title: Ventricle (heart)

abstract: A ventricle is one of two large chambers located toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped by a ventricle is supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper heart that is smaller than a ventricle. Interventricular means between the ventricles, while intraventricular means within one ventricle. In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.

text:
# Ventricle (heart)

A **ventricle** is one of two large chambers located toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped by a ventricle is supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper heart that is smaller than a ventricle. Interventricular means between the ventricles (for example the interventricular septum), while intraventricular means within one ventricle (for example an intraventricular block).

In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.

## Structure

Ventricles have thicker walls than atria and generate higher blood pressures. The physiological load on the ventricles requiring pumping of blood throughout the body and lungs is much greater than the pressure generated by the atria to fill the ventricles. Further, the **left ventricle** has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of the body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.

On the inner walls of the ventricles are irregular muscular columns called trabeculae carneae which cover all of the inner ventricular surfaces except that of the conus arteriosus, in the right ventricle. There are three types of these muscles. The third type, the papillary muscles, give origin at their apices to the chordae tendinae which attach to the cusps of the tricuspid valve and to the mitral valve.

The mass of the left ventricle, as estimated by magnetic resonance imaging, averages 143 g ± 38.4 g, with a range of 87–224 g.

The **right ventricle** is equal in size to the left ventricle and contains roughly 85 millilitres (3 imp fl oz; 3 US fl oz) in the adult. Its upper front surface is circled and convex, and forms much of the sternocostal surface of the heart. Its under surface is flattened, forming part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart that rests upon the diaphragm.

Its posterior wall is formed by the ventricular septum, which bulges into the right ventricle, so that a transverse section of the cavity presents a semilunar outline. Its upper and left angle forms a conical pouch, the conus arteriosus, from which the pulmonary artery arises. A tendinous band, called the tendon of the conus arteriosus, extends upward from the right atrioventricular fibrous ring and connects the posterior surface of the conus arteriosus to the aorta.

### Shape

The left ventricle is longer and more conical in shape than the right, and on transverse section its concavity presents an oval or nearly circular outline. It forms a small part of the sternocostal surface and a considerable part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart; it also forms the apex of the heart. The left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle because it pumps blood at a higher pressure.

The right ventricle is triangular in shape and extends from the tricuspid valve in the right atrium to near the apex of the heart. Its wall is thickest at the apex and thins towards its base at the atrium. When viewed via cross section however, the right ventricle seems to be crescent shaped. The right ventricle is made of two components: the sinus and the conus. The Sinus is the inflow which flows away from the tricuspid valve. Three bands made from muscle, separate the right ventricle: the parietal, the septal, and the moderator band. The moderator band connects from the base of the anterior papillary muscle to the ventricular septum.

### Development

By young adulthood, the walls of the left ventricle have thickened from three to six times greater than that of the right ventricle. This reflects the typical five times greater pressure workload this chamber performs while accepting blood returning from the pulmonary veins at ~80mmHg pressure (equivalent to around 11 kPa) and pushing it forward to the typical ~120mmHg pressure (around 16.3 kPa) in the aorta during each heartbeat. (The pressures stated are resting values and stated as relative to surrounding atmospheric which is the typical "0" reference pressure used in medicine.)

## Function

During systole, the ventricles contract, pumping blood through the body. During diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood again.

The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium via the mitral valve and pumps it through the aorta via the aortic valve, into the systemic circulation. The left ventricular muscle must relax and contract quickly and be able to increase or lower its pumping capacity under the control of the nervous system. In the diastolic phase, it has to relax very quickly after each contraction so as to quickly fill with the oxygenated blood flowing from the pulmonary veins. Likewise in the systolic phase, the left ventricle must contract rapidly and forcibly to pump this blood into the aorta, overcoming the much higher aortic pressure. The extra pressure exerted is also needed to stretch the aorta and other arteries to accommodate the increase in blood volume.

The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium via the tricuspid valve and pumps it into the pulmonary artery via the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary circulation.

### Pumping volume

The typical healthy adult heart pumping volume is ~5 liters/min, resting. Maximum capacity pumping volume extends from ~25 liters/min for non-athletes to as high as ~45 liters/min for Olympic level athletes.

### Volumes

In cardiology, the performance of the ventricles are measured with several volumetric parameters, including end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), stroke volume (SV) and ejection fraction (Ef).

| Ventricular volumes | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Measure | Right ventricle | Left ventricle |
| End-diastolic volume | 144 mL (± 23 mL) | 142 mL (± 21 mL) |
| End-diastolic volume / body surface area (mL/m2) | 78 mL/m2 (± 11 mL/m2) | 78 mL/m2 (± 8.8 mL/m2) |
| End-systolic volume | 50 mL (± 14 mL) | 47 mL (± 10 mL) |
| End-systolic volume / body surface area (mL/m2) | 27 mL/m2 (± 7 mL/m2) | 26 mL/m2 (± 5.1 mL/m2) |
| Stroke volume | 94 mL (± 15 mL) | 95 mL (± 14 mL) |
| Stroke volume / body surface area (mL/m2) | 51 mL/m2 (± 7 mL/m2) | 52 mL/m2 (± 6.2 mL/m2) |
| Ejection fraction | 66% (± 6%) | 67% (± 4.6%) |
| Heart rate | 60–100 bpm | 60–100 bpm |
| Cardiac output | 4.0–8.0 L/minute | 4.0–8.0 L/minute |

### Pressures

| Site | | Normal
pressure range
(in mmHg) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Central venous pressure | | 3–8 |
| Right ventricular pressure | systolic | 15–30 |
| | diastolic | 3–8 |
| Pulmonary artery pressure | systolic | 15–30 |
| | diastolic | 4–12 |
| Pulmonary vein/
Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure | | 2–15 |
| Left ventricular pressure | systolic | 100–140 |
| | diastolic | 3–12 |

**Ventricular pressure** is a measure of blood pressure within the ventricles of the heart.

#### Left

During most of the cardiac cycle, ventricular pressure is less than the pressure in the aorta, but during systole, the ventricular pressure rapidly increases, and the two pressures become equal to each other (represented by the junction of the blue and red lines on the diagram on this page), the aortic valve opens, and blood is pumped to the body.

Elevated left ventricular end-diastolic pressure has been described as a risk factor in cardiac surgery.

Noninvasive approximations have been described.

An elevated pressure difference between the aortic pressure and the left ventricular pressure may be indicative of aortic stenosis.

Right ventricular pressure demonstrates a different pressure-volume loop than left ventricular pressure.

### Dimensions

The heart and its performance are also commonly measured in terms of *dimensions*, which in this case means one-dimensional distances, usually measured in millimeters. This is not as informative as volumes but may be much easier to estimate with (e.g., M-Mode echocardiography or with sonomicrometry, which is mostly used for animal model research). Optimally, it is specified with which plane the distance is measured in, e.g. the dimension of the longitudinal plane.

| Dimension | Abbreviation | Definition | Normally |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **End-diastolic dimension** | EDD | The diameter across a ventricle at the end of diastole, if not else specified then usually referring to the transverse (left-to-right) internal (luminal) distance, excluding thickness of walls, although it can also be measured as the external distance. |  |
| **Left ventricular end-diastolic dimension** | LVEDD or sometimes LVDD | The end-diastolic dimension of the left ventricle. | 48 mm,
Range 36 – 56 mm |
| **Right ventricular end-diastolic dimension** | RVEDD or sometimes RVDD | The end-diastolic dimension of the right ventricle. | Range 10 – 26 mm |
| **End-systolic dimension** | ESD | ESD is similar to the end-diastolic dimension, but is measured at the end of systole (after the ventricles have pumped out blood) rather than at the end of diastole. |  |
| **Left ventricular end-systolic dimension** | LVESD or sometimes LVSD | The end-systolic dimension of the left ventricle. | Range 20 – 40 mm |
| **Right ventricular end-systolic dimension** | RVESD or sometimes RVSD | The end-systolic dimension of the right ventricle. | Range 10 – 26 mm |
| **Interventricular septal end diastolic dimension** | IVSd | The thickness of the interventricular septum. | 8.3 mm,
Range 7 – 11 mm |
| **Left ventricular end diastolic posterior wall dimension** | LVPWd | The thickness of the posterior left ventricular wall. | 8.3 mm,
Range 7 – 11 mm |
| Mean **left ventricular myocardial thickness** | Mean LVMT | Average thickness of the left ventricle, with numbers given as 95% prediction interval for the short axis images at the mid-cavity level | Women: 4 - 8 mm
Men: 5 - 9 mm |
| Mean **right ventricular myocardial thickness** | Mean RVMT | Average thickness of the right ventricle, with numbers given as 95% prediction interval. | 4 - 7 mm |
| **Left ventricular end systolic dimension** |  | As above but measured during systole. This measurement is not commonly used clinically. | 16  mm |
| **Left atrial dimension** | LA |  | Range 24 – 40 mm |

**Fractional shortening** (**FS**) is the fraction of any diastolic dimension that is lost in systole. When referring to endocardial luminal distances, it is EDD minus ESD divided by EDD (times 100 when measured in percentage). Normal values may differ somewhat dependent on which anatomical plane is used to measure the distances. Normal range is 25–45%, Mild is 20–25%, Moderate is 15–20%, and Severe is \<15%. Cardiology Diagnostic Tests Midwall fractional shortening may also be used to measure diastolic/systolic changes for inter-ventricular septal dimensions and posterior wall dimensions. However, both endocardial and midwall fractional shortening are dependent on myocardial wall thickness, and thereby dependent on long-axis function. By comparison, a measure of short-axis function termed epicardial volume change (EVC) is independent of myocardial wall thickness and represents isolated short-axis function.

## Clinical significance

An arrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.

Another form of arrhythmia is that of the ventricular escape beat. This can happen as a compensatory mechanism when there is a problem in the conduction system from the SA node.

The most severe form of arrhythmia is ventricular fibrillation which is the most common cause of cardiac arrest and subsequent sudden death.

## InfoBox

| Ventricle | |
| --- | --- |
| Computer generated animation of cut section of the human heart showing both ventricles. | |
| Details | |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | *ventriculus cordis* |
| MeSH | D006352 |
| TA98 | A12.1.00.012 |
| FMA | 7100 |
| Anatomical terminology | |


title: Verner Island

abstract: Verner Island is one of the Jocelyn Islands, lying just west of Petersen Island, just east of Lee Island and Kista Strait, and just south of Moller Bank and Carstens Shoal, in Holme Bay, Mac. Robertson Land. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from air photos taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition, 1936–37, and remapped by ANARE in 1956. It was named Verner Pedersen, the chief officer of the Thala Dan in 1961.

text:
# Verner Island

**Verner Island** is one of the Jocelyn Islands, lying just west of Petersen Island, just east of Lee Island and Kista Strait, and just south of Moller Bank and Carstens Shoal, in Holme Bay, Mac. Robertson Land. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from air photos taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition, 1936–37, and remapped by ANARE (Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions) in 1956. It was named Verner Pedersen, the chief officer of the *Thala Dan* in 1961.

This article incorporates public domain material from "Verner Island". *Geographic Names Information System*. United States Geological Survey.

## InfoBox

Verner Island
| Verner IslandLocation in Antarctica | |
| --- | --- |
| Geography | |
| Location | Antarctica |
| Coordinates | 67°35′S 62°53′E / 67.583°S 62.883°E / -67.583; 62.883 |
| Administration | |
| Administered under the Antarctic Treaty System | |
| Demographics | |
| Population | Uninhabited |


title: VfB Theley

abstract: VfB Theley is a German association football club from the Theley suburb of the town of Tholey, Saarland. The club's greatest success has been promotion to the second tier 2. Oberliga Südwest in 1958 where it played for five seasons. After the introduction of the Bundesliga in 1963 Theley spent another three seasons at the second tier, now the Regionalliga Südwest before dropping out of higher-level football altogether in 1974. Theley also made two appearances in the DFB-Pokal, in 1974–75 and 1976–77, but was knocked out in the second round at each occasion.

text:
# VfB Theley

**VfB Theley** is a German association football club from the Theley suburb of the town of Tholey, Saarland. The club's greatest success has been promotion to the second tier 2. Oberliga Südwest in 1958 where it played for five seasons. After the introduction of the Bundesliga in 1963 Theley spent another three seasons at the second tier, now the Regionalliga Südwest before dropping out of higher-level football altogether in 1974.

Theley also made two appearances in the DFB-Pokal, in 1974–75 and 1976–77, but was knocked out in the second round at each occasion.

## History

Football was established in Theley after the First World War when British soldiers were stationed in the village for a number of weeks to demarcate the boundary between Germany and the soon to be League of Nations-administrated Saarland and were spotted playing the game by local youth. The club played as a local amateur side for the first couple of decades of its existence.

VfB Theley won promotion to the tier three Amateurliga Saarland in 1955 and spent the first two seasons as a lower table side before winning the league in 1957–58. Promoted, Theley played in the 2. Oberliga Südwest the next five season from 1958 to 1963, playing as a lower table side with two eleventh-place finishes as its best result.

Back in the Amateurliga Theley won the league in 1970 and 1972, earning promotion to the tier two Regionalliga on each occasion. The club spent three seasons in the Regionalliga Südwest, in 1970–71 and from 1972 to 1974 with a tenth place in 1973 as its best result. At the end of the 1973–74 season the Regionalliga was disbanded in favour of the new 2. Bundesliga and the club dropped out of higher league football altogether.

In the period that followed Theley made two appearances in the first round of the DFB-Pokal, in 1974–75 and 1976–77. In Both instances the club advanced to the second round where it was knocked out by Altonaer FC 93 and MSV Duisburg. In its first two Amateurliga seasons Theley finished runners-up in the league and fourth in 1977 but, in 1977–78, when a top-seven finish was required to qualify for the new Oberliga the club came only thirteenth. Because of this it dropped to the new tier four Verbandsliga Saarland, but was relegated from this level the following season as well.

Theley returned to the Verbandsliga in 1981 but was relegated in 1984. It returned for a second time in 1988, generally achieving better results that culminated in a league championship in 1998–99. Promoted, the club played for a single season in the Oberliga Südwest in 1999–2000 but finished eighteenth and was relegated again. Back in the Verbandsliga Theley played as a lower table side until 2007 when it was relegated to the Landesliga. When the Saarlandliga was introduced as the new highest league in the state, as the sixth tier of the league system, the club moved back up to the expanded Verbandsliga. From there it won promotion to the Saarlandliga where it spent the 2010–11 season. Relegated back to the Verbandsliga Theley experienced another drop in 2015, now to the Landesliga. A runners-up finish in the Landesliga in 2015–16 took the club back up to the Verbandsliga.

## Honours

The club's honours:

## Recent seasons

The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

| Season | Division | Tier | Position |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2003–04 | Verbandsliga Saarland | V | 7th |
| 2004–05 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 16th |
| 2005–06 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 16th |
| 2006–07 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 17th↓ |
| 2007–08 | Landesliga Nordost | VI | 3rd |
| 2008–09 | Landesliga Nordost | VII | 3rd↑ |
| 2009–10 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 1st↑ |
| 2010–11 | Saarlandliga | VI | 16th↓ |
| 2011–12 | Verbandsliga Saarland | VII | 15th |
| 2012–13 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 13th |
| 2013–14 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 11th |
| 2014–15 | Verbandsliga Saarland | | 13th↓ |
| 2015–16 | Landesliga Nord | VIII | 2nd↑ |
| 2016–17 | Verbandsliga Saarland | VII |  |

| Promoted | Relegated |
| --- | --- |

## InfoBox

VfB Theley
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Verein für Bewegungsspiele Theley |
| Founded | 7 December 1919 |
| Ground | Schaumbergstadion |
| Capacity | 9,000 |
| Chairman | Erich Müller |
| Head Coach | Nicola Latta |
| League | Verbandsliga Saarland (VII) |
| 2015–16 | Landesliga Nord (VIII), 2nd (promoted) |
| Website | Club website |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Pukeatua

abstract: Pukeatua is a rural farming community in Waipa District and Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. It is situated at the south-western foot of the Pukeatua hill, of the Maungatautari mountain range. The area is west of Tīrau, Putāruru and State Highway 1, and east of Te Awamutu and State Highway 3. Pukeatua translates as hill of god.

text:
# Pukeatua

**Pukeatua** is a rural farming community in Waipa District and Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. It is situated at the south-western foot of the Pukeatua hill, of the Maungatautari mountain range.

The area is west of Tīrau, Putāruru and State Highway 1, and east of Te Awamutu and State Highway 3.

Pukeatua translates as *hill of god* (*puke* = hill, *atua*= god).

## Demographics

Pukeatua locality is in an SA1 statistical area which covers 48.66 km2 (18.79 sq mi). The SA1 area is part of the larger Rotongata statistical area.

Historical population for Pukeatua and surrounds
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2006 | 135 |  |
| 2013 | 162 | +2.64% |
| 2018 | 165 | +0.37% |
| Source: | | |

The SA1 area had a population of 165 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 3 people (1.9%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 30 people (22.2%) since the 2006 census. There were 60 households, comprising 84 males and 78 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.08 males per female. The median age was 37.6 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 42 people (25.5%) aged under 15 years, 18 (10.9%) aged 15 to 29, 90 (54.5%) aged 30 to 64, and 12 (7.3%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 78.2% European/Pākehā, 14.5% Māori, 3.6% Pacific peoples, 14.5% Asian, and 3.6% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 45.5% had no religion, 41.8% were Christian, 3.6% had Māori religious beliefs, 1.8% were Buddhist and 5.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 27 (22.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 21 (17.1%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $40,300, compared with $31,800 nationally. 24 people (19.5%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 72 (58.5%) people were employed full-time, 30 (24.4%) were part-time, and 3 (2.4%) were unemployed.

### Rotongata statistical area

Rotongata statistical area, which also includes Wharepapa South, covers 211.55 km2 (81.68 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 940 as of June 2023, with a population density of 4.4 people per km2.

Historical population for Rotongata
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2006 | 822 |  |
| 2013 | 819 | −0.05% |
| 2018 | 834 | +0.36% |
| Source: | | |

Rotongata had a population of 834 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 15 people (1.8%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 12 people (1.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 294 households, comprising 423 males and 411 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.03 males per female. The median age was 34.2 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 222 people (26.6%) aged under 15 years, 141 (16.9%) aged 15 to 29, 408 (48.9%) aged 30 to 64, and 60 (7.2%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 77.7% European/Pākehā, 19.4% Māori, 1.8% Pacific peoples, 9.0% Asian, and 2.5% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 16.9, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 52.5% had no religion, 34.2% were Christian, 2.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.4% were Hindu, 1.1% were Buddhist and 2.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 132 (21.6%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 102 (16.7%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $38,100, compared with $31,800 nationally. 93 people (15.2%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 384 (62.7%) people were employed full-time, 105 (17.2%) were part-time, and 12 (2.0%) were unemployed.

## Education

Pukeatua School is a Decile 8 primary school, providing full education for Years 1 to 8. The school has a roll of 92 as of August 2024. The school was founded in 1911.

The village also has a small war memorial church and a playcentre.

## InfoBox

| Pukeatua | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
|  | |
| Coordinates: 38°03′52″S 175°33′28″E / 38.064366°S 175.557837°E / -38.064366; 175.557837 | |
| Country | New Zealand |
| Region | Waikato |
| District | Waipa District |
| Ward | Kakepuku Ward |
| Community | Te Awamutu Community |
| Electorates |  |
| Government | |
| Territorial Authority | Waipa District Council |
| Regional council | Waikato Regional Council |
| Area | |
| Territorial | 48.66 km2 (18.79 sq mi) |
| Population (2018 Census) | |
| Territorial | 165 |
| Density | 3.4/km2 (8.8/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+12 (NZST) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+13 (NZDT) |


title: Punctapinella hypsithrona

abstract: Punctapinella hypsithrona is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Colombia.

text:
# Punctapinella hypsithrona

***Punctapinella hypsithrona*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Colombia.

## InfoBox

| *Punctapinella hypsithrona* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Punctapinella* |
| Species: | ***P. hypsithrona*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Punctapinella hypsithrona***<br>(Meyrick, 1926) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Eulia hypsithrona* Meyrick, 1926 | |


title: Pugneys Country Park

abstract: Pugneys Country Park is a 250-acre (1.0 km⁲) park located on the A636 between Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England and Junction 39 of the M1 motorway. It is a Local Nature Reserve. The area was developed from a former opencast mine and a sand and gravel quarry and was opened to the public in 1985. It is overlooked by Sandal Castle. The park comprises two lakes, Both lakes are now dedicated as a nature reserve. A 7+1⁄4 in (184 mm) gauge miniature railway, running round part of the larger lake, operates on weekends and bank holidays, and cafeteria facilities are available. The nature reserve is home to a large flock of non-breeding swans, with up to 100 in residence at any time. The lakes serve as a flood defence by providing an overflow from the River Calder.

text:
# Pugneys Country Park

**Pugneys Country Park** is a 250-acre (1.0 km2) park located on the A636 between Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England and Junction 39 of the M1 motorway. It is a Local Nature Reserve.

The area was developed from a former opencast mine and a sand and gravel quarry and was opened to the public in 1985. It is overlooked by Sandal Castle.

The park comprises two lakes, Both lakes are now dedicated as a nature reserve.

A 7+14 in (184 mm) gauge miniature railway, running round part of the larger lake, operates on weekends and bank holidays, and cafeteria facilities are available.

The nature reserve is home to a large flock of non-breeding swans, with up to 100 in residence at any time.

The lakes serve as a flood defence by providing an overflow from the River Calder.

53°39′23″N 1°30′14″W / 53.6565°N 1.5038°W / 53.6565; -1.5038


title: Puncturella abyssicola

abstract: Puncturella abyssicola is a species of minute deepwater keyhole limpet, a marine gastropod mollusks or micromollusk in the family Fissurellidae, the keyhole limpets and slit limpets.

text:
# Puncturella abyssicola

***Puncturella abyssicola*** is a species of minute deepwater keyhole limpet, a marine gastropod mollusks or micromollusk in the family Fissurellidae, the keyhole limpets and slit limpets.

## Description

## Distribution

## InfoBox

| *Puncturella abyssicola* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Vetigastropoda |
| Order: | Lepetellida |
| Family: | Fissurellidae |
| Genus: | *Puncturella* |
| Species: | ***P. abyssicola*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Puncturella abyssicola***<br>Verrill, 1885 | |
|


title: Punk (fireworks)

abstract: A punk is a smoldering stick used for lighting firework fuses. It is safer than a match or a lighter because it can be used from a greater distance and does not use an open flame. They are made of bamboo and a brown coating of compressed sawdust. Punks often resemble sticks of incense, and in some countries actual incense sticks are used in a similar fashion. Punks are sold at nearly all firework stands and many stands will include them for free with a purchase.

text:
# Punk (fireworks)

A **punk** is a smoldering stick used for lighting firework fuses. It is safer than a match or a lighter because it can be used from a greater distance and does not use an open flame. They are made of bamboo and a brown coating of compressed sawdust. Punks often resemble sticks of incense, and in some countries actual incense sticks are used in a similar fashion. Punks are sold at nearly all firework stands and many stands will include them for free with a purchase.


title: Puggsy

abstract: Puggsy is a 1993 puzzle-platform game developed by Traveller's Tales and released by Psygnosis on the Mega Drive and Mega-CD consoles, as well as the Amiga home computer. Puggsy is the name of the title character, an orange space hopper–like alien who landed his spaceship on The Planet, intending to return home until his spaceship was stolen by the raccoon natives of the planet.

text:
# Puggsy

***Puggsy*** is a 1993 puzzle-platform game developed by Traveller's Tales and released by Psygnosis on the Mega Drive and Mega-CD consoles, as well as the Amiga home computer. *Puggsy* is the name of the title character, an orange space hopper–like alien who landed his spaceship on The Planet, intending to return home until his spaceship was stolen by the raccoon natives of the planet.

## Gameplay

The gameplay is mostly a cross between a normal platform game, with the usual style of platformer enemies and a variety of means to kill them, and a puzzle game of sorts where Puggsy is often required to find objects, and either carry them to a specific location or somehow use them in order to complete levels. There are also a variety of objects that have power-up effects, such as allowing Puggsy to be hit once or twice without dying, speeding him up or making him temporarily invincible, and objects that while not necessary, can be temporarily helpful, such as a variety of guns (most of which have limited ammunition which can often not be refilled).

Objects react on a clever physics based system, which was an innovative feature at the time. The system allows objects to be thrown, or to topple if stacked without care. Each object also has a different weight. Another effect of this is that Puggsy can carry stacks of objects along a flat surface, but a slope will often cause all items except the bottom one (held by Puggsy) to topple and scatter. Also, any objects carried out of the level exits give different score values, or in the case of the heart object, an extra life. Other objects are extremely varied, including shells, weights, matches, keys, balloons, cups, barrels, clue-giving chests, knives, and candles.

The game features 57 levels in a variety of settings (16 of those levels being secret) and 6 boss characters (9 boss characters in the Mega-CD version), although not all levels and bosses have to be finished to complete the game, and 5 training levels, accessed from the "Junior" option on the title screen. Also, while the player can just play through the game normally and reach the normal ending, a few secret "endings" (cinematic sequences that can only be terminated by resetting the console, or that reset the game themselves) are available by achieving certain goals, such as leaving one secret level with blocks that spelt out the word "HEROS", playing all 51 normal levels (6 of the secret levels are only accessible via a special password, and are not counted towards the normal level total), or playing through the 6 previously mentioned special secret levels. The password to obtain these levels had to be obtained by evaluating three math expressions that appeared during the credits, where they are called "a silly maths equation". In the "HEROS" ending, the player is congratulated for finding the ending, and then asked, "...but are you good at maths?".

## Development

The Puggsy character originally appeared in an Amiga demo in 1990 named *Puggs in Space*, which was created and designed by Dionysus—a demogroup formed by Lee Carus, Alan McCarthy and Tim Wright. The management of Psygnosis was impressed by the demo, and asked Dionysus to develop a game based around Puggsy. However, the contract with Psygnosis to produce a game was short-lived; Wright said the company "didn't really 'get' where we were going with the game". The demogroup was pulled out of the game's development, which was then shifted to Traveller's Tales. Psygnosis asked Traveller's Tales if they could develop a game using the character from the demo. *Puggsy* was designed and programmed by Jon Burton, while Andy Ingram handled the graphic design and artwork for the game. While the character design for Puggsy was retained from the demo, the developers changed his colour from red to orange to prevent the consoles from colour bleeding. Wright recalled that Dionysus's version was going to be similar to *LittleBigPlanet*, while Traveller's Tales' version was created as a standard platformer.

The object physics in *Puggsy* was inspired by *Super Mario World*, a game Burton had enjoyed. Burton decided to create a *Super Mario World*-type game, but with puzzles being based on physical objects with different properties such as buoyancy, weight, friction and so on. As *Puggsy* was deemed too complicated for novice players, the training levels were added late in development in response to the publisher's input. Burton noted that the training levels would give the impression of a basic platformer. The music was written by Matt Furniss, an employee of Krisalis Software. Wright created cover versions of Furniss' tunes for the Amiga version and added a *Puggsy* demo theme into a tail end of one of the pieces. Wright found Furniss' music "really well written and fun to convert to the Amiga, so there were no bad bones." A promised sequel, titled as *Puggsy II*, was teased at the game's ending, but it never materialised. The SNES version was almost completed, but it was cancelled, with developers hoping to find the SNES version and release it in public domain.

As the Mega Drive cartridge copiers were defaulted to simulate a battery-backed SRAM for storing save data, *Puggsy* uses an SRAM as a means of an anti-piracy feature. Since the game employs a password system, genuine cartridges do not contain an internal SRAM. The game performs an SRAM check after its fifth level, and if an SRAM is found, it displays a warning message telling the player to stop playing a "silly copy" of *Puggsy*.

## Reception

*MegaTech* gave the game 90% and a Hyper Game Award, saying that it was "excellently designed and thought-out", but listed the control system as the major weak point. Reviewing the Mega-CD version, *GamePro* praised the controls, the graphics, the sound effects, the strong challenge, and the attention to detail, concluding that "Though veteran gamers will quickly tire of Puggsy, younger players will enjoy his island antics."

## InfoBox

| Puggsy | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Developer(s) | Traveller's Tales |
| Publisher(s) | Psygnosis |
| Designer(s) | Jon Burton |
| Artist(s) | Andy Ingram |
| Composer(s) | Matt Furniss (Genesis and Sega CD versions)<br>Tim Wright (Amiga version) |
| Platform(s) |  |
| Release | * EU: March 23, 1993 * NA: January 6, 1994 |
| Genre(s) | Puzzle-platform |
| Mode(s) | Single player |


title: Pujie

abstract: Pujie was a Qing dynasty imperial prince of the Aisin-Gioro. Pujie was the younger brother of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Pujie went to Japan, where he was educated and married to Hiro Saga, a Japanese noblewoman. In 1937, he moved to Manchukuo, where his brother ruled as Emperor under varying degrees of Japanese control during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). After the war ended, Pujie was captured by Soviet forces, held in Soviet prison camps for five years, and then extradited back to the People's Republic of China, where he was incarcerated for about 10 years in the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre. He was later pardoned and released from prison by the Chinese government, after which he remained in Beijing where he joined the Communist Party and served in a number of positions in the party until his death in 1994.

text:
# Pujie

| Pujie | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 溥傑 |
| Simplified Chinese | 溥杰 |
| Transcriptions  Standard Mandarin  Hanyu Pinyin Pǔjié  Bopomofo ㄆㄨˇ ㄐㄧㄝˊ  Wade–Giles P'u³-chieh²  Tongyong Pinyin Pǔ-jié  IPA \[pʰù.tɕjě\] | |
| Junzhi
(courtesy name) | |
| Chinese | 俊之 |
| Transcriptions  Standard Mandarin  Hanyu Pinyin Jùnzhī  Bopomofo ㄐㄩㄣˋ ㄓ  Wade–Giles Chün⁴-chih¹  Tongyong Pinyin Jyùn-jhih  IPA \[tɕŷn.ʈʂɻ̩́\] | |
| Bingfan
(art name) | |
| Chinese | 秉藩 |
| Transcriptions  Standard Mandarin  Hanyu Pinyin Bǐngfān  Bopomofo ㄅㄧㄥˇ ㄈㄢ  Wade–Giles Ping³-fan¹  Tongyong Pinyin Bǐng-fan  IPA \[pìŋ.fán\] | |
| Japanese name | |
| Kanji | 溥傑 |
| Hiragana | ふけつ |
| Katakana | フケツ |
| Transcriptions  Kunrei-shiki Huketu | |
|  | |

**Pujie** (Chinese: ; 16 April 1907 – 28 February 1994) was a Qing dynasty imperial prince of the Aisin-Gioro. Pujie was the younger brother of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Pujie went to Japan, where he was educated and married to Hiro Saga, a Japanese noblewoman. In 1937, he moved to Manchukuo, where his brother ruled as Emperor under varying degrees of Japanese control during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). After the war ended, Pujie was captured by Soviet forces, held in Soviet prison camps for five years, and then extradited back to the People's Republic of China, where he was incarcerated for about 10 years in the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre. He was later pardoned and released from prison by the Chinese government, after which he remained in Beijing where he joined the Communist Party and served in a number of positions in the party until his death in 1994.

## Names

Pujie's Manchu name was ᡦᡠ ᡤᡳᠶᡝ; *Pu-giye*, his courtesy name **Junzhi**, and his art name **Bingfan**. Zeng Guofan was a source of inspiration for Pujie's art name, Bingfan. *Bingfan* means "live up to (the legacy of Zeng Guo)*fan*".

## Early life

Pujie was the second son of Zaifeng (Prince Chun) and his primary consort, Youlan. As a child, he was brought to the Forbidden City in Beijing to be a playmate and classmate to his brother, Puyi. A well-known incident recounted how Puyi threw a tantrum when he saw that the inner lining of one of Pujie's coats was yellow, because yellow was traditionally a colour reserved only for the emperor.

In 1929, Pujie travelled to Japan and was educated in the Gakushūin Peers' School. He became fluent in Japanese. Later, he enrolled at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and graduated in July 1935.

Pujie was first married in 1924 to a Manchu noblewoman, Tang Shixia, but they had no children. He left his wife behind when he went to Japan, and the marriage was dissolved some years later. After graduating from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, Pujie agreed to an arranged marriage with a Japanese noblewoman. He selected Hiro Saga, who was a relative of the Japanese imperial family, from a photograph from a number of possible candidates vetted by the Kwantung Army. As Puyi did not have an heir, the wedding had strong political implications, and was aimed at both fortifying relations between the two countries and introducing Japanese blood into the Manchu imperial family.

The engagement ceremony took place at the Manchukuo embassy in Tokyo on 2 February 1937 with the official wedding held in the Imperial Army Hall at Kudanzaka, Tokyo, on 3 April. In October, the couple moved to Xinjing, the capital of Manchukuo, where Puyi was then the Emperor.

## Life in Manchukuo

As Puyi had no children, Pujie was regarded as first in line to succeed his brother as the emperor of Manchukuo; the Japanese officially proclaimed him the heir presumptive. However, Pujie was not appointed by his brother as the heir to the throne of the Qing dynasty, as imperial tradition stated that a childless emperor should choose his heir from a subsequent generation instead of from his own generation. While in Manchukuo, Pujie served as honorary head of the Manchukuo Imperial Guards. He returned briefly to Japan in 1944 to attend the Army Staff College.

At the time of the collapse of Manchukuo during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945, Pujie initially attempted to escape to Japan with his brother. However, as it became apparent that no escape was possible, he opted to return to Xinjing in an unsuccessful attempt to surrender the city to forces of the Republic of China, rather than have the city fall into foreign hands.

Pujie was arrested by the Soviet Red Army and first sent to a prison camp in Chita, and then to another in Khabarovsk along with his brother and other relatives. He spent about five years in the Soviet prison camps until 1950, when the Sino-Soviet rapprochement allowed him and his fellow captives to be extradited to the newly founded People's Republic of China.

## Life in the People's Republic of China

On his return to China, Pujie was incarcerated in the War Criminals Management Centre in Fushun, Liaoning. A model prisoner, he was eventually pardoned and released from prison by the Chinese government in 1960. He joined the Communist Party and served in a number of positions. In 1961, with permission from Chinese premier Zhou Enlai, he was reunited with his wife and younger daughter Husheng and settled in Beijing, while his daughter would later return to Japan, becoming a citizen there. In 1963, his daughter returned to stay with him and his wife for one year before returning to Japan again.

In 1978, Pujie became a deputy from Shanghai at the 5th National People's Congress. He subsequently served as Vice Chairman of the Nationalities Committee of the 6th National People's Congress in 1983. He was appointed Deputy Head of the China–Japan Friendship Group from 1985. He rose to a seat on the Presidium of the 7th National People's Congress in 1988. From 1986, Pujie was also Honorary Director of the Welfare Fund for Handicapped.

Pujie was also a technical adviser for the 1987 film *The Last Emperor*, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. On 28 November 1991, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Law by Ritsumeikan University. He died of illness at 07:55 on 28 February 1994 in Beijing at the age of 87. His body was cremated and half of his ashes were buried at Nakayama Shrine in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan, while the other half were buried in Beijing.

## Family

* First wife, of the Tatara clan (唐氏; 1904–1993), personal name Shixia (石霞)
* Second wife, of the Saga clan (嵯峨氏; 16 March 1914 – 20 June 1987), personal name Hiro ()
    + Huisheng (26 February 1938 – 4 December 1957), (慧生)
    + Husheng (b. 13 March 1940), (嫮生)
        - Married Kenji (健治) of the Japanese Fukunaga (福永) clan in 1968, and had issue (three sons, two daughters)

### Immediate family

Pujie's first wife was Tang Yiying (唐怡瑩; 1904–1993), who was better known as Tang Shixia (唐石霞). She was from the Manchu Tatara (他他拉) clan, and was the daughter of Zhiqi, a brother of the Guangxu Emperor's concubines Consort Zhen and Consort Jin. Pujie married Tang when he was 17, but did not get along well with her. In 1926, Tang became Zhang Xueliang's mistress and broke ties with Pujie and his family. When Pujie went to Japan for his studies, Tang had another affair – this time with Lu Xiaojia (盧筱嘉), the son of the warlord Lu Yongxiang. She looted Pujie's ancestral house, the Prince Chun Mansion in Beijing. Since then, Pujie and Tang had lived separately until their divorce. In 1949, Tang moved to Hong Kong and became a lecturer at the School of Eastern Languages in the University of Hong Kong.

In 1935, when Pujie returned to China from his studies in Japan, Puyi tried to help his brother find a Manchu wife. Pujie met one, Wang Mintong (王敏彤), but they never married.

Pujie eventually married Hiro Saga, a Japanese noblewoman related to the Japanese imperial family, under an arranged marriage. They had two daughters: Huisheng (1938–1957) and Husheng (嫮生; born 1940). Huisheng died on 4 December 1957 at Mount Amagi in Japan in what appeared to be a murder–suicide case, while Husheng married Fukunaga Kenji (福永健治) and became known as "Fukunaga Kosei" after her marriage. The couple had five children.

| Styles of
**Aisin Gioro Pujie** | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Reference style | His Imperial Highness |
| Spoken style | Your Imperial Highness |

## Ancestry

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## Bibliography

## InfoBox

| Pujie | |
| --- | --- |
| Pujie wearing military dress, c.1930-1940 | |
| Head of the House of Aisin-Gioro | |
| Period | 17 October 1967 – 28 February 1994 |
| Predecessor | Puyi |
| Successor | Jin Youzhi |
|  | |
| Born | (1907-04-16)16 April 1907
Prince Chun Mansion, Peking, Qing dynasty |
| Died | 28 February 1994(1994-02-28) (aged 86)
Beijing, China |
| Burial | Nagayama Shrine, Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan
Beijing, China |
| Consorts | *   Tang Shixia  (m. 1924; div. 1928) *   Hiro Saga  (m. 1937; died 1987) |
| Issue | Huisheng
Husheng |
| Names  Aisin-Gioro Pujie
(愛新覺羅 溥傑) | |
| House | Aisin-Gioro |
| Father | Zaifeng, Prince Chun of the First Rank |
| Mother | Youlan |
|  | |
| Military career | |
| Allegiance | Manchukuo |
| Service/branch | Manchukuo Imperial Guards |
|  | |


title: Pure Mint Recordings

abstract: Pure Mint Recordings is a British independent record label based in London. The label was established in 2004 by Anthony Hall together with Dashal Beevers, growing out of an earlier incarnation called Mint Source Recordings. In 2003 Mint Source released the critically acclaimed compilation Flowers in the Attic featuring some of Nottingham's rising stars of deep house, including Crazy Penis, Bent – with their remix of the Hall & Oates classic "I Can't Go For That", Zoe Johnston, Oz from The DiY Sound System, Heavy Deviance and Neon Heights amongst others. The label has found supporters worldwide for its eclectic catalogue and has licensed repertoire to Norman Jay], Carl Cox in Australia, Junior Vasquez, Fabric – Fabric Live 17, Mastercuts Aquasky and others. Releases include T-Total's version of Brian Eno's "Baby's on Fire" – with guest 'featured vocals' from Soft Cell's Marc Almond – and the debut long player "A Slow Walk Down The Stairs" from Heavy Deviance, themselves favourites of Chris Coco, Mark Rae, Rob Da Bank, KCRW (LA), Laurent Garnier, Bent, Crazy Penis etc. A Slow Walk Down The Stairs was voted 16th best album of 2005 by M8 Magazine. The label has moved away from its originally exclusive dance release-base to include electropop, indie folk, ex Gay Dad – nominated for the XFM 2009 New Music Award rock, indie-dance, political satire and breaks, with collaborations and artist releases from Long Range, Yo Majesty, Aquasky, Alex Metric and others. As of November 2009, the label's catalogue comprises approximately 25 releases On 4 December 2009 Hall resigned from the BPI Rights Committee and the IFPI's International Legal Committees citing irreconcilable differences over the industry's approach to file sharing and their support of the draft Digital Economy Bill (DEB) going through the UK parliament at the time. He was quoted as saying: I am particularly surprised that the record industry has chosen to endorse s.17 of the DEB, which I consider is wholly undemocratic and contrary to centuries of good practice regarding the forming of our copyright legislation. I also believe it may set a dangerous precedent going forwards

text:
# Pure Mint Recordings

**Pure Mint Recordings** is a British independent record label based in London.

The label was established in 2004 by Anthony Hall (a dual qualified English and New York lawyer and musician) together with Dashal Beevers, growing out of an earlier incarnation called Mint Source Recordings. In 2003 Mint Source released the critically acclaimed compilation Flowers in the Attic featuring some of Nottingham's rising stars of deep house, including Crazy Penis, Bent – with their remix of the Hall & Oates classic "I Can't Go For That" (which Bent chose to finish their Big Chill set with in 2004), Zoe Johnston (who has written and performed with Faithless), Oz from The DiY Sound System, Heavy Deviance and Neon Heights amongst others.

The label has found supporters worldwide for its eclectic catalogue and has licensed repertoire to Norman Jay (Giant 45)\], Carl Cox in Australia, Junior Vasquez, FabricFabric Live 17 (mixed by AIM), Mastercuts (CUTSCD-58 Mastercuts Chilled,) Aquasky and others.

Releases include T-Total's version of Brian Eno's "Baby's on Fire" – with guest 'featured vocals' from Soft Cell's Marc Almond – and the debut long player "A Slow Walk Down The Stairs" from Heavy Deviance, themselves favourites of Chris Coco, Mark Rae, Rob Da Bank, KCRW (LA), Laurent Garnier, Bent, Crazy Penis etc. A Slow Walk Down The Stairs was voted 16th best album of 2005 by M8 Magazine.

The label has moved away from its originally exclusive dance release-base to include electropop (T-Total ft Marc Almond), indie folk (Nigel of Bermondsey), ex Gay Dad – nominated for the XFM 2009 New Music Award rock (Hungary's FreshFabrik), indie-dance (Elevator Suite), political satire (Margo Guryan's 16 Words) and breaks (Michael Morph), with collaborations and artist releases from Long Range (Phil Hartnoll from Orbital and Nick Smith\]), Yo Majesty, Aquasky, Alex Metric and others.

As of November 2009, the label's catalogue comprises approximately 25 releases (singles, 12 inch vinyls and LPs)

On 4 December 2009 Hall resigned from the BPI Rights Committee and the IFPI's International Legal Committees citing irreconcilable differences over the industry's approach to file sharing and their support of the draft Digital Economy Bill (DEB) going through the UK parliament at the time. He was quoted as saying:

> I am particularly surprised that the record industry has chosen to endorse s.17 of the DEB, which I consider is wholly undemocratic and contrary to centuries of good practice regarding the forming of our copyright legislation. I also believe it may set a dangerous precedent going forwards (and could come back to haunt the industry)

## InfoBox

| Pure Mint | |
| --- | --- |
| Founded | 2004 (2004) |
| Founder | Anthony Hall<br>Dashal Beevers |
| Genre | Various |
| Country of origin | United Kingdom |
| Location | London |
| Official website | pure-mint.com |


title: K. G. Kannabiran

abstract: K G Kannabiran was a human rights activist and a lawyer of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh (AP). He was cofounder and National President of People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL).

text:
# K. G. Kannabiran

**K G Kannabiran** was a human rights activist and a lawyer of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh (AP). He was cofounder and National President of People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL).

## Early and personal life

Kannabiran was born on 9 November 1929, in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, the son of Kandala Gopalaswamy Iyengar, a doctor, and his wife Pankajammal. His early education was in Hyderabad and Nellore, and due to this reason, he was always very comfortable speaking Telugu. He obtained a BA Hons degree in economics (equivalent to Masters) and a degree in law from Madras University. He enrolled in the Madras Bar Council and started his practice in 1953 with the help of his advocate cousin Srinivasa Raghavan (Rajappa).

In 1959, he married Vasanth Kannabiran. He moved to Hyderabad and set up practice there soon after his marriage. The couple had three children. His elder daughter, Chitra Kannabiran, a molecular biologist, was born in 1960; his second daughter, Kalpana Kannabiran, a sociologist, was born in 1961; and his son, Arvind Kannabiran, a cinematographer, was born in 1966.

## Career

### Lawyer

He practiced law in Madras (now Chennai) with moderate success and shifted to Hyderabad in 1960 soon after his marriage in 1959.

### Human rights activist

Kannabiran started his career as an advocate in AP High court in the early 1960s. He defended human rights and political dissents cases, including Shankar Guha Niyogi, conspiracy cases and political prisoner cases. He was a founding member of PUCL and APCLC and other human rights organizations. Kannabiran took up cases of human rights violations, political dissidents and encounter cases, including four major conspiracy cases, Parvathipuram (Srikakulam district), Tarimela Nagi Reddy, Secunderabad and Ramnagar in 1975. Pleading his cases in the lower courts and even in the High Court in appeals, he ultimately succeeded in getting many of the accused in such political dissidence or opposition cases acquitted. Particularly, he succeeded in getting acquitted in the High Court, some accused persons, who were convicted and sentenced by the lower courts earlier.

## Civil liberties movement and formation of PUCL and APCLC

The origins of the civil liberties movement in India can be traced back to the days of our national movement for independence and Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the main motive forces and leaders of the All India Civil Liberties Union formed at that time. With independence, the defence of civil liberties has become necessary and urgent for various opposition parties, especially the Communist Party and the socialist parties, who were generally at the receiving end of state repression. In Andhra Pradesh especially the communists were at the forefront of civil liberties movement, and the various violations of human rights committed during the suppression of the 'naxalite movement' during the late sixties and early seventies gave rise to a powerful civil liberties movement opposing the state atrocities and demanding protection and promotion of fundamental rights and human rights of the activists as well as people in general. The Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee was the main organization fighting for civil liberties and against state repression during 1969-75 period and Kannabiran was active in it since the early seventies. However, the real testing times came during emergency in 1975 when thousands of activists belonging to all opposition parties were arrested or harassed arbitrarily and thrown into jails in detention or on false criminal charges. Pattipati Venkateswarlu, Advocate, President of the APCLC was also detained during the emergency for a brief period. And in the entire emergency period, Sri Kannabiran and Sri C. Padmanabha Reddy, Advocates in the High Court of Andhra Pradesh at Hyderabad worked diligently for the release of innumerable detenus appearing in so many writ petitions filed in that regard. During Emergency, worst repression was carried out against the naxalite movement and scores of naxalite activists were shot dead in false encounters in the name of maintaining law and order. A powerful people's movement organized under the leadership of Sri Jayaprakash Narayan in the country ultimately led to the birth of Janata Party which contested in the 1977 General Elections announced by Indira Gandhi in January 1977 and conducted from 16 to 20 March 1977 during emergency still in force but with the trend of huge success of Janata Party and other opposition parties and rout of the ruling Congress party the emergency was ended the next day i.e. 21 March 1977. This was a great victory for the people and also end of emergency. During emergency itself Jayaprakash Narayan and others took the initiative to form an active and militant civil liberties organization - PUCL & DR and the official website of PUCL narrates: "Jaya Prakash Narayan founded an organisation by the name of the Citizens for Democracy on 13th April 1974, with Jayaprakash as its President and VM Tarkunde as the General Secretary. After JP’s death (Justice) MC Chagla (Rtd.) became its President. The CFD was established as a result of the mass movement built up by JP in response to the political and economic crisis in which the country had been plunged before the Emergency was declared. JP founded the People’s Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCLDR), in 1976. This organization was meant to be complementary to the Citizens for Democracy (CFD). Now, the idea was to make the PUCLDR, unlike the CFD, an organisation free from political ideologies, so that people belonging to various political parties may come together on one platform for the defence of Civil Liberties and Human Rights. Era Sezhiyan was made the Convenor of a committee to set-up PUCLDR. A national seminar was held on October 17, 1976. It was inaugurated by Acharya JB Kripalani. The PUCLDR was a loosely organised group of people who were working with JP. V. M. Tarkunde was elected as President and Krishan Kant as General Secretary. The Emergency was lifted in 1977. The Janata Party, formed with the blessings of JP, came to power." Sri K.G. Kannabiran was very active in this PUCL & DR almost from its inception. The official website of PUCL again says: "During this time \[Emergency\], the police and the governments of states like Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Bihar, Orissa, and Punjab started claiming ‘encounter killings’ of ‘naxalites’ with alarming frequency. A fear that these could be cold-blooded murders covered up as ‘encounters’, made Jaya Prakash Narayan set-up the Andhra Pradesh Civil Rights Committee comprising V M Tarkunde, Arun Shourie, Nabakrishna Chowdhury, MV Ramamurthy, Kaloji Narayan Rao, BG Verghese, Balwant Reddy, K Pratap Reddy, and KG Kannabiran. This Committee recorded extensive evidence and issued two reports in May and June 1977, establishing the fact, and giving the details, of the killing of 16 young boys labelled as “Naxalites”. These findings of the Committee \[popular as the 'Tarkunde Committee'\] that the boys had actually been arrested by the police from different places and then killed while in police custody provoked widespread anger in the country and there were demands for setting up an official commission of enquiry to look into these alleged murders. The Andhra Government, therefore, appointed a Commission, headed by Mr Justice Bhargava. KG Kannabiran and MV Ramamurthy who then presented the findings of the committee about these so called ‘encounter killings’ before the Commission. In the middle of the enquiry, the state government suddenly declared that its sittings would be in-camera. Kannabiran and Ramamurthy withdrew out of protest and the Commission was wound-up. It has, though, been established beyond doubt that the facts presented before the Commission were incontrovertible." Sri Kannabiran was one of the National Executive members of the PUCL. Kannabiran remained President of PUCL from 1995 to 2009.

## Writing

He published the book *The Wages of Impunity — Power, Justice and Human Rights*.

## Death

He died at age 81 after a brief illness in Hyderabad.

## InfoBox

| K. G. Kannabiran | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Kandala Gopalaswamy Kannabiran
9 November 1929
Madurai, Tamil Nadu |
| Died | 30 December 2010(2010-12-30) (aged 81)
Hyderabad, India |
| Occupation(s) | lawyer, human rights activist |
| Movement | Civil Liberties, Human Rights |
| Spouse | Vasantha Kannabiran |
| Children | Chithra,
Kalpana Kannabiran,
Aravind |
| Parent(s) | Kandala Gopalasawamy Iyengar,
Pankajammal |
| Relatives | Srinivasa Raghavan |


title: Punica (drink)

abstract: Punica is a German carbonated soft drink produced by PepsiCo. that was created by Dittmeyer GmbH and sold from 1977 to 2022. It is set to return to the stores in April 2024.

text:
# Punica (drink)

**Punica** is a German carbonated soft drink produced by PepsiCo. that was created by Dittmeyer GmbH and sold from 1977 to 2022.

It is set to return to the stores in April 2024.

## Information

Rolf Dittmeyer founded the company, "Dittmeyers Naturrein" in 1960 and imported orange juice from Morocco and South Africa. He then created a brand named, "Valensina". The brand was not a major success and later re-debuted in 1967 as "Valensina-Saft", which had a mix of orange juice concentrate, frozen orange juice and other ingredients. In 1976, Dittmeyer added orange nectar to the mix and named it Punica. Punica then started being sold in 1977 The brand was said to be very popular in the 1980s and 1990s, especially in the Netherlands and Belgium, due to commercials that were targeted at children. The brand was purchased by Procter & Gamble in 1984. The company had popular advertising slogans in the 1980s including "Punica-Oase" (Punich Oasis) and "Fruchtigen Durstlöscher" (fruity thirst quencher).

In 2003, the brand generated sales of over €100,000,000. In 2004, the brand was purchased by JW Childs and was sold to PepsiCo in 2005. Pepsi tried to re-design the brand in 2019 and attempted to do more advertising on Facebook and Instagram in order to reach younger audiences. The re-design was unsuccessful and Pepsi sold their juice brands to PAI Partners in August 2021. The company then discontinued Punica in September 2022 Remaining unsold products were sold at various supermarkets into 2023.

## Other products

The brand also produced other beverage lines including Punica Abenteuer Drink, Punica Fruchtig & Spritzig, Punica Tea&Fruit and Punica Saft-Limo.

In 2016, Punica collaborated with the Shrek franchise and the Madagascar franchise. In 2017, Punica collaborated with Smurfs: The Lost Village, featuring Smurfs characters on their products. In 2018, Punica collaborated with the film, Early Man.

## InfoBox

Punica
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Type | Soft Drink |
| Manufacturer | PepsiCo |
| Country of origin | Germany |
| Introduced | 1977 |
| Flavor | Tropical fruit, pink banana, fruity red, melon tropic, tropical fruits, sweet cherry |
| Website | www.punica.de |


title: Punic religion

abstract: The Punic religion, Carthaginian religion, or Western Phoenician religion in the western Mediterranean was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion. However, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation of Carthage and other Punic communities elsewhere in North Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, western Sicily, and Malta from the ninth century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by the Roman Republic in the third and second centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the fourth century AD in some cases. As with most cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, Punic religion suffused their society and there was no stark distinction between religious and secular spheres. Sources on Punic religion are poor. There are no surviving literary sources and Punic religion is primarily reconstructed from inscriptions and archaeological evidence. An important sacred space in Punic religion appears to have been the large open air sanctuaries known as tophets in modern scholarship, in which urns containing the cremated bones of infants and animals were buried. There is a long-running scholarly debate about whether child sacrifice occurred at these locations, as suggested by Greco-Roman and biblical sources.

text:
# Punic religion

The **Punic religion**, **Carthaginian religion**, or **Western Phoenician religion** in the western Mediterranean was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion. However, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation of Carthage and other Punic communities elsewhere in North Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, western Sicily, and Malta from the ninth century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by the Roman Republic in the third and second centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the fourth century AD in some cases. As with most cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, Punic religion suffused their society and there was no stark distinction between religious and secular spheres. Sources on Punic religion are poor. There are no surviving literary sources and Punic religion is primarily reconstructed from inscriptions and archaeological evidence. An important sacred space in Punic religion appears to have been the large open air sanctuaries known as tophets in modern scholarship, in which urns containing the cremated bones of infants and animals were buried. There is a long-running scholarly debate about whether child sacrifice occurred at these locations, as suggested by Greco-Roman and biblical sources.

## Pantheon

The Punics derived the original core of their religion from Phoenicia, but also developed their own pantheons. The poor quality of the evidence means that conclusions about these gods must be tentative. There are no surviving hymns, prayers, or lists of gods and while there are many inscriptions, these are very formulaic and generally only mention the names of gods. The names of gods were also often incorporated into theophoric personal names and some gods are known primarily from this onomastic evidence.

It is difficult to reconstruct a hierarchy of the Carthaginian gods. It was common for the pantheons of Phoenician cities to be headed by a divine couple, entitled Baal (lord) and "Baalat" ("lady"). At Carthage, this divine couple appears to have consisted of the god Baal Hammon and the goddess Tanit, who appear frequently in inscriptions from the tophet of Salammbô, with which they seem to have been especially associated. From the fifth century BC, Tanit begins to be mentioned before Baal Hammon in inscriptions and bears the title "Face of Baal" (*pene Baal*), perhaps indicating that she was seen as mediating between the worshipper and Baal Hammon. An anthropomorphic symbol, composed of a circular "head", horizontal "arms", and a triangular "body," which is frequently found on Carthaginian stelae, is known by modern scholars as the sign of Tanit, but it is not clear whether the Carthaginians themselves associated it with Tanit. The connections of Baal Hammon and Tanit to the Phoenician pantheon are debated: Tanit may have a Libyan origin, but some scholars connect her to the Phoenician goddesses Anat, Astarte or Asherah; Baal Hammon is sometimes connected to Melqart or El. The gods Eshmun and Melqart also had their own temples in Carthage. The priests of other gods are known from epigraphic evidence, include Ashtart (Astarte), Reshef, Sakon, and Shamash.

Different Punic centres had their own distinct pantheons. In Punic Sardinia, Sid or Sid Babi (known to the Romans as Sardus Pater and apparently an indigenous deity) received worship as the son of Melqart and was particularly associated with the island. At Maktar, to the southwest of Carthage, an important god was Hoter Miskar ("the sceptre of Miskar"). At Leptis Magna, a number of unique gods are attested, many of them in Punic-Latin bilingual inscriptions, such as El-qone-eres, Milkashtart (Hercules), and Shadrafa (Liber Pater). Inscriptions in the tophet at Motya in western Sicily, as in Carthage, frequently refer to Baal Hammon, but do not refer to Tanit at all.

Following the common practice of *interpretatio graeca*, Greco-Roman sources consistently use Greek and Latin names, rather than Punic ones, to refer to Punic deities. They typically identify Baal Hammon with Cronus/Saturn, Tanit with Hera/Juno Caelestis, Melqart with Hercules, and Astarte with Venus/Aphrodite, although the Etruscan-Punic bilingual Pyrgi Tablets produced around 500 BCE identify her with the Etruscan goddess Uni (Hera/Juno). Both Reshef and Eshmun could be Apollo, but Eshmun was also identified with Asclepius. Many of these Roman gods, especially Saturn, Caelestis, Hercules, and Asclepius remained very popular in North Africa after the Roman conquest and probably represent an adaptation and continuation of the Punic deities.

An important source on the Carthaginian pantheon is a treaty between Hamilcar of Carthage and Philip III of Macedon preserved by the second-century BC Greek historian Polybius which lists the Carthaginian gods under Greek names, in a set of three triads. Shared formulas and phrasing show it belongs to a Near Eastern treaty tradition, with parallels attested in Hittite, Akkadian, and Aramaic. Given the inconsistencies in identifications by Greco-Roman authors, it is not clear which Carthaginian gods are to be interpreted. Paolo Xella and Michael Barré (followed by Clifford) have put forward different identifications. Barré has also connected his identifications with Tyrian and Ugaritic predecessors

Identifications of the Carthaginian gods
in the Treaty between Hamilcar and Philip III
| Greek
god | Carthaginian
god (Xella) | Carthaginian
god (Barré,
Clifford) | Tyrian
god | Ugaritic
god |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Zeus | Baal Hammon | Baal Hammon | Bayt-il | El |
| Hera | Tanit | Tanit | Anat-Bayt-il | Anat |
| Apollo | Eshmun? | Reshef |  | Reshep |
| \[“*Daimon of the Carthaginians*”\] | Gad? | Ashtarte | Ashtarte | Attart |
| Herakles | Melqart | Melqart | Milqart | Milk |
| Iolaos | \[“*problematic*”\] | Eshmun | Eshmun | ? |
| Ares | Reshef? | Baal Shamem | Baal Shamem | Haddu |
| Triton | \[“*Maritime deity*”\] | Kushor | Baal Malaqe | Kotaru |
| Poseidon | \[“*Maritime deity*”\] | Baal Saphon | Baal Sapun | Balu-Sapani (=Haddu) |

The Carthaginians also adopted the Greek cults of Persephone (Kore) and Demeter in 396 BCE as a result of a plague that was seen as divine retribution for the Carthaginian desecration of these goddesses' shrines at Syracuse. Nevertheless, Carthaginian religion did not undergo any significant Hellenization. The Egyptian deities Bes, Bastet, Isis, Osiris and Ra were also worshiped.

There is very little evidence for a Punic mythology, but some scholars have seen an original Carthaginian myth behind the story of the foundation of Carthage that is reported by Greek and Latin sources, especially Josephus and Vergil. In this story, Elissa (or Dido) flees Tyre after her brother, king Pygmalion murders her husband, a priest of Melqart, and establishes the city of Carthage. Eventually, Elissa/Dido burns herself on a pyre. Some scholars connect this and other instances of self-immolation in historical accounts of Carthaginian generals with tophet rituals. Josephine Crawley Quinn has proposed that myth of the Philaeni brothers in Libya had its roots in Punic myth and Carolina López-Ruiz has made similar arguments for the story of Gargoris and Habis in Tartessus.

## Practices

### Priesthood

The Carthaginians appear to have had both part-time and full-time priests, the latter called *khnm* (singular *khn*, cognate with the Hebrew term kohen), led by high priests called *rb khnm*. Lower-ranking religious officials, attached to specific sanctuaries, included the "chief of the gatekeepers," people called "servants" or "slaves" of the sanctuary (male: *ˤbd*, female: *ˤbdt* or *mt*), and functionaries like cooks, butchers, singers, and barbers. Goddesses may have been worshiped together and shared the same priests. A class of cultic officials known as the *mqm ˤlm* (vocalized *miqim elim*, usually translated "Awakener of the god") was responsible for ensuring that the dying-and-rising god Melqart returned to watch over the city each year. Sanctuaries had associations, referred to as *mrzḥ* in Punic and Neo-Punic inscriptions, who held ritual banquets. M'Hamed Hassine Fantar proposes that the part-time priests, appointed in some way by the civil authorities, were in control of religious affairs, while the full-time priests were primarily responsible for rites and the interpretation of myth. At Carthage, for example, there was a thirty-person council that regulated sacrifices. Some Phoenician communities practiced sacred prostitution; in the Punic sphere this is attested at Sicca Veneria (El Kef) in western Tunisia and the sanctuary of Venus Erycina at Eryx in western Sicily.

### Funerary practices

The funerary practices of the Carthaginians were very similar to those of Phoenicians located in Levant. They include the rituals surrounding the disposal of the remains, funerary feasts, and ancestor worship. A variety of grave goods are found in the tombs, which indicate a belief in life after death.

Cemeteries were located outside settlements. They were often symbolically separated from them by geographic features like rivers or valleys. A short papyrus found in a tomb at Tal-Virtù in Malta suggests a belief that the dead had to cross a body of water to enter the afterlife. Tombs could take the form of *fossae* (rectangular graves cut into the earth or bedrock), *pozzi* (shallow, round pits), and hypogea (rock-cut chambers with stone benches on which the deceased was laid). There are some built tombs, all from before the sixth century BC. Tombs are often surmounted by small funerary stelae and baetyls.

At different times, Punic people practiced both cremation and inhumation. Until the sixth century BCE, cremation was the normal means of disposing of the dead. In the sixth century BCE, cremation was almost entirely superseded by inhumation. Thereafter, cremation was largely restricted to infant burials. This change is sometimes associated with the expansion of Carthaginian influence in the western Mediterranean, but exactly how and why this change occurred is unclear. Around 300 BC, cremation once again became the norm, especially in Sardinia and Ibiza. Cremation pits have been identified at Gades in Spain and Monte Sirai in Sardinia. After cremation, the bones were cleaned and separated from the ashes and then placed carefully in urns before burial. At Hoya de los Rastros, near Ayamonte in Spain, for example, the bones were arranged in order in their urns so that the feet were at the bottom and the skull at the top. Cremated and inhumed remains could be placed in wooden coffins or stone sarcophagi. Examples are known from Tharros and Sulci in Sardinia, Lilybaeum in Sicily, Casa del Obispo at Gades in Spain, and Carthage and Kerkouane in Tunisia. Before burial, the deceased was anointed with perfumed resin, coloured red with ochre or cinnabar, traces of which have been recovered archaeologically.

The funeral was accompanied by a feast in the cemetery. This banquet, called a *mrz*, is attested in inscriptions of the fourth and third centuries BC, but is known in the Levant in earlier periods. The attendees decorated an altar and sacrificed an animal which they then ate. The feasts included the consumption of wine, which may have had symbolic links to blood, the fertility of the Earth, and new life, as it did for other Mediterranean peoples. At the end of the feast, the crockery was smashed or buried in order to ritually kill it. Cemeteries included spaces and equipment for food preparation. The feast may have played a role in determining inheritance and could have symbolised the enduring bond between the deceased and their survivors. These funerary feasts were repeated at regular intervals as part of a cult of the ancestors (called *rpʼm*, cognate with the Hebrew *rephaim*). In Neo-Punic texts, the *rpʼm* are equated with the Latin *Manes*. At Monte Sirai in Sardinia, tombs included amphorae to channel libations offered on these occasions down into the tomb. The funerary stelae and baetyls erected on top of tombs, which are often inscribed with the name of the deceased and anthropomorphised, may have been intended as the focus for worship of the deceased within the context of this ancestor cult. Small stone altars were found in the cemeteries at Palermo and Lilybaeum in Sicily and are depicted on funerary stelae in Sardinia and Sicily. It appears that fires were lit on top of them as part of purification rites.

A range of grave goods are found deposited with the deceased, which seem to have been intended to provide the deceased with protection and symbolic nourishment. These do not differ significantly based on the gender or age of the deceased. Grave offerings could include carved masks and amulets, especially the eye of Horus (*wadjet*) and small glass apotropaic heads (*protomae*), which were intended to protect the deceased. Offerings of food and drink were probably intended to nourish the deceased in the afterlife. They were often accompanied by a standardised set of feasting equipment for the deceased, consisting of two jugs, a drinking bowl, and an oil lamp. Oil and perfume may have been intended to provide the deceased with heat and light. Chickens and their eggs were particularly frequent offerings and may have represented the soul's resurrection or transition to the afterlife in Punic thought. Razors, left next to the head of the deceased, may indicate that the corpse was shaved before burial or an expectation that priests would continue to shave in death as they had in life. Bronze cymbals and bells found in some tombs may derive from songs and music played at the funeral of the deceased - perhaps intended to ward off evil spirits. Terracotta figurines of musicians are found in graves, and depictions of them were carved on funerary stelae and on razors deposited in the grave. Almost all these musicians are female, suggesting that women had a particular role in this part of the funeral; most play the drums, kithara, or aulos.

### Funerary iconography

Most Punic grave stelae, in addition to an engraved text and sometimes a standing figure bearing a libation cup, show a standard repertoire of (religious) symbols. It is thought that such symbols, which may be compared to a cross on a Christian gravestone, generally represent "deities or beliefs related to the after-life, aimed probably at facilitating or at protecting the eternal rest of the deceased". The symbols also helped the large majority of people who were illiterate to understand the function of the stela.

The main Punic funerary symbols are:

* the so-called **"Tanit symbol"**, a female figure built up from a triangle (the body), plus a circle (the head), and a horizontal line (the arms, often with hands stretched out upwards). The symbol often appears on stelae dedicated to the two gods "Tinnit-Phanebal and Baal-Hammon". Of unknown origin, unlike the other funerary symbols, the worship of Tanit (or Tinnit) seems autochthonous: it is found hardly anywhere else but in Punic culture. Little is known about Tanit, but she is considered to be a symbol of fertility and abundance (the Tanit symbol also looks very similar to the Egyptian Ankh symbol, a symbol of life). The Tanit symbol is found most often in the neo-Punic period (after 146 BCE).
* the **"crescent and disc"**, a very common symbol on Carthaginian grave stelae, a circle covered by a sickle. Probably portraying the new ("crescent") and full ("disc") moon. This symbol seems to refer to the passage of time, but the precise meaning is unknown. Used rarely on later neo-Punic stelae. Sometimes replaced by a "rosette and crescent", where the rosette is placed above an inverted, ship-like crescent.
* a **raised right hand**, hand palm outward, seemingly picturing a blessing or prayer. Often combined with a text like "He (the god) blessed me" or "I was blessed". This symbol disappeared completely by the neo-Punic period.
* a ***caduceus**,* or messenger's staff. It basically consists of three elements, from below to top a stem, a circle, and a "U" shape. Maybe adopted from the *caduceus* of the Greek god Hermes, who was a guide to the Netherworld. However, in Carthage the *caduceus* symbol often seems to have been associated not with death but with healing, and with Esmun, the god of healing. The symbol was common in the 4th-2nd century BCE, but became ever more rare in the neo-Punic period.
* a **standard**. Usually used pairwise, one of the two "standards" placed at left and the other one at the right of a central picture. Often combined with the "Tanit symbol". In the 2nd century BCE it "fused" with the *caduceus*.
* a **bottle** or **vase** symbol, appearing in the 4th and 3rd century BCE. Attempts to interpret it have been widely varying, but there seem to be parallels with an Egyptian sign picturing the grave of Osiris, which has led to speculation that the symbol "expressed the hope of personal renewal in the afterlife".

### Sacrifice and dedications

Animals and other valuables were sacrificed to propitiate the gods; such sacrifices had to be done according to strict specifications, which are described on nine surviving inscriptions known as "sacrificial tariffs." The longest of these is *KAI* 69, known as the Marseille Tariff, after its find-spot, which probably originally stood in Carthage. It lists the portions of sacrifices that the priests of a temple of Baal Saphon were entitled to. The other sacrificial tariffs are *CIS* I.165, 167–170, 3915–3917, all found in North Africa. These tariffs are similar to a pair of fifth-century BC tariff inscriptions found at the Phoenician city of Kition in Cyprus. They also share some terminology and formulae with Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew texts on sacrifice. There is also a list of festival offerings, *CIS* I.166 and many short votive inscriptions, mostly associated with the tophets. Many of these tophet inscriptions refer to the sacrificial ritual as *mlk* (vocalized *mulk* or *molk*), which some scholars connect with the biblical Moloch. Votive inscriptions are also found in other contexts; a long inscription on an eighth-century BC bronze statuette found at Seville dedicates it to Athtart (*KAI*5 294). A fifth-century BC inscription (*KAI* 72) from Ebusus records the dedication of a temple, first to Rašap-Melqart, and then to Tinnit and Gad by a priest who states that the process involved making a vow. A stele erected at Carthage in the mid-second century BC by a woman named Abibaal shows the sacrifice of a cow's head by burning on an altar; the details of the image show continuity with much earlier Near Eastern sacrificial rituals.

Libations and incense also appear to have been an important part of sacrifices, based on archaeological finds. A custom attested at Byblos by the Greek author Lucian of Samosata that those sacrificing to Melqart had to shave their heads may explain ritual razors found in many Carthaginian tombs.

### Tophets and child sacrifice

Various Greek and Roman sources describe and criticize the Carthaginians as engaging in the practice of sacrificing children by burning. Classical writers describing some version of child sacrifice to "Cronos" (Baal Hammon) include the Greek historians Diodorus Siculus and Cleitarchus, as well as the Christian apologists Tertullian and Orosius. These descriptions were compared to those found in the Hebrew Bible describing the sacrifice of children by burning to Baal and Moloch at a place called Tophet. The ancient descriptions were seemingly confirmed by the discovering of the so-called "Tophet of Salammbô" in Carthage in 1921, which contained the urns of cremated children. However, modern historians and archaeologists debate the reality and extent of this practice. Some scholars propose that all remains at the tophet were sacrificed, whereas others propose that only some were.

#### Archaeological evidence

The specific sort of open aired sanctuary described as a Tophet in modern scholarship is unique to the Punic communities of the Western Mediterranean. Over 100 tophets have been found throughout the Western Mediterranean, but they are absent in Spain. The largest tophet discovered was the Tophet of Salammbô at Carthage. The Tophet of Salammbô seems to date to the city's founding and continued in use for at least a few decades after the city's destruction in 146 BCE. No Carthaginian texts survive that would explain or describe what rituals were performed at the tophet. When Carthaginian inscriptions refer to these locations, they are referred to as *bt* (temple or sanctuary), or *qdš* (shrine), not Tophets. This is the same word used for temples in general.

As far as the archaeological evidence reveals, the typical ritual at the Tophet – which, however, shows much variation – began by the burial of a small urn containing a child's ashes, sometimes mixed with or replaced by that of an animal, after which a stele, typically dedicated to Baal Hammon and sometimes Tanit was erected. In a few occasions, a chapel was built as well. Uneven burning on the bones indicate that they were burned on an open air pyre. The dead children are never mentioned on the stele inscriptions, only the dedicators and that the gods had granted them some request.

While tophets fell out of use after the fall of Carthage on islands formerly controlled by Carthage, in North Africa they became more common in the Roman Period. In addition to infants, some of these tophets contain offerings only of goats, sheep, birds, or plants; many of the worshipers have Libyan rather than Punic names. Their use appears to have declined in the second and third centuries CE.

#### Controversy

The degree and existence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is controversial, and has been ever since the Tophet of Salammbô was discovered in 1920. Some historians have proposed that the Tophet may have been a cemetery for premature or short-lived infants who died naturally and then were ritually offered. The Greco-Roman authors were not eye-witnesses, contradict each other on how the children were killed, and describe children older than infants being killed as opposed to the infants found in the tophets. Accounts such as Cleitarchus's, in which the baby dropped into the fire by a statue, are contradicted by the archaeological evidence. There are not any mentions of child sacrifice from the Punic Wars, which are better documented than the earlier periods in which mass child sacrifice is claimed. Child sacrifice may have been overemphasized for effect; after the Romans finally defeated Carthage and totally destroyed the city, they engaged in postwar propaganda to make their archenemies seem cruel and less civilized. Matthew McCarty argues that, even if the Greco-Roman testimonies are inaccurate "even the most fantastical slanders rely upon a germ of fact."

Many archaeologists argue that the ancient authors and the evidence of the Tophet indicates that all remains in the Tophet must have been sacrificed. Others argue that only some infants were sacrificed. Paolo Xella argues that the weight of classical and biblical sources indicate that the sacrifices occurred. He further argues that the number of children in the tophet is far smaller than the rate of natural infant mortality. In Xella's estimation, prenatal remains at the tophet are probably those of children who were promised to be sacrificed but died before birth, but who were nevertheless offered as a sacrifice in fulfillment of a vow. He concludes that the child sacrifice was probably done as a last resort and probably frequently involved the substitution of an animal for the child.

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