title: Vojtěch Mastný

abstract: Vojtěch Mastný was a Czechoslovak diplomat.

text:
# Vojtěch Mastný

**Vojtěch Mastný** (18 March 1874 – 25 January 1954) was a Czechoslovak diplomat.

## Lawyer

Mastný was born into a wealthy family in Prague, the son of Vojtěch Mastný senior and Paula Steiner-Schmidt. Mastný's father had built a successful textile mill in Lomnice nad Popelkou, making him into a very well-off man. In 1868, Mastný senior founded the Živnostenská banka, the first commercial bank in the Austrian Empire to be owned by ethnic Czechs instead of ethnic Germans. The Živnostenská banka was a highly profitable bank, making the Mastný family into one of the richest families in Prague. From 1892 to 1898, Mastný studied philosophy and the law at Charles University, graduating with a degree in the law. Mastný then went to Paris to study at the Sorbonne. On 27 June 1899, he married Zdenka Kodlová. In 1900, the couple went on a grand tour of Europe. Mastný was a successful lawyer on the Provincial Committee of the Kingdom of Bohemia.

## Diplomat

After the Czechoslovak declaration of independence in 1918, there was a shortage of Czechs with the necessary experience to serve as diplomats (a profession dominated by the aristocracy at the time). Mastný with background in the law was recruited to join the diplomatic corps of the new republic. From 1920 to 1925, he served as the Czechoslovak minister-plenipotentiary in London and then from 1925 to 1932 as the minister-plenipotentiary in Rome.

From 1932 to 1939, Mastný served as the minister-plenipotentiary in Berlin. On 17 May 1933, Mastný submitted a note of protest to the Baron Konstantin von Neurath, against the beatings of Czechoslovak citizens visiting Nazi Germany, complaining that since January of that year, dozens upon dozens of Czechoslovaks had been beaten for speaking either Czech or Slovak. In July 1933, as the attacks had not ceased, Mastný visited the Reich Chancellery to personally present Adolf Hitler with another note of protest.

On 29 February 1936, Mastný met with Hermann Göring who suggested that the main problem in Czechoslovak-German relations was the Franco-Czechoslovak alliance, and that the *Reich* was willing to work for better relations with Czechoslovakia. After the remilitarization of the Rhineland on 7 March 1936, President Edvard Beneš felt that better relations with Germany were a necessity. The remiltarization of the Rhineland allowed Germany to start building the Siegfried Line along the French border, therby ending the hope of a French Armed Forces offensive into western Germany if Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. On 14 August 1936, Mastný started talks with Albrecht Haushofer of the *Dienststelle Ribbentrop*. Haushofer demanded that Beneš allow autonomy for the Sudetenland in exchange for German recognition of the current border; an end to the tariff war between Germany and Czechoslovakia and an agreement that newspapers in the two nations stop criticizing each other. Joining the talks were Count Maximilian zu Trauttmannsdorff.

By 18 October 1936, the talks had proceeded well enough for Beneš to invite Haushofer and Trauttmannsdorff to come to Prague to see him at Prague Castle. On 13–14 November 1936, Haushofer and Trauttmannsdorff met with Beneš at the Castle. Beneš indicated that he was willing to sign the agreement, but would not renounce Czechoslovakia's alliances with France and the Soviet Union as the Germans wanted. Through Mastný supported the agreement, Neurath was opposed and advised Hitler to reject it. Mastný was very hopeful at the agreement would be signed sometime in early 1937 and Beneš had a draft treaty prepared in January 1937. The talks suddenly stopped in February 1937 largely because Hitler did not want autonomy for the Sudetenland, which would deprive him of a possible excuse to attack Czechoslovakia.

In May 1937, Mastný first met the new British ambassador in Berlin, Sir Nevile Henderson, a man whom he deeply disliked. Mastný described Henderson as a man whose arrogance was limitless, and whose limited understanding of the Sudetenland issue was extremely pro-German. Mastný also reported that a recent imperial conference in London did not bode well for Czechoslovakia as the Dominion prime ministers all spoke against British involvement with Czechoslovakia. Mastný also complained about a memo by the chemist Arthur Pillans Laurie that had been handed out to the Dominion prime ministers, which he called tendentiously pro-German and full of lies about conditions in the Sudetenland. In his memo, Laurie claimed that the Sudeten German children were starving as he maintained that the Czechs were vacuuming up all of the wealth of the Sudeten Germans, thereby causing their children to die of hunger.

In March 1938, Mastný was invited to a ball at the "airman's house" as the Göring residence in Berlin was known. Hermann Göring told Mastný: "Germany has no unfriendly intentions towards Czechoslovakia and that on the contrary after the completion of the *Anschluss*, it expects an improvement in relations with it-as long as you don't mobilize". Mastný himself did not believe Göring's claims. When the Runciman mission under Lord Runicman was sent out in July 1938 to mediate between the Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein and President Beneš, Mastný contacted Lord Runicman with the message that "Pan-Germanism must be stopped".

On 29–30 September 1938, Mastný attended the Munich Conference as an "observer" for "information only" with no power to be actually involved in the conference. When it was announced that an international conference would be held in Munich on 29 September 1938, Beneš had wanted Czechoslovakia to be represented in Munich by Jan Masaryk, the minister in London, and Štefan Osuský, the minister in Paris. Both Masaryk and Osuský declined the offer, leading to Mastný and Hubert Masařík, a counsellor in the foreign minister being appointed co-heads of the Czechsolovak delegation. Beneš had believed at first that Czechoslavkia would be allowed to take part in the conference and his orders were to "hold firm!". Mastný went to Prague to receive his instructions from Beneš and together with Masařík left Prague for Munich at about 3 pm together with a code-writer and an assistant. As Mastný boarded the airplane to take him to Munich, the diplomat Max Lobkowicz told him: "not to abandon Bohemia's thousand year old frontiers". When Mastný arrived at Munich Airport, he was greeted by dozens upon dozens of policemen, Gestapo agents, and SS men who made it clear that he was not welcome to Bavaria. As Mastný was driven to his hotel, crowds in the streets shouted out "*die Tschechen kommen!*". The motor convoy was made of police armored cars and upon his arrival at the Hotel Regina, Mastný discovered that he was a virtual prisoner as the policemen and the SS men told him that he was not to leave the hotel without their permission for his "own safety". Mastný also discovered that he was only to be "observer" and there was no question of him actually taking part in the conference.

The British delegation led by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was also staying at the Hotel Regina, and Mastný attempted to contact them, only to find that Chamberlain had already gone to meet Hitler at the *Führerbau*, where Hitler stayed whenever he was visiting Munich. After some difficult, Mastný was able via phone to get into contact with Frank Ashton-Gwatkin of the British delegation, who agreed to come over to Hotel Regina to discuss the situation. Ashton-Gwatkin hinted that the agreement being discussed would not be favorable to Czechoslovakia and told Mastný and Masařík not be difficult as Hitler was a hard man to negotiate with.

At the conclusion of the conference, Mastný was given the final text of the Munich Agreement alongside a note reading "If you do not accept, you will have to organize your affairs with Germany yourself" by the British delegates Horace Wilson and Ashton-Gwatkin. Mastný famously shouted "But what is the choice - between murder and suicide!" After the Munich Agreement was signed, an international mission was formed to supervise the transfer of the districts of the Sudetenland in stages over the course of October 1938. The chairman of the commission was Baron Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary of the *Auswärtiges Amt*, and the other members were Mastný, Henderson, the French ambassador André François-Poncet and the Italian ambassador Baron Bernardo Attolico. Henderson recalled that the meetings of the commission "confused and frequently noisy" while another British diplomat called the meetings of the commission a "shouting march".

Under the terms of the Munich Agreement, Czecho-Slovakia (as the country had been renamed in October 1938) was supposed to receive a joint "guarantee" to provide protection from further aggression. On 2 March 1939, the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop issued a note to the British charge d'affairs George Ogilvie-Forbes (who was the acting ambassador as Henderson was being treated for cancer in Britain) and the French ambassador Robert Coulondre declaring that the *Reich* saw "an extension of this guarantee obligation to the Western powers not only no factor for the appeasement" but instead "a further element likely to strength wild tendencies, as has been the case in the past". The note declared that the German government regarded Czecho-Slovakia as "primarily within the sphere of the most important interests of the German *Reich*, not only from the historical point of view, but in the light of geographical and above all economic necessity". Coulondre in a report to Paris wrote that "translated from the diplomatic language", the note stated that neither Britain nor France had "no longer any right to interest themselves in Central European affairs". Mastný, who had been informed of the contents of the note by Coulondre, reported bitterly that Germany would not be joining in any "guarantee", but was also opposed to Britain and France issuing a "guarantee". Mastný noted that Ribbentrop's note stated that Czecho-Slovakia first had to improve relations with both Poland and Hungary first (nations that were unfriendly towards Czecho-Slovakia) before Germany would issue a "guarantee", but not Romania, a nation that Czecho-Slovakia had friendly relations with was not mentioned, which he felt indicated bad faith on the part of the Germans.

## Under the occupation

On 15 March 1939, Germany occupied the Czech half of Czecho-Slovakia and the Czechoslovak legation in Berlin was closed. Mastný retired to Prague. Mastný resumed his duties with the Živnostenská banka, sitting on its board of directors. Mastný knew the *Reichsprotektor* of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, Baron Konstantin von Neurath, who served as the German foreign minister from 1932 to 1938. Several times, Mastný interceded with Neurath, asking him to commute the death sentences he had imposed on Czech resistance fighters to life imprisonment. On 23 January 1944, Mastný took part in the founding congress in Prague of the League Against Bolshevism, a Nazi front organization, which led to accusations of collaboration.

## Last years

After the liberation of 1945, Mastný was briefly imprisoned by the Red Army as a collaborator, but was not prosecuted because of his age. Under the Communist regime, all of Mastný's assets were confiscated, forcing him to work as a language teacher to support himself. Mastný spent his last years writing his memoirs, which were confiscated in 1959 by the police, and not finally published until 1990 as the *Memoirs of a Diplomat*.

## Books

* Caquet, P. E. (2019). *The Bell of Treason The 1938 Munich Agreement in Czechoslovakia*. London: Other Press. ISBN 978-1-59051-052-0.
* Lukes, Igor (1996). *Czechoslovakia Between Stalin and Hitler The Diplomacy of Edvard Beneš in the 1930s*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510266-6.
* Novotný, Lukáš (2019). *The British Legation in Prague Perception of Czech-German Relations in Czechoslovakia Between 1933 and 1938*. Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-065145-4.
* Pacner, Karel. (2012). *Osudové okamžiky Československa*. Prague: Nakladatelství Brana. ISBN 978-80-7243-597-5.
* Smetana, Vít (2008). *In the Shadow of Munich British Policy Towards Czechoslovakia from the Endorsement to the Renunciation of the Munich Agreement (1938-1942)*. Prague: Charles University Press. ISBN 978-80-246-1373-4.
* Taylor, Telford (1979). *Munich The Price of Peace*. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74482-7.
* Weinberg, Gerhard (2010). *Hitler's Foreign Policy, 1933-1939 The Road to World War II*. New York: Enigma Books. ISBN 978-1-929631-91-9.

## InfoBox

| Vojtěch Mastný | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Czechoslovak Ambassador to Germany | |
| **In office**
1932–1939 | |
| President | Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk
Edvard Beneš |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 18 March 1874
Prague, Austria-Hungary |
| Died | 25 January 1954(1954-01-25) (aged 79)
Prague, Czechoslovakia |
| Signature |  |
|  | |


title: Het Groene Woud

abstract: Het Groene Woud is a special area of the Netherlands which is located in North Brabant between the cities of Tilburg, Eindhoven and 's-Hertogenbosch. It includes nature reserves such as the Kampina, the Oisterwijk forests and fens, Velderbos and the Dommel. In 2004 "Het Groene Woud" is designated by the government as a National Landscape. This is to prevent the area between the three large cities from becoming more urbanized. The combination of nature, sustainable agriculture and environmental recreation form a valuable cultural and historical landscape. "Het Groene Woud" covers a total of 7,500 hectares of marshes, meadows and agricultural landscape. It covers the municipalities Boxtel, Sint-Oedenrode, Schijndel, Sint-Michielsgestel, Best, Oirschot, Oisterwijk, Haaren and Vught. In Het Groene Woud, many species of mammals can be encountered: These include: red deer, roe deer, European badger, Eurasian harvest mouse, European polecat, European water vole, European hedgehog, Eurasian red squirrel, common pipistrelle, European hare, brown long-eared bat, stoat, serotine bat, Eurasian beaver, European mole, Natterer's bat, least weasel, red fox, Daubenton's bat, beech marten and several species of shrew, dormice, apodemus and arvicolinae. Hiking, canoeing and cycling activities are possible in this area.

text:
# Het Groene Woud

**Het Groene Woud** (The Green Forest) is a special area of the Netherlands which is located in North Brabant between the cities of Tilburg, Eindhoven and 's-Hertogenbosch. It includes nature reserves such as the Kampina, the Oisterwijk forests and fens, Velderbos and the Dommel.

In 2004 "Het Groene Woud" is designated by the government as a National Landscape. This is to prevent the area between the three large cities from becoming more urbanized.

The combination of nature, sustainable agriculture and environmental recreation form a valuable cultural and historical landscape. "Het Groene Woud" covers a total of 7,500 hectares of marshes, meadows and agricultural landscape. It covers the municipalities Boxtel, Sint-Oedenrode, Schijndel, Sint-Michielsgestel, Best, Oirschot, Oisterwijk, Haaren and Vught.

In Het Groene Woud, many species of mammals can be encountered:

These include: red deer (introduced in 2017), roe deer, European badger, Eurasian harvest mouse, European polecat, European water vole, European hedgehog, Eurasian red squirrel, common pipistrelle, European hare, brown long-eared bat, stoat, serotine bat, Eurasian beaver, European mole, Natterer's bat, least weasel, red fox, Daubenton's bat, beech marten and several species of shrew, dormice, apodemus and arvicolinae.

Hiking, canoeing and cycling activities are possible in this area.

51°34′48″N 5°16′51″E / 51.5800°N 5.2808°E / 51.5800; 5.2808


title: Godavaya

abstract: Godavaya or Godawaya is a small fishing hamlet located at the mouth of the Walawe river, between Ambalantota and Hambantota in the Hambantota District in southern Sri Lanka. It received its name, originally Goda Pavata Pattana or Gota Pabbata Pattana from a huge rock overlooking the Indian Ocean, at the foot of which it is situated. The original harbour town was an entrepot on the Maritime Silk Road from at least the 2nd century CE. It has been the site of extensive excavations by German and Sri Lanka Archaeologists since 1994. Godavaya is also the site if a wildlife sanctuary. The beach is important for nesting leatherback turtles.

text:
# Godavaya

**Godavaya** or **Godawaya** is a small fishing hamlet located at the mouth of the Walawe river, between Ambalantota and Hambantota in the Hambantota District in southern Sri Lanka.

It received its name, originally *Goda Pavata Pattana* or *Gota Pabbata Pattana* (meaning 'small rock harbour') from a huge rock overlooking the Indian Ocean, at the foot of which it is situated. The original harbour town was an entrepot on the Maritime Silk Road from at least the 2nd century CE.

It has been the site of extensive excavations by German and Sri Lanka Archaeologists since 1994.

Godavaya is also the site if a wildlife sanctuary. The beach is important for nesting leatherback turtles.

## History

The Godavaya area has been inhabited for about 7000 years. In August 2008, a human skeleton dating back to 3000-5000 BC (carbon dating has yet to be done) was discovered in an abandoned stone quarry at Godavaya, together with tools of animal-bone and stone. In honour of the discoverer of the site, German archaeologist Oliver Kessler, the skeletons were named Olli 1 -3.

The settlement of *Goda Pavata Pattana*, lay sandwiched on the peninsula between the inland harbour on the Walawe river and the sea harbour on the bay of Godavaya. Trade was an important component in the economy of ancient Sri Lanka and Godavaya was an important maritime settlement, serving Tissamaharama and Ridiyagama in the kingdom of Ruhuna.

The Godavaya port probably pre-dates a Brahmi script inscription of the 2nd-century king *Gamani Abaya*, probably Gajabahu I, which states that the customs duties obtained there were dedicated to the Buddhist monastery, the Godapavata Vihara.

However, in the Mahawamsa's chapter on 'The 12 kings', it is claimed that the vihara at *Gotapabbata* was one of the seven monasteries that Mahallaka Naga built after his son-in-law Gajabahu's death.

In ancient times, Sri Lanka exported dark red garnets, which have been found as burial objects in many European graves of the early mediaeval period. Recent research reveals that most of those garnets were from India and Sri Lanka. Godavaya had ease of access via the Walawe river to the gem mining area of the Walawe basin, which is a source of garnets.

Until the 6th century, Godavaya was an important transit port. Ships carrying merchandise from the West exchanged commodities with ships from China carrying silk. Hence, ships did not need to go further than Godavaya. Articles of trade on the Walawe river shipping route and on land routes were also swapped there.

Godavaya was the seaport for the mediaeval (11th century) southern capital, Maha Nagakula which lay on the Walawe river.

## Excavations

From 1994 onwards, a team of German archaeologists from the University of Bonn directed by late Prof. Dr. Helmut Roth, Dr. Udo Recker (1994-1996) and Oliver Kessler M.A. (1997 onwards) conducted joint excavations at Godavaya with the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, under Director General Dr. W.H. Wijeyapala and the German Archaeological Institute (DAI). They unearthed evidence to prove Godavaya's importance in the maritime Silk Route, revealing connections from China in the east to the Red Sea and to Europe in the west.

Among the finds have been:

### Gota Pabbata Rajamaha Vihara Monastery

On top of the rock overlooking the entire area lay the monastery, the *Gota Pabbatha Rajamaha Vihara*, which had been a religious and administrative centre since the reign of King Gajabahu I. The Brahmi inscription on a rock next to the ancient shrine room is unique, being the sole evidence for the transfer of customs duties to a monastery in the Indian Ocean world at that period.

Normally, only the king was allowed to collect taxes. In Godavaya, the tax fees were donated to the temple for its maintenance.

The monastery area was excavated by a team under Oliver Kessler, who discovered an elevated ancient image house (Buddhu gedera) and a chapter house (Dharma salawa) on the west side of the monastery. They found a standing Buddha statue about 3.50 metres tall and two Bodhisattva statues each about 1.80 metres in height. Traces of weather-resistant colouring - the source of which is unclear - are evidence that the statues date back to a period before the 8th century.

### Customs house

The team found a custom office building, decorated with ornaments showing an elephant placing his trunk in lotus flowers. Clay seals bearing the emblem of a lion were used to seal goods and cargo as proof that the customs duty was paid.

### Quarry

A quarry was also discovered. One big pillar covered with many drill marks dating to the middle Anuradhapura period before the 5th century, lies in front of the huge rock, close to the ocean.

### Shipwreck

In late 2008, an underwater search of the seas around Godavaya, carried out by the Central Cultural Fund, revealed the wreck of a ship, possibly dating back to 2nd century BC-1st century AD. Together with the ship were found black and red ware pottery \- dating from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century - together with a stone throne and coloured ball clay for making painted roofing tiles.

## Godavaya wildlife sanctuary

Godavaya is home to five of the seven global marine turtle species: hawksbill, leatherback, green turtle, loggerhead and olive ridley turtle, which are all threatened. It has been proposed that the leatherback turtles of Sri Lanka and the Nicobar Islands form a separate, genetically distinct Indian Ocean subpopulation. Godavaya beach is possibly the best leatherback turtle nesting beach in the island, with the largest nesting population.

A 3.85 kilometre section of the beach at Godavaya was declared a wildlife sanctuary ('Godavaya Sanctuary') by the Government of Sri Lanka under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance on 10 May 2006. It extends 500 metres into the sea and 100 metres from the high tide level onto the land.

The seaward limit includes the turtles' aquatic habitat (mainly coral reefs where they forage and rest), while the land limit envelopes their land Nesting habitat.

## Tsunami

When the Boxing Day tsunami of 2004 struck Sri Lanka, the villagers of the fishing hamlet, among them two archaeologists, took refuge in the temple on the rock. This probably contributed to the lack of fatalities, contrasting with the thousands of deaths in the surrounding areas.

Notes Bibliography * Archäologischer Anzeiger 2009/1, Beiheft, Jahresbericht des DAI, S. 358–360.
* Kessler, Oliver (1998): The Discovery of an Ancient Sea Port at the Silk Road of the Sea. Archaeological Relics of the Godavaya Harbaour. In: M. Domroes/H. Roth (Hrsg.): Sri Lanka, Past and Present. Weikersheim 1998, S. 12–37.
* Kessler, Oliver (2001a), zus. mit H. Roth/U. Recker/W. Wijeypala: The Godavaya Harbour Site. Report on the Excavations 1994–1997. H.-J. Weisshaar/H. Roth/W. Wijeypala (Hrsg.): Ancient Ruhuna. Sri Lankan-German Archaeological Project in the Southern Province, Vol. 1. Mainz 2001, S. 291–326.
* Kessler, Oliver (2001b): Der spätantik-frühmittelalterliche Handel zwischen Europa und Asien und die Bedeutung des Almandins als Fernhandelsgut. E. Pohl/U. Recker/C. Theune (Hrsg.): Archäologisches Zellwerk, Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte in Europa und Asien. Festschrift für Helmut Roth zum 60. Geburtstag. Internationale Archäologie: Studia honoraria; Bd. 16. Rahden/Westf. 2001, S. 113–128.
* Kessler, Oliver (2003): The Excavations at Godavaya (Godapavata Patana). An ancient Sea Port and Trading Station at the Silk Road of the Sea. In: Administration Report for Ceylon 1996. Colombo 2003, S. 48–50.
* Kessler, Oliver (2008): Excavations at Godavaya and a Recently Unearthed, Hitherto Unknown 2nd Century Inscription of King Gajabahu I. Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists, Leiden 1999. Raven, Ellen M. (Hrsg.): South Asian archaeology 1999 : proceedings of the fifteenth International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, held at the Universiteit Leiden, 5–9 July 1999. (Gonda indological studies 15). Groningen 2008.


title: Ramon Paul Hernando

abstract: Ramon Paul Layugan Hernando is an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. He was appointed by President Rodrigo Duterte to replace Associate Justice Samuel Martires.

text:
# Ramon Paul Hernando

**Ramon Paul Layugan Hernando** (born August 27, 1966) is an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. He was appointed by President Rodrigo Duterte to replace Associate Justice Samuel Martires.

## Education

Hernando studied at Tuguegarao East Central School from 1972 to 1978; later graduating from St. Louis High School of Tuguegarao in 1982. He earned his Bachelor of Laws from the San Beda College of Law and was admitted to the bar in 1991. He later pursued post-graduate studies at the Ateneo de Manila University Graduate School of Business and San Beda Graduate School of Law.

## Career

He first worked as member of the staff of late Associate Justice Florenz Regalado and later with the staff of retired associate justice Edgardo Paras in the years after his admission into the bar. He also worked as Department of Justice prosecutor and was appointed San Pablo, Laguna Regional Trial Court judge in 2003. He was later appointed RTC judge in Quezon City in 2006, and was elevated to the appellate court in 2010. He has also taught at his alma mater San Beda and in San Sebastian College of Law and the Ateneo Law School.

### Supreme Court appointment

Hernando originally applied for a vacancy created by the retirement of Associate Justice Jose C. Mendoza in 2017, but the seat ultimately went to Alexander Gesmundo. In October 2018 he was appointed by Rodrigo Duterte to replace Samuel Martires who was appointed ombudsman. He is Duterte's sixth appointment to the Supreme Court.

## InfoBox

| The HonorableRamon Paul Hernando | |
| --- | --- |
| Hernando in December 2022 | |
|  | |
| Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
October 10, 2018 | |
| Appointed by | Rodrigo Duterte |
| Preceded by | Samuel Martires |
| Justice of the Court of Appeals of the Philippines | |
| **In office**
February 16, 2010  October 10, 2018 | |
| Appointed by | Gloria Macapagal Arroyo |
| Preceded by | Myrna Dimaranan-Vidal |
| Succeeded by | Bonifacio Pascua |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Ramon Paul Layugan Hernando
(1966-08-27) August 27, 1966
Tuguegarao, Cagayan, Philippines |
| Alma mater | University of Santo Tomas (BA)
San Beda College (LLB) |
|  | |


title: The Plunderer (1915 film)

abstract: The Plunderer is a 1915 American film directed by Edgar Lewis based on a 1912 mining novel by Roy Norton. The cast features William Farnum and Harry Spingler as honest miners and Claire Whitney as love interest Joan, daughter of a dishonest miner literally undermining their claim.

text:
# The Plunderer (1915 film)

***The Plunderer*** is a 1915 American film directed by Edgar Lewis based on a 1912 mining novel by Roy Norton. The cast features William Farnum and Harry Spingler as honest miners and Claire Whitney as love interest Joan, daughter of a dishonest miner literally undermining their claim.

## Cast

## Production

*The Plunderer* was filmed on location in Dahlonega, Georgia, site of the 1829 Georgia Gold Rush.

## InfoBox

| The Plunderer | |
| --- | --- |
| Film still with William Farnum | |
| Directed by | Edgar Lewis |
| Written by | Edgar Lewis
Garfield Thompson |
| Based on | *The Plunderer*
by Roy Norton |
| Starring | Roscoe Arbuckle
Mabel Normand
Ford Sterling |
| Cinematography | Frank Kugler |
| Production
company | Fox Film Corp. |
| Distributed by | Fox Film Corp. |
| Release date | * May 31, 1915 (1915-05-31) |
| Running time | (5 reels) |
| Country | United States |
| Language | Silent (English intertitles) |


title: Ilir Ferati

abstract: Ilir Ferati is a politician in Kosovo. He served in the Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo from 2019 to 2021 and has been the mayor of Istog since 2021. Ferati is a member of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK). He is the son of Fadil Ferati, who served as mayor of Istog from 2001 until his death in 2010.

text:
# Ilir Ferati

**Ilir Ferati** (born 19 December 1988) is a politician in Kosovo. He served in the Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo from 2019 to 2021 and has been the mayor of Istog since 2021. Ferati is a member of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK).

He is the son of Fadil Ferati, who served as mayor of Istog from 2001 until his death in 2010.

## Early life and private career

Ferati was born to a Kosovo Albanian family in Istog, in what was then the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo in the Socialist Republic of Serbia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. He was raised in the community and later graduated from the American University in Kosovo in public policy and management. After graduating, he worked for four years as a civil servant in Istog's directorate for economic development; his portfolio including working on grants for mountain tourism.

## Politician

### Parliamentarian

Ferati was included in the fifty-fifth position on the LDK's electoral list in the 2019 Kosovan parliamentary election. Parliamentary elections in Kosovo are held under open list proportional representation; he finished in twenty-second place among the list's candidates and was elected when the list won twenty-eight seats. The LDK became part of the Republic of Kosovo's coalition government after the election, and Ferati served as a supporter of the administration. He was a member of the committee for infrastructure, agriculture, and environment, and a member of the investigative committee for managing the COVID-19 pandemic. He was also responsible for removing a requirement that civil service applicants have two years work experience to be employed in public institutions; the change was meant to ensure recent graduates would be able to enter the field.

Ferati finished in twenty-first place among the LDK list's candidates in the 2021 parliamentary election. The party fell to fifteen seats and he was not re-elected.

### Mayor of Istog

Ferati was the LDK's candidate for mayor of Istog in the 2021 Kosovan local elections and was elected in the second round of voting. After the election, he made an agreement with the Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) for a four-year coalition government in the municipality.

## Electoral record

### Local (Istog)

2021 Kosovan local elections: Mayor of Istog
| Candidate | | Party | First round | | Second round | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Votes | | % | Votes | % |
|  | **Ilir Ferati** | Democratic League of Kosovo | 7,974 | 41.09 | 9,700 | 56.16 |
|  | Bekë Berisha | Alliance for the Future of Kosovo | 5,140 | 26.49 | 7,573 | 43.84 |
|  | Agron Avdijaj | Levizja Vetëvendosje! | 4,528 | 23.34 |  | |
|  | Ali Nimanaj | Democratic Party of Kosovo | 1,189 | 6.13 |  | |
|  | Idriz Blakaj | Civic Initiative "Together for Istog" | 573 | 2.95 |  | |
| Total | | | 19,404 | 100.00 | 17,273 | 100.00 |
|  | | | | | | |
| Source: | | | | | | |


title: Portrait of Captain Thomas Coram

abstract: Portrait of Captain Thomas Coram is a 1740 portrait of philanthropist Thomas Coram painted by William Hogarth. The portrait, which represents Hogarth's highest achievement in direct portraiture, was not created as a commission and was instead donated to Coram's Foundling Hospital. The portrait is divided into two sections: The left side represents Coram's sea ventures, a major source of his wealth. The right side shows a curtain pulled over a mother figure with a child. The painting is now in the collection of London's Foundling Museum.

text:
# Portrait of Captain Thomas Coram

***Portrait of Captain Thomas Coram*** is a 1740 portrait of philanthropist Thomas Coram painted by William Hogarth. The portrait, which represents Hogarth's highest achievement in direct portraiture, was not created as a commission and was instead donated to Coram's Foundling Hospital. The portrait is divided into two sections: The left side represents Coram's sea ventures, a major source of his wealth. The right side shows a curtain pulled over a mother figure with a child.

The painting is now in the collection of London's Foundling Museum.

## InfoBox

| Portrait of Captain Thomas Coram | |
| --- | --- |
| German: *Porträt des Captain Thomas Coram* | |
|  | |
| Artist | William Hogarth |
| Year | 1740 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 239 cm × 147.5 cm (94 in × 58.1 in) |
| Location | Foundling Museum, London |


title: Out of Phase Stereo

abstract: Out of Phase Stereo (OOPS) is an audio technique which manipulates the phase of a stereo audio track, to isolate or remove certain components of the stereo mix. It works on the principle of phase cancellation, in which two identical but inverted waveforms summed together will "cancel the other out".

text:
# Out of Phase Stereo

**Out of Phase Stereo** (OOPS) is an audio technique which manipulates the phase of a stereo audio track, to isolate or remove certain components of the stereo mix. It works on the principle of phase cancellation, in which two identical but inverted waveforms summed together will "cancel the other out".

## Process

When a sine wave is mixed with one of identical frequency but opposite amplitude (ie: of an inverse polarity), the combined result is silence. A two-channel stereo recording contains a number of waveforms; sounds that are panned to the extreme left or right will contain the greatest difference in amplitude between the two channels, while those towards the centre will contain the smallest. A mix of the left channel with the polar inverse of the right channel will reduce centre-panned sounds towards silence, while preserving those towards the extremities.

In practice, the OOPS technique can be performed by inverting the polarity of one speaker or signal lead. It can also be performed using digital audio software by inverting one of the channels of a stereo audio waveform, and then summing both channels together to create a single mono channel.

## Applications in music

This technique has been previously used to eliminate vocals in a stereo track (as vocals tend to be panned centre) to create crude karaoke tracks, or generate surround channels from a stereo source, such as in Dolby Pro Logic. It has also been used in the recording process to include tracks that were only audible once an OOPS technique was applied. This feature can be observed in several of the Beatles' stereo albums. Australian band Cinema Prague recorded a single track *Meldatype* that contained two songs played simultaneously, one of which was only audible after an OOPS technique was applied. It consisted of two mono tracks: a loud and distorted electric guitar playing chords repetitively, as well as a quiet vocal track. The guitar had one of the channels inverted, while the vocal track was identical in both channels. During normal playback, the guitar would be heard throughout the entire track. When the channels were summed to mono, however, the regular and inverted guitar tracks would cancel out, revealing the vocal track to the listener.


title: Waterloo White Hawks

abstract: Based in Waterloo, Iowa, the Waterloo White Hawks were a minor league baseball team that existed from 1946 to 1956. They played in the Three-I League and were affiliated with the Chicago White Sox. They played their home games at Riverfront Stadium.

text:
# Waterloo White Hawks

Based in Waterloo, Iowa, the **Waterloo White Hawks** were a minor league baseball team that existed from 1946 to 1956. They played in the Three-I League and were affiliated with the Chicago White Sox. They played their home games at Riverfront Stadium.

## Notable players

## Year-by-year record

| Year | Record | Finish | Manager | Playoffs |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1946 | 62-63 | 5th | Johnny Mostil |  |
| 1947 | 71-55 | 3rd (t) | Johnny Mostil / Jack Onslow | **League Champs** |
| 1948 | 63-61 | 5th | Pete Fox |  |
| 1949 | 70-56 | 2nd | Ben Huffman / Frederick Shaffer | Lost in 1st round |
| 1950 | 70-56 | 3rd | Otto Denning | Lost in 1st round |
| 1951 | 60-69 | 5th | Otto Denning / Edward Taylor / Skeeter Webb |  |
| 1952 | 65-61 | 4th | Skeeter Webb | Lost in 1st round |
| 1953 | 69-60 | 4th | Zack Taylor | Lost in 1st round |
| 1954 | 66-69 | 5th | Wally Millies |  |
| 1955 | 70-56 | 2nd | Dutch Dorman / Willard Marshall | Lost in 1st round |
| 1956 | 62-56 | 2nd | Ira Hutchinson | none |
|


title: Vladimir Bakulin

abstract: Vladimir Bakulin was a Kazakhstani wrestler who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics.

text:
# Vladimir Bakulin

**Vladimir Bakulin** (3 September 1939  10 December 2012) was a Kazakhstani wrestler who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics.

## InfoBox

Vladimir Bakulin
| Medal record | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Men's Greco-Roman wrestling | | |
| Representing the  Soviet Union | | |
| Olympic Games | | |
|  | 1968 Mexico City | flyweight |
| World Championships | | |
|  | 1967 Bucharest | flyweight |


title: Newton Fell

abstract: Newton Fell is a hill in the English Lake District near High Newton, south east of Newby Bridge, Cumbria. It lies to the north east of the A590 road. It is the subject of a chapter of Wainwright's book The Outlying Fells of Lakeland. Wainwright describes two walks, to the summits he calls Newton Fell (north) at 780 feet (240 m) and Newton Fell (south) or Dixon Heights at 585 feet (178 m). There are no public rights of way to either summit, and he states that the walks should be done "by courtesy of the owners and tenants".

text:
# Newton Fell

**Newton Fell** is a hill in the English Lake District near High Newton, south east of Newby Bridge, Cumbria. It lies to the north east of the A590 road. It is the subject of a chapter of Wainwright's book *The Outlying Fells of Lakeland*. Wainwright describes two walks, to the summits he calls **Newton Fell (north)** at 780 feet (240 m) and **Newton Fell (south)** or **Dixon Heights** at 585 feet (178 m). There are no public rights of way to either summit, and he states that the walks should be done "by courtesy of the owners and tenants".

54°14′28″N 2°54′49″W / 54.24111°N 2.91361°W / 54.24111; -2.91361


title: GlobalCapital

abstract: GlobalCapital is a news and data service covering the global debt and equity capital markets and is one of the branded business units of Delinian’s NextGen portfolio. The publication is targeted at bankers, issuers, lawyers, investors, regulators, trading platforms and other industry experts.

text:
# GlobalCapital

***GlobalCapital*** is a news and data service covering the global debt and equity capital markets and is one of the branded business units of Delinian’s NextGen portfolio.

The publication is targeted at bankers, issuers, lawyers, investors, regulators, trading platforms and other industry experts.

## History

***GlobalCapital***, previously known as *Euroweek,* started in 1987 by the financial publishing company Euromoney as a weekly printed newspaper covering capital markets. It was published each Friday.

It printed its last physical edition in March 2020 as the world went into lockdown to fight the COVID-19 pandemic but by that stage was already a daily online news and data service.

Nonetheless, it still produces a weekly online edition every Friday morning as well as a host of data sets, special reports and podcasts.

Regular features include 'Southpaw', 'The GC View' and its two podcasts: ‘The GlobalCapital Podcast’ each Friday and ‘Another Fine Mezz’, which covers securitisation every Monday.

*EuroWeek Asia* was the publication's dedicated news section on the Asian equity, bond, loans and structured finance markets. It ran until 2022. This section was initially written and edited in Hong Kong and news was updated online daily. It included a weekly column, *Taipan,* on Asian Pacific gossip and insider knowledge. This also is now incorporated into *GlobalCapital*, as part of *GlobalCapital's* Asia coverage.

The publication includes regular league tables ranking capital market institutions in their sectors with data from Dealogic.

The publication regularly publishes special supplements on specific parts of the capital markets or countries, as well as its flagship *‘Review of the Year/Outlook’* report every December. Supplements have included coverage of structured finance, covered bonds, the sovereign, supranational and agency bond market and many more.

The *‘Review of the Year/Outlook’*, published in December, surveys market participants to obtain their views on the last 12 months and the year ahead.

*GlobalCapital* hosts a number of awards ceremonies and other events covering the capital markets. It hosts various awards for the bond, securitization, loan and equity markets as well as two sets of awards for the derivatives industry. It also runs small, editorially focused events for specialist sections of the capital markets under the banner GC Live.

## Change of name

*EuroWeek* was rebranded as *GlobalCapital* when, in 2014, it merged with other publications from the Euromoney Institutional Investor Group: *Asiamoney,* *Total Securitization,* *SSA Markets* (itself started by *EuroWeek* in 2010) and *Derivatives Week* to form *GlobalCapital*. *The Cover*, a niche title about the covered bond market as part of the *EuroWeek* stable was also later folded into *GlobalCapital*.

*GlobalCapital* delivers two weekly columns to the following market sectors: the sovereign, supranational and agency (SSA) bond market; the FIG/bank bond market, including covered bonds; investment grade corporate bonds; syndicated loans; equity capital markets; emerging market bonds and loans; securitization; sustainable finance; and investment banking and Asia capital markets.

## Change of owner

Euromoney Institutional Investor, which also published other titles such as Euromoney Magazine and Metal Bulletin, which later formed part of its Fastmarkets division, accepted a £1.7bn takeover bid in July 2022 from private equity groups Astorg and Epiris.

The deal split the business in two. Fastmarkets became a stand-alone entity, owned, and controlled by Astorg, with the remaining Euromoney business, including *GlobalCapital,* operating under the majority ownership and control of Epiris.

In November 2022, Becketts Bidco Limited, a newly formed company indirectly owned by funds managed by Astorg and Epiris, completed its acquisition of Euromoney, and it was delisted from the London Stock Exchange.

In January 2023, Euromoney rebranded as Delinian, consisting of Euromoney's specialist brands serving the financial and professional services and asset management industries. There were no brand or name changes for any customer-facing products.

## InfoBox

*GlobalCapital*
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Chairman, Delinian | Henry Elkington |
| CEO, Delinian | Andrew Pinder |
| CEO, NextGen Publishing | Isaac Showman |
| Managing Director, GlobalCapital | Toby Fildes |
| London Bureau Chief, GlobalCapital | Ralph Sinclair |
| New York Bureau Chief, GlobalCapital | Oliver West |
| Categories | Capital markets |
| Frequency | Daily online newspaper |
| Publisher | GlobalCapital, Delinian Ltd. |
| First issue | 1987 |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Language | English |
| Website | www.globalcapital.com |


title: Antônio Pitanga

abstract: Antônio Luiz Sampaio, better known by his stage name Antônio Pitanga, is a Brazilian actor. He became internationally known for playing several roles on films of the Cinema Novo movement in the 1960s.

text:
# Antônio Pitanga

**Antônio Luiz Sampaio** (born June 13, 1939), better known by his stage name **Antônio Pitanga**, is a Brazilian actor. He became internationally known for playing several roles on films of the Cinema Novo movement in the 1960s.

## Personal life

He was married to actress Vera Manhães, with whom he had two sons: actress Camila Pitanga and actor Rocco Pitanga. After their divorce, he married politician Benedita da Silva.

## Selected filmography

Films Television

## InfoBox

| Antônio Pitanga | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Antônio Luiz Sampaio
June 13, 1939 (1939-06-13) (age 85)
Salvador, Bahia, Brazil |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Years active | 1960–present |
| Spouses | *   Vera Manhães  (m. 1976; div. 1986) *   Benedita da Silva (m. 1992) |
| Children |  |


title: The Popcorn

abstract: "The Popcorn" is a 1969 instrumental written and recorded by James Brown. It was the first of several records Brown made inspired by the popular dance of the same name. Released as a single on King Records, it charted #11 R&B and #30 Pop. It also appeared as the title track of an album released the same year.

text:
# The Popcorn

"**The Popcorn**" is a 1969 instrumental written and recorded by James Brown. It was the first of several records Brown made inspired by the popular dance of the same name. Released as a single on King Records, it charted #11 R&B and #30 Pop. It also appeared as the title track of an album released the same year.

## Background

The recording's bassline shares great similarities with Cold Sweat. In fact, it's a revamp of an earlier single "Bringing Up the Guitar" by Alfred Ellis and The Dapps, featuring the same band on this recording.

## Chart performance

| Chart (1969) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| US *Billboard* Hot 100 | 30 |
| US Best Selling Rhythm & Blues Singles (*Billboard*) | 11 |

## "The Chicken"

## InfoBox

| "The Popcorn" | |
| --- | --- |
| Single by James Brown | |
| from the album  *The Popcorn* | |
| B-side | "The Chicken" |
| Released | 1969 |
| Recorded | 1968 |
| Genre | Soul, funk |
| Length | 2:55 |
| Label | King
6240 |
| Songwriter(s) | James Brown |
| Producer(s) | James Brown |
| James Brown singles chronology | |
| "I Don't Want Nobody to Give Me Nothing (Open Up the Door, I'll Get It Myself)"
(1969) "**The Popcorn**"
(1969) "Mother Popcorn (You Got to Have a Mother for Me)"
(1969) | |
|  | |
| Audio video | |
| "The Popcorn" on YouTube | |
|  | |


title: Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese

abstract: The Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese is a portrait of cardinal Alessandro Farnese by Raphael, executed circa 1509-1511. The cardinal posed near a window with a bright foreground, leading into a dark hall. His delicate right hand holds a letter. The painting resides at the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte in Naples.

text:
# Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese

The ***Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese*** is a portrait of cardinal Alessandro Farnese (the future Pope Paul III) by Raphael, executed *circa* 1509-1511.

The cardinal posed near a window with a bright foreground, leading into a dark hall. His delicate right hand holds a letter.

The painting resides at the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte in Naples.

* Knackfuss, Hermann (1966). *Raphael*. pp. 113, 362.

## InfoBox

| Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Artist | Raphael |
| Year | c. 1509–1511 |
| Type | Oil on wood |
| Dimensions | 139 cm × 91 cm (55 in × 36 in) |
| Location | Museo di Capodimonte, Naples |


title: Interaural time difference

abstract: The interaural time difference when concerning humans or animals, is the difference in arrival time of a sound between two ears. It is important in the localization of sounds, as it provides a cue to the direction or angle of the sound source from the head. If a signal arrives at the head from one side, the signal has further to travel to reach the far ear than the near ear. This pathlength difference results in a time difference between the sound's arrivals at the ears, which is detected and aids the process of identifying the direction of sound source. When a signal is produced in the horizontal plane, its angle in relation to the head is referred to as its azimuth, with 0 degrees (0°) azimuth being directly in front of the listener, 90° to the right, and 180° being directly behind.

text:
# Interaural time difference

The **interaural time difference** (or **ITD**) when concerning humans or animals, is the difference in arrival time of a sound between two ears. It is important in the localization of sounds, as it provides a cue to the direction or angle of the sound source from the head. If a signal arrives at the head from one side, the signal has further to travel to reach the far ear than the near ear. This pathlength difference results in a time difference between the sound's arrivals at the ears, which is detected and aids the process of identifying the direction of sound source.

When a signal is produced in the horizontal plane, its angle in relation to the head is referred to as its azimuth, with 0 degrees (0°) azimuth being directly in front of the listener, 90° to the right, and 180° being directly behind.

## Different methods for measuring ITDs

* For an abrupt stimulus such as a click, onset ITDs are measured. An onset ITD is the time difference between the onset of the signal reaching two ears.
* A transient ITD can be measured when using a random noise stimulus and is calculated as the time difference between a set peak of the noise stimulus reaching the ears.
* If the stimulus used is not abrupt but periodic then ongoing ITDs are measured. This is where the waveforms reaching both ears can be shifted in time until they perfectly match up and the size of this shift is recorded as the ITD. This shift is known as the interaural phase difference (IPD) and can be used for measuring the ITDs of periodic inputs such as pure tones and amplitude modulated stimuli. An amplitude modulated stimulus IPD can be assessed by looking at either the waveform envelope or the waveform fine structure.

## Duplex theory

The Duplex theory proposed by Lord Rayleigh (1907) provides an explanation for the ability of humans to localise sounds by time differences between the sounds reaching each ear (ITDs) and differences in sound level entering the ears (interaural level differences, ILDs). But there still lies a question whether ITD or ILD is prominent.

The duplex theory states that ITDs are used to localise low frequency sounds, in particular, while ILDs are used in the localisation of high frequency sound inputs. However, the frequency ranges for which the auditory system can use ITDs and ILDs significantly overlap, and most natural sounds will have both high and low frequency components, so that the auditory system will in most cases have to combine information from both ITDs and ILDs to judge the location of a sound source. A consequence of this duplex system is that it is also possible to generate so-called "cue trading" or "time–intensity trading" stimuli on headphones, where ITDs pointing to the left are offset by ILDs pointing to the right, so the sound is perceived as coming from the midline. A limitation of the duplex theory is that the theory does not completely explain directional hearing, as no explanation is given for the ability to distinguish between a sound source directly in front and behind. Also the theory only relates to localising sounds in the horizontal plane around the head. The theory also does not take into account the use of the pinna in localisation.(Gelfand, 2004)

Experiments conducted by Woodworth (1938) tested the duplex theory by using a solid sphere to model the shape of the head and measuring the ITDs as a function of azimuth for different frequencies. The model used had a distance between the two ears of approximately 22–23 cm. Initial measurements found that there was a maximum time delay of approximately 660 μs when the sound source was placed at directly 90° azimuth to one ear. This time delay correlates to the wavelength of a sound input with a frequency of 1500 Hz. The results concluded that when a sound played had a frequency less than 1500 Hz the wavelength is greater than this maximum time delay between the ears. Therefore, there is a phase difference between the sound waves entering the ears providing acoustic localisation cues. With a sound input with a frequency closer to 1500 Hz the wavelength of the sound wave is similar to the natural time delay. Therefore, due to the size of the head and the distance between the ears there is a reduced phase difference so localisations errors start to be made. When a high frequency sound input is used with a frequency greater than 1500 Hz, the wavelength is shorter than the distance between the 2 ears, a head shadow is produced and ILD provide cues for the localisation of this sound.

Feddersen et al. (1957) also conducted experiments taking measurements on how ITDs alter with changing the azimuth of the loudspeaker around the head at different frequencies. But unlike the Woodworth experiments human subjects were used rather than a model of the head. The experiment results agreed with the conclusion made by Woodworth about ITDs. The experiments also concluded that is there is no difference in ITDs when sounds are provided from directly in front or behind at 0° and 180° azimuth. The explanation for this is that the sound is equidistant from both ears. Interaural time differences alter as the loudspeaker is moved around the head. The maximum ITD of 660 μs occurs when a sound source is positioned at 90° azimuth to one ear.

## Current findings

Starting in 1948, the prevailing theory on interaural time differences centered on the idea that inputs from the medial superior olive differentially process inputs from the ipsilateral and contralateral side relative to the sound. This is accomplished through a discrepancy in arrival time of excitatory inputs into the medial superior olive, based on differential conductance of the axons, which allows both sounds to ultimately converge at the same time through neurons with complementary intrinsic properties.

Franken et al., attempted to further elucidate the mechanisms underlying ITD in mammalian brains. One experiment they performed was to isolate discrete inhibitory post-synaptic potentials to try and determine if inhibitory inputs to the superior olive were allowing the faster excitatory input to delay firing until the two signals were synced. However, after blocking EPSPs with a glutamate receptor blocker, they determine that the size of inhibitory inputs was too marginal to appear to play a significant role in phase locking. This was verified when the experimenters blocked inhibitory input and still saw clear phase locking of the excitatory inputs in their absence. This led them to the theory that in-phase excitatory inputs are summated such that the brain can process sound localization by counting the number of action potentials that arise from various magnitudes of summated depolarization.

Franken, et al. also examined anatomical and functional patterns within the superior olive to clarify previous theories about the rostrocaudal axis serving as a source of tonotopy. Their results showed a significant correlation between tuning frequency and relative position along the dorsoventral axis, while they saw no distinguishable pattern of tuning frequency on the rostrocaudal axis.

Lastly, they went on to further explore the driving forces behind the interaural time difference, specifically whether the process is simply the alignment of inputs that is processed by a coincidence detector, or whether the process is more complicated. Evidence from Franken, et al. shows that the processing is affected by inputs that precede the binaural signal, which would alter the functioning of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels to shift the membrane potential of the neuron. Furthermore, the shift is dependent on the frequency tuning of each neuron, ultimately creating a more complex confluence and analysis of sound. Franken, et al.'s findings provide several pieces of evidence that contradict existing theories about binaural audition.

## The anatomy of the ITD pathway

The auditory nerve fibres, known as the afferent nerve fibres, carry information from the organ of Corti to the brainstem and brain. Auditory afferent fibres consist of two types of fibres called type I and type II fibres. Type I fibres innervate the base of one or two inner hair cells and Type II fibres innervate the outer hair cells. Both leave the organ of Corti through an opening called the habenula perforata. The type I fibres are thicker than the type II fibres and may also differ in how they innervate the inner hair cells. Neurons with large calyceal endings ensure preservation of timing information throughout the ITD pathway.

Next in the pathway is the cochlear nucleus, which receives mainly ipsilateral (that is, from the same side) afferent input. The cochlear nucleus has three distinct anatomical divisions, known as the antero-ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), postero-ventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) and dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) and each have different neural innervations.

The AVCN contains predominant *bushy cells*, with one or two profusely branching dendrites; it is thought that bushy cells may process the change in the spectral profile of complex stimuli. The AVCN also contain cells with more complex firing patterns than bushy cells called *multipolar cells*, these cells have several profusely branching dendrites and irregular shaped cell bodies. Multipolar cells are sensitive to changes in acoustic stimuli and in particular, onset and offset of sounds, as well as changes in intensity and frequency. The axons of both cell types leave the AVCN as large tract called the *ventral acoustic stria*, which forms part of the trapezoid body and travels to the superior olivary complex.

A group of nuclei in pons make up the superior olivary complex (SOC). This is the first stage in auditory pathway to receive input from both cochleas, which is crucial for our ability to localise the sounds source in the horizontal plane. The SOC receives input from cochlear nuclei, primarily the ipsilateral and contralateral AVCN. Four nuclei make up the SOC but only the medial superior olive (MSO) and the lateral superior olive (LSO) receive input from both cochlear nuclei.

The MSO is made up of neurons which receive input from the low-frequency fibers of the left and right AVCN. The result of having input from both cochleas is an increase in the firing rate of the MSO units. The neurons in the MSO are sensitive to the difference in the arrival time of sound at each ear, also known as the interaural time difference (ITD). Research shows that if stimulation arrives at one ear before the other, many of the MSO units will have increased discharge rates. The axons from the MSO continue to higher parts of the pathway via the ipsilateral lateral lemniscus tract.(Yost, 2000)

The lateral lemniscus (LL) is the main auditory tract in the brainstem connecting SOC to the inferior colliculus. The dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus (DNLL) is a group of neurons separated by lemniscus fibres, these fibres are predominantly destined for the inferior colliculus (IC). In studies using an unanesthetized rabbit the DNLL was shown to alter the sensitivity of the IC neurons and may alter the coding of interaural timing differences (ITDs) in the IC.(Kuwada et al., 2005) The ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus (VNLL) is a chief source of input to the inferior colliculus. Research using rabbits shows the discharge patterns, frequency tuning and dynamic ranges of VNLL neurons supply the inferior colliculus with a variety of inputs, each enabling a different function in the analysis of sound.(Batra & Fitzpatrick, 2001) In the inferior colliculus (IC) all the major ascending pathways from the olivary complex and the central nucleus converge. The IC is situated in the midbrain and consists of a group of nuclei the largest of these is the central nucleus of inferior colliculus (CNIC). The greater part of the ascending axons forming the lateral lemniscus will terminate in the ipsilateral CNIC however a few follow the commissure of Probst and terminate on the contralateral CNIC. The axons of most of the CNIC cells form the brachium of IC and leave the brainstem to travel to the ipsilateral thalamus. Cells in different parts of the IC tend to be monaural, responding to input from one ear, or binaural and therefore respond to bilateral stimulation.

The spectral processing that occurs in the AVCN and the ability to process binaural stimuli, as seen in the SOC, are replicated in the IC. Lower centres of the IC extract different features of the acoustic signal such as frequencies, frequency bands, onsets, offsets, changes in intensity and localisation. The integration or synthesis of acoustic information is thought to start in the CNIC.(Yost, 2000)

## Effect of a hearing loss

A number of studies have looked into the effect of hearing loss on interaural time differences. In their review of localisation and lateralisation studies, Durlach, Thompson, and Colburn (1981), cited in Moore (1996) found a "clear trend for poor localization and lateralization in people with unilateral or asymmetrical cochlear damage." This is due to the difference in performance between the two ears. In support of this, they did not find significant localisation problems in individuals with symmetrical cochlear losses. In addition to this, studies have been conducted into the effect of hearing loss on the threshold for interaural time differences. The normal human threshold for detection of an ITD is up to a time difference of 10μs (microseconds). Studies by Gabriel, Koehnke, & Colburn (1992), Häusler, Colburn, & Marr (1983) and Kinkel, Kollmeier, & Holube (1991)(cited by Moore, 1996) have shown that there can be great differences between individuals regarding binaural performance. It was found that unilateral or asymmetric hearing losses can increase the threshold of ITD detection in patients. This was also found to apply to individuals with symmetrical hearing losses when detecting ITDs in narrowband signals. However, ITD thresholds seem to be normal for those with symmetrical losses when listening to broadband sounds.

## Further reading

* Feddersen, W. E., Sandel, T. T., Teas, D. C., Jeffress, L. A. (1957) Localization of high frequency tones. *Journal of the Acoustical Society of America*. 29: 988–991.
* Fitzpatrick, D. C., Batra, R., Kuwada, S. (1997). Neurons Sensitive to InterauralTemporal Disparities in the Medial Part of the Ventral Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus. *The Journal of Neurophysiology.* 78: 511–515.
* Franken TP, Roberts MT, Wei L, NL NLG, Joris PX. In vivo coincidence detection in mammalian sound localization generates phase delays. Nature neuroscience. 2015;18(3):444-452. doi:10.1038/nn.3948.
* Gelfand, S. A. (2004) *Hearing: An Introduction to Psychological and Physiological Acoustics*. 4th Edition New York: Marcel Dekker.
* Kuwada, S., Fitzpatrick, D. C., Batra, R., Ostapoff, E. M. ( 2005). Sensitivity to Interaural Time Difference in the Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus of the Unanesthetized Rabbit: Comparison with other structures. *Journal of Neurophysiology*. 95: 1309–1322.
* Moore, B. (1996) Perceptual Consequences of Cochlear Hearing Loss and their Implications for the Design of Hearing Aids. *Ear and Hearing*. 17(2):133-161
* Moore, B. C. (2004) *An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing*. 5th Edition London: Elsevier Academic Press.
* Woodworth, R. S. (1938) *Experimental Psychology*. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.
* Yost, W. A. (2000) *Fundamentals of Hearing: An Introduction*. 4th Edition San Diego: Academic Press.


title: Iolaus belli

abstract: Iolaus belli is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. The species was described from Sherbro Island in Sierra Leone. The current status of the species is unknown

text:
# Iolaus belli

***Iolaus belli*** is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. The species was described from Sherbro Island in Sierra Leone. The current status of the species is unknown

## InfoBox

| *Iolaus belli* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | *Iolaus* |
| Species: | ***I. belli*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Iolaus belli***<br>Hewitson, 1869 | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Argiolaus belli* | |