abstract: The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an organization formed on February 18, 1890, to advocate in favor of women's suffrage in the United States. It was created by the merger of two existing organizations, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Its membership, which was about seven thousand at the time it was formed, eventually increased to two million, making it the largest voluntary organization in the nation. It played a pivotal role in the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which in 1920 guaranteed women's right to vote. Susan B. Anthony, a long-time leader in the suffrage movement, was the dominant figure in the newly formed NAWSA. Carrie Chapman Catt, who became president after Anthony retired in 1900, implemented a strategy of recruiting wealthy members of the rapidly growing women's club movement, whose time, money and experience could help build the suffrage movement. Anna Howard Shaw's term in office, which began in 1904, saw strong growth in the organization's membership and public approval. After the Senate decisively rejected the proposed women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1887, the suffrage movement had concentrated most of its efforts on state suffrage campaigns. In 1910 Alice Paul joined the NAWSA and played a major role in reviving interest in the national amendment. After continuing conflicts with the NAWSA leadership over tactics, Paul created a rival organization, the National Woman's Party. When Catt again became president in 1915, the NAWSA adopted her plan to centralize the organization, and work toward the suffrage amendment as its primary goal. This was done despite opposition from Southern members who believed that a federal amendment would erode states' rights. With its large membership and the increasing number of women voters in states where suffrage had already been achieved, the NAWSA began to operate more as a political pressure group than an educational group. It won additional sympathy for the suffrage cause by actively cooperating with the war effort during World War I. On February 14, 1920, several months prior to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, the NAWSA transformed itself into the League of Women Voters, which is still active.

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# National American Woman Suffrage Association

The **National American Woman Suffrage Association** (**NAWSA**) was an organization formed on February 18, 1890, to advocate in favor of women's suffrage in the United States. It was created by the merger of two existing organizations, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Its membership, which was about seven thousand at the time it was formed, eventually increased to two million, making it the largest voluntary organization in the nation. It played a pivotal role in the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which in 1920 guaranteed women's right to vote.

Susan B. Anthony, a long-time leader in the suffrage movement, was the dominant figure in the newly formed NAWSA. Carrie Chapman Catt, who became president after Anthony retired in 1900, implemented a strategy of recruiting wealthy members of the rapidly growing women's club movement, whose time, money and experience could help build the suffrage movement. Anna Howard Shaw's term in office, which began in 1904, saw strong growth in the organization's membership and public approval.

After the Senate decisively rejected the proposed women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1887, the suffrage movement had concentrated most of its efforts on state suffrage campaigns. In 1910 Alice Paul joined the NAWSA and played a major role in reviving interest in the national amendment. After continuing conflicts with the NAWSA leadership over tactics, Paul created a rival organization, the National Woman's Party.

When Catt again became president in 1915, the NAWSA adopted her plan to centralize the organization, and work toward the suffrage amendment as its primary goal. This was done despite opposition from Southern members who believed that a federal amendment would erode states' rights. With its large membership and the increasing number of women voters in states where suffrage had already been achieved, the NAWSA began to operate more as a political pressure group than an educational group. It won additional sympathy for the suffrage cause by actively cooperating with the war effort during World War I. On February 14, 1920, several months prior to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, the NAWSA transformed itself into the League of Women Voters, which is still active.

## Background

The demand for women's suffrage in the United States was controversial even among women's rights activists in the early days of the movement. In 1848, a resolution in favor of women's right to vote was approved only after vigorous debate at the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention. By the time of the National Women's Rights Conventions in the 1850s, the situation had changed, and women's suffrage had become a preeminent goal of the movement. Three leaders of the women's movement during this period, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, played prominent roles in the creation of the NAWSA many years later.

In 1866, just after the American Civil War, the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention transformed itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), which worked for equal rights for both African Americans and white women, especially suffrage. The AERA essentially collapsed in 1869, partly because of disagreement over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would enfranchise African American men. Leaders of the women's movement were dismayed that it would not also enfranchise women. Stanton and Anthony opposed its ratification unless it was accompanied by another amendment that would enfranchise women. Stone supported the amendment. She believed that its ratification would spur politicians to support a similar amendment for women. She said that even though the right to vote was more important for women than for black men, "I will be thankful in my soul if *any* body can get out of the terrible pit."

In May 1869, two days after the acrimonious debates at what turned out to be the final AERA annual meeting, Anthony, Stanton and their allies formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). In November 1869, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was formed by Lucy Stone, her husband Henry Blackwell, Julia Ward Howe and their allies, many of whom had helped to create the New England Woman Suffrage Association a year earlier as part of the developing split. The bitter rivalry between the two organizations created a partisan atmosphere that endured for decades.

Even after the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, differences between the two organizations remained. The AWSA worked almost exclusively for women's suffrage while the NWSA initially worked on a wide range of issues, including divorce reform and equal pay for women. The AWSA included both men and women among its leadership while the NWSA was led by women. The AWSA worked for suffrage mostly at the state level while the NWSA worked more at the national level. The AWSA cultivated an image of respectability while the NWSA sometimes used confrontational tactics. Anthony, for example, interrupted the official ceremonies at the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence to present NWSA's Declaration of Rights for Women. Anthony was arrested in 1872 for voting, which was still illegal for women, and was found guilty in a highly publicized trial.

Progress toward women's suffrage was slow in the period after the split, but advancement in other areas strengthened the underpinnings of the movement. By 1890, tens of thousands of women were attending colleges and universities, up from zero a few decades earlier. There was a decline in public support for the idea of "woman's sphere", the belief that a woman's place was in the home and that she should not be involved in politics. Laws that had allowed husbands to control their wives' activities had been significantly revised. There was a dramatic growth in all-female social reform organizations, such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), the largest women's organization in the country. In a major boost for the suffrage movement, the WCTU endorsed women's suffrage in the late 1870s on the grounds that women needed the vote to protect their families from alcohol and other vices.

Anthony increasingly began to emphasize suffrage over other women's rights issues. Her aim was to unite the growing number of women's organizations in the demand for suffrage even if they did not support other women's rights issues. She and the NWSA also began placing less emphasis on confrontational actions and more on respectability. The NWSA was no longer seen as an organization that challenged traditional family arrangements by supporting, for example, what its opponents called "easy divorce". All this had the effect of moving it into closer alignment with the AWSA. The Senate's rejection in 1887 of the proposed women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution also brought the two organizations closer together. The NWSA had worked for years to convince Congress to bring the proposed amendment to a vote. After it was voted on and decisively rejected, the NWSA began to put less energy into campaigning at the federal level and more at the state level, as the AWSA was already doing.

Stanton continued to promote all aspects of women's rights. She advocated a coalition of radical social reform groups, including Populists and Socialists, who would support women's suffrage as part of a joint list of demands. In a letter to a friend, Stanton said the NWSA "has been growing politic and conservative for some time. Lucy \[Stone\] and Susan \[Anthony\] alike see suffrage only. They do not see woman's religious and social bondage, neither do the young women in either association, hence they may as well combine". Stanton, however, had largely withdrawn from the day-to-day activity of the suffrage movement. She spent much of her time with her daughter in England during this period. Despite their different approaches, Stanton and Anthony remained friends and co-workers, continuing a collaboration that had begun in the early 1850s.

Stone devoted most of her life after the split to the *Woman's Journal*, a weekly newspaper she launched in 1870 to serve as voice of the AWSA. By the 1880s, the *Woman's Journal* had broadened its coverage and was seen by many as the newspaper of the entire movement.

The suffrage movement was attracting younger members who were impatient with the continuing division, seeing the obstacle more as a matter of personalities than principles. Alice Stone Blackwell, daughter of Lucy Stone, said, "When I began to work for a union, the elders were not keen for it, on either side, but the younger women on both sides were. Nothing really stood in the way except the unpleasant feelings engendered during the long separation".

## Merger of rival organizations

Several attempts had been made to bring the two sides together, but without success. The situation changed in 1887 when Stone, who was approaching her 70th birthday and in declining health, began to seek ways of overcoming the split. In a letter to suffragist Antoinette Brown Blackwell, she suggested the creation of an umbrella organization of which the AWSA and the NWSA would become auxiliaries, but that idea did not gain supporters. In November 1887, the AWSA annual meeting passed a resolution authorizing Stone to confer with Anthony about the possibility of a merger. The resolution said the differences between the two associations had "been largely removed by the adoption of common principles and methods." Stone forwarded the resolution to Anthony along with an invitation to meet with her.

Anthony and Rachel Foster, a young leader of the NWSA, traveled to Boston in December 1887, to meet with Stone. Accompanying Stone at this meeting was her daughter Alice Stone Blackwell, who also was an officer of the AWSA. Stanton, who was in England at the time, did not attend. The meeting explored several aspects of a possible merger, including the name of the new organization and its structure. Stone had second thoughts soon afterwards, telling a friend she wished they had never offered to unite, but the merger process slowly continued.

An early public sign of improving relations between the two organizations occurred three months later at the founding congress of the International Council of Women, which the NWSA organized and hosted in Washington in conjunction with the fortieth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention. It received favorable publicity, and its delegates, who came from fifty-three women's organizations in nine countries, were invited to a reception at the White House. Representatives from the AWSA were invited to sit on the platform during the meetings along with representatives from the NWSA, signaling a new atmosphere of cooperation.

The proposed merger did not generate significant controversy within the AWSA. The call to its annual meeting in 1887, the one that authorized Stone to explore the possibility of merger, did not even mention that this issue would be on the agenda. This proposal was treated in a routine manner during the meeting and was approved unanimously without debate.

The situation was different within the NWSA, where there was strong opposition from Matilda Joslyn Gage, Olympia Brown and others. Ida Husted Harper, Anthony's co-worker and biographer, said the NWSA meetings that dealt with this issue "were the most stormy in the history of the association." Charging that Anthony had used underhanded tactics to thwart opposition to the merger, Gage formed a competing organization in 1890 called the Woman's National Liberal Union, but it did not develop a significant following.

The AWSA and NWSA committees that negotiated the terms of merger signed a basis for agreement in January, 1889. In February, Stone, Stanton, Anthony and other leaders of both organizations issued an "Open Letter to the Women of America" declaring their intention to work together. When Anthony and Stone first discussed the possibility of merger in 1887, Stone had proposed that she, Stanton and Anthony should all decline the presidency of the united organization. Anthony initially agreed, but other NWSA members objected strongly. The basis for agreement did not include that stipulation.

The AWSA initially was the larger of the two organizations, but it had declined in strength during the 1880s. The NWSA was perceived as the main representative of the suffrage movement, partly because of Anthony's ability to find dramatic ways of bringing suffrage to the nation's attention. Anthony and Stanton had also published their massive History of Woman Suffrage, which placed them at the center of the movement's history and marginalized the role of Stone and the AWSA. Stone's public visibility had declined significantly, contrasting sharply with the attention she had attracted in her younger days as a speaker on the national lecture circuit.

Anthony was increasingly recognized as a person of political importance. In 1890, prominent members of the House and Senate were among the two hundred people who attended her seventieth birthday celebration, a national event that took place in Washington three days before the convention that united the two suffrage organizations. Anthony and Stanton pointedly reaffirmed their friendship at this event, frustrating opponents of merger who had hoped to set them against one another.

## Founding convention

The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was created on February 18, 1890, in Washington by a convention that merged the NWSA and the AWSA. The question of who would lead the new organization had been left to the convention delegates. Stone, from the AWSA, was too ill to attend this convention and was not a candidate. Anthony and Stanton, both from the NWSA, each had supporters.

Lucy Stone and her husband Henry Blackwell

The AWSA and NWSA executive committees met separately beforehand to discuss their choices for president of the united organization. At the AWSA meeting, Henry Blackwell, Stone's husband, said the NWSA had agreed to avoid mixing in side issues (the approach associated with Stanton) and to focus exclusively on suffrage (the approach of the AWSA and increasingly of Anthony). The executive committee recommended that AWSA delegates vote for Anthony. At the NWSA meeting, Anthony strongly urged its members not to vote for her but for Stanton, saying that a defeat of Stanton would be viewed as a repudiation of her role in the movement.

Elections were held at the convention's opening. Stanton received 131 votes for president, Anthony received 90, and 2 votes were cast for other candidates. Anthony was elected vice president at large with 213 votes, with 9 votes for other candidates. Stone was unanimously elected chair of the executive committee.

As president, Stanton delivered the convention's opening address. She urged the new organization to concern itself with a broad range of reforms, saying, "When any principle or question is up for discussion, let us seize on it and show its connection, whether nearly or remotely, with woman's disfranchisement." She introduced controversial resolutions, including one that called for women to be included at all levels of leadership within religious organizations and one that described liberal divorce laws as a married woman's "door of escape from bondage." Her speech had little lasting impact on the organization, however, because most of the younger suffragists did not agree with her approach.

## Stanton and Anthony presidencies

Stanton's election as president was largely symbolic. Before the convention was over, she left for another extended stay with her daughter in England, leaving Anthony in charge. Stanton retired from the presidency in 1892, after which Anthony was elected to the position that she had in practice been occupying all along. Stone, who died in 1893, did not play a major role in the NAWSA.

The movement's vigor declined in the years immediately after the merger. The new organization was small, having only about 7000 dues-paying members in 1893. It also suffered from organizational problems, not having a clear idea of, for example, how many local suffrage clubs there were or who their officers were.

In 1893, NAWSA members May Wright Sewall, former chair of NWSA's executive committee, and Rachel Foster Avery, NAWSA's corresponding secretary, played key roles in the World's Congress of Representative Women at the World's Columbian Exposition, which was also known as the Chicago World's Fair. Sewall served as chair and Avery as secretary of the organizing committee for the women's congress.

In 1893, the NAWSA voted over Anthony's objection to alternate the site of its annual conventions between Washington and other parts of the country. Anthony's pre-merger NWSA had always held its conventions in Washington to help maintain focus on a national suffrage amendment. Anthony said she feared, accurately as it turned out, that the NAWSA would engage in suffrage work at the state level at the expense of national work. The NAWSA routinely allocated no funding at all for congressional work, which at this stage consisted only of one day of testimony before Congress each year.

### *Woman's Bible*

Stanton's radicalism did not sit well with the new organization. In 1895 she published *The Woman's Bible*, a controversial best-seller that attacked the use of the Bible to relegate women to an inferior status. Her opponents within the NAWSA reacted strongly. They felt that the book would harm the drive for women's suffrage. Rachel Foster Avery, the organization's corresponding secretary, sharply denounced Stanton's book in her annual report to the 1896 convention. The NAWSA voted to disavow any connection with the book despite Anthony's strong objection that such a move was unnecessary and hurtful.

The negative reaction to the book contributed to a sharp decline in Stanton's influence in the suffrage movement and to her increasing alienation from it. She sent letters to each NAWSA convention, however, and Anthony insisted that they be read even when their topics were controversial. Stanton died in 1902.

### Southern strategy

The South had traditionally shown little interest in women's suffrage. When the proposed suffrage amendment to the Constitution was rejected by the Senate in 1887, it received no votes at all from southern senators. This indicated a problem for the future because it was almost impossible for any amendment to be ratified by the required number of states without at least some support from the South.

In 1867, Henry Blackwell proposed a solution: convince southern political leaders that they could ensure white supremacy in their region by enfranchising educated women, who would predominantly be white. Blackwell presented his plan to politicians from Mississippi, who gave it serious consideration, a development that drew the interest of many suffragists. Blackwell's ally in this effort was Laura Clay, who convinced the NAWSA to launch a campaign in the South based on Blackwell's strategy. Clay was one of several southern NAWSA members who objected to the proposed national women's suffrage amendment on the grounds that it would impinge on states' rights.

Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt traveled through the South en route to the NAWSA convention in Atlanta. Anthony asked her old friend Frederick Douglass, a former slave, not to attend the NAWSA convention in Atlanta in 1895, the first to be held in a southern city. Black NAWSA members were excluded from 1903 convention in the southern city of New Orleans. The NAWSA executive board issued a statement during the convention that said, "The doctrine of State's rights is recognized in the national body, and each auxiliary State association arranges its own affairs in accordance with its own ideas and in harmony with the customs of its own section." As NAWSA turned its attention to a Constitutional Amendment, many Southern suffragists remained opposed because a federal amendment would enfranchise Black women. In response, in 1914, Kate Gordon founded the Southern States Woman Suffrage Conference, which opposed the 19th Amendment.

### First Catt presidency

Carrie Chapman Catt joined the suffrage movement in Iowa in the mid-1880s. and soon became part of the leadership of the state suffrage association. Married to a wealthy engineer who encouraged her suffrage work, she was able to devote much of her energy to the movement. She led some smaller NAWSA committees, for example serving as Chairman of the Literature Committee in 1893 with the help of Mary Hutcheson Page, another active NAWSA member. In 1895, she was placed in charge of NAWSA's Organizational Committee, where she raised money to put a team of fourteen organizers in the field. By 1899, suffrage organizations had been established in every state. When Anthony retired as NAWSA president in 1900, she chose Catt to succeed her. Anthony remained an influential figure in the organization, however, until she died in 1906.

One of Catt's first actions as president was to implement the "society plan," a campaign to recruit wealthy members of the rapidly growing women's club movement, whose time, money and experience could help build the suffrage movement. Primarily composed of middle-class women, the targeted clubs often engaged in civic improvement projects. They generally avoided controversial issues, but women's suffrage increasingly found acceptance among their membership. In 1914, suffrage was endorsed by the General Federation of Women's Clubs, the national body for the club movement.

To make the suffrage movement more attractive to middle- and upper-class women, the NAWSA began to popularize a version of the movement's history that downplayed the earlier involvement of many of its members with such controversial issues as racial equality, divorce reform, working women's rights and critiques of organized religion. Stanton's role in the movement was obscured by this process, as were the roles of black and working women. Anthony, who in her younger days was often treated as a dangerous fanatic, was given a grandmotherly image and honored as a "suffrage saint."

The reform energy of the Progressive Era strengthened the suffrage movement during this period. Beginning around 1900, this broad movement began at the grassroots level with such goals as combating corruption in government, eliminating child labor, and protecting workers and consumers. Many of its participants saw women's suffrage as yet another progressive goal, and they believed that the addition of women to the electorate would help the movement achieve its other goals.

Catt resigned her position after four years, partly because of her husband's declining health and partly to help organize the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, which was created in Berlin in 1904 in coordination with the NAWSA and with Catt as president.

## Shaw presidency

In 1904, Anna Howard Shaw, another Anthony protégé, was elected president of the NAWSA, serving more years in that office than any other person. Shaw was an energetic worker and a talented orator. Her administrative and interpersonal skills did not match those that Catt would display during her second term in office, but the organization made striking gains under Shaw's leadership.

In 1906, southern NAWSA members formed the Southern Woman Suffrage Conference with Blackwell's encouragement. Although it had a frankly racist program, it asked for NAWSA's endorsement. Shaw refused, setting a limit on how far the organization was willing to go to accommodate southerners with overtly racist views. Shaw said the organization would not adopt policies that "advocated the exclusion of any race or class from the right of suffrage."

In 1907, partly in reaction to NAWSA's "society plan", which was designed to appeal to upper-class women, Harriet Stanton Blatch, daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, formed a competing organization called the Equality League of Self-Supporting Women. Later known as the Women's Political Union, its membership was based on working women, both professional and industrial. Blatch had recently returned to the United States after several years in England, where she had worked with suffrage groups in the early phases of employing militant tactics as part of their campaign. The Equality League gained a following by engaging in activities that many members of the NAWSA initially considered too daring, such as suffrage parades and open air rallies. Blatch said that when she joined the suffrage movement in the U.S., "The only method suggested for furthering the cause was the slow process of education. We were told to organize, organize, organize, to the end of educating, educating, educating public opinion."

In 1908, the National College Equal Suffrage League was formed as an affiliate of the NAWSA. It had its origins in the College Equal Suffrage League, which was formed in Boston in 1900 at a time when there were relatively few college students in the NAWSA. It was established by Maud Wood Park, who later helped create similar groups in 30 states. Park later became a prominent leader of the NAWSA.

By 1908, Catt was once again at the forefront of activity. She and her co-workers developed a detailed plan to unite the various suffrage associations in New York City (and later in the entire state) in an organization modeled on political machines like Tammany Hall. In 1909, they founded the Woman Suffrage Party (WSP) at a convention attended by over a thousand delegates and alternates. By 1910, the WSP had 20,000 members and a four-room headquarters. Shaw was not entirely comfortable with the independent initiatives of the WSP, but Catt and other of its leaders remained loyal to the NAWSA, its parent organization.

In 1909, Frances Squires Potter, a NAWSA member from Chicago, proposed the creation of suffrage community centers called "political settlements." Reminiscent of the social settlement houses, such as Hull House in Chicago, their purpose was to educate the public about suffrage and the practical details of political activity at the local level. The political settlements established by the WSP included suffrage schools that provided training in public speaking to suffrage organizers.

Public sentiment toward the suffrage movement improved dramatically during this period. Working for suffrage came to be seen as a respectable activity for middle-class women. By 1910, NAWSA membership had jumped to 117,000. The NAWSA established its first permanent headquarters that year in New York City, previously having operated mainly out of the homes of its officers. Maud Wood Park, who had been away in Europe for two years, received a letter that year from one of her co-workers in the College Equal Suffrage League who described the new atmosphere by saying, "the movement which when we got into it had about as much energy as a dying kitten, is now a big, virile, threatening thing" and is "actually fashionable now."

The change in public sentiment was reflected in efforts to win suffrage at the state level. In 1896, only four states, all of them in the West, allowed women to vote. From 1896 to 1910, there were six state campaigns for suffrage, and they all failed. The tide began to turn in 1910 when suffrage was won in the state of Washington, followed by California in 1911, Oregon, Kansas and Arizona in 1912, and others afterwards.

In 1912, W. E. B. Du Bois, president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), publicly challenged NAWSA's reluctance to accept black women. The NAWSA responded in a cordial way, inviting him to speak at its next convention and publishing his speech as a pamphlet. Nonetheless the NAWSA continued to minimize the role of black suffragists. It accepted some black women as members and some black societies as auxiliaries, but its general practice was to turn such requests politely away. This was partly because attitudes of racial superiority were the norm among white Americans of that era, and partly because the NAWSA believed it had little hope of achieving a national amendment without at least some support from southern states that practiced racial segregation.

NAWSA's strategy at that point was to gain suffrage for women on a state-by-state basis until it achieved a critical mass of voters that could push through a suffrage amendment at the national level. In 1913, the Southern States Woman Suffrage Committee was formed in an attempt to stop that process from moving past the state level. It was led by Kate Gordon, who had been the NAWSA's corresponding secretary from 1901 to 1909. Gordon, who was from the southern state of Louisiana, supported women's suffrage, but opposed the idea of a federal suffrage amendment, charging that it would violate states' rights. She said that empowering federal authorities to enforce a constitutional right for women to vote in the South could lead to similar enforcement of the constitutional right of African Americans to vote there, a right that was being evaded, and, in her opinion, rightly so. Her committee was too small to seriously affect the NAWSA's direction, but her public condemnation of the proposed amendment, expressed in terms of vehement racism, deepened fissures within the organization.

Despite the rapid growth in NAWSA membership, discontent with Shaw grew. Her tendency to overreact to those who differed with her had the effect of increasing organizational friction. Several members resigned from executive board in 1910, and the board saw significant changes in its composition every year after that through 1915.

In 1914, Senator John Shafroth introduced a federal amendment that would require state legislatures to put women's suffrage on the state ballot if eight percent of the voters signed a petition to that effect. The NAWSA endorsed the proposed amendment, whereupon the CU accused it of abandoning the drive for a national suffrage amendment. Amid confusion among the membership, delegates at the 1914 convention directed their dissatisfaction at Shaw. Shaw had considered declining the presidency in 1914, but decided to run again. In 1915, she announced that she would not be running for reelection.

## Relocation to Warren, Ohio

For several years, Harriet Taylor Upton led the woman suffragist movement in Trumbull County, Ohio. In 1880, Upton's father was elected as a member of the United States Congress as a Republican from Ohio. This connection provided Upton the opportunity to meet Susan B. Anthony, who brought Upton into the suffragist movement.

In 1894, Upton was elected as the NAWSA's treasurer. In addition, Upton served as president of the Ohio association of the national association, from 1899-1908 and 1911–1920. Upton helped relocate the national headquarters for the NAWSA to her home in Warren, Ohio, in 1903. According to the Tribune Chronicle, "it was only supposed to be a temporary move, but it lasted six years. Susan B. Anthony, noted leader of the women's movement, visited Warren many times, including a 1904 trip to attend a national women's rights meeting here."

During this period, the nation's attention regarding women's rights was focused on Warren. The association's offices were located on the ground level of the Trumbull Court House, a building currently occupied by the Probate Court. While the headquarters left the Upton House around 1910, Warren remained active in the suffrage movement. The people of Warren were active in various programs of the national movement for years, until the 19th Amendment was ratified by a sufficient number of states, and authorized by President Wilson in 1920.

In 1993, the Upton House joined the list of historic landmarks.

## Split in the movement

A serious challenge to the NAWSA leadership began to develop after a young activist named Alice Paul returned to the U.S. from England in 1910, where she had been part of the militant wing of the suffrage movement. She had been jailed there and had endured forced feedings after going on a hunger strike. Joining the NAWSA, she became the person most responsible for reviving interest within the suffrage movement for a national amendment, which for years had been overshadowed by campaigns for suffrage at the state level.

From Shaw's point of view, the time was right for a renewed emphasis on a suffrage amendment. Gordon and Clay, the most persistent adversaries of a federal suffrage amendment within NAWSA, had been out-maneuvered by their opponents and no longer held national posts. In 1912, Alice Paul was appointed chair of NAWSA's Congressional Committee and charged with reviving the drive for a women's suffrage amendment. In 1913, she and her coworker Lucy Burns organized the Woman Suffrage Procession, a suffrage parade in Washington on the day before Woodrow Wilson's inauguration as president. Onlookers who opposed the march turned the event into a near riot, which ended only when a cavalry unit of the army was brought in to restore order. Public outrage over the incident, which cost the chief of police his job, brought publicity to the movement and gave it fresh momentum.

Paul troubled NAWSA leaders by arguing that because Democrats would not act to enfranchise women even though they controlled the presidency and both houses of Congress, the suffrage movement should work for the defeat of all Democrats regardless of an individual candidate's position on suffrage. NAWSA's policy was to follow the opposite approach, supporting any candidate who endorsed suffrage, regardless of political party. In 1913, Paul and Burns formed the Congressional Union (CU) to work solely for a national amendment and sent organizers into states that already had NAWSA organizations. The relationship between the CU and the NAWSA became unclear and troubled over time.

At the NAWSA convention in 1913, Paul and her allies demanded that the organization focus its efforts on a federal suffrage amendment. The convention instead empowered the executive board to limit the CU's ability to contravene NAWSA policies. After negotiations failed to resolve their differences, the NAWSA removed Paul as head of its Congressional Committee. By February, 1914, the NAWSA and the CU had effectively separated into two independent organizations.

Blatch merged her Women's Political Union into the CU. That organization in turn became the basis for the National Woman's Party (NWP), which Paul formed in 1916. Once again there were two competing national women's suffrage organizations, but the result this time was something like a division of labor. The NAWSA burnished its image of respectability and engaged in highly organized lobbying at both the national and state levels. The smaller NWP also engaged in lobbying but became increasingly known for activities that were dramatic and confrontational, most often in the national capital.

## Second Catt presidency, 1915-1920

Carrie Chapman Catt, the NAWSA's previous president, was the obvious choice to replace Anna Howard Shaw, but Catt was leading the New York State Woman Suffrage Party, which was in the early stages of a crucial suffrage campaign in that state. The prevailing belief in the NAWSA was that success in a large eastern state would be the tipping point for the national campaign. New York was the largest state in the union, and victory there was a real possibility. Catt agreed to turn the New York work over to others and to accept the NAWSA presidency in December, 1915 on the condition that she could name her own executive board, which previously had always been elected by the annual convention. She appointed to the board women of independent means who could work for the movement full-time.

Backed by an increased level of commitment and unity in the national office, Catt sent its officers into the field to assess the state of the organization and start the process of reorganizing it into a more centralized and efficient operation. Catt described the NAWSA as a camel with a hundred humps, each with a blind driver trying to lead the way. She provided a new sense of direction by sending out a stream of communications to state and local affiliates with policy directives, organizational initiatives and detailed plans of work.

The NAWSA previously had devoted much of its effort to educating the public about suffrage, and it had made a significant impact. Women's suffrage had become a major national issue, and the NAWSA was in the process of becoming the nation's largest voluntary organization, with two million members. Catt built on that foundation to convert the NAWSA into an organization that operated primarily as a political pressure group.

### 1916

At an executive board meeting in March, 1916, Catt described the organization's dilemma by saying, "The Congressional Union is drawing off from the National Association those women who feel it is possible to work for suffrage by the Federal route only. Certain workers in the south are being antagonized because the National is continuing to work for the Federal Amendment. The combination has produced a great muddle". Catt believed that NAWSA's policy of working primarily on state-by-state campaigns was nearing its limits. Some states appeared unlikely ever to approve women's suffrage, in some cases because state laws made constitutional revision extremely difficult, and in others, especially in the Deep South, because opposition was simply too strong. Catt refocused the organization on a national suffrage amendment while continuing to conduct state campaigns where success was a realistic possibility.

When the conventions of the Democratic and Republican parties met in June, 1916, suffragists applied pressure to both. Catt was invited to express her views in a speech to the Republican convention in Chicago. An anti-suffragist spoke after Catt, and as she was telling the convention that women did not want to vote, a crowd of suffragists burst into the hall and filled the aisles. They were soaking wet, having marched in heavy rain for several blocks in a parade led by two elephants. When the flustered anti-suffragist concluded her remarks, the suffragists led a cheer for their cause. At the Democratic convention a week later in St. Louis, suffragists packed the galleries and made their views known during the debate on suffrage.

Both party conventions endorsed women's suffrage but only at the state level, which meant that different states might implement it in different ways and in some cases not at all. Having expected more, Catt called an Emergency Convention, moving the date of the 1916 convention from December to September to begin organizing a renewed push for the federal amendment. The convention initiated a strategic shift by adopting Catt's "Winning Plan". This plan mandated work toward the national suffrage amendment as the priority for the entire organization and authorized the creation of a professional lobbying team to support this goal in Washington. It authorized the executive board to specify a plan of work toward this goal for each state and to take over that work if the state organization refused to comply. It agreed to fund state suffrage campaigns only if they met strict requirements that were designed to eliminate efforts with little chance of succeeding. Catt's plan included milestones for achieving a women's suffrage amendment by 1922. Gordon, whose states' rights approach had been decisively defeated, exclaimed to a friend, "A well-oiled steam roller has ironed this convention flat!"

President Wilson, whose attitude toward women's suffrage was evolving, spoke at the 1916 NAWSA convention. He had been considered an opponent of suffrage when he was governor of New Jersey, but in 1915 he announced that he was traveling from the White House back to his home state to vote in favor of it in New Jersey's state referendum. He spoke favorably of suffrage at the NAWSA convention but stopped short of supporting the suffrage amendment. Charles Evans Hughes, his opponent in the presidential election that year, declined to speak at the convention, but he went farther than Wilson by endorsing the suffrage amendment.

NAWSA's Congressional Committee had been in disarray ever since Alice Paul was removed from it in 1913. Catt reorganized the committee and appointed Maud Wood Park as its head in December, 1916. Park and her lieutenant Helen Hamilton Gardener created what became known as the "Front Door Lobby", so named by a journalist because it operated openly, avoiding the traditional lobbying methods of "backstairs" dealing. A headquarters for the lobbying effort was established in a dilapidated mansion known as Suffrage House. NAWSA lobbyists lodged there and coordinated their activities with daily conferences in its meeting rooms.

In 1916 the NAWSA purchased the *Woman's Journal* from Alice Stone Blackwell. The newspaper had been established in 1870 by Blackwell's mother, Lucy Stone, and had served as the primary voice of the suffrage movement most of the time since then. It had significant limitations, however. It was a small operation, with Blackwell herself doing most of the work, and with much of its reporting centered on the eastern part of the country at a time when a national newspaper was needed. After the transfer, it was renamed *Woman Citizen* and merged with *The Woman Voter*, the journal of the Woman Suffrage Party of New York City, and with *National Suffrage News*, the former journal of the NAWSA. The newspaper's masthead declared itself to be the NAWSA's official organ.

### 1917

In 1917 Catt received a bequest of $900,000 from Mrs. Frank (Miriam) Leslie to be used as she thought best for the women's suffrage movement. Catt allocated most of the funds to the NAWSA, with $400,000 applied toward upgrading the *Woman Citizen*.

In January 1917, Alice Paul's NWP began picketing the White House with banners that demanded women's suffrage. The police eventually arrested over 200 of the Silent Sentinels, many of whom went on hunger strike after being imprisoned. The prison authorities force fed them, creating an uproar that fueled public debate on women's suffrage.

When the U.S. entered World War I in April 1917, the NAWSA cooperated with the war effort. Shaw was appointed as head of the Women's Committee for the Council of National Defense, which was established by the federal government to coordinate resources for the war and to promote public morale. Catt and two other NAWSA members were appointed to its executive committee. The NWP, by contrast, took no part in the war effort and charged that the NAWSA did so at the expense of suffrage work.

In April 1917, Jeannette Rankin of Montana took her seat as the first woman in Congress, having previously served as lobbyist and field secretary for the NAWSA. Rankin voted against the declaration of war.

In November 1917, the suffrage movement achieved a major victory when a referendum to enfranchise women passed by a large margin in New York, the most populous state in the country. The powerful Tammany Hall political machine, which had previously opposed suffrage, took a neutral stance on this referendum, partly because the wives of several Tammany Hall leaders played prominent roles in the suffrage campaign.

### 1918–19

The House passed the suffrage amendment for the first time in January, 1918, but the Senate delayed its debate on the measure until September. President Wilson took the unusual step of appearing before the Senate to speak on the issue, asking for passage of the amendment as a war measure. The Senate, however, defeated the measure by two votes. The NAWSA launched a campaign to unseat four senators who had voted against the amendment, assembling a coalition of forces that included labor unions and prohibitionists. Two of those four senators were defeated in the federal elections in November.

NAWSA held its Golden Jubilee Convention at the Statler Hotel in St. Louis, Missouri in March 1919. President Catt gave the opening address, in which she urged the delegates to create a league of women voters. A resolution was passed to form this league as a separate unit of NAWSA, with membership coming from states who allowed women to vote. The league was charged with achieving full suffrage and consideration of legislation that affected women in states where they were able to vote. On the last day of the convention, the Missouri senate passed legislation giving women the right to vote in presidential elections in Missouri and a resolution to submit a constitutional amendment for full suffrage. In June of that year, the Nineteenth Amendment was passed.

### Passage of the Nineteenth Amendment

After the elections, Wilson called a special session of Congress, which passed the suffrage amendment on June 4, 1919. The struggle now passed to the state legislatures, three-fourths of which would need to ratify the amendment before it would become law.

Catt and the NAWSA executive board had been planning their work in support of the ratification effort since April 1918, over a year before Congress passed the amendment. Ratification committees had already been established in state capitals, each with its own budget and plan of work. Immediately after Congress passed the amendment, Suffrage House and the federal lobbying operation were shut down and resources were diverted to the ratification drive. Catt had a sense of urgency, expecting a slowdown in reform energy after the war, which had ended seven months earlier. Many local suffrage societies had disbanded in states where women could already vote, making it more difficult to organize a quick ratification.

By the end of 1919, women effectively could vote for president in states that had a majority of electoral votes. Political leaders who were convinced that women's suffrage was inevitable began to pressure local and national legislators to support it so their party could claim credit for it in future elections. The conventions of both the Democratic and Republican Parties endorsed the amendment in June, 1920.

Former NAWSA members Kate Gordon and Laura Clay organized opposition to the amendment's ratification in the South. They had resigned from the NAWSA in the fall of 1918 at the executive board's request because of their public statements in opposition to a federal amendment. Only three Southern or border states, Arkansas, Texas, and Tennessee, ratified the 19th Amendment, with Tennessee being the crucial 36th state to ratify.

The Nineteenth Amendment, the women's suffrage amendment, became the law of the land on August 26, 1920, when it was certified by the United States Secretary of State.

### Transition into the League of Women Voters

Six months before the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, the NAWSA held its last convention. That convention created the League of Women Voters as the NAWSA's successor on February 14, 1920, with Maud Wood Park, former head of the NAWSA's Congressional Committee, as its president. The League of Women Voters was formed to help women play a larger part in public affairs as they won the right to vote. It was meant to help women exercise their right to vote. Before 1973 only women could join the league.

### State Organizations working with the NAWSA

## Bibliography

## InfoBox

National American Woman Suffrage Association
|
|  |
|
| Abbreviation | NAWSA |
| Predecessor | Merging of the *National Woman Suffrage Association* and the *American Woman Suffrage Association* |
| Successor | League of Women Voters |
| Formation | 1890 (1890) |
| Dissolved | 1920 (1920) |
| Key people | Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Carrie Chapman Catt, Lucy Stone |


title: National American Bank Building

abstract: National American Bank Building is a 23-story 325 feet (99 m)-tall skyscraper in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana, It was completed in 1929 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. It is topped with a distinctive 6-story octagonal tower with a golden Art Deco finial. Its address is 200 Carondelet Street. Originally a commercial building, it was renovated for use as a residential building after Hurricane Katrina.

text:
# National American Bank Building

**National American Bank Building** is a 23-story 325 feet (99 m)-tall skyscraper in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana, It was completed in 1929 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. It is topped with a distinctive 6-story octagonal tower with a golden Art Deco finial. Its address is 200 Carondelet Street. Originally a commercial building, it was renovated for use as a residential building after Hurricane Katrina.

## Description

The building was constructed from 1928 to 1929, under the direction of Louisiana architect Moise Goldstein; the general contractor was George J. Glover Company. Construction consisted of a steel skeleton, concrete, and hollow tiles. Bricks were used for common walls. The base of the building was faced with polished granite, and a limestone facade was used on the upper floors. On top of the 23rd floor is a 6-story octagonal tower, covered by an ornamental finial. The building was the first in New Orleans to utilize indoor air-conditioning within a public space.

In the late 1980s, when the building was assessed for National Register listing, the interior lobby area was marble clad, and the ceiling was described as, "gold and silver leaf pressed metal with a repeating chevron and diamond point pattern". Columns supported the banking hall roof, and bronze was used for elevator doors, panels, and check stations. The banking hall also retained its original chandeliers, and walnut paneling on the walls.

## History

During peak occupation of the building in the 20th century, banks utilized the ground floor and mezzanine, while law firms and other businesses occupied the upper floors. By 2000, the building was vacant. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, renovation opportunities arose to replace thousands of rental units lost in the storm. Renovation of the structure was completed in 2008, using public and private investment to convert the building into mixed income residential apartments, under the name "200 Carondelet".

It was included as a contributing building in the National Register listing of the New Orleans Lower Central Business District in 1991.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| National American Bank Building | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. Historic district
Contributing property | |
|  | |
| West facade 2009 | |
|  | |
| Location | 200 Carondelet Street,
New Orleans, Louisiana |
| Coordinates | 29°57′8″N 90°4′14″W / 29.95222°N 90.07056°W / 29.95222; -90.07056 |
| Area | 0.3 acres (0.12 ha) |
| Built | 1929 |
| Architect | Moise H. Goldstein Sr. |
| Architectural style | Gothic, Modernistic |
| Part of | New Orleans Lower Central Business District (ID91000825) |
| NRHP reference No. | 86001048 |
| Significant dates | |
| Added to NRHP | May 15, 1986 |
| Designated CP | June 24, 1991 |


title: Napoleon Oak

abstract: The Napoleon Oak was formerly the largest oak in Poland and one of the largest in Europe. It was a monumental tree with single-stemmed, hollow trunk. Its girth was 1.3 meter and its height 10.425 meters, with a total height of 28 meters and a volume of about 130 m³. The age of the tree was estimated at 600–700 years. It was set on fire by vandals and collapsed in May 2010. Name of the tree is connected to Napoleon Bonaparte, who allegedly stopped by this oak in 1812, when his army went to Russia. This oak grew in Zabór, Lubusz Voivodeship.

text:
# Napoleon Oak

The **Napoleon Oak** was formerly the largest oak in Poland and one of the largest in Europe. It was a monumental tree with single-stemmed, hollow trunk. Its girth was 1.3 meter and its height 10.425 meters, with a total height of 28 meters (in 2007) and a volume of about 130 m³. The age of the tree was estimated at 600–700 years. It was set on fire by vandals (at least the third time in history) and collapsed in May 2010.

Name of the tree is connected to Napoleon Bonaparte, who allegedly stopped by this oak in 1812, when his army went to Russia.

This oak grew in Zabór, Lubusz Voivodeship.

51°58′20″N 15°44′12″E / 51.972151°N 15.736756°E / 51.972151; 15.736756


title: Hanli Rolfes

abstract: Hanli Rolfes is a South African actress and writer. She is best known for her roles in the series Getroud met rugby, Kruispad and Generations.

text:
# Hanli Rolfes

**Hanli Rolfes** (born 5 April 1971) is a South African actress and writer. She is best known for her roles in the series *Getroud met rugby*, *Kruispad* and *Generations*.

## Personal life

Rolfes was born on 5 April 1971. In 1994, she graduated with an Honors degree in Drama from the University of Pretoria.

She was married to Deon Opperman, a fellow actor and playwright, from 2002 to 2010.

## Career

In 1995, Rolfes made her television debut in *Die Laksman* as Lieutenant Bernice Fox. In 1996, she joined the cast of the SABC1 soap opera *Generations* as Sarah-Lee Odendaal, a role she would play for six years until 2001. After that, she appeared in a number of kykNET series such as *Villa Rosa* as Louise Schoeman, *Kruispad* as Sophie Landman, and *Binnelanders* as Sonja Mostert. In 2009, she co-created the soapie *Getroud Met Rugby* with her husband Deon Opperman and played the supporting character Lanie.

In 2010s, she appeared in series such as *Justice For All*, *The Adventures of Sinbad*, *Vetkoekpaleis*, *Egoli*, *Iemand om lief te hê*, *Jozi Streets*, *4Play: Sex Tips for Girls*, *Askies!*, *Soul City*, *Skeem Saam*, *Hartland* and *Geraamtes in die Kas*. Apart from television, she performed in some stage plays such as *Boesman my Seun* (2005), *Twaalfuurwals* (2006), *Kaburu* (2007) and *Knypie Oppie Kant* (2008). In 2008, she joined with SABC2 game show *Where Were You?* as one of the contestant panelists. In 2012, she made her film debut with a small role in *Sleeper's Wake*. In 2016, she joined the SABC2 soap opera *7de Laan* asAnna van Biljon. Even though she left the role in 2016, she continued to work on *7de Laan* as a scriptwriter.

## Filmography

| Year | Film | Role | Genre | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1995 | *Die Laksman* | Lt. Bernice Fox | TV series |  |
| 1996-2001 | *Generations* | Sarah-Lee Odendaal | TV series |  |
| 1998 | *The Adventures of Sinbad* | Velda | TV series |  |
| 1998 | *Justice for All* |  | TV series |  |
| 1999 | *Iemand om lief te hê* | Fransien Pienaar | TV series |  |
| 2004 | *Jozi Streets* | Liezel | TV series |  |
| 2008 | *Kruispad* | Sophia van den Berg, Writer | TV series |  |
| 2009 | *Getroud met rugby* | Lanie, Writer | TV series |  |
| 2009 | *Askies!* | Frida van Niekerk | TV series |  |
| 2010 | *4Play: Sex Tips for Girls* | Susan | TV series |  |
| 2011 | *Hartland* | Elna | TV series |  |
| 2012 | *Sleeper's Wake* | Jackie's Mom | Film |  |
| 2013 | *Molly & Wors* | Dr. Proctor's patient | Film |  |
| 2012 | *Parys Parys* | Guest Star | TV series |  |
| 2012 | *Binnelanders* | Sonja Mostert | TV series |  |
| 2013 | *Geraamtes in die Kas* | Magda Schoeman | TV series |  |
| 2014 | *Pandjieswinkelstories* | Magenta | TV series |  |
| 2014 | *Snake Park* | Writer | TV series |  |
| 2014 | *Alles Wat Mal Is* | Writer | Film |  |
| 2014 | *Soul City* | Dr Jane Hunter | TV series |  |
| 2014 | *Skeem Saam* | Amber LaFonde | TV series |  |
| 2015 | *Assignment* | Dr. Pillay | Film |  |
| 2015 | '*n Pawpaw Vir My Darling* | Thalita Snijgans | Film |  |
| 2015 | *Verskietende Ster* | Juffrou McDonald | Film |  |
| 2015 | *Sink* | Dr. Pieterse | Film |  |
| 2016 | *Mignon Mossie van Wyk* | Nurse | Film |  |
| 2016 | *Twee Grade van Moord* | Aleksa's prosecutor | Film |  |
| 2016 | *Sonskyn Beperk* | Writer | Film |  |
| 2020 | *Spoorloos 2* | Liesl Brand | TV series |  |
| 2020 | *Meisies Wat Fluit* | Vera | TV movie |  |
| 2020 | *Siende Blind* | Marinette Schoeman | TV mini series |  |
| 2021 | *7de Laan* | Anna van Biljon, Writer | TV series |  |

## InfoBox

| Hanli Rolfes | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1971-04-05) 5 April 1971<br>South Africa |
| Alma mater | University of Pretoria |
| Occupation | Director |
| Years active | 1995–present |
| Spouse | Deon Opperman (2002-2010) |


abstract: Wells Township is a civil township of Marquette County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, the township population was 213.

text:
# Wells Township, Marquette County, Michigan

**Wells Township** is a civil township of Marquette County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, the township population was 213.

## Communities

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 155.15 square miles (401.84 km2), of which 154.32 square miles (399.69 km2) are land and 0.83 square miles (2.15 km2), or 0.53%, are water.

## Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 292 people, 119 households, and 79 families residing in the township. The population density was 1.9 per square mile (0.7/km2). There were 395 housing units at an average density of 2.6 per square mile (1.0/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 97.95% White, 1.71% Native American, and 0.34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.34% of the population.

There were 119 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.7% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.8% were non-families. 27.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.06.

In the township the population was spread out, with 22.6% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 30.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.3 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $28,906, and the median income for a family was $33,000. Males had a median income of $26,607 versus $20,833 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,333. About 5.3% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under the age of eighteen and 14.6% of those 65 or over.

## InfoBox

| Wells Township, Michigan | |
| --- | --- |
| Civil township | |
| Location within Marquette County | |
| Wells TownshipWells Township | |
| Coordinates: 46°02′46″N 87°28′03″W / 46.04611°N 87.46750°W / 46.04611; -87.46750 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Michigan |
| County | Marquette |
| Government | |
| Supervisor | Robert Therrian |
| Clerk | Patti Manninen |
| Area | |
| Total | 155.15 sq mi (401.8 km2) |
| Land | 154.32 sq mi (399.7 km2) |
| Water | 0.83 sq mi (2.1 km2) |
| Elevation | 1,047 ft (319 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 213 |
| Density | 1.38/sq mi (0.53/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| ZIP Codes | 49818 (Cornell)
49831 (Felch)
49841 (Gwinn) |
| Area code | 906 |
| FIPS code | 26-103-85260 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1627242 |
| Website | wellstownshipmarquettecounty.com |


title: Wells Town Hall

abstract: Wells Town Hall is a municipal building in the Market Place in Wells, Somerset, England. The building, which is the headquarters of Wells City Council, is a Grade II listed building.

text:
# Wells Town Hall

**Wells Town Hall** is a municipal building in the Market Place in Wells, Somerset, England. The building, which is the headquarters of Wells City Council, is a Grade II listed building.

## History

The first civic building in the market place, a market and assize hall, was completed in 1548. It was paid for in part by the Bishop of Bath and Wells, William Knight, and in part from a legacy left by the former Dean of Wells, Richard Woleman. After falling into a state of disrepair, it was rebuilt in 1663. It was at Wells assizes that, in the aftermath of the Monmouth Rebellion, Judge Jeffreys held the Bloody Assizes on 23 September 1685.

After the justices complained that the old market house and assize hall was cold and uncomfortable, civic leaders decided to procure a new building: the site selected, which was to the south of the old market and assize hall, had been occupied by a Canonical House used by former archdeacons. An Act "for building a new Assize or Town Hall and Market House, within the City or Borough of Wells, in the County of Somerset; and for regulating the Markets within the said City or Borough" was approved by Parliament in March 1779.

The new building which was built by Edmund and William Lush of Salisbury in the neoclassical style and paid for by public subscription was completed in late 1779. The design involved a symmetrical main frontage with nine bays facing onto the Market Square; the central section of three bays, which projected forward and featured arcading on the ground floor with tall sash windows on the first floor and a pediment above, was added in 1907. A French door and a balcony on the first floor and three oculi above were added in 1932. Internally, the principal rooms were the courtroom in the east wing, which was used as the court of assizes and later converted into a council chamber, and the courtroom in the west wing, which was used the magistrates' court and, after refurbishment, referred to as the "old courtroom".

The town hall served as the meeting place of Wells Municipal Borough Council for much of the 20th century but ceased to be the local seat of government when the enlarged Mendip District Council was formed in 1974. It then became the meeting place for Wells City Council, the local parish council for the area. The court of assizes continued to be held in the building until October 1970. The building also became an approved venue for marriages and civil partnerships in 1998 and magistrates' court hearings continued to be held in the building until 2010.

Works of art in the town hall include a portrait by Godfrey Kneller of King Charles II, a portrait by Peter Lely of King James II (as Duke of York) and a portrait by Anthony van Dyck of Bishop Robert Creighton, as well as a more recent portrait by Arthur Hayward of Admiral Sir James Somerville.

## InfoBox

| Wells Town Hall | |
| --- | --- |
| Wells Town Hall | |
| Location | Wells, Somerset |
| Coordinates | 51°12′32″N 2°38′42″W / 51.2089°N 2.6449°W / 51.2089; -2.6449 |
| Built | 1779 |
| Architectural style(s) | Neoclassical style |
|  | |
| Listed Building – Grade II | |
| Official name | Town Hall |
| Designated | 12 November 1953 |
| Reference no. | 1383028 |
|  | |
|  | |
| Shown in Somerset | |


title: Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness

abstract: The Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness is a federally designated wilderness area in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, and southeastern Washington, United States. It was created by the Endangered American Wilderness Act of 1978 and encompasses 177,423 acres (71,801 ha) in the Umatilla National Forest — 66,375 acres (26,861 ha) in Oregon and 111,048 acres (44,940 ha) in Washington.

text:
# Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness

The **Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness** is a federally designated wilderness area in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, and southeastern Washington, United States. It was created by the Endangered American Wilderness Act of 1978 and encompasses 177,423 acres (71,801 ha) in the Umatilla National Forest  66,375 acres (26,861 ha) in Oregon and 111,048 acres (44,940 ha) in Washington.

## Topography

The Wehana–Tucannon Wilderness consists primarily of rugged basaltic ridges separated by deep canyons with steep slopes. The area's precipitation drains south into the Wenaha River, east to the Grande Ronde River and Asotin Creek, and north into the Tucannon River, each part of the Snake River watershed. To the west drainages are the Touchet River and Mill Creek, both leading to the Walla Walla River, and the Umatilla River, a direct tributary of the Columbia River. The Wilderness ranges in elevation from 2,000 feet (610 m) on the Wild and Scenic Wenaha River to 6,401 feet (1,951 m) atop Oregon Butte at 46°06′38″N 117°40′47″E / 46.1105°N 117.6797°E / 46.1105; 117.6797 in Washington.

## Vegetation

Ponderosa pine dominates the lower drainages of the Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness. Above about 4,500 feet (1,400 m), it transitions to a forest of lodgepole pine with some species of larch, fir, and spruce as well. Subalpine fir, native grasses, and forbs are found at the highest elevations of the wilderness.

## Wildlife

The Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness is home to a variety of wildlife, including Shiras moose, Rocky Mountain elk, bighorn sheep, whitetail and mule deer, black bear, cougar, grey wolf, coyote, snowshoe hare, rattlesnake, and pine marten. Both the Tucannon and Wenaha Rivers provide spawning habitat for Chinook salmon and steelhead trout.

## Recreation

Popular recreational activities in the Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness include camping, horseback riding, wildlife watching, and hiking the area's 200 miles (320 km) of trails. Elk hunting and fishing are also popular pastimes in the wilderness.

## Images

## InfoBox

| Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness | |
| --- | --- |
| IUCN category Ib (wilderness area) | |
| Summit of Oregon Butte | |
| Location | Wallowa County, Oregon and Columbia / Garfield / Asotin counties, Washington, United States |
| Nearest city | Milton-Freewater, Oregon and Walla Walla, Washington |
| Coordinates | 45°59′59″N 117°46′00″W / 45.99972°N 117.76667°W / 45.99972; -117.76667 |
| Area | 177,423 acres (71,801 ha) |
| Established | 1984 |
| Governing body | U.S. Forest Service |


title: Hansi Kraus

abstract: Jan Christoph Krause, known by his stage name Hansi Kraus or Hans Kraus, is a German actor.

text:
# Hansi Kraus

**Jan Christoph Krause**, known by his stage name **Hansi Kraus** or **Hans Kraus** (born 26 June 1952 in Gliwice, Silesia, Poland), is a German actor.

## Career

Hans Krause was only 12 years old when he was discovered by German film producer Franz Seitz, Jr. Hans Krause sounds too Prussian to play a character created by Bavarian author Ludwig Thoma, so Seitz decided to use the screenname "Hansi Kraus". His first role was playing the Bavarian boy "Ludwig" in a film adaption of Ludwig Thoma's autobiographical stories. Due to his success the film *Tales of a Young Scamp* was followed by four installments.

Besides these and other films he also starred a series of seven feature films about a young prankster called "Pepe Nietnagel". Some 25 years later, he again assumed the role of the now grown-up Pepe Nietnagel in the TV series Ein Schloß am Wörthersee.

In his films as a child actor he worked already regularly with a great many stars (including for example Uschi Glas, Peter Alexander, Rudi Carrell and Theo Lingen) and he has worked successfully as an actor ever since. As an adult he worked in main as a stage and television actor.

He is the father of actress Miriam Krause.

## Filmography

Kraus' filmography includes:

|  |  |
| --- | --- |
|

## InfoBox

| Hansi Kraus | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | Jan Christoph Krause
(1952-06-26) 26 June 1952
Gliwice, Silesia, Poland |
| Occupation(s) | actor, photographer, author |
| Years active | 1964present |
| Website | http://www.hansikraus.de/ |


title: Hansi Bächtold

abstract: Hansi Bächtold, is a retired Swiss sidecarcross rider and four times Sidecarcross World Champion, having won the competition from 1984 to 1987, together with his passenger Fritz Fuß. The duo became the first-ever combination to win the competition four times in a row, a feat later repeated by the Swiss team of Andreas Fuhrer and Adrian Käser and surpassed by Dutch rider Daniël Willemsen with six consecutive titles. Apart from his four World Championship triumphs he has also won the Swiss national sidecarcross championship on five occasions, in 1979, 1981, 1984, 1986 and 1987.

text:
# Hansi Bächtold

**Hansi Bächtold** (born 21 August 1956), is a retired Swiss sidecarcross rider and four times Sidecarcross World Champion, having won the competition from 1984 to 1987, together with his passenger Fritz Fuß. The duo became the first-ever combination to win the competition four times in a row, a feat later repeated by the Swiss team of Andreas Fuhrer and Adrian Käser and surpassed by Dutch rider Daniël Willemsen with six consecutive titles.

Apart from his four World Championship triumphs he has also won the Swiss national sidecarcross championship on five occasions, in 1979, 1981, 1984, 1986 and 1987.

## Biography

Hansi Bächtold made his sidecarcross debut in the Swiss championship in 1977 with passenger Wolf Kieser, coming sixth overall. They also raced in one event in the European Championship, the predecessor of the World Championship and scored a ninth place in the second race of the German Grand Prix.

The following season was not very successful for Bächtold, only finishing 15th in the Swiss championship and 14th in Europe and using three different passengers during the season. A highlight however was a second place at the second race of the Swiss GP.

From 1979 he used Hugo Jung as his passenger, a partnership that would last for three seasons. The new combination was instantly successful in the Swiss championship, taking out the title in 1979 and 1981 and finishing runners-up in between. The two titles were achieved against the strong competition of Robert Grogg and Emil Bollhalder, two of Europe's best riders at the time. In Europe the pair came tenth in 1979. The following season, in a competition now renamed World Championship, the pair finished runners-up to the first World Champions, Germans Reinhard Böhler and Siegfried Müller. The 1981 season was not as successful with the team only finishing seventh.

The 1982 season saw Bächtold use three different passengers again, eventually settling on Fritz Fuß. Success during that season was limited with a fourth place overall in Switzerland and a seventh in the World Championship. The 1983 season, now with Fritz Fuß as permanent passenger, saw improvement with a runners-up finish in the national and a sixth place in the World Championship.

From 1984 to 1987 the combination of Bächtold and Fuß dominated the World Championship and, almost equally, the Swiss championship. In 1984 they beat the 1981 World Champions Ton van Heugten and Frits Kiggen from the Netherlands by 58 points. The following three years August Muller and Henk van Heek, also from the Netherlands, came second each year. The closest the Dutch combination came to the Swiss World champions was in 1987 when they lost by 36 points.

In Switzerland, at the same time, the pair won the national title three times in four seasons. Only in 1985 did they miss out, finishing runners-up to Thomas Graf and Markus von Rotz by six points. It was the only time between 1982 and 1988 that the Swiss champions were not also the World Champions.

At the end of the 1987 season Hansi Bächtold retired from national and international sidecarcross racing, as did Fritz Fuß who had spent his entire career with Bächtold. The main reason behind Bächtold's retirement was financial. He had to give up his job as a car mechanic to be able to race while not receiving any financial reward for racing.

## Racing record

### Sidecarcross World Championship

The competition which was to become the Sidecarcross World Championship in 1980 originated as the FIM Cup in 1971 and was renamed to European championship in 1975. Hansi Bächtold's results in these competitions were:

## Honours

### World Championship

* Champions: (4) 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987
* Runners-up: (1) 1980

### National Championships

## InfoBox

| Hansi Bächtold | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Switzerland |
| Born | (1956-08-21) August 21, 1956 |
| Motorcycle racing career statistics  Sidecarcross World Championship  Active years 1977 - 1987  Manufacturers Yamaha-Wasp (1977)  Yamaha-EML (1978-82)  Jumbo-EML (1983-87)  Championships (4) 1984 – 1987  1987 championship position 1st   Starts Wins Podiums Poles F. laps Points  167 42 74   1,656 | |


title: Nathan Görling

abstract: Nathan Görling (1905–2002) was a Swedish composer of film scores.

text:
# Nathan Görling

**Nathan Görling** (1905–2002) was a Swedish composer of film scores.

## Selected filmography

## Bibliography

* Qvist, Per Olov & von Bagh, Peter. *Guide to the Cinema of Sweden and Finland*. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000.

## InfoBox

| Nathan Görling | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 7 October 1905
Alingsås, Sweden |
| Died | 23 October 2002
Stockholm, Sweden |
| Other names | Olof Nathan Görling |
| Occupation | Composer |
| Years active | 1937-1956 (film) |


title: Monika Christodoulou

abstract: Monika Christodoulou also known by her stage name Monika, is a Greek singer-songwriter. Her debut album Avatar was released in 2008 and her second album Exit followed in 2010. Both albums achieved platinum status in her native Greece and were met with critical acclaim. Her third album, Secret in the Dark, was the first to be given an international release, in 2015. It was recorded in New York in collaboration with musicians from the Dap-Kings, and sees Christodoulou moving away from the folk, singer-songwriter style of her earlier albums towards a disco and funk sound.

text:
# Monika Christodoulou

**Monika Christodoulou** (Greek: Μόνικα Χριστοδούλου, born May 26, 1985, in Athens, Greece) also known by her stage name **Monika**, is a Greek singer-songwriter. Her debut album *Avatar* was released in 2008 and her second album *Exit* followed in 2010. Both albums achieved platinum status in her native Greece and were met with critical acclaim. Her third album, *Secret in the Dark*, was the first to be given an international release, in 2015. It was recorded in New York in collaboration with musicians from the Dap-Kings, and sees Christodoulou moving away from the folk, singer-songwriter style of her earlier albums towards a disco and funk sound.

## Early life

Christodoulou was born in Athens on May 26, 1985. She grew up in various cities around Greece, such as Korinthos, Lamia and Karpenisi, moving around due to her father's occupation as a doctor. In 2004 she was accepted at the School of Mathematics of Kapodistriako University of Athens (EKPA). She made her first musical steps by joining her brother's rock band Serpentine, where she sang and played the guitar and saxophone. While she was in Serpentine, the band opened for local and international acts such as Devendra Banhart, Michael Gira and Raining Pleasure. Serpentine disbanded in 2004 and Monika started pursuing a solo career.

## Music career

Monika took part in many local bands' live gigs and albums, as a guitar and saxophone player and vocalist. In 2006 she completed her own demo, recorded at her home, and distributed it around Athens as well as uploading it on MySpace, where it became a word of mouth sensation, garnered her a spot as opening act for Calexico (with whom she performed "An Thymitheis T' Oneiro Mou" live in Crete) and spawned her first breakthrough song "Over The Hill". This led to Archangel Music, a Greek indie label, discovering and signing her in 2007. Monika's debut album, *Avatar*. was released in May 2008. Produced by Ottomo (real name Nikos Aggloupas) and with Martin Wenk from Calexico as a guest trumpet player, it features confessional lyrics and was influenced by artists including Leonard Cohen, Ennio Morricone, and Arcade Fire. It sold over 30,000 copies in Greece, achieving platinum status. The video for her single "Over The Hill" was nominated for Best Alternative Video at the 2010 MAD Video Music Awards.

Monika's second album *Exit* was released in May 2010, co-produced by Monika and Ottomo. It was recorded in Athens and Berlin and became Monika's second consecutive platinum release. A few months later, she completed her first original composition for the stage production *Mom – Life Is Wildly Incredible* by Angela Brouskou, which premiered in November 2011. In January 2013, Monika co-created *Primal*, a multimedia-enhanced series of live concerts at the Onassis Cultural Center in Athens, based on her two personal albums. An EP with the same name was subsequently released, featuring six new songs and released in the form of a sketchbook with a CD included. Monika has written the music score for the stage adaptation of Sophocles's "Antigone"

Monika's third album is *Secret in the Dark*. The album was recorded in New York in collaboration with Homer Steinweiss and Thomas Brenneck, both members of the Dap-Kings who previously worked on Amy Winehouse's *Back to Black* (2006). A review for *The Guardian* describes the album as "a wholly Daptone Records affair that attempts to stuff the irrepressible energies of disco, funk and soul into one package."

Monika has also created the music for the new stage version of the Russian classic *The Brothers Karamazov*.

She has performed live in many prestigious theaters in Greece such as the Lycabettus Hill Theater, Odeon Herodes Atticus and The Little Theatre of Ancient Epidaurus.

## Discography

### Albums

* *Avatar* (2008)
* *Exit* (2010)
* *Secret in the Dark* (2015)
* *The garden is blooming - O Kipos Einai Anthiros* (2019)
* *PROUD* (2023)

### EP

* *Primal* (2013)

### Singles

* "Over the Hill" (2008)
* "Baby"' (2009)

## InfoBox

| Monika | |
| --- | --- |
| Monika performing at Castro Platamona, 2011 | |
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Monika (Lemonia) Christodoulou (Μόνικα Χριστοδούλου) |
| Born | (1985-05-26) May 26, 1985<br>Athens, Greece |
| Genres | folk pop, blues, Independent music |
| Occupation(s) | Musician, singer-songwriter, composer, artist |
| Instrument(s) | Vocals, guitar, piano |
| Years active | 2005–present |
| Labels | Archangel, Fat Possum, Other Music, Royal Music |
|  | |
| Website | http://www.iammonika.com |


title: Thomas Smith (Medal of Honor, 1865)

abstract:
Thomas Smith was a Union Navy sailor in the American Civil War and a recipient of the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Natural Bridge. Born in 1838 in England, Smith joined the U.S. Navy from the state of New York. By March 5, 1865, he was serving as a seaman on the USS Magnolia. On that day and the next, he accompanied a Union Army force during the Battle of Natural Bridge near St. Marks, Florida. He helped transport and fire a naval howitzer throughout the engagement despite heavy Confederate fire. For this action, he was awarded the Medal of Honor three months later, on June 22, 1865. He was one of six sailors to receive the medal for manning artillery pieces during the battle, the others being Landsman John S. Lann, Seaman John Mack, Seaman George Pyne, Ordinary Seaman Charles Read, and Coxswain George Schutt. He was buried at the Mountain Home National Cemetery in Johnson City, Tennessee. Smith's Medal of Honor citation reads:
As seaman on board the U.S.S. Magnolia, St. Marks, Fla., 5 and 6 March 1865. Serving with the Army in charge of Navy howitzers during the attack on St. Marks and throughout this fierce engagement, Smith made remarkable efforts in assisting transport of the gun, and his coolness and determination in courageously standing by his gun while under the fire of the enemy were a credit to the service to which he belonged.

text:
# Thomas Smith (Medal of Honor, 1865)

**Thomas Smith** (1838 – 22 October 1905) was a Union Navy sailor in the American Civil War and a recipient of the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Natural Bridge.

Born in 1838 in England, Smith joined the U.S. Navy from the state of New York. By March 5, 1865, he was serving as a seaman on the USS *Magnolia*. On that day and the next, he accompanied a Union Army force during the Battle of Natural Bridge near St. Marks, Florida. He helped transport and fire a naval howitzer throughout the engagement despite heavy Confederate fire. For this action, he was awarded the Medal of Honor three months later, on June 22, 1865. He was one of six sailors to receive the medal for manning artillery pieces during the battle, the others being Landsman John S. Lann, Seaman John Mack, Seaman George Pyne, Ordinary Seaman Charles Read, and Coxswain George Schutt. He was buried at the Mountain Home National Cemetery in Johnson City, Tennessee.

Smith's Medal of Honor citation reads:

> As seaman on board the U.S.S. *Magnolia*, St. Marks, Fla., 5 and 6 March 1865. Serving with the Army in charge of Navy howitzers during the attack on St. Marks and throughout this fierce engagement, Smith made remarkable efforts in assisting transport of the gun, and his coolness and determination in courageously standing by his gun while under the fire of the enemy were a credit to the service to which he belonged.

## InfoBox

| Thomas Smith | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1838
England |
| Died | 22 October 1905(1905-10-22) (aged 66–67) |
| Place of burial | Mountain Home National Cemetery in Johnson City, Tennessee |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Service/branch | United States Navy |
| Rank | Seaman |
| Unit | USS *Magnolia* |
| Battles/wars | American Civil War
Battle of Natural Bridge |
| Awards | Medal of Honor |


title: Isabelle Bowen Henderson

abstract: Isabelle Bowen Henderson was an American portraitist and floriculturist. She taught art classes at various schools and at North Carolina State College and Wake Forest College. Specializing in crayon and oil paintings, she was commissioned to paint portraits of prominent figures including Frank Porter Graham and I. Beverly Lake Sr. She later helped establish the North Carolina Museum of Art. Henderson was a renowned gardener and received awards from the National Society of State Garden Clubs and the National Horticulture Society for her hybridization of the iris and hemerocallis. Her home, the Isabelle Bowen Henderson House and Gardens in Raleigh, North Carolina, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

text:
# Isabelle Bowen Henderson

**Isabelle Bowen Henderson** (March 23, 1899 – May 19, 1969) was an American portraitist and floriculturist. She taught art classes at various schools and at North Carolina State College and Wake Forest College. Specializing in crayon and oil paintings, she was commissioned to paint portraits of prominent figures including Frank Porter Graham and I. Beverly Lake Sr. She later helped establish the North Carolina Museum of Art. Henderson was a renowned gardener and received awards from the National Society of State Garden Clubs and the National Horticulture Society for her hybridization of the iris and hemerocallis.

Her home, the Isabelle Bowen Henderson House and Gardens in Raleigh, North Carolina, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

## Early life and education

Henderson was born Isabelle Bowen on March 23, 1899, in Raleigh, North Carolina. She was the daughter of Arthur Finn Bowen, the business manager of North Carolina State College, and Isabelle Woodward Bowen, a member of an old Wilmington family. She was one of six children.

She was educated in Raleigh public schools before attending Peace College, where she graduated in 1919. From 1921 to 1923, she spent summers studying art at Columbia University and the School of Fine and Applied Arts in New York City. From 1924 to 1925, she was a student at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia.

## Career

### Art

From 1919 to 1921, Henderson taught art at the Centennial School in Raleigh. She moved to Pennsylvania and taught at College Hill School in Easton from 1922 to 1924. She also taught art during the summer sessions at North Carolina State College and at Wake Forest College.

In 1936, Henderson opened an art studio in Raleigh and became known throughout Eastern North Carolina for her crayon portraits. In the 1940s, she continued painting in Raleigh and in Florida, where her husband was working as a professor. In addition to portrait commissions for wealthy North Carolinian families, Henderson was commissioned to paint oil portraits of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill president Frank Porter Graham, North Carolina State College president Wallace Carl Riddick, North Carolina Supreme Court justice I. Beverly Lake Sr., and the public official Charles Carroll of the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction.

She was a member of the North Carolina Art Society and assisted in establishing the North Carolina Museum of Art. Henderson was partially responsible for the museum acquiring a collection of Jugtown Pottery. Some of her work is kept in the collection of the museum.

### Gardening

Henderson's home in Raleigh became famous for her garden, which included a collection of iris and hemerocallis. Her hybridization of the two flowers led to her receiving the highest award of the National Society of State Garden Clubs in 1951 and recognition from the National Horticulture Society.

She was an active member of the Raleigh Garden Club and gave lectures to garden clubs throughout North Carolina.

## Personal life

She married Edgar H. Henderson in 1932 and moved to Williamstown, Massachusetts, where her husband served on the faculty at Williams College. She also spent time in Gainesville, Florida, where her husband served on the faculty at the University of Florida.

The Hendersons had one son, who died in infancy. Following their child's death, her husband suffered a nervous breakdown and was institutionalized.

The couple returned to Raleigh in 1936. Her father purchased a Victorian home on a 1.2-acre lot in the Oberlin Village neighborhood for Henderson and her husband to help them get back on their feet. Shortly after moving into the house, they separated. Henderson added three outbuildings to her residence to create a quadrangle, including an herb house and a two-car garage.

## InfoBox

| Isabelle Bowen Henderson | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1899-03-23)March 23, 1899
Raleigh, North Carolina
U.S. |
| Died | 19 May 1969(1969-05-19) (aged 70)
Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S. |
| Education | Peace College
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts |
| Occupation(s) | artist, gardener |
| Spouse | Edgar H. Henderson |
| Parent(s) | Arthur Finn Bowen
Isabelle Woodward |


title: Paul Sigler

abstract: Paul B. Sigler was the Henry Ford II Professor of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry at Yale University. Major awards included membership in the National Academy of Sciences, HHMI Investigator status, and Guggenheim and Helen Hay Whitney Fellowships. He is noted for pioneering studies of Phospholipase A2 and trp repressor amongst many others.

text:
# Paul Sigler

**Paul B. Sigler** (February 19, 1934January 11, 2000) was the Henry Ford II Professor of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry at Yale University. Major awards included membership in the National Academy of Sciences, HHMI Investigator status, and Guggenheim and Helen Hay Whitney Fellowships. He is noted for pioneering studies of Phospholipase A2 and trp repressor amongst many others.

## Biography

Prior to coming to Yale, he was a professor at the University of Chicago. He received his MD from Columbia University in 1959 and his undergraduate degree from Princeton University in 1955. After briefly practicing medicine and working as a researcher for the NIH, he would go on to earn a second doctorate, a PhD, from Cambridge University at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology working under David M. Blow before moving to the University of Chicago.

## Memorials

A memorial plaque is located in front of the Bass Center for Structural Biology on Science Hill on the campus of Yale University. Yale has a Paul Sigler Memorial Prize for undergraduate research in Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry. Yale also has sponsored Paul Sigler memorial symposia in the past. The Agouron Institute sponsored 12 Paul Sigler fellowships between 2000 and 2006.

## Death

Paul Sigler died on January 11, 2000, at New Haven, Connecticut, US, about a month before his 66th birthday.

## Selected publications

* Lambright, David G.; Sondek, John; Bohm, Andrew; Skiba, Nikolai P.; Hamm, Heidi E.; Sigler, Paul B. (1996). "The 2.0 Å crystal structure of a heterotrimeric G protein". *Nature*. **379** (6563): 311–9. Bibcode:1996Natur.379..311L. doi:10.1038/379311a0. PMID 8552184. S2CID 4350943.
* Luisi, B. F.; Xu, W. X.; Otwinowski, Z.; Freedman, L. P.; Yamamoto, K. R.; Sigler, P. B. (1991). "Crystallographic analysis of the interaction of the glucocorticoid receptor with DNA". *Nature*. **352** (6335): 497–505. Bibcode:1991Natur.352..497L. doi:10.1038/352497a0. PMID 1865905. S2CID 1919276.
* Braig, Kerstin; Otwinowski, Zbyszek; Hegde, Rashmi; Boisvert, David C.; Joachimiak, Andrzej; Horwich, Arthur L.; Sigler, Paul B. (1994). "The crystal structure of the bacterial chaperonln GroEL at 2.8 Å". *Nature*. **371** (6498): 578–86. Bibcode:1994Natur.371..578B. doi:10.1038/371578a0. PMID 7935790. S2CID 4341993.
* Kim, Youngchang; Geiger, James. H.; Hahn, Steven; Sigler, Paul B. (1993). "Crystal structure of a yeast TBP/TATA-box complex". *Nature*. **365** (6446): 512–20. Bibcode:1993Natur.365..512K. doi:10.1038/365512a0. PMID 8413604. S2CID 4336203.
* Vinson, C.; Sigler, P.; McKnight, S. (1989). "Scissors-grip model for DNA recognition by a family of leucine zipper proteins". *Science*. **246** (4932): 911–6. Bibcode:1989Sci...246..911V. doi:10.1126/science.2683088. PMID 2683088.
* Otwinowski, Z; Schevitz, R. W.; Zhang, R. G.; Lawson, C. L.; Joachimiak, A; Marmorstein, R. Q.; Luisi, B. F.; Sigler, P. B. (1988). "Crystal structure of trp repressor/operator complex at atomic resolution". *Nature*. **335** (6188): 321–9. Bibcode:1988Natur.335..321O. doi:10.1038/335321a0. PMID 3419502. S2CID 9358980.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Paul B. Sigler | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1934-02-19)February 19, 1934
Richmond, Virginia, US |
| Died | January 11, 2000(2000-01-11) (aged 65)
New Haven, Connecticut, US |
| Monuments |  |
| Nationality | American |
| Occupation | Professor |
| Spouse | Althea Jo Martin Sigler |
| Children | 5 children |
|  | |
| Alma mater | Princeton University
Columbia University (MD)
Cambridge University (PhD) |
| Known for | Phospholipase A2
trp repressor |
| Awards | National Academy of Sciences
HHMI Investigator
Guggenheim Fellow
Helen Hay Whitney Fellow |
| **Scientific career** | |
| Fields | Biophysics
Biochemistry |
| Institutions | Yale University
University of Chicago
MRC-LMB
NIH |
| Doctoral advisors | David M. Blow |
|  | |
| Website | www.hhmi.org/scientists/paul-b-sigler |
|  | |


title: Gambling in New Hampshire

text:
# Gambling in New Hampshire

Legal forms of gambling in the U.S. state of New Hampshire include the New Hampshire Lottery, sports betting, parimutuel wagering, and charitable gaming. The state's Gaming Regulatory Oversight Authority (GROA) is part of the New Hampshire Lottery Commission, which also maintains an Investigative & Compliance Division.

## Lottery

Initially known as the New Hampshire Sweepstakes, the state's lottery began operation in 1964 and is the oldest lottery conducted by a U.S. state. New Hampshire offers scratch tickets and participates in multi-state lotteries such as Mega Millions and Powerball. Online sales began in September 2018.

## Sports betting

Sports betting is offered in the state exclusively by DraftKings, on behalf of the New Hampshire Lottery. DraftKings accepts wagers online and through self-serve kiosks at four retail sportsbooks, located in Dover, Manchester, Seabrook, and Nashua, New Hampshire.

Sports betting was legalized by the state in 2019. DraftKings was granted its exclusive contract later that year for a six-year period, based on its offer to give 51% of online revenue and 50% of retail revenue to the state. The first bet was placed on December 30, 2019, by Governor Chris Sununu.

## Parimutuel wagering

The state allows parimutuel wagering on horse racing and greyhound racing. However, there are currently no active tracks in the state.

Rockingham Park, a horse racing facility in Salem, operated from 1906 until 2009. Dog racing took place at several venues, including Hinsdale Greyhound Park, which closed in 2008, and Seabrook Greyhound Park, which ended live racing in 2009.

Former racetrack sites can offer off-track betting; as of 2023, only the former Seabrook Greyhound Park, now operating as The Brook, does so.

## Charitable gaming

Charitable gaming allowed in the state includes poker, bingo, Lucky 7 pull-tab tickets, and raffles. Groups wishing to run charitable gaming events must be registered with the state.

In 2021, New Hampshire legalized Instant Racing (also known as historical horse racing) at charitable gaming facilities.

## Casinos

New Hampshire has no commercial casinos. Several facilities that brand themselves as casinos operate under the state's charitable gaming laws, donating a portion of daily proceeds to local nonprofit organizations. One such facility operates table games including Spanish 21 and roulette, poker tables, and historical horse racing machines. A similar facility donated over $4 million in 10 years to a local American Legion post.

As New Hampshire has no federally recognized tribes, the state has no Native American gaming (colloquially known as "Indian casinos").

1. "Gaming Regulatory Oversight Authority". *NH.gov*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
2. "Enforcement Unit". *NH.gov*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
3. "About Us | New Hampshire Lottery". *nhlottery.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
4. "New Hampshire Becomes The Sixth State Offering Online Lottery - Online Poker Report". *Online Poker Report*. 2018-09-19. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
5. "Three years later, sports betting is a slam dunk for New Hampshire". *The Telegraph*. Nashua, NH. April 1, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-20.
6. Robin Harrison-Millan (November 26, 2019). "NH approves exclusive sports betting contract for DraftKings". *iGaming Business North America*. Retrieved 2023-05-20.
7. "DraftKings Sportsbook Locations". New Hampshire Lottery. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
8. Nick Stoico (July 12, 2019). "Sununu signs sports betting bill". *Concord Monitor*. Retrieved 2023-05-20.
9. "Title XXIV: Games, Amusements, and Athletic Exhibitions | Chapter 287-I: Sports Betting". *NH.us*. New Hampshire General Court. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
10. "Sports betting approved in New Hampshire for next year". *The Seattle Times*. AP. November 25, 2019. Retrieved 2023-05-20.
11. "New Hampshire adds sports betting". *Lincoln Journal Star*. Lincoln, Nebraska. AP. December 31, 2019. p. A6. Retrieved January 9, 2023  via newspapers.com.
12. "TITLE XXIV GAMES, AMUSEMENTS, AND ATHLETIC EXHIBITIONS | Chapter 284 HORSE AND DOG RACING". *NH.us*. New Hampshire General Court. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
13. Friedl, Jon (March 14, 2022). "New Hampshire Slot Machine Casino Gambling". *professorslots.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
14. "beabetterbettor.com". Retrieved January 9, 2023.
15. Loder, Amanda (May 24, 2013). "Remembering Rockingham Park: A Story of Prestige and Decline". *NHPR*. Retrieved November 10, 2013.
16. Brown, Garry (29 December 2008). "Western Mass. fans regret passing of nearby greyhound race track". *The Springfield Republican*. Retrieved 10 October 2012  via MassLive.com.
17. Barrick, Daniel (July 14, 2009). "With mandates lifted, live dog racing abandoned". *Concord Monitor*. p. 1. Retrieved January 10, 2023  via newspapers.com.
18. Lynne Snierson (February 15, 2023). "Gambling for good". *New Hampshire Magazine*. Retrieved 2023-05-20.
19. "The Brook | Racebook". *livefreeandplay.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
20. "New Hampshire Charitable Gaming". *casinocity.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
21. "New Hampshire authorizes historical horse racing in the state". *WBZ-AM*. June 10, 2021. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
22. "New Hampshire's Boston Billiard Club & Casino installs 50 HHR gaming machines". *yogonet.com*. November 3, 2022. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
23. "Tables Games". *bostonbilliardclubcasino.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
24. Sullivan, Max (November 4, 2021). "Hampton Beach's Ocean Gaming Casino goes all in on expansion as gambling grows in NH". *seacoastonline.com*. Retrieved January 9, 2023.