abstract: Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score is a soundtrack that features the musical score by composer Steve Jablonsky for the 2009 film Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. It was released physically on June 23, 2009. The score was first released as a digital download in the United Kingdom on June 12, 2009.

text:
# Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score

***Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score*** is a soundtrack that features the musical score by composer Steve Jablonsky for the 2009 film *Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen*. It was released physically on June 23, 2009. The score was first released as a digital download in the United Kingdom on June 12, 2009.

## Track listing

The tracks were announced on June 10, 2009. The following tracks are listed in order:

| # | Track Name | Scene and Musical Description | Length |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Prime" | "Prime" is the primary theme for the character Optimus Prime, as well as the Autobots as a whole. Borrowing from Optimus' theme from the 2007 Transformers film, it begins with low arpeggio strings building into a rising melody, with the choir joining the orchestra towards the end. Though not used completely in the film, it is used in various scenes including, when dead Optimus Prime arrives at NEST base and when Jetfire tells Sam, Mikaela, Leo and Simmons about the Primes. | 2:14 |
| 2. | "Einstein's Wrong" | "Einstein's Wrong" serves as the theme to Sam Witwicky in this film, played with various mallet and percussion instruments, backed up by a set of cellos. This cue takes motifs from "Sam at the Lake" (from the previous score), however is much darker in tone than its predecessor. It begins with simmering mallets, with slow, dark strings providing a moving bassline. Halfway through the cue, it builds with the choir chanting the Decepticon theme (dominant in the first film) and fades back slowly into the same simmering mallet/slow string melody. It ends with the cellos slowly fading out. It is primarily used when Sam has his mental breakdown in class, Simmons briefs Sam about what he knows about Cybertronian history on earth and when searching for Jetfire. | 3:35 |
| 3. | "NEST" | "NEST" (Nonbiological Extraterrestrial Species Treaty/Networked Elements: Supporters and Transformers) contains instrumental excerpts from Linkin Park's hit single, "New Divide" that originally appeared on *Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Album*. The cue begins with low electric guitar motifs and hi-hat stabs and quickly follows into the main theme from *New Divide*. It builds, with drums in full force, and choir joins in subtly. A few more guitar motifs are mentioned, and then the full orchestra joins in on the *New Divide* theme. The cue ends with a pulsating guitar theme and a gong stab. Used only when NEST team are searching for Decepticons and when Bumblebee and Optimus Prime save Sam, Mikaela and Leo from Megatron, Starscream and Doktor. | 2:08 |
| 4. | "The Shard" | "The Shard" contains a mixture of two themes: the new Prime theme as well as a reworked theme from the track "The All Spark", found in the previous score. It begins with the string arpeggio found in the cue of "The All Spark". It generally builds into the "All Spark" theme being played backwards as it represents the evil found in the last piece found on Earth. It then builds further into a four-note string and synthesizer pulse, followed quickly by a militaristic brass and drum melody. It ends with the strings increasing, followed by a low synthesizer.Used many times in the movie including:when Sam drops the shard of the all spark into the kitchen and creates kitchen bots, when Arcee and Sideswipe chase Sideways, when Ravage steals the shard from Diego Garcia, when Alice tries to kill Sam, when Grindor kidnaps Sam and when Bumblebee fights Rampage. | 2:42 |
| 5. | "The Fallen" | "The Fallen" cue serves as the main theme for the main antagonist, "The Fallen" as well as the Decepticons in this film. The track begins with a low synthesizer beat, slowly building. It quickly goes into a surrealistic version of the Fallen's theme, a four-note harmonic melody, using a mixture of human voice and synthesizer. It builds, and is followed by hard electronic pulses, found in the Decepticons' cue from the first film, ending with a bass roll. Used when Gallaway debates Optimus Prime at NEST HQ, The Fallen and Megatron talk about their next course of action aboard the Nemesis and when Doktor examines Sam. | 4:03 |
| 6. | "Infinite White" | "Infinite White" is a suite taking cue from the Optimus theme found on the first track. It begins with a human voice (provided by artist Lisbeth Scott) singing and/or chanting Prime's melody. It builds with slow sweeping percussion and drums. The percussion soon ends, and a full string suite begins taking form from the All Spark theme. It ends with Middle Eastern-esque technological tones. Used when Sam, Mikaela, Leo and Simmons arrive at Petra. | 3:58 |
| 7. | "Heed Our Warning" | "Heed Our Warning" This was never used in *Revenge of the Fallen* but was used in *Transformers: Dark of the Moon* when the Decepticons begin destroying Chicago. It starts off with low synth inspired beats, and rises with the choir and percussion joining in. The All Spark, Sam, Decepticon, and Fallen themes are all interwoven throughout the cue. | 4:26 |
| 8. | "The Fallen's Arrival" | "The Fallen's Arrival" cue is used during the scenes when Optimus Prime dies in front of Sam and when the Fallen himself travels to Earth to complete his plans to destroy life on Earth. The track uses motifs and instrumentation found in "The Fallen", but is noticeably changed. | 3:47 |
| 9. | "Tomb of the Primes" | "Tomb of the Primes" uses the Prime theme in conjunction with brass, drums, and sweeping strings. Lisbeth Scott's voice is also heard throughout the track, especially towards the beginning. Hints of the "New Divide" and "What I've Done" theme are also interwoven throughout the cue. Used in the scene where the humans discover the Tomb of the Primes, and hence find the Matrix. | 2:47 |
| 10. | "Forest Battle" | "Forest Battle" begins as mixture of three themes, Sector 7 and Autobots from the first film, and the Fallen from this film. Moving into a choral chant that is stylistically reflective of the Decepticons theme, it culminates in a brass fanfare at the end of the track. Used in the scene in which Optimus fights Megatron, Starscream and Grindor. | 2:04 |
| 11. | "Precious Cargo" | "Precious Cargo" uses both the new Prime theme and the Autobots' theme from the first film. It is used in the scene in which Sam and Mikaela are trying to reach the soldiers and Optimus. | 1:38 |
| 12. | "Matrix of Leadership" | "Matrix of Leadership" begins with low synth and strings and Lisbeth Scott's voice chants Prime's melody. The strings soon move into a reworked version of the Bumblebee theme found from the first film, and eventually the theme is woven within the Prime theme. The track ends with a reflection of "Arrival to Earth", on the first film's score album. Used in the scene in which Sam "dies" whilst trying to get to Optimus. | 3:50 |
| 13. | "I Claim Your Sun" | "I Claim Your Sun" is used during the climactic scene when the Fallen uses the Matrix to activate the Sun Harvester and fight Optimus Prime. The track begins with guitars, electronics, and strings before briefly using a motif from "New Divide". The track then fades into a quick version of the Fallen's theme, short followed by the Autobots theme. Sounds from the track, "You're a Soldier Now" (on the previous score) and "The Fallen" ends the track. | 3:06 |
| 14. | "I Rise, You Fall" | "I Rise, You Fall" begins with the Fallen's theme played using an ancient instrument, called the duduk. The choir joins in on the theme, and then the theme slowly fades away leaving quiet cellos. Acoustic guitar joins in, and Prime's theme begins to play. Much of the track includes direct recomposition from the cue, "No Sacrifice, No Victory", from the first score. Used in the scene where Optimus Prime defeats the Fallen and the humans are getting together to enjoy the aftermath. | 3:35 |

## Credits and personnel

* "NEST" contains instrumental excerpt of "New Divide" written and performed by Linkin Park, produced by Mike Shinoda
* Score composed by Steve Jablonsky
* Album produced by Steve Jablonsky, Bob Badami and Ramiro Belgardt
* Executive soundtrack album producer: Michael Bay
* Executive in Charge of Music for Paramount Pictures: Randy Spendlove
* Album Compiled by Katia Lewin Palomo
* Music Recorded & Mixed by Alan Meyerson
* Orchestra Conducted by Nick Glennie-Smith
* Orchestrators: Bruce Fowler, Suzette Moriarty, Walter Fowler, Rick Giovinazzo, Penka Kouneva, Elizabeth Finch, and Kevin Kaska
* Music Consultant: Bob Badami
* Music Production Services: Steven Kofsky, Mike Shinoda
* Supervising Music Editor: Peter Snell
* Additional Music by Lorne Balfe
* Ambient Music Design by Clay Duncan, Howard Scarr, and Andrew Kawczynski
* Music Programming: Ryeland Allison
* Featured Vocalist: Lisbeth Scott
* Featured Guitarists: George Doering, Heitor Pereira
* Ethnic Winds: Pedro Eustache
* Featured Cellist: Martin Tillman
* Bass: Nico Abondolo
* Choir Conducted by: Gavin Greenaway
* Choir Coordinator: Andrew Zack
* Music Preparation by Booker White
* Music Contractors: Peter Rotter, Sandy DeCrescent
* Additional Recordings by Jeff Biggers and Albert Clay
* Engineering Assistant: Katia Lewin Palomo
* Technical Score Engineers: Doug Clow and Pieter Schlosser
* Synth Programming by Hans Zimmer and Jacob Shea
* Music Technical Assistant: Noah Sorota
* Score Mixed at Remote Control Productions
* Score Recorded at Sony Scoring Stage
* Album Mastered by Louie Teran at Marcussen Mastering
* Music published by Paramount Bella Music (BMI)/Songs of SKG (BMI)
* Album Art Direction by BLT

## Reception

## InfoBox

| Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Film score by Steve Jablonsky | |
| Released | June 12, 2009 (UK)
June 23, 2009 (US) |
| Recorded | Remote Control Productions |
| Genre | Film score |
| Length | 43:53 |
| Label | Reprise |
| Producer | * Steve Jablonsky * Bob Badami * Ramiro Belgardt |
| Transformers film soundtrack chronology | |
| *Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Album*
(2009) ***Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score***
(2009) *Transformers: Dark of the Moon – The Album*
(2011) | |
|  | |
| Linkin Park soundtracks chronology | |
| ***Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen – The Score***
(2009) *8-Bit Rebellion!*
(2010) | |
|  | |


title: Townson, Queensland

abstract: Townson is a rural locality in the Lockyer Valley Region, Queensland, Australia. In the 2021 census, Townson had a population of 52 people.

text:
# Townson, Queensland

**Townson** is a rural locality in the Lockyer Valley Region, Queensland, Australia. In the 2021 census, Townson had a population of 52 people.

## Geography

Townson is a mountainous area. It is bounded to the west by the ridge of the Mistake Mountains range and to the east by the ridge of the Little Liverpool Range. Mount Mistake (27°52′31″S 152°20′01″E / 27.8752°S 152.3336°E / -27.8752; 152.3336 (Mount Mistake)) is part of the Mistake Mountains range in the north-west of the locality. It is 998 metres (3,274 ft) above sea level. Grass Tree Knob (27°54′14″S 152°24′19″E / 27.9038°S 152.4052°E / -27.9038; 152.4052 (Grass Tree Knob)) is a peak in the Little Liverpool Range in the east of the locality. It is 751 metres (2,464 ft).

Laidley Creek rises in the south of the locality (27°58′10″S 152°23′50″E / 27.9694°S 152.3973°E / -27.9694; 152.3973 (Laidey Creek (source))) and flows north along the valley between the two ranges, exiting at Thornton at 27°51′00″S 152°23′27″E / 27.85012°S 152.3907°E / -27.85012; 152.3907 (Laidley Creek (exit north)). At this point the elevation is down to 200 metres (660 ft) above sea level, considerably lower than the 1,070 metres (3,510 ft) elevation of the western ridge line.

Mulgowie Townson Road is the only access through the locality and runs from Thornton towards the south to the west of Laidley Creek.

The land use along the valley floor along Laidley Creek is cropping. The more sloping land on the lower sides of the mountains are used for grazing on native vegetation. A part of the west of the locality (including Mount Mistake) is within the Main Range National Park which extends into a number of neighbouring localities: East Haldon, Goomburra, Tarome, and Moorang.

## History

The Townson Provisional School opened in 1895. The school closed in 1903 but reopened in 1907, later becoming Townson State School. The school closed on 27 January 1964. It was on the Mulgowie Townson Road at 27°53′15″S 152°23′02″E / 27.8875°S 152.3840°E / -27.8875; 152.3840 (Townson State School).

## Demographics

In the 2016 census, Townson had a population of 38 people.

In the 2021 census, Townson had a population of 52 people.

## Education

There are no schools in Townson. The nearest primary school is Thornton State School in neighbouring Thornton to the north. The nearest secondary school is Laidley State High School in Laidley to the north.

## InfoBox

| Townson
Queensland | |
| --- | --- |
| Townson | |
| Coordinates | 27°53′59″S 152°22′35″E / 27.8997°S 152.3763°E / -27.8997; 152.3763 (Townson (centre of locality)) |
| Population | 52 (2021 census) |
| • Density | 0.563/km2 (1.458/sq mi) |
| Postcode(s) | 4341 |
| Elevation | 200–1,070 m (656–3,510 ft) |
| Area | 92.4 km2 (35.7 sq mi) |
| Time zone | AEST (UTC+10:00) |
| Location |  |
| LGA(s) | Lockyer Valley Region |
| State electorate(s) | Lockyer |
| Federal division(s) | Wright |
| **Suburbs around Townson:**  Lefthand Branch Thornton Mount Mort  East Haldon Townson Rosevale  Goomburra Tarome Moorang | |


title: Gay Science

abstract: Gay Science: The Ethics of Sexual Orientation Research is a 1997 book by the philosopher Timothy F. Murphy about scientific research on sexual orientation. The book received both positive reviews and mixed assessments. Reviewers credited Murphy with providing a useful discussion of the ethical implications of sexual orientation research, including the work of scientists such as the neuroscientist Simon LeVay and the geneticist Dean Hamer, and with convincingly criticizing the philosopher John Finnis. However, his style of writing was criticized.

text:
# Gay Science

***Gay Science: The Ethics of Sexual Orientation Research*** is a 1997 book by the philosopher Timothy F. Murphy about scientific research on sexual orientation.

The book received both positive reviews and mixed assessments. Reviewers credited Murphy with providing a useful discussion of the ethical implications of sexual orientation research, including the work of scientists such as the neuroscientist Simon LeVay and the geneticist Dean Hamer, and with convincingly criticizing the philosopher John Finnis. However, his style of writing was criticized.

## Summary

Murphy, a philosopher, discusses scientific research on sexual orientation, including homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality. He aims to provide "an ethical overview of sexual orientation research and, more specifically, the meaning of that research for gay people." He argues in favor of the use of the terms "homoeroticism" and "heteroeroticism" in place of "homosexuality" and "heterosexuality" respectively, considering the latter set of terms misleading. He discusses conversion therapy. He also discusses the work of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, including Freud's views on homosexuality. He evaluates the work and views of scientists such as the neuroscientist Simon LeVay, the geneticist Dean Hamer, and J. A. Y. Hall, as well as the work of the psychoanalysts Irving Bieber and Charles Socarides, the psychologists Alan P. Bell, J. Michael Bailey, Doreen Kimura, and Joseph Nicolosi, and the sociologist Martin S. Weinberg. He also discusses and criticizes the views on homosexuality of the philosophers Michel Foucault, John Finnis, and Michael Levin.

## Publication history

*Gay Science* was first published by Columbia University Press in 1997.

## Reception

### Mainstream media

*Gay Science* received positive reviews from James Edward Van Buskirk in *Library Journal* and R. W. Smith in *Choice* and a mixed review from the biologist Ruth Hubbard in *The Times Literary Supplement*. The book was also reviewed by the gay writer Gabriel Rotello in *New Scientist*.

Van Buskirk described the book as an "important addition to the field" and a useful complement to LeVay's *Queer Science* (1996). He credited Murphy with providing an objective account of sexual orientation research and its ethical implications. Smith credited Murphy with providing a "carefully detailed" and "meticulously logical" analysis of the moral implications of research into the causes of homosexuality. However, he also described the book as "somewhat repetitious".

Hubbard credited Murphy with addressing "a range of interesting questions about the purpose and uses of scientific research" into homosexuality, but criticized his writing, calling it "convoluted and ponderous". She also criticized him for writing "as though ethics and moral philosophy exist outside politics", arguing that "the power relationships that determine what science gets done also circumscribe the extent to which it is done ethically" and that if "scientific inquiring takes place in a context in which its results are certain to be misused, then the ethical innocence it may have in other contexts becomes irrelevant".

### Gay media

*Gay Science* received a positive review from the psychiatrist Vernon Rosario in *The Harvard Gay & Lesbian Review*. Rosario described the book as a "welcome addition to the debate" on biological research on homosexuality, and credited Murphy with providing "a scientifically well-informed and balanced review of the recent research and its possible ethical implications" and with being "well-versed in the basic science and cognizant of the enormous theoretical and methodological impediments to doing sound research in this area." He agreed with him that it is reasonable to hypothesize that homosexuality might have a biological basis, but considered him overly optimistic in believing that research into that possibility would benefit gay people. He commented that, "it seems unlikely that biological research on homosexuality will easily shake off its 150-year-old association with the pathologization of same-sex love", and noted that all of the sexual orientation research Murphy discussed was actually concerned specifically with homosexuality. He wrote that while Murphy discussed hypothetical scenarios in which it became possible for scientists to manipulate "sexual orientation in utero or in adults", his "countless scenarios seem contrived and belabored". He described Murphy's view that adults should be free to have their sexual orientation changed through biological manipulation and that "mothers would have the right to abort fetuses that tested positive for homosexuality", if either of these things ever became possible, as "disturbing", but also difficult to argue against.

### Scientific and academic journals

*Gay Science* received positive reviews from the psychiatrist Susan Bradley in *The New England Journal of Medicine*, the philosopher David Hull in *The Quarterly Review of Biology*, the philosopher Sandra Harding in the *Journal of Homosexuality*, Mark Chekola in *Bioethics*, and the philosopher Michael Ruse in the *British Journal for the Philosophy of Science*. The book received mixed reviews from the philosopher Udo Schüklenk in *JAMA*, Daniel Wolfe in *Culture, Health & Sexuality*, the sex researcher James D. Weinrich in *Human Biology*, and the feminist studies scholar Martha McCaughey in *Science, Technology, & Human Values*.

Bradley described *Gay Science* as a "wonderful book". She found Murphy's arguments convincing, but suggested that they might not convince gay or lesbian readers. She described him as "courageous" for arguing that the possibility that future treatments for homoeroticism might result in a reduction in the number of gay people is not a serious problem. She concluded that although Murphy's arguments were sometimes repetitive and tedious, his points are well made and valuable. Hull praised Murphy's discussion of the moral and social issues raised by scientific research on human sexuality. He agreed with Murphy that if a method to select a child's future sexual orientation were developed it would result in a reduction of the number of gay people. Harding described the book as, "a careful, illuminating, balanced, and thought-provoking analysis not only of the ethics of sexual orientation research, but also of its science and politics." She credited Murphy with providing a, "complex, empirically sound, and carefully modest constructionist account of sexual orientation". She found Murphy's discussion of the ethical issues involved in sexual orientation therapies, and the use of sexual orientation tests, thoughtful and careful.

Chekola described the book as "an admirable exploration of issues related to research on sexual orientation and possible applications of such research". He credited Murphy with being the first person to write a comprehensive work examining these issues, calling him "extremely thorough and exhaustive". He also credited Murphy with carefully discussing the limitations of research by LeVay, Bailey, Hamer, Hall, Kimura, and Nicolosi. He wrote that while Murphy's speculation that science might develop means of preventing or altering homosexuality, and that the number of gay people would be diminished as a result, might seem "odd and chilling", it was "an interesting exercise in looking at the implications scientific knowledge might have for people's choices that could result in a minority's becoming smaller, a concern not limited to gay and lesbian people." However, he also wrote that Murphy's thoroughness would probably limit his audience to academics, and that "Many undergraduates would likely get lost at various points in the book."

Ruse credited Murphy with having "a deep and sensitive knowledge of the appropriate areas of science", being "able to write clearly and distinctly about difficult issues, so that one can follow without any trouble the sorts of points that he wants to make", and providing good discussions of the work of researchers such as LeVay. He wrote that the book made his own work *Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry* (1988) outdated. He agreed with Murphy's defense of inquiry into the origins of sexual orientation. He found Murphy's discussion of attempts by parents to control the sexual orientation of their children interesting, but disputed Murphy's conclusion that parents would have the right to engage in such attempts, arguing that rather than granting them that right it would be better "to change societal attitudes about homosexuality so that people do not show prejudice against homosexuals." He found Murphy's discussion of laws about homosexuality interesting, but questioned whether Murphy provided "anything which is deeply grounded in a well thought-out philosophy of law". He also questioned whether Murphy was right to devote attention to the issue of whether it is possible or desirable to change a person's sexual orientation and noted that, "Murphy seems to have virtually no time or interest in Freud's work, even though a mere twenty years ago the Freudian etiological analysis of homosexuality was considered really significant." He also observed that Murphy had little or no interest in discussing social constructionist views influenced by Foucault.

Schüklenk considered the book similar to Hamer's *The Science of Desire* (1994), as well as to *Queer Science*, though she found it a superior work. She praised Murphy's use of thought experiments and complimented his overview of scientific accounts of sexual orientation. She also agreed with him that a strong case can be made against biological research on sexual orientation because of its potential misuses. However, she criticized his discussion of the use of methods that might potentially predict a child's future sexual orientation, arguing that he did not take cultural differences between countries into account. She criticized Murphy for devoting insufficient attention to issues affecting the welfare of gay people outside the United States. However, she considered him correct to maintain that a test for a genetically-based homosexuality would not necessarily be used in ways that would harm gay people, and agreed with him that biological findings on homosexuality has no relevance to the issue of the moral status of homosexual behavior.

Wolfe described the book as "invaluable for students of gay history, medicine and their intersections", and praised its, "Careful summary and careful citations". He complimented Ruse for his discussions of the research of Bieber, Socarides, Hamer, and LeVay, his account of conversion therapy, and his philosophical discussion of the ethical questions involved in scientific research on sexual orientation, including the possible development of methods to prevent or alter homosexuality. He also credited Murphy with exposing the oversimplification of research such as that of LeVay by the media. Though noting that not all readers would find Murphy's ethical discussions interesting, he agreed with Murphy's criticisms of Finnis's views, while finding them obvious. He criticized Murphy for devoting too much space to discussing anti-gay views and arguments.

Weinrich credited Murphy with providing a "reasonably up-to-date review" of scientific accounts of sexual orientation, and endorsed Murphy's criticisms of Finnis, calling them "complete and devastating". He also praised Murphy for helpfully addressing "questions about the supposed naturalness or unnaturalness of homosexual desire and behavior" and for his discussion of "the consequences for society of his lines of thought." However, he described much of Murphy's discussion of the question of whether research into sexual orientation should be undertaken at all as boring, and wrote that most of Murphy's conclusions ranged "from self-evident to uninteresting." He also accused Murphy of being naive in his discussion of how institutions such as the Catholic Church and the American military might respond to the development of scientific methods of preventing or detecting homosexuality, and argued that he was overly critical of sociobiological explanations of homosexuality, and sometimes showed a "less than perfect" understanding of biology.

McCaughey credited Murphy with providing interesting discussions of the therapeutic treatment of homosexuality, parental control of sexual orientation in children, testing for sexual orientation, and the limits of the use of the concept of nature in moral and legal arguments. However, she criticized him for ignoring "the arguments and research suggesting that the divide between homo and hetero and its presumed natural origin accounts for much bigotry, discrimination, and violence against gay people." She also noted that he ignored the fact that "most of the 1990s sexual-orientation research centers on men" and that he did not challenge the "fundamental sexism of the idea that gay men are similar to women".

### Bibliography

Books   Journals

## InfoBox

Gay Science: The Ethics of Sexual Orientation Research
| Cover | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Timothy F. Murphy |
| Cover artist | Chang Jae Lee |
| Language | English |
| Subjects | Sexual orientation<br>Homosexuality |
| Publisher | Columbia University Press |
| Publication date | 1997 |
| Publication place | United States |
| Media type | Print (Hardcover and Paperback) |
| Pages | 268 |
| ISBN | 0-231-10849-4 |


title: Trabala ganesha

abstract: Trabala ganesha is a moth of the family Lasiocampidae first described by Walter Karl Johann Roepke in 1951. It is found in Sundaland.

text:
# Trabala ganesha

***Trabala ganesha*** is a moth of the family Lasiocampidae first described by Walter Karl Johann Roepke in 1951. It is found in Sundaland.

* Holloway, Jeremy Daniel. "*Trabala ganesha* Roepke". *The Moths of Borneo*. Retrieved January 11, 2019.

## InfoBox

| *Trabala ganesha* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Male from Borneo | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lasiocampidae |
| Genus: | *Trabala* |
| Species: | ***T. ganesha*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Trabala ganesha***<br>Roepke, 1951 | |
|


title: Gawali Dialect of Melghat

abstract: It was thought that Ahirani or Khandeshi dialect is spoken in Old Khandesh district. Now old Khandesh District of Maharashtra is divided in several districts. Those are Jalgaon district, Dhulia District, Nandurbar district, Part of Nasik District and part of Aurangabad District. Ahiras spoke Ahirani dialect. Ahir Wani means dialect of Ahiras. Wani means dialect. It is known as Ahirani as it was spoken by Ahiras. Same dialect in this region is known as Khandeshi dialect. Because it is dialect of old Khandesh district. Khandeshi is regional name and Ahirani is social name for same dialect. Ahirani was spoken within the basin of Satpura Range and Sanhyadri Range. High picks of Satpuda, of Sanhyadri range did not allowed to spread this dialect out of this closed area of Khandesh District. But similar dialect having similar social rituals, similar lexicography, phonology and syntax newly foundout by Dr. Ramesh Suryawanshi in Melghat area of Amaravati district. Near about fifty villages where Gawali people reside speak Gawali dialect. This dialect was not included in Griererson's Survey of India or Dr. Ganesh Devi's recent Bhasha Surveykshan. Gavali dialect and Ahirani dialect are same and one. Ahiras of Khandesh as well as Gawali of Melghat claim as they belong to God Shri Krishna's family. Both having back history of having relation with Ashirgad Fort, and Goddess Asha Devi. Both are cowherds indulged in business of milk and cattle. Gawali's of Malghat are not literate and reside in forest. Ahiras reside in towns and villages which are connected to metrocities with roads and railways. Ahiras left most of their past rituals and traditions. Ahiras of Khandesh nowadays are known by their business where as Gawalis are milkmen and cowherds. Most of their surnames are different. Gavali's of Melghat give milk and milk products free of cost to villagers with rotation as per their Surnames. It is considered that Gawali family of Shaniware Surname should distribute milk and milk products free of cost on Saturday.Gavali reside in Paratwada, Chandur, Melghat, Amarwati, Yeotmal Chimur tehsils of Vidarbhs Region. A legend discloses history of Gawali's migration to Melghat area. Lord Krishna went to Kaundanyapur with these Gawalis along with their several cattle. As lord Krishna returned with his beloved Rukmani from Kaundannyapur. Some Gawalis with their cattle decided to reside therein Melghat area as it was rich grassy land, good for their cattle. This legendary story discloses the fact that Ahiras of Khandesh and Gawalis of Melghat both are of same race. So their dialect is same and one. This face is just disclosed by Dr. Ramesh suryawanshi in his article published in Critical Enquiry Vol.VI Issue IV. Oct.- Dec. 2014 by Institute of Knowledge Engineering.

text:
# Gawali Dialect of Melghat

It was thought that Ahirani or Khandeshi dialect is spoken in Old Khandesh district. Now old Khandesh District of Maharashtra is divided in several districts. Those are Jalgaon district, Dhulia District, Nandurbar district, Part of Nasik District and part of Aurangabad District. Ahiras spoke Ahirani dialect. Ahir Wani means dialect of Ahiras. Wani means dialect. It is known as Ahirani as it was spoken by Ahiras. Same dialect in this region is known as Khandeshi dialect. Because it is dialect of old Khandesh district. Khandeshi is regional name and Ahirani is social name for same dialect. Ahirani was spoken within the basin of Satpura Range and Sanhyadri Range. High picks of Satpuda, of Sanhyadri range (Chandwad and Ajanta) did not allowed to spread this dialect out of this closed area of Khandesh District. But similar dialect having similar social rituals, similar lexicography, phonology and syntax newly foundout by Dr. Ramesh Suryawanshi in Melghat area of Amaravati district. Near about fifty villages where Gawali people reside speak Gawali dialect. This dialect was not included in Griererson's Survey of India or Dr. Ganesh Devi's recent Bhasha Surveykshan. Gavali dialect and Ahirani dialect are same and one. Ahiras of Khandesh as well as Gawali of Melghat claim as they belong to God Shri Krishna's family. Both having back history of having relation with Ashirgad Fort, and Goddess Asha Devi. Both are cowherds indulged in business of milk and cattle. Gawali's of Malghat are not literate and reside in forest. Ahiras reside in towns and villages which are connected to metrocities with roads and railways. Ahiras left most of their past rituals and traditions. Ahiras of Khandesh nowadays are known by their business where as Gawalis are milkmen and cowherds. Most of their surnames are different. Gavali's of Melghat give milk and milk products free of cost to villagers with rotation as per their Surnames. It is considered that Gawali family of Shaniware Surname should distribute milk and milk products free of cost on Saturday. ( Shaniwar is word for Saturday )Gavali reside in Paratwada, Chandur, Melghat, Amarwati, Yeotmal Chimur tehsils of Vidarbhs Region. A legend discloses history of Gawali's migration to Melghat area. Lord Krishna went to Kaundanyapur with these Gawalis along with their several cattle. As lord Krishna returned with his beloved Rukmani from Kaundannyapur. Some Gawalis with their cattle decided to reside therein Melghat area as it was rich grassy land, good for their cattle. This legendary story discloses the fact that Ahiras of Khandesh and Gawalis of Melghat both are of same race. So their dialect is same and one. This face is just disclosed by Dr. Ramesh suryawanshi in his article published in Critical Enquiry Vol.VI Issue IV. Oct.- Dec. 2014 by Institute of Knowledge Engineering.


title: Michael J. Ward

abstract: Michael J. Ward was the Chairman and CEO of CSX Corporation, a holding company focused on railroads, from 2003 to 2017.

text:
# Michael J. Ward

**Michael J. Ward** was the Chairman and CEO of CSX Corporation, a holding company focused on railroads, from 2003 to 2017.

## Life

Michael Ward served as chairman and chief executive officer of CSX Corporation for fourteen years. CSX is one of the nation's premier transportation and logistics companies. Over his 40-year career, Mr. Ward headed CSX's operations, coal sales and marketing, and finance departments.

He is the oldest of eight siblings; his father owned a pool hall, which he started working in at the age of eleven. He was the first in his family to earn a college degree, which he paid for by working at an asphalt company during the summer. After getting his MBA from Harvard at his father's suggestion, he started working at Chessie System, which would later become CSX. He became President of CSX Transportation in 2000, then of CSX Corporation in 2002, then Chairman and CEO in 2003. In 2009, he was named Railway Age's Railroader of the Year. He stepped down as CEO of CSX in May 2017 and was succeeded by E. Hunter Harrison.

Under Mr. Ward's leadership, the company continually achieved record safety performances while providing vital services to customers and posting strong financial results for shareholders. On the Harvard Business Review November 2016 ranking of The Best-Performing CEOs in the World, Mr. Ward ranked 26th in generating the best return for shareholders and the environment.

A native to Baltimore, Mr. Ward's commitment to personal philanthropy and corporate citizenship has been recognized with City Year's prestigious "Lifetime of Idealism Award". and the Association of Fundraising Professionals FL, First Coast Chapter's 2023 National Philanthropy Lifetime Achievement Award. Mr. Ward serves on various not for profit boards including City Year (http://www.cityyear.org/jacksonville/), Edward Waters University (http://www.ew.edu/), Hubbard House (http://www.hubbardhouse.org/), and Gen Wow (http://genwownow.org/).

Combining personal giving and donations through his private foundation, Mr. Ward has donated over $55M to various charitable causes. Through his private foundation, the Michael Ward and Jennifer Glock Foundation, the focus of the giving has been increasing educational opportunities and results in elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and college, as well as promoting healthy relationships, preventing domestic violence, support of the military and the arts.

## InfoBox

| Michael J. Ward | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Michael John Ward
(1950-09-02) September 2, 1950
Baltimore, Maryland |
| Education | University of Maryland (BBA, 1972)
Harvard Business School (MBA, 1976) |
| Occupation | Railroad executive |
| Known for | Chairman and CEO of CSX Corporation |
| Notes | |
|  | |


title: General Yu

abstract:
General Yu may refer to:
  - Yu Beichen, a major general in the Republic of China Army
  - Yu Daqing, a lieutenant-general in the People's Liberation Army of China
  - Yu Jae Hung (1921–2011), Republic of Korea (ROK) military officer
  - Yu Jishi (1904–1990), Chinese Nationalist military general
  - Yu Jin, Chinese military general
  - Yu Linxiang is a retired general (shangjiang) who served as political commissar of the People's Republic of China
  - Yu Mingtao (1917–2017), the first Auditor General of National Audit Office of the People's Republic of China
  - Yu Qingjiang, a lieutenant general of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) of China
  - Yu Qiuli (1914–1999), Chinese Communist army officer
  - Yu Xuezhong (1890–1964), a general in the armed forces of the Republic of China
  - Yu Yi (305–345), Chinese military general of the Jin dynasty (266–420)
  - Yu Yunwen (1110–1174), Chinese official and general of the Song dynasty
  - Yu Zhenwu (1931–2023), a general of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF)
  - Yu Zhongfu, a general of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) of China

text:
# General Yu

**General Yu** may refer to:

* Yu Beichen (born 1968), a major general in the Republic of China Army
* Yu Daqing (born 1957), a lieutenant-general in the People's Liberation Army of China
* Yu Jae Hung (1921–2011), Republic of Korea (ROK) military officer
* Yu Jishi (1904–1990), Chinese Nationalist military general
* Yu Jin (died 221), Chinese military general
* Yu Linxiang (born 1945) is a retired general (shangjiang) who served as political commissar of the People's Republic of China
* Yu Mingtao (1917–2017), the first Auditor General of National Audit Office of the People's Republic of China
* Yu Qingjiang (born 1963), a lieutenant general (zhong jiang) of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) of China
* Yu Qiuli (1914–1999), Chinese Communist army officer
* Yu Xuezhong (1890–1964), a general in the armed forces of the Republic of China
* Yu Yi (305–345), Chinese military general of the Jin dynasty (266–420)
* Yu Yunwen (1110–1174), Chinese official and general of the Song dynasty
* Yu Zhenwu (1931–2023), a general of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF)
* Yu Zhongfu (born 1956), a general of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) of China

* You Taizhong, a general of the Chinese People's Liberation Army


title: WCNG

abstract: WCNG is a radio station broadcasting a soft adult contemporary format. Licensed to Murphy, North Carolina, United States, the station is currently owned by Cherokee Broadcasting Co., Inc. and features programming from AP Radio. The station is an affiliate of the Atlanta Braves radio network, the largest radio affiliate network in Major League Baseball.

text:
# WCNG

**WCNG** (102.7 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a soft adult contemporary format. Licensed to Murphy, North Carolina, United States, the station is currently owned by Cherokee Broadcasting Co., Inc. and features programming from AP Radio.

The station is an affiliate of the Atlanta Braves radio network, the largest radio affiliate network in Major League Baseball.

## InfoBox

WCNG
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Broadcast area | Andrews, North Carolina<br>Hayesville, North Carolina |
| Frequency | 102.7 MHz |
| Programming | |
| Format | Soft adult contemporary |
| Affiliations | AP Radio |
| Ownership | |
| Owner | Cherokee Broadcasting Co., Inc. |
| Sister stations | WCVP, WCVP-FM |
| History | |
| First air date | October 23, 1990 |
| Technical information | |
| Licensing authority | FCC |
| Facility ID | 10699 |
| Class | A |
| ERP | 3,000 watts |
| HAAT | 72 meters |
| Transmitter coordinates | 35°4′0.00″N 83°59′58.00″W / 35.0666667°N 83.9994444°W / 35.0666667; -83.9994444 |
| Translator(s) | 101.3 W267BC (Blairsville, GA) |
| Links | |
| Public license information |  |


title: G.722.1

abstract: G.722.1 is a licensed royalty-free ITU-T standard audio codec providing high quality, moderate bit rate wideband (50 Hz – 7 kHz audio bandwidth, 16 ksps audio coding. It is a partial implementation of Siren 7 audio coding format developed by PictureTel Corp.. Its official name is Low-complexity coding at 24 and 32 kbit/s for hands-free operation in systems with low frame loss. It uses a modified discrete cosine transform audio data compression algorithm. G.722.1 Annex C is a low-complexity extension mode to G.722.1, which doubles the algorithm to permit 14 kHz audio bandwidth using a 32 kHz audio sample rate, at 24, 32, and 48 kbit/s. It is included in the official ITU-T Recommendation G.722.1. The name of this annex is Annex C – 14 kHz mode at 24, 32, and 48 kbit/s. It is an implementation of the mono version of Polycom's Siren 14 audio coding format. G.722.1 is the successor to PT716plus developed by PictureTel Corp., which has been used in videoconferencing systems for many years. As ITU-T Recommendation G.722.1, it was approved on September 30, 1999 after a four-year selection process involving extensive testing. G.722.1/Annex C was approved by ITU-T on May 14, 2005. G.722.1 is a transform-based compressor that is optimized for both speech and music. The G.722.1 algorithm is based on lapped transform technology, using a Modulated Lapped Transform, a type of MDCT. The computational complexity is quite low for an efficient high-quality compressor, and the algorithmic delay end-to-end is 40 ms. The numbering of the wideband ITU audio codecs is sometimes confusing. There are three principal codecs, which are unrelated, but all carrying the G.722 label. G.722 is the original 7 kHz codec, using ADPCM and operating at 48–64 kbit/s. G.722.1, another 7 kHz codec, operates at half the data rate while delivering comparable or better quality than G.722, but is a transform-based codec. G.722.1 Annex C is very similar to G.722.1, but provides twice the audio bandwidth, 14 kHz. And G.722.2, which operates on wideband speech and delivers very low bitrates, is an ACELP-based algorithm.

text:
# G.722.1

**G.722.1** is a licensed royalty-free ITU-T standard audio codec providing high quality, moderate bit rate (24 and 32 kbit/s) wideband (50 Hz – 7 kHz audio bandwidth, 16 ksps (kilo-samples per second) audio coding. It is a partial implementation of Siren 7 audio coding format (which offers bit rates 16, 24, 32 kbit/s) developed by PictureTel Corp. (now Polycom, Inc.). Its official name is *Low-complexity coding at 24 and 32 kbit/s for hands-free operation in systems with low frame loss*. It uses a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) audio data compression algorithm.

**G.722.1 Annex C** (or G.722.1C) is a low-complexity extension mode to G.722.1, which doubles the algorithm to permit 14 kHz audio bandwidth using a 32 kHz audio sample rate, at 24, 32, and 48 kbit/s. It is included in the official ITU-T Recommendation G.722.1. The name of this annex is *Annex C – 14 kHz mode at 24, 32, and 48 kbit/s*. It is an implementation of the mono version of Polycom's Siren 14 audio coding format.

G.722.1 is the successor to PT716plus developed by PictureTel Corp. (now Polycom, Inc.), which has been used in videoconferencing systems for many years. As ITU-T Recommendation G.722.1, it was approved on September 30, 1999 after a four-year selection process involving extensive testing. G.722.1/Annex C was approved by ITU-T on May 14, 2005.

G.722.1 is a transform-based compressor that is optimized for both speech and music. The G.722.1 algorithm is based on lapped transform technology, using a Modulated Lapped Transform (MLT), a type of MDCT. The computational complexity is quite low (5.5 floating-point MIPS) for an efficient high-quality compressor, and the algorithmic delay end-to-end is 40 ms.

The numbering of the wideband ITU audio codecs is sometimes confusing. There are three principal codecs, which are unrelated, but all carrying the G.722 label. G.722 is the original 7 kHz codec, using ADPCM and operating at 48–64 kbit/s. G.722.1, another 7 kHz codec, operates at half the data rate while delivering comparable or better quality than G.722, but is a transform-based codec. G.722.1 Annex C is very similar to G.722.1, but provides twice the audio bandwidth, 14 kHz. And G.722.2, which operates on wideband speech and delivers very low bitrates, is an ACELP-based algorithm.

## Licensing

G.722.1 is available under a royalty-free license by Polycom Corporation, who owns all rights. Licensees also receive the right to use Polycom's 16 kbit/s decoder extension of G.722.1, as well as G.722.1 Annex C, and Polycom's IP within the new 20 kHz ITU fullband codec, G.719.

* Official website  – technical specification
* RFC 5577 – RTP Payload Format for ITU-T Recommendation G.722.1

## InfoBox

G.722.1
| Low-complexity coding at 24 and 32 kbit/s for hands-free operation in systems with low frame loss | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Status | In force |
| Year started | 1999 |
| Latest version | (05/05)<br>May 2005 |
| Organization | ITU-T |
| Base standards | G.711, G.722 |
| Related standards | G.722.2, G.726 |
| Domain | audio compression |
| License | Freely available |
| Website | https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.722.1 |


title: Marbled stingfish

abstract: The marbled spinefish, also known as the yellow waspfish, is a species of ray-finned fish, a waspfish belonging to the subfamily Tetraroginae of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Cottapistus. This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific.

text:
# Marbled stingfish

The **marbled spinefish** (***Cottapistus cottoides***), also known as the **yellow waspfish**, is a species of ray-finned fish, a waspfish belonging to the subfamily Tetraroginae of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the only species in the monotypic genus *Cottapistus*. This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific.

## Taxonomy

The marbled stingfish was first formally described as *Perca cottoides* in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his *Systema Naturae*. Linnaeus did not give a type locality but it is thought to be the East Indies. In 1876 Pieter Bleeker classified this species within the monotypic genus *Cottapistus* and it remains the only species in that genus. This genus is included in the subfamily Tetraroginae in the 5th edition of *Fishes of the World* however other authorities place that subfamily within the stonefish family Synanceiidae, while other authorities classify this subfamily as a family in its own right. The genus name combines the sculpin genus *Cottus* with the genus *Apistus*, which this species had been placed in, while the specific name, *cottoides*, also refers to the sculpin-like appearance of this species.

## Description

The marbled spinfish has an oblong and strongly compressed body which has a depth of between one third and four fifths of its standard length. The front part of the body has no scales above the operculum. The space between the eyes is broad and the caudal fin is rounded. The origin of the dorsal fin is clearly in front of the rear margin of the orbit and it is continuous with, between 14 and 16 spines while the pelvic fins have a single spine and five soft rays. They are usually brownish on the upper body and whitish below, with a large number of dark spots on the head, body and fins, although the pelvic fin has no spots. The maximum standard length reached by theis species is 9.2 cm (3.6 in).

## Distribution and habitat

The marbled stingfish is found in the western Pacific Ocean from China south to Australia where it extends south to Bowen in Queensland, however, it has only been recorded from Jolo in the Philippines. This species is found over soft bottoms at depths between 1 and 24 m (3 ft 3 in and 78 ft 9 in).

## Bycatch

The marbled stingfish is taken as bycatch in some shrimp trawl fisheries and fishermen have to take great care in removing them from nets because of the highly venomous spines.

## InfoBox

| Marbled stingfish | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Cottapistus cottoides* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Scorpaeniformes |
| Family: | Scorpaenidae |
| Subfamily: | Tetraroginae |
| Genus: | *Cottapistus*
Bleeker, 1876 |
| Species: | ***C. cottoides*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Cottapistus cottoides***
(Linnaeus, 1758) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Perca cottoides* Linnaeus, 1758 * *Paracentropogon cynocephalus* Weber, 1913 * *Paracentropogon scorpio* Ogilby, 1910 * *Abcichthys scorpio* (Ogilby, 1910) * *Cottapistus scorpio* (Ogilby, 1910) * *Vadesuma scorpio* (Ogilby, 1910) | |


title: Milton Lodge

abstract: Milton Lodge is a house and garden overlooking the city of Wells in the English county of Somerset. The terraced garden, which was laid out in the early 20th century, is listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England.

text:
# Milton Lodge

**Milton Lodge** is a house and garden overlooking the city of Wells in the English county of Somerset.

The terraced garden, which was laid out in the early 20th century, is listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England.

## House

Milton Lodge was built by Aaron Foster in 1790 and descended in his family until it passed, by marriage, into the ownership of the Tudway family in the mid 19th century. The Tudways had lived nearby at a house, known as The Cedars, which was built in the 1760s by Thomas Paty, and had bought up much of the local land. In 1909 Charles Tudway moved the main family residence to Milton Lodge, with The Cedars being used during World War I as a military hospital and later by Wells Theological College and Wells Cathedral School.

## Garden

The garden was laid out in 1903 by Capt Croker Ives Partridge of the Alfred Parsons garden design company for Charles Tudway. It consists of a series of terraces planted with mixed borders including a collection of roses and climbing plants. The terraces include Yew hedges, ponds and fountains. The traditional English vegetation is supplemented with Mediterranean plants which are able to flourish due to the microclimate of the site.

The upper terrace includes four canons from the Napoleonic Wars are on display.

The Combe, which covers 13 acres (5.3 ha), on the opposite side of a small road was planted in the 19th century as an orchard and arboretum.

There is an examples of a tree, known as the dove tree, handkerchief tree, pocket handkerchief tree or ghost tree which was sent from China around 1900 by Father Armand David.

## InfoBox

| Milton Lodge and The Combe | |
| --- | --- |
| Wells Cathedral above the parkland at Milton Lodge | |
|  | |
| Location | Somerset, England |
| Nearest city | Wells |
| Coordinates | 51°13′05″N 2°39′04″W / 51.218°N 2.651°W / 51.218; -2.651 |
| Founder | Charles Tudway |
| Designer | Capt Croker Ives Partridge of Alfred Parsons |
| Open | 14.00-17.00 Tuesday, Wednesday and Sunday during summer. |
| Website | www.miltonlodgegardens.co.uk |


title: Thomas Gilovich

abstract: Thomas Dashiff Gilovich is an American psychologist who is the Irene Blecker Rosenfeld Professor of Psychology at Cornell University. He has conducted research in social psychology, decision making, and behavioral economics, and has written popular books on these subjects. Gilovich has collaborated with Daniel Kahneman, Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross and Amos Tversky. His articles in peer-reviewed journals on subjects such as cognitive biases have been widely cited. In addition, Gilovich has been quoted in the media on subjects ranging from the effect of purchases on happiness to people's most common regrets, to perceptions of people and social groups. Gilovich is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.

text:
# Thomas Gilovich

**Thomas Dashiff Gilovich** (born January 16, 1954) is an American psychologist who is the Irene Blecker Rosenfeld Professor of Psychology at Cornell University. He has conducted research in social psychology, decision making, and behavioral economics, and has written popular books on these subjects. Gilovich has collaborated with Daniel Kahneman, Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross and Amos Tversky. His articles in peer-reviewed journals on subjects such as cognitive biases have been widely cited. In addition, Gilovich has been quoted in the media on subjects ranging from the effect of purchases on happiness to people's most common regrets, to perceptions of people and social groups. Gilovich is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.

## Early history and education

Gilovich earned his B.A. from the University of California, Santa Barbara and his PhD from Stanford University. After hearing Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman give a lecture about judgment and decision making in his very first classroom experience there, Gilovich changed his program of research to focus on the intersection of social psychology and judgment and decision making . He went on to earn his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford in 1981.

## Research in social and cognitive psychology

Gilovich is best known for his research in heuristics and biases in the field of social psychology. He describes his research as dealing with "how people evaluate the evidence of their everyday experience to make judgments, form beliefs, and decide on courses of action, and how they sometimes misevaluate that evidence and make faulty judgments, form dubious beliefs, and embark on counterproductive courses of action." According to Google Scholar, he has an h-index of 77 for all his published academic papers, which is considered exceptional. The focus of Gilovich's work is reflected in two influential texts, *Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment* (with Dale Griffin and Daniel Kahneman) and *Social Psychology* (with Serena Chen, Dacher Keltner and Robert Nisbett), both of which are used as textbooks in academic courses in psychology and social psychology throughout the USA. Summarizing the research in an interview when asked what the benefits are, he responded, "I think that field has an enormous amount to offer, because we make consequential decisions all the time, and they aren't always easy, we don't always do them well," and that his research program is about trying to figure out how the mind works so we "understand why some decisions are easy, and we tend to do certain things very well, and why some decisions are difficult, and we tend to do them poorly." He further explained that his hope is that he and his colleagues are "providing lots of information to help us understand those difficult decisions, and give people the tools so that they can make better decisions so they less often in life are going down paths that don't serve them well."

Gilovich condensed his academic research in judgement and decision making into a popular book, *How We Know What Isn't So*. Writing in *Skeptical Inquirer*, Carl Sagan called it "a most illuminating book" that "shows how people systematically err in understanding numbers, in rejecting unpleasant evidence, in being influenced by the opinions of others. We're good in some things, but not in everything. Wisdom lies in understanding our limitations." Reviewing the book for *The New York Times*, George Johnson wrote, "Over time, the ability to infer rules about the way the world works from skimpy evidence confers a survival advantage, even if much of the time the lessons are wrong. From evolution's standpoint, it is better to be safe than sorry." In an interview, Gilovich summarized the thesis of *How We Know What Isn't So* as people "thinking we really have the evidence for things, \[that\] the world is telling us something, but in fact the world is telling us something a little more complicated, and how is it that we can misread the evidence of our everyday experience, and be convinced that something is true when it really isn't." He further elaborated on some of the erroneous beliefs his book discusses, including the *sophomore jinx*, the idea that things such as natural disasters come in threes, and the belief that the lines we are in slow down but the lines we leave speed up. In the same interview he called confirmation bias the "mother of all biases."

## Notable contributions in biases and heuristics research

Through his published work in biases and heuristics, Gilovich has made notable contributions to the field through the following concepts:

### Hot hands

Gilovich's research in the alleged "hot hand" effect, or the belief that success in a particular endeavor, usually sports, will likely be followed by further success, has been particularly influential. A paper he wrote with Amos Tversky in 1985 became the benchmark on the subject for years. Some of the research from the 1985 paper has been contested recently, with a new journal article arguing that Gilovich and his coauthors themselves fell victim to a cognitive bias in interpreting the data from the original study. Specifically, that in a truly random situation, a hit would be expected to be followed by another hit less than 50 percent of the time, but if one hit followed another at 50 percent, that would be evidence for the hot hand.

### Spotlight effect

The spotlight effect, the phenomenon where people tend to believe that they're noticed more than they really are, is a term Gilovich coined. In a paper he wrote with two graduate students in 1999, he explained that "because we are so focused on our own behavior, it can be difficult to arrive at an accurate assessment of how much–or how little–our behavior is noticed by others. Indeed, close inspection reveals frequent disparities between the way we view our performance (and think others will view it) and the way it is actually seen by others." For the paper, Gilovich and his coauthors conducted an experiment asking college students to put on a Barry Manilow shirt and walk into a room of strangers facing the door. The researchers predicted that the students would assume that more people would notice their T-shirt than was actually true. The results were as predicted, with participants thinking that roughly half the strangers would have recognized the Barry Manilow shirt, when in fact the number was closer to 20 percent.

### Bias blind spot

Gilovich has contributed to an understanding of bias blind spot, or the tendency to recognize biases in other people, but not in ourselves. Several studies he coauthored found that people tend to believe that their own personal connection to a given issue is a source of accuracy and enlightenment, but that such personal connections in the case of others who hold different views are a source of bias. Similarly, he has found that people look to external behavior in evaluating biases in others, but engage in introspection when evaluating their own. Two examples he gave in a talk are that both older and younger siblings felt the other were held to a higher standard, and that Democrats and Republicans both felt that the electoral college helped the other side more than their own party.

### Clustering illusion

Gilovich was an early author in the clustering illusion, which is closely related to the "hot hand" fallacy, and is the tendency to see "clusters" of data in a random sequence of data as nonrandom. In *How We Know What Isn't So*, Gilovich explains how people want to see a sequence such as xoooxoooxooxxxoxxoo as planned, even though it was arbitrary. In addition, he stated that people tend to misjudge randomness, thinking that rolling the same number on dice 4 times in a row is not truly random, when in fact it is.

### Illusion of transparency

Building on his research on the spotlight effect, Gilovich helped to discover the illusion of transparency, or the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people telegraph their inner thoughts and emotions. In a study he conducted with two coauthors in 1998, individuals read questions from index cards and answered them out loud. They either lied or told the truth based on what the card said to do on a label only they could see. Half of the liars thought they had been caught, but in fact only a quarter were, hence the illusion of transparency. In addition, they found in the same study that in an emergency situation, people assumed the emergency and concern would show in their expression and behavior, but it didn't, which the authors believe partially explains the bystander effect: "When confronted with a potential emergency, people typically play it cool, adopt a look of nonchalance, and monitor the reactions of others to determine if a crisis is really at hand. No one wants to overreact, after all, if it might not be a true emergency. However, because each individual holds back, looks nonchalant, and monitors the reactions of others, sometimes everyone concludes (perhaps erroneously) that the situation is not an emergency and hence does not require intervention."

### Regret

> "We evolved to be goal-striving creatures. You'll regret more the things that you didn't do than the things you did."

**Thomas Gilovich**

Gilovich has researched the causes of regret. A study he conducted in 1994 found that specific actions people wish they hadn't taken are regretted more in the short run, but ultimately, inactions are regretted more in the long run. He has continued to emphasize that people tend to regret the things they don't do more than the things they did.

### Anchoring

Following Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, Gilovich and his colleagues have conducted research in anchoring, the tendency to anchor on information that comes to mind and adjust until a plausible estimate is reached when making decisions. A study he co-authored with Nicholas Epley found that anchoring is actually several different effects, and the multiple causes are at play. Another study that Gilovich and Nicholas Epley coauthored found that once an anchor is set, people adjust away from it, though their adjustments tend to be insufficient, so their final guess is close to the initial anchor.

### Self-handicapping

In his social psychology research, Gilovich discovered the phenomenon of *self-handicapping*, which he described as "attempts to manage how others perceive us by controlling the attributions they make for our performance." An example of self-handicapping, according to Gilovich, would be drawing attention to elements that inhibit performance, and so discount failure in others' eyes, or make success the result of overcoming insurmountable odds. The self-handicapping can either be real (failing to study or drinking excessively), or faked (merely claiming that there were difficult obstacles present). Gilovich has stated that the strategy is most common in sports and undergraduate academics, but that it often backfires.

## Research in behavioral economics

Besides his contributions to the field of social psychology, Gilovich's research in cognitive psychology has influenced the field of behavioral economics. Gilovich has written a popular book condensing his academic research in the field, and which touches on many of the topics in *How We Know What Isn't So*, *The Wisest One in the Room: How You Can Benefit from Social Psychology's Most Powerful Insights*. In an interview with Brian Lehrer, Gilovich discussed the book and the subjects it touches on, such as the difference between intelligence and wisdom, the latter being knowledge of other people and how to connect with them, the negative impact of income inequality on happiness, motivation, and what can create "virtuous cycles" in a university environment. *Kirkus Reviews* gave it a positive review, writing, "The authors leap from personal behavior and motivation in the first half into societal, cultural, and even international change in the second, offering suggestions, if not necessarily a working blueprint, for how to achieve goals such as global environmental responsibility. None of this is riveting reading, but it rarely lapses into academic jargon."

### Experiential purchases

A major recurring theme in Gilovich's work in behavioral economics is the importance of experience over ownership of material things. For instance, a paper he co-authored with Leaf Van Boven found that people overwhelmingly preferred "experiential purchases" to "material purchases." Writing for *The Atlantic*, James Hamblin noted the growing body of research, pioneered by Gilovich, showing that experiences tend to bring people more happiness than possessions: "It's the fleetingness of experiential purchases that endears us to them. Either they're not around long enough to become imperfect, or they are imperfect, but our memories and stories of them get sweet with time. Even a bad experience becomes a good story." In a talk about barriers to gratitude, Gilovich further noted that a survey of his students at Cornell found that they enjoyed their conversations about their experiences than their material purchases, and that happiness from experiential purchases is more enduring than that from material purchases. The reason being that experiences make for better stories, cultivate personal identity more, and connect people to each other. Gilovich explained that the implication is that experiential purchases lead to more gratitude and thus to more pro-social behavior. In addition, Gilovich has emphasized the importance of being active and seeking goals: "We evolved to be goal-striving creatures. You’ll regret more the things that you didn’t do rather than the things you did." Along similar lines, in one talk he urged his audience, "mind your peaks and ends. You won’t remember the length of your vacation experience, but you’ll remember the intensity. And do something special at the end."

## Publications

### Books

* Gilovich, T., & Ross, L. (2015). *The wisest one in the room: How you can benefit from social psychology's most powerful insights.* New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-7754-6
* Gilovich, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R.E. *Social Psychology.* New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-97875-3
* Gilovich, T., Griffin, D. W. & Kahneman, D. (Eds.). (2002). *Heuristics and Biases : The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79679-2
* Belsky, G., & Gilovich, T. (1999). *Why smart people make big money mistakes-and how to correct them: Lessons from the new science of behavioral economics.* New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85938-6
* Gilovich, T. (1991). *How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life.* New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-02-911706-2. Summary.

### Journal articles

## Awards and recognition

## Personal life

Thomas Gilovich is married to Karen Dashiff Gilovich, with whom he has two daughters, Ilana and Rebecca. Gilovich stated in an interview that the best part about being a scientist is going to work every day asking "what do I want to do today?" and not so often "what do I have to do today?" and that the best quality of a scientist is knowing how to respond to failure.

## InfoBox

| Thomas Gilovich | |
| --- | --- |
| Gilovich in 2015 | |
| Born | (1954-01-16) January 16, 1954 |
| Nationality | American |
| Alma mater | University of California, Santa Barbara (BA)
Stanford University (PhD) |
| Known for | Research in heuristics and cognitive biases |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Psychology |
| Institutions | Cornell University |
| Thesis | *Biased evaluation and persistence in gambling* (1981) |
| Doctoral advisors | Lee Ross
Mark Lepper |
| Doctoral students | Justin Kruger |
|  | |


title: Walter Baldwyn Yates

abstract: Walter Baldwyn Yates CBE was an English barrister, member of the London County Council and Crown Umpire under the Unemployment Insurance Scheme of 1911.

text:
# Walter Baldwyn Yates

**Walter Baldwyn Yates** CBE (13 May 1857 – 27 April 1947) was an English barrister, member of the London County Council and Crown Umpire under the Unemployment Insurance Scheme of 1911.

## Life and career

Born in 1857 at Wellbank, Sandbach, Cheshire, he was the youngest son of Joseph St. John Yates, County Court Judge, and his wife Emily Augusta Scott. His father was a descendant of Sir Joseph Yates (1722–1770) and his wife Elizabeth Baldwyn. He was educated at Shrewsbury School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar to the Inner Temple in 1881. Initially practicing on the North Wales Circuit, he entered local government and was elected as a member of the London County Council for Tower Hamlets for three terms in 1892, 1895 & 1898 for the Progressive Party, and in 1901, was elected a County Alderman for a six-year term. In 1910 he was appointed the first chairman of the Trade Boards under the Trade Boards Act 1909 and worked as arbitrator in many industrial disputes. In 1912 he was appointed Crown Umpire under the Unemployment Act of 1911 and held this post until 1923. Yates decided over 1800 cases under the 1911 Act and over 4000 under the Unemployment Insurance Act 1920 as well over 6000 decisions of claims for out of work donation. His work made up a large volume of case law on the interpretation of the Acts and on their application. He was made a C.B.E. a year after his retirement and was made Chancellor of the Diocese of Bangor in 1942. He was also DL, JP, and Deputy Chairman of Quarter Sessions for Flintshire.

In 1896 he married Rose Caroline, widow of Walter Howman Buddicom, daughter of John Scott Bankes of Soughton Hall, Northop, Flintshire, a descendant of Lord Chancellor John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon and John Wynne, Bishop of St Asaph and Bath and Wells, and sister of the Right Hon. Sir John Eldon Bankes, Lord Justice of Appeal. They resided at Cilcen Hall, Mold, Flintshire and had three daughters, one of whom, Elizabeth, married Brigadier John Montgomerie Hunt of the 5th battalion, 2nd Punjab Regiment, Indian Army, who were the parents of Admiral Sir Nicholas Hunt, and grandparents of the Right Hon. Jeremy Hunt MP.


title: Parvathi Kalyana

abstract: Parvathi Kalyana is a 1967 Indian Kannada-language film, directed by B. S. Ranga and produced by B. S. Ranga. The film stars Rajkumar, Chandrakala, Udaykumar, M. P. Shankar and Raghavendra Rao. The film has musical score by G. K. Venkatesh.

text:
# Parvathi Kalyana

***Parvathi Kalyana*** is a 1967 Indian Kannada-language film, directed by B. S. Ranga and produced by B. S. Ranga. The film stars Rajkumar, Chandrakala, Udaykumar, M. P. Shankar and Raghavendra Rao. The film has musical score by G. K. Venkatesh.

## Cast

## Soundtrack

The music was composed by G. K. Venkatesh and lyrics by Chi. Sadashivaiah.

| No. | Song | Singers | Length (m:ss) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | "Shyama Mohana Madhava" | P. B. Srinivas | 02:33 |
| 2 | "Gangeya Dharisidena" | S. Janaki | 02:19 |
| 3 | "Vanamaali Vaikuntapathe" | P. B. Sreenivas, Bangalore Latha | 03:08 |
| 4 | "Jayashankara Bhavagochara" | B. K. Sumitra | 02:43 |
| 5 | "Jaya Hey Shankara" | P. Leela | 04:47 |
| 6 | "Navavasantha Naguta Banda" | L. R. Eswari, chorus | 03:02 |
| 7 | "Baaleya More Idu" | S. Janaki | 03:13 |
| 8 | "Maara Chittha Chora" | Bangalore Latha, L. R. Eswari | 04:27 |
| 9 | "Endu Madida Papa" | P. Leela | 01:18 |
| 10 | "Vishwavandya Vighnesha Ganesha" | P. B. Srinivas, chorus | 01:48 |

## InfoBox

| Parvathi Kalyana | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Directed by | B. S. Ranga |
| Written by | Chi Sadashivaiah (dialogues) |
| Produced by | B. S. Ranga |
| Starring | Rajkumar
Chandrakala
Udaykumar
M. P. Shankar
Raghavendra Rao |
| Cinematography | B. N. Haridas |
| Edited by | P. G. Mohan
Devendranath
Chakrapani |
| Music by | G. K. Venkatesh |
| Production
company | Vikram Productions |
| Distributed by | Vikram Productions |
| Release date | * 28 February 1967 (1967-02-28) |
| Running time | 129 minutes |
| Country | India |
| Language | Kannada |


abstract: The International exhibition of marine and maritime hygiene was a world's fair held in Genoa in 1914.

text:
# International Exhibition of Marine and Maritime Hygiene

The **International exhibition of marine and maritime hygiene** was a world's fair held in Genoa in 1914.

## Summary

The fair was held between May 23, 1914 and 15 December 1914 with the aim of showing life in Italian colonies.

The fair was opened by Vittorio Emanuele III and Queen Elena.

## Contents

The overall design of the fair was by Gino Coppedè. There were 1200 exhibitors from all continents.

There were displays from the colonies of Eritrea, Somalia, Cyrenaica and Tripolitania and one about the economics of the territories in Africa.

In addition to individual colonies there was a stadium, a copy of the Galata Tower (which had been built when Galata was a Republic of Genoa colony) and a mosque.

Attractions included a large diorama created by Francesco Bosso of the Panama Canal, which opened in 1914.

## Transportation

A monorail and a cable car were both built for the exhibition, with the monorail, known as *Telfer*, continuing to run until 1918.

## InfoBox

| International exhibition of marine and maritime hygiene | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Overview | |
| BIE-class | Unrecognized exposition |
| Name | International exhibition of marine and maritime hygiene |
| Area | Piazza della Vittoria |
| Visitors | 1035000 |
| Location | |
| Country | Italy |
| City | Genoa |
| Timeline | |
| Opening | 23 May 1914 |
| Closure | 15 December 1914 |
| Universal | |
| Previous | Exposition universelle et internationale (1913) in Ghent |
| Next | Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco |


title: Orlando Campos

abstract: Orlando "Ollie" Campos (1925–1994) was an Indian bridge player. Campos was the mainstay of the famous Ruia team that dominated the Indian bridge scene from 1958 through the late seventies. He represented India in seven world championships and two zonal championships. His 22 national wins include open teams twice and open pairs once. He has been featured in many bridge publications, the most recent being a hand featured in the book Easier Done Than Said: Brilliancy at the Bridge Table by Dr. Prakash K. Paranjape. His most frequent partner was Ashok Ruia. "Ollie", as he was popularly known was a fine technician and also one of the fastest players in the world. For a long time he held the record for the highest number of masterpoints in India.

text:
# Orlando Campos

**Orlando "Ollie" Campos** (19251994) was an Indian bridge player.

Campos was the mainstay of the famous Ruia team that dominated the Indian bridge scene from 1958 through the late seventies. He represented India in seven world championships and two zonal championships. His 22 national wins include open teams twice and open pairs once. He has been featured in many bridge publications, the most recent being a hand featured in the book *Easier Done Than Said: Brilliancy at the Bridge Table* by Dr. Prakash K. Paranjape. His most frequent partner was Ashok Ruia.

"Ollie", as he was popularly known was a fine technician and also one of the fastest players in the world. For a long time he held the record for the highest number of masterpoints in India.

## Personal anecdotes

Besides playing bridge, Campos also used to direct the game where he is fondly remembered for his ability to do matchpoint scores in "double-fast time." One of the funny memories of him is his tendency to relapse into, "Sorry, my fault – I am a palooka, you are expert," whenever he got riled by his partner.

On the way to a bridge event that he was attending, Ollie's flight got hijacked (c. 1984). Ultimately the hijackers were attacked by commandos, but at age 70+, Ollie was reportedly one of the first passengers to have escaped down the emergency chute.

He was a keen amateur philatelist whose specialization was "Early Indian First Day Cancellations."


title: Osieczno

abstract: Osieczno is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Widawa, within Łask County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland. It is located approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) south-west of Widawa, 29 km (18 mi) south-west of Łask, and 61 km (38 mi) south-west of the regional capital Łódź.

text:
# Osieczno

**Osieczno** \[ɔˈɕɛt͡ʂnɔ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Widawa, within Łask County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland. It is located approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) south-west of Widawa, 29 km (18 mi) south-west of Łask, and 61 km (38 mi) south-west of the regional capital Łódź.

## InfoBox

| Osieczno | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Osieczno | |
| Coordinates: 51°24′9″N 18°50′53″E / 51.40250°N 18.84806°E / 51.40250; 18.84806 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Łódź |
| County | Łask |
| Gmina | Widawa |


title: Osieczów

abstract: Osieczów is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Osiecznica, within Bolesławiec County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It lies approximately 5 km (3 mi) south of Osiecznica, 10 km (6 mi) west of Bolesławiec, and 114 km (71 mi) west of the regional capital Wrocław. Prior to 1945 it was in Germany.

text:
# Osieczów

**Osieczów** \[ɔˈɕɛt͡ʂuf\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Osiecznica, within Bolesławiec County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It lies approximately 5 km (3 mi) south of Osiecznica, 10 km (6 mi) west of Bolesławiec, and 114 km (71 mi) west of the regional capital Wrocław.

Prior to 1945 it was in Germany.

## InfoBox

| Osieczów | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Osieczów | |
| Coordinates: 51°17′N 15°26′E / 51.283°N 15.433°E / 51.283; 15.433 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Lower Silesian |
| County | Bolesławiec |
| Gmina | Osiecznica |


title: Origins of the blues

text:
# Origins of the blues

Little is known about the exact origin of the music now known as the blues. No specific year can be cited as its origin, largely because the style evolved over a long period but blues is inarguably a Black American art form as it is noted "it is impossible to say exactly how old blues is - certainly no older than the presence of Negroes in the United States. It is native American Music, the product of the Black in this Country or to put it more exactly the way I have come to think about it, blues could not exist if African Captives had not become American Captives". Ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik traces the roots of many of the elements that were to develop into the blues back to the African continent, the "cradle of the blues". One important early mention of something closely resembling the blues comes from 1901, when an archaeologist in Mississippi described the songs of black workers which had lyrical themes and technical elements in common with the blues.

## Precursive African elements of Black American blues

There are few characteristics common to all blues, as the genre takes its shape from the distinctive attributes of each individual performance. Some characteristics, however, were present prior to the creation of the modern blues, and are common to most styles of African American music. The earliest blues-like music was a "functional expression, rendered in a call-and-response style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure". This pre-blues music was adapted from the field shouts and hollers performed during slave times, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content".

Many of these blues elements, such as the call-and-response format, can be traced back to the music of Africa. The use of melisma and a wavy, nasal intonation also suggests a connection between the music of West and Central Africa and the blues. The belief that blues is historically derived from the West African music including from Mali is reflected in Martin Scorsese’s often quoted characterization of Ali Farka Touré’s tradition as constituting "the DNA of the blues".

Perhaps the most compelling African instrument that is a predecessor to an African-American instrument is the "Akonting", a folk lute of the Jola tribe of Senegambia. It is a clear predecessor to the American banjo in its playing style, the construction of the instrument itself and in its social role as a folk instrument. The Kora is played by a professional caste of praise singers for the rich and aristocracy (called griots or jalis) and is not considered folk music. Jola music may not have been influenced much by North African/Middle Eastern music, which may point to African American music not being, according to Sam Charters, related to kora music. The music of the Akonting and that played by on the banjo by elder African-American banjo players, even into the mid 20th century is easily identified as being very similar. The akonting is perhaps the most important and concrete link that exists between African and African-American music.

While the findings of Kubik and others clearly attest to the essential Africanness of many essential aspects of blues expression, studies by Willie Ruff and others have situated the origin of "black" spiritual music inside enslaved peoples' exposure to their masters' Hebridean-originated gospels. African-American economist and historian Thomas Sowell also notes that the southern, black, ex-slave population was acculturated to a considerable degree by and among their Scots-Irish "redneck" neighbors. Additionally, there are theories that the four-beats-per-measure structure of the blues might share its origins with the Native American tradition of pow wow drumming.

## Other African influence

The historian Sylviane Diouf and ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik identify Islamic music as an influence on blues music. Diouf notes a striking resemblance between the Islamic call to prayer (originating from Bilal ibn Rabah, a famous Abyssinian African Muslim in the early 7th century) and 19th-century field holler music, noting that both have similar lyrics praising God, melody, note changes, "words that seem to quiver and shake" in the vocal chords, dramatic changes in musical scales, and nasal intonation. She attributes the origins of field holler music to African Muslim slaves who accounted for an estimated 30% of African slaves in America. According to Kubik, "the vocal style of many blues singers using melisma, wavy intonation, and so forth is a heritage of that large region of West Africa that had been in contact with the Islamic world via the Maghreb since the seventh and eighth centuries." There was particularly a significant trans-Saharan cross-fertilization between the musical traditions of the Maghreb and the Sahel.

There was a difference in the music performed by the predominantly Muslim Sahelian slaves and the predominantly non-Muslim slaves from coastal West Africa and Central Africa. The Sahelian Muslim slaves generally favoured wind and string instruments and solo singing, whereas the non-Muslim slaves generally favored drums and group chants. Plantation owners who feared revolt outlawed drums and group chants, but allowed the Sahelian slaves to continue singing and playing their wind and string instruments, which the plantation owners found less threatening. Among the instruments introduced by Muslim African slaves were ancestors of the banjo. While many were pressured to convert to Christianity, the Sahelian slaves were allowed to maintain their musical traditions, adapting their skills to instruments such as the fiddle and guitar. Some were also allowed to perform at balls for slave-holders, allowing the migration of their music across the Deep South.

## Influence of field hollers

Field holler music, also known as Levee Camp Holler music, was an early form of African American music, described in the 19th century. Field hollers laid the foundations for the blues, spirituals, and eventually rhythm and blues. Field hollers, cries and hollers of the slaves and later sharecroppers working in cotton fields, prison chain gangs, railway gangs (Gandy dancers) or turpentine camps were the precursor to the call and response of African American spirituals and gospel music, to jug bands, minstrel shows, stride piano, and ultimately to the blues, rhythm and blues, jazz and African American music in general. Sylviane Diouf and Gerhard Kubik have traced the origins of field hollers to African Muslim slaves, who were influenced by the Islamic musical tradition of West Africa (see *African roots* above).

## Influence of spirituals

The most important American antecedent of the blues was the spiritual, a form of religious song with its roots in the camp meetings of the Great Awakening of the early 19th century. Spirituals were a passionate song form, that "convey(ed) to listeners the same feeling of rootlessness and misery" as the blues. Spirituals, however, were less specifically concerning the performer, instead about the general loneliness of mankind, and were more figurative than direct in their lyrics. Despite these differences, the two forms are similar enough that they can not be easily separated  many spirituals would probably have been called *blues* had that word been in wide use at the time.

## Social and economic aspects

The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully known. Blues has evolved from an unaccompanied vocal music of poor black laborers into a wide variety of styles and subgenres, with regional variations across the United States. African American work songs were an important precursor to the modern blues; these included the songs sung by laborers like stevedores and roustabouts, and the field hollers and "shouts" of slaves. The first appearance of the blues is not well defined and is often dated between 1870 and 1900, a period that coincides with the emancipation of the slaves and the transition from slavery to sharecropping and small-scale agricultural production in the southern United States.

Several scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the slaves. According to Lawrence Levine, "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of Booker T. Washington's teachings, and the rise of the blues." Levine states that "psychologically, socially, and economically, Negroes were being acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did."

An important reason for the lack of certain knowledge about the origins of the blues is the earliest blues musicians' tendency to wander through communities, leaving little or no record of precisely what sort of music they played or where it came from. Blues was generally regarded as lower-class music, unfit for documentation, study or enjoyment by the upper- and middle-classes

## Blues around 1900

Blue notes pre-date their use in blues. English composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's "A Negro Love Song", from his *The African Suite for Piano* composed in 1898, contains blue third and seventh notes.

African American composer W. C. Handy wrote in his autobiography of the experience of sleeping on a train traveling through (or stopping at the station of) Tutwiler, Mississippi around 1903, and being awakened by:

> ... a lean, loose-jointed Negro who had commenced plucking a guitar beside me while I slept. His clothes were rags; his feet peeped out of his shoes. His face had on it some of the sadness of the ages. As he played, he pressed a knife on the strings in a manner popularized by Hawaiian guitarists who used steel bars. ... The effect was unforgettable. His song, too, struck me instantly... The singer repeated the line ("Going' where the Southern cross' the Dog") three times, accompanying himself on the guitar with the weirdest music I had ever heard.

Handy had mixed feelings about this music, which he regarded as rather primitive and monotonous, but he used the "Southern cross' the Dog" line in his 1914 "Yellow Dog Rag", which he retitled "Yellow Dog Blues" after the term blues became popular. "Yellow Dog" was the nickname of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad.

Blues later adopted elements from the "Ethiopian (here, meaning "black") airs" of minstrel shows and Negro spirituals, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment. The style also was closely related to ragtime, which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic patterns of African music".

Since the 1890s, the American sheet music publishing industry had produced a great deal of ragtime music. The first published ragtime song to include a 12-bar section was "One o' Them Things!" in 1904. Written by James Chapman and Leroy Smith, it was published in St. Louis, Missouri, by Jos. Plachet and Son. Another early rag/blues mix was "I Got the Blues" published in 1908 by Antonio Maggio of New Orleans

In a long interview conducted by Alan Lomax in 1938, Jelly Roll Morton recalled that the first blues he had heard, probably around 1900, was played by a singer and prostitute, Mamie Desdunes, in Garden District, New Orleans. Morton sang the blues: "Can’t give me a dollar, give me a lousy dime/ You can’t give me a dollar, give me a lousy dime/ Just to feed that hungry man of mine". The interview was released as *The Complete Library of Congress Recordings*.

## Continued development of the blues in the 1910s

In 1912, the sheet music industry published another blues composition"Dallas Blues" by Hart A. Wand of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Two other blues-like compositions, precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blues elements, were also published in 1912: "Baby Seals' Blues" by Baby Franklin Seals (arranged by Artie Matthews) and "Memphis Blues", another ragtime arrangement with a single 12-bar section, by W. C. Handy. Also in 1912 (on November 9), another song, "The Blues", was copyrighted by LeRoy "Lasses" White, but not actually published until 1913.

Handy was a formally trained musician, composer and arranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolific composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues"; however, his compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Afro-Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime; Handy's signature work was "Saint Louis Blues".

Songs from this period had many different structures. A testimony of those times can be found for instance in Henry Thomas's recordings. However, the twelve-, eight-bar, or sixteen-bar structure based on tonic, subdominant and dominant chords became the most common. Melodically, blues music is marked by the use of the lowered third and dominant seventh (so-called blue notes) of the associated major scale. The standard 12-bar blues form is noted in uncorroborated oral histories as appearing communities throughout the region along the lower Mississippi River during the decade of the 1900s (and performed in New Orleans at least since 1908). One of these early sites of blues evolution was along Beale Street in Memphis, Tennessee. However, author Eileen Southern has pointed out several contrasting statements by old-time musicians. She cites Eubie Blake as saying "Blues in Baltimore? Why, Baltimore is the blues!" and Bunk Johnson as claiming that the blues was around in his childhood, in the 1880s.

## Growth of the blues (1920s onward)

One of the first professional blues singers was Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, who claimed to have coined the term *blues*. Classic female urban or vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s, among them Mamie Smith, Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie Smith, more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the first African-American to record a blues in 1920; her "Crazy Blues" sold over 75,000 copies in its first month.

The musical forms and styles that are now considered the "blues" as well as modern "country music" arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called "race music" and "hillbilly music" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country", except for the race of the performer, and even that sometimes was documented incorrectly by record companies.