title: Twists of Fate

abstract: Korowód, or Twists of Fate, is a 2007 Polish drama film directed by Jerzy Stuhr. It stars Kamil Mackowiak, Karolina Gorczyca and Katarzyna Maciag. Supporting roles are played by Jan Frycz, Aleksandra Konieczna, Maciej Stuhr and Matylda Baczynska.

text:
# Twists of Fate

***Korowód***, or ***Twists of Fate***, is a 2007 Polish drama film directed by Jerzy Stuhr. It stars Kamil Mackowiak, Karolina Gorczyca and Katarzyna Maciag. Supporting roles are played by Jan Frycz, Aleksandra Konieczna, Maciej Stuhr and Matylda Baczynska.

## Plot

The film revolves around Bartek Wilkosz, a student keen to exploit the academic system through plagiarism and anxious to grab a buck (or zloty) however he can. After seeing a suspicious man on a train, Bartek follows him across Poland. Once the man's identity is discovered, the lives of several people are altered.

## InfoBox

| Korowód | |
| --- | --- |
| Directed by | Jerzy Stuhr |
| Written by | Jerzy Stuhr |
| Produced by | Juliusz Machulski |
| Starring | Kamil Mackowiak
Karolina Gorczyca
Katarzyna Maciag |
| Cinematography | Bartek Prokopowicz |
| Edited by | Elzbieta Kurkowska |
| Music by | Pawel Szymanski |
| Release date | * 9 November 2007 (2007-11-09) |
| Running time | 112 minutes |
| Country | Poland |
| Language | Polish |


title: Land transport

abstract: Land transport is the transport or movement of people, animals or goods from one location to another location on land. This is in contrast with other main types of transport such as maritime transport and aviation. The two main forms of land transport can be considered to be rail transport and road transport.

text:
# Land transport

**Land transport** is the transport or movement of people, animals or goods from one location to another location on land. This is in contrast with other main types of transport such as maritime transport and aviation. The two main forms of land transport can be considered to be rail transport and road transport.

## Systems

Several systems of land transport have been devised, from the most basic system of humans carrying things from place to sophisticated networks of ground-based transportation utilising different types of vehicles and infrastructure. The three types are human-powered, animal powered and machine powered

### Human-powered transportation

Human-powered transport, a form of sustainable transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power, in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure, physical exercise, and environmentalism; it is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions.

Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when using the human power with vehicles, such as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing; even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft.

### Animal-powered transportation

Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles.

### Road transportation

A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route.

The most common road vehicle is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to the other and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and timings of travel is not available to other modes of transport. It is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport.

Automobiles offer high flexibility and with low capacity, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.

### Rail transportation

Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev.

A train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships.

Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities; modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.

### Other modes

Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe; most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas.

Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport.

### Connections with other modes

#### Airports

Airports serve as a terminus for air transport activities, but most people and cargo transported by air must use ground transport to reach their final destination.

Airport-based services are sometimes used to shuttle people to nearby hotels or motels when overnight stay is required for connecting flights. Companies provide rental car, private bus and taxi services while mass transportation is usually provided by a municipality or other source of public funding.

Several major airports, including Denver International and JFK International, provide many types of ground transportation, often by working with livery companies and similar businesses. Smaller airports might only have a few private rental companies and a bus service. Larger airports tend to offer several different transportation options. Larger airports also sometimes have light rail and/or roads that loop around an airport to provide access from multiple terminals.

#### Seaports

As with air transport, sea transport typically requires use of ground transport at either end of travel for people and goods to reach their final destinations. Significant infrastructure is used at ports to transfer people and goods between sea and land systems.

## Elements

### Infrastructure

Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of a way, a terminal and facilities for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built up.

Terminals such as stations are locations where passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and coaches can operate from simple stops. For freight, terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of production to the point of use.

The financing of infrastructure can either be public or private. Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are funded through taxation. New infrastructure projects can have high cost, and are often financed through debt. Many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on roads. Independent of this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of vehicles. Because of poor forecasting and overestimation of passenger numbers by planners, there is frequently a benefits shortfall for transport infrastructure projects.

### Vehicles

A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the cargo and riders. Unless being pulled by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine, or electric motor, though other means of propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through wheels, propellers and pressure.

Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a compartment for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a driver.

## Users

### Public

Public land transport refers to carriage of people and goods by government or commercial entities which is made available to the public at large for the purpose of facilitating the economy and society they serve. Most transport infrastructure and large transport vehicles are operated in this manner. Funds to pay for such transport may come from taxes, subscriptions, direct user fees, or some combination. The vast majority of public transport is land-based, with commuting and postal delivery being the primary purposes.

### Commerce

Commercial land transport refers to carriage of people and goods by commercial entities made available at cost to individuals, businesses, and the government for the purpose of profiting the entities providing the travel. Most infrastructure used is publicly owned, and vehicles tend to be large and efficient to maximize capacity and profit margins. Freight shipping and long-distance travel are common uses served by commercial land transport.

### Military

Military land transport refers to carriage of people and goods by the military or other operators for the purpose of supporting military operations, both in peacetime as well as in combat areas. Such activity may use a combination of public infrastructure as well as military-specific infrastructure and in many cases is designed to operate with little or no infrastructure when necessary. Vehicles can range from basic commercial or even private vehicles to those specifically designed for military use.

### Private

Private land transport refers to individuals and organizations transporting themselves and their own people, animals, and goods at their own discretion. Vehicles used are typically smaller, though publicly owned infrastructure is often used for travel.

## Function

Relocation of travelers and cargo are the most common uses of transport. However, other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces during warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emergency equipment.

### Passenger

Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private transport. Public transport is scheduled services on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders desire. The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environmental impact. Travel may be as part of daily commuting, for business, leisure or migration.

Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in larger cities. Long-haul transport involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly used for the longest, including intercontinental, travel. Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends with walking, all passenger transport can be considered intermodal. Public transport may also involve the intermediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub, such as a bus or railway station.

Taxis and buses can be found on both ends of the public transport spectrum. Buses are the cheaper mode of transport but are not necessarily flexible, and taxis are very flexible but more expensive. In the middle is demand-responsive transport, offering flexibility whilst remaining affordable.

International travel may be restricted for some individuals due to legislation and visa requirements.

### Freight

Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in manufacturing. With increased specialization and globalization, production is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for transport. While all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen. Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from producer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging, with associated exchange of information. Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk during transport.

Containerization, with the standardization of ISO containers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized international and domestic trade, offering huge reduction in transshipment costs. Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any car; containerization allows for automated handling and transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle operation. This has been one of the key driving factors in international trade and globalization since the 1950s.

Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal, cereals and petroleum. Because of the uniformity of the product, mechanical handling can allow enormous quantities to be handled quickly and efficiently. The low value of the cargo combined with high volume also means that economies of scale become essential in transport, and whole trains are commonly used to transport bulk. Liquid products with sufficient volume may also be transported by pipeline.

## History

Humans' first means of land transport was walking. The domestication of animals introduces a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing heavier loads to be hauled, or humans to ride the animals for higher speed and duration. Inventions such as the wheel and sled helped make animal transport more efficient through the introduction of vehicles. However, water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Industrial Revolution.

The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. Paved roads were built by many early civilizations, including Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization. The Persian and Roman empires built stone-paved roads to allow armies to travel quickly. Deep roadbeds of crushed stone underneath ensured that the roads kept dry. The medieval Caliphate later built tar-paved roads. Until the Industrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and production and consumption were located as close to each other as feasible.

The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw a number of inventions fundamentally change transport. With telegraphy, communication became instant and independent of transport. The invention of the steam engine, closely followed by its application in rail transport, made land transport independent of human or animal muscles. Both speed and capacity increased rapidly, allowing specialization through manufacturing being located independent of natural resources.

With the development of the combustion engine and the automobile at the turn into the 20th century, road transport became more viable, allowing the introduction of mechanical private transport. The first highways were constructed during the 19th century with macadam. Later, tarmac and concrete became the dominant paving material.

After World War II, the automobile and airlines took higher shares of transport, reducing rail to freight and short-haul passenger. In the 1950s, the introduction of containerization gave massive efficiency gains in freight transport, permitting globalization. International air travel became much more accessible in the 1960s, with the commercialization of the jet engine. Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways, this introduced a decline for rail transport. After the introduction of the Shinkansen in 1964, high-speed rail in Asia and Europe started taking passengers on long-haul routes from airlines.

Early in U.S. history, most aqueducts, bridges, canals, railroads, roads, and tunnels were owned by private joint-stock corporations. Most such transportation infrastructure came under government control in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the nationalization of inter-city passenger rail service with the creation of Amtrak. Recently, however, a movement to privatize roads and other infrastructure has gained some ground and adherents.

## Impact

### Economic

Transport is a key necessity for specialization—allowing production and consumption of products to occur at different locations. Transport has throughout history been a spur to expansion; better transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always been dependent on increasing the capacity and rationality of transport. But the infrastructure and operation of transport has a great impact on the land and is the largest drainer of energy, making transport sustainability a major issue.

Modern society dictates a physical distinction between home and work, forcing people to transport themselves to places of work or study, as well as to temporarily relocate for other daily activities. Passenger transport is also the essence of tourism, a major part of recreational transport. Commerce requires the transport of people to conduct business, either to allow face-to-face communication for important decisions or to move specialists from their regular place of work to sites where they are needed.

### Planning

Transport planning allows for high utilization and less impact regarding new infrastructure. Using models of transport forecasting, planners are able to predict future transport patterns. On the operative level, logistics allows owners of cargo to plan transport as part of the supply chain. Transport as a field is studied through transport economics, the backbone for the creation of regulation policy by authorities. Transport engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering, must take into account trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and route assignment, while the operative level is handled through traffic engineering.

Because of the negative impacts made, transport often becomes the subject of controversy related to choice of mode, as well as increased capacity. Automotive transport can be seen as a tragedy of the commons, where the flexibility and comfort for the individual deteriorate the natural and urban environment for all. Density of development depends on mode of transport, with public transport allowing for better spatial utilization. Good land use keeps common activities close to people's homes and places higher-density development closer to transport lines and hubs, to minimize the need for transport. There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.

Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput means that in many cities there is too much traffic and many—if not all—of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places, and as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied on—spanning such areas as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociologists as well as economists—the viability of the old mobility solutions is increasingly being questioned. European cities are leading this transition.

### Environment

Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming. Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced individual vehicles' emissions; however, this has been offset by increases in the numbers of vehicles and in the use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a transition from road to rail and human-powered transport, as well as increased transport electrification and energy efficiency.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change.

## Works

* Bardi, Edward J.; Coyle, John Joseph; Novack, Robert A. (2006). *Management of Transportation*. Thomson/South-Western. ISBN 978-0-324-31443-4.
* Chopra, Sunil; Meindl, Peter (2007). *Supply Chain Management: Strategy, Planning, and Operation*. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-173042-7.


title: U.S. Route 219

abstract: U.S. Route 219 is a spur of US 19. It runs for 535 miles (861 km) from West Seneca, New York, at an interchange with Interstate 90 (I-90) to Rich Creek, Virginia, intersecting at US 460. US 219 is found in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. Much of the Route in West Virginia follows the old Indian warpath known as the Seneca Trail.

text:
# U.S. Route 219

**U.S. Route 219** (**US 219**) is a spur of US 19. It runs for 535 miles (861 km) from West Seneca, New York, at an interchange with Interstate 90 (I-90) to Rich Creek, Virginia, intersecting at US 460. US 219 is found (from north to south) in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. Much of the Route in West Virginia follows the old Indian warpath known as the Seneca Trail (Great Indian Warpath).

## Route description

### Virginia

US 219 starts in Rich Creek at US 460, and heads northeast to the West Virginia state line. Until the early 1980s, US 219 continued southwest with US 460 from Rich Creek, re-entering West Virginia to end at US 19 in Bluefield. It now only runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) in Virginia, and no longer connects to its parent route US 19.

US 219 was initially added to the state highway system in the early 1920s as **State Route 231**. It became **State Route 216** in the 1928 renumbering and **State Route 124** in the 1933 renumbering, finally becoming part of the extended US 219 (along with State Route 8, now US 460, west of Rich Creek) in the late 1930s.

### West Virginia

US 219 enters West Virginia in Peterstown at the split of US 219 and WV 12. US 219 then heads northeast into Union. US 219 continues through Greenbrier County running through the towns of Ronceverte, Lewisburg, where it intersects US 60, and Falling Spring. US 219 continues north into Pocahontas County and through the towns of Hillsboro and Marlinton. US 219 runs north into Randolph County and begins its dual certification with US 250. They both serve the towns of Huttonsville, Mill Creek, Beverly, and Elkins, where US 33 joins the concurrency. US 219 splits from US 33 and US 250 just north of Elkins. US 219 continues through the town of Montrose until it enters Tucker County. From here, US 219 runs through the towns of Parsons and Thomas. US 219 heads north into rural Preston County and exits West Virginia into Garrett County, Maryland.

### Maryland

US 219 enters Maryland near Backbone Mountain on the West Virginia border, crosses US 50 and enters the town of Oakland. It crosses Maryland Route 135 and Maryland Route 39 in Oakland, before passing Deep Creek Lake. After traveling through Accident it intersects Interstate 68 east of Friendsville, providing access to Morgantown, West Virginia, Frostburg and Cumberland. US 219 runs concurrently with I-68 at Exit 14A and exits I-68 at Exit 22. US 219 crosses the Mason–Dixon line, the Pennsylvania border, south of Salisbury, Pennsylvania.

### Pennsylvania

From near Grantsville, Maryland north to Ebensburg, Pennsylvania, US 219 is Corridor N of the Appalachian Development Highway System. From Meyersdale, Pennsylvania to just south of Carrolltown, Pennsylvania, US 219 is a limited-access highway. A new 11-mile limited-access segment from Meyersdale to Somerset opened to traffic in the late fall of 2018. On August 9, 2007, Pennsylvania State Transportation Secretary Allen D. Biehler unveiled four signs along US Route 219 that dedicated the route from Maryland to Cambria County, Pennsylvania as the "Flight 93 Memorial Highway". From Carrolltown US 219 runs largely as a two-lane road to DuBois, Pennsylvania, through which it runs as Brady Street, and then returns to a two-lane road after a junction with Interstate 80. US 219 runs directly through the towns of Brockway, Ridgway, and Johnsonburg before reaching Wilcox, where PA Route 321 splits and heads for the borough of Kane. US 219 continues north as a two-lane road until reaching Bradford, where it becomes a limited-access highway and remains so until reaching the New York border.

### New York

US 219 enters Western New York from Pennsylvania south of the Hamlet of Limestone in the Town of Carrollton in Cattaraugus County. Proceeding northward, the highway splits into the main route and a "business route" that follows the original main route. The main route merges with Interstate 86/New York State Route 17 at Exit 23 north of Limestone and splits from I-86/NY 17 at Exit 21 in the city of Salamanca. The business route crosses the Allegheny River and the Southern Tier Expressway and joins New York State Route 417 to the City of Salamanca. Separating from NY 417, the business route rejoins with the main US 219 and turns northward through the rest of Cattaraugus County, passing through Peth, Great Valley, Ellicottville, and Ashford Hollow before crossing the Cattaraugus Creek and entering Erie County. About 4 miles south of Springville, New York, US 219 becomes a divided, limited-access highway. As such, it continues north through half of the county, terminating at exit 55 of the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) near the west town line of West Seneca south of the City of Buffalo. Before joining the Thruway, US 219 runs parallel to it for about one mile (1.6 km). The interchange is set up as such that drivers can exit and re-enter the Thruway via US 219 without leaving the expressway.

## Major intersections

Virginia  US 460 in Rich Creek West Virginia  US 60 in Lewisburg  I-64 in Lewisburg  US 250 in Huttonsville. The highways travel concurrently to north of Elkins.  US 33 in Elkins. The highways travel concurrently to north of Elkins. Maryland  US 50 in Red House  I-68 / US 40 in Keysers Ridge. The highways travel concurrently to east-southeast of Grantsville. Pennsylvania  US 30 south-southeast of Boswell  US 22 southwest of Ebensburg  US 422 west of Ebensburg  US 322 in Luthersburg. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Sandy.  US 119 south of Sandy  I-80 east-northeast of Falls Creek  US 6 in Lantz Corners New York  I-86 in Carrollton. The highways travel concurrently to the City of Salamanca.  US 20A in Orchard Park  I-90 in West Seneca    Template:Attached KML/U.S. Route 219KML is not from Wikidata

| Browse numbered routes | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
| SR 218 | **VA** | US 220 |
| WV 218 | **WV** | US 220 |

## InfoBox

| U.S. Route 219 | |
| --- | --- |
| US 219 highlighted in red | |
| Route information | |
| Auxiliary route of US 19 | |
| Length | 535 mi (861 km) |
| Existed | 1926–present |
| Major junctions | |
| South end | US 460 in Rich Creek, VA |
| Major intersections |  |
| North end | I-90 / New York Thruway in West Seneca, NY |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| States | Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| NY 218 **NY**  US 220  PA 218 **PA**  US 220  MD 219 **MD**  US 220  WV 218 **WV**  US 220  SR 218 **VA**  US 220 | |


title: Andrei Cherny

abstract: Andrei Hugo Cherny is an American politician and businessman. He served as the chair of the Arizona Democratic Party from 2011–2012. He co-founded Aspiration, Inc., an eco-friendly financial firm based in Marina del Rey, California, and was its chief executive officer from 2013 to October 2022. Earlier in his career, Cherny co-founded Democracy: A Journal of Ideas. Later he was a candidate for various Arizona state offices, and in congressional district primary elections.

text:
# Andrei Cherny

**Andrei Hugo Cherny** (born August 4, 1975) is an American politician and businessman. He served as the chair of the Arizona Democratic Party from 2011–2012. He co-founded Aspiration, Inc., an eco-friendly financial firm based in Marina del Rey, California, and was its chief executive officer from 2013 to October 2022.

Earlier in his career, Cherny co-founded *Democracy: A Journal of Ideas.* Later he was a candidate for various Arizona state offices, and in congressional district primary elections.

## Early life and education

Cherny was born in Los Angeles, on August 4, 1975. His parents, Helena and Pavel, were Czechoslovak Jewish immigrants who initially spoke little English.

After graduating from North Hollywood High School, Cherny graduated with honors from Harvard College. He later received his Juris Doctor from the UC Berkeley School of Law with support from The Paul & Daisy Soros Fellowships for New Americans.

Cherny was an officer in the U.S. Navy Reserve.

## Business career

Cherny co-founded Aspiration, Inc., an online financial company, with Joseph Sanberg in 2013. Cherny left his position as chief executive officer in 2022 after a deal to go public as a special purpose acquisition company (SPAC) at a $2.3 billion valuation fell through.

Aspiration aimed to sell carbon offsets and credits to businesses. Under Cherny's leadership, Aspiration created cash management accounts that ensured customers' deposits were with banks that did not lend to fossil fuel companies. By 2021, it was reported to have over 5 million customers. In June 2021, Cherny wrote a commentary in Fortune explaining his decision to raise his company's minimum wage to $25/hour.

### Aspiration investigation

The company is being investigated for potential misconduct related to carbon credit transactions.

In January 2024, the U.S. Department of Justice and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission initiated a probe into whether Aspiration "misled customers about the quality of the carbon offsets it was selling". *Bloomberg* reported that authorities were reviewing Cherny's actions as part of the investigation. Cherny, who retains financial interests in the company, said in a statement that he will cooperate, saying, "The carbon removal credit industry is an emerging industry and deserves to be regulated and scrutinized to ensure it is as effective as possible".

## Political career

As a writer for *The Harvard Crimson*, Cherny wrote political pieces highlighting Bill Clinton's 1996 reelection campaign. The White House Communications Director noticed his column and circulated it until it finally reached President Clinton's desk. Clinton used several of Cherny's lines in his 1997 inaugural address and hired the twenty-one-year-old Cherny after his graduation.

He was the chief drafter of the 2000 Democratic Party platform when Al Gore was the nominee for president.

Cherny was a speechwriter for the John Kerry 2004 presidential campaign.

Cherny was a visiting fellow at the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs in 2004.

In 2006, Cherny co-founded *Democracy*, a public policy journal.

In 2011, he was a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress.

From 2006 to 2009, Cherny served as a criminal prosecutor and Arizona Assistant Attorney General.

He is also the author of the non-fiction books *The Next Deal: The Future of Public Life in the Information Age,* (2008) and *The Candy Bombers: The Untold Story of the Berlin Airlift and America's Finest Hour.* (2010)

### Political campaigns

In 2001, Cherny ran for the California State Assembly, losing to Lloyd E. Levine.

In 2010, Cherny was the Democratic nominee for state Treasurer of Arizona and lost the election to Republican Doug Ducey.

Cherny served as Chairman of the Arizona Democratic Party from January 22, 2011, through January 30, 2012.

In 2012, Cherny lost the Democratic primary for Arizona's 9th congressional district to Kyrsten Sinema.

In 2024, Cherny lost the Democratic primary for Arizona's 1st congressional district to Amish Shah.

## Publications

* Cherny, A. (2001). The Next Deal: The Future of Public Life in the Information Age, United States: Basic Books.
* Cherny, A. (2008). The Candy Bombers: The Untold Story of the Berlin Aircraft and America's Finest Hour. United States: Penguin Publishing Group.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Andrei Cherny | |
| --- | --- |
| Cherny in 2012 | |
|  | |
| Chair of the Arizona Democratic Party | |
| **In office**
January 22, 2011  January 30, 2012 | |
| Preceded by | Don Bivens |
| Succeeded by | Bill Roe |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Andrei Hugo Cherny
(1975-08-04) August 4, 1975
Los Angeles, California, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | Stephanie Fleischman |
| Children | 2 |
| Education | Harvard University (BA)
University of California, Berkeley (JD) |
|  | |


title: Nükhet Duru

abstract: Nükhet Duru is a Turkish singer.

text:
# Nükhet Duru

**Nükhet Duru** (born 19 May 1954) is a Turkish singer.

## Career

She started singing at Florya Deniz Club in Istanbul in 1971. She released her first 45 album *Aklımda Sen Fikrimde Sen – Karadır Kaşların* in 1974. It was followed by many singles like *Beni Benimle Bırak – Cambaz- Harp ve Sulh-Gerisi Vız Gelir* (1975), with which she won a Golden Plate. Her first LP album *Bir Nefes Gibi* was released in 1977. In that same year, Duru was awarded the "Most Successful Female Singer of the Year". In 1978, she participated in a song contest with Modern Folk Trio, which was held in Seoul, and won first place. In the 1980s, she began singing Turkish Traditional music. Besides as a pop and Turkish traditional music singer, Duru has performed on TV programs, musicals, films and TV dramas. She has received many awards.

Her song *Ben Sana Vurgunum* was heavily sampled by The Weeknd in his song Often from his 2015 album, Beauty Behind the Madness.

Duru released a new studio album, *Hikayesi Var*, in 2020. In the album she voiced duets with different artists, including Sıla, Kenan Doğulu, Mabel Matiz, Evrencan Gündüz, Funda Arar, Kalben, Zeynep Bastık, Ceylan Ertem, Sena Şener, Rubato and Ata Demirer.

On 14 February 2020, it was announced that director Mu Tunc is working on a new documentary film based on Duru's career.

## Discography

### 45rpms, EPs and singles

* *Aklımda Sen Fikrimde Sen - Karadır Kaşların* (1975)
* *Beni Benimle Bırak - Gerisi Vız Gelir* (1976)
* *Her Şey Yolunda Şimdi - İki Damla Gözyaşı* (1976)
* *Canım Yandı - Haydi Uzatma Arkadaş* (1977)
* *Cambaz - Haydi Hayat* (1977)
* *Harp ve Sulh - Bir İnsan Doğdu* (1977)
* *Anılar - Güneş* (1978)
* *Dostluğa Davet - Takalar* (1978) (with Modern Folk Üçlüsü)
* *Portofino - Yıldızlar* (1979)
* *Ne Oldu Bize - Al Gönlümü Diyar Diyar Sürükle* (1983)
* *Remix-1* (1998)
* *Remix-2* (1998)
* *Nükhet Duru '99* (1999)
* *Durup Dururken* (2008)
* *İlk 2* (2010)
* *Mavi Düşler* (2018)
* *Kalbim Ege'de Kaldı* (2020)
* *Kapıldım Gitti* (2021)
* *Uzunlar* (2021)
* *Değmesin Ellerimiz* (2022)
* *Olasılık* (2023) (with Devrim Ekiz)

### Studio albums

* *Bir Nefes Gibi* (1976)
* *Melankoli* (1978)
* *Sevgili Çocuklar* (1979)
* *Nükhet Duru IV* (1979)
* *Nükhet Duru 1981* (1981)
* *Aşıksam Ne Farkeder?* (1982)
* *Her Şey Yeni* (1984)
* *Sevda* (1985)
* *Nadide* (1986)
* *Çek Halatı Gönlüm* (1987)
* *Benim Yolum* (1989)
* *Aç Gözünü Adamım* (1991)
* *Aman Tanrım!* (1992)
* *Nükhet Duru* (1994)
* *Gümüş* (1996)
* *Mühür* (1997)
* *Cahide - Bu Bir Efsane* (1998)
* *Bana Rağmen* (2001)
* *Muhteşem İkili* (2004) (with Cenk Eren)
* *...Gece Saat On İki* (2006)
* *Tam Zamanında* (2012)
* *Aşkın N Hali* (2015)
* *Hikayesi Var* (2020)

### Compilation and live albums

* *En Sevilen Şarkılarıyla Nükhet Duru* (1979)
* *Benim Şarkılarım* (1988)
* *Nükhet Duru Klasikleri* (1993)
* *Nükhet Duru'dan Bir Nefes Gibi'ler* (1998)
* *Sevgiyle Elele* (2006) (with Surp Vartanants Choir, in Cenk Taşkan's name)
* *En İyileriyle Nükhet Duru 1981-1982* (2008)
* *Nükhet Duru Sahnede* (2014)

## Filmography

### TV series

### Film

### Television programs

* 1995: *Bir Nükhet Duru Gecesi*
* 1996: *Sarışının Adı Esmerin Tadı* (With Sibel Can)
* 2007: *Duru Muhabbetler*
* 2009: *Akşama Doğru Nükhet Duru*

## InfoBox

| Nükhet Duru | |
| --- | --- |
| Nükhet Duru (left) and Sezen Aksu in a concert in Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre, 2012 | |
| Background information | |
| Born | (1954-05-19) 19 May 1954<br>Istanbul, Turkey |
| Genres |  |
| Occupations | * Singer * actress * TV presenter |
| Years active | 1971–present |
|  | |
| Website | nukhetduru.com.tr |


title: Weetamoo

abstract: Weetamoo, also referred to as Weethao, Weetamoe, Wattimore, Namumpum, and Tatapanunum, was a Pocasset Wampanoag Native American Chief. She was the sunksqua, or female sachem, of Pocasset tribe, which occupied contemporary Tiverton, Rhode Island in 1620. The Pocasset, which she led, was one of the groups of the Wampanoag.

text:
# Weetamoo

**Weetamoo** (pronounced Wee-TAH-moo) (c. 16351676), also referred to as **Weethao**, **Weetamoe**, **Wattimore**, **Namumpum**, and **Tatapanunum**, was a Pocasset Wampanoag Native American Chief. She was the *sunksqua*, or female sachem, of Pocasset tribe, which occupied contemporary Tiverton, Rhode Island in 1620. The Pocasset, which she led, was one of the groups of the Wampanoag.

## Early life

Weetamoo was born in the Mattapoiset village of the Pokanoket or at Rhode Island's Taunton River area. She was also close friends with another female sachem Awashonks. Weetamoo was also close friends with brothers Wamsutta and Metacomet as young girl. Weetamoo went on a vision quest that "kills the child soul" which is a right of passage for males.Weetamoo is an early example of gender fluidity. She performed duties of both male and female Native Americans. Weetamoo learned the ways of agriculture, building permanent and temporary shelters, prepare hides, hunting small animals, fishing, and cooking. Weetamoo was also trained to fight and learned diplomacy and leadership by observing her father and other elders like Massasoit. Her father was Corbitant, sachem of the Pocasset tribe in present-day North Tiverton, Rhode Island, c. 1618–1630.

## Husbands and children

In her lifetime, she had five husbands: Winnepurket, Wamsutta (Alexander), Quequequanachet, Petonowit, and Quinnapin.

Her first husband, Winnepurket, was the Sachem of Saugus, Massachusetts and died shortly after they were married.

Wamsutta (alternatively known by the English as Alexander, a name which he retained until his death), her second husband, was the eldest son of Massasoit, grand sachem of the Wampanoag and participant in the first Thanksgiving with the Pilgrims. They were married in or before 1653, and \[it is speculated that\] she had one child with Wamsutta, although the date of birth and name are unknown. During their marriage, the tribe allied with the English against the Narragansett, though the English later broke their treaty with the tribe. Wamsutta became sick and died during negotiations with the English and his brother Metacom (Philip) succeeded him as Chief of the Wampanoag. Metacom's wife was Weetamoo's sister, Wootonekanuske.

Little is known about Weetamoo's third husband Quequequanachet, while she ended the marriage to her fourth husband Petonowit (called "Ben" by the English) when he sided with the English during King Philip's War.

Her final marriage was to Quinnapin, the son of Niantic Narraganset sachem Ninigret and grandson of powerful Narragansett sachem Canonchet. He was described as "a handsome warrior" and they were married in September or August 1675. This marriage was designed to strengthen and reinforce the Wampanoag-Narragansett alliance against colonists. The marriage appeared to have been strong and the pair had at least one child together, who died in 1676. Quinnapin was captured in 1676.

## Political career

Because her father had no sons, she became *sunksqua* between the death of her husband Wamsutta and her remarriage to Quequequanachet. Being a woman did not diminish her authority, despite many colonists' lack of understanding of her position. Weetamoo was depicted "as potent a Prince as any round about her, and had as much corn, land, and men, at her command" as King Philip.

Weetamoo's leadership arose from her role as a cultivator of diplomacy.kin It has been theorized that some of the lesser-known sachems assumed to have been male may have been female sunksquas, especially since female leaders were not unheard of among the Algonquian tribes. As a leader of her people Weetamoo traveled to different nations as an ambassador for the Wampanoag people. She was entrusted to represent Pocasset intertwined interests and sovereignty. By 1663, Weetamoo, had learned the colonial "deed games".Brooks

As tensions grew prior to King Philip's War, Weetamoo, was a highly sought after ally from both Metacom and the English.Martino-Trutor Many believe Weetamoo sided with Metacom was out of revenge for the death of Wamsutta. Another reason she may have sided with Metacom is a group of English soldiers attacked her canoes in June 1675. The group of soldiers thought the canoes were Metacom's.Martino-Trutor This solidified Weetamoo's decision to ally with Metacom. In addition, Weetamoo forged alliances to fortify her authority and territorial integrity. Her strategy intertwining with other leaders and their families to protect those who depended on them.Brooks

Her role in King Philip's War was significantly decreased by the English particularly by Mary Rowlandson and Increase Mather. In reality, by 1675 Weetamoo was the leader of all allied tribes in the Wampanoag Confederation. In February of 1676, Weetamoo led a raid on the English in the Battle of Blood Rock that resulted in the capture of Mary Rowlandson. At the Battle of Blood Rock Weetamoo commanded an army of more than 300 warriors.

## Death

Weetamoo drowned in the Taunton River while leading a charge against the English in 1676. Her body washed ashore in Swansea which was a prominent English colony. The story of her corpse being beheaded comes from the writings of minister Increase Mather. The English were so afraid of Weetamoo’s power, they cut off her head and mounted it on a pike. They left her head on display in front of a settlement in order to prove she really had died.

When the remaining Wampanoag people saw what the English had done Increase Mather stated:

"They made a most horrible and diabolical lamentation, crying out that it was their queen's head. If to lament the sad end of their queen was diabolical on the part of the Indians, what was this cruel mockery of their grief by a Christian minister, and what had the heathen to gain by listening to his teachings, or adhering to his practice?"Peirce

## Legacy

Weetamoo/Wattimore appears in Mary Rowlandson's *The Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson.* In 1676, Weetamoo and her relative Quinnapin, the *sachem* of Narragansett, attacked a colonial settlement in Lancaster, Massachusetts. Rowlandson, who was captured and held by Quinnapin for three months, left a vivid description of Weetamoo's appearance as well as personality:

> A severe and proud dame she was, bestowing every day in dressing herself neat as much time as any of the gentry of the land: powdering her hair, and painting her face, going with necklaces, with jewels in her ears, and bracelets upon her hands. When she had dressed herself, her work was to make girdles of wampum and beads.

Only women of rank were allowed to produce "Girdles of wampom and beads", and Weetamoo's production of these items reinforced her status. Wampum belts would be strung together with shells and were often used among Native Americans to deliver messages accompanied by speeches. Many places in the White Mountains of New Hampshire are also named after her, such as Weetamoo Falls, Mount Weetamoo, the Weetamoo Trail (which includes Weetamoo Glen and Weetamoo Rock), and the Six Husbands Trail, a reference to her marriages. However, there is no evidence that Weetamoo ever went to the White Mountains, and the area's focus on her may come from John Greenleaf Whittier's poem "The Bridal of Penacook," which names her as being from the area.

Weetamoo's adolescent life is depicted in the young adult historical novel, *Weetamoo: Heart of the Pocasetts*, in *The Royal Diaries* series.

Weetamoo Woods Open Space in Tiverton, Rhode Island is named after Weetamoo. A 50-foot vessel, *Weetamoo*, built in 1902, "was named after the daughter of an Indian Chief in John Greenleaf Whittier's poem *Bride of Penacook*." The vessel served on Lake Sunapee for 25 years before being scuttled. Lowell YWCA Camp Weetamoo is located on Long-Sought-for Pond in Westford, MA.

To the Wampanoag people Weetamoo was a sunksqua, a bead worker, a dancer, a war chief, a storyteller, and so much more. Weetamoo was one of the best examples of a smart and intelligent sachems. She is also remembered for her remarkable beauty. Weetamoo was known as "Squaw Sachem." Weetamoo gained status among the Wampanoags by virtue of her having been the Wampanoag queen as the wife of the sachem Wamsutta.

## Sources

* Martino-Trutor, Gina M. (2015). "As Potent a Prince as any Round About Her: Rethinking Weetamoo of the Pocassett and Native Female Leadership in Early America". *Journal of Women's History*. **27** (3): 37–60. doi:10.1353/jowh.2015.0032. S2CID 142629136.
* Lisa Tanya Brooks. 2018. Our Beloved Kin : A New History of King Philip’s War. New Haven: Yale University Press.
* Mary White Rowlandson. 1998. The Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson : First Printed in 1682 at Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England, Whereunto Are Annexed a Map of Her Removes & Biographical & Historical Notes. Sandwich: Chapman Billies, L.
* Patricia Clark Smith. 2003. Weetamoo : Chief of the Pocassets. New York: Scholastic.
* Ebenezer Weaver Peirce. 1878. Indian History, Biography and Genealogy.

## InfoBox

| Weetamoo | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Pocasset Wampanoag leader | |
| **In office**
? (?)–1676 (1676) | |
| Preceded by | Corbitant |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Namumpum Weetamoo
1635 (1635)
present day North Tiverton, Rhode Island |
| Died | August 6, 1676(1676-08-06) (aged 40–41)
Taunton, Massachusetts |
| Cause of death | Drowning |
| Spouse(s) | Winnepurket, Wamsutta (Alexander), Quequequanachet, Petonowit, and Quinnapin |
| Parent | Corbitant (father) |
| Nicknames | * Weetamoe * Wenunchus * Tatapanunum |
| Military service | |
| Battles/wars | King Philip's War |
|  | |


title: Homelessness in South Africa

abstract: Homelessness in South Africa dates back to the apartheid period. Increasing unemployment, lack of affordable housing, social disintegration, and social and economic policies have all been identified as contributing factors to the issue. Some scholars argue that solutions to homelessness in South Africa lie more within the private sphere than in the legal and political spheres. There is no national census on homeless people in South Africa, researchers instead rely on individual studies of homeless persons in particular cities. The South African homeless population has been estimated at 200,000. One study found that three out of four South African metropolitan municipalities viewed homelessness primarily as a social dependency issue, responding with social interventions. At the same time, homeless South Africans indicated that the most important thing the municipality could assist them with was employment and well-located affordable housing.

text:
# Homelessness in South Africa

**Homelessness in South Africa** dates back to the apartheid period. Increasing unemployment, lack of affordable housing, social disintegration, and social and economic policies have all been identified as contributing factors to the issue. Some scholars argue that solutions to homelessness in South Africa lie more within the private sphere than in the legal and political spheres.

There is no national census on homeless people in South Africa, researchers instead rely on individual studies of homeless persons in particular cities. The South African homeless population has been estimated at 200,000.

One study found that three out of four South African metropolitan municipalities viewed homelessness primarily as a social dependency issue, responding with social interventions. At the same time, homeless South Africans indicated that the most important thing the municipality could assist them with was employment and well-located affordable housing.

## History

### Early history through the 1800s

In the 19th century the main issues for the colonies was of squatting and vagrancy after much of the land was taken by white people to be farmed. Mid 19th century, under the colonial rule efforts were made to remove non-white people from white owned property, causing the displacement and a large wandering population looking for work.

The introduction of Cape's Vagrancy and Squatting Act (1878) and other legislation passed by the colonies, were enacted to change the status of vagrants or wanders living on the land into residential labour status to prevent any crime risks associated with the wandering population.

### Apartheid period

During the apartheid period, racial segregation and anti-black policies were used to preserve white rule of the country. Zoning laws controlled movement and places of residence for black people, forcing them into black townships in the white-ruled cities. Visible homelessness was not allowed on the streets, so those who were homeless due to apartheid policies moved into shack settlements.

Natives Land Act 1913, known as the Black Land Act, legalised the use of racial distinction that denied rural black farmers access to land. Formed forced 'scheduled areas' that prevented the buying and selling of land to make any profit. It encouraged segregation, controlled movement, and spatially segregated residence within urban areas, and expanded throughout the apartheid. From this piece of legislation, more policies and legislation of racial segregation were enacted, limiting areas for blacks to live, forcing them into townships. The Native Land Act was the first piece of legislation to enforce territorial segregation and was the beginning of racial segregation in institutionalising it into South African legislation.

In 1927, the first township called Langa was founded in Cape Town. In the 1950s, townships of Nyanga and Guglethu were developed and increased in size.

Severe housing shortages in 1968 led to overcrowding and people constructed informal illegal settlements throughout the cities.

## Causes

Homelessness is shaped by social and economic insecurity which is worsened by informal housing and lack of legislation by the government. Financial pressure put on those living on the street is worsened as they have no ability to accumulate wealth, unlike the shack population.

Due to the declining economy unemployment is at 36.2%, contributing to homelessness.

High rates of migration into urban areas whereby the government is unable to cope with the influx. Post-apartheid, free movement of non-white South Africans into areas that were restricted to them, resulting in not enough employment opportunities available.

## Prevalence

### Demographics

The 2022 national census found that there were 55,719 homeless people in the country and that the city with the largest proportion of South Africa's homeless population was Tshwane with 18.1% of all homeless people. Other cities with a significant share of the country's homeless population was Johannesburg (15.6%), Cape Town (11.9%), and eThekwini (10.1%). Gauteng province had the largest number of homeless people with 25,384 recorded individuals and the Western Cape had the second largest homeless population with a total of 9,743 recorded individuals.

Prior to the 2022 census results there was a lack of consensus on the total number of homeless people living on the street. The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) state that there is an estimate between 100,000 and 200,000 nationwide living on the streets.

On the streets are typically street children or single adults not whole families. The street homeless population is predominantly black and male. There is a higher prevalence of men on the street, while in the shack population there is a larger female population. A profile of homeless people in Cape Town found that there were three times more males than females living in homeless shelters.

In 2004 rural areas had a higher proportion of homeless than in cities whereby a larger percentage of rural population is poorer than metropolitan areas.

## Street Children

Large migration of street children across borders into South Africa originally come from other bordering countries such as Zimbabwe, this migration occurrence is an increasing situation facing homeless children.

A high percentage also come from urban townships compared to the higher rate of adults coming from rural areas. They are forced to leave as there is not enough resources to support them in poverty stricken living spaces.

Street Children suffer physical and psychological abuse and often develop a substance use disorder.

### Advocacy response

‘Surfers not street children’ is an advocacy group based in a city called Durban teach street kids how to surf in order to help them to foster connectedness. Its aim is to help them with psychological issues, caused by difficult childhoods.

## Government response

There is no specific governmental policy to protect the homeless. A 2003 report found that there was no direct national housing plan for people who lived on the streets, but policy falls predominantly under the Housing and the Social Welfare sectors. Public spending has gone towards supporting shelters for the homeless, however it is only remedial and not a long-term solution.

In 1994 in a post-apartheid period, the Department of Housing aimed to provide a million houses over the next five years. To help alleviate homelessness, the provision of shelter to transition into more permanent living space was implemented by the department of housing as a result of 1994 White Paper on a New Housing and Policy Strategy for South Africa.

## Literature

Child homelessness in South Africa has been portrayed in the novel *Thirteen Cents* by K. Sello Duiker.

Homelessness in South African cities has been portrayed in art in a controversial piece titled *Birds in a Cornfield*.


title: Gephyraspis contranota

abstract: Gephyraspis contranota is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Madagascar.

text:
# Gephyraspis contranota

***Gephyraspis contranota*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Madagascar.

## InfoBox

| *Gephyraspis contranota* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Gephyraspis* |
| Species: | ***G. contranota*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Gephyraspis contranota***<br>Diakonoff, 1973 | |
|


title: Land tenure in England

abstract: Even before the Norman Conquest, there was a strong tradition of landholding in Anglo-Saxon law. When William the Conqueror asserted sovereignty over England in 1066, he confiscated the property of the recalcitrant English landowners. Over the next dozen years, he granted land to his lords and to the dispossessed Englishmen, or affirmed their existing land holdings, in exchange for fealty and promises of military and other services. At the time of the Domesday Book, all land in England was held by someone, and from that time there has been no allodial land in England. In order to legitimise the notion of the Crown's paramount lordship, a legal fiction—that all land titles were held by the King's subjects as a result of a royal grant—was adopted. Most of these tenants-in-chief had considerable land holdings and proceeded to grant parts of their land to their subordinates. This constant process of granting new tenures was known as subinfeudation. It created a complicated pyramid of feudal relationships.. At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the tenants who lived on and worked the land. In the middle were the lords who had no direct relationship with the King, or with the land in question - referred to as mesne lords. Land was granted in return for various "services" and "incidents". A service was an obligation on the part of the tenant owed to the landlord. The most important were payment of rent, military service (Knight-service), the performance of some form of religious service (frankalmoin) and personal/official service, including in times of war. Incidents, on the other hand, were rights conferred on the lord over the tenant's land or the tenant's person that arose in certain circumstances, most commonly on the death of the tenant. An important incident was that of escheat, whereby the land of the tenant by knight service would escheat to the Crown in the event either of there being no heirs, or the knight's being convicted of a felony.

text:
# Land tenure in England

Even before the Norman Conquest, there was a strong tradition of landholding in Anglo-Saxon law. When William the Conqueror asserted sovereignty over England in 1066, he confiscated the property of the recalcitrant English landowners. Over the next dozen years, he granted land to his lords and to the dispossessed Englishmen, or affirmed their existing land holdings, in exchange for fealty and promises of military and other services. At the time of the Domesday Book, all land in England was held by someone, and from that time there has been no allodial land in England. In order to legitimise the notion of the Crown's paramount lordship, a legal fiction—that all land titles were held by the King's subjects as a result of a royal grant—was adopted.

Most of these tenants-in-chief had considerable land holdings and proceeded to grant parts of their land to their subordinates. This constant process of granting new tenures was known as subinfeudation. It created a complicated pyramid of feudal relationships. (see also Lord of the manor). At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the tenants who lived on and worked the land (called the tenants in demesne and also the tenant paravail). In the middle were the lords who had no direct relationship with the King, or with the land in question - referred to as mesne lords.

Land was granted in return for various "services" and "incidents". A service was an obligation on the part of the tenant owed to the landlord. The most important were payment of rent (socage tenure), military service (Knight-service), the performance of some form of religious service (frankalmoin) and personal/official service, including in times of war (serjeanty tenure).

Incidents, on the other hand, were rights conferred on the lord over the tenant's land or the tenant's person that arose in certain circumstances, most commonly on the death of the tenant. An important incident was that of escheat, whereby the land of the tenant by knight service would escheat to the Crown in the event either of there being no heirs, or the knight's being convicted of a felony.

## Spatial fragmentation of proprietary interests

The concept of land tenure has been described as a "spatial fragmentation of proprietary interests in land". No one person could claim absolute ownership of a parcel of land, except the Crown. Thus the modern concept of "ownership" is not helpful in explaining the complexity of the distribution of rights. In relation to a particular piece of land, a number of people had rights: first, the tenant in demesne with possessory rights; second the mesne lord to whom the tenant owed services; third, a tenant in chief to whom the mesne lord owed services; and finally the Crown who received services directly from the tenant in chief.

## Decline of land tenure

The feudal system in England gradually became more and more complex until eventually the process became cumbrous and services difficult to enforce. As a result, the statute of Quia Emptores was passed in 1290 to replace subinfeudation with substitution, so the subordinate tenant transferred their tenure rather than creating a new subordinate tenure. As tenancies came to an end, the number of layers in the feudal pyramid was reduced. The Tenures Abolition Act 1660 abolished knight service, converting all free tenures to socage tenure.

Quia Emptores and its equivalents do not apply to leases and life estates. In essence, lease of land to a tenant is a form of subinfeudation (unless the lease is granted by the Crown).

## Surveys of land ownership

The main two official surveys undertaken in the British Isles with the aim of identifying owners of land and land values are the Domesday Book of 1086 and the Return of Owners of Land, 1873.

## Further reading

* Shrubsole, Guy (2019). *Who Owns England?*. London: William Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-832167-3.
* Standing, Guy (2019). *Plunder of the Commons: A Manifesto for Sharing Public Wealth*. London: Pelican. ISBN 978-0-141-99062-0.
* Cahill, Kevin (2002). *Who Owns Britain?*. Canongate. ISBN 978-1841953106.
* Shoard, Marion (1997). *This Land is Our Land*. Gaia Books. ISBN 1-85675-064-7.
* Shoard, Marion (1980). *The Theft of the Countryside*. Maurice Temple Smith. ISBN 0-85117-200-8.
* Marks, Mary A. M. (1908). *Landholding in England: Considered in Relation to Poverty*. London: A. C. Fifield.


title: I've Been Trying to Tell You

abstract: I've Been Trying to Tell You is the tenth studio album by English alternative dance band Saint Etienne, released on 10 September 2021 through Heavenly Recordings. The album is set between the "optimistic" years of 1997 and 2001, and contains samples of pop songs from this time along with related field recordings. It was accompanied by a short film directed by photographer Alasdair McLellan that premiered at a BFI Southbank event on 3 September.

text:
# I've Been Trying to Tell You

Professional ratings
| Aggregate scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| Metacritic | 83/100 |
| Review scores | |
| Source | Rating |
| AllMusic |  |
| *The Arts Desk* |  |
| *Clash* | 8/10 |
| *The Irish Times* |  |
| *The Line of Best Fit* | 7/10 |
| *musicOMH* |  |
| *Pitchfork* | 6.9/10 |
| *The Scotsman* |  |

***I've Been Trying to Tell You*** is the tenth studio album by English alternative dance band Saint Etienne, released on 10 September 2021 through Heavenly Recordings. The album is set between the "optimistic" years of 1997 and 2001, and contains samples of pop songs from this time along with related field recordings. It was accompanied by a short film directed by photographer Alasdair McLellan that premiered at a BFI Southbank event on 3 September.

## Background

The album marks the band's first sample-based record since *So Tough* (1993). Bob Stanley described it as "about optimism, and the late nineties, and how memory is an unreliable narrator".

## Critical reception

*I've Been Trying to Tell You* received a weighted average score of 83 out of 100 from eight reviews on Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Tim Sendra of AllMusic called it "a concept album that looks to extract the optimistic sound of late '90s mainstream pop and twist it into a suite of songs that feel like the half-remembered afterimages of a dream". Reviewing the album for *Pitchfork*, Jesse Dorris wrote that the album "feels passive, lost in nostalgia for an age it hasn't fully reckoned with".

## Track listing

*I've Been Trying to Tell You* track listing
| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Music Again" | 5:45 |
| 2. | "Pond House" | 4:02 |
| 3. | "Fonteyn" | 4:50 |
| 4. | "Little K" | 5:45 |
| 5. | "Blue Kite" | 4:51 |
| 6. | "I Remember It Well" | 3:50 |
| 7. | "Penlop" | 5:30 |
| 8. | "Broad River" | 5:35 |
| Total length: | | 40:08 |

**Sample credits**

## Charts

Chart performance for *I've Been Trying to Tell You*
| Chart (2021) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| Scottish Albums (OCC) | 7 |
| UK Albums (OCC) | 14 |
| UK Independent Albums (OCC) | 4 |

## InfoBox

| I've Been Trying to Tell You | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Saint Etienne | |
| Released | 10 September 2021 (2021-09-10) |
| Genre |  |
| Length | 40:08 |
| Label | Heavenly |
| Saint Etienne chronology | |
| *Home Counties*
(2017) ***I've Been Trying to Tell You***
(2021) | |


title: Támara, Casanare

abstract: Támara is a town and municipality in the Department of Casanare, Colombia. The urban centre is located at an altitude of 1,156 metres (3,793 ft) at a distance of 95 kilometres (59 mi) from the department capital Yopal. It borders in the north Sacama, in the east Pore and Paz de Ariporo, in the west Socotá of the department of Boyacá and in the south Nunchia and Paya, Boyacá.

text:
# Támara, Casanare

**Támara** is a town and municipality in the Department of Casanare, Colombia. The urban centre is located at an altitude of 1,156 metres (3,793 ft) at a distance of 95 kilometres (59 mi) from the department capital Yopal. It borders in the north Sacama, in the east Pore and Paz de Ariporo, in the west Socotá of the department of Boyacá and in the south Nunchia and Paya, Boyacá.

## History

Támara before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca was an important cotton producing village.

Modern Támara was founded on August 6, 1628, by José Dadey Pey.

## Economy

Main economical activities in Támara are agriculture; coffee, yuca, maize, bananas and sugarcane and livestock farming.

5°49′47″N 72°09′48″W / 5.82972°N 72.1633°W / 5.82972; -72.1633

## InfoBox

| Támara | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality and town | |
| View of rural Támara | |
|  | |
| Location of the municipality and town of Tamara, Casanare in the Casanare Department of Colombia. | |
| Country | Colombia |
| Department | Casanare Department |
| Founded | 6 August 1628 |
| Founded by | José Dadey Pey |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Leonel Rodríguez gualteros
(2016-2019) |
| Area | |
| Municipality and town | 1,181.81 km2 (456.30 sq mi) |
| Urban | 0.99031 km2 (0.38236 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 1,156 m (3,793 ft) |
| Population (2015) | |
| Municipality and town | 7,044 |
| Density | 6.0/km2 (15/sq mi) |
| Urban | 2,327 |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Colombia Standard Time) |
| Website | Official website |


title: Andrej Žakelj

abstract: Andrej Žakelj is a Slovenian professional basketball coach and former player who is the current head coach for Budućnost VOLI of the Adriatic League and the Prva A Liga.

text:
# Andrej Žakelj

**Andrej Žakelj** (born 17 November 1978) is a Slovenian professional basketball coach and former player who is the current head coach for Budućnost VOLI of the Adriatic League and the Prva A Liga.

## Playing career

During his playing days, Žakelj played for Postojna (1995–1999, 2004–2005), Geoplin Slovan (1999–2003), Kraški Zidar (2003–2004), and Nova Gorica (2005–2006). He retired as a player with Nova Gorica in 2006.

## Coaching career

After retirement in 2006, Žakelj joined the coaching staff of Geoplin Slovan as an assistant coach. Afterward, he was assistant coach for Union Olimpija from 2010 to 2015. In summer 2015, Žakelj joined Hopsi Polzela as assistant coach. On 22 December 2015, he was named the head coach for Lastovka. After the 2015–16 Slovenian League season, Lastovka merged into Primorska.

In summer 2016, Žakelj became the head coach for TBV Start Lublin of the Polish League. He left Start Lublin on 23 November 2016. On 29 December, Žakelj was named as the head coach for Terme Olimia Podčetrtek for the rest of the 2016–17 season.

On 26 May 2017, Žakelj became the head coach for Šentjur. He parted ways with Šentjur on 26 December.

On 22 December 2019, Žakelj was named the head coach for Koper Primorska. Koper Primorska was folded in December 2020.

On 8 July 2021, Studentski centar (later SC Derby) hired Žakelj as their new head coach. He parted ways on 18 November 2023.

On 18 November 2023, Budućnost VOLI hired Žakelj as their new head coach.

## InfoBox

Andrej Žakelj
| Budućnost VOLI | |
| --- | --- |
| Position | Head coach |
| League | ABA League
Montenegrin League
EuroCup |
| Personal information | |
| Born | (1978-11-17) 17 November 1978
Postojna, SR Slovenia, SFR Yugoslavia |
| Nationality | Slovenian |
| Listed height | 1.94 m (6 ft 4 in) |
| Career information | |
| NBA draft | 2000: undrafted |
| Playing career | 1995–2006 |
| Coaching career | 2006–present |
| Career history | |
| As coach: | |
| 2006–2010 | Geoplin Slovan (assistant) |
| 2010–2015 | Union Olimpija (assistant) |
| 2015 | Hopsi Polzela (assistant) |
| 2015–2016 | Lastovka |
| 2016 | TBV Start Lublin |
| 2016–2017 | Terme Olimia Podčetrtek |
| 2017 | Šentjur |
| 2019 | Koper Primorska (assistant) |
| 2019–2020 | Koper Primorska |
| 2021–2023 | SC Derby |
| 2023–present | Budućnost |
|  | |
| Career highlights and awards | |
| As coach | |
|  | |


title: Hypostomus lima

abstract: Hypostomus lima is a species of catfish in the family Loricariidae. It is native to South America, where it occurs in the São Francisco River basin. The species reaches 13.6 cm SL and is believed to be a facultative air-breather.

text:
# Hypostomus lima

***Hypostomus lima*** is a species of catfish in the family Loricariidae. It is native to South America, where it occurs in the São Francisco River basin. The species reaches 13.6 cm (5.4 inches) SL and is believed to be a facultative air-breather.

## InfoBox

| *Hypostomus lima* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Siluriformes |
| Family: | Loricariidae |
| Genus: | *Hypostomus* |
| Species: | ***H. lima*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Hypostomus lima***<br>(Lütken, 1874) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Plecostomus lima* | |


title: Grivel Scarpa Binding

abstract: The Grivel Scarpa Binding, or GSB, was created in 2004 as a design collaboration between the companies Scarpa, an Italian shoe and boot manufacturer, and Grivel, an Italian manufacturer of mountaineering crampons, ice axes and other mountaineering equipment. The system involves combining a specially designed mountaineering boot sole unit with a tailored crampon design. The aim was to reduce the amount of time it took to mount crampons to boots, and to simplify the process, as well as making the combination of boot and crampon lighter. Another advantage is that the system removes straps and bails from the front of the boot reducing the risk of snagging these in use. One boot designed to use the GSB system was the Scarpa Mirage GTX, a Gore-Tex lined 3-4 season mountaineering boot. A recess was created in the front of the sole unit which could accept a specially designed peg on the Grivel AirTech GSB crampon. This crampon did away with the plastic toe covering commonly found on C1 and C2 crampons, and the strap connecting it. This left users with only an ankle strap to do up, with the aim being to make the crampon lighter and easier to put on the boot. Despite some users of the system reporting that they were pleased with the GSB system, some users of the boots reported that the small hole at the front of the boots was prone to wear or made the whole sole unit weaker than it should be; others said that it was prone to becoming full of small stones or compacted snow prior to putting on the crampons. The entire GSB concept was abandoned later by both companies.

text:
# Grivel Scarpa Binding

The **Grivel Scarpa Binding**, or GSB, was created in 2004 as a design collaboration between the companies Scarpa, an Italian shoe and boot manufacturer, and Grivel, an Italian manufacturer of mountaineering crampons, ice axes and other mountaineering equipment. The system involves combining a specially designed mountaineering boot sole unit with a tailored crampon design.

The aim was to reduce the amount of time it took to mount crampons to boots, and to simplify the process, as well as making the combination of boot and crampon lighter. Another advantage is that the system removes straps and bails from the front of the boot reducing the risk of snagging these in use.

One boot designed to use the GSB system was the (now discontinued) Scarpa Mirage GTX, a Gore-Tex lined 3-4 season mountaineering boot. A recess was created in the front of the sole unit which could accept a specially designed peg on the Grivel AirTech GSB crampon. This crampon did away with the plastic toe covering commonly found on C1 and C2 crampons, and the strap connecting it. This left users with only an ankle strap to do up, with the aim being to make the crampon lighter and easier to put on the boot.

Despite some users of the system reporting that they were pleased with the GSB system, some users of the boots reported that the small hole at the front of the boots was prone to wear or made the whole sole unit weaker than it should be; others said that it was prone to becoming full of small stones or compacted snow prior to putting on the crampons. The entire GSB concept was abandoned later by both companies.


title: Phil Purnell

abstract: Phil Purnell is a former professional association footballer who spent the majority of his career with Bristol Rovers. Before turning professional in 1985, Purnell played for West Country non-league sides Forest Green Rovers, Frome Town and Mangotsfield United, until signing for Bristol Rovers in September 1985. He went on to make 153 league appearances for The Pirates in a 7+1⁄2-year spell at the club, scoring twenty-two goals. He was loaned to Swansea City for a month in December 1991, where he played five league games and scored once. Purnell's playing career ended when he suffered a broken leg in April 1993. He was awarded a testimonial match in the summer of 1994, when Bristol Rovers faced a Queens Park Rangers side managed by former Rovers manager Gerry Francis, and featuring a number of former Bristol Rovers players. After retiring from playing, he worked in insurance, and also continued in football on a part-time basis as assistant manager of Yate Town, where his former Rovers teammate Ian Alexander was manager, and also at Winterbourne United.

text:
# Phil Purnell

**Phil Purnell** (born 16 September 1964) is a former professional association footballer who spent the majority of his career with Bristol Rovers. Before turning professional in 1985, Purnell played for West Country non-league sides Forest Green Rovers, Frome Town and Mangotsfield United, until signing for Bristol Rovers in September 1985. He went on to make 153 league appearances for The Pirates in a 7+12-year spell at the club, scoring twenty-two goals. He was loaned to Swansea City for a month in December 1991, where he played five league games and scored once.

Purnell's playing career ended when he suffered a broken leg in April 1993. He was awarded a testimonial match in the summer of 1994, when Bristol Rovers faced a Queens Park Rangers side managed by former Rovers manager Gerry Francis, and featuring a number of former Bristol Rovers players.

After retiring from playing, he worked in insurance, and also continued in football on a part-time basis as assistant manager of Yate Town, where his former Rovers teammate Ian Alexander was manager, and also at Winterbourne United.

## Sources

* "Past Players". *swanseacity.net*. Swansea City Football Club. 1 May 2008. Archived from the original on 10 July 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
* Byrne, Stephen; Jay, Mike (2003). *Bristol Rovers Football Club - The Definitive History 1883-2003*. Stroud: Tempus. p. 504. ISBN 0-7524-2717-2.

## InfoBox

Phil Purnell
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | Phillip Purnell | | |
| Date of birth | (1964-09-16) 16 September 1964 | | |
| Place of birth | Bristol, England | | |
| Position(s) | Midfielder | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
|  | Forest Green Rovers |  |  |
|  | Frome Town |  |  |
| ????–1985 | Mangotsfield United |  |  |
| 1985–1993 | Bristol Rovers | 153 | (22) |
| 1991–1992 | Swansea City (loan) | 5 | (1) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals | | | |


title: Nate Blouin

abstract: Nate Blouin is an American politician who represents Utah's 13th Senate District in the Utah State Senate.

text:
# Nate Blouin

**Nate Blouin** (born 1989) is an American politician who represents Utah's 13th Senate District in the Utah State Senate.

## Education and career

Blouin received his associate's degree from Salt Lake Community College and his bachelor's degree from the University of Utah. He graduated from Brown University with a Master of Public Administration. Before being elected, Blouin worked with clean energy groups and environmental organizations to promote renewable energy.

## Political career

Blouin announced his candidacy for the Utah State Senate in 2022; his priorities included clean air and affordable housing. He won the Democratic primary against Gene Davis with nearly 76% of the vote. In the general election, he beat Republican Roger L. Stout with 72% of the vote.

## InfoBox

| Nate Blouin | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the Utah State Senate
from the 13th district | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
January 1, 2023 | |
| Preceded by | Gene Davis (Redistricting) |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 1989 (age 3435) |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Occupation | Renewable energy advocate |
|  | |


title: Noggin Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador

abstract: Noggin Cove is a local service district and designated place in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is west of Carmanville on the south side of Hamilton Sound. It is said to be named after Noggin Island, about 5 km off its eastern point.

text:
# Noggin Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador

**Noggin Cove** is a local service district and designated place in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is west of Carmanville on the south side of Hamilton Sound. It is said to be named after Noggin Island, about 5 km off its eastern point.

## History

It is believed that the first settler in Noggin Cove was named Doyle from Tilting on Fogo Island. He lived on the western side for a few years before returning to Tilting. The 1857 *Census* of Newfoundland recorded a population of six, most likely the Doyle family, and they were all Roman Catholic. The next recorded family was Robert and Sarah Wheaton's family of 13, but they moved again in 1874. It was in the late 1870s before permanent settlement began in Noggin Cove. Most settlers came from Ochre Pit Cove, the first being Levi Pennell and Charles White. Other names include Parsons, Gillingham, Angells, Snow, and Whites. By 1884 the population was 46. In 1911 the population was recorded as 112. The main employers for people in Noggin Cove was the Labrador fishery, the cod fishery, summer fishery off the Wadham Islands, and later logging, sawmills and lobster fishing were important.

Church history

Almost all of the earliest permanent settlers were Methodist and since there was no church in Noggin Cove they went to the nearby community of Frederickton to attend the Methodist church. There was a school built in the early 20th century which they also used as a chapel. Noggin Cove came under the Carmanville Methodist Circuit in the 20th century.

## Geography

Noggin Cove is in Newfoundland within Subdivision L of Division No. 8.

## Demographics

As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Noggin Cove recorded a population of 258 living in 100 of its 114 total private dwellings, a change of -1.5% from its 2011 population of 262. With a land area of 2.31 km2 (0.89 sq mi), it had a population density of 111.7/km2 (289.3/sq mi) in 2016.

## Government

Noggin Cove is a local service district (LSD) that is governed by a committee responsible for the provision of certain services to the community. The chair of the LSD committee is Gerald Gillingham.

49°24′47″N 54°19′05″W / 49.41306°N 54.31806°W / 49.41306; -54.31806


title: Milesia caesarea

abstract: Milesia caesarea is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae. It was originally discovered in 1990 by Peter Khramov.

text:
# Milesia caesarea

***Milesia caesarea*** is a species of hoverfly in the family Syrphidae. It was originally discovered in 1990 by Peter Khramov.

## Distribution

India.

## InfoBox

| *Milesia caesarea* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Family: | Syrphidae |
| Subfamily: | Eristalinae |
| Tribe: | Milesiini |
| Subtribe: | Milesiina |
| Genus: | *Milesia* |
| Species: | ***M. caesarea*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Milesia caesarea***<br>Hippa, 1990 | |
|