title: Medina de Rioseco

abstract: Medina de Rioseco is a municipality located in the province of Valladolid, in the autonomous community of Castile and León and Spain. According to a 2011 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 4,967 inhabitants. The city also has the nicknames the "City of the Admirals" and "Old India Girl." It has an area of 115.43 square kilometres (44.6 sq mi), with a population density of 43.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (111/sq mi). It is a municipality of Tierra de Campos. The Sequillo river passes nearby. The coat of arms shield is quartered, with two castles in gold and two horses leaning out of colored battlements on a silver background, surrounded by a wreath of laurel leaves, but no crown. It was granted by King John I of Castile. The city lies along the road of El Camino de Santiago de Madrid.

text:
# Medina de Rioseco

**Medina de Rioseco** is a municipality located in the province of Valladolid, in the autonomous community of Castile and León and Spain. According to a 2011 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 4,967 inhabitants.

The city also has the nicknames the "City of the Admirals" and "Old India Girl."

It has an area of 115.43 square kilometres (44.6 sq mi), with a population density of 43.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (111/sq mi). It is a municipality of Tierra de Campos. The Sequillo river passes nearby.

The coat of arms shield is quartered, with two castles in gold and two horses leaning out of colored battlements on a silver background, surrounded by a wreath of laurel leaves, but no crown. It was granted by King John I of Castile.

The city lies along the road of El Camino de Santiago de Madrid.

## Origins

The oldest traces of Rioseco come from the Iron Age and the time of Celtic Iberia. Mistakenly, some ancient authors identified this area as a *Forum Egurrorum* or a market square in the Visigoths' era. Documents relating to the Tierra de Campos and Campos Gothic or *Campii Gotorum* date from this period. In the middle of the ninth century and throughout the tenth century, this area was a territory of colonization of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom, which also contained Mozarabic people, such as the Iberian Christians who lived under Arab Islamic rule in Al-Andalus. This perhaps led to a place name for the population: "Medina" (Arabic for "city").

## Reconquest

The confluence of the borders between the Kingdom of León and the County of Castile led to battles in this area between the two kingdoms. In 1037, Castile became the separate Kingdom of Castile. Alfonso X the Wise determined the ultimate limits with Valladolid in 1258, leaving Medina for the mountains of Torozos.

During the Middle Ages, in the Merindad of Valladolid Infantazgo (in old Castilian cited as: *Meryndat del Infantadgo de Ualladolid*), there was an administrative division of the Kingdom of Castile, which is described in the book *Calif of Behetrías of Castile*, drafted by the Cortes of Valladolid of 1351, when the establishment of knights applied to King Pedro I to absorb the Behetrías land by conversion to manors.

## Admirals of Castile

In May 1405, Don Alonso Enriquez (1354–1429) received the title of Admiral of Castile from King Henry III of Castile, after the death of the previous owner of this title, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. In 1423 John II of Castile established the manor of Medina Rioseco.

Its traditional commercial role since medieval times gained official status over time. Exercising dominion, D. Fadrique Enriquez, second admiral, was granted by John II the privilege of conducting an annual fair. Under the dominion of Alfonso II Enriquez, third Admiral of Castile, Enrique IV of Castile, granted the town the right to conduct a second annual fair, and in 1465, Henry IV gave it a free weekly tax. Don Frederic II and Enríquez de Cabrera—the fourth Admiral—began building the palace of the admirals and the church of San Francisco. He also founded the convent of Santa Clara, and during his rule built the church of Santa María de Mediavilla.

## 16th century

Medina de Rioseco became the global trading hub for silver arriving from the Indies through the port of Seville and enjoyed an economic boom that reached its peak during the 16th century. Donations and legacies poured in from the Americas, increasing the wealth of the city and surrounding parishes. Four large Riosecano churches were built, and the city became home to one of the most important fairs of the kingdom, second only to that at Medina del Campo. At this time the, so-called Penitential Monasteries were founded, which were famous for their processions of penance and passion, and their many chapels and hospitals.

The Battle of Medina del Rioseco took place on July 14, 1808, during the Peninsular War.

## Pictures of Santiago Apóstol Church

* Parts of this article have been translated from the corresponding article in the Spanish Wikipedia.

41°53′N 5°02′W / 41.883°N 5.033°W / 41.883; -5.033

## InfoBox

| Medina de Rioseco | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nickname: City of the Admirals | |
| Medina de Rioseco | |
| Coordinates: 41°52′59″N 5°02′34″W / 41.88306°N 5.04278°W / 41.88306; -5.04278 | |
| Country | Spain |
| Autonomous community | Castile and León |
| Province | Valladolid |
| Municipality | Medina de Rioseco |
| Area | |
| Total | 115 km2 (44 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 741 m (2,431 ft) |
| Population (2018) | |
| Total | 4,716 |
| Density | 41/km2 (110/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Website | www.medinaderioseco.com/ |


title: Tjaart van der Walt (academic)

abstract: Tjaart van der Walt was the Rector of Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, a Bible translator and later a diplomat.

text:
# Tjaart van der Walt (academic)

**Tjaart van der Walt** (15 February 1934 – 22 February 2019) was the Rector of Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, a Bible translator and later a diplomat.

## Personal life

Van der Walt was born on 15 February 1934 in Pietersburg, Northern Transvaal, South Africa. He was the son of Johannes Jacob van der Walt and Maria Jacoba de Klerk. He married Heiltje Johanna Gertruida Snyman on 30 December 1958. She was the daughter of Johannes Jurie Snyman and Maria Magdalena Venter. He went to school in Johannesburg and passed Standard 10 (Grade 12) in 1950 at Helpmekaar Boys School.

## Education

He obtained the degrees BA, BA (Hons) in Semitic Languages and ThB at the Potchefstroom University. He also obtained a BA (Hons) in Classical Languages at University of the Witwatersrand. He studied further at Protestant Theological University in Kampen, Overijssel, Netherlands and received a PhD from them in 1962.

## Career

On returning to South Africa he was a Pastor in the Reformed Church, situated in Krugersdorp. He then received a Professorship from the Potchefstroom University in New Testament Studies in 1969. From 1971 to 1973 he was the Head of the Theological Centre in Potchefstroom. He was appointed as Rector of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education on 1 May 1977 and retired on 31 December 1988. In 1983 he convinced the university's Board to allow black students at an undergraduate level. In his time as Rector the Faculty of Pharmacy and the Faculty of Engineering were established.

## Bible translation

He was involved in the official renewed translation of the Bible from Greek to Afrikaans.

## Other activities after being Rector

## Ambassador to Bophuthatswana

South Africa in the era prior to 1994, when the first democratic election was held, had a "homeland" policy. One of these "homelands" or Bantustans was Bophuthatswana and Van der Walt was the last South African Ambassador to serve there. In 1994 he was appointed Administrator of the area for 6 weeks up until the election.

## InfoBox

| Tjaart van der Walt | |
| --- | --- |
| Title | Rector of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education |
| Personal | |
| Born | (1934-02-15)15 February 1934<br>Pietersburg, Northern Transvaal, Union of South Africa |
| Died | 22 February 2019(2019-02-22) (aged 85) |
| Religion | Christianity |
| Nationality | South African |
| Spouse | Heiltje Johanna Gertruida Snyman |
| Alma mater |  |
| Known for | Bible translation |
| Senior posting | |
| Period in office | 1977–1988 |
| Predecessor | Hendrik Johannes Jacob Bingle |
| Successor | C.J. Reinecke |


title: G.711

abstract: G.711 is a narrowband audio codec originally designed for use in telephony that provides toll-quality audio at 64 kbit/s. It is an ITU-T standard (Recommendation) for audio encoding, titled Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies released for use in 1972. G.711 passes audio signals in the frequency band of 300–3400 Hz and samples them at the rate of 8000 Hz, with the tolerance on that rate of 50 parts per million (ppm). It uses one of two different logarithmic companding algorithms: μ-law, which is used primarily in North America and Japan, and A-law, which is in use in most other countries outside North America. Each companded sample is quantized as 8 bits, resulting in a 64 kbit/s bit rate. G.711 is a required standard in many technologies, such as in the H.320 and H.323 standards. It can also be used for fax communication over IP networks. Two enhancements to G.711 have been published: G.711.0 utilizes lossless data compression to reduce the bandwidth usage and G.711.1 increases audio quality by increasing bandwidth.

text:
# G.711

**G.711** is a narrowband audio codec originally designed for use in telephony that provides toll-quality audio at 64 kbit/s. It is an ITU-T standard (Recommendation) for audio encoding, titled **Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies** released for use in 1972.

G.711 passes audio signals in the frequency band of 300–3400 Hz and samples them at the rate of 8000 Hz, with the tolerance on that rate of 50 parts per million (ppm).

It uses one of two different logarithmic companding algorithms: μ-law, which is used primarily in North America and Japan, and A-law, which is in use in most other countries outside North America. Each companded sample is quantized as 8 bits, resulting in a 64 kbit/s bit rate.

G.711 is a required standard in many technologies, such as in the H.320 and H.323 standards. It can also be used for fax communication over IP networks (as defined in T.38 specification).

Two enhancements to G.711 have been published: **G.711.0** utilizes lossless data compression to reduce the bandwidth usage and **G.711.1** increases audio quality by increasing bandwidth.

## Features

## Types

G.711 defines two main companding algorithms, the μ-law algorithm and A-law algorithm. Both are logarithmic, but A-law was specifically designed to be simpler for a computer to process. The standard also defines a sequence of repeating code values which defines the power level of 0 dB.

The μ-law and A-law algorithms encode 14-bit and 13-bit signed linear PCM samples (respectively) to logarithmic 8-bit samples. Thus, the G.711 encoder will create a 64 kbit/s bitstream for a signal sampled at 8 kHz.

G.711 μ-law tends to give more resolution to higher range signals while G.711 A-law provides more quantization levels at lower signal levels.

The terms *PCMU*, *G711u* and *G711MU* are also used for G.711 μ-law, and *PCMA* and *G711A* for G.711 A-law.

### A-law

A-law encoding thus takes a 13-bit signed linear audio sample as input and converts it to an 8 bit value as follows:

| Linear input code
 | Compressed code
XOR 01010101 | Linear output code
 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| `s0000000abcdx` | `s000abcd` | `s0000000abcd1` |
| `s0000001abcdx` | `s001abcd` | `s0000001abcd1` |
| `s000001abcdxx` | `s010abcd` | `s000001abcd10` |
| `s00001abcdxxx` | `s011abcd` | `s00001abcd100` |
| `s0001abcdxxxx` | `s100abcd` | `s0001abcd1000` |
| `s001abcdxxxxx` | `s101abcd` | `s001abcd10000` |
| `s01abcdxxxxxx` | `s110abcd` | `s01abcd100000` |
| `s1abcdxxxxxxx` | `s111abcd` | `s1abcd1000000` |

1. This value is produced by taking the two's complement representation of the input value, and inverting all bits after the sign bit if the value is negative.
2. Signed magnitude representation

Where `s` is the sign bit, `s` is its inverse (i.e. positive values are encoded with MSB = s = 1), and bits marked `x` are discarded. Note that the first column of the table uses different representation of negative values than the third column. So for example, input decimal value −21 is represented in binary after bit inversion as 1000000010100, which maps to 00001010 (according to the first row of the table). When decoding, this maps back to 1000000010101, which is interpreted as output value −21 in decimal. Input value +52 (0000000110100 in binary) maps to 10011010 (according to the second row), which maps back to 0000000110101 (+53 in decimal).

This can be seen as a floating-point number with 4 bits of mantissa m (equivalent to a 5-bit precision), 3 bits of exponent e and 1 sign bit s, formatted as `seeemmmm` with the decoded linear value y given by formula

$$y=(-1)^{s}\cdot (16\cdot \min\\{e,1\\}+m+0.5)\cdot 2^{\max\\{e,1\\},}$$

which is a 13-bit signed integer in the range ±1 to ±(212  26). Note that no compressed code decodes to zero due to the addition of 0.5 (half of a quantization step).

In addition, the standard specifies that all resulting even bits (LSB is even) are inverted before the octet is transmitted. This is to provide plenty of 0/1 transitions to facilitate the clock recovery process in the PCM receivers. Thus, a silent A-law encoded PCM channel has the 8 bit samples coded 0xD5 instead of 0x80 in the octets.

When data is sent over E0 (G.703), MSB (sign) is sent first and LSB is sent last.

ITU-T STL defines the algorithm for decoding as follows (it puts the decoded values in the 13 most significant bits of the 16-bit output data type).

```
void            alaw_expand(lseg, logbuf, linbuf)
  long            lseg;
  short          *linbuf;
  short          *logbuf;
{
  short           ix, mant, iexp;
  long            n;

  for (n = 0; n < lseg; n++)
  {
    ix = logbuf[n] ^ (0x0055);	/* re-toggle toggled bits */

    ix &= (0x007F);		/* remove sign bit */
    iexp = ix >> 4;		/* extract exponent */
    mant = ix & (0x000F);	/* now get mantissa */
    if (iexp > 0)
      mant = mant + 16;		/* add leading '1', if exponent > 0 */

    mant = (mant << 4) + (0x0008);	/* now mantissa left justified and */
    /* 1/2 quantization step added */
    if (iexp > 1)		/* now left shift according exponent */
      mant = mant << (iexp - 1);

    linbuf[n] = logbuf[n] > 127	/* invert, if negative sample */
      ? mant
      : -mant;
  }
}

```

See also "ITU-T Software Tool Library 2009 User's manual" that can be found at.

### μ-law

The μ-law (sometimes referred to as ulaw, G.711Mu, or G.711μ) encoding takes a 14-bit signed linear audio sample in two's complement representation as input, inverts all bits after the sign bit if the value is negative, adds 33 (binary 100001) and converts it to an 8 bit value as follows:

| Linear input value
 | Compressed code
XOR 11111111 | Linear output value
 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| `s00000001abcdx` | `s000abcd` | `s00000001abcd1` |
| `s0000001abcdxx` | `s001abcd` | `s0000001abcd10` |
| `s000001abcdxxx` | `s010abcd` | `s000001abcd100` |
| `s00001abcdxxxx` | `s011abcd` | `s00001abcd1000` |
| `s0001abcdxxxxx` | `s100abcd` | `s0001abcd10000` |
| `s001abcdxxxxxx` | `s101abcd` | `s001abcd100000` |
| `s01abcdxxxxxxx` | `s110abcd` | `s01abcd1000000` |
| `s1abcdxxxxxxxx` | `s111abcd` | `s1abcd10000000` |

1. This value is produced by taking the two's complement representation of the input value, inverting all bits after the sign bit if the value is negative, and adding 33.
2. Signed magnitude representation. Final result is produced by decreasing the magnitude of this value by 33.

Where `s` is the sign bit, and bits marked `x` are discarded.

In addition, the standard specifies that the encoded bits are inverted before the octet is transmitted. Thus, a silent μ-law encoded PCM channel has the 8 bit samples transmitted 0xFF instead of 0x00 in the octets.

Adding 33 is necessary so that all values fall into a compression group and it is subtracted back when decoding.

Breaking the encoded value formatted as `seeemmmm` into 4 bits of mantissa m, 3 bits of exponent e and 1 sign bit s, the decoded linear value y is given by formula

$$y=(-1)^{s}\cdot \[(33+2m)\cdot 2^{e}-33\],$$

which is a 14-bit signed integer in the range ±0 to ±8031.

Note that 0 is transmitted as 0xFF, and −1 is transmitted as 0x7F, but when received the result is 0 in both cases.

## G.711.0

G.711.0, also known as G.711 LLC, utilizes lossless data compression to reduce the bandwidth usage by as much as 50 percent. The *Lossless compression of G.711 pulse code modulation* standard was approved by ITU-T in September 2009.

## G.711.1

G.711.1 *"Wideband embedded extension for G.711 pulse code modulation"* is a higher-fidelity extension to G.711, ratified in 2008 and further extended in 2012.

G.711.1 allows a series of enhancement layers on top of a raw G.711 core stream (Layer 0): Layer 1 codes 16-bit audio in the same 4kHz narrowband, and Layer 2 allows 8kHz wideband using MDCT; each uses a fixed 16 kbps in addition to the 64 kbps core. They may be used together or singly, and each encodes the differences from the previous layer. Ratified in 2012, Layer 3 extends Layer 2 to 16kHz "superwideband," allowing another 16 kbps for the highest frequencies, while retaining layer independence. Peak bitrate becomes 96 kbps in original G.711.1, or 112 kbps with superwideband. No internal method of identifying or separating the layers is defined, leaving it to the implementation to packetize or signal them.

A decoder that doesn't understand any set of fidelity layers may ignore or drop non-core packets without affecting it, enabling graceful degradation across any G.711 (or original G.711.1) telephony system with no changes.

Also ratified in 2012 was G.711.0 lossless extended to the new fidelity layers. Like G.711.0, full G.711 backward compatibility is sacrificed for efficiency, though a G.711.0 aware node may still ignore or drop layer packets it doesn't understand.

## Licensing

The patents for G.711, released in 1972, have expired, so it may be used without the need for a license.

1. "G.711 : Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies". *www.itu.int*. Archived from the original on 2019-06-17. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
2. "Video/Voice/Speech Codecs". *Grandstream=*. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
3. G.191 : Software tools for speech and audio coding standardization. Function `alaw_expand` in file `Software/stl2009/g711/g711.c`. Itu.int. Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
4. G.191 : ITU-T Software Tool Library 2009 User's manual. Itu.int (2010-07-23). Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
5. ITU-T (2009-07-17). "ITU-T Newslog - Voice codec gets new lossless compression". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2010-02-28.
6. ITU-T. "G.711.0 : Lossless compression of G.711 pulse code modulation". Retrieved 2010-02-28.
7. *Recent Audio/Speech Coding Developments in ITU-T and future trends* (PDF), August 2008, retrieved 2010-02-28
8. *G.711.1 : Wideband embedded extension for G.711 pulse code modulation*, ITU-T, 2012, retrieved 2022-12-24
9. Lapierre; et al. (2008-08-25), *Noise shaping in an ITU-T G.711-Interoperable embedded codec* (PDF), retrieved 2024-06-11
10. Hiwasaki; et al. (2008-08-25), *G. 711.1: a wideband extension to ITU-T G. 711* (PDF), retrieved 2024-06-11

## InfoBox

G.711
| Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Status | In force |
| Year started | 1972 |
| Latest version | (02/00)
February 2000 |
| Organization | ITU-T |
| Related standards | G.191, G.711.0, G.711.1, G.729 |
| Domain | audio compression |
| Website | https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.711 |


title: Megachile estebana

abstract: Megachile estebana is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae. It was described by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1924.

text:
# Megachile estebana

***Megachile estebana*** is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae. It was described by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1924.

## InfoBox

| *Megachile estebana* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Megachilidae |
| Genus: | *Megachile* |
| Species: | ***M. estebana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Megachile estebana***<br>Cockerell, 1924 | |
|


title: Mehrdad Abedi

abstract: Mehrdad Abedi is an electrical engineer and electric machinery researcher and professor of power engineering at Amirkabir University of Technology.

text:
# Mehrdad Abedi

**Mehrdad Abedi** ( مهرداد عابدی،; born 1948) is an electrical engineer and electric machinery researcher and professor of power engineering at Amirkabir University of Technology.

## Life and career

Abedi was born in 1948 in Tehran, Iran. He graduated from the University of Tehran with a degree in electrical engineering In 1970, he received an MS degree from Imperial College London in 1973 and a Ph.D from Newcastle University, both in electrical engineering with a speciality in electric machinery and power engineering.

After graduation, he worked at General Electric Company plc as a researcher for one year and then returned to Tehran and began his work at Amirkabir University of Technology as an instructor. He is principally known as the author of some textbooks for undergraduate electrical engineering students (in Persian).

Abedi is a member of the Iranian Academy of Sciences.

## Books written in Persian (until 2008)

* Basic of Electrical Machines (12th Edition), 2007
* Power System Analysis (3rd edition), 2006
* Modern Power System Analysis (4th edition),2003 (books of the year)
* Distribution Systems, (2nd edition), 1990
* Electrical Machines with Power Electronic Applications, (7th edition 2008), (book of the year)
* Electrical Machines, Analysis, Operation and Control (15th edition), 2008
* Basic Circuit Analysis (7th edition), 2008
* Basic Control Systems, (2nd edition), 2002
* Electric Circuits (4 Volumes),2008
* Electrical Machines (4 Volumes), (2nd Edition), 2008
* Basics of Electrical Machines, 2007
* Basics of Electrical Circuits, 2007

## Awards and honors

* Distinguished professor of Amirkabir University, 1994, Iran
* Distinguished researcher, ministry of energy, 1993, Iran
* Member of Iranian academy of science, Iran, 1991-now
* Distinguished author (book of the year), Tehran university, 1995, Iran
* Member of scientific committee of annual international conference in power systems, Iran, 1993-now
* Member of scientific committee of Iranian international conference in electrical engineering, 1993-now
* Member of editorial board of Amirkabir Journal of science and technology, Amirkabir university, Iran, 1987–2005
* Member of editorial board, Journal of Electricity, ministry of energy, Iran, 1993-now
* Distinguished professor and prize winner all over Iran selected by ministry of Higher Education 2001.
* Distinguished author (book of the year) selected by Iranian Energy Committee. 2001
* Prizewinner as innovator, selected by Iranian Elect. Eng. Society. 2003.
* Head of Electrical Engineering Section Iranian Academy of Science.2003-2006
* Appointed as Honorary Lecturer, University of Birmingham, U.K, 2007

## InfoBox

| Mehrdad Abedi | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1948-10-11) October 11, 1948
Tehran, Iran |
| Alma mater | University of Tehran,
Imperial College London ,
Newcastle University |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | electrical engineering and power engineering |
| Institutions | Amirkabir University of Technology |
|  | |


title: Fundamental series

abstract: The fundamental series is a set of spectral lines in a set caused by transition between d and f orbitals in atoms. Originally the series was discovered in the infrared by Fowler and independently by Arno Bergmann. This resulted in the name Bergmann series used for such a set of lines in a spectrum. However the name was changed as Bergmann also discovered other series of lines. And other discoverers also established other such series. They became known as the fundamental series. Bergmann observed lithium at 5347 cm−1, sodium at 5416 cm−1 potassium at 6592 cm−1. Bergmann observed that the lines in the series in the caesium spectrum were double. His discovery was announced in Contributions to the Knowledge of the Infra-Red Emission Spectra of the Alkalies, Jena 1907. Carl Runge called this series the "new series". He predicted that the lines of potassium and rubidium would be in pairs. He expressed the frequencies of the series lines by a formula and predicted a connection of the series limit to the other known series. In 1909 W. M. Hicks produced approximate formulas for the various series and noticed that this series had a simpler formula than the others and thus called it the "fundamental series" and used the letter F. The formula that more resembled the hydrogen spectrum calculations was because of a smaller quantum defect. There is no physical basis to call this fundamental. The fundamental series was described as badly-named. It is the last spectroscopic series to have a special designation. The next series involving transitions between F and G subshells is known as the FG series. Frequencies of the lines in the series are given by this formula: ν = R [ 3 + d ] 2 − R [ m + f ] 2, with  m = 4, 5, 6,..., R is the Rydberg constant, T B S = R [ 3 + d ] 2 is the series limit, represented by 3D, and R [ m + f ] 2 is represented by mF. A shortened formula is then given by ν = 3 D − m F with values of m being integers from 4 upwards. The two numbers separated by the "−" are called terms, that represent the energy level of an atom. The limit of the fundamental series is the same as the 3D level. The terms can have different designations, mF for single line systems, mΦ for doublets and mf for triplets. Lines in the fundamental series are split into compound doublets, due to the D and F subshells having different spin possibilities. The splitting of the D subshell is very small and that of the F subshell even less so, so the fine structure in the fundamental series is harder to resolve than that in the sharp or diffuse series.

text:
# Fundamental series

The **fundamental series** is a set of spectral lines in a set caused by transition between d and f orbitals in atoms.

Originally the series was discovered in the infrared by Fowler and independently by Arno Bergmann. This resulted in the name Bergmann series used for such a set of lines in a spectrum. However the name was changed as Bergmann also discovered other series of lines. And other discoverers also established other such series. They became known as the fundamental series. Bergmann observed lithium at 5347 cm−1, sodium at 5416 cm−1 potassium at 6592 cm−1. Bergmann observed that the lines in the series in the caesium spectrum were double. His discovery was announced in *Contributions to the Knowledge of the Infra-Red Emission Spectra of the Alkalies*, Jena 1907. Carl Runge called this series the "new series". He predicted that the lines of potassium and rubidium would be in pairs. He expressed the frequencies of the series lines by a formula and predicted a connection of the series limit to the other known series. In 1909 W. M. Hicks produced approximate formulas for the various series and noticed that this series had a simpler formula than the others and thus called it the "fundamental series" and used the letter F.

The formula that more resembled the hydrogen spectrum calculations was because of a smaller quantum defect. There is no physical basis to call this fundamental. The fundamental series was described as badly-named. It is the last spectroscopic series to have a special designation. The next series involving transitions between F and G subshells is known as the FG series.

Frequencies of the lines in the series are given by this formula:

$\nu ={\frac {R}{\left\[3+d\right\]^{2}-{\frac {R}{\left\[m+f\right\]^{2}{\text{, with }m=4,5,6,...,}}}}}$

*R* is the Rydberg constant, $T\_{BS}={\frac {R}{\left\[3+d\right\]^{2}}}$ is the series limit, represented by *3D*, and $\frac {R}{\left\[m+f\right\]^{2}}$ is represented by *mF*. A shortened formula is then given by $\nu =3D-mF$ with values of m being integers from 4 upwards. The two numbers separated by the "−" are called terms, that represent the energy level of an atom.

The limit of the fundamental series is the same as the 3D level.

The terms can have different designations, mF for single line systems, mΦ for doublets and mf for triplets.

Lines in the fundamental series are split into compound doublets, due to the D and F subshells having different spin possibilities. The splitting of the D subshell is very small and that of the F subshell even less so, so the fine structure in the fundamental series is harder to resolve than that in the sharp or diffuse series.

## Lithium

The quantum defect for lithium is 0.

## Sodium

The fundamental series lines for sodium appear in the near infrared.

| sodium fundamental series | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| transition | wavelength 1 Å |
| 3d-4f | 18465.3 |
| 3d-5f | 12679.2 |
| 3d-6f | 10834.9 |
| 3d-7f | 9961.28 |
| 3d-8f | 9465.94 |
| 3d-9f | 9153.88 |
| 3d-10f | 8942.96 |
| 3d-11f | 8796 |

## Potassium

The fundamental series lines for potassium appear in the near infrared.

| potassium fundamental series | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| transition | wavelength 1 Å | wavelength 2 Å |
| 3d-4f | 15163.1 | 15168.4 |
| 3d-5f | 11022.3 |  |
| 3d-6f | 9565.6 | 9597.76 |
| 3d-7f | 8902.2 | 8902.4 |
| 3d-8f | 8503.5 | 8505.3 |
| 3d-9f | 8250.2 | 8251.7 |

## Rubidium

The fundamental series lines for rubidium appear in the near infrared. The valence electron moves from the 4*d* level as the 3*d* is contained in an inner shell. They were observed by R von Lamb. Relevant energy levels are 4*p*64*d* *j*=5/2 19,355.282 cm−1 and *j*=3/2 19,355.623 cm−1, and the first *f* levels at 4*p*64*f* *j*=5/2 26,792.185 cm−1 and *j*=7/2 26,792.169 cm−1.

| rubidium fundamental series | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| transition | vacuum wavelength 1 Å 5/2–7/2 | vacuum wavelength 2 Å 3/2-5/2 |
| 4*d*-4*f* | 13,446.486 | 13,447.076 |
| 4*d*-5*f* | 10,078.039 | 10,078.473 |
| 4*d*-6*f* | 8870.943 | 8871.281 |
| 4*d*-7*f* | 8273.684 | 8273.981 |
| 4*d*-8*f* | 7927.440 |  |

## Caesium

| caesium fundamental series | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| transition | wavelengths Å | | |
| | 5/2–7/2 | 5/2-5/2 | 3/2-5/2 |
| 5*d*-4*f* | 10,126.376 7 | 10,126.188 | 10,027.103 3 |
| 5*d*-5*f* | 8,079.036 3 | 8,078.936 | 8,015.726 3 |
| 5*d*-6*f* | 7,279.956 8 | 7,279.889 | 7,228.533 6 |
| 5*d*-7*f* | 6,870.454 4 |  | 6,824.651 3 |
| 5*d*-8*f* | 6,628.657 6 |  | 6,586.021 6 |
| 5*d*-9*f* | 6,472.619 6 |  | 6,431.966 2 |
| 5*d*-10*f* | 6,365.522 6 |  | 6,326.203 4 |
| 5*d*-11*f* | 6,288.592 7 |  | 6,250.214 9 |
| 5*d*-12*f* | 6,231.349 0 |  | 6,193.668 9 |
| 5*d*-13*f* | 6,187.544 2 |  | 6,150.38 |
| 5*d*-14*f* | 6,153.238 1 |  | 6,116.52 |
|


title: Megachile rubricrus

abstract: Megachile rubricrus is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae. It was described by Moure in 1948.

text:
# Megachile rubricrus

***Megachile rubricrus*** is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae. It was described by Moure in 1948.

## InfoBox

| *Megachile rubricrus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Megachilidae |
| Genus: | *Megachile* |
| Species: | ***M. rubricrus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Megachile rubricrus***<br>Moure, 1948 | |
|


title: Melendugno

abstract: Melendugno is a town and comune in the province of Lecce in the Apulia region of south-east Italy. It is known for its marine, which are bathing beaches on the Adriatic Sea: Roca Vecchia, San Foca, Torre dell'Orso and Torre Sant'Andrea, which were awarded the Blue Flag beach prize for the water quality. Melendugno also includes the frazione of Borgagne.

text:
# Melendugno

**Melendugno** (Salentino: *Melendugnu* or *Malandugnu*) is a town and *comune* in the province of Lecce in the Apulia region of south-east Italy.

It is known for its *marine*, which are bathing beaches on the Adriatic Sea: Roca Vecchia, San Foca, Torre dell'Orso and Torre Sant'Andrea, which were awarded the Blue Flag beach prize for the water quality. Melendugno also includes the *frazione* of Borgagne.

## InfoBox

| Melendugno | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
|  | |
| Location of | |
| Location of in ItalyMelendugno (Apulia) | |
| Coordinates: 40°16′N 18°20′E / 40.267°N 18.333°E / 40.267; 18.333 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Apulia |
| Province | Lecce (LE) |
| *Frazioni* | Borgagne, Roca Vecchia, San Foca, Torre dell'Orso, Torre Sant'Andrea, Torre Saracena Torre Specchia |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Marco Potì |
| Area | |
| Total | 92.31 km2 (35.64 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 36 m (118 ft) |
| Population (31-8-2022) | |
| Total | 10,034 |
| Density | 110/km2 (280/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Melendugnesi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 73026 |
| Dialing code | 0832 |
| Patron saint | St. Nicetas the Goth |
| Saint day | Second Sunday in September |
| Website | Official website |


title: Melendy E. Lovett

abstract: Melendy Ewing Lovett is an American businesswoman, accountant, consultant, and advocate for women in STEM education and in the workforce. Lovett is the Senior Vice President and Chief Administrative Officer at Trinity Industries. She was formerly a Senior Vice President of Texas Instruments and the President of the company's worldwide Education Technology business, which focuses on market-leading educational technology to improve teaching and learning of math and science. She is now the chief administrative officer at Trinity Industries. She is one of the original founders, a former president, and a current board member of High-Tech High Heels (HTHH), a nonprofit organization which works to improve math and science education for girls in middle schools and high schools.

text:
# Melendy E. Lovett

**Melendy Ewing Lovett** (born ca. 1959) is an American businesswoman, accountant, consultant, and advocate for women in STEM education and in the workforce. Lovett is the Senior Vice President and Chief Administrative Officer at Trinity Industries. She was formerly a Senior Vice President of Texas Instruments and the President of the company's worldwide Education Technology business, which focuses on market-leading educational technology to improve teaching and learning of math and science. She is now the chief administrative officer at Trinity Industries.

She is one of the original founders, a former president, and a current board member of High-Tech High Heels (HTHH), a nonprofit organization which works to improve math and science education for girls in middle schools and high schools.

## Early life and family

Lovett was born and raised in Texas. She lived in Terrell for three years and then moved to Dallas. She is the daughter of J. Ralph Ewing and Frances Roach Ewing, who were both born and raised in Terrell. Her father worked in banking and her mother was a stay-at-home mom who occasionally worked as an office assistant and a substitute teacher. Her father died on April 28, 2003, in Dallas, Texas. She is the youngest of four children, with one older brother, Mark V. Ewing, and two older sisters, Marcy Ewing Van Galen and Molly Ewing Green. Lovett is married to James Robert Lovett, with whom she has a daughter, Alexa Pass.

## Career

Lovett graduated and earned her bachelor's degree in management from Texas A&M University and became a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) in 1979. Lovett went to work for Republic Bank in the information technology department. She later worked at ARCO Oil and Gas as a natural gas revenue accountant for five years. During her time there, she earned her master's degree in accounting from the University of Texas at Dallas in 1982 and retired from ARCO in 1985 through the company's voluntary retirement program.

After retiring from ARCO, Lovett joined the consulting firm Coopers and Lybrand and became a Senior Manager of the firm. Her work included leading consulting engagements in human resources, mergers, manufacturing and distribution, communications, retail, oil and gas industries, and a variety of other industries.

Lovett joined Texas Instruments in 1993 as a manager and information technology consultant; she worked for its Motorola program. After two years, she moved into the company's human resources department. She was eventually promoted to vice president and Manager of Human Resources. In 2004, Lovett was named Senior Vice President and President of Texas Instrument's Education Technology business. Lovett was the first woman to hold the position of a business president at Texas Instruments.

In 2012, Trinity Industries elected Lovett to its board of directors. In 2014, Lovett announced her retirement from Texas Instruments. In the same year, Lovett was named Senior Vice President and Chief Administrative Officer of Trinity Industries and resigned her directorship at the company.

## Awards and recognitions

In 2001, Lovett co-founded the High Tech High Heels (HTHH) program and was appointed the president of the organization, whose mission is to encourage young women into STEM professions. Lovett is a member of NAPE's Business Alliance Council and chairs the AVID Center's Board of Directors, where she heads the Finance Committee and is a Governance Committee member. Lovett is also a founder of the Women of TI Fund and continues to play an active role in supporting the fund.

In 2005, Lovett was inducted into the Women in Technology International (WITI) Hall of Fame. In the same year, Lovett also received the Distinguished Alumni Award from the University of Texas at Dallas, its highest honor for graduates. UTeach Dallas, a university program, partnered with Lovett which resulted in the 2010 TI gift-in-kind of training, and classroom technology including calculators and projectors. Lovett was also a keynote speaker at the 2013 Susan M. Arseven '75 Conference for Women In Science and Engineering (WISE) held by the university.

1. "Search Results for "melendy" – High-Tech High Heels". *www.hightechhighheels.org*. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
2. "High-Tech High Heels – Closing the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math in North Texas". *www.hightechhighheels.org*. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
3. "WITI - Women in Technology Hall of Fame - Melendy Lovett, President, Texas Instruments Education Technology". *www.witi.com*. Retrieved 2017-11-15.
4. "J. Ralph Ewing Jr.'s Obituary on Dallas Morning News". *Dallas Morning News*. Retrieved 2017-11-15.
5. "Trinity Industries, Inc. Adds Melendy Lovett to its Board of Directors". February 7, 2012. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
6. "News Releases". *Texas Instruments News Center*. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
7. "Trinity Industries, Inc. Announces Executive Appointment". February 7, 2014. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
8. "About – High-Tech High Heels". *www.hightechhighheels.org*. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
9. "AVID Adventures in College & Career Readiness - Blog - Special Recognition of AVID Board Member Melendy Lovett". *avidcollegeready.org*. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
10. "Shared Goals Bring Alumna and UTeach Together - UT Dallas News". *www.utdallas.edu*. Retrieved 2017-11-16.

## InfoBox

| Melendy E. Lovett | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | 1959<br>Terrell, Texas, US |
| Occupation(s) | Senior Vice President & Chief Administrative Officer, Trinity Industries |
| Spouse | James Robert Lovett |
| Children | Alexa Pass |
| Awards | Distinguished Alumni Award from University of Texas at Dallas (2005), Maura Award (2013) |


title: Melengestrol

abstract: Melengestrol is a steroidal progestin of the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone group and an antineoplastic drug which was never marketed. An acylated derivative, melengestrol acetate, is used as a growth promoter in animals. While melengestrol is sometimes used as a synonym for melengestrol acetate, what is usually being referred to is melengestrol acetate and not melengestrol.

text:
# Melengestrol

**Melengestrol** (INN, BAN) is a steroidal progestin of the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone group and an antineoplastic drug which was never marketed. An acylated derivative, melengestrol acetate, is used as a growth promoter in animals.

While *melengestrol* is sometimes used as a synonym for *melengestrol acetate*, what is usually being referred to is melengestrol acetate and not melengestrol.

## Synthesis

6-Methyl-16-dehydropregnenolone acetate (**5**) is the key intermediate to the preparation of both melengesterol acetate and medrogestone. Petrov and his collaborators have devised several interesting schemes that go back to diosgenin as the starting point. These schemes perform the necessary modifications in rings A and B with the sapogenin side chain still in place. In essence this approach employs this side chain as a protecting group for the future 16-dehydro-20-ketone function. In one of these routes, diosgenin is first converted to the 3-toluenesulfonate (**1**). Solvolysis of this homoallylic alcohol derivative affords the 3,5-cyclosteroid (**2**), via the cyclopropyl carbinyl ion (carbenium ion) (not shown). (This general reaction was probably first found in the steroids and bore the name of "*i*-steroid rearrangement.") Oxidation of the product by means of PCC affords the ketone. Reaction of this with methylmagnesium iodide affords two isomeric carbinols with the α-isomer predominating (**3**). Solvolysis in the presence of a nucleophile such as acetic acid reverses the cyclopropylcarbinyl transformation to afford homoallylic acetate. Removal of the sapogenin side chain leads to the desired product (**5**).

Substitution at the 16 position was found to lead to further potentiation of progestational activity. Reaction with diazomethane at the conjugated double bond at 16 gives first the pyrazole (**6**). This heterocycle affords the 16 methyl enone on pyrolysis (**7**). Selective epoxidation of the conjugated double bond to the 16,17α-epoxide over that at 5,6 is achieved by oxidation with basic hydrogen peroxide (**8**). Opening of this tetrasubstituted oxirane ring in acid proceeds with loss of a proton from the β position (16 methyl) (**9**) to afford the desired 16-methylene-17α-hydroxy-20-ketone functionality in the D ring (**10**). The product is saponified and then the subject of an Oppenauer oxidation, which is then dehydrogenated to the 4,6-diene with chloranil (**11**). Acetylation under forcing conditions completes the synthesis of melengesterol acetate.

## InfoBox

Melengestrol
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Clinical data | |
| ATC code | * None |
| Identifiers | |
| IUPAC name * 17α-hydroxy-6-methyl-16-methylenepregna-4,6-diene-3,20-dione | |
| CAS Number |  |
| PubChem CID |  |
| ChemSpider |  |
| UNII |  |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) |  |
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.024.613 |
| Chemical and physical data | |
| Formula | C23H30O3 |
| Molar mass | 354.490 g·mol−1 |
| 3D model (JSmol) |  |
| SMILES * O=C4\C=C3\C(=C/\[C@@H\]1\[C@H\](CC\[C@@\]2(\[C@\](O)(C(=C)\C\[C@@H\]12)C(=O)C)C)\[C@@\]3(C)CC4)C | |
| InChI * InChI=1S/C23H30O3/c1-13-10-17-18(21(4)8-6-16(25)12-19(13)21)7-9-22(5)20(17)11-14(2)23(22,26)15(3)24/h10,12,17-18,20,26H,2,6-9,11H2,1,3-5H3/t17-,18+,20+,21-,22+,23+/m1/s1 Y * Key:OKHAOBQKCCIRLO-IBVJIVQJSA-N Y | |
| NY (what is this?)  (verify) | |