title: Protein function prediction

abstract: Protein function prediction methods are techniques that bioinformatics researchers use to assign biological or biochemical roles to proteins. These proteins are usually ones that are poorly studied or predicted based on genomic sequence data. These predictions are often driven by data-intensive computational procedures. Information may come from nucleic acid sequence homology, gene expression profiles, protein domain structures, text mining of publications, phylogenetic profiles, phenotypic profiles, and protein-protein interaction. Protein function is a broad term: the roles of proteins range from catalysis of biochemical reactions to transport to signal transduction, and a single protein may play a role in multiple processes or cellular pathways. Generally, function can be thought of as, "anything that happens to or through a protein". The Gene Ontology Consortium provides a useful classification of functions, based on a dictionary of well-defined terms divided into three main categories of molecular function, biological process and cellular component. Researchers can query this database with a protein name or accession number to retrieve associated Gene Ontology (GO) terms or annotations based on computational or experimental evidence. While techniques such as microarray analysis, RNA interference, and the yeast two-hybrid system can be used to experimentally demonstrate the function of a protein, advances in sequencing technologies have made the rate at which proteins can be experimentally characterized much slower than the rate at which new sequences become available. Thus, the annotation of new sequences is mostly by prediction through computational methods, as these types of annotation can often be done quickly and for many genes or proteins at once. The first such methods inferred function based on homologous proteins with known functions. The development of context-based and structure based methods have expanded what information can be predicted, and a combination of methods can now be used to get a picture of complete cellular pathways based on sequence data. The importance and prevalence of computational prediction of gene function is underlined by an analysis of 'evidence codes' used by the GO database: as of 2010, 98% of annotations were listed under the code IEA while only 0.6% were based on experimental evidence.

text:
# Protein function prediction

**Protein function prediction** methods are techniques that bioinformatics researchers use to assign biological or biochemical roles to proteins. These proteins are usually ones that are poorly studied or predicted based on genomic sequence data. These predictions are often driven by data-intensive computational procedures. Information may come from nucleic acid sequence homology, gene expression profiles, protein domain structures, text mining of publications, phylogenetic profiles, phenotypic profiles, and protein-protein interaction. Protein function is a broad term: the roles of proteins range from catalysis of biochemical reactions to transport to signal transduction, and a single protein may play a role in multiple processes or cellular pathways.

Generally, function can be thought of as, "anything that happens to or through a protein". The Gene Ontology Consortium provides a useful classification of functions, based on a dictionary of well-defined terms divided into three main categories of *molecular function, biological process* and *cellular component*. Researchers can query this database with a protein name or accession number to retrieve associated Gene Ontology (GO) terms or annotations based on computational or experimental evidence.

While techniques such as microarray analysis, RNA interference, and the yeast two-hybrid system can be used to experimentally demonstrate the function of a protein, advances in sequencing technologies have made the rate at which proteins can be experimentally characterized much slower than the rate at which new sequences become available. Thus, the annotation of new sequences is mostly by *prediction* through computational methods, as these types of annotation can often be done quickly and for many genes or proteins at once. The first such methods inferred function based on homologous proteins with known functions (**homology-based function prediction**). The development of context-based and structure based methods have expanded what information can be predicted, and a combination of methods can now be used to get a picture of complete cellular pathways based on sequence data. The importance and prevalence of computational prediction of gene function is underlined by an analysis of 'evidence codes' used by the GO database: as of 2010, 98% of annotations were listed under the code IEA (inferred from electronic annotation) while only 0.6% were based on experimental evidence.

## Homology-based methods

Proteins of similar sequence are usually homologous and thus have a similar function. Hence proteins in a newly sequenced genome are routinely annotated using the sequences of similar proteins in related genomes.

However, closely related proteins do not always share the same function. For example, the yeast Gal1 and Gal3 proteins are paralogs (73% identity and 92% similarity) that have evolved very different functions with Gal1 being a galactokinase and Gal3 being a transcriptional inducer.

There is no hard sequence-similarity threshold for "safe" function prediction; many proteins of barely detectable sequence similarity have the same function while others (such as Gal1 and Gal3) are highly similar but have evolved different functions. As a rule of thumb, sequences that are more than 30-40% identical are usually considered as having the same or a very similar function.

For **enzymes**, predictions of specific functions are especially difficult, as they only need a few key residues in their active site, hence very different sequences can have very similar activities. By contrast, even with sequence identity of 70% or greater, 10% of any pair of enzymes have different substrates; and differences in the actual enzymatic reactions are not uncommon near 50% sequence identity.

### Sequence motif-based methods

The development of protein domain databases such as Pfam (Protein Families Database) allow us to find known domains within a query sequence, providing evidence for likely functions. The dcGO website contains annotations to both the individual domains and supra-domains (i.e., combinations of two or more successive domains), thus via dcGO Predictor allowing for the function predictions in a more realistic manner. Within protein domains, shorter signatures known as '*motifs*' are associated with particular functions, and motif databases such as PROSITE ('database of protein domains, families and functional sites') can be searched using a query sequence. Motifs can, for example, be used to predict subcellular localization of a protein (where in the cell the protein is sent after synthesis). Short signal peptides direct certain proteins to a particular location such as the mitochondria, and various tools exist for the prediction of these signals in a protein sequence. For example, SignalP, which has been updated several times as methods are improved. Thus, aspects of a protein's function can be predicted without comparison to other full-length homologous protein sequences.

## Structure-based methods

Because 3D protein structure is generally more well conserved than protein sequence, structural similarity is a good indicator of similar function in two or more proteins. Many programs have been developed to screen a known protein structure against the Protein Data Bank and report similar structures (for example, FATCAT (Flexible structure AlignmenT by Chaining AFPs (Aligned Fragment Pairs) with Twists), CE (combinatorial extension)) and DeepAlign (protein structure alignment beyond spatial proximity). Similarly, the main protein databases, such as UniProt, have built-in tools to search any given protein sequences against structure databases, and link to related proteins of known structure.

### Protein structure prediction

To deal with the situation that many protein sequences have no solved structures, some function prediction servers such as RaptorX are also developed that can first predict the 3D model of a sequence and then use structure-based method to predict functions based upon the predicted 3D model. In many cases instead of the whole protein structure, the 3D structure of a particular motif representing an active site or binding site can be targeted. The Structurally Aligned Local Sites of Activity (SALSA) method, developed by Mary Jo Ondrechen and students, utilizes computed chemical properties of the individual amino acids to identify local biochemically active sites. Databases such as Catalytic Site Atlas have been developed that can be searched using novel protein sequences to predict specific functional sites.

### Computational solvent mapping

One of the challenges involved in protein function prediction is discovery of the active site. This is complicated by certain active sites not being formed – essentially existing – until the protein undergoes conformational changes brought on by the binding of small molecules. Most protein structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography which requires a purified protein crystal. As a result, existing structural models are generally of a purified protein and as such lack the conformational changes that are created when the protein interacts with small molecules.

Computational solvent mapping utilizes probes (small organic molecules) that are computationally 'moved' over the surface of the protein searching for sites where they tend to cluster. Multiple different probes are generally applied with the goal being to obtain a large number of different protein-probe conformations. The generated clusters are then ranked based on the cluster's average free energy. After computationally mapping multiple probes, the site of the protein where relatively large numbers of clusters form typically corresponds to an active site on the protein.

This technique is a computational adaptation of 'wet lab' work from 1996. It was discovered that ascertaining the structure of a protein while it is suspended in different solvents and then superimposing those structures on one another produces data where the organic solvent molecules (that the proteins were suspended in) typically cluster at the protein's active site. This work was carried out as a response to realizing that water molecules are visible in the electron density maps produced by X-ray crystallography. The water molecules are interacting with the protein and tend to cluster at the protein's polar regions. This led to the idea of immersing the purified protein crystal in other solvents (e.g. ethanol, isopropanol, etc.) to determine where these molecules cluster on the protein. The solvents can be chosen based on what they approximate, that is, what molecule this protein may interact with (e.g. ethanol can probe for interactions with the amino acid serine, isopropanol a probe for threonine, etc.). It is vital that the protein crystal maintains its tertiary structure in each solvent. This process is repeated for multiple solvents and then this data can be used to try to determine potential active sites on the protein. Ten years later this technique was developed into an algorithm by Clodfelter et al.

## Genome context-based methods

Many of the newer methods for protein function prediction are not based on comparison of sequence or structure as above, but on some type of correlation between novel genes/proteins and those that already have annotations. Several methods have been developed to predict gene function on the local genomic or phylogenomic context and structure of genes:

**Phylogenetic profiling** is based on the observation that two or more proteins with the same pattern of presence or absence in many different genomes most likely have a functional link. Whereas homology-based methods can often be used to identify molecular functions of a protein, context-based approaches can be used to predict cellular function, or the biological process in which a protein acts. For example, proteins involved in the same metabolic pathway are likely to be present in a genome together or are absent altogether, suggesting that these genes work together in a functional context.

**Operons** are clusters of genes that are transcribed together. Based on co-transcription data but also based on the fact that the order of genes in operons is often conserved across many bacteria, indicates that they act together.

**Gene fusion** occurs when two or more genes encode two or more proteins in one organism and have, through evolution, combined to become a single gene in another organism (or vice versa for *gene fission*). This concept has been used, for example, to search all *E. coli* protein sequences for homology in other genomes and find over 6000 pairs of sequences with shared homology to single proteins in another genome, indicating potential interaction between each of the pairs. Because the two sequences in each protein pair are non-homologous, these interactions could not be predicted using homology-based methods.

## Gene expression and location-based methods

In prokaryotes, clusters of genes that are physically close together in the genome often conserve together through evolution, and tend to encode proteins that interact or are part of the same operon. Thus, *chromosomal proximity* also called the gene neighbour method can be used to predict functional similarity between proteins, at least in prokaryotes. Chromosomal proximity has also been seen to apply for some pathways in selected eukaryotic genomes, including *Homo sapiens*, and with further development gene neighbor methods may be valuable for studying protein interactions in eukaryotes.

Genes involved in similar functions are also often co-transcribed, so that an unannotated protein can often be predicted to have a related function to proteins with which it co-expresses. The guilt by association algorithms developed based on this approach can be used to analyze large amounts of sequence data and identify genes with expression patterns similar to those of known genes. Often, a guilt by association study compares a group of candidate genes (unknown function) to a target group (for example, a group of genes known to be associated with a particular disease), and rank the candidate genes by their likelihood of belonging to the target group based on the data. Based on recent studies, however, it has been suggested that some problems exist with this type of analysis. For example, because many proteins are multifunctional, the genes encoding them may belong to several target groups. It is argued that such genes are more likely to be identified in guilt by association studies, and thus predictions are not specific.

With the accumulation of RNA-seq data that are capable of estimating expression profiles for alternatively spliced isoforms, machine learning algorithms have also been developed for predicting and differentiating functions at the isoform level. This represents an emerging research area in function prediction, which integrates large-scale, heterogeneous genomic data to infer functions at the isoform level.

## Network-based methods

Guilt by association type algorithms may be used to produce a functional association network for a given target group of genes or proteins. These networks serve as a representation of the evidence for shared/similar function within a group of genes, where nodes represent genes/proteins and are linked to each other by edges representing evidence of shared function.

### Integrated networks

Several networks based on different data sources can be combined into a composite network, which can then be used by a prediction algorithm to annotate candidate genes or proteins. For example, the developers of the bioPIXIE system used a wide variety of *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* (yeast) genomic data to produce a composite functional network for that species. This resource allows the visualization of known networks representing biological processes, as well as the prediction of novel components of those networks. Many algorithms have been developed to predict function based on the integration of several data sources (e.g. genomic, proteomic, protein interaction, etc.), and testing on previously annotated genes indicates a high level of accuracy. Disadvantages of some function prediction algorithms have included a lack of accessibility, and the time required for analysis. Faster, more accurate algorithms such as GeneMANIA (multiple association network integration algorithm) have however been developed in recent years and are publicly available on the web, indicating the future direction of function prediction.

## Tools and databases for protein function prediction

STRING: web tool that integrates various data sources for function prediction.

VisANT: Visual analysis of networks and integrative visual data-mining.

Mantis: A consensus-driven function prediction tool that dynamically integrates multiple reference databases.


title: Puerto Rico Highway 38

abstract: Puerto Rico Highway 38 (PR-38) is an urban route lying entirely in the Puerto Rican capital city of San Juan. PR-38 is co-extensive with Paseo Covadonga.

text:
# Puerto Rico Highway 38

**Puerto Rico Highway 38** (**PR-38**) is an urban route lying entirely in the Puerto Rican capital city of San Juan. PR-38 is co-extensive with Paseo Covadonga.

## Major intersections

The entire route is located in San Juan Antiguo, San Juan.

| km | mi | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0.00 | 0.00 | Calle del Recinto Sur | One-way street; western terminus of PR-38 |
| 1.08 | 0.67 | PR-25 south | One-way street; eastern terminus of PR-38; unsigned |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi<br> | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| Highway 38 | |
| --- | --- |
| *Ruta 38* | |
| *Paseo Covadonga* | |
| Route information | |
| Maintained by Puerto Rico DTPW | |
| Length | 1.08 km (0.67 mi) |
| Major junctions | |
| West end | Calle Recinto Sur in San Juan Antiguo |
| East end | PR-25 in San Juan Antiguo |
|  | |
| Location | |
| Country | United States |
| Territory | Puerto Rico |
| Municipalities | San Juan |
|  | |
| Highway system | |
|  | |
| PR-37   PR-39 | |


title: Pumptown, New Jersey

abstract: Pumptown is an unincorporated community located within Edison Township in Middlesex County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Pumptown is named after a public pump that stood in the middle of the intersection of Park Ave. and Plainfield Rd. It is a suburban neighborhood, its real estate primarily made up of medium-sized to large single-family homes and townhomes. Most of the residential real estate is owner-occupied. Many are older, well-established, built between 1940 and 1969. A number of residences were also built between 1970 and 1999.

text:
# Pumptown, New Jersey

**Pumptown** (also known as **Pumptown Corners**) is an unincorporated community located within Edison Township in Middlesex County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey.

Pumptown is named after a public pump that stood in the middle of the intersection of Park Ave. and Plainfield Rd.

It is a suburban neighborhood (based on population density), its real estate primarily made up of medium-sized (three- or four-bedroom) to large (four- or more bedroom) single-family homes and townhomes. Most of the residential real estate is owner-occupied. Many are older, well-established, built between 1940 and 1969. A number of residences were also built between 1970 and 1999.

## InfoBox

| Pumptown, New Jersey | |
| --- | --- |
| Unincorporated community | |
| PumptownLocation of Pumptown in Middlesex County Inset: Location of county within the state of New JerseyPumptownPumptown (New Jersey)PumptownPumptown (the United States) | |
| Coordinates: 40°33′47″N 74°22′24″W / 40.56306°N 74.37333°W / 40.56306; -74.37333 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | New Jersey |
| County | Middlesex |
| Township | Edison |
| Elevation | 108 ft (33 m) |
| GNIS feature ID | 879554 |


title: Public Schools Accountability Act

abstract: The Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA) was passed in California in 1999 as the first step in developing a comprehensive system to hold students, schools, and districts accountable for improving student performance. The system establishes a code of conduct for all teachers stating that their overall objective for the student is to achieve and progress academically. The PSAA was passed to make sure that student excel in school, and are able to perform with the best of their abilities. It is to make sure that teachers and school staff encourage students and instruct them in different ways. In the PSAA, it covers three main components that ensure students growth; the Academic Performance Index (API), the Immediate Intervention/ Underperforming Schools Program (II/USP), and the Governor's Performance Award (GPA) program. Each of these components is used to develop and emerge a students education, and even make the PSAA work smoothly and correctly. The Academic Performance Index (API), is used to measure the progress within the school. The program now includes a Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) system, testing at the elementary levels, known as the California Achievement Test (CAT), and a high school exit exam (CAHSEE), both aligned with academic content standards. The API These comprehensive accountability standards put California in a good position to meet the provisions of the 2001 federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and are the components the state uses for measuring Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).

text:
# Public Schools Accountability Act

**The Public Schools Accountability Act** (**PSAA**) was passed in California in 1999 as the first step in developing a comprehensive system to hold students, schools, and districts accountable for improving student performance. The system establishes a code of conduct for all teachers stating that their overall objective for the student is to achieve and progress academically. The PSAA was passed to make sure that student excel in school, and are able to perform with the best of their abilities. It is to make sure that teachers and school staff encourage students and instruct them in different ways. In the PSAA, it covers three main components that ensure students growth; the Academic Performance Index (API), the Immediate Intervention/ Underperforming Schools Program (II/USP), and the Governor's Performance Award (GPA) program. Each of these components is used to develop and emerge a students education, and even make the PSAA work smoothly and correctly.

The Academic Performance Index (API), is used to measure the progress within the school. The program now includes a Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) system, testing at the elementary levels, known as the California Achievement Test (CAT), and a high school exit exam (CAHSEE), both aligned with academic content standards. The API

These comprehensive accountability standards put California in a good position to meet the provisions of the 2001 federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and are the components the state uses for measuring Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).


title: Psary, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship

abstract: Psary is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Secemin, within Włoszczowa County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It lies approximately 5 kilometres (3 mi) south of Secemin, 18 km (11 mi) south-west of Włoszczowa, and 59 km (37 mi) west of the regional capital Kielce.

text:
# Psary, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship

**Psary** \[ˈpsarɨ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Secemin, within Włoszczowa County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It lies approximately 5 kilometres (3 mi) south of Secemin, 18 km (11 mi) south-west of Włoszczowa, and 59 km (37 mi) west of the regional capital Kielce.

## InfoBox

| Psary | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Church in Psary | |
| Psary | |
| Coordinates: 50°43′50″N 19°49′17″E / 50.73056°N 19.82139°E / 50.73056; 19.82139 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Świętokrzyskie |
| County | Włoszczowa |
| Gmina | Secemin |
| Population | 540 |


title: Purwa

abstract: Purwa is a town and nagar panchayat in Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located 32 km southeast of Unnao, the district headquarters. Roads connect it with several major cities including Unnao, Lucknow, Kanpur, and Rae Bareli. As of 2011, its population is 24,467 people, in 4,128 households. Purwa is the headquarters of a community development block, which was first inaugurated on 1 April 1959 in order to oversee implementation of India's Five-Year Plans at a local and rural level. Most of the block lies within the tehsil of Purwa, but parts are in the tehsil of Bighapur instead. As of 2011, the block comprises 112 rural villages, with a total population of 125,619 people in 25,020 households.

text:
# Purwa

**Purwa** is a town and nagar panchayat in Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located 32 km southeast of Unnao, the district headquarters. Roads connect it with several major cities including Unnao, Lucknow, Kanpur, and Rae Bareli. As of 2011, its population is 24,467 people, in 4,128 households.

Purwa is the headquarters of a community development block, which was first inaugurated on 1 April 1959 in order to oversee implementation of India's Five-Year Plans at a local and rural level. Most of the block lies within the tehsil of Purwa, but parts are in the tehsil of Bighapur instead. As of 2011, the block comprises 112 rural villages (including Asoha itself), with a total population of 125,619 people in 25,020 households.

## History

Purwa is said to have been founded sometime around the year 1400. Its antecedent was the village of Newayan a few miles to the west, which was founded by a Raghubansi from Ayodhya named Raja Newan. Newayan was wiped out by the Loni River and the ruling raja at the time, Ranbir Singh, founded a new town on the lands of three villages: Bhawanipur, Sokipur, and Kalyanpur. This new town was originally called **Ranbirpur** or **Ranbhirpur** after Ranbir Singh, and it appears under this name in the Ain-i-Akbari at the end of the 1500s. It was then the seat of a pargana which covered an extent of 75,490 bighas and was assessed at a value of 2,425,775 dams. The town had a brick fort and a military force of 2,000 infantry and 100 cavalry. At some point, the name "Ranbirpur" eventually became corrupted to "Ranjitpurwa" or simply "Purwa", hence the present name.

Under the Nawabs of Awadh, Purwa formed one of the chaklas, or districts, that made up present-day Unnao district. It covered the eastern portion of the current district. One of the most prominent figures in Purwa's history during this period was Raja Achal Singh Bais, who was the hereditary taluqdar of Daundia Khera and also served as chakladar and ruler of Purwa. He lived at Purwa from 1716 to 1776, and at one point fought a major battle against the other Bais Thakurs of Baiswara who resented his rule. Achal Singh won a complete victory and later laid out a garden at the site of the battlefield. He founded several villages including Achalganj, in the pargana of Harha, and Achal Khera in the pargana of Purwa. In 1184 Fasli, Achal Singh was replaced as governor by one Bhawani Singh, and not long after that he committed suicide by taking poison.

Another important figures from Purwa's history during this period was Raja Sital Parshad Tirbedi, who also served as nazim of Purwa. He established the Sitalganj market in Purwa (as well as another with the same name in Rasulabad) and endowed it with a temple and tank. Another historical figure was Fateh Ali, originally a slave, who founded the village of Fatehganj near Purwa and planted trees along the road from Purwa to Basha to shade travellers.

When the British annexed Oudh State in 1856, they originally chose Purwa as the headquarters of what is now Unnao district, but they were soon relocated to Unnao.

At the turn of the 20th century, Purwa was described as "a considerable town" that was very spread out and locally known for its skilled shoemakers. It held a bazaar twice per week, with an average attendance of about 1,000 visitors, and hosted several melas during the course of the year, each one with an average attendance of 7-8,000. It had tehsil offices, a munsifi court, a police station, a dispensary, a post office, and a middle school with 157 students. The population in 1901 was 10,260 people, including 7,529 Hindus and 2,705 Muslims; the largest communities present were the Brahmins, Banias, and Kayasths.

Purwa was declassified as a town for the 1961 and 1971 censuses, but was reclassified as such for the 1981 census.

## Geography

Purwa is located at 26°28′N 80°47′E / 26.47°N 80.78°E / 26.47; 80.78.

## Unnamed soldiers in First World War

There is a white marble plaque in the village which commemorates the contribution of 33 unnamed men from the village, who went to the Great War (1914–1919) and fought on the side of the British imperial forces.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1901 | 10,260 |  |
| 1911 | 7,876 | −23.2% |
| 1921 | 7,172 | −8.9% |
| 1931 | 6,352 | −11.4% |
| 1941 | 8,893 | +40.0% |
| 1951 | 8,860 | −0.4% |
| 1961 | Not given |  |
| 1971 | Not given |  |
| 1981 | 15,235 |  |
| 1991 | 18,558 | +21.8% |
| 2001 | 21,271 | +14.6% |
| 2011 | 24,467 | +15.0% |
| Source: 2011 Census of India | | |

As of 2011 India census, Purwa had a population of 24,195. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Purwa has an average literacy rate of 54%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 60%, and female literacy is 47%. In Purwa, 30% of the population is under 12 years of age.

## Economy

The economy of Purwa is agriculture based. The outskirts of Purwa block produce rice (especially basmati and other rice varieties) and wheat. Other food grain crops include toor, green gram, moong, gram, barley, and maize. Hilauli block also produces mainly food grains. Mango orchards have great importance in this block. The agriculture is well developed, but the irrigation system of the area is not much good. Although this area have extensive canal system but they do not work properly . Agriculture totally depends upon underground water. But now many people also have their shops of various things in Purwa town . It is now hub of various economic activities for many nearby villages .

## Flora and fauna

Generally all the three crops of Rabi, Kharif and Zaid are grown. Wheat, paddy and arhar are the main crops. Fruit trees of mango, guava, jamun are in plenty. Except for the month of June, one can always find grass in the field. Cows, buffalo, goats and horses are reared for agricultural and domestic needs.

## Connectivity with other cities

It is near two popular cities of state Kanpur and Lucknow and connected by mainly road transport. One can take bus services from Charbag (Lucknow) to Kaiserbag (Lucknow) to Alambag (Lucknow). From Kanpur, one has to come to Unnao first and then take public transport for Purwa. In the rail budget for the year 2012-13, there was a proposal to check the feasibility of connecting Unnao to Lucknow via Purwa.

## Religion

The temple of Billeshwar Mahadeo and the tomb of Mina Sahib in Purwa are both revered by Hindus and Muslims alike. There are also the shrines of Niamat Shah and Hira Shah.

## Villages

Purwa CD block has the following 112 villages:

| Village name | Total land area (hectares) | Population (in 2011) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Lala Khera Vikram Gairabad | 87.7 | 0 |
| Lala Khera Laxman Gairabad | 39 | 0 |
| Mawaiya Ramae Khera | 89.3 | 387 |
| Lala Khera Nohari Gairabad | 20 | 0 |
| Lala Khera Janki Gairabad | 9.6 | 0 |
| Lala Khera Jawahar | 108.5 | 621 |
| Nathi Khera | 158.7 | 907 |
| Mada Khera | 50.3 | 322 |
| Bara Khera | 97.6 | 499 |
| Argaon Pansa Khera | 390.5 | 2,560 |
| Gokul Pur | 80.4 | 324 |
| Palhari | 148.2 | 1,208 |
| Unchagaon Sani | 368.5 | 2,431 |
| Hari Khera | 157.1 | 848 |
| Kataun | 99.7 | 784 |
| Bhulemau | 214.4 | 958 |
| Gadorwa | 95.4 | 382 |
| Barwat | 162.9 | 596 |
| Taragarhi | 376 | 1,488 |
| Langarpur | 400.9 | 1,755 |
| Uncha Gaon Killa | 317.6 | 1,884 |
| Mirzapur Sumhari | 456 | 2,694 |
| Ramavmrapur | 338.9 | 1,638 |
| Gangadas Pur | 106 | 376 |
| Nabab | 170.8 | 1,225 |
| Himmat Khera | 185.2 | 877 |
| Atwa | 56.9 | 530 |
| Semri Mau | 143.1 | 904 |
| Chak Bachur | 23.7 | 240 |
| Bahraura Bujurg | 173.2 | 1,572 |
| Shankar Chak | 15.8 | 329 |
| Majhgawan Sadqu | 178.1 | 1,441 |
| Bhupati Pur | 490.4 | 3,035 |
| Fatehganj | 162 | 798 |
| Suikhera | 193.7 | 714 |
| Kasraur | 556.2 | 2,679 |
| Patti Sukhnandan | 94.3 | 772 |
| Kasba Paschim | 373.5 | 917 |
| Asehru | 289.7 | 1,361 |
| Durgapur | 122.3 | 36 |
| Gulabbari | 26.6 | 0 |
| Kasba Bhawani Pur | 390.5 | 27 |
| Kasba Ramahimmat | 433.8 | 8 |
| Achalkhera | 145 | 890 |
| Sirsahib Lal | 10.5 | 0 |
| Chak Jamalpur | 104.2 | 654 |
| Dhirji Khera | 92.8 | 551 |
| Chamiani | 899.2 | 7,161 |
| Bisun Khera | 361.7 | 811 |
| Ahamdabad Grant | 78.5 | 172 |
| Sarson | 223.6 | 1,197 |
| Tikria | 98.4 | 320 |
| Sirkale Khan | 22.4 | 0 |
| Bharti Garhi | 56.9 | 0 |
| Kalyanpur | 59.5 | 0 |
| Chandi Garhi | 129.6 | 817 |
| Tiker Khurd | 205.9 | 1,086 |
| Tiker Kalan | 311.3 | 1,077 |
| Bewalmansa Khera | 320.4 | 1,868 |
| Daila | 81.9 | 580 |
| Chhulamau | 168.7 | 961 |
| Bachhulia | 39.1 | 531 |
| Basnoha | 135.4 | 485 |
| Tusraur | 220.7 | 1,222 |
| Bhadnag | 573.5 | 3,213 |
| Vade Khera | 190.9 | 514 |
| Banigaon | 753.6 | 3,418 |
| Himmatpur | 85.3 | 458 |
| Zambur Pur | 262.4 | 1,801 |
| Darheta | 372.2 | 2,582 |
| Muraita | 238.4 | 1,970 |
| Kodara | 284.4 | 1,416 |
| Nawa Gaon | 150.2 | 773 |
| Topra | 250.8 | 2,065 |
| Batau Mau | 104.8 | 373 |
| Bhatauli | 181.1 | 1,587 |
| Pinzra | 337.2 | 2,323 |
| Chandrasena | 144.7 | 1,067 |
| Asgar Ganj | 48.6 | 407 |
| Mohiuddinpur | 476.4 | 3,060 |
| Miya Ganj | 49.7 | 318 |
| Atwat | 18 | 960 |
| Jajanpur | 96.1 | 672 |
| Mulahimpur | 56.6 | 520 |
| Behta Bhawani | 281.5 | 2,796 |
| Lachhi Khera | 73.4 | 373 |
| Jagat Khera | 84 | 725 |
| Kathar | 145 | 923 |
| Salaithu | 356.1 | 1,263 |
| Kishan Khera | 151.4 | 845 |
| Mahramau | 290.1 | 1,589 |
| Lakhmademau | 329.6 | 1,461 |
| Tiprarpur | 1,059.4 | 4,539 |
| Gadha Kola | 171.2 | 1,186 |
| Bhatmau | 229.8 | 1,326 |
| Muraita | 246.2 | 1,180 |
| Tevaria | 150.4 | 991 |
| Sijnisohramau | 262.3 | 2,789 |
| Apsari | 150.9 | 884 |
| Majhigawan Sevak | 114.6 | 406 |
| Rasulpur | 127.7 | 617 |
| Arhauli | 172.2 | 754 |
| Dhemna Khera | 123.2 | 681 |
| Rawatpur | 145 | 457 |
| Raghunath Pur | 147.9 | 756 |
| Turkha | 119.4 | 490 |
| Pakra Buzurg | 464 | 3,249 |
| Mamrej Pur | 450.4 | 2,326 |
| Panhan | 112.1 | 545 |
| Baizua Mau | 176.2 | 939 |
| Ramakhera | 63.1 | 512 |
| Purander Pur | 137 | 1,210 |

## InfoBox

| Purwa | |
| --- | --- |
| Nagar panchayat | |
| Map of Purwa CD block | |
| PurwaLocation in Uttar Pradesh, India | |
| Coordinates: 26°28′N 80°47′E / 26.47°N 80.78°E / 26.47; 80.78 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Uttar Pradesh |
| District | Unnao |
| Area | |
| Total | 3.74 km2 (1.44 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 129 m (423 ft) |
| Population (2001) | |
| Total | 24,467 |
| Density | 6,500/km2 (17,000/sq mi) |
| Languages | |
| Official | Hindi |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |


title: Purvottar maithili

abstract: Purvottar Maithili refers to a group of ethnic Maithils belonging to the Mithila region but have settled in the North-East region of India and have been there for centuries. Over time they have contributed a lot to the local linguistic and cultural heritage. They speak Maithili but are also fluent in Hindi and Bengali. They share very similar cultural ties with the Bengalis.

text:
# Purvottar maithili

**Purvottar Maithili** refers to a group of ethnic Maithils belonging to the Mithila region but have settled in the North-East region of India and have been there for centuries. Over time they have contributed a lot to the local linguistic and cultural heritage. They speak Maithili but are also fluent in Hindi and Bengali. They share very similar cultural ties with the Bengalis.

## Background

They migrated to this region since the times of the Ahom Kings for performing various religious duties. Later mass immigration of Maithils was during the time of the British who took them for labours in tea-estates.

1. Das, Bhuban Mohan (1987). *The Peoples of Assam*. ISBN 9788121200936.


title: Punct (magazine)

abstract: Punct was a Romanian art and literary magazine published from 1924 to 1925.

text:
# Punct (magazine)

***Punct*** (Romanian for "Point") was a Romanian art and literary magazine published from 1924 to 1925.

## History and profile

Founded and directed by Scarlat Callimachi, it *Punct* edited by painter Victor Brauner and writer Stephan Roll. Scarlat Callimachi was the editor-in-chief of the magazine, which was published on a monthly basis. The headquarters of the magazine was in Bucharest.

The subtitle of *Punct* was changed three times during its existence: A Review of Constructivist Literature and Arts, A Review of International Arts and finally, A Review of Constructivist Art. Although the periodical was subtitled "A Review of Constructivist Art", it was dedicated not only to constructivism, but also covered other forms of abstract art and had strong links to Dadaism, publishing pieces by Tristan Tzara. *Punct* was among the leading avant-garde magazines published in Romania, a group which also comprises *Contimporanul* and the single issue of *75 HP*.

The issues of *Punct* were illustrated with linocuts by Romanian artists, among them Brauner, Marcel Janco, Miliţa Petraşcu, János Mattis-Teutsch, M. H. Maxy, as well as by foreign abstractionists such as Victor Servranckx or Kurt Schwitters. Inspired by Viking Eggeling's film design, Janco also composed a formal alphabet for *Punct*. The magazine published literary work by Romanian writers (Roll, Ion Vinea, Ilarie Voronca and others), poems by French-language poets (Philippe Soupault, Louis Emié, Georges Linze) and articles on art by Dutch and German painters (Theo van Doesburg, Kurt Schwitters, Herwarth Walden).

*Punct* ceased publication in 1925 when it was merged with *Contimporanul*.


title: Puncta extraordinaria

abstract: Puncta extraordinaria, or extraordinary points, refer to certain small dots in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, where they appear alongside other, more common, traditional markings (nequddot) found in the Masoretic Text. There are fifteen places in the Masoretic Text where the puncta extraordinaria appear. Ten of the fifteen instances are in the Pentateuch. The dots may appear above or below individual letters or even an entire word or group of words. These points have also been referred to as cancellation dots, and their use is derived from similar practices by Greek scribes. It is commonly believed that they were intended to indicate places where there is doubt about whether the indicated words or features of their spelling are authentic. Similar dots are found in manuscripts of the Dead Sea Scrolls, where they indicated that a word was inserted in error and should not be included in any potential copies of the scroll. The existence of these dots is attested to as early as the Mishna. The existence of the puncta extraordinaria is relevant to reconstructing the history of the Masoretic Text. Because all Masoretic manuscripts contain these points in the same places, as well as agreement in a large number of other minor details, Paul de Lagarde (1863) proposed that they were all copied from a single original manuscript. This theory, known as the Urtext theory, has met with the approval of "many scholars."

text:
# Puncta extraordinaria

**Puncta extraordinaria**, or **extraordinary points**, refer to certain small dots in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, where they appear alongside other, more common, traditional markings (nequddot) found in the Masoretic Text. There are fifteen places in the Masoretic Text where the puncta extraordinaria appear. Ten of the fifteen instances are in the Pentateuch. The dots may appear above or below (usually above) individual letters or even an entire word or group of words.

These points have also been referred to as **cancellation dots**, and their use is derived from similar practices by Greek scribes. It is commonly believed that they were intended to indicate places where there is doubt about whether the indicated words or features of their spelling are authentic. Similar dots are found in manuscripts of the Dead Sea Scrolls, where they indicated that a word was inserted in error and should not be included in any potential copies of the scroll. The existence of these dots is attested to as early as the Mishna.

The existence of the puncta extraordinaria is relevant to reconstructing the history of the Masoretic Text. Because all Masoretic manuscripts contain these points in the same places, as well as agreement in a large number of other minor details, Paul de Lagarde (1863) proposed that they were all copied from a single original manuscript. This theory, known as the *Urtext* theory, has met with the approval of "many scholars."

## List of puncta

The list below is from Romain Butin's *The Ten Nequdoth of the Torah*.

| Involved Letters | Involved Words | Text | Verse |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| י last | וּבֵינֶֽיׄךָ | וַתֹּ֨אמֶר שָׂרַ֣י אֶל־אַבְרָם֮ חֲמָסִ֣י עָלֶיךָ֒ אָנֹכִ֗י נָתַ֤תִּי שִׁפְחָתִי֙ בְּחֵיקֶ֔ךָ וַתֵּ֨רֶא֙ כִּ֣י הָרָ֔תָה וָאֵקַ֖ל בְּעֵינֶ֑יהָ יִשְׁפֹּ֥ט יְהוָ֖ה בֵּינִ֥י וּבֵינֶֽיׄךָ | Genesis 16:5 |
| all | אֵׄלָ֔ׄיׄוׄ | וַיֹּאמְר֣וּ אֵׄלָ֔ׄיׄוׄ אַיֵּ֖ה שָׂרָ֣ה אִשְׁתֶּ֑ךָ וַיֹּ֖אמֶר הִנֵּ֥ה בָאֹֽהֶל | Genesis 18:9 |
| ק | וּבְקוּׄמָֽהּ | וַתַּשְׁקֶ֧יןָ אֶת־אֲבִיהֶ֛ן יַ֖יִן בַּלַּ֣יְלָה ה֑וּא וַתָּבֹ֤א הַבְּכִירָה֙ וַתִּשְׁכַּ֣ב אֶת־אָבִ֔יהָ וְלֹֽא־יָדַ֥ע בְּשִׁכְבָ֖הּ וּבְקוּׄמָֽהּ | Genesis 19:33 |
| all | וַׄיִּׄשָּׁׄקֵ֑ׄהׄוּׄ | וַיָּ֨רָץ עֵשָׂ֤ו לִקְרָאתֹו֙ וַֽיְחַבְּקֵ֔הוּ וַיִּפֹּ֥ל עַל־צוארו וַׄיִּׄשָּׁׄקֵ֑ׄהׄוּׄ וַיִּבְכּֽוּ | Genesis 33:4 |
| all | אֶׄתׄ | וַיֵּלְכ֖וּ אֶחָ֑יו לִרְעֹ֛ות אֶׄתׄ־צֹ֥אן אֲבִיהֶ֖ם בִּשְׁכֶֽם | Genesis 37:12 |
| all | וְׄאַׄהֲׄרֹ֛ׄןׄ | כָּל־פְּקוּדֵ֨י הַלְוִיִּ֜ם אֲשֶׁר֩ פָּקַ֨ד מֹשֶׁ֧ה וְׄאַׄהֲׄרֹ֛ׄןׄ עַל־פִּ֥י יְהוָ֖ה לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָ֑ם כָּל־זָכָר֙ מִבֶּן־חֹ֣דֶשׁ וָמַ֔עְלָה שְׁנַ֥יִם וְעֶשְׂרִ֖ים אָֽלֶף | Numbers 3:39 |
| הׄ | רְחֹקָ֜הׄ | דַּבֵּ֛ר אֶל־בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל לֵאמֹ֑ר אִ֣ישׁ אִ֣ישׁ כִּי־יִהְיֶֽה־טָמֵ֣א׀ לָנֶ֡פֶשׁ אֹו֩ בְדֶ֨רֶךְ רְחֹקָ֜הׄ לָכֶ֗ם אֹ֚ו לְדֹרֹ֣תֵיכֶ֔ם וְעָ֥שָׂה פֶ֖סַח לַיהוָֽה | Numbers 9:10 |
|
| וְעִשָּׂרֹוׄן֙ | וׄ | וְעִשָּׂרֹוׄן֙ עִשָּׂרֹ֔ון לַכֶּ֖בֶשׂ הָאֶחָ֑ד לְאַרְבָּעָ֥ה עָשָׂ֖ר כְּבָשִֽׂים | Numbers 29:15 |
| all except the final ד | לָ֤ׄנׄוּׄ וּׄלְׄבָׄנֵ֨ׄיׄנׄוּ֙ׄ עַד | הַ֨נִּסְתָּרֹ֔ת לַיהוָ֖ה אֱלֹהֵ֑ינוּ וְהַנִּגְלֹ֞ת לָ֤ׄנׄוּׄ וּׄלְׄבָׄנֵ֨ׄיׄנׄוּ֙ׄ עַד־עֹולָ֔ם לַעֲשֹׂ֕ות אֶת־כָּל־דִּבְרֵ֖י הַתֹּורָ֥ה הַזֹּֽאת | Deuteronomy 29:28 |
| all | יָׄצָ֥ׄאׄ | וַיֹּ֣אמֶר אֶל־הַמֶּ֗לֶךְ אַל־יַחֲשָׁב־לִ֣י אֲדֹנִי֮ עָוֹן֒ וְאַל־תִּזְכֹּ֗ר אֵ֚ת אֲשֶׁ֣ר הֶעֱוָ֣ה עַבְדְּךָ֔ בַּיֹּ֕ום אֲשֶׁר־יָׄצָ֥ׄאׄ אֲדֹנִֽי־הַמֶּ֖לֶךְ מִירֽוּשָׁלִָ֑ם לָשׂ֥וּם הַמֶּ֖לֶךְ אֶל־לִבֹּֽו | 2 Samuel 19:20 |
| all | הֵ֗ׄמָּׄהׄ | יֹֽצְרֵי־פֶ֤סֶל כֻּלָּם֙ תֹּ֔הוּ וַחֲמוּדֵיהֶ֖ם בַּל־יֹועִ֑ילוּ וְעֵדֵיהֶ֣ם הֵ֗ׄמָּׄהׄ בַּל־יִרְא֛וּ וּבַל־יֵדְע֖וּ לְמַ֥עַן יֵבֹֽשׁוּ | Isaiah 44:9 |
| all | הַׄהֵׄיׄכָֽׄלׄ | מֵהָאָ֨רֶץ֙ עַד־מֵעַ֣ל הַפֶּ֔תַח הַכְּרוּבִ֥ים וְהַתִּֽמֹרִ֖ים עֲשׂוּיִ֑ם וְקִ֖יר הַׄהֵׄיׄכָֽׄלׄ | Ezekiel 41:20 |
| all | מְׄהֻׄקְׄצָׄעֹֽׄוׄתׄ | בְּאַרְבַּ֜עַת מִקְצֹעֹ֤ות הֶֽחָצֵר֙ חֲצֵרֹ֣ות קְטֻרֹ֔ות אַרְבָּעִ֣ים אֹ֔רֶךְ וּשְׁלֹשִׁ֖ים רֹ֑חַב מִדָּ֣ה אַחַ֔ת לְאַרְבַּעְתָּ֖ם מְׄהֻׄקְׄצָׄעֹֽׄוׄתׄ | Ezekiel 46:22 |
| all | לׅׄוּלֵׅ֗ׄאׅׄ | לׅׄוּלֵׅ֗ׄאׅׄ הֶ֭אֱמַנְתִּי לִרְאֹ֥ות בְּֽטוּב־יְהוָ֗ה בְּאֶ֣רֶץ חַיִּֽים | Psalms 27:13 |


title: Pushkar Goggiaa

abstract: Pushkar Gogia is an Indian Television Actor, Numerologist, Astrologer and Vastu expert. He started his career in television with a cameo role in Anamika on Sony TV where he played the role of Anand Kumar. After being recognised, he got the break with Balaji Telefilms to play the role of Nakul in a mythological serial named Dharmakshetra which was aired on Epic Channel. Last seen with Rashmi Sharma Telefilm's launched daily soap Desh Ki Beti Nandini portraying the character of Siddharth Pandey, Nandini's Brother. His Role was very well recognised and much appreciated.

text:
# Pushkar Goggiaa

**Pushkar Gogia** is an Indian Television Actor, Numerologist, Astrologer and *Vastu* expert. He started his career in television with a cameo role in *Anamika* on *Sony TV* where he played the role of Anand Kumar. After being recognised, he got the break with Balaji Telefilms to play the role of Nakul in a mythological serial named *Dharmakshetra* which was aired on Epic Channel. Last seen with Rashmi Sharma Telefilm's launched daily soap *Desh Ki Beti Nandini* portraying the character of Siddharth Pandey, Nandini's Brother. His Role was very well recognised and much appreciated.

## Personal life

Gogia was born in a business family of Delhi. He has one younger brother. He took up higher studies and completed his MBA from Indian Institute of Planning and Management, New Delhi. He has worked with a private bank for a year and then decided to try his hands on acting.

## Career

Goggiaa had undergone formal training for his acting. He has undertaken various modeling assignments for brands like Axis Bank, Uninor, Toyota, Omaxe, Raja Biscuits, IPL, etc. He was also seen in Bajaj Platina Electric Start TV Commercial.

In South industry, he has worked for brands like Vasanth & Co and Sree Kumar Thangamaligaie.

Goggiaa is a professional numerologist and vastu expert. He runs a consultancy where he provides consultations for numerology, astrology and vastu.

## Filmography

| Year(s) | Film | Role | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2014 | *Singham Returns* | Song Track - "Kuch Toh Hua hai" |  |
| | *I Promise You* | Varun |  |

## Television

| Year(s) | Title | Role | Channel | Ref(s) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2013 | *Anamika* | Anand Kumar | Sony |  |
| | *Dharmakshetra* | Krishna | Epic TV |  |
| | *Desh Ki Beti Nandini* | Siddharth Pandey | Sony |  |
| 2014 | *Tumhari Pakhi* | Prithvi(Fake Rohan) | Life OK |  |

## Other episodic shows

| Year(s) | Title | Role | Channel | Ref(s) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2015 | *Savdhaan India* | Various Roles | Life Ok |  |
| | *Aahat Season 6* | Rahul | SONY |  |

## InfoBox

| Pushkar Goggiaa | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | India |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Years active | 2011–present |


title: Puntius viridis

abstract: Puntius viridis, the spot-fin green barb, is a species of barbs native to the Manimala River in Kerala, India.This species reaches a length of 8.1 cm (3.2 in).

text:
# Puntius viridis

***Puntius viridis***, the **spot-fin green barb**, is a species of barbs native to the Manimala River in Kerala, India.This species reaches a length of 8.1 cm (3.2 in).

## InfoBox

| *Puntius viridis* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Cypriniformes |
| Family: | Cyprinidae |
| Genus: | *Puntius* |
| Species: | ***P. viridis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Puntius viridis***<br>Plamoottil & Abraham, 2014 | |
|


title: Puntland Agency For Social Welfare

abstract: The Puntland Agency For Social Welfare (PASWE) is the state-run social welfare agency of the autonomous Puntland region in northeastern Somalia.

text:
# Puntland Agency For Social Welfare

The **Puntland Agency For Social Welfare** (**PASWE**) is the state-run social welfare agency of the autonomous Puntland region in northeastern Somalia.

## Overview

PASWE was founded in May 2009 in Garowe by the Puntland government. It provides medical, educational and counseling support to vulnerable groups and individuals, such as the disabled, the blind, orphans, and widows of Puntland soldiers.

The agency is overseen by a Board of Directors, which consists of religious scholars (*ulema*), businesspeople, intellectuals and traditional elders. PASWE is headed by Hussein Mohamed Mohamud, who was appointed to the position by presidential decree on February 7, 2013.


title: Puerto Rico Zoological Society

abstract: The Puerto Rico Zoological Society was founded by Dr. Juan A. Rivero, a professor of Biology of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez. Dr. Rivero went on to serve as the Society's first president. The Zoological Society contributed to the development of Puerto Rico's only zoo, located at the UPR Mayagüez campus, named by the Legislature in 1998 as the "Dr. Juan A. Rivero Zoo".

text:
# Puerto Rico Zoological Society

The **Puerto Rico Zoological Society** (*Sociedad Zoológica de Puerto Rico*) was founded by Dr. Juan A. Rivero, a professor of Biology of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez. Dr. Rivero went on to serve as the Society's first president.

The Zoological Society contributed to the development of Puerto Rico's only zoo, located at the UPR Mayagüez campus, named by the Legislature in 1998 as the "Dr. Juan A. Rivero Zoo".


title: Punta Senyalada

abstract: Punta Senyalada, also known as Pic de la Torreta and Pic dels Soldats, is a mountain of Catalonia, Spain. Located in the Besiberri Massif, Pyrenees, it has an elevation of 2,952 metres above sea level.

text:
# Punta Senyalada

**Punta Senyalada**, also known as **Pic de la Torreta** and **Pic dels Soldats**, is a mountain of Catalonia, Spain. Located in the Besiberri Massif, Pyrenees, it has an elevation of 2,952 metres above sea level.

## InfoBox

| Punta Senyalada | |
| --- | --- |
| Punta Senyalada on the left | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 2,952 m (9,685 ft) |
| Coordinates | 42°35′28″N 0°48′30″E / 42.59111°N 0.80833°E / 42.59111; 0.80833 |
| Geography | |
| Punta SenyaladaLocation in the Pyrenees | |
| Location | Vilaller & Vall de Boí (Alta Ribagorça)
Naut Aran (Vall d'Aran)
Catalonia |
| Parent range | Pyrenees |
| Climbing | |
| First ascent | Unknown |
| Easiest route | From Sallente Reservoir |


title: Pursuit predation

abstract: Pursuit predation is a form of predation in which predators actively give chase to their prey, either solitarily or as a group. It is an alternate predation strategy to ambush predation — pursuit predators rely on superior speed, endurance and/or teamwork to seize the prey, while ambush predators use concealment, luring, exploiting of surroundings and the element of surprise to capture the prey. While the two patterns of predation are not mutually exclusive, morphological differences in an organism's body plan can create an evolutionary bias favoring either type of predation. Pursuit predation is typically observed in carnivorous species within the kingdom Animalia, such as cheetahs, lions, wolves and early Homo species. The chase can be initiated either by the predator, or by the prey if it is alerted to a predator's presence and attempt to flee before the predator gets close. The chase ends either when the predator successfully catches up and tackles the prey, or when the predator abandons the attempt after the prey outruns it and escapes. One particular form of pursuit predation is persistence hunting, where the predator stalks the prey slowly but persistently to wear it down physically with fatigue or overheating; some animals are examples of both types of pursuit.

text:
# Pursuit predation

**Pursuit predation** is a form of predation in which predators actively give chase to their prey, either solitarily or as a group. It is an alternate predation strategy to ambush predation — pursuit predators rely on superior speed, endurance and/or teamwork to seize the prey, while ambush predators use concealment, luring, exploiting of surroundings and the element of surprise to capture the prey. While the two patterns of predation are not mutually exclusive, morphological differences in an organism's body plan can create an evolutionary bias favoring either type of predation.

Pursuit predation is typically observed in carnivorous species within the kingdom Animalia, such as cheetahs, lions, wolves and early *Homo* species. The chase can be initiated either by the predator, or by the prey if it is alerted to a predator's presence and attempt to flee before the predator gets close. The chase ends either when the predator successfully catches up and tackles the prey, or when the predator abandons the attempt after the prey outruns it and escapes.

One particular form of pursuit predation is persistence hunting, where the predator stalks the prey slowly but persistently to wear it down physically with fatigue or overheating; some animals are examples of both types of pursuit.

## Strategy

There is still uncertainty as to whether predators behave with a general tactic or strategy while preying. However, among pursuit predators there are several common behaviors. Often, predators will scout potential prey, assessing prey quantity and density prior to engaging in a pursuit. Certain predators choose to pursue prey primarily in a group of conspecifics; these animals are known as pack hunters or group pursuers. Other species choose to hunt alone. These two behaviors are typically due to differences in hunting success, where some groups are very successful in groups and others are more successful alone. Pursuit predators may also choose to either exhaust their metabolic resources rapidly or pace themselves during a chase. This choice can be influenced by prey species, seasonal settings, or temporal settings. Predators that rapidly exhaust their metabolic resources during a chase tend to first stalk their prey, slowly approaching their prey to decrease chase distance and time. When the predator is at a closer distance (one that would lead to easier prey capture), it finally gives chase. Pacing pursuit is more commonly seen in group pursuit, as individual animals do not need to exert as much energy to capture prey. However, this type of pursuit requires group coordination, which may have varying degrees of success. Since groups can engage in longer chases, they often focus on separating a weaker or slower prey item during pursuit. Morphologically speaking, while ambush predation requires stealth, pursuit predation requires speed; pursuit predators are proportionally long-limbed and equipped with cursorial adaptations. Current theories suggest that this proportionally long-limbed approach to body plan was an evolutionary countermeasure to prey adaptation.

## Group pursuers

### Vertebrates

Group pursuers hunt with a collection of conspecifics. Group pursuit is usually seen in species of relatively high sociality; in vertebrates, individuals often seem to have defined roles in pursuit.

#### Mammals

African wild dog (*Lycaon pictus*) packs have been known to split into several smaller groups while in pursuit; one group initiates the chase, while the other travels ahead of the prey's escape path. The group of chase initiators coordinate their chase to lead the prey towards the location of the second group, where the prey's escape path will be effectively cut off.

Bottlenose dolphins (*Tursiops*) have been shown exhibiting similar behaviors of pursuit role specialization. One group within the dolphin pod, known as the drivers, give chase to the fish - forcing the fish into a tight circle formation, while the other group of the pod, the barriers, approach the fish from the opposite direction. This two-pronged attack leaves the fish with only the option of jumping out of the water to escape the dolphins. However, the fish are completely vulnerable in the air; it is at this point when the dolphins leap out and catch the fish.

In lion (*Panthera leo*) pack hunting, each member of the hunting group is assigned a position, from left wing to right wing, in order to better obtain prey. Such specializations in roles within the group are thought to increase sophistication in technique; lion wing members are faster, and will drive prey toward the center where the larger, stronger, killing members of the pride will take down the prey. Many observations of group pursuers note an optimal hunting size in which certain currencies (mass of prey killed or number of prey killed) are maximized with respect to costs (kilometers covered or injuries sustained). Groups size is often dependent on aspects of the environment: number of prey, prey density, number of competitors, seasonal changes, etc.

#### Birds

While birds are generally believed to be individual hunters, there are a few examples of birds that cooperate during pursuits. Harris's hawks (*Parabuteo unicinctus*) have two cooperative strategies for hunting: Surrounding and cover penetration, and long chase relay attack.

The first strategy involves a group of hawks surrounding prey hidden under some form of cover, while another hawk attempts to penetrate the prey's cover. The penetration attempt flushes the prey out from its cover where it is swiftly killed by one of the surrounding hawks.

The second strategy is less commonly used: It involves a "relay attack" in which a group of hawks, led by a "lead" hawk, engage in a long chase for prey. The "lead" hawk will dive in order to kill the prey. If the dive is unsuccessful, the role of the "lead" shifts to another hawk who will then dive in another attempt to kill the prey. During one observed relay attack, 20 dives and hence 20 lead switches were exhibited.

### Invertebrates

As in vertebrates, there are many species of invertebrates which actively pursue prey in groups and exhibit task specialization, but while the vertebrates change their behavior based on their role in hunting, invertebrate task delegation is usually based on actual morphological differences. The vast majority of eusocial insects have castes within a population which tend to differ in size and have specialized structures for different tasks. This differentiation is taken to the extreme in the groups isoptera and hymenoptera, or termites and ants, bees, and wasps respectively.

Termite-hunting ants of the genus *Pachycondyla*, also known as Matabele ants, form raiding parties consisting of ants of different castes, such as soldier ants and worker ants. Soldier ants are much larger than worker ants, with more powerful mandibles and more robust exoskeletons, and so they make up the front lines of raiding parties and are responsible for killing prey. Workers usually butcher and carry off the killed prey, while supporting the soldiers. The raiding parties are highly mobile and move aggressively into the colonies of termites, often breaking through their outer defenses and entering their mounds. The ants do not completely empty the mound of termites, instead they only take a few, allowing the termites to recover their numbers so that the ants have a steady stream of prey.

Asian giant hornets, *Vespa mandarinia*, form similar raiding parties to hunt their prey, which usually consists of honeybees. The giant hornets group together and as a team can decimate an entire honeybee colony, especially those of non-native European honeybees. Alone, the hornets are subject to attack by the smaller bees, who swarm the hornet and vibrate their abdomens to generate heat, collectively cooking the hornet until it dies. By hunting in groups, the hornets avoid this problem.

## Individual pursuers

### Vertebrates

#### Mammals

While most big cat species are either solitary ambush predators or pack hunters, cheetahs (*Acinonyx jubatus*) are primarily solitary pursuit predators. Widely known as the fastest terrestrial animal with running speeds reaching 61–64 miles per hour (98–103 km/h; 27–29 m/s), cheetahs take advantage of their speed during chases. However, their speed and acceleration also have disadvantages, as both rely on anaerobic metabolism and can only be sustained for short periods of time. Studies show that cheetahs can maintain maximum speed for up to a distance of approximately 500 yards (460 m), which is only about 20 seconds of sprinting, before fatigue and overheating set in. Due to these limitations, cheetahs are often observed quietly walking towards the prey to shorten the distance before running at moderate speeds during chases.

There are claims that the key to cheetahs' pursuit being successful may not be just burst of sheer speed. Cheetahs are extremely agile, able to change directions in very short amounts of time while running at very high speeds. This maneuverability can make up for unsustainable high-speed pursuits, as it allows a cheetah to quickly close the distance without having to decelerate when the prey suddenly changes direction. Due to being lightly built, cheetahs will try to foot sweep and unbalance the prey, instead of grasping and tackling. Only after the prey has fallen over and thus momentarily stopped running, the cheetah will pounce and try to subdue it with a throat bite.

#### Birds

The Painted redstart (*Myioborus pictus*) is one of the most well documented flush pursuers. When flies, prey for redstarts, are alerted of the presence of predators, they respond by fleeing. Redstarts take advantage of this anti-predator response by spreading and orienting their easily noticeable wings and tails, alerting the flies, but only when they are in a position where the flies' escape path intersects with the redstart's central field of vision. When prey's path are in this field of vision, the redstart's prey capture rate is at its maximum. Once the flies begin to flee, the redstart begins to chase. It has been proposed that redstarts exploit two aspects of the visual sensitivity of their prey: sensitivity to the location of the stimulus in the prey's visual field and sensitivity to the direction of stimulus environment. The effectiveness of this pursuit can also be explained by "rare enemy effect", an evolutionary consequence of multi-species predator-prey interactions.

### Invertebrates

Dragonflies are skilled aerial pursuers; they have a 97% success rate for prey capture. This success rate is a consequence of the "decision" on which prey to pursue, based on initial conditions. Observations of several species of perching dragonflies show more pursuit initiations at larger starting distances for larger size prey species than for much smaller prey. Further evidence points to a potential bias towards larger prey, due to more substantial metabolic rewards. This bias is in spite of the fact that larger prey are typically faster and choosing them results in less successful pursuits. Dragonflies high success rate for prey capture may also be due to their interception foraging method. Unlike classical pursuit, in which the predator aims for the current position of their prey, dragonflies predict the prey's direction of motion, as in parallel navigation. Perching dragonflies (Libellulidae family), have been observed "staking out" high density prey spots prior to pursuit. There are no noticeable distinctions in prey capture efficiency between males and females. Further, percher dragonflies are bound by their visual range. They are more likely to engage in pursuit when prey come within a subtended angle of around 1-2 degrees. Angles greater than this are outside of a dragonflies visual range.

## Evolutionary basis of the behavior

### Evolution as a countermeasure

Current theory on the evolution of pursuit predation suggests that the behavior is an evolutionary countermeasure to prey adaptation. Prey animals vary in their likelihood to avoid predation, and it is predation failure that drives evolution of both prey and predator. Predation failure rates vary wildly across the animal kingdom; raptorial birds can fail anywhere from 20% to 80% of the time in predation, while predatory mammals usually fail more than half the time. Prey adaptation drives these low rates in three phases: the detection phase, the pursuit phase, and the resistance phase. The pursuit phase drove the evolution of distinct behaviors for pursuit predation.

As selective pressure on prey is higher than on predators adaptation usually occurs in prey long before the reciprocal adaptations in predators. Evidence in the fossil record supports this, with no evidence of modern pursuit predators until the late Tertiary period. Certain adaptations, like long limbs in ungulates, that were thought to be adaptive for speed against predatory behavior have been found to predate predatory animals by over 20 million years. Because of this, modern pursuit predation is an adaptation that may have evolved separately and much later as a need for more energy in colder and more arid climates. Longer limbs in predators, the key morphological adaptation required for lengthy pursuit of prey, is tied in the fossil record to the late Tertiary. It is now believed that modern pursuit predators like the wolf and lion evolved this behavior around this time period as a response to ungulates increasing feeding range. As ungulate prey moved into a wider feeding range to discover food in response to changing climate, predators evolved the longer limbs and behavior necessary to pursue prey across larger ranges. In this respect, pursuit predation is not co-evolutionary with prey adaptation, but a direct response to prey. Prey's adaptation to climate is the key formative reason for evolving the behavior and morphological necessities of pursuit predation.

In addition to serving as a countermeasure to prey adaptation, pursuit predation has evolved in some species as an alternative, facultative mechanism for foraging. For example, polar bears typically act as specialized predators of seal pups and operate in a manner closely predicted by the optimal foraging theory. However, they have been seen to occasionally employ more energy-inefficient pursuit predation tactics on flightless geese. This alternative predatory strategy may serve as a back-up resource when optimal foraging is circumstantially impossible, or may even be a function of filling dietary needs.

### Evolution from an ecological basis

Pursuit predation revolves around a distinct movement interaction between predator and prey; as prey move to find new foraging areas, predators should move with them. Predators congregate in areas of high prey density, and prey should therefore avoid these areas. However, dilution factor may be a reason to stay in areas of high density due to a decreased risk of predation. Given the movements of predators over ranges in pursuit predation, though, dilution factor seems a less important cause for predation avoidance. Because of these interactions, spatial patterns of predators and prey are important in preserving population size. Attempts by prey to avoid predation and find food are coupled with predator attempts to hunt and compete with other predators. These interactions act to preserve populations. Models of spatial patterns and synchrony of predator-prey relationships can be used as support for the evolution of pursuit predation as one mechanism to preserve these population mechanics. By pursuing prey over long distances, predators actually improve longterm survival of both their own population and prey population through population synchrony. Pursuit predation acts to even out population fluctuations by moving predatory animals from areas of high predator density to low predator density, and low prey density to high prey density. This keeps migratory populations in synchrony, which increases metapopulation persistence. Pursuit predation's effect on population persistence is more marked over larger travel ranges. Predator and prey levels are usually more synchronous in predation over larger ranges, as population densities have more ability to even out. Pursuit predation can then be supported as an adaptive mechanism for not just individual feeding success but also metapopulation persistence.

## Anti-predator adaptation to pursuit predation

### Anti-predator adaptation

Just as the evolutionary arms race has led to the development of pursuit behavior of predators, so too has it led to the anti-predator adaptations of prey. Alarm displays such as eastern swamphen's tail flicking, white-tailed deer's tail flagging, and Thomson's gazelles' stotting have been observed deterring pursuit. These tactic are believed to signal that a predator's presence is known and, therefore, pursuit will be much more difficult. These displays are more frequent when predators are at an intermediate distance away. Alarm displays are used more often when prey believe predators are more prone to change their decision to pursue. For instance, cheetahs, common predators of Thomson's gazelles, are less likely to change their choice to pursue. As such, gazelles stott less when cheetahs are present than when other predators are present. In addition to behavioral adaptations, there are also morphological anti-predator adaptations to pursuit predators. For example, many birds have evolved rump feathers that fall off with much less force than the feathers of their other body parts. This allows for easier escape from predator birds, as avian predators often approach prey from their rump.

### The confusion effect

In many species that fall prey to pursuit predation, gregariousness on a massive scale has evolved as a protective behavior. Such herds can be conspecific (all individuals are of one species) or heterospecific. This is primarily due to the confusion effect, which states that if prey animals congregate in large groups, predators will have more difficulty identifying and tracking specific individuals. This effect has greater influence when individuals are visually similar and less distinguishable. In groups where individuals are visually similar, there is a negative correlation between group size and predator success rates. This may mean that the overall number of attacks decreases with larger group size or that the number of attacks per kill increases with larger group size. This is especially true in open habitats, such as grasslands or open ocean ecosystems, where view of the prey group is unobstructed, in contrast to a forest or reef. Prey species in these open environments tend to be especially gregarious, with notable examples being starlings and sardines. When individuals of the herd are visually dissimilar, however, the success rate of predators increases dramatically. In one study, wildebeest on the African Savannah were selected at random and had their horns painted white. This introduced a distinction, or oddity, into the population; researchers found that the wildebeest with white horns were preyed upon at substantially higher rates. By standing out, individuals are not as easily lost in the crowd, and so predators are able to track and pursue them with higher fidelity. This has been proposed as the reason why many schooling fish show little to no sexual dimorphism, and why many species in heterospecific schools bear a close resemblance to other species in their school.


title: Purna River (tributary of Tapti)

abstract: The Purna River is a river of Central and Western India. It is one of the chief tributaries of the Tapti river and empties into it at Changdev in Jalgaon, Maharashtra.

text:
# Purna River (tributary of Tapti)

The **Purna River** is a river of Central and Western India. It is one of the chief tributaries of the Tapti river and empties into it at Changdev in Jalgaon, Maharashtra.

## Etymology

The word *purna* means *complete* in Sanskrit. It was also called the *Payoshni* or the *Paisani* (Sanskrit word meaning Ambrosia), which is mentioned in the *Mahabharata* as being located in the territory of Vidarbha and Khandesh at the northern entrance of the Dandaka Forest. There are other rivers also named *Purna* (the Khadakpurna and the Katepurna).

Several comparative societies are named after the Purna river, as is the *Purnamai Vidyalaya*, a high school in Muktainagar taluka (*Purna* referring to the river and *Maai* meaning mother). The Purna is a major tributary of the Tapti river.

## Description

The Purna is the main water source for the Muktainagar, Malkapur region. It rises in the eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh, and flows westward, draining Maharashtra's Vidarbha region before merging with the Tapi river. The total length of the river is 334 km.

The watershed lies mostly in the Western Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state and is nearly 18,929 square kilometres.

The Purna originates in Pokharni village which is 2 km away from Bhainsdehi. Bhainsdehi is a tehsil in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh, adjoining the Amravati district of Maharashtra. The river flows through Akola, Buldhana, and Jalgaon districts. Pilgrims are present along its banks at Muktabai temple at Muktainagar and Changdev temple at Changdev village.

The river is habitat for many fish species and birds like *Bagda*, ducks etc. Hatnur dam is built on the Purna near Hatnur village. This dam is the largest dam in northern Maharashta. It has a huge water reservoir.

## Confluence

The Purna meets the Tapti at Changdev village in the Muktainagar taluk of Jalgaon District in Northern Maharashtra. The Changdeva Maharaj temple is built at this meeting place (Sangam) of the two rivers as devotees believe it to be sacred (pavitra sthan).

## River tributaries

The Purna river and its tributaries

A panorama of Purna River, Dhupeshwar, Malkapur

## InfoBox

| Purna river | |
| --- | --- |
| River Purna at Manegaon | |
| Etymology | Purna river - Complete river |
| Location | |
| Country | India |
| State | Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra |
| Region | Vidarbha, Khandesh |
| District | Betul District, Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Jalgaon |
| Physical characteristics | |
|  | |
| Source | Pokhrani Village |
| location | Satpura Range, Betul District, Gawilgarh ranges, Madhya Pradesh |
| coordinates | 21°30′N 77°46′E / 21.500°N 77.767°E / 21.500; 77.767 |
|  | |
| Mouth | Tapti river |
| location | Changdev, Jalgaon, Muktainagar, Maharashtra |
| coordinates | 21°5′45″N 76°0′36″E / 21.09583°N 76.01000°E / 21.09583; 76.01000 |
|  | |
| Discharge |  |
| location | Surat,Gujarat |
|  | |
|  | |
| Discharge |  |
| location | Changdev,Taluka-Muktainagar,Dist-Jalgaon,State-Maharashtra ,India |
|  | |
| Basin features | |
| Tributaries |  |
| left | Pedhi River, Mūrna River, Mūn River, Dnyanganga River, Vishwaganga River, Nalganaga River |
| right | Arna River, Bodi River, Chandrabhaga River, Ban River, Shahanur River |


title: Purna River (Gujarat)

abstract: Purna is one of the major rivers in the Indian state of Gujarat but with its source at the hill of Pipalner in Sahyadri in Maharashtra. It then passes through 3 districts in Gujarat including Dang, Surat and Navsari. Purna has a drainage area of 2431 km⁲ and it travels 180 km before emptying into the Arabian Sea. Zankhri River is the main tributary of Purna. Purna Wildlife Sanctuary, declared a protected area in July 1990, derives its name from the river. Navsari is a city in southern Gujarat and is situated on the banks of Purna within a few kilometres of the river's delta. The delta is situated west of the city where the river empties into the Gulf of Khambhat. Rare and diverse species of mangroves are found in the Purna estuary near Navsari.

text:
# Purna River (Gujarat)

**Purna** is one of the major rivers in the Indian state of Gujarat but with its source at the hill of Pipalner in Sahyadri in Maharashtra. It then passes through 3 districts in Gujarat including Dang, Surat and Navsari.

Purna has a drainage area of 2431 km2 and it travels 180 km before emptying into the Arabian Sea. Zankhri River is the main tributary of Purna. Purna Wildlife Sanctuary, declared a protected area in July 1990, derives its name from the river.

Navsari is a city in southern Gujarat and is situated on the banks of Purna within a few kilometres of the river's delta. The delta is situated west of the city where the river empties into the Gulf of Khambhat.

Rare and diverse species of mangroves are found in the Purna estuary near Navsari.

20°54′35″N 72°47′01″E / 20.9096°N 72.7835°E / 20.9096; 72.7835


title: Pyrodinium

abstract: Pyrodinium is a genus of dinoflagellates. It was first discovered in 1906 in the waters around New Providence Island in the Bahamas. Pyrodinium is a monospecific species with two varieties, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum and Pyrodinium bahamanse var. bahamense. Pyrodinium is well known for producing Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs), e.g. saxitoxin, and the bioluminescence that lights up the bioluminescent bays in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.

text:
# Pyrodinium

***Pyrodinium*** is a genus of dinoflagellates. It was first discovered in 1906 in the waters around New Providence Island in the Bahamas. *Pyrodinium* is a monospecific species with two varieties, *Pyrodinium bahamense* var. *compressum* and *Pyrodinium bahamanse* var. *bahamense*. *Pyrodinium* is well known for producing Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs), e.g. saxitoxin, and the bioluminescence that lights up the bioluminescent bays in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.

## Habitat and ecology

*Pyrodinium bahamense*, considered the sister taxon to *Alexandrium*, is a tropical photosynthetic euryhaline species of dinoflagellates found mainly in the Atlantic Ocean. It is found in marine waters that have more than 20 psu of salinity and are warmer than 22 °C (72 °F). The optimal salinity is considered to be around 35 psu and the optimum temperature is 28 °C (82 °F). An association between *Pyrodinium bahamense* occurrence and mangrove forests has been suggested, although, the presence of mangrove forest is not necessarily a predictor for presence of P. bahamense var. bahamense, as it is absent in western and southern Florida Bay. However, regions where large cell densities of *Pyrodinium* are found are usually shallow and have varied salinities and long water residence times.

*P. bahamense* has only been studied closely since the 1990s, since it was not cultured in labs before then. Several labs can now grow *Pyrodinium* in several common seawater based culture media such as ES-DK and f/2, but cell densities typically remain less than 6,000 cells mL−1 in culture and are lower than those normally obtained for *Alexandrium*. The difficulty of culturing *P. bahamense* is explained by its specific nutrition needs. Initially cultures were only successful with the addition of soil extract, but while soil extract does increase cell densities, it is not necessary for growth. The highest cell density in culture, 6,000 cells mL−1, was obtained by supplementing cultures with selenium, which is present in soil. The influence of soil-derived selenium on growth suggests that *Pyrodinium* requires terrestrial nutrients in order to reach bloom-level cell densities.

*Pyrodinium* is able to grow with nitrate and urea as nitrogen sources, but has low tolerance to ammonia. *Pyrodinium* cannot grow with alanine, arginine, or histidine as nitrogen sources, indicating limited ability to assimilate organic nitrogen. Maximum growth rates and chlorophyll levels are observed when nitrogen levels are greater than 100 μM. Toxin production remains constant when nitrate is between 60 and 500 μM. Since toxin production remains constant even at nitrogen levels limiting to growth, toxin production must play an important role within *Pyrodinium* cells. However, the toxin profile (i.e. which PSTs are produced) changes under varying growth conditions, so nutrient conditions may affect toxicity.

*Pyrodinium* is able to utilize organic and inorganic phosphorus.

### Harmful algal blooms

*Pyrodinium* have caused more human illnesses and fatalities than any other dinoflagellates that cause Paralytic Shellfish Toxin or PST. It was initially widely believed that the *compressum* variety was toxic and found in the Pacific while the *bahamense* variety was nontoxic and found in the Atlantic, but a 1972 toxic algal bloom of *Pyrodinium bahamense* in Papua New Guinea showed this was not the case. It is now known that *P. bahamense* is a major cause of seafood toxicity and paralytic shellfish poisoning, especially in Southeast Asia, and causes toxicity along Central American coasts. In addition, there are at least two places in the world where both varieties of *Pyrodinium bahamense* are found together: the Persian Gulf and coast of Mexico.

The ecophysiology of *Pyrodinium* blooms is not well understood. Unlike *Alexandrium* blooms, where resting cysts are often the most important seed-source for blooms, it is unclear whether resting cysts or background populations of vegetative cells are more important in initiating *Pyrodinium* blooms. However, cysts are abundant in the sediments of lagoons and bays where blooms form and the resuspension of sediment and cysts may indeed be important to initiating blooms. Blooms also tend to occur after periods of high rain, suggesting that a terrestrial-sourced nutrient is usually limiting. On a global scale, blooms seem to be linked to the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), probably because of changes in precipitation and delivery of terrestrial nutrients.

### Bioluminescence

*P. bahamense* displays bioluminescence when agitated, glowing blue. *Pyrodinium bahamense* is the phytoplankton primarily responsible for the bioluminescence in the bioluminescent bays, or "bio bays," of Puerto Rico and the Bahamas. The bright cobalt blue light produced by these dinoflagellates when they are mechanically disturbed creates a magical effect that draws many tourists to the bays. Most of the bays are in reserves, and no swimming is allowed, but guests are able to kayak in the bays at night with local guides to observe the bioluminescence.

## Morphology and anatomy

*Pyrodinium bahamense* cells are shaped like ellipsoids and are covered with thick, protective thecal plates that have many small, evenly distributed knobs and trichocyst pores. They also have an ornamental apical projection or node, as well as sulcal fins on either sides of the sulcus.

The *Pyrodinium* resting cyst is spherical with many thin, tubular processes of variable length.

## Life cycle

Sexual reproduction and formation of resting cysts typically occurs during bloom decline. In its dormant stages, *P. bahamense* develop spherical, double-layered cysts for protection. These cysts, called *Polysphaeridium zoharyi* in the paleontological classification system, are similar in both *P. bahamense* varieties and have tubular processes protruding from the outer layer.

## InfoBox

| *Pyrodinium* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Pyrodinium bahamense* imaged with an electron microscope | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| *Clade*: | Diaphoretickes |
| *Clade*: | SAR |
| *Clade*: | Alveolata |
| Phylum: | Myzozoa |
| Superclass: | Dinoflagellata |
| Class: | Dinophyceae |
| Order: | Gonyaulacales |
| Family: | Gonyaulacaceae |
| Genus: | *Pyrodinium* |
| Species: | ***P. bahamense*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pyrodinium bahamense***<br>Plate | |
|


title: Puszcza Niepołomice

abstract: MKS Puszcza Niepołomice is a professional football club located in Niepołomice, Poland. It currently plays in the Ekstraklasa after achieving promotion from I liga in 2023. The team's colors are yellow, white and green.

text:
# Puszcza Niepołomice

**MKS Puszcza Niepołomice** (Polish pronunciation: \[ˈpuʂt͡ʂa ɲɛpɔwɔˈmit͡sɛ\]) is a professional football club located in Niepołomice, Poland. It currently plays in the Ekstraklasa after achieving promotion from I liga in 2023. The team's colors are yellow, white and green.

## History

Puszcza Niepołomice was originally called Sports Club Niepołomianka. The team was established on the initiative of mayor Andrzej Wimer and Stanisław Ziemba, Władysław Iwański, Stanisław Brudnik and Adolf Engel in 1923.

The first president of KS Niepołomianka was Władysław Iwański. The then board also included the treasurer Stanisław Brudnik and the manager of the team - Stanisław Ziemba.

On 11 June 2023, a year in which Puszcza celebrated their 100th anniversary, they won the 2022–23 I liga play-off final and achieved promotion to Ekstraklasa for the first time in the club's history.

In their first-ever top-flight season, Puszcza recorded upset wins and draws against title contenders, and were praised for their effective use of set-pieces to score the majority of their goals, as they finished the 2023–24 campaign in 12th. For their efforts, Tomasz Tułacz and Oliwier Zych were nominated for Coach of the Season and Goalkeeper of the Season awards, respectively.

## Honours

## Stadium

After earning promotion to Ekstraklasa, Puszcza Niepołomice host their home games at the Józef Piłsudski Cracovia Stadium in Kraków, due to ineligibility of their ground in Niepołomice to host top-flight matches.

## Current squad

*As of 7 September 2024*.

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

| No. Pos. Nation Player  1 GK  POL Kewin Komar  3 DF  UKR Roman Yakuba  4 DF  POL Dawid Szymonowicz  5 DF  POL Konrad Stępień  6 MF  KOR Lee Jin-hyun  8 MF  POL Piotr Mroziński  9 FW  POL Artur Siemaszko  10 MF  POL Hubert Tomalski  11 MF  POL Mateusz Cholewiak  12 MF  POL Mateusz Stępień  14 MF  POL Jakub Serafin *(captain)*  16 MF  POL Michał Walski  17 FW  POL Mateusz Radecki  18 DF  SVK Michal Sipľak | No. Pos. Nation Player  22 DF  MDA Artur Crăciun  23 DF  POL Patryk Kieliś  24 MF  CRO Jakov Blagaić  27 DF  POL Łukasz Sołowiej  28 MF  POL Igor Pieprzyca  29 FW  POL Krystian Okoniewski  31 GK  POL Michał Perchel  33 DF  POL Dawid Abramowicz  35 FW  GRE Michalis Kosidis *(on loan from AEK Athens)*  45 FW  SVN Rok Kidrič  47 MF  POL Adam Sendor  67 DF  MDA Ioan-Călin Revenco  70 MF  POL Wojciech Hajda |
| --- | --- |

### Out on loan

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

| No. Pos. Nation Player  19 MF  POL Jakub Stec *(at Skra Częstochowa until 30 June 2025)* |
| --- |

## Notable players

The players below played for their respective countries at any point during their career.

## InfoBox

MKS Puszcza Niepołomice
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Miejski Klub Sportowy
Puszcza Niepołomice |
| Founded | 1923 (1923) |
| Ground | Puszcza Stadium
Cracovia Stadium |
| Capacity | 2,118 (Niepołomice)
15,016 (Kraków) |
| Chairman | Jarosław Pieprzyca |
| Manager | Tomasz Tułacz |
| League | Ekstraklasa |
| 2023–24 | Ekstraklasa, 12th of 18 |
| Website | Club website |
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title: Pyrgo Park

abstract: Pyrgo Park is a park at Havering-atte-Bower in the London Borough of Havering, in North East London, England. It is the site of the former Pirgo Palace, built before 1540 and demolished by 1814; and of Pyrgo House, built 1852, which lasted less than a century. Pyrgo is one of three large parklands in Havering-atte-Bower, the others being Bedfords Park and Havering Country Park.

text:
# Pyrgo Park

**Pyrgo Park** is a park at Havering-atte-Bower in the London Borough of Havering, in North East London, England. It is the site of the former **Pirgo Palace**, built before 1540 and demolished by 1814; and of **Pyrgo House**, built 1852, which lasted less than a century.

Pyrgo is one of three large parklands in Havering-atte-Bower, the others being Bedfords Park and Havering Country Park.

## Toponymy

*Purgore* is first recorded in 1490 and probably means 'triangular plot of land where pear trees grow'. It is formed from Old English *pyrige* (peartree) and 'gāra' (a triangular piece of land). *Pergore Park* is first recorded in 1544 but *Portegore* and *Portegoo* were also used in the 16th century. The modern form was recognisable as *Pergo Park* in 1805, but *Pirgo*, *Purgo* and *Pyrgo* are all variants found. Ordnance Survey maps have shown *Pyrgo* for at least the last 100 years.

## Pirgo Palace

Pirgo, spelt **Portegore** by Henry VIII's officials, was a royal residence of King Henry VIII, from 1541, situated nearby the royal palace of Havering in the liberty of Havering-atte-Bower. Providing a pleasing position on a gentle ridge barely twenty easy miles from London with wide views westwards, the Havering area had more than six centuries of association with royalty. King Edward the Confessor (1003-1066) is said to have been disturbed there at his devotions by nightingales and prayed successfully for their banishment from Havering Park, this legend being first recorded by William Camden in his Remaines. Havering Palace continued to be used by successive monarchs until 1638 and Havering Park remained with the Crown until 1828.

### King Henry VIII and Pirgo

In 1537 the King's Steward, Sir Brian Tuke, constructed a park with 200 acres (81 ha) of open land and 100 acres (40 ha) of woods at Pirgo, north-east of Havering village and the King made it his personal property. The Steward was allowed to continue living at Pirgo until about 1541 after which Henry VIII had the mansion repaired and completed the enclosure of Pirgo. The King summoned his estranged daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to his new country house at Pirgo in 1542, and being pleased with them he made the decision to restore them to the succession to the Throne.

### Owners and residents after Henry VIII

Neither Edward VI or Mary visited Pyrgo after their accession to the throne and on 24 April 1559, only a few months into her reign, Queen Elizabeth gave the manor with its royal residence to her second cousin Lord John Grey, uncle of Lady Jane Grey and only surviving son of the 2nd Marquess of Dorset in response to his plea of poverty. Pyrgo was inherited by Lord John Grey's son Henry, later 1st Baron Grey of Groby and his grandson Henry Grey, later Earl of Stamford, sold Pirgo Palace in 1621 to Sir Thomas Cheek who died in 1659.

The manor then passed through various descendants but ultimately to his granddaughter Ann, daughter of Thomas Cheeke, and wife of Sir Thomas Tipping. His younger daughter, Katherine, married Thomas Archer, 1st Baron Archer. In 1790 the trustees of their four granddaughters sold Pirgo to Edward R. Howe.

Later residents included Albert Fytche and the widowed Alice Towneley, Baroness O'Hagan.

## Architectural description

The first available description dates from 1594 when the former royal residence was described as "a fair house", shown on a map dated about 25 years later as a large gabled-building. In 1670 taxes were paid on 30 hearths. The site, on which terracing of the gardens was still visible after World War I, was northwest of the surviving farm buildings and was partly excavated in 1972.

The Pirgo estate included a domestic chapel housing Grey family tombs, and memorials to several members of the Cheke (Cheek) family. All the Cheke remains were removed to Havering-atte-Bower Parish Church *circa* 1768.

. . . a tomb in the chapel of the mansion house at Pirgo in Essex; on which was a knight kneeling with four sons, his lady kneeling with four daughters, and many coats and quarterings; and bearing on the verge this inscription: *"Here under lyeth buried the lorde John . . . Grey, Knyght (fourth son of) the lorde Thomas Grey mar . . . . . ques Dorcet, who dyed the xix daye of November 1564; and dame Mary his wyfe, daughter of Sir Anthony Browne, Knyght of the Garter, mr of the horse, and con'seler to Kynge Henry ye VIII. Dame Mary dyed . . . .* from *Collins'* *Peerage of England*, published 1812.

### Demolition

Between about 1771 and 1778 the Archer family demolished the chapel and the wings of Pirgo House. It continued in use for a short time, but the remainder of the former royal residence seems to have been demolished by about 1814.

## New house

In 1852 a new mansion was built on the site. The house and 600 acres (2.4 km2) of neighbouring farms were sold to Albert Fytche in 1873. The house came within the metropolitan green belt and was demolished by 1941.

An image of the house built 1852 can be found on Flickr

### Citations

### References

* W.R.Powell, ed. (1978). "Parishes: Havering-atte-Bower".
* Smith, Harold (1925). *A history of the parish of Havering-Atte-Bower Essex*. Colchester: Benham and Company.

51°37′10″N 0°11′56″E / 51.6195°N 0.1990°E / 51.6195; 0.1990


title: Pyrgocorypha

abstract: Pyrgocorypha is a genus of coneheads in the family Tettigoniidae. There are about 16 described species in Pyrgocorypha, found in the Americas, southern and eastern Asia.

text:
# Pyrgocorypha

***Pyrgocorypha*** is a genus of coneheads in the family Tettigoniidae. There are about 16 described species in *Pyrgocorypha*, found in the Americas, southern and eastern Asia.

## Species

These 16 species belong to the genus *Pyrgocorypha*:

Data sources: i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide.net

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| *Pyrgocorypha* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Orthoptera |
| Suborder: | Ensifera |
| Family: | Tettigoniidae |
| Subfamily: | Conocephalinae |
| Tribe: | Copiphorini |
| Genus: | *Pyrgocorypha*<br>Stal, 1873 |
|


title: Pyrgocythara

abstract: Pyrgocythara is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Mangeliidae. The type species is the Pliocene: Pyrgocythara eminula Woodring, 1928, which is probably the same as the Recent Pleurotoma trilineata C.B. Adams, 1845

text:
# Pyrgocythara

***Pyrgocythara*** is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Mangeliidae.

The type species is the Pliocene: *Pyrgocythara eminula* Woodring, 1928, which is probably the same as the Recent *Pleurotoma trilineata* C.B. Adams, 1845 (synonym of *Cryoturris trilineata* (C. B. Adams, 1845))

## Distribution

This genus occurs in the Western Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.

## Species

Species within the genus *Pyrgocythara* include:

Species brought into synonymy * *Pyrgocythara arbela* W.H. Dall, 1919: synonym of *Pyrgocythara hemphilli* P. Bartsch & H.A. Rehder, 1939
* *Pyrgocythara balteata* (Reeve, 1846): synonym of *Ithycythara lanceolata*  (C. B. Adams, 1850) (nomen dubium)
* *Pyrgocythara brunnea* B.F. Perkins, 1869: synonym of *Pyrgocythara plicosa* (Adams, 1850)
* *Pyrgocythara candidissima* (Adams C. B., 1845): synonym of *Agathotoma candidissima* (C. B. Adams, 1845)
* *Pyrgocythara caribaea* (Orbigny, 1842): synonym of *Pyrgocythara cinctella* (Pfeiffer, 1840)
* *Pyrgocythara cerea* P.P. Carpenter, 1865: synonym of *Pyrgocythara hamata* (P.P. Carpenter, 1865)
* *Pyrgocythara coxi* Fargo, 1953: synonym of *Agathotoma coxi* (Fargo, 1953)
* *Pyrgocythara fusca* (C. B. Adams, 1845): synonym of *Pyrgocythara cinctella* (Pfeiffer, 1840)
* *Pyrgocythara hilli* L.G. Hertlein & A.M. Strong, 1951: synonym of *Pyrgocythara melita* (W.H. Dall, 1919)
* *Pyrgocythara jewetti* R.E.C. Stearns, 1875: synonym of *Pyrgocythara plicosa* (Adams, 1850)
* *Pyrgocythara lavalleana* (d'Orbigny, 1847): synonym of *Cryoturris lavalleana* (d'Orbigny, 1847)
* *Pyrgocythara luteofasciata* (L.A. Reeve, 1845) : synonym of *Pyrgocythara albovittata* (C.B. Adams, 1845)
* *Pyrgocythara metria* (Dall, 1903): synonym of *Vitricythara metria* (Dall, 1903)
* *Pyrgocythara obesicostata* L.A. Reeve, 1846: synonym of *Pyrgocythara guarani* (A.V.M.D. D'Orbigny, 1841)
* *Pyrgocythara pederseni* L.G. Hertlein & A.M. Strong, 1951: synonym of *Pyrgocythara danae* (W.H. Dall, 1919)
* *Pyrgocythara phaethusa* (Dall, 1919): synonym of *Notocytharella phaethusa* (Dall, 1919)
* *Pyrgocythara plicata* C.B. Adams, 1840: synonym of *Pyrgocythara plicosa* (Adams, 1850)

* Woodring, W.P. (1928) *Miocene mollusks from Bowden, Jamaica. Part II. Gastropods and discussion of results.* Contributions to the geology and paleontology of the West Indies. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication, 385, vii + 1–564, 40 pls.

## InfoBox

| *Pyrgocythara* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Shells of *Pyrgocythara densestriata* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Superfamily: | Conoidea |
| Family: | Mangeliidae |
| Genus: | *Pyrgocythara*<br>Woodring, 1928 |
|
| Species | |
| *See text* | |


title: Pöitse

abstract: Pöitse is a village in Saaremaa Parish, Saare County in western Estonia. Before the administrative reform in 2017, the village was in Leisi Parish.

text:
# Pöitse

**Pöitse** is a village in Saaremaa Parish, Saare County in western Estonia.

Before the administrative reform in 2017, the village was in Leisi Parish.

58°33′05″N 22°28′46″E / 58.55139°N 22.47944°E / 58.55139; 22.47944

## InfoBox

| Pöitse | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Country | Estonia |
| County | Saare County |
| Parish | Saaremaa Parish |
| Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |