**
> **Government (28)** \- (11 seat majority)
> Nationalist (25)
> Country Party (3)
> **Opposition (7)**
> Labor (7)
> **Crossbench (1)**
> Independent (1)
> Changes in composition

This is a list of **members of the Australian Senate** from 1926 to 1929. Half of its members were elected at the 16 December 1922 election and had terms starting on 1 July 1923 and finishing on 30 June 1929; the other half were elected at the 14 November 1925 election and had terms starting on 1 July 1926 and finishing on 30 June 1932. The process for filling casual vacancies was complex. While senators were elected for a six-year term, people appointed to a casual vacancy only held office until the earlier of the next election for the House of Representatives or the Senate.

| Senator | Party | | State | Term ending | Years in office |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Percy Abbott |  | Nationalist | New South Wales | 1929 | 1925–29 |
| Richard Abbott |  | Country | Victoria | 1929 | 1928–1929 |
| David Andrew |  | Country | Victoria | 1929 | 1925–1928 |
| John Barnes |  | Labor | Victoria | 1929 | 1913–1920, 1923–1935 |
| Henry Barwell |  | Nationalist | South Australia | 1928 | 1925–1928 |
| William Carroll |  | Country | Western Australia | 1932 | 1926–1936 |
| John Chapman |  | Country | South Australia | 1932 | 1926–1931 |
| Walter Cooper |  | Country | Queensland | 1932 | 1928–1932, 1935–1968 |
| Charles Cox |  | Nationalist | New South Wales | 1932 | 1920–1938 |
| Thomas Crawford |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1929 | 1917–1947 |
| John Daly |  | Labor | South Australia | 1929 | 1928–1935 |
| John Dooley |  | Labor | New South Wales | 1929 | 1928–1935 |
| Walter Duncan |  | Nationalist | New South Wales | 1932 | 1920–1931 |
| Harold Elliott |  | Nationalist | Victoria | 1932 | 1920–1931 |
| Edward Findley |  | Labor | Victoria | 1929 | 1904–1917, 1923–1929 |
| Harry Foll |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1929 | 1917–1947 |
| Albert Gardiner |  | Labor | New South Wales | 1928 | 1910–1926, 1928 |
| Thomas Givens |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1932 | 1904–1928 |
| William Glasgow |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1932 | 1920–1932 |
| Charles Graham |  | Labor | Western Australia | 1929 | 1923–1929 |
| John Grant |  | Labor | New South Wales | 1929 | 1914–1920, 1923–1928 |
| James Guthrie |  | Nationalist | Victoria | 1932 | 1920–1938 |
| John Hayes |  | Nationalist | Tasmania | 1929 | 1923–1947 |
| Herbert Hays |  | Nationalist | Tasmania | 1929 | 1923–1947 |
| Bert Hoare |  | Labor | South Australia | 1929 | 1922–1935 |
| Walter Kingsmill |  | Nationalist | Western Australia | 1929 | 1923–1935 |
| Patrick Lynch |  | Nationalist | Western Australia | 1932 | 1907–1938 |
| John MacDonald |  | Labor | Queensland | 1928 | 1922, 1928, 1932–1937 |
| Walter Massy-Greene |  | Nationalist | New South Wales | 1932 | 1923–1925, 1926–1938 |
| Charles McHugh |  | Labor | South Australia | 1929 | 1923–1927 |
| Alexander McLachlan |  | Nationalist | South Australia | 1932 | 1926–1944 |
| John Millen |  | Nationalist | Tasmania | 1932 | 1920–1938 |
| Ted Needham |  | Labor | Western Australia | 1929 | 1907–1920, 1923–1929 |
| John Newlands |  | Nationalist | South Australia | 1932 | 1913–1932 |
| James Ogden |  | Ind/Nationalist | Tasmania | 1929 | 1923–1932 |
| Mick O'Halloran |  | Labor | South Australia | 1929 | 1928–1935 |
| Herbert Payne |  | Nationalist | Tasmania | 1932 | 1920–1938 |
| Sir George Pearce |  | Nationalist | Western Australia | 1932 | 1901–1938 |
| William Plain |  | Nationalist | Victoria | 1932 | 1917–1923, 1925–1938 |
| Matthew Reid |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1929 | 1917–1935 |
| Albert Robinson |  | Nationalist | South Australia | 1928 | 1928 |
| Burford Sampson |  | Nationalist | Tasmania | 1932 | 1925–1938, 1941–1947 |
| Josiah Thomas |  | Nationalist | New South Wales | 1929 | 1917–1923, 1925–1929 |
| William Thompson |  | Nationalist | Queensland | 1932 | 1922–1932 |
| John Verran |  | Nationalist | South Australia | 1928 | 1927–1928 |

1. Country Party Senator David Andrew died on 18 November 1928, having not stood for re-election at the 1928 election; Country Party member Richard Abbott was appointed on 18 December to replace him for the rest of his term, expiring on 30 June 1929.
2. Nationalist Senator Henry Barwell resigned on 22 March 1928 to become South Australian Agent-General to London; Nationalist Albert Robinson was appointed on 18 April to replace him until the November 1928 election. Robinson did not stand for re-election in 1928 and the vacancy was won by Labor candidate Mick O'Halloran.
3. Appointed to a casual vacancy and only held office until the earlier of the next election for the House of Representatives or the Senate.
4. Nationalist Senator Thomas Givens died on 19 June 1928; Labor member John MacDonald was appointed on 1 August to replace him until the November 1928 election, when he was defeated by Country Party candidate Walter Cooper.
5. Labor Senator Charles McHugh died on 24 July 1927; Nationalist and former Premier of South Australia John Verran was appointed on 30 August to replace him until the November 1928 election, when he was defeated by Labor candidate John Daly.
6. Labor Senator John Grant died on 19 May 1928; Labor member and former senator Albert Gardiner was appointed on 5 June to replace him until the November 1928 election. Gardiner did not stand for re-election in 1928 and the vacancy was won by Labor candidate John Dooley.
7. James Ogden was expelled from the Labor Party in 1925 for supporting the Bruce-Page government's legislation on navigation and immigration. He sat as an independent until the 1928 election when he was re-elected as a Nationalist.
8. Father of the Senate
1. "The Biographical Dictionary of the Australian Senate 1926". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
2. Evans, H. "Filling Casual Vacancies before 1977" (PDF). *The Biographical Dictionary of the Australian Senate, Volume 3*. Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 24 February 2017.


title: Nakano Dam

abstract: (Japanese: 中野ダム) Nakano Dam is a rockfill dam located in Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan. The dam is used for irrigation. The catchment area of the dam is 1.1 km⁲. The dam impounds about 4 ha of land when full and can store 416 thousand cubic meters of water. The construction of the dam was completed in 1975.

text:
# Nakano Dam

**Nakano Dam** (Japanese: 中野ダム) is a rockfill dam located in Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan. The dam is used for irrigation. The catchment area of the dam is 1.1 km2. The dam impounds about 4 ha of land when full and can store 416 thousand cubic meters of water. The construction of the dam was completed in 1975.

## InfoBox

| Nakano Dam | |
| --- | --- |
| Location of Nakano Dam in Japan | |
| Location | Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan |
| Coordinates | 34°17′16″N 133°5′49″E / 34.28778°N 133.09694°E / 34.28778; 133.09694 |
| Opening date | 1975 |
| Dam and spillways | |
| Height | 44m |
| Length | 170m |
| Reservoir | |
| Total capacity | 416 thousand cubic meters |
| Catchment area | 1.1 sq. km |
| Surface area | 4 hectares |


title: Walter Kypke

abstract: Leutnant Walter Kypke HOH, IC was an early military aviator in the predecessor to the Luftwaffe, the Luftstreitkräfte. This itinerant flying ace accumulated nine official aerial victories, which were scored in four of the seven flying units with which he served; the wins were spread over a three-year period. Kypke served for the entirety of World War I, rising to command during his final year of combat.

text:
# Walter Kypke

Leutnant **Walter Kypke** (22 September 18936 June 1924) HOH, IC was an early military aviator in the predecessor to the *Luftwaffe*, the *Luftstreitkräfte*. This itinerant flying ace accumulated nine official aerial victories, which were scored in four of the seven flying units with which he served; the wins were spread over a three-year period. Kypke served for the entirety of World War I, rising to command during his final year of combat.

## Military service

Kypke volunteered for ground service at the start of World War I. In April 1915, he began pilot's training. During the remainder of 1915, he served in a couple of artillery cooperation units, first in FFA 2, then in FFA 57. In February 1916, as aerial combat came into being, Kypke transferred to an ad hoc unit formed for the new circumstances, KEK Avillers. In August, he scored his first aerial victory while the Fokker Scourge was beginning. He then had a fleeting assignment to Jasta 14, before moving on to Jasta 41. On 3 September 1917, he scored his second win, downing a Salmson over Rodern for Jasta 41's first victory. He followed that with a Sopwith 1½ Strutter over Colmar on the 16th. A month later, on 16 October 1917, he scored twice, shooting down enemy airplanes on mid-day and afternoon patrols, and became an ace. On 27 October, he was transferred to temporarily command another ad hoc unit, Kest 5. While leading them, he notched win number six by destroying a Nieuport over Hagenbach on 5 November 1917. He left this command on 6 December; on the day after Christmas, he assumed command as the Staffelführer of Jasta 47. Kypke would score three more times while leading this squadron from the fronta Royal Aircraft Factory RE.8 on 12 April 1918 over Merris, another RE.8 on 25 May 1918, and a Spad on 16 July 1918.

## Death

Walter Kypke survived World War I with the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern and the First Class award of the Iron Cross. He was killed in an airplane crash on 6 June 1924 at Magdeburg.

## Endnotes

* *Above the Lines: The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918*. Norman L. R. Franks, Frank W. Bailey, Russell Guest. Grub Street, 1993. ISBN 0-948817-73-9, ISBN 978-0-948817-73-1.

## InfoBox

| Born | 22 September 1893
Stettin |
| --- | --- |
| Died | 6 June 1924(1924-06-06) (aged 30)
Magdeburg |
| Allegiance | Germany |
| Service/branch | Aviation |
| Years of service | 19141918 |
| Rank | Leutnant |
| Unit | FFA 2, FFA 57, KEK Avillers, Jasta 14, Jasta 41 |
| Commands | Kest 5, Jasta 47 |
| Awards | Knight's Cross with Swords of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, Iron Cross First Class |


title: James Curnock

abstract: James Curnock (1812-1862) was an English portrait painter renown in Bristol for his formal portraits of local dignitaries. His portraits were both of the traditional Victorian approach and the Romantic style.

text:
# James Curnock

**James Curnock** (1812-1862) was an English portrait painter renown in Bristol for his formal portraits of local dignitaries. His portraits were both of the traditional Victorian approach and the Romantic style.

## Biography

James Curnock lived in the Clifton area of Bristol and in 1837 he married Sarah Cuerock. They had a daughter, Isabel, in the same year, followed by James Jackson in 1839, Edith in 1845 and Alice in 1851. His son, James Jackson Curnock went on to become a famous landscape painter focusing his pictures, particularly on Wales and the south west of England. James Curnock died in Bristol in 1862.

## Artwork

Whilst Curnock was never as famous as other nineteenth century Victorian portrait painters, such as, John Everett Millais, he adopted a formal style that was very popular, especially with local families and signatories of Bristol and the south west of England. He also painted the anti-slavery campaigner, Rev. Thomas Roberts in 1840.

## InfoBox

| James Curnock | |
| --- | --- |
| James Curnock, portrait painter (1812-1862) | |
| Born | (1812-01-01)1 January 1812
Bristol, Avon, England |
| Died | 29 May 1862(1862-05-29) (aged 50)
Bristol |
| Resting place | Arnos Vale Cemetery, Bristol |
| Known for | Portrait painting |
| Movement | Romanticism |


title: Orange Volunteers

abstract: The Orange Volunteers (OV) or Orange Volunteer Force (OVF) is a small Ulster loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1998 by loyalists who opposed the Belfast Agreement and the loyalist ceasefires. Over the following year it carried out a wave of bomb and gun attacks on Catholics and Catholic-owned properties in rural areas, but since 2000 has been relatively inactive. The group has been associated with elements of the Orange Order and has a Calvinist fundamentalist ideology. OV's original leader was Clifford Peeples. The OV are a Proscribed Organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000 and have been included on the U.S. State Department's, "Terrorist Exclusion List", since 2001.

text:
# Orange Volunteers

The **Orange Volunteers** (**OV**) or **Orange Volunteer Force** (**OVF**) is a small Ulster loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1998 by loyalists who opposed the Belfast Agreement and the loyalist ceasefires. Over the following year it carried out a wave of bomb and gun attacks on Catholics and Catholic-owned properties in rural areas, but since 2000 has been relatively inactive. The group has been associated with elements of the Orange Order and has a Calvinist fundamentalist ideology. OV's original leader was Clifford Peeples. The OV are a Proscribed Organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000 and have been included on the U.S. State Department's, "Terrorist Exclusion List", since 2001.

## Origins

The OV emerged during the 1998 Drumcree conflict when the Royal Ulster Constabulary and British Army prevented members of the Portadown Orange Order and their supporters from returning to the town centre down the Garvaghy road. However, there is evidence to suggest that they had been actively recruiting and training members since as early as 1985. The group is believed to be made up of dissident loyalists who disapprove of the Northern Ireland peace process and also of the more militant members of the Orange Order, including former members of the Loyalist Volunteer Force and Ulster Defence Association. David Ervine, at the time a leading member of the Progressive Unionist Party, described the group as little more than a gang of Protestant fundamentalists and drug-dealers.

## Activities

In 1998 and 1999, the Orange Volunteers were led by Clifford Peeples, a Protestant pastor from Belfast. One of the group's first actions was a synchronized attack on 11 Catholic churches. Peeples defended the attack on the grounds that the churches were "bastions of the Antichrist".

On 27 November 1998, eight masked OV members brandishing guns and grenades staged a "show of strength" for a local journalist. The gunmen began the meeting with a Bible reading and ended it with prayers. They produced a "covenant" that said: "We are defenders of the reformed faith. Our members are practising Protestant worshippers". They went on to state: "We are prepared to defend our people and if it comes to the crunch we will assassinate the enemies of Ulster. Ordinary Catholics have nothing to fear from us. But the true enemies will be targeted, and that's a lot wider than just Sinn Féin and the IRA". They vowed to target IRA prisoners released as part of the Belfast Agreement and claimed responsibility for a string of attacks on Irish nationalist-owned businesses a month beforehand.

## Timeline

### 1998

* 31 October 1998: the OV claimed responsibility for a gun attack on a Catholic-owned pub on Colinglen Road, Belfast.
* 17 December 1998: the OV claimed responsibility for a blast bomb attack on a pub on Ballyganniff Road near Crumlin, County Antrim. It said it was an attempt to kill a senior IRA member.
* 17 December 1998: the OV claimed responsibility for throwing a grenade and firing shots at the home of a known republican in Castledawson, County Londonderry.
* December 1998: the OV claimed responsibility for a gun and bomb attack on the home of a Catholic civilian in Knockcloghrim, County Londonderry.

### 1999

* 19 January 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on a house in Loughinisland, County Down. The man who lived there was wounded. The OV claimed that he was a "PIRA commander in South Down".
* 6 January 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a booby-trap bomb attack on builders working on a Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) club in Magherafelt, County Londonderry. A Catholic builder was injured.
* 8 February 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on a Catholic-owned pub near Toome, County Antrim.
* 9 February 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for an attack on a Catholic-owned pub in Castledawson, County Londonderry. It also claimed responsibility for planting a pipe bomb outside a pub in Crumlin.
* 1 March 1999: A bomb was found on the windowsill of a Catholic-owned house in Coalisland, County Tyrone. It is believed the OV were responsible.
* 3 March 1999: The United Kingdom designated the OV, along with the Red Hand Defenders (RHD), as terrorist organizations.
* 23 March 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a booby-trap bomb attack at a scrapyard on Station Road, Castlewellan, County Down. One man was injured.
* 24 March 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on the Derryhirk Inn near Aghagallon, County Antrim.
* 26 March 1999: The OV were blamed for planting a pipe bomb outside the home of a Catholic family in Randalstown, County Antrim.
* 10 April 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on a pub near Templepatrick, County Antrim. One man was injured.
* 25 April 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a grenade attack on a house in the Legoniel area of Belfast.
* 28 April 1999: The OV claimed responsibility for a pipe bomb attack on the Ramble Inn pub in County Antrim. Several cars were damaged.
* Autumn 1999: In a series of police raids aimed at dissident loyalists, eight arrests were made while weapons and ammunition were found during a search of Stoneyford Orange Hall in County Antrim. Police also found military files containing the personal details of over 300 republicans from south Armagh and Belfast.

### 2000

* June 2000: The OV threatened to kill GAA officials in the run-up to the Ulster Gaelic football championships.
* 29 August 2000: The OV claimed responsibility for burning-down Brennan's Bar in west Belfast.
* 28 September 2000: The OV declared that it had ceased all "military activity".

### 2001

* July 2001: The OV claimed responsibility of killing Catholic 19-year-old Ciaran Cummings in a shooting in County Antrim. However, the Red Hand Defenders (paramilitary with strong links with OV) also claimed responsibility. In 2007 an inquest heard that the Red Hand Defenders and the OV may have worked together in the killing
* 6 December 2001: The United States designated the OV and Red Hand Defenders (RHD) as "terrorist organizations".
* 27 December 2001: The OV declared that it would be ceasing "military operations" after 31 December 2001. It is understood the group decided to go on ceasefire after a plea by a senior clergyman.

### 2002 - 2004

* 2 August 2002: Sinn Féin's Alex Maskey, the new Lord Mayor of Belfast, was sent a bullet in the post. The death threat has been attributed to the OV. It arrived at City Hall in Belfast only hours before Maskey was to take part in a rally against sectarianism.
* September 2003: The OV were believed to have been responsible for a number of attacks on Catholic-owned houses and the Catholic church in Stoneyford.
* 14 November 2003: The OV were linked to a pipe bomb attack on the home of a Catholic couple in Stoneyford, County Antrim. There had been several previous attacks on the same family.
* 10 February 2004: Two men boarded a bus in the loyalist Milltown Estate near Lisburn and severely beat the Catholic driver, warning him that he would be shot by the OV if he returned to the area.

### 2008

* 26 September 2008: The OV were believed to have been behind an arson attack on St Johns GAA club near Castlewellan, County Down. It is believed that the attack was revenge for attacks on Orange halls in the area.
* 8 November 2008: The OV claimed responsibility for burning-down Edendork GAA hall in County Tyrone. It claimed that it was revenge for attacks on Orange halls.
* November 2008: Sinn Féin claimed that the OV was responsible for planting a pipe bomb near the home of a Sinn Féin councillor in Cookstown, County Tyrone.
* 2 December 2008: Sinn Féin minister Conor Murphy claimed to have been told by the Police Service of Northern Ireland of a recent attempt on his life by the OV in the Newry area.

### 2009

* 9 March 2009: The OV claimed responsibility for planting a pipe bomb at Sinn Féin's office on Burn Road in Cookstown, County Tyrone. It claimed that the attack was revenge for the Massereene Barracks shooting.
* 18 August 2009: The OV claimed responsibility for attacks on Catholic and nationalist owned businesses in Garvagh, Rasharkin, Dunloy and Ballymoney. The OV claimed the attacks were revenge for arson incidents at Orange halls.
* 24 August 2009: The OV claimed responsibility for planting a bomb at the back of a house on Smith Street, Moneymore, County Londonderry. It claimed it was retaliation for "republican attacks on Protestant property and churches" in the area. The bomb was made safe by the security forces.

In addition to the attacks listed above, the OV have also sent numerous death threats to members of Sinn Féin. These include Gerry Adams, Alex Maskey, Gerry Kelly, Francie Molloy, Caitríona Ruane, Cara McShane and Mary McArdle.

## Police crackdown

In a series of police raids aimed at dissident loyalists in Autumn 1999, eight arrests were made, weapons, pipe bombs and ammunition were recovered and a search of Stoneyford Orange Hall in County Antrim uncovered military files containing the personal details of over 300 republicans from South Armagh and Belfast. Peeples and another loyalist were arrested by the RUC after their car was stopped on the outskirts of Dungannon and two hand grenades and a pipe bomb were discovered. In 2001 he was jailed for ten years for possession of the weapons. He was released in 2004 and became the minister of a Pentecostal church on the Shankill Road in Belfast. Four other members of the group were convicted of a range of terrorist offences, including possession of an automatic rifle, in December 2000.

## InfoBox

| Orange Volunteers
Orange Volunteer Force | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Leader | Clifford Peeples (until 2001) |
| Dates of operation | July 1998 – unknown |
| Active regions | Northern Ireland |
| Ideology | Ulster loyalism
Protestant fundamentalism
Anti-Catholicism |
| Status | unknown |
| Size | less than 25 members |


abstract: The term international framework of sexual violence refers to the collection of international legal instruments – such as treaties, conventions, protocols, case law, declarations, resolutions and recommendations – developed in the 20th and 21st century to address the problem of sexual violence. The framework seeks to establish and recognise the right all human beings to not experience sexual violence, to prevent sexual violence from being committed wherever possible, to punish perpetrators of sexual violence, and to provide care for victims of sexual violence. The standards set by this framework are intended to be adopted and implemented by governments around the world in order to protect their citizens against sexual violence. Even though international humanitarian law (IHL) strongly prohibits sexual violence in all armed conflicts and international human rights law (IHRL) and international customary law strongly prohibit it at all times, enforcement mechanisms are fragile or do not exist in many parts of the world. Acts of sexual violence can be charged as a crime against humanity, genocide, war crime, or grave breach of the Geneva Conventions.

text:
# International framework of sexual violence

The term **international framework of sexual violence** refers to the collection of international legal instruments – such as treaties, conventions, protocols, case law, declarations, resolutions and recommendations – developed in the 20th and 21st century to address the problem of sexual violence. The framework seeks to establish and recognise the right all human beings (especially but not only women) to not experience sexual violence, to prevent sexual violence from being committed wherever possible, to punish perpetrators of sexual violence, and to provide care for victims of sexual violence. The standards set by this framework are intended to be adopted and implemented by governments around the world in order to protect their citizens against sexual violence.

Even though international humanitarian law (IHL) strongly prohibits sexual violence in all armed conflicts and international human rights law (IHRL) and international customary law strongly prohibit it at all times, enforcement mechanisms are fragile or do not exist in many parts of the world. Acts of sexual violence can be charged as a crime against humanity, genocide, war crime, or grave breach of the Geneva Conventions.

## Background

Sexual violence includes, but is not limited to, rape. Although there is no agreed upon definition of sexual violence, commonly applied ones encompass any act of a sexual nature or attempt to obtain a sexual act carried out through coercion. Sexual violence also includes physical and psychological violence directed at a person's sexuality, including unwanted comments or advances, or acts of traffic such as forced prostitution or sexual slavery.

Sexual violence, in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common violations human beings suffer. It is a serious public health and human rights problem and has profound short- and long- term impacts on physical and mental health. Though women and girls suffer disproportionately from this kind of violence, it can occur to anybody at any age. It is also an act of violence that can be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances, and strangers, as well as intimate partners. Sexual violence is rarely a crime of passion; it is an aggressive act that frequently aims to express power and dominance over the victim.

Sexual violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings; thus, levels of disclosure of the assault vary between regions. In general, it is widely under-reported; thus, available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected area of research; thus, deeper understanding of the issue is needed to promote a coordinated movement against it. It is important to distinguish between domestic sexual violence and conflict-related sexual violence. Often, people who coerce their spouses into sexual acts believe their actions are legitimate because they are married. In times of conflict, sexual violence tends to be an inevitable repercussion of warfare trapped in an ongoing cycle of impunity. Rape is often used as a weapon of war, as a form of attack on the enemy, typifying the conquest and degradation of its women or men or captured fighters of any gender.

## International humanitarian law

> In no other area is our collective failure to ensure effective protection for civilians more apparent – and by its very nature more shameful – than in terms of the masses of women and girls, but also boys and men, whose lives are destroyed each year by sexual violence perpetrated in conflict.
>
> Ban Ki-moon

References to sexual offences and violence provided in IHL instruments are only partially expressed in the 1949 Geneva Conventions, and even more vaguely considered in the 1977 Additional Protocols. By prohibiting sexual violence in a non-discriminatory manner, international humanitarian law ensures that women are protected through a two-tiered approach, being covered by general (equal protection as men) and specific protections. IHL mandates special protections to women, according to their additional needs in situations in which they find themselves more vulnerable, for example women who are widows, sick and wounded, migrants, internally displaced, or held in detention.

| Instrument | Relevant provisions | Relevant citations or additional information |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Customary law | Rule 93 | State practice establishes **prohibition of rape and other forms of sexual violence as a norm of customary international law**. |
| Customary law | Rule 94 | Under the Statute of the International Criminal Court, **sexual slavery is a war crime in both international and non-international armed conflicts**. |
| Customary law | Rule 134 | The practice collected with regard to the specific needs of women is reinforced by and should be viewed in the light of the specific practice relating to t**he prohibition of sexual violence and the obligation to separate women deprived of their liberty from men, as well as the prominent place of women's rights in human rights law**. |
| Customary law | Rule 156 | Serious violations of international humanitarian law constitute war crimes. **Sexual violence as a war crime**. |
| Geneva Conventions of 1949 | Common Article 3 | (...) the following acts are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever with respect to the above-mentioned persons: (a) violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, **mutilation, cruel treatment and torture**; (...) (c) **outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment**; (...) |
| Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War | Article 27(2) | (...) *inter alia* (...) **Women** shall be especially protected against **any attack on their honour, in particular against rape, enforced prostitution, or any form of indecent assault.** (...) Without prejudice to the provisions relating to their state of health, age and sex, all protected persons shall be treated with the same consideration by the Party to the conflict in whose power they are, without any adverse distinction based, in particular, on race, religion or political opinion (...). |
| Additional Protocol I | Article 75(2) (b) | (...) outrages against personal dignity, in particular humiliating and **degrading treatment, enforced prostitution and any other form of sexual assault** (...) |
| Additional Protocol I | Article 76(1) | **Women** shall be the object of special respect and shall be protected **in particular against rape, forced prostitution and any other form of indecent assault**. (...) |
| Additional Protocol I | Article 77(1) | **Children** shall be the object of special respect and shall be protected against **any form of indecent assault** |
| Additional Protocol II | Article 4(2) (e) | Prohibition of outrages against personal dignity, in particular **humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any other form of indecent assault** |

## International criminal law

> Rape and other forms of sexual violence that amount to serious violations of international humanitarian law entail individual criminal responsibility and must be prosecuted. All States are obliged to criminalize these violations under domestic law, and to effectively investigate and prosecute any instance of sexual violence.
>
> International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

Although evidence of sexual atrocities such as mass rapes is acknowledged in the Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal, references to sexual violence in their respective charter are absent. Nonetheless, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), the International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the hybrid Special Court for Sierra Leone and the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia consider sexual violence as a public tool of war rather than a private crime. Groundbreaking case law both by the *ad hoc* Tribunals of ICTR and ICTY established unprecedented developments by classifying acts of rape and sexual violence as crimes of genocide and crimes against humanity.

International Committee of the Red Cross provided clarification with *Aide-memoire*, the prohibition of rape under the Geneva Conventions of 1949. The issued statements cover the breach of willfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health, not only rape but also any other attack on a woman’s dignity. The *Aide-memoire* covers the legal breadth of prohibitions enumerated under Article 147.

The Akayesu case goes beyond domestic law definitions of sexual violence and is the first case in which sexual violence is perceived as an integral part of genocide as defined in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. On 2 September 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) found Jean-Paul Akayesu guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity, and "sexual violence" is cited more than 100 times in the judgment. The trial chamber also held that "sexual violence was an integral part of the process of destruction, specifically targeting Tutsi women and specifically contributing to their destruction and to the destruction of the Tutsi group as a whole".

The first trial solely focused on the perpetration of systematic sexual violence (rape camps) and on crimes against humanity committed against women and girls was in the Foca case, a ruling before the International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) also explicitly incorporates rape and other forms of sexual violence in the list of war crimes and therefore recognizes sexual violence as a grave breach of international humanitarian law and of the Geneva Conventions.

| Instrument | Relevant provisions | Relevant citations or additional information |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993) | Article 5 (g)(i) | **Article 5. Crimes against humanity** The International Tribunal shall have the power to prosecute persons responsible for the following crimes when committed in armed conflict, whether international or internal in character, and directed against any civilian population (...) (g) rape (...) (i) other inhumane acts. |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994) | Article 3(g)(i) | **Article 3. Crimes Against Humanity** The International Tribunal for Rwanda shall have the power to prosecute persons responsible for the following crimes when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack against any civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds (...) (g) Rape (...) (i) Other inhumane acts (...) |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994) | Article 4(e) | **Article 4. Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II** The International Tribunal for Rwanda shall have the power to prosecute persons committing or ordering to be committed serious violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 for the Protection of War Victims, and of Additional Protocol II thereto of 8 June 1977. These violations shall include, but shall not be limited to (...) (e) Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault (...) |
| Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) Archived 2021-04-25 at the Wayback Machine | Article 7(2) (f) | **Article 7. Crimes against humanity** (...) Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy (...) enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity” as crimes against humanity. The Statute defines “forced pregnancy” as the "unlawful confinement of a woman forcibly made pregnant, with the intent of affecting the ethnic composition of any population or carrying out other grave violations of international law”. |
| Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) Archived 2021-04-25 at the Wayback Machine | Article 8(2) (b) (xxi) (xxii) | **Article 8. War crimes** (b) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in international armed conflict, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts: (...) (xxi) Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment (xxii) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence (...) |
| Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) Archived 2021-04-25 at the Wayback Machine | Article 8(2) (e) (vi) | **Article 8. War crimes** (e) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts not of an international character, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts: (...) (vi) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, and any other form of sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions (...) |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2000) | Article 2(f)(g)(i) | **Article 2. Crimes Against Humanity** The Special Court shall have the power to prosecute persons who committed the following crimes as part of a widespread or systematic attack against any civilian population: (...) g. Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy and any other form of sexual violence (...) i. Other inhumane acts. |
|

## Human rights law, the United Nations, and further developments

### International conventions and declarations

An extensive amount of both hard and soft law instruments set rules, standards and norms for the protection of victims of sexual offences. Among the wide range of international human rights law instruments are the following:

| Short name | Full name | Relevance | Organisation | Adopted |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| DEDAW | Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women | '\[Combating\] all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of women' (Article 8) | United Nations | 7 November 1967 |
| CEDAW | Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women | '\[Suppression of\] all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of women' (Article 6). According to CEDAW Committee Recommendation 19 (1992), 'the definition of discrimination includes gender-based violence, that is, violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately.' | United Nations | 18 December 1979 |
| VDPA | Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action | 'Gender-based violence and all forms of sexual harassment and exploitation (...) must be eliminated' (Part I §18) | United Nations | 25 June 1993 |
| DEVAW | Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women | Detailed description of forms of sexual violence against women that are to be eliminated, and why, and how governments *should* ensure their elimination. | United Nations | 20 December 1993 |
| Belém do Pará Convention | Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women | Definition of violence against women, which is deemed a human rights violation. First-ever call for binding mechanisms for defending women's right to be free from physical, sexual, and psychological violence. | Organization of American States | 9 June 1994 |
| Maputo Protocol | Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa | First binding convention for Africa, first to define 'unwanted or forced sex' as forms of violence against women. | African Union | 11 July 2003 |
| Istanbul Convention | Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence | First binding convention for Europe, first to define sexual violence in a gender-neutral manner, and based on a lack of consent. | Council of Europe | 11 May 2011 |

Participation in CEDAW.   Signed and ratified   Acceded or succeeded   Unrecognised state, abiding by treaty   Only signed   Not signedParticipation in the Belém do Pará Convention, the Maputo Protocol and the Istanbul Convention combined.   Signed and ratified   Acceded or succeeded   Only signed   Not signed   Not a member state of the AU, CoE or OAS   Denounced

### UN resolutions and reports

> The continued engagement of the Security Council must serve as an unequivocal statement of intent: sexual violence in conflict will not be tolerated, and the full force of international order will be brought to bear to ensure accountability for such crimes.The perpetrators must understand that there can be no hiding place; no amnesty; no safe harbour. They must know that they will be pursued by any and all means at our collective disposal. In the process, we will begin to transfer the stigma of this crime from the survivors, to the perpetrators.
>
> Zainab Hawa Bangura

The UN Security Council, ECOSOC and the UN Commission on Human Rights do not take into account the nature of the conflict with respect to the protection of women in war time. List of UN Security Council Resolutions specifically address sexual violence:

1. UNSC Resolution 1325 (2000)
2. UNSC Resolution 1820 (2008)
3. UNSC Resolution 1888 (2009)
4. UNSC Resolution 1960 (2010)
5. UNSC Resolution 2106 (2013)
6. UNSC Resolution 2242 (2015)
7. UNSC Resolution 2331 (2016)
8. UNSC Resolution 2467 (2019)

Reports from the Secretary-General relate to sexual violence in conflict:

1. Report of the SG on the implementation of SC resolutions 1820 and 1888 (2010)
2. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2012)
3. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2013)
4. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2014)
5. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2015)
6. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2016)
7. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2017)
8. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2018)
9. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2019)
10. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2020)
11. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2021)
12. Report of the SG on conflict-related sexual violence (2022)

The first time the Security Council addressed the impacts of armed conflict on women was in Resolution 1325 (2000). The document focuses on the need for specific protections for women and girls in conflict and expresses the need to consider gender perspectives in mission, UN peace support operations, and post-conflict processes.

Resolution 1820 (2008) of the UN Security Council declares that rape and other forms of sexual violence "can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".

### UN Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict

> What do the ten resolutions on Women, Peace and Security – five of which focus squarely on preventing and addressing conflict-related sexual violence mean right now?
>
> Pramila Patten, April 2022

Resolution 1888 (2009) is perceived as an advancement in international law as it created the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General for Sexual Violence in Conflict (SRSG-SVC). The first Special Representative, Margot Wallström, was appointed in April 2010. The second Special Representative Zainab Hawa Bangura served in the position from September 2012 to April 2017, when the third Special Representative Pramila Patten took office. The Office identified eight priority countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina; Central African Republic (CAR); Colombia; Cote d’Ivoire; Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC); Liberia; South Sudan and Sudan. SRSG-SVC is also engaged in the Middle East (Syria) and in Asia and the Pacific (Cambodia).

Key priorities of the Office are:

1. to end impunity for sexual violence in conflict by assisting national authorities to strengthen criminal accountability, responsiveness to survivors and judicial capacity;
2. the protection and empowerment of civilians who face sexual violence in conflict, in particular, women and girls who are targeted disproportionately by this crime;
3. to mobilize political ownership by fostering government engagement in developing and implementing strategies to combat sexual violence;
4. to increase recognition of rape as a tactic and consequence of war through awareness-raising activities at the international and country levels;
5. to harmonise the UN's response by leading UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict, a network of focal points from 13 UN agencies that amplify programming and advocacy on this issue in the wider UN agenda;
6. to emphasize greater national ownership.

Resolution 1960 (2010) reaffirms that sexual violence is systematic, rampant and widespread. The resolution creates new institutional tools for the prevention and protection from sexual violence. The aim of the resolution is to provide further steps for combating impunity and recognizing sexual violence as a serious breach of human rights law and international humanitarian law.

Resolution 2106 (2013) reasserts fundamental requirements for the prevention of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict setting: gender equality, women empowerment, and the importance of implementing the full range of commitments found in resolution 1325.

## Further reading

* Cohn, Carol (2010). *Women and wars* (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-4245-1.
* de Brouwer, Anne-Marie L. M. (2005). *Supranational criminal prosecution of sexual violence : the ICC and the practice of the ICTY and the ICTR*. Antwerpen \[u.a.\]: Intersentia. ISBN 90-5095-533-9.
* Eriksson, Maria (2011). *Defining rape : emerging obligations for states under international law?*. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-9004-20263-4.
* Kunz, Megan Bastick, Karin Grimm, Rahel (2007). *Sexual violence in armed conflict : global overview and implications for the security sector*. Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces. ISBN 978-92-9222-059-4.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2003). *Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response*. UNHCR.


title: Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros

abstract: Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros was a scientist, cartographer and publisher in New Spain Mexico during the Spanish colonial period. He was also royal land surveyor and hydraulic and mining engineer. Together with his brother Cristóbal, he took over the Imprenta Antuerpiana in 1752. They remained as sole proprietors until late 1764. By 1767 this was the largest printing establishment in the Americas. In that year Manuel Antonio Valdés y Munguía joined the business. After Zúñiga's death in 1793, Valdés took on Luis Abadiano as a partner. At the time of Valdés's death in 1831, the firm was the oldest publisher in Mexico. From 1762 to 1780 Zúñiga y Ontiveros published Efemérides calculadas y pronosticadas según el meridiano de México. These octavo volumes contained information on eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. In 1767 he began publishing Guía de Forasteros, a kind of almanac, which was published each year through 1792, although the name was changed to Calendario mensual. He also published an updated version of Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora's map of the valley of Mexico. Zúñiga paid much attention to detail in the works he published, including the typefaces. He spent 50,000 pesos acquiring type from Antwerp and Madrid. He was the first to use type cast in New Spain, by the clockmaker and printer Dimas Rangel, with whom Zúñiga edited Estatutos de la Real Academia de San Carlos (1785). He was the author of Bomba hidráulica para levantar las aguas (1770) and a sonnet published in Fénix de los mineros ricos (1779).

text:
# Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros

**Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros** (1717, in Mexico City – 1793, in Mexico City) was a scientist, cartographer and publisher in New Spain Mexico during the Spanish colonial period. He was also royal land surveyor and hydraulic and mining engineer.

Together with his brother Cristóbal, he took over the Imprenta Antuerpiana (Antuerpiana Press) in 1752. They remained as sole proprietors until late 1764. By 1767 this was the largest printing establishment in the Americas. In that year Manuel Antonio Valdés y Munguía joined the business. After Zúñiga's death in 1793, Valdés took on Luis Abadiano as a partner (about 1821). At the time of Valdés's death in 1831, the firm was the oldest publisher in Mexico.

From 1762 to 1780 Zúñiga y Ontiveros published *Efemérides calculadas y pronosticadas según el meridiano de México*. These octavo volumes contained information on eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. In 1767 he began publishing *Guía de Forasteros*, a kind of almanac, which was published each year through 1792, although the name was changed to *Calendario mensual* (Monthly Calendar). He also published an updated version of Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora's map of the valley of Mexico.

Zúñiga paid much attention to detail in the works he published, including the typefaces. He spent 50,000 pesos acquiring type from Antwerp and Madrid. He was the first to use type cast in New Spain, by the clockmaker and printer Dimas Rangel, with whom Zúñiga edited *Estatutos de la Real Academia de San Carlos* (Statutes of the Royal Academy of San Carlos) (1785).

He was the author of *Bomba hidráulica para levantar las aguas* (Hydraulic Pump to Raise Water) (1770) and a sonnet published in *Fénix de los mineros ricos* (1779).

## Other works published by Zúniga

* Neve, Felipe de, *Reglamento para el Gobierno de la Peninsula de Californias* (1784)  government regulations for the Californias
* Palóu, Francisco, *Relacion Historica de la Vida y Apos tolicas Tareas del Venerable Padre Fray Junipero Serra, y de las Misiones que fundó en la California Septentrional, y nuevos establecimientos de Monterey* (1787)  the life and work of Father Junípero Serra, founder of many California missions
* León y Gama, Antonio de, *Descripción histórica y cronológica de las dos piedras que con occasion del nueve empedrado que se está formando en la plaza principal de Mexico* (1792)  a description of the Aztec calendar stone shortly after it was rediscovered

* "Zúniga y Ontiveros, Felipe de," *Enciclopedia de México*, v. 14. Mexico City, 1996, ISBN 1-56409-016-7.

## Further reading

* RUBIO-ARGÜELLES, Á. (1957). *Zúñiga. Impresor del siglo XVIII en México* (in Spanish). Coimbra: Associação Portuguesa para o Progresso das Ciências.