title: First Corps Area

abstract: The First Corps Area was a Corps area of the United States Army. It replaced the Northeastern Department, and was headquartered at South Boston Army Base, Massachusetts. The organization included Army units and facilities in Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Connecticut. It was responsible for the mobilization, and administration of the First United States Army (1936–38); the Fourth Army, I Army Corps with 9th, 26th, and 43d Divisions; XI Corps, constituted 29 July 1921, with the 76th, 94th, and 97th Division; coast defense units of the First Coast Artillery District, some units of the GHQ Reserve, and the Zone of the Interior support units of the First Corps Area Service Command. First Corps Area was redesignated First CASC in May 1941. The First Corps Area Training Center was established in the Regular Army on 7 July 1921, and was organized on 9 November 1921 with headquarters at Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. The headquarters was moved to Fort Warren, Massachusetts, on 19 December 1921. The training center's training group, at Camp Devens, Massachusetts, conducted training and demonstration functions for Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserve units, ROTC cadets, and CMTC candidates. The depot group consisted of an illiterate and development section, and a conventional recruit training section for new Regular Army recruits for units stationed in the First Corps Area. Originally, training for all arms and services except cavalry and field artillery was to be accomplished at Camp Devens, while cavalry and field artillery were to train at Fort Ethan Allen, Vermont. The First Corps Area Training Center was discontinued on 8 July 1922. Camp Devens then became the primary training center for corps area infantry units only. Air corps units were sent to Mitchel Field, New York, engineer units to Fort Du Pont, Delaware; and signal corps units were sent to Camp Alfred Vail, New Jersey. Corps area maneuvers of Regular Army mobile units were held, those years when funds were available, near Fort Ethan Allen. With the adoption of the four field army plan on 1 October 1933, the mobile units of the First Corps Area were reassigned to the First Army or GHQ Reserve, or were demobilized. For the administration of Organized Reserve units, all organizations initially came under the control of the I Corps, or the 76th, 94th, and 97th Divisions. When the XI Corps was inactivated in 1925, the HQ, Non-Divisional Group was established to direct the organization, training, and administration of all nondivisional units. This arrangement was short-lived. On 8 September 1925, the Non-Divisional Group was discontinued and the HQ, Artillery Group was established. This new group managed only the corps area nondivisional field artillery units, the 158th Cavalry Brigade, and personnel assigned to the I and XI Corps. The rest of the nondivisional units were turned over to the three Organized Reserve divisions for administrative control. At Brainard Field, a civilian airfield located at Hartford, Connecticut, the 43d Division Aviation (1923–29) and the 118th Observation Squadron (1923–41) trained. In May 1941, the Corps Area became the First Corps Area Service Command (CASC). Major General Francis B. Wilby was the commanding general from 15 July 1941–11 January 1942. Soon afterwards, the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Brigadier General Sherman Miles, marked for his directorate's intelligence failure before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, was promoted to major general but then given the relatively unimportant command of First CASC. First CASC was again redesignated First Service Command, part of the Second World War Army Service Forces, on 22 July 1942. By 1943, it had a strength of 31,246. Miles retained command throughout the war. First Service Command was disestablished in 1946.

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# First Corps Area

The **First Corps Area** was a Corps area (effectively a military district) of the United States Army. It replaced the Northeastern Department, and was headquartered at South Boston Army Base, Massachusetts. The organization included Army units and facilities in Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Connecticut. It was responsible for the mobilization, and administration of the First United States Army (1936–38); the Fourth Army, I Army Corps with 9th, 26th, and 43d Divisions; XI Corps, constituted 29 July 1921, with the 76th, 94th, and 97th Division; coast defense units of the First Coast Artillery District, some units of the GHQ Reserve, and the Zone of the Interior support units of the First Corps Area Service Command. First Corps Area was redesignated First CASC in May 1941.

The First Corps Area Training Center was established in the Regular Army on 7 July 1921, and was organized on 9 November 1921 with headquarters at Fort Andrews, Massachusetts. The headquarters was moved to Fort Warren, Massachusetts, on 19 December 1921. The training center's training group, at Camp Devens, Massachusetts, conducted training and demonstration functions for Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserve units, ROTC cadets, and CMTC candidates. The depot group consisted of an illiterate and development section, and a conventional recruit training section for new Regular Army recruits for units stationed in the First Corps Area. Originally, training for all arms and services except cavalry and field artillery was to be accomplished at Camp Devens, while cavalry and field artillery were to train at Fort Ethan Allen, Vermont. The First Corps Area Training Center was discontinued on 8 July 1922. Camp Devens then became the primary training center for corps area infantry units only. Air corps units were sent to Mitchel Field, New York, engineer units to Fort Du Pont, Delaware; and signal corps units were sent to Camp Alfred Vail (later renamed Fort Monmouth), New Jersey. Corps area maneuvers of Regular Army mobile units were held, those years when funds were available, near Fort Ethan Allen.

With the adoption of the four field army plan on 1 October 1933, the mobile units of the First Corps Area were reassigned to the First Army or GHQ Reserve, or were demobilized. For the administration of Organized Reserve units, all organizations initially came under the control of the I Corps, or the 76th, 94th, and 97th Divisions. When the XI Corps was inactivated in 1925, the HQ, Non-Divisional Group was established to direct the organization, training, and administration of all nondivisional units. This arrangement was short-lived. On 8 September 1925, the Non-Divisional Group was discontinued and the HQ, Artillery Group was established. This new group managed only the corps area nondivisional field artillery units, the 158th Cavalry Brigade (part of the 64th Cavalry Division, Organized Reserves), and personnel assigned to the I and XI Corps. The rest of the nondivisional units were turned over to the three Organized Reserve divisions for administrative control.

At Brainard Field, a civilian airfield located at Hartford, Connecticut, the 43d Division Aviation (1923–29) and the 118th Observation Squadron (1923–41) trained.

In May 1941, the Corps Area became the First Corps Area Service Command (CASC). Major General Francis B. Wilby was the commanding general from 15 July 1941–11 January 1942. Soon afterwards, the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Brigadier General Sherman Miles, marked for his directorate's intelligence failure before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, was promoted to major general but then given the relatively unimportant command of First CASC. First CASC was again redesignated First Service Command, part of the Second World War Army Service Forces, on 22 July 1942. By 1943, it had a strength of 31,246. Miles retained command throughout the war.

First Service Command was disestablished in 1946.

1. Clay 2010a, p. 19.
2. Clay 2010a, p. 19, 187-188.
3. Clay 2010a, p. 24.
4. Millett 1954, pp. 429–430.

### Bibliography

* Clay, Lt. Col. Steven E. (2010a). *US Army Order of Battle 1919-1941 Volume I. The Arms: Major Commands and Infantry Organizations*. Command and General Staff College, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press. \- *Public Domain - United States Government*
* Millett, John D. (1954). *The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces* (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 631289493.


title: First Cooper ministry

abstract: The Cooper Ministry was a ministry of the Government of Queensland and was led by Labor Premier Frank Cooper. It succeeded the Forgan Smith Ministry on 16 September 1942 following Forgan Smith's resignation from the Ministry after over 10 years as Premier. The ministry was followed by the Hanlon Ministry on 7 March 1946 following Cooper's own resignation.

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# First Cooper ministry

The **Cooper Ministry** was a ministry of the Government of Queensland and was led by Labor Premier Frank Cooper. It succeeded the Forgan Smith Ministry on 16 September 1942 following Forgan Smith's resignation from the Ministry after over 10 years as Premier. The ministry was followed by the Hanlon Ministry on 7 March 1946 following Cooper's own resignation.

## First ministry

On 16 September 1942, the Governor, Sir Leslie Orme Wilson, designated 10 principal executive offices of the Government, appointed Vince Gair to the Executive Council to fill the vacancy left by Forgan Smith's resignation, and appointed the following Members of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland to the Ministry as follows:

| Office | Minister |
| --- | --- |
| Premier
Chief Secretary
Treasurer | Frank Cooper |
| Deputy Premier
Secretary for Health
Secretary for Home Affairs | Ned Hanlon |
| Secretary for Agriculture and Stock | Frank Bulcock
(until 17 December 1942)\[1\] |
| Secretary for Public Works
 | Harry Bruce |
| Secretary for Labour and Industry\[1\] | Tom Foley |
| Minister for Transport | James Larcombe |
| Attorney-General | David Gledson |
| Secretary for Public Lands | Ted Walsh |
| Secretary for Public Instruction
 | Arthur Jones |
| Secretary for Mines | Vince Gair |
| Secretary for Agriculture and Stock | Thomas Lewis Williams
(from 17 December 1942)\[1\] |

**1**  Frank Bulcock resigned on 15 December 1942 to take up an appointment as Commonwealth Director-General of Agriculture. On 17 December 1942, Thomas Lewis Williams was appointed in his stead to the Ministry. Additionally, Foley's portfolio was renamed from "Labour and Industry" to "Labour and Employment".

## Second ministry

Labor was re-elected at the 1944 election and the Ministry was reconstituted on 27 April 1944. The Ministers served until the resignation of Frank Cooper on 7 March 1946 and the formation of a new ministry under Deputy Premier Ned Hanlon.

| Office | Minister |
| --- | --- |
| Premier
Chief Secretary
 | Frank Cooper |
| Deputy Premier
Treasurer | Ned Hanlon |
| Secretary for Health
Secretary for Home Affairs | Tom Foley |
| Secretary for Public Works | Harry Bruce |
| Secretary for Public Lands | Arthur Jones |
| Attorney-General | David Gledson |
| Secretary for Public Instruction | James Larcombe |
| Minister for Transport | Ted Walsh |
| Secretary for Labour and Employment
Secretary for Mines | Vince Gair |
| Secretary for Agriculture and Stock | Thomas Lewis Williams |

* "Proclamation". *Queensland Government Gazette*. 16 September 1942. p. 159:851.
* "Proclamation". *Queensland Government Gazette*. 17 December 1942. p. 159:1919.
* "Proclamation". *Queensland Government Gazette*. 27 April 1944. p. 162:830.
* "Proclamation". *Queensland Government Gazette*. 7 March 1946. p. 166:591.
* Parliament of Queensland (2009). *Alphabetical Register of Members of the Legislative Assembly 1860-2009* (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2009.


title: Fish acute toxicity syndrome

abstract: Fish acute toxicity syndrome (FATS) is a set of common chemical and functional responses in fish resulting from a short-term, acute exposure to a lethal concentration of a toxicant, a chemical or material that can produce an unfavorable effect in a living organism. By definition, modes of action are characterized by FATS because the combination of common responses that represent each fish acute toxicity syndrome characterize an adverse biological effect. Therefore, toxicants that have the same mode of action elicit similar sets of responses in the organism and can be classified by the same fish acute toxicity syndrome.

text:
# Fish acute toxicity syndrome

**Fish acute toxicity syndrome** (**FATS**) is a set of common chemical and functional responses in fish resulting from a short-term, acute exposure to a lethal concentration of a toxicant, a chemical or material that can produce an unfavorable effect in a living organism. By definition, modes of action are characterized by FATS because the combination of common responses that represent each fish acute toxicity syndrome characterize an adverse biological effect. Therefore, toxicants that have the same mode of action elicit similar sets of responses in the organism and can be classified by the same fish acute toxicity syndrome.

## Background

During the 1970s, large-scale production of chemicals dramatically increased initiating new legislation to appease public concern about potential harmful effects. After implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act in 1977, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) required chemicals, new and existing, to be assessed for risks to human health and ecological systems. Since thousands of new chemicals are registered a year, it is important to utilize a screening technique that predicts toxicity of chemicals in a consistent, efficient manner. As a result, researchers in the field of toxicology focused on the development of QSAR models as a means of assessing toxic effects of chemicals in fish.

In toxicology, the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) approach is a method for predicting toxicity based on the properties and structure of a toxicant. This method has been developed under the assumption that a group of chemicals, with similar structural components, will result in similar toxic effects due to having the same activity, or mode of action. In other words, the toxicity of a chemical is directly related to the chemical's structure. Therefore, QSAR are used to create predictive computer programs and models to correlate structure and activity of chemicals. Overall, the objective is to aid in toxicology by providing databases and predictive models for classifying toxicants by modes of action as well as estimate acute toxicity of a chemical. To utilize the QSAR approach, researchers need to establish a pool of variables to be considered in this modelling process. QSAR models are differentiated by groups of chemicals characterized by a common mode of action. However, limited data is available on defined relationships between toxic responses and chemicals with known modes of action. Consequently, toxicologists have focused on the development of FATS to define these responses to better predict modes of action. This approach focuses on grouping chemical and functional responses in a manner so that individual chemicals with known modes of action can be separated into specific FATS. Overall, FATS aid QSAR models by providing a systematic way of defining and predicting modes of action.

## Determination

In 1987, McKim and colleagues began a series of experiments to characterize FATS. These experiments involved whole-fish in vivo analyses. The animals used in these experiments were Rainbow trout (*Oncorhynchus mykiss* formerly known as *Salmo gairdneri*). The fish underwent surgery prior to the exposure to implant respiratory and cardiovascular monitoring devices, and immobilize them. During the experiment, the fish were kept in a Plexiglas respiratory-metabolism chamber, which was filled with Lake Superior water. Water temperature was maintained for the duration of the experiments, and other water quality parameters (pH, total hardness, alkalinity, and acidity) were recorded once.

The toxicants used in these experiments were chosen because they had a known mode of action. The only exception to this was the narcotics. McKim et al. and Bradbury et al. used compounds known to be narcotics, and with a discriminant function analysis Bradbury et al. and colleagues identified two separate narcosis syndromes, I and II, which correspond to nonpolar and polar narcotics, respectively. By using compounds with known modes of action, these scientists could develop sets of respiratory-cardiovascular responses unique to a particular mode of action.

In the first experiment, two narcotics, tricaine methanesulfonate and 1-octanol, and two uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation, pentachlorophenol and 2,4-dinitrophenol, were used. During the second experiment, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and respiratory irritants were evaluated. The acetylcholinesterase inhibitors were an organophosphate, Malathion and a carbamate, Carbaryl. The respiratory irritants were Acrolein and Benzaldehyde. In part three of the experiment series, polar narcotics phenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, aniline, 2-chloroaniline and 4-chloroaniline were evaluated. In the last experiment, central nervous system seizure agents were analyzed. These included an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Chlorpyrifos; two pyrethroid insecticides, Fenvalerate and Cypermethrin; two cyclodiene insecticides, Endrin and Endosulfan; and a rodenticide, Strychnine. The duration of the exposure depended on the experiment, but the range was from 24 to 48 hours. Therefore, exposure resulted in acute toxicity. The Rainbow trout were exposed to a 24- to 48-hour lethal concentration of the toxicant. The respiratory and cardiovascular responses monitored throughout the exposure were cough rate, ventilation rate, ventilation volume, total oxygen consumption, oxygen utilization, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, arterial blood oxygen, arterial blood carbon dioxide, arterial blood pH, hematocrit, hemoglobin, electrocardiogram, plasma ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and chloride), and osmolality. Pre-dose values were obtained prior to the exposure. The responses were measured at two-hour intervals throughout the exposure, except for blood parameters, which were measured every four to eight hours, and blood ions, which were measured just before death.

Using the results of the experiment, each toxicant was then characterized by a set of respiratory-cardiovascular responses. Statistical analyses were used to determine significant differences in responses between toxicants with different modes of action. Finally, because each toxicant had a known mode of action, the set of responses characterized the mode of action.

## Types

### Nonspecific

#### Narcosis

* Narcosis Narcosis refers to the general depression of biological activity from exposure to a nonspecifically acting toxicant. Toxicants that induce narcosis are known as narcotics or anesthetics. Alcohol is an example of a narcotic and can result in intoxication, a form of narcosis. Using the FATS approach, researchers are able to predict toxicity by assessing responses elicited by narcotics.

Narcotics are a diverse group of chemicals including: inert gases, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, weak acids and bases, and aliphatic nitro compounds. Although narcosis can be induced by a wide range of chemical agents, there are a few chemicals that are not considered narcotics. This includes chemicals that: form irreversible bonds by electrophilic reaction; are metabolically activated by electrophiles; form Schiff bases with amino groups; and any type of a Michael acceptor. In general, narcotics are non-reactive.

Many organic chemicals in high enough concentrations induce narcotic symptoms. Thus, most toxicants can be considered narcotics. Baseline toxicity, or lowest toxicity is often used to refer to narcosis because this mode of action is considered the minimal effect. QSAR models are often used to predict minimum or baseline toxicity of chemicals acting through nonspecific mechanisms.

#### Mechanisms of action

Narcosis is a reversible state that is considered nonspecific because a single mechanism of action has yet to be established. Although the mechanisms of narcosis remain unclear, current theories suggest that narcosis is associated with altered structure and function of cell membranes. The Critical-Volume Hypothesis theorizes that symptoms of narcosis are due to the toxicant dissolving in the lipid component of a cell membrane. This results in an increased volume of cell membranes and consequently, altered membrane structure and function. The Protein Binding Theory suggests that a narcotic binds to receptors on the hydrophobic region of cellular membrane proteins. In both theories, the cell membranes are targeted by narcotics resulting in decreased functionality, narcosis.

#### Symptoms

General responses to narcotics include: lethargy, unconsciousness, and overall depression in respiratory-cardiovascular activity. Narcosis can result in death by nonspecific, sustained symptoms. In the final phases of narcosis, McKim and colleagues observed tissue hypoxia, generalized loss of respiratory-cardiovascular function and ultimately, respiratory paralysis. For example, rainbow trout exposed to two narcotics, MS-222 and 1-octanol exhibited a variety of respiratory-cardiovascular responses. The narcotic symptoms included: loss of reaction to external stimuli, loss of equilibrium, decline in respiratory rate and medullary collapse.

#### Narcosis I and narcosis II

Studies have suggested that two distinct modes of action exist for narcosis: narcosis I and narcosis II. Narcosis I is induced by nonpolar compounds while narcosis II relates to polar compounds. If polar and nonpolar narcotics induced the same effects, baseline-narcosis models should be able to accurately predict toxicity for both groups of chemicals. However, polar compounds have exhibited greater toxicity than predicted by baseline toxicity models. This difference in toxicity between nonpolar and polar narcotics supports the theory that two separate mechanisms of action exist for the different modes of narcosis.

Based on the QSAR approach, differences in the chemical structure can be used to predict the activity of toxicants. The polarity of toxicants can be used to differentiate narcotic modes of action into the two groups: narcosis I and narcosis II. In narcosis I, nonpolar chemicals induced generalized depression of respiratory-cardiovascular responses. I narcosis II, polar chemicals first result in increased activity. The unique response of narcosis II is supported by research conducted on rainbow trout. When exposed to polar narcotics, rainbow trout first exhibited increased muscular activity followed by incoordination and unresponsiveness to external stimuli.

In general, narcosis II is characterized by greater toxicity than narcosis I. Thus, Baseline-narcosis models should be used for predicting the toxicity of nonpolar narcotics. In addition, narcosis I is the generalized depression of biological activity. In contrast, narcosis II symptoms include stimulation of respiratory-cardiovascular responses followed by generalized depression of activity.

### Specific

A toxicant which exhibits a specific mode of action binds to a site on a particular biological molecule thereby altering or inhibiting a biological process. In comparison, a toxicant that exhibits non-specific action, also referred to as a narcotic, simply depresses biological activity by unknown means. Scientists are still unsure what site(s) a narcotic binds to, and the biochemical responses that result. Specific action is unique in comparison to non-specific in that relatively lower amounts of toxicant are needed to elicit a response. Because lower concentrations of toxicant are need to elicit a response, specific modes of action are usually seen before non-specific modes of action. Ultimately, with high enough concentrations though, most toxicants are narcotic (demonstrate non-specific modes of action).

There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, respiratory irritants, respiratory blockers, dioxin, central nervous system seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme which degrades acetylcholine an important neurotransmitter, has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of cells. Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method.

#### Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation

Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation are specifically acting toxicants. Oxidative phosphorylation is a coupling reaction in which ATP is synthesized from phosphate groups using energy obtained from the oxidation-reduction reactions in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. ATP production is very important because it is essentially the energy currency in biological systems. Under normal circumstances, oxidation-reduction reactions in the mitochondrial electron transport chain produce energy. This energy is used to shuttle protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, from the mitochondrial matrix into the inner membrane space. This creates a pH gradient where conditions are acidic (i.e. higher concentrations of protons) in the inner membrane space, and more basic (i.e. low concentrations of protons) in the mitochondrial matrix. Due to this gradient, protons pass through ATPase, a protein embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, down their concentration gradient, into the mitochondrial matrix driving the production of ATP.

Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation disrupt the production of ATP. They do so by binding to the protons in the inner membrane space, and shuttling them into the mitochondrial matrix Therefore, the chemical gradient which drives ATP synthesis is broken down and energy production slows. Oxygen consumption increases to counteract the effects of low ATP production. Also, lactic acid concentrations increase as tissues are switching to anaerobic metabolism which poisons the mitochondria.

Cardiovascular-respiratory responses associated with exposure to uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation, as determined by the FATS experiment, are the following. Overall, metabolic rate increased so rapid and continuous increases in ventilation volume and oxygen consumption was observed. However, changes in ventilation rate or oxygen utilization were not observed. This means the fish increased water flow across their gills, but oxygen removal from the water was maintained at a constant rate. However, oxygen consumption increased in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, in an attempt to reproduce the proton gradient and stimulate ATP production. However, the toxicant continued to break down the proton gradient, inevitably leading to mortality.

## Applications

As mentioned previously, FATS have been used to establish models that predict toxicity of chemicals. For instance, FATS data is used to develop quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models. QSAR models developed using FATS data are then used to establish computer based systems that predict toxicity. For example, Russom and colleagues used Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) 96-hour acute toxicity tests data, FATS data and QSARs to create a computer based expert system that predicts chemical toxicity based on chemical structures and properties. These models and systems are useful for screening chemicals to prioritize more toxic substances for further toxicity testing. This is particularly useful for industrial chemicals with unknown toxicity. This due to the quantity of industrial chemicals with unknown toxicity, for which individual toxicity testing is not realistic. In addition, models and computer systems that predict toxicity are also cost-effective in comparison to running toxicity tests on all unknown chemicals. In conclusion, predictive screening techniques derived from FATS data are practical and cost efficient.

## InfoBox

| Fish acute toxicity syndrome | |
| --- | --- |
| Specialty | Veterinary medicine |


title: Ricinocarpos marginatus

abstract: Ricinocarpos marginatus is a species of flowering plant in the family Euphorbiaceae and is endemic to the north-west of Western Australia. It is an erect, monoecious shrub with narrowly elliptic leaves and white flowers arranged in groups of male flowers, or up to three female flowers surrounded by many male flowers.

text:
# Ricinocarpos marginatus

***Ricinocarpos marginatus*** is a species of flowering plant in the family Euphorbiaceae and is endemic to the north-west of Western Australia. It is an erect, monoecious shrub with narrowly elliptic leaves and white flowers arranged in groups of male flowers, or up to three female flowers surrounded by many male flowers.

## Description

*Ricinocarpos marginatus* is a monoecious shrub that typically grows to a height of 0.5–3 m (1 ft 8 in – 9 ft 10 in), its young branchlets covered with white, star-shaped hairs. The leaves are very narrowly elliptic, 45–90 mm (1.8–3.5 in) long and 8–20 mm (0.31–0.79 in) wide on a densely hairy petiole 1–6 mm (0.039–0.236 in) long. The lower surface of the leaves is covered with soft, white, star-shaped hairs. The flowers are arranged in groups of all male flowers, or up to three female flowers surrounded by many male flowers. Male flowers are on a slender pedicel 3–8 mm (0.12–0.31 in) long, the sepals joined at the base and covered on both sides with white, star-shaped hairs, the sepal lobes egg-shaped to more or less elliptic and about 2.5 mm (0.098 in) long. The petals are white and egg-shaped with the narrower end towards the base, about 2 mm (0.079 in) long and wide. Each male flower has about 25 stamens. Female flowers are on a stout pedicel 6–15 mm (0.24–0.59 in) long and have narrowly oblong, white petals covered on both sides with soft, star-shaped hairs. Flowering has been observed in June and December, and the fruit is an elliptic capsule 7–8 mm (0.28–0.31 in) long and 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) wide.

## Taxonomy and naming

*Ricinocarpos marginatus* was first formally described in 1873 by George Bentham in *Flora Australiensis* from specimens collected by Allan Cunningham on the north-west coast of Western Australia. The specific epithet (*marginatus*) means "furnished with a border", referring to the thickened edges of the leaves.

## Distribution and habitat

This species grows in woodland amongst sandstone rocks in the Northern Kimberley bioregion of north-western Western Australia.

## Conservation status

*Ricinocarpos marginatus* is listed as is classified as "Priority Two" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, meaning that it is known from only few locations some of which are not thought to be under immediate threat.

## InfoBox

| *Ricinocarpos marginatus* | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Priority Two — Poorly Known Taxa (DEC) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Malpighiales |
| Family: | Euphorbiaceae |
| Genus: | *Ricinocarpos* |
| Species: | ***R. marginatus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Ricinocarpos marginatus***
Benth. | |
|


title: Junior Mahony

abstract: John "Junior" Mahony was an Irish hurler. Usually lining out as a goalkeeper, he was a member of the Galway team that won the 1923 All-Ireland Championship.

text:
# Junior Mahony

**John "Junior" Mahony** (20 August 1897 – 8 May 1973) was an Irish hurler. Usually lining out as a goalkeeper, he was a member of the Galway team that won the 1923 All-Ireland Championship.

## Playing career

Mahony enjoyed a club career with Ardrahan that spanned three decades, however, he enjoyed little in terms of championship success. He is regarded as one of the club's greatest-ever players and was included on a special Team of the Millennium. After being selected for the Galway senior team in 1919, he held his position on the team for the next decade. He won a Connacht medal in 1922 before winning his sole All-Ireland medal in 1923 after Galway's defeat of Limerick in the final. Mahony was a runner-up in four subsequent All-Ireland finals and retired from inter-county hurling in 1929. As one of the top goalkeepers of his era, Mahony was included on the Ireland team at the Tailteann Games in 1924, for which he was awarded a gold medal.

## Personal life

Mahony was also a member of the Old IRA and was interned at Ballykinlar and other camps during the War of Independence. He died after a short illness on 8 May 1973.

## Honours

Galway

## InfoBox

John Mahony
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Irish name | *Seán Ó Mathúna* | | |
| Sport | Hurling | | |
| Position | Goalkeeper | | |
| Born | John Mahony
(1897-08-20)20 August 1897
Ardrahan, County Galway, Ireland | | |
| Died | 8 May 1973(1973-05-08) (aged 75)
Galway, Ireland | | |
| Nickname | Junior | | |
| Occupation | Farmer | | |
| Club(s) | | | |
| Years | **Club** | | |
|  | Ardrahan | | |
| Club titles | | | |
| Galway titles | 0 | | |
| Inter-county(ies) | | | |
| Years | **County** | | |
| 1919-1929 | Galway | | |
| Inter-county titles | | | |
| Connacht titles | 1 | | |
| All-Irelands | 1 | | |
| NHL | 0 | | |


title: Junkers T 29

abstract: The Junkers J 29 was a two-seat, single-engined experimental training monoplane, built in Germany in 1925. Its significance is that it was the first aircraft to fly and test the Junkers Doppelflügel control surfaces used very successfully on the later Junkers Ju 52.

text:
# Junkers T 29

The **Junkers J 29** was a two-seat, single-engined experimental training monoplane, built in Germany in 1925. Its significance is that it was the first aircraft to fly and test the Junkers Doppelflügel (double wing) control surfaces used very successfully on the later Junkers Ju 52.

## Design and development

.

The Junkers J 29 was a small, aerodynamically clean low wing cantilever monoplane, constructed with Junkers' standard method of duralumin tube frames skinned with corrugated sheets of the same alloy. The wing of the J 29 was straight tapered, almost entirely on the trailing edge and had nearly square tips. The J 29 pioneered the patented Junkers *Doppelflügel* "double wing" control system - whose concept was used through to the Third Reich's Junkers Ju 87 *Stuka* dive bomber - using full span ailerons, later used for both ailerons and flaps, hinged just below the wing trailing edge and fully exposing the entire control surface cross-section to the slipstream, forming a slot between the two surfaces. In normal flight these were used as standard ailerons, but they could be lowered like flaps for landing whilst retaining the differential movement needed for lateral control.

The fuselage was flat sided with rounded decking, the Junkers L1a inline engine cowled with its cylinder heads slightly exposed. Pilot and passenger sat side by side over the wing in a cockpit open apart from a longitudinal arch over their heads to protect them like a roll bar, set perpendicularly to the similar cross-fuselage device only used directly *behind* the cockpit on the Junkers J 2, the Junkers J 7 experimental duralumin-structure monoplane and production Junkers D.I fighter of the late World War I years. This unusual feature reminded observers of a handle and earned the J 29 the nickname *Bügeleisen* (en: flat iron). The fuselage tapered to the parallel chord tailplane braced on top of it. The fin was blunt and the rudder wide chord and deep, moving within a cut out in the elevators. Neither rudder nor elevators were horn balanced. The fixed undercarriage had a standard Junkers layout, with short splayed main legs fitted with noticeable shock absorbers mounted to the forward wing root and braced forwards to points under the engine. The wheels were linked by a centrally hinged cross axle, mounted on a V strut below the fuselage.

The first of two J 29s flew in April 1925. Though they had a Junkers sales description as the **T 29**, suggesting a training role and a hope of sales, they seem to have been built primarily to flight test the double wing which was successfully used on later Junkers aircraft such as the G 28, the Ju 52/3m and the Ju 87.

## Specifications

*Data from* Kay 2004 p.54-6

**General characteristics**

* **Crew:** 1
* **Capacity:** 1 passenger
* **Length:** 7.15 m (23 ft 5 in)
* **Wingspan:** 11.5 m (37 ft 9 in)
* **Height:** 2.26 m (7 ft 5 in)
* **Wing area:** 17.7 m2 (191 sq ft)
* **Empty weight:** 490 kg (1,080 lb)
* **Gross weight:** 750 kg (1,653 lb)
* **Powerplant:** 1 × Junkers L1a 6-cylinder upright air-cooled inline, 62 kW (83 hp)

**Performance**

* **Maximum speed:** 140 km/h (87 mph, 76 kn)
* **Cruise speed:** 109 km/h (68 mph, 59 kn)
* **Range:** 470 km (290 mi, 250 nmi)
* **Service ceiling:** 2,500 m (8,200 ft)

## Further reading

* Zuerl, Walter (1941). *Deutsche Flugzeug Konstrukteure*. München, Germany: Curt Pechstein Verlag.

## InfoBox

| J 29 | |
| --- | --- |
| Role | Training and sports aircraft |
| National origin | Germany |
| Manufacturer | Junkers Flugzeug Werke AG |
| Designer | Ernst Zindl |
| First flight | 22 April 1925 |
| Number built | 2 |


title: Junkers Profly Junkers Trike

abstract: The Junkers Profly Junkers Trike is a German ultralight trike, designed by Junkers Profly of Kulmbach and manufactured under contract in the Czech Republic. When it was available the aircraft was supplied complete and ready-to-fly. The aircraft is no longer listed on the Junkers Profly website and production appears to have been completed.

text:
# Junkers Profly Junkers Trike

The **Junkers Profly Junkers Trike** is a German ultralight trike, designed by Junkers Profly of Kulmbach and manufactured under contract in the Czech Republic. When it was available the aircraft was supplied complete and ready-to-fly.

The aircraft is no longer listed on the Junkers Profly website and production appears to have been completed.

## Design and development

The Junkers Trike was originally designed as a single seater or "tight" two-seater, but later stretched to provide comfortable accommodation for two occupants.

The aircraft was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight category, including the category's maximum gross weight of 450 kg (992 lb). The aircraft has a maximum gross weight of 450 kg (992 lb). It features a cable-braced hang glider-style high-wing, weight-shift controls, a single-seat or two-seats-in-tandem open cockpit with an aerodynamically streamlined cockpit fairing, tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in pusher configuration.

The aircraft fuselage is made from fibre glass, with its single or double surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. The typical wing used is of 9.6 m (31.5 ft) span, is supported by a single tube-type kingpost and uses an "A" frame weight-shift control bar. The standard powerplant factory supplied was the twin cylinder, liquid-cooled, two-stroke, dual-ignition 64 hp (48 kW) Rotax 582 engine.

With the Rotax 582 the aircraft has an empty weight of 186 kg (410 lb) and a gross weight of 450 kg (992 lb), giving a useful load of 264 kg (582 lb). With full fuel of 43 litres (9.5 imp gal; 11 US gal) the payload is 233 kg (514 lb).

A number of different wings can be fitted to the basic carriage, including those made by Bautek and La Mouette. The aircraft was certified in Germany to DULV standards.

## Specifications (Junkers Trike)

*Data from* Bayerl

**General characteristics**

* **Crew:** one
* **Capacity:** one passenger
* **Wingspan:** 9.6 m (31 ft 6 in)
* **Wing area:** 12.8 m2 (138 sq ft)
* **Empty weight:** 186 kg (410 lb)
* **Gross weight:** 450 kg (992 lb)
* **Fuel capacity:** 43 litres (9.5 imp gal; 11 US gal)
* **Powerplant:** 1 × Rotax 582 twin cylinder, liquid-cooled, two stroke aircraft engine, 48 kW (64 hp)
* **Propellers:** 4-bladed composite

**Performance**

* **Wing loading:** 35.2 kg/m2 (7.2 lb/sq ft)

## InfoBox

| Junkers Trike | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Early model Junkers Trike single seater | |
| Role | Ultralight trike |
| National origin | Germany |
| Manufacturer | Junkers Profly |
| Status | Production completed |


title: 1964 Iraq Central FA Altruism Cup

abstract: The 1964 Iraq Central FA Altruism Cup was the 3rd edition of the Iraq Central FA Perseverance Cup. The match was contested between the winners and runners-up of the 1963–64 edition of the Iraq Central FA Premier League, Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya and Al-Firqa Al-Thalitha respectively. Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya won the game 3–0.

text:
# 1964 Iraq Central FA Altruism Cup

The **1964 Iraq Central FA Altruism Cup** was the 3rd edition of the Iraq Central FA Perseverance Cup. The match was contested between the winners and runners-up of the 1963–64 edition of the Iraq Central FA Premier League, Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya and Al-Firqa Al-Thalitha respectively. Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya won the game 3–0.

## Match

### Details

| Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya | 3–0 | Al-Firqa Al-Thalitha |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Eshaya
Jeha
Atta |  |  |

Al-Kashafa Stadium, Baghdad

| Iraq Central FA Perseverance Cup
1964 winner |
| --- |
| **Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya**
**2nd title** |

## InfoBox

1964 Iraq Central FA Altruism Cup
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Date | 25 May 1964 |
| Venue | Al-Kashafa Stadium, Baghdad |
|


title: Riddle House

abstract: The Riddle House is an old Edwardian house located in Palm Beach County, Florida. The house was built in West Palm Beach, Florida in 1905 by some of Henry Flagler's hotel construction workers. Originally known as "Gatekeeper's Cottage", the house was home to the groundskeeper of Woodlawn Cemetery. By 1920, the house became privately owned by Karl Riddle, a city manager and superintendent of West Palm Beach. He is the namesake of the house. The house was eventually dismantled and moved to Yesteryear Village in 1995, a historical park within the South Florida Fairgrounds. The building was featured in an episode of Ghost Adventures in 2008.

text:
# Riddle House

The **Riddle House** is an old Edwardian house located in Palm Beach County, Florida. The house was built in West Palm Beach, Florida in 1905 by some of Henry Flagler's hotel construction workers. Originally known as "Gatekeeper's Cottage", the house was home to the groundskeeper of Woodlawn Cemetery. By 1920, the house became privately owned by Karl Riddle, a city manager and superintendent of West Palm Beach. He is the namesake of the house. The house was eventually dismantled and moved to Yesteryear Village in 1995, a historical park within the South Florida Fairgrounds. The building was featured in an episode of *Ghost Adventures* in 2008.

## History

Constructors of Henry Flagler's hotels began building the Riddle House on July 1, 1905, using leftover wood. Originally located at 327 Acacia Street in West Palm Beach, the house was nicknamed "the painted lady", because of its bright colors. However, the dwelling would officially be known as "Gatekeeper's Cottage" early on because it served as the residence of the keeper of Woodlawn Cemetery, located just across Dixie Highway. The house also originally served as a funeral parlor. In 1914, Gatekeeper's Cottage became "City House" after being purchased by the West Palm Beach city government.

It was acquired by Karl Riddle in 1920, who is the namesake of the house. Riddle was the first city manager and superintendent of public works of West Palm Beach. After being recalled in 1923 by a margin of five votes, Riddle moved out of the house, which then became a temporary residence for new city employees. Riddle and his twin brother Kenyon later built houses on a 36 acres (15 ha) property just outside the city in 1935. This area would later become incorporated as Cloud Lake in 1951 after a vote by residents. In 1972, artist Mary Ann Hayes acquired the house at an auction for just over $21,000 and converted it into an art school, the Flagler Arts Center. Palm Beach Atlantic College (PBA; now Palm Beach Atlantic University) then purchased the Riddle House in the early 1980s and used the residence as a dormitory for several years. Later, the house was scheduled for demolition due to expansion of the college.

However, PBA instead decided to donate the building to the Yesteryear Village committee South Florida Fair board of directors. John Riddle, nephew of Karl Riddle, then served as chairman of the committee. After professionals estimated that relocation of the house would cost about $50,000, John Riddle instead recruited 60 volunteers. Between August 12 and August 13, 1995, the Riddle House was dismantled and moved to the Yesteryear Village. The roof and attic were split in two, as were the first and second floors. Finally, the building was reassembled after reaching Yesteryear Village. Through a $450,000 state historical grant, the Riddle House was also restored to its 1920s appearance.

## Haunting legend

The house was also featured in 2008 on the ghost-hunting paranormal television series *Ghost Adventures* on the Travel Channel.

26°42′21″N 80°13′36″W / 26.70583°N 80.22667°W / 26.70583; -80.22667


title: Riddle Hill, Illinois

abstract: Riddle Hill is a rural unincorporated community located in Curran and Gardner townships, Sangamon County, Illinois. It is a crossroads located adjacent to where Old Jacksonville Road crosses Little Spring Creek, 6.5 miles west of Springfield.

text:
# Riddle Hill, Illinois

**Riddle Hill** is a rural unincorporated community located in Curran and Gardner townships, Sangamon County, Illinois. It is a crossroads located adjacent to where Old Jacksonville Road crosses Little Spring Creek, 6.5 miles west of Springfield.

## History

Old Jacksonville Road is one of the oldest roads in central Illinois; it is a traditional route between Jacksonville and the state capital, Springfield. Starting as early as the 1830s, travelers used the place where this road forded the creek as a campground, and the community grew from there.

On the night of September 28–29, 1838, participants in the 850-member Potawatomi Trail of Death encamped here on their forced march from Indiana to a portion of the unorganized western territory of the United States that would later be organized as Kansas Territory. A roadside historical marker has been erected on or near the site of their campground. The camping place is identified as 'McCoy's Mill', apparently recalling the name of a gristmill on Little Spring Creek at the ford.

On July 4, 1861, the 21st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment, en route to service in the American Civil War, camped here for its first night in the field since mustering into federal service in Springfield. The new regiment's fledgling colonel, Ulysses S. Grant, issued his first written orders here. A historical marker in the yard of the New Salem Methodist Church commemorates the site of a now-vanished tree that marked the campsite.

## InfoBox

| Riddle Hill, Illinois | |
| --- | --- |
| Unincorporated community | |
| Riddle Hill, IllinoisRiddle Hill, Illinois | |
| Coordinates: 39°47′12″N 89°45′52″W / 39.78667°N 89.76444°W / 39.78667; -89.76444 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Illinois |
| County | Sangamon |
| Elevation | 610 ft (190 m) |
| Time zone | UTC-6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-5 (CDT) |
| Area code | 217 |
| GNIS feature ID | 416627 |


title: 1965 in motorsport

abstract: The following is an overview of the events of 1965 in motorsport including the major racing events, motorsport venues that were opened and closed during a year, championships and non-championship events that were established and disestablished in a year, and births and deaths of racing drivers and other motorsport people.

text:
# 1965 in motorsport

The following is an overview of the events of **1965 in motorsport** including the major racing events, motorsport venues that were opened and closed during a year, championships and non-championship events that were established and disestablished in a year, and births and deaths of racing drivers and other motorsport people.

## Annual events

The calendar includes only annual major non-championship events or annual events that had significance separate from the championship. For the dates of the championship events see related season articles.

| Date | Event | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 14 February | 7th Daytona 500 |  |
| 28 February | Daytona 2000 km |  |
| 9 May | 49th Targa Florio |  |
| 30 May | 23rd Monaco Grand Prix |  |
| 31 May | 49th Indianapolis 500 |  |
| 14–18 June | 47th Isle of Man TT |  |
| 19–20 June | 33rd 24 Hours of Le Mans |  |
| 24–25 July | 17th 24 Hours of Spa |  |
| 3 October | 6th Armstrong 500 |  |
| 28 November | 12th Macau Grand Prix |  |

## Births

| Date | Month | Name | Nationality | Occupation | Note | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 4 | June | Mick Doohan | Australian | Motorcycle racer | 500cc Grand Prix motorcycle racing World champion (1994-1998). |  |
| 1 | July | Carl Fogarty | British | Motorcycle racer | Superbike World champion (1994-1995, 1998-1999). |  |
| 5 | September | David Brabham | Australian | Racing driver | 24 Hours of Le Mans winner (2009). |  |

## Deaths

| Date | Month | Name | Age | Nationality | Occupation | Note | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 6 | March | Jules Goux | 79 | French | Racing driver | Indianapolis 500 winner (1913). |  |


title: Fingask Loch

abstract: Fingask Loch is a small lowland freshwater loch that is about three-quarters of a mile from Rae Loch in the valley of the Lunan Burn and is 1.5 miles south-east of Blairgowrie, in Perth and Kinross. Directly to the east is the smaller White Loch, and next to it is the Black Loch. The loch is also a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), as well as forming part of a Special Area of Conservation.

text:
# Fingask Loch

**Fingask Loch** is a small lowland freshwater loch that is about three-quarters of a mile from Rae Loch in the valley of the Lunan Burn and is 1.5 miles south-east of Blairgowrie, in Perth and Kinross. Directly to the east is the smaller White Loch, and next to it is the Black Loch.

The loch is also a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), as well as forming part of a Special Area of Conservation.

## InfoBox

| Fingask Loch | |
| --- | --- |
| Fingask Loch | |
| Location | NO164429 |
| Coordinates | 56°34′16″N 3°21′42″W / 56.571100°N 3.361600°W / 56.571100; -3.361600 |
| Type | freshwater loch |
| Primary inflows | outflow of White Loch |
| Primary outflows | small burn into Lunan Burn |
|  | |
| Max. length | 0.482 km (0.300 mi) |
| Max. width | 0.4023 km (0.2500 mi) |
| Surface area | 12.8 ha (32 acres) |
| Average depth | 23 ft (7.0 m) |
| Max. depth | 25 ft (7.6 m) |
| Water volume | 32,182,000 cu ft (911,300 m3) |
| Shore length1 | 1.5 km (0.93 mi) |
| Surface elevation | 46 m (151 ft) |
|  | |
| Max. temperature | 58.8 °F (14.9 °C) |
| Min. temperature | 48.7 °F (9.3 °C) |
| Islands | 0 |
| 1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure. | |


title: Junior Mikamou

abstract: Junior Mikamou is a Gabonese amateur boxer. Mikamou won a bronze medal at the 2007 All-Africa Games, losing to Manyo Plange of Ghana.

text:
# Junior Mikamou

**Junior Mikamou** is a Gabonese amateur boxer. Mikamou won a bronze medal at the 2007 All-Africa Games, losing to Manyo Plange of Ghana.

## InfoBox

Junior Mikamou
| Medal record | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Representing  Gabon | | |
| Men's Boxing | | |
| All-Africa Games | | |
|  | 2007 Algiers | Light Flyweight |
|  | 2015 Brazzaville | Flyweight |


title: Junonia terea

abstract: Junonia terea, the soldier pansy or soldier commodore, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. The species was first described by Dru Drury in 1773. It is found in the Afrotropical realm. The wingspan is 50–55 mm in males and 52–60 mm in females. The larvae feed on Asystasia gangetica, Phaulopsis imbricata, and Ruellia patula.

text:
# Junonia terea

***Junonia terea***, the **soldier pansy** or **soldier commodore**, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. The species was first described by Dru Drury in 1773. It is found in the Afrotropical realm.

The wingspan is 50–55 mm in males and 52–60 mm in females.

The larvae feed on *Asystasia gangetica*, *Phaulopsis imbricata*, and *Ruellia patula*.

## Subspecies

* *Junonia terea terea* (Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Kenya)
* *Junonia terea fumata* (Rothschild & Jordan, 1903) (Ethiopia, Somalia)
* *Junonia terea tereoides* (Butler, 1901) (northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Uganda, central Kenya, north-western Tanzania)

## InfoBox

| Soldier pansy | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *J. t. terea*
Ghana | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Nymphalidae |
| Genus: | *Junonia* |
| Species: | ***J. terea*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Junonia terea***
(Drury, 1773) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Papilio terea* Drury, 1773 * *Precis terea* * *Junonia zipha* Butler, 1869 * *Junonia elgiva* Hewitson, 1864 * *Precis terea fumata* Rothschild & Jordan, 1903 * *Precis terea* f. *januarii* Ungemach, 1932 * *Precis tereoides* Butler, 1901 * *Precis terea elgiva* ab. *gomensis* Dufrane, 1945 | |


title: Junonia rhadama

abstract: Junonia rhadama, the brilliant blue, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found on Madagascar, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Réunion, the Comoros, and the Seychelles. The habitat consists of transformed grasslands and Anthropogenic biomeanthropogenic environments. The larvae feed on Barleria species.

text:
# Junonia rhadama

***Junonia rhadama***, the **brilliant blue**, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found on Madagascar, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Réunion, the Comoros, and the Seychelles (Astove Island). The habitat consists of transformed grasslands and Anthropogenic biomeanthropogenic environments.

The larvae feed on *Barleria* species.

## InfoBox

| Brilliant blue | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| In Madagascar | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Nymphalidae |
| Genus: | *Junonia* |
| Species: | ***J. rhadama*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Junonia rhadama***<br>(Boisduval, 1833) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Vanessa rhadama* Boisduval, 1833 * *Precis rhadama* f. *arida* Aurivillius, 1913 | |


title: Jungle Jim

abstract: Jungle Jim is the fictional hero of a series of jungle adventures in various media. The series began on January 7, 1934, as an American newspaper comic strip chronicling the adventures of Asia-based hunter Jim Bradley, who was nicknamed Jungle Jim. The character also trekked through radio, film, comic book and television adaptations. Notable was a series of films and television episodes in which Johnny Weissmuller portrayed the safari-suit wearing character, after hanging up his Tarzan loincloth. The strip concluded on August 8, 1954.

text:
# Jungle Jim

**Jungle Jim** is the fictional hero of a series of jungle adventures in various media. The series began on January 7, 1934, as an American newspaper comic strip chronicling the adventures of Asia-based hunter Jim Bradley, who was nicknamed Jungle Jim. The character also trekked through radio, film, comic book and television adaptations. Notable was a series of films and television episodes in which Johnny Weissmuller portrayed the safari-suit wearing character, after hanging up his Tarzan loincloth. The strip concluded on August 8, 1954.

## Publication history

The strip was created by King Features Syndicate in order to compete with the popular United Feature Syndicate comic strip *Tarzan*, by Hal Foster.

Illustrator Alex Raymond and pulp magazine author Don Moore created the original strip as a topper to run above Raymond's *Flash Gordon*. *Jungle Jim* and *Flash Gordon* were launched simultaneously on January 7, 1934. The character was named after Alex's brother Jim Raymond.

During World War II, artist Raymond enlisted as a Marine. Successors included John Mayo (creator of *Future Eye*) and Paul Norris (creator of DC Comics' *Aquaman*). Don Moore continued to script through the succession of artists. The strip, which never ran as a daily, came to an end in 1954.

From 1937 to 1947, the comic strip was reprinted in Ace Comics, published by David McKay. From 1949 to 1951, there were 11 original *Jungle Jim* comic books produced by Standard Comics. Dell Comics published 20 issues of *Jungle Jim* from 1953 to 1959; the last eight issues (#13–20) were written by Gaylord Du Bois.

King Features Syndicate published a single issue of *Jungle Jim* in 1967. This was designated #5 and was a reprint of Dell's issue #5 with a new cover by Wally Wood. Charlton Comics then picked up Dell's numbering for another seven issues (#22–28) in 1969–70 with stories scripted by Wood, Pat Boyette, Bhob Stewart, Joe Gill and others. Artists on the Charlton stories were Wood, Boyette, Steve Ditko, Roger Brand and Tom Palmer.

In January 2015, Dynamite Entertainment announced a new series of Jungle Jim as part of their "King:Dynamite" series. This version of *Jungle Jim* is written by Paul Tobin and illustrated by Sandy Jarrell.

## Characters and story

Unlike the protagonists of *Tarzan*, *Ka-Zar*, *Kaanga* and other comics with jungle themes, Jim Bradley was based in Southeastern Asia rather than Africa, and he was a hunter rather than a wild man in a loincloth.

Other characters included the large, strong native Kolu (who served his white comrade Jim in a manner somewhat similar to the character of Lothar in *Mandrake the Magician*). The femme fatale Lille DeVrille was added to the cast two years after the strip's debut.

The comic's early years generally featured stories revolving around pirates, slave traders and other common jungle antagonists. As World War II approached, *Jungle Jim*, like many American comics, developed a wartime theme, with Jim fighting the Japanese, and it moved from its position as a topper strip to its own independent Sunday page.

## Other media

### Radio

Syndicated by Hearst and sponsored by the Comic Weekly, *The Adventures of Jungle Jim* radio series premiered November 2, 1935. Matt Crowley had the title role for three years, until Gerald Mohr stepped in as Jungle Jim beginning April 24, 1938. Vicki Vola and Franc Hale portrayed Shanghai Lil, and Juano Hernandez was the Hindu servant Kolu. Each episode ran 15 minutes. Several episodes were based directly on the comic strip, such as *The Ghost of the Java Sea*. Gene Stafford scripted for producer Jay Clark. Glenn Riggs was the announcer, among others. In the opening episode, "The Bat Woman," Jungle Jim meets Miss Chalmers, and Jacques LaBarr gets into a barroom fight with Jim.

### Serial

### Feature films

* Columbia Pictures produced a series of 16 *Jungle Jim* B-movies from 1948 to 1955, set in Africa and starring Johnny Weissmuller, who had gained fame playing Tarzan. In the last three of these movies, the name "Jungle Jim" was not used; the main character was instead referred to in the films as "Johnny Weissmuller", with Weissmuller essentially playing an idealized version of himself, much like the cowboy stars Roy Rogers and Gene Autry. This was because these three features were produced concurrently with a "Jungle Jim" TV series starring Weissmuller produced by Columbia's Screen Gems (see below) and the series at that point had the rights to the brand "Jungle Jim." (The "Weissmuller" jungle character was otherwise indistinguishable from Jungle Jim, and the final three films are commonly referred to as "Jungle Jim movies" though that is not technically accurate.)

1. *Jungle Jim* (1948)
2. *The Lost Tribe* (1949)
3. *Mark of the Gorilla* (1950)
4. *Captive Girl* (1950) co-starred Buster Crabbe
5. *Pygmy Island* (1950)
6. *Fury of the Congo* (1951)
7. *Jungle Manhunt* (1951)
8. *Jungle Jim in the Forbidden Land* (1952)
9. *Voodoo Tiger* (1952)
10. *Savage Mutiny* (1953)
11. *Valley of Head Hunters* (1953)
12. *Killer Ape* (1953)
13. *Jungle Man-Eaters* (1954)
14. *Cannibal Attack* (1954)
15. *Jungle Moon Men* (1955)
16. *Devil Goddess* (1955)

### TV series

## Comic strip reprints

* *Jungle Jim*. Street Enterprises Menomonee Falls, Wis. , 1971 (reprints July 14 – October 27, 1935 strips)
* *Jungle Jim*. Pacific Comics Club, Papeete, Tahiti (reprints April 12, 1936 – June 30, 1937)
* *Jungle Jim*. Pacific Comics Club, Papeete, Tahiti (reprints March 20, 1938, – August 7, 1938)
* *Jungle Jim*. Pacific Comics Club, Papeete, Tahiti (reprints August 14, 1938 – May 21, 1939)
* *Jungle Jim*. Pacific Comics Club, Papeete, Tahiti (reprints September 15, 1940 – May 4, 1941)
* *Jungle Jim*. Pacific Comics Club, Papeete, Tahiti (reprints June 15, 1941– 20 December 1942)
* *The Official Jungle Jim Annual*. : Pioneer Comics, Las Vegas, NV 1989
* *The Official Jungle Jim Sundays: v. 1* Pioneer Comics, Las Vegas, NV, 1989 (reprints July 14, 1935 – May 16, 1937)
* *The Official Jungle Jim Sundays: v. 2, Death In The Jungle* Pioneer Comics, Las Vegas, NV, 1989 (reprints May 16, 1937 – March 12, 1939)
* *Definitive Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim Volume 1: 1934–1936* San Diego, Calif. IDW Publishing. ISBN 1-61377-015-4
* *Definitive Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim Volume 2: 1936–1939* San Diego, Calif. IDW Publishing ISBN 1-61377-220-3
* *Definitive Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim Volume 3: 1939–1941* San Diego, Calif. IDW Publishing ISBN 1-61377-580-6
* *Definitive Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim Volume 4: 1942–1944* San Diego, Calif. IDW Publishing ISBN 1-61377-917-8

## Merchandise

In 1957, Louis Marx and Company marketed a *Jungle Jim* playset with character figures and generic jungle figures (hunters, natives, wild animals).

## InfoBox

| Jungle Jim | |
| --- | --- |
| Alex Raymond's *Jungle Jim* (November 26, 1939) | |
| Author(s) | Don Moore (1934–1954) |
| Illustrator(s) | Alex Raymond (1934–1944)
John Mayo (1944– )
Paul Norris (1948–1954) |
| Current status/schedule | Sunday; concluded |
| Launch date | January 7, 1934 |
| End date | August 8, 1954 |
| Syndicate(s) | King Features Syndicate |
| Genre(s) | Adventure |


title: Jungle Jim (TV series)

abstract: Jungle Jim is a 1955–56 American TV series based on the Jungle Jim newspaper comic strip. It stars Johnny Weissmuller, who had previously played the character in a series of sixteen theatrically released Jungle Jim feature films, which were produced soon after he retired from the Tarzan film series in 1948 for which he is best remembered. The Jungle Jim TV show premiered on Sept. 26, 1955 and ended its 26 episode run on March 19, 1956. It ran for 26 episodes and was produced by Screen Gems who sold it into syndication.

text:
# Jungle Jim (TV series)

***Jungle Jim*** is a 1955–56 American TV series based on the *Jungle Jim* newspaper comic strip. It stars Johnny Weissmuller, who had previously played the character in a series of sixteen theatrically released *Jungle Jim* feature films, which were produced soon after he retired from the *Tarzan* film series in 1948 for which he is best remembered.

The *Jungle Jim* TV show premiered on Sept. 26, 1955 and ended its 26 episode run on March 19, 1956. It ran for 26 episodes and was produced by Screen Gems who sold it into syndication.

## Cast

## Episodes

| No. | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | "Man Killer" | Donald McDougall | Unknown | September 26, 1955 (1955-09-26) |
| 2 | "Land of Terror" | Earl Bellamy | Wallace Bosco | October 3, 1955 (1955-10-03) |
| 3 | "Treasure of the Amazon" | Earl Bellamy | Malvin Wald | October 10, 1955 (1955-10-10) |
| 4 | "Lagoon of Death" | Earl Bellamy | Wells Root | October 17, 1955 (1955-10-17) |
| 5 | "A Fortune in Ivory" | Unknown | Unknown | October 24, 1955 (1955-10-24) |
| 6 | "Jungle Justice" | Don McDougall | J. Benton Cheney | October 31, 1955 (1955-10-31) |
| 7 | "The Eyes of Minobo" | Don McDougall | Harry Poppe, Jr. | November 7, 1955 (1955-11-07) |
| 8 | "The King's Ghost" | Unknown | Unknown | November 14, 1955 (1955-11-14) |
| 9 | "White Magic" | Don McDougall | *Story by*: Wallace Bosco
*Teleplay by*: Robert Williams | November 21, 1955 (1955-11-21) |
| 10 | "The Deadly Idol" | Don McDougall | Terence Maples | November 28, 1955 (1955-11-28) |
| 11 | "The Leopard's Paw" | Unknown | Unknown | December 5, 1955 (1955-12-05) |
| 12 | "Man from Zanzibar" | Unknown | Unknown | December 12, 1955 (1955-12-12) |
| 13 | "Precious Cargo" | Unknown | Unknown | December 19, 1955 (1955-12-19) |
| 14 | "The Golden Parasol" | Unknown | Unknown | December 26, 1955 (1955-12-26) |
| 15 | "Code of the Jungle" | Unknown | Unknown | January 2, 1956 (1956-01-02) |
| 16 | "Wild Man of the Jungle" | Unknown | Unknown | January 9, 1956 (1956-01-09) |
| 17 | "Safari Into Danger" | Unknown | Unknown | January 16, 1956 (1956-01-16) |
| 18 | "Blood Money" | Unknown | Unknown | January 23, 1956 (1956-01-23) |
| 19 | "Striped Fury" | Unknown | Unknown | January 30, 1956 (1956-01-30) |
| 20 | "Scared Scarab" | Unknown | Unknown | February 6, 1956 (1956-02-06) |
| 21 | "Voodoo Drums" | Unknown | Unknown | February 13, 1956 (1956-02-13) |
| 22 | "The Avenger" | Unknown | Unknown | February 20, 1956 (1956-02-20) |
| 23 | "Return of the Tauregs" | Unknown | Unknown | February 27, 1956 (1956-02-27) |
| 24 | "The Silver Locket" | Unknown | Unknown | March 5, 1956 (1956-03-05) |
| 25 | "Gift of Evil" | Unknown | Unknown | March 12, 1956 (1956-03-12) |
| 26 | "Power of Darkness" | Don McDougall | *Story by*: Wells Root
*Teleplay by*: Wells Root & J. Benton Cheney | March 19, 1956 (1956-03-19) |


title: First reign (Empire of Brazil)

abstract: The First Reign was the period of Brazilian history in which Pedro I ruled Brazil as Emperor. It began on September 7, 1822, when Brazil's independence was proclaimed, and ended on April 7, 1831, when Pedro I abdicated the Brazilian throne. When Pedro I declared independence, defeating those who were still loyal to Portugal, he achieved great prestige and power. In 1823, he convened the Constituent Assembly which, amid great disagreements between parliamentarians and the Emperor, was dissolved in the Night of Agony. The emperor then convened a Council of State to draft Brazil's first constitution, which was enacted the following year. The document brought centralizing aspects along with the controversial moderating power, which contributed to growing discontent and revolts, including the outcome of the Cisplatine War and the assassination of Líbero Badaró, a well-known journalist. These incidents diminished the emperor's popularity and led to incidents such as a trip to Minas Gerais, where Pedro I was harassed by the locals. At this point, two of the most important groups supporting the emperor also withdrew their support: the nobility and the army. This made the political situation untenable; confronted, Pedro I found no solution and, in April 1831, abdicated in favor of his son, Pedro de Alcântara, then 5 years old. This period of transition was marked by a major economic, financial, social and political crisis. It is historically incorrect to refer to this period as the "First Empire", since Brazil had a single continuous imperial period, divided into the First Reign, the Regency Period and the Second Reign.

text:
# First reign (Empire of Brazil)

The **First Reign** was the period of Brazilian history in which Pedro I ruled Brazil as Emperor. It began on September 7, 1822, when Brazil's independence was proclaimed, and ended on April 7, 1831, when Pedro I abdicated the Brazilian throne.

When Pedro I declared independence, defeating those who were still loyal to Portugal, he achieved great prestige and power. In 1823, he convened the Constituent Assembly which, amid great disagreements between parliamentarians and the Emperor, was dissolved in the Night of Agony. The emperor then convened a Council of State to draft Brazil's first constitution, which was enacted the following year. The document brought centralizing aspects along with the controversial moderating power, which contributed to growing discontent and revolts, including the outcome of the Cisplatine War and the assassination of Líbero Badaró, a well-known journalist. These incidents diminished the emperor's popularity and led to incidents such as a trip to Minas Gerais, where Pedro I was harassed by the locals.

At this point, two of the most important groups supporting the emperor also withdrew their support: the nobility and the army. This made the political situation untenable; confronted, Pedro I found no solution and, in April 1831, abdicated in favor of his son, Pedro de Alcântara, then 5 years old.

This period of transition was marked by a major economic, financial, social and political crisis. It is historically incorrect to refer to this period as the "First Empire", since Brazil had a single continuous imperial period, divided into the First Reign, the Regency Period and the Second Reign.

## Independence of Brazil

After Napoleon Bonaparte declared war on England's allies, he ordered an invasion of Portugal, which had refused to comply with the French demands regarding the continental blockade. For this reason, the British crown financed the arrival of the Portuguese Royal Family in Rio de Janeiro in 1808. After a few years living in the colony, John VI became king of the country, founding the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on December 16, 1815; Rio de Janeiro was named the capital of the United Kingdom.

Under this new political status, Brazil experienced some conditions not seen before, such as the installation of some small industries in Rio de Janeiro and trade with countries other than Portugal. One of these countries was England, which benefited greatly from the political change, since it wouldn't have to wait for Brazilian products (raw materials, gold, minerals) to pass through Portugal first. For helping the Portuguese crown, the British signed two treaties with them, the Strangford Treaty (1810) and the Treaty of Alliance and Friendship (1810), which established the payment of only 15% in taxes, while the Portuguese paid 16% and the rest of the European countries 24%.

### Liberal Revolution of 1820

In 1820, the Portuguese population demanded the return of King John VI to Lisbon, as Napoleon had already been deposed in France. On August 24 of the same year, the Liberal Revolution broke out, first in the city of Porto and then in other Portuguese metropolises. Despite managing to postpone it for a few months, John VI was forced to return to Lisbon in 1822.

### Beberibe Convention

Pernambuco was the first Brazilian province to secede from the Kingdom of Portugal, eleven months before the proclamation of Brazil's independence. On August 29, 1821, an armed movement began against the government of Captain General Luís do Rego Barreto – the leader of the Pernambucan revolt – culminating in the formation of the Junta de Goiana. On October 5, the Portuguese troops surrendered and were expelled from Pernambuco in a movement known as the Beberibe Convention, considered to be the first episode of Brazilian independence.

### *Dia do Fico*

Pedro I refused to go to Portugal and remained in Brazil. On January 9, 1822, he pronounced the famous phrase: "If it is for the good of all and the general happiness of the nation, it is declared: tell the people that I stay". John VI was forced to swear an oath to the constitution and reinstate Brazil's status as a colony. In order to reverse the situation, the Brazilian people obtained around 9,000 signatures and convinced Pedro I to proclaim the Independence of Brazil on September 7, 1822.

### Wars of independence

Pedro, now Emperor Pedro I, sought to remove possible centers of Portuguese resistance within Brazilian territory. He encountered strong opposition in the provinces of Maranhão, Bahia, Pará and Piauí, not to mention Portuguese troops who were still installed in Rio de Janeiro and other Brazilian cities. To solve the situation, Pedro I hired some European soldiers, mostly English and French, who, under the command of British Marshal Thomas Cochrane, managed to remove the enemy forces; in Maranhão, he succeeded in dissipating the resistance with just one warship.

By defeating the opposition in mid-1823, Pedro I consolidated his leadership. His first major political act was to convene the Constituent Assembly, which was elected in early 1823. This was also its first failure; due to a strong disagreement between the deputies and the Emperor, who demanded more personal power than the legislature and the judiciary, the Assembly was dissolved in November.

## First reign of Brazil

### Imperial Constitution

#### Constituent Assembly of 1823

On March 3, 1823, the General Constituent and Legislative Assembly of the Empire of Brazil began its activities with the objective of creating the country's first political constitution. On the same day, Pedro I delivered a speech to the assembled deputies, stating that the constitution should be worthy of Brazil and of himself (a phrase that was José Bonifácio's idea, not the Emperor's):

> As Constitutional Emperor, and especially as Perpetual Defender of this Empire, I said to the people on December 1st of last year, when I was crowned and consecrated – that with my sword I would defend the Homeland, the Nation and the Constitution, if it were worthy of Brazil and of me... a constitution in which the three powers are well divided... a constitution which, by putting up inaccessible barriers to despotism, whether royal, aristocratic or democratic, will chase away anarchy and plant the tree of liberty under whose shade the union, tranquillity and independence of this Empire must grow, which will be the wonder of the new and old world. All the constitutions which, in the style of 1791 and 1792, have laid their foundations and wanted to be organized, have shown us are totally theoretical and metaphysical, and therefore unworkable: this is proven by France, Spain and, lately, Portugal. They have not brought about general happiness as they should have done, but rather, after a licentious freedom, we see that in some countries despotism is already appearing, and in others it will soon appear, in one, after having been exercised by many, with the necessary consequence that the peoples are reduced to the sad situation of witnessing and suffering all the horrors of anarchy.

In his speech, Pedro I pointed out to the deputies that the constitution should prevent possible abuses, not only by the monarch, but also by the political class and the population itself. To this end, it would be important to avoid creating laws that would be violated in practice. At first, the Assembly was ready to accept the Emperor's request, but some deputies felt uncomfortable with Pedro's speech. One of them, Andrade de Lima, a representative from Pernambuco, expressed his discontent, claiming that Pedro's words were too ambiguous. The majority of the deputies in the Constituent Assembly were moderate liberals, gathering together "what was best and most representative in Brazil". They were elected indirectly, by census vote and did not belong to parties, which did not yet exist in the country.

However, there were political divisions and three groups were distinguishable: the "*bonifacios*", who were led by José Bonifácio, defended the existence of a strong, but constitutional and centralized monarchy, in order to avoid the possibility of the fragmentation of the country, wanted to abolish the slave trade and slavery, carry out agrarian reform and develop the country economically free of foreign loans; the "*portugueses absolutistas*" ("absolutist Portuguese"), who included not only Lusitanians but also Brazilians and defended an absolute and centralized monarchy, as well as the preservation of their economic and social privileges; and the "*liberais federalistas*" ("federalist liberals"), who included Portuguese and Brazilians and advocated a merely figurative and decentralized monarchy, if possible federal, together with the maintenance of slavery, as well as strongly opposing the projects of the "*bonifacios"*. Ideologically, the Emperor identified with the "*bonifacios"*, since he had no interest either in acting as an absolute monarch or in serving as "a cardboard figure in government".

The draft of the 1823 constitution was written by Andrada Machado, under the strong influence of the French and Norwegian constitutions, and sent to the Constituent Assembly, where the deputies began work on the document. There were several differences between the project of 1823 and the official text of 1824. In terms of federalism, it was centralizing, as it divided the country into *comarcas*, which are judicial and not administrative divisions. In addition, the electoral qualifications were much more restrictive than in the 1824 Constitution. The draft also stated that only free men in Brazil would be considered Brazilian citizens, and not slaves who might be freed, unlike the promulgated document. The separation of the three powers was planned, with the executive being under the authority of the Emperor, but the responsibility for his actions resting with the ministers of state. The Constituent Assembly also included the Emperor's veto (maintained in the final document), who could even veto the draft constitution if he so decided. However, political changes led the deputies to propose making the monarch a symbol completely subordinate to the Assembly. This fact, followed by the approval of a bill on June 12, 1823, which stated that the laws created by the organization would not have to be sanctioned by the Emperor, led Pedro I to confront the Constituent Assembly.

On one hand, the "*liberais federalistas*" wanted to overthrow the ministry presided over by José Bonifácio and get revenge for the persecutions they had suffered during the previous year. On the other hand, the "*portugueses absolutistas*" saw their interests threatened when José Bonifácio issued the decrees of November 12, 1822, and December 11, 1822, which eliminated the privileges of the Lusitanians and confiscated the goods, merchandise and property belonging to those who had supported Portugal during Brazilian independence, respectively. Despite their differences, the "*portugueses"* and the "*liberais*" allied with the purpose of removing their common enemy from power. They recruited the:

> \[...\] disaffected by the Andradas, whose reputation with the Emperor stimulated a lot of envy and whose arrogance, sometimes rude, stirred up a lot of feelings and hurt a lot of vanities. Harsh towards their opponents, the Andradas had made plenty of enemies out of the prestige earned by their intellectual superiority and honesty. The disaffected joined forces to overthrow them, and in the alliance, moderates were mixed up with the exalted.

The two allied groups mobilized the Emperor's close friends to their side, who soon tried to damage Pedro's relationship with José Bonifácio. Seeing most of the assembly openly displeased with the Andrada ministry and influenced by his friends, who identified with the interests of the "*portugueses"*, Pedro I removed the ministers. A battle broke out between the country's newspapers that defended different groups. The alliance between the "*liberais*" and the "*portugueses"* was short-lived; as soon as the Andrada ministry was dismissed, the two groups turned against each other. For the Emperor, any relationship with the "*liberais*" would be unacceptable, as he knew of their intentions to turn him into a merely decorative figure. The attacks on the Portuguese and Pedro I by newspapers and deputies in favor of the Andradas led the Emperor to get closer to the "*portugueses"*.

The crisis became worse when a Brazilian-born apothecary, who also worked as a journalist, was physically attacked by two Portuguese officers who mistakenly believed he had written an insulting article. The Andradas took the opportunity to claim that the aggression was an attack on the honor of Brazil and the Brazilian people. Antônio Carlos de Andrada and Martim Francisco de Andrada were carried away on the shoulders of a crowd and a wave of anti-Lusitanian xenophobia intensified tensions. Pedro I watched the demonstration from the window of the Imperial Palace and ordered the army to prepare for a conflict. The deputies were apprehensive and required answers regarding the reason for the gathering of troops in São Cristóvão. The Minister of the Empire, Vilela Barbosa, representing the government, addressed the Assembly demanding that the Andradas brothers be prosecuted for the alleged abuses they had committed. The assembled deputies debated the government's proposal and remained in session until the early hours of the morning. The following day, when Vilela Barbosa returned to the assembly to explain the meeting of the troops, some deputies shouted demanding that Pedro I be declared an "outlaw". About the episode, Oliveira Lima stated that:

> The dawn of the "night of agony" did not illuminate any martyrdom. The deputies who had declared themselves ready to fall to the imperial bayonets returned quietly to their homes, without the soldiers bothering them. Only six were deported to France, including the three Andradas.

The Portuguese proposed to Pedro I that he send the Andradas brothers to Portugal, where they would probably be condemned to death for their part in the independence of Brazil. "No! I don't consent because it's perfidy \[disloyalty\]," replied the Emperor. Worried about the possibility of becoming a null figure in the country's government and faced with disputes among the deputies, Pedro I decided to dissolve the Constituent Assembly.

#### Establishment of the 1824 Constitution

After dissolving the Constituent Assembly, the Emperor commissioned the Council of State, created on November 13, 1823, and composed of renowned Brazilian jurists, to draft a new constitution. The group included Carneiro de Campos, Villela Barbosa, Maciel da Costa, Nogueira da Gama, Carvalho e Mello, among others. The Council of State used the 1823 draft as a basis and after finishing it, dispatched a copy of the new document to all the municipal councils in the expectation that it would serve as a blueprint for a new Constituent Assembly. However, the councillors, elected by the Brazilian people as their representatives, suggested to the Emperor that the draft be officially adopted as the official document and voted in favor of its approval as the constitution. On March 25, 1824, the first Brazilian Constitution, influenced by the French Constitution of 1791 and the Spanish Constitution of 1812, was granted by Pedro I and solemnly sworn in at the Cathedral of the Empire.

The text was a "beautiful document of French-style liberalism", with a system based on the theory of national sovereignty. The form of government was monarchical, hereditary, constitutional and representative; the country was formally divided into provinces and political power was split into four, according to the liberal philosophy of the separation of powers theories and Benjamin Constant.

The 1824 Constitution was one of the most liberal that existed at the time, even surpassing European ones. Although it provided for the possibility of religious freedom only in the domestic sphere, in practice it was total. Protestants, Jews and followers of other faiths were allowed to keep their religious temples with freedom of worship. It also contained the moderating power, whose creation was attributed to Martim Francisco de Andrada, a great admirer of Benjamin Constant. This power would serve to "resolve impasses and ensure the functioning of the government". The separation of the executive and moderating powers emerged from the practice of the British monarchical-parliamentary system.

The document contained "some of the best possibilities of the liberal revolution that was sweeping the West – those that would come to fruition, albeit imperfectly, during the reign of Pedro II". Isabel Lustosa says that according to \[Neill\] Macaulay, "he provided an unusual statute, under which Brazil protected for more than 65 years the basic rights of its citizens better 'than any other nation in the Western Hemisphere, with the possible exception of the United States'." According to João de Scantimburgo:

> Pedro I and his constituents had the good sense to choose the best regime for the tropical nation, which was establishing itself in America, without copying the already consolidated United States, and the Spanish-American nations that had been retaliated by endless stumbles, by the relay of brief democratic periods and caudillesque dictatorships

### Political and electoral structure in the Empire

The 1824 Constitution established the first rules for the Brazilian electoral system. The General Assembly, highest body of the national legislature, was created, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, whose members were chosen by popular vote.

Before the reform of 1881, elections were indirect. There were two levels of voting; in the first stage, exercised by parish electors, citizens who were at least 25 years old and had an annual income of 100,000 *réis* voted, and in the second stage, electors were chosen. These, also known as provincial electors, elected the deputies. Senators were elected by the Emperor. Voting was not compulsory, but was defined according to their economic means, restricting the electorate to the wealthiest citizens. Salaried workers in general, soldiers, women, indigenous people and those under the age of 25 were excluded from national political life. At the end of the Empire, only 1.5% of the Brazilian population had the right to vote.

Another important characteristic of the Brazilian electoral system during the Empire was the relationship between the state and religion, the so-called *padroado*. Catholicism, declared the official religion of Brazil, had a strong influence on national political relations, which was reflected in the legal requirement for candidates for political office to follow Catholicism, as well as the conduct of elections within churches. At that time, a good percentage of the politicians elected in Brazil were of sacerdotal origin, since the recruitment of electors and the organization of the polls were carried out by priests. Clergymen received income from the Empire, making them equivalent to civil servants. All decisions made by the Church had to be approved by the Emperor.

## Decline and end of the First Reign

### Confederation of the Equator and Cisplatine War

The political forces of the northeastern provinces, led by Pernambuco, rebelled against the government and the constitution, claiming that it gave too many powers to the sovereign. They preached a republic with Recife as its capital, which would be called the Confederation of the Equator. The movement was repressed with extreme violence by the imperial troops. Although the 1824 Constitution stipulated that the regime in force was liberal, Pedro I imposed his will firmly, creating a conflict with the liberals who began to identify him as a dictatorial and authoritarian ruler.

Another important event of the First Reign was the Cisplatine War, when Uruguayans, supported by the Argentine government, occupied the entire Cisplatine Province and incorporated it into the Republic of the United Provinces of the River Plate. As a result, the Cisplatine Province lost its independence under the name of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, which intensified Pedro I's problems and worsened the economic crisis generated by the restoration of sugar exports and production by the Spanish colonies with their recent independence.

The excessive issuance of paper money with the purpose of covering the deficits caused by the defeat in the Cisplatine War also caused dissatisfaction, as it led to inflation and reduced the purchasing power of the poorer sections of the population. There was also the outflow of monetary reserves, previously deposited in the Bank of Brazil, taken to Portugal on the return of King John VI.

### Abdication of the Portuguese throne

In line with the policy of the Portuguese constitution and taking advantage of Brazil's fragility after the Cisplatine War, King John VI and the absolutist group of his ministry sought to reclaim Brazilian territory in mid-1825. On the verge of war, John VI decided to appoint Pedro as his successor in Portugal, ignoring the desertion that he had imposed on his son due to his rebellion and the events of 1822 – a negotiation that was monitored from a distance by the British government. In May 1826, Pedro I accepted the proposal and returned to his home country to finally become Pedro IV of Portugal, after his father's abdication. However, because of the Brazilian constitution, Pedro I was forbidden to hold the title of Regent of Portugal and Emperor of Brazil at the same time. Just a month after being crowned Portuguese king, Pedro I abdicated the throne, but guaranteed the succession to his firstborn, Maria II, who was unable to assume it at the time due to her age and handed over the regency to Miguel I. He proclaimed himself king instead of the Brazilian Emperor's daughter. All these problems led to the successive replacement of ministers on March 13 and 14, 1831. Pedro returned to Brazil, where he faced an increasingly unfavorable political situation.

### Crisis

After his father's death, Pedro I became increasingly involved in the question of succession in Portugal. For the Portuguese, he was the heir to the Crown; for the Brazilians, the Emperor should have no connection to the former metropolis because, by proclaiming Independence, he had renounced the Lusitanian inheritance. Later, the emperor formalized his abdication and resigned the throne of Portugal in favor of his eldest daughter, Maria da Glória.

Even though he had resigned, the Brazilian liberal opposition continued to put pressure on him, especially in view of the Emperor's foreign involvement in the problems arising from this succession. The situation worsened with the loss of the Cisplatine Province.

Internally, the Emperor was faced with several problems, such as the financial difficulties arising from the bankruptcy of the first Bank of Brazil (1829), inflation caused by food prices, the Emperor's family situation after the death of his first wife, Empress Dª. Maria Leopoldina (1826), due to his involvement with her lover, the Marchioness of Santos, the murder of journalist Líbero Badaró in São Paulo (1830), executed by police officers linked to the Empire (Pedro I was blamed for the death), and the constant support requested by Pedro from the bureaucrats and military of the Portuguese sector, creating conflicts between Portuguese and Brazilians. With his reputation increasingly damaged in the eyes of Brazilian public opinion, protests were violently repressed.

## Abdication of the Brazilian throne

In an attempt to restore his political prestige, Pedro I made one last visit to Minas Gerais with the intention of reaching an agreement with the province's politicians. However, he was greeted with a cold reception as there were sectors of the local elite who linked him to the murder of Libero Badaró.

Seeking to reconcile his government with public opinion, Pedro I appointed a new ministry with people accepted by the liberals. However, the opposition did not accept this tactic and continued to pressure him. The ministry that had been formed was dismissed and a new one was formed with Portuguese of absolutist tendencies. The Brazilian soldiers were quartered in the São Cristóvão neighborhood and the people reacted by forming an opposition, culminating in the siege of the Imperial Palace by the population. There was no resistance, as this could lead to civil war.

Outraged, the Portuguese settled in Rio de Janeiro held a public demonstration in protest, which triggered retaliation from the anti-Portuguese sectors, with riots and street conflicts. Enraged, the Emperor promised punishment, but he lacked political support. On April 7, 1831, Pedro I renounced the Empire, leaving the country in the hands of his firstborn, Pedro II, who was five years old; he appointed José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva as guardian of his younger children and left for Portugal.

Pedro I died in Sintra in 1834, after having taken part in the Portuguese Liberal Wars, where he fought on behalf of his daughter, Maria II, whose Portuguese throne had been usurped by her uncle, Miguel I.

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## InfoBox

| First Reign | |
| --- | --- |
| 1822–1831 | |
| Emperor Pedro I in his majestic costume with imperial insignia | |
| Key events | *Dia do Fico*<br>Independence of Brazil<br>Confederation of the Equator<br>Cisplatine War<br>Abdication of Pedro I |
| **Chronology** <br>Kingdom of Brazil Regency period | |