abstract: The Men's individual event of the Biathlon World Championships 2015 was held on 12 March 2015.

text:
# Biathlon World Championships 2015 – Men's individual

The **Men's individual** event of the Biathlon World Championships 2015 was held on 12 March 2015.

## Results

The race was started at 18:15 EET.

| Rank | Bib | Name | Nationality | Time | Penalties (P+S+P+S) | Deficit |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 34 | Martin Fourcade | France | 47:29.4 | 1 (0+1+0+0) |  |
|  | 17 | Emil Hegle Svendsen | Norway | 47:50.3 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | +20.9 |
|  | 40 | Ondřej Moravec | Czech Republic | 48:09.9 | 1 (0+1+0+0) | +40.5 |
| 4 | 3 | Simon Fourcade | France | 48:15.1 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | +45.7 |
| 5 | 12 | Serhiy Semenov | Ukraine | 48:25.4 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | +56.0 |
| 6 | 69 | Ole Einar Bjørndalen | Norway | 48:41.5 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | +1:12.1 |
| 7 | 29 | Johannes Thingnes Bø | Norway | 48:43.6 | 1 (0+0+1+0) | +1:14.2 |
| 8 | 24 | Simon Schempp | Germany | 48:44.3 | 2 (0+1+1+0) | +1:14.9 |
| 9 | 84 | Alexey Volkov | Russia | 49:12.3 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | +1:42.9 |
| 10 | 13 | Jakov Fak | Slovenia | 49:14.9 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | +1:45.5 |
| 11 | 42 | Daniel Böhm | Germany | 49:17.9 | 2 (1+0+0+1) | +1:48.5 |
| 12 | 76 | Christian De Lorenzi | Italy | 49:24.7 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | +1:55.3 |
| 13 | 10 | Michael Rösch | Belgium | 49:27.3 | 1 (0+0+0+1) | +1:57.9 |
| 14 | 4 | Michal Šlesingr | Czech Republic | 49:32.1 | 3 (1+0+1+1) | +2:02.7 |
| 15 | 45 | Roland Lessing | Estonia | 49:35.3 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | +2:05.9 |
| 16 | 19 | Anton Shipulin | Russia | 49:36.5 | 2 (1+0+0+1) | +2:07.1 |
| 17 | 31 | Yuryi Liadov | Belarus | 49:36.9 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | +2:07.5 |
| 18 | 22 | Erik Lesser | Germany | 49:45.0 | 1 (0+0+0+1) | +2:15.6 |
| 19 | 2 | Krasimir Anev | Bulgaria | 50:07.7 | 2 (1+1+0+0) | +2:38.3 |
| 20 | 38 | Simon Eder | Austria | 50:17.1 | 3 (1+0+1+1) | +2:47.7 |
| 21 | 53 | Brendan Green | Canada | 50:29.0 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | +2:59.6 |
| 22 | 104 | Arnd Peiffer | Germany | 50:35.4 | 3 (0+1+0+2) | +3:06.0 |
| 23 | 18 | Klemen Bauer | Slovenia | 50:36.3 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | +3:06.9 |
| 24 | 65 | Lowell Bailey | United States | 50:39.4 | 2 (2+0+0+0) | +3:10.0 |
| 25 | 105 | Tarjei Bø | Norway | 50:43.0 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | +3:13.6 |
| 26 | 75 | Tomáš Krupčík | Czech Republic | 50:43.9 | 1 (0+1+0+0) | +3:14.5 |
| 27 | 56 | Vladimir Iliev | Bulgaria | 50:55.6 | 3 (0+1+0+2) | +3:26.2 |
| 28 | 47 | Dominik Landertinger | Austria | 51:00.1 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | +3:30.7 |
| 29 | 126 | Sven Grossegger | Austria | 51:17.1 | 2 (0+0+0+2) | +3:47.7 |
| 30 | 36 | Benjamin Weger | Switzerland | 51:21.4 | 3 (1+1+0+1) | +3:52.0 |
| 31 | 23 | Tim Burke | United States | 51:22.1 | 4 (1+1+0+2) | +3:52.7 |
| 32 | 43 | Janez Marič | Slovenia | 51:25.3 | 2 (0+0+0+2) | +3:55.9 |
| 33 | 101 | Leif Nordgren | United States | 51:25.5 | 3 (0+1+1+1) | +3:56.1 |
| 34 | 63 | Artem Pryma | Ukraine | 51:26.7 | 3 (2+0+0+1) | +3:57.3 |
| 35 | 6 | Evgeniy Garanichev | Russia | 51:40.2 | 4 (2+0+0+2) | +4:10.8 |
| 36 | 41 | Jaroslav Soukup | Czech Republic | 51:45.4 | 3 (0+1+0+2) | +4:16.0 |
| 37 | 37 | Ted Armgren | Sweden | 51:47.3 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | +4:17.9 |
| 38 | 92 | Fredrik Lindström | Sweden | 51:49.0 | 3 (0+1+0+2) | +4:19.6 |
| 39 | 50 | Lee-Steve Jackson | Great Britain | 51:49.5 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | +4:20.1 |
| 40 | 27 | Kalev Ermits | Estonia | 51:55.2 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | +4:25.8 |
| 41 | 67 | Vladimir Chepelin | Belarus | 51:57.2 | 3 (0+0+2+1) | +4:27.8 |
| 42 | 54 | Matej Kazár | Slovakia | 52:09.4 | 3 (1+0+1+1) | +4:40.0 |
| 43 | 35 | Alexei Almoukov | Australia | 52:11.3 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | +4:41.9 |
| 44 | 28 | Nathan Smith | Canada | 52:32.6 | 5 (0+1+2+2) | +5:03.2 |
| 45 | 11 | Miroslav Matiaško | Slovakia | 52:41.7 | 3 (1+2+0+0) | +5:12.3 |
| 46 | 60 | Łukasz Szczurek | Poland | 52:42.0 | 2 (0+2+0+0) | +5:12.6 |
| 47 | 125 | Sean Doherty | United States | 52:44.9 | 3 (0+1+2+0) | +5:15.5 |
| 48 | 8 | Andrejs Rastorgujevs | Latvia | 52:53.1 | 5 (1+2+1+1) | +5:23.7 |
| 49 | 122 | Simon Desthieux | France | 52:53.4 | 2 (0+0+0+2) | +5:24.0 |
| 50 | 7 | Lukas Hofer | Italy | 52:54.4 | 5 (2+1+0+2) | +5:25.0 |
| 51 | 9 | Ahti Toivanen | Finland | 52:55.4 | 3 (0+1+1+1) | +5:26.0 |
| 52 | 108 | Dmytro Rusinov | Ukraine | 53:10.9 | 2 (1+1+0+0) | +5:41.5 |
| 53 | 94 | Maxim Braun | Kazakhstan | 53:13.0 | 2 (1+0+0+1) | +5:43.6 |
| 54 | 86 | Daniel Mesotitsch | Austria | 53:14.0 | 5 (1+2+0+2) | +5:44.6 |
| 55 | 96 | George Buta | Romania | 53:19.0 | 3 (0+2+0+1) | +5:49.6 |
| 56 | 71 | Anton Pantov | Kazakhstan | 53:19.4 | 2 (1+1+0+0) | +5:50.0 |
| 57 | 98 | Jean-Guillaume Béatrix | France | 53:20.9 | 2 (1+1+0+0) | +5:51.5 |
| 58 | 66 | Timofey Lapshin | Russia | 53:22.5 | 4 (2+2+0+0) | +5:53.1 |
| 59 | 85 | Kauri Kõiv | Estonia | 53:28.5 | 4 (2+1+1+0) | +5:59.1 |
| 60 | 103 | Artem Tyshchenko | Ukraine | 53:42.0 | 3 (1+0+0+2) | +6:12.6 |
| 61 | 83 | Serafin Wiestner | Switzerland | 53:45.4 | 5 (1+2+0+2) | +6:16.0 |
| 62 | 55 | Peppe Femling | Sweden | 53:46.9 | 5 (2+1+1+1) | +6:17.5 |
| 63 | 79 | Scott Gow | Canada | 53:49.0 | 4 (1+1+1+1) | +6:19.6 |
| 64 | 82 | Olli Hiidensalo | Finland | 53:55.7 | 4 (1+1+0+2) | +6:26.3 |
| 65 | 124 | Christian Gow | Canada | 53:57.0 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | +6:27.6 |
| 66 | 99 | Vytautas Strolia | Lithuania | 54:00.6 | 3 (1+2+0+0) | +6:31.2 |
| 67 | 51 | Cornel Puchianu | Romania | 54:01.9 | 6 (0+2+2+2) | +6:32.5 |
| 68 | 110 | Tobias Arwidson | Sweden | 54:05.8 | 3 (0+1+1+1) | +6:36.4 |
| 69 | 20 | Tsukasa Kobonoki | Japan | 54:05.9 | 4 (0+2+2+0) | +6:36.5 |
| 70 | 33 | Joel Sloof | Netherlands | 54:06.2 | 2 (0+0+1+1) | +6:36.8 |
| 71 | 14 | Krzysztof Pływaczyk | Poland | 54:10.0 | 3 (1+1+0+1) | +6:40.6 |
| 72 | 25 | Remus Faur | Romania | 54:19.5 | 3 (1+0+1+1) | +6:50.1 |
| 73 | 32 | Tomas Kaukėnas | Lithuania | 54:23.6 | 5 (0+4+1+0) | +6:54.2 |
| 74 | 117 | Aliaksandr Darozhka | Belarus | 54:24.2 | 4 (2+1+0+1) | +6:54.8 |
| 75 | 57 | Jarkko Kauppinen | Finland | 54:33.0 | 5 (1+2+1+1) | +7:03.6 |
| 76 | 127 | Vassiliy Podkorytov | Kazakhstan | 54:40.7 | 2 (0+0+0+2) | +7:11.3 |
| 77 | 74 | Grzegorz Guzik | Poland | 54:44.5 | 4 (0+2+0+2) | +7:15.1 |
| 78 | 39 | Scott Dixon | Great Britain | 54:48.4 | 2 (1+1+0+0) | +7:19.0 |
| 79 | 70 | Quentin Fillon Maillet | France | 54:52.6 | 5 (2+2+0+1) | +7:23.2 |
| 80 | 114 | Mikael Koivunen | Finland | 54:56.9 | 1 (0+0+0+1) | +7:27.5 |
| 81 | 21 | Ren Long | China | 54:58.9 | 4 (1+1+0+2) | +7:29.5 |
| 81 | 111 | Dimitar Gerdzhikov | Bulgaria | 54:58.9 | 4 (2+1+1+0) | +7:29.5 |
| 83 | 107 | Thomas Bormolini | Italy | 55:04.8 | 4 (1+0+2+1) | +7:35.4 |
| 84 | 77 | Edin Hodzić | Serbia | 55:09.1 | 1 (0+0+1+0) | +7:39.7 |
| 85 | 78 | Kazuya Inomata | Japan | 55:17.5 | 5 (2+2+0+1) | +7:48.1 |
| 86 | 16 | Yan Savitskiy | Kazakhstan | 55:26.0 | 6 (2+0+2+2) | +7:56.6 |
| 87 | 116 | Ivan Joller | Switzerland | 55:43.4 | 3 (0+2+1+0) | +8:14.0 |
| 88 | 87 | Martin Otčenáš | Slovakia | 55:45.9 | 4 (1+0+0+3) | +8:16.5 |
| 89 | 88 | Toms Praulītis | Latvia | 55:58.1 | 7 (3+2+0+2) | +8:28.7 |
| 90 | 62 | Jun Je-uk | South Korea | 56:08.3 | 6 (0+3+1+2) | +8:38.9 |
| 91 | 64 | Dominik Windisch | Italy | 56:11.3 | 6 (0+2+1+3) | +8:41.9 |
| 92 | 59 | Mario Dolder | Switzerland | 56:17.8 | 6 (0+3+1+2) | +8:48.4 |
| 93 | 72 | Karol Dombrovski | Lithuania | 56:22.9 | 6 (0+2+1+3) | +8:53.5 |
| 94 | 30 | Károly Gombos | Hungary | 56:28.8 | 1 (0+0+0+1) | +8:59.4 |
| 95 | 1 | Kim Yong-gyu | South Korea | 56:50.4 | 4 (0+2+2+0) | +9:21.0 |
| 96 | 106 | Ryo Maeda | Japan | 57:09.5 | 4 (0+1+2+1) | +9:40.1 |
| 97 | 100 | Dzmitry Abasheu | Belarus | 57:14.0 | 7 (1+2+3+1) | +9:44.6 |
| 98 | 97 | Thierry Langer | Belgium | 57:24.9 | 5 (1+2+1+1) | +9:55.5 |
| 99 | 113 | Michal Šíma | Slovakia | 57:34.1 | 6 (1+2+0+3) | +10:04.7 |
| 100 | 46 | Thorsten Langer | Belgium | 57:58.1 | 2 (0+0+1+1) | +10:28.7 |
| 101 | 93 | Lenart Oblak | Slovenia | 58:20.3 | 6 (3+0+3+0) | +10:50.9 |
| 102 | 112 | Martin Remmelg | Estonia | 58:32.1 | 6 (0+3+1+2) | +11:02.7 |
| 103 | 44 | Roberts Slotiņš | Latvia | 58:58.6 | 7 (0+3+1+3) | +11:29.2 |
| 104 | 90 | Marcel Laponder | Great Britain | 59:18.3 | 6 (1+2+1+2) | +11:48.9 |
| 105 | 109 | Aleksandrs Patrijuks | Latvia | 59:22.4 | 5 (0+1+1+3) | +11:53.0 |
| 106 | 52 | Mikito Tachizaki | Japan | 59:30.7 | 9 (0+3+3+3) | +12:01.3 |
| 107 | 26 | Ahmet Üstüntaş | Turkey | 59:36.5 | 4 (1+3+0+0) | +12:07.1 |
| 108 | 49 | Damir Rastić | Serbia | 1:00:18.3 | 8 (4+2+0+2) | +12:48.9 |
| 109 | 89 | Ivan Zlatev | Bulgaria | 1:00:33.8 | 9 (2+1+4+2) | +13:04.4 |
| 110 | 115 | Lee Su-young | South Korea | 1:01:19.7 | 7 (1+0+4+2) | +13:50.3 |
| 111 | 68 | Mehmet Üstüntaş | Turkey | 1:01:22.6 | 3 (0+0+2+1) | +13:53.2 |
| 112 | 120 | Marian Marcel Dănilă | Romania | 1:01:26.2 | 10 (2+3+2+3) | +13:56.8 |
| 113 | 118 | Rokas Suslavičius | Lithuania | 1:01:33.3 | 6 (1+2+2+1) | +14:03.9 |
| 114 | 119 | Kevin Kane | Great Britain | 1:01:43.1 | 8 (2+2+2+2) | +14:13.7 |
| 115 | 15 | Dejan Krsmanović | Serbia | 1:01:44.1 | 7 (3+2+2+0) | +14:14.7 |
| 116 | 61 | Apostolos Angelis | Greece | 1:01:57.6 | 9 (2+3+2+2) | +14:28.2 |
| 117 | 80 | Toni Stanoeski | Macedonia | 1:01:57.8 | 7 (2+1+1+3) | +14:28.4 |
| 118 | 91 | Dimitrios Kyriazis | Greece | 1:02:40.3 | 5 (0+4+0+1) | +15:10.9 |
| 119 | 95 | Kim Jong-min | South Korea | 1:02:52.3 | 10 (1+4+0+5) | +15:22.9 |
| 120 | 123 | Ajlan Rastić | Serbia | 1:03:27.3 | 9 (3+2+2+2) | +15:57.9 |
| 121 | 102 | Daniel Walker | Australia | 1:04:18.2 | 5 (1+2+1+1) | +16:48.8 |
| 122 | 48 | Gjorgji Icoski | Macedonia | 1:04:18.3 | 7 (2+2+2+1) | +16:48.9 |
| 123 | 121 | Tom Lahaye-Goffart | Belgium | 1:06:28.3 | 9 (2+2+1+4) | +18:58.9 |
| 124 | 5 | Kleanthis Karamichas | Greece | 1:07:11.2 | 11 (3+2+2+4) | +19:41.8 |
| 125 | 73 | Dyllan Harmer | Australia | 1:07:34.7 | 10 (3+3+1+3) | +20:05.3 |
|  | 58 | Tang Jinle | China | DNS |  |  |
|  | 81 | Victor Pînzaru | Moldova | DNS |  |  |

## InfoBox

| Men's individual <br>at the Biathlon World Championships 2015 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Venue | Kontiolahti, Finland |
| Date | 12 March 2015 |
| Competitors | 125 from 34 nations |
| Winning time | 47:29.4 |
| Medalists | |
| France  Norway  Czech Republic | |
|


abstract: The Women's pursuit event of the Biathlon World Championships 2015 was held on 8 March 2015. The fastest 60 athletes of the sprint competition participated over a course of 10 km.

text:
# Biathlon World Championships 2015 – Women's pursuit

The **Women's pursuit** event of the Biathlon World Championships 2015 was held on 8 March 2015. The fastest 60 athletes of the sprint competition participated over a course of 10 km.

## Results

The race was started at 17:00 EET.

| Rank | Bib | Name | Nationality | Start | Penalties (P+P+S+S) | Time | Deficit |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 1 | Marie Dorin Habert | France | 0:00 | 3 (0+0+2+1) | 30:07.7 |  |
|  | 4 | Laura Dahlmeier | Germany | 0:29 | 2 (1+0+0+1) | 30:23.0 | +15.3 |
|  | 2 | Weronika Nowakowska-Ziemniak | Poland | 0:10 | 3 (0+1+2+0) | 30:39.3 | +31.6 |
| 4 | 6 | Ekaterina Shumilova | Russia | 0:49 | 0 (0+0+0+0) | 30:56.4 | +48.7 |
| 5 | 18 | Gabriela Soukalová | Czech Republic | 1:40 | 1 (1+0+0+0) | 31:05.7 | +58.0 |
| 6 | 10 | Franziska Hildebrand | Germany | 1:10 | 2 (1+0+1+0) | 31:07.7 | +1:00.0 |
| 7 | 25 | Darya Domracheva | Belarus | 1:58 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | 31:12.2 | +1:04.5 |
| 8 | 5 | Krystyna Guzik | Poland | 0:40 | 2 (2+0+0+0) | 31:19.9 | +1:12.1 |
| 9 | 20 | Dorothea Wierer | Italy | 1:46 | 1 (0+0+0+1) | 31:23.8 | +1:16.1 |
| 10 | 9 | Olga Abramova | Ukraine | 1:03 | 2 (1+0+1+0) | 31:34.2 | +1:26.5 |
| 11 | 15 | Veronika Vítková | Czech Republic | 1:23 | 4 (2+2+0+0) | 31:35.4 | +1:27.7 |
| 12 | 35 | Kaisa Mäkäräinen | Finland | 2:21 | 3 (2+0+1+0) | 31:35.7 | +1:28.0 |
| 13 | 14 | Franziska Preuß | Germany | 1:19 | 3 (1+1+0+1) | 31:40.9 | +1:33.2 |
| 14 | 12 | Jana Gereková | Slovakia | 1:11 | 3 (0+1+1+1) | 31:43.6 | +1:35.9 |
| 15 | 13 | Elisa Gasparin | Switzerland | 1:13 | 3 (1+0+1+1) | 31:47.3 | +1:39.6 |
| 16 | 21 | Daria Virolaynen | Russia | 1:50 | 2 (0+0+1+1) | 31:47.9 | +1:40.2 |
| 17 | 7 | Magdalena Gwizdoń | Poland | 0:52 | 4 (2+0+1+1) | 32:13.9 | +2:06.2 |
| 18 | 19 | Tiril Eckhoff | Norway | 1:43 | 4 (0+1+3+0) | 32:26.0 | +2:18.3 |
| 19 | 3 | Valj Semerenko | Ukraine | 0:20 | 6 (3+1+0+2) | 32:31.5 | +2:23.8 |
| 20 | 8 | Andreja Mali | Slovenia | 1:02 | 4 (1+0+1+2) | 32:45.8 | +2:38.1 |
| 21 | 24 | Lisa Hauser | Austria | 1:56 | 2 (0+1+0+1) | 32:51.5 | +2:43.8 |
| 22 | 17 | Dunja Zdouc | Austria | 1:39 | 3 (0+1+1+1) | 32:52.1 | +2:44.4 |
| 23 | 22 | Fuyuko Suzuki | Japan | 1:52 | 4 (0+2+1+1) | 32:56.5 | +2:48.8 |
| 24 | 32 | Rosanna Crawford | Canada | 2:13 | 3 (2+0+1+0) | 32:59.2 | +2:51.5 |
| 25 | 37 | Iryna Varvynets | Ukraine | 2:27 | 3 (0+0+2+1) | 33:20.7 | +3:13.0 |
| 26 | 45 | Olga Podchufarova | Russia | 2:40 | 2 (0+0+2+0) | 33:24.9 | +3:17.2 |
| 27 | 23 | Megan Heinicke | Canada | 1:55 | 2 (1+0+0+1) | 33:27.1 | +3:19.4 |
| 28 | 36 | Iana Bondar | Ukraine | 2:25 | 5 (1+1+0+3) | 33:40.9 | +3:33.2 |
| 29 | 16 | Mari Laukkanen | Finland | 1:23 | 6 (3+1+1+1) | 33:44.8 | +3:37.1 |
| 30 | 43 | Kadri Lehtla | Estonia | 2:36 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | 33:50.9 | +3:43.2 |
| 31 | 27 | Katharina Innerhofer | Austria | 2:02 | 3 (1+0+0+2) | 33:56.1 | +3:48.4 |
| 32 | 11 | Nastassia Dubarezava | Belarus | 1:11 | 5 (1+1+2+1) | 33:58.2 | +3:50.5 |
| 33 | 42 | Susan Dunklee | United States | 2:35 | 6 (1+1+2+2) | 34:05.8 | +3:58.1 |
| 34 | 34 | Justine Braisaz | France | 2:20 | 6 (2+1+2+1) | 34:08.5 | +4:00.8 |
| 35 | 28 | Lena Häcki | Switzerland | 2:03 | 6 (1+1+1+3) | 34:14.5 | +4:06.8 |
| 36 | 49 | Vanessa Hinz | Germany | 2:45 | 4 (0+1+2+1) | 34:19.2 | +4:11.5 |
| 37 | 54 | Elise Ringen | Norway | 2:57 | 3 (0+2+1+0) | 34:20.0 | +4:12.3 |
| 38 | 29 | Mona Brorsson | Sweden | 2:08 | 3 (0+2+1+0) | 34:33.2 | +4:25.5 |
| 39 | 30 | Karin Oberhofer | Italy | 2:11 | 8 (1+3+3+1) | 34:54.4 | +4:46.7 |
| 40 | 60 | Lisa Vittozzi | Italy | 3:09 | 4 (1+0+2+1) | 35:03.6 | +4:55.9 |
| 41 | 31 | Marte Olsbu | Norway | 2:12 | 3 (1+2+0+0) | 35:10.5 | +5:02.8 |
| 42 | 59 | Martina Chrapánová | Slovakia | 3:08 | 3 (1+1+1+0) | 35:11.6 | +5:03.9 |
| 43 | 39 | Johanna Talihaerm | Estonia | 2:29 | 4 (0+2+1+1) | 35:24.7 | +5:17.0 |
| 44 | 51 | Elisabeth Högberg | Sweden | 2:48 | 5 (0+0+2+3) | 35:34.2 | +5:26.5 |
| 45 | 38 | Desislava Stoyanova | Bulgaria | 2:29 | 5 (0+2+1+2) | 35:39.1 | +5:31.4 |
| 46 | 58 | Song Chaoqing | China | 3:07 | 5 (0+2+1+2) | 35:44.7 | +5:37.0 |
| 47 | 48 | Amanda Lightfoot | Great Britain | 2:44 | 5 (1+0+1+3) | 35:44.9 | +5:37.2 |
| 48 | 57 | Terézia Poliaková | Slovakia | 3:05 | 5 (1+0+2+2) | 36:13.4 | +6:05.7 |
| 49 | 50 | Nadzeya Pisarava | Belarus | 2:46 | 7 (2+1+3+2) | 36:30.8 | +6:23.1 |
| 50 | 55 | Mun Ji-hee | South Korea | 2:58 | 5 (0+2+1+2) | 36:30.8 | +6:23.1 |
| 51 | 40 | Clare Egan | United States | 2:30 | 7 (1+1+3+2) | 36:36.9 | +6:29.2 |
| 52 | 47 | Anna Kistanova | Kazakhstan | 2:44 | 6 (1+1+1+3) | 36:43.6 | +6:35.9 |
| 53 | 41 | Wang Yue | China | 2:33 | 7 (1+2+3+1) | 37:04.5 | +6:56.8 |
| 54 | 33 | Emilia Yordanova | Bulgaria | 2:16 | 7 (2+2+1+2) | 37:26.8 | +7:19.1 |
| 55 | 44 | Miki Kobayashi | Japan | 2:39 | 8 (0+3+1+4) | 37:33.8 | +7:26.1 |
| 56 | 52 | Julia Ransom | Canada | 2:52 | 7 (1+2+2+2) | 38:10.5 | +8:02.8 |
| 57 | 46 | Luminița Pișcoran | Romania | 2:41 | 10 (3+3+3+1) | 38:30.3 | +8:22.6 |
|  | 53 | Coline Varcin | France | 2:56 | Did not start | | |
| | 56 | Anaïs Bescond | France | 3:04 | |
| DSQ | 26 | Ekaterina Glazyrina | Russia | 2:02 | 2 (1+0+1+0) | 32:47.2 | +2:39.5 |

## InfoBox

| Women's pursuit <br>at the Biathlon World Championships 2015 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Venue | Kontiolahti, Finland |
| Date | 8 March 2015 |
| Competitors | 58 from 25 nations |
| Winning time | 30:07.7 |
| Medalists | |
| France  Germany  Poland | |
|


title: Robert B. Nicholson

abstract: Robert Balfour Nicholson was an Australian businessman, best known as general manager of Ivanhoe Gold Mine, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.

text:
# Robert B. Nicholson

**Robert Balfour Nicholson** (1863 – 22 July 1917) was an Australian businessman, best known as general manager of Ivanhoe Gold Mine, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.

## History

Nicholson was born in Essendon, Victoria, the second son of C. H. Nicholson, Superintendent of Police. He was educated at Hawthorn Grammar School under E. H. Irving, later editor of the *Kalgoorlie Miner*. In his early years he was employed in business houses and on pastoral properties. He was a prominent oarsman, being captain of the Victorian eight for some years. He left for Western Australia in 1893, managing mines at Menzies, Broad Arrow, and Paddington, where he was in charge of the Consols. In 1900 he took control of the Ivanhoe, where he was extremely popular with the mine-workers, being generally recognised as a decent and considerate employer. He was for several years vice-president of the Chamber of Mines.

## Last days and death

On 9 July Nicholson was thrown out of his trap, resulting in a badly broken arm. His doctor advised against setting the limb owing to his declining health, and he died a fortnight later. The funeral procession was led by 400 miners and the hearse was not able to carry the mass of floral tributes to this popular and respected employer.


title: Robert Edis Fairbairn

abstract:
Robert Edis Fairbairn was a Canadian minister, writer, and pacifist. Fairbairn became a committed pacifist after "firsthand exposure to the reactions of young men in bayonet drill", and within a decade of the First World War he emerged as "one of the most prolific pacifist writers in Canada". Later, Fairbairn helped R. B. Y. Scott and Gregory Vlastos to produce Towards the Christian Revolution (1936). In his chapter, he argued that one of the primary functions of the Christian faith was to generate opposition to war. In 1939, Fairbairn drafted a manifesto entitled Witness Against War, ultimately signed by over 150 United Churchmen. Fairbairn was often critical of the church for its failure to oppose escalating violence throughout the world. By the end of his career, he had become "the most outspoken radical pacifist in Canada". Regarding his contributions to Christian pacifism:
"His pacifist argument incorporated the socialist analysis of Western capitalism as the "war system", a system which compelled otherwise honorable men to act unscrupulously and which made future war inevitable. Since he saw it as the root cause of conflict between nations as well as between classes, he believed the only alternative was a complete social revolution according to the teachings of Christ.... In his later search for realistic pacifist solutions he came to view Christian cooperative communities as the true revolutionary cells of a new social order."

text:
# Robert Edis Fairbairn

**Robert Edis Fairbairn** (17 June 1879 - 30 May 1953) was a Canadian minister, writer, and pacifist.

Fairbairn became a committed pacifist after "firsthand exposure to the reactions of young men in bayonet drill", and within a decade of the First World War he emerged as "one of the most prolific pacifist writers in Canada". Later, Fairbairn helped R. B. Y. Scott and Gregory Vlastos to produce *Towards the Christian Revolution* (1936). In his chapter, he argued that one of the primary functions of the Christian faith was to generate opposition to war. In 1939, Fairbairn drafted a manifesto entitled *Witness Against War*, ultimately signed by over 150 United Churchmen.

Fairbairn was often critical of the church for its failure to oppose escalating violence throughout the world. By the end of his career, he had become "the most outspoken radical pacifist in Canada".

Regarding his contributions to Christian pacifism:

> "His pacifist argument incorporated the socialist analysis of Western capitalism as the "war system", a system which compelled otherwise honorable men to act unscrupulously and which made future war inevitable. Since he saw it as the root cause of conflict between nations as well as between classes, he believed the only alternative was a complete social revolution according to the teachings of Christ.... In his later search for realistic pacifist solutions he came to view Christian cooperative communities as the true revolutionary cells of a new social order."

## InfoBox

| Robert Edis Fairbairn | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1879-06-17)June 17, 1879
Southampton, England |
| Died | May 30, 1953(1953-05-30) (aged 73)
St Marys, Ontario, Canada |
| Education | B.D., University of Oxford, 1904 |
| Occupation(s) | minister, Methodist and United Church of Canada: England, 1904-14, Bermuda, 1914-17, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, 1917-25, Ontario, 1925-49 |


title: Bibliometrics

abstract: Bibliometrics is the application of statistical methods to the study of bibliographic data, especially in scientific and library and information science contexts, and is closely associated with scientometrics to the point that both fields largely overlap. Bibliometrics studies first appeared in the late 19th century. They have known a significant development after the Second World War in a context of "periodical crisis" and new technical opportunities offered by computing tools. In the early 1960s, the Science Citation Index of Eugene Garfield and the citation network analysis of Derek John de Solla Price laid the fundamental basis of a structured research program on bibliometrics. Citation analysis is a commonly used bibliometric method based on constructing the citation graph, a network or graph representation of the citations shared by documents. Many research fields use bibliometric methods to explore the impact of their field, the impact of a set of researchers, the impact of a particular paper, or to identify particularly impactful papers within a specific field of research. Bibliometrics tools have been commonly integrated in descriptive linguistics, the development of thesauri, and evaluation of reader usage. Beyond specialized scientific use, popular web search engines, such as the pagerank algorithm implemented by Google have been largely shaped by bibliometrics methods and concepts. The emergence of the Web and the open science movement has gradually transformed the definition and the purpose of "bibliometrics." In the 2010s historical proprietary infrastructures for citation data such as the Web of Science or Scopus have been challenged by new initiatives in favor of open citation data. The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics (2015) opened a wide debate on the use and transparency of metrics.

text:
# Bibliometrics

**Bibliometrics** is the application of statistical methods to the study of bibliographic data, especially in scientific and library and information science contexts, and is closely associated with scientometrics (the analysis of scientific metrics and indicators) to the point that both fields largely overlap.

Bibliometrics studies first appeared in the late 19th century. They have known a significant development after the Second World War in a context of "periodical crisis" and new technical opportunities offered by computing tools. In the early 1960s, the Science Citation Index of Eugene Garfield and the citation network analysis of Derek John de Solla Price laid the fundamental basis of a structured research program on bibliometrics.

Citation analysis is a commonly used bibliometric method based on constructing the citation graph, a network or graph representation of the citations shared by documents. Many research fields use bibliometric methods to explore the impact of their field, the impact of a set of researchers, the impact of a particular paper, or to identify particularly impactful papers within a specific field of research. Bibliometrics tools have been commonly integrated in descriptive linguistics, the development of thesauri, and evaluation of reader usage. Beyond specialized scientific use, popular web search engines, such as the pagerank algorithm implemented by Google have been largely shaped by bibliometrics methods and concepts.

The emergence of the Web and the open science movement has gradually transformed the definition and the purpose of "bibliometrics." In the 2010s historical proprietary infrastructures for citation data such as the Web of Science or Scopus have been challenged by new initiatives in favor of open citation data. The *Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics* (2015) opened a wide debate on the use and transparency of metrics.

## Definition

The term *bibliométrie* was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934, and defined as "the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents." The anglicized version *bibliometrics* was first used by Alan Pritchard in a paper published in 1969, titled "Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics?" He defined the term as "the application of mathematics and statistical methods to books and other media of communication." *Bibliometrics* was conceived as a replacement for *statistical bibliography*, the main label used by publications in the field until then: for Pritchard, statistical bibliography was too "clumsy" and did not make it very clear what was the main object of study.

The concept of bibliometrics "stresses the material aspect of the undertaking: counting books, articles, publications, citations". In theory, bibliometrics is a distinct field from *scientometrics* (from the Russian *naukometriya*), which relies on the analysis of non-bibliographic indicators of scientific activity. In practice, bibliometrics and scientometrics studies tend to use similar data sources and methods, as citation data has become the leading standard of quantitative scientific evaluation during the mid-20th century: "insofar as bibliometric techniques are applied to scientific and technical literature, the two areas of scientometrics and bibliometrics overlap to a considerable degree." The development of the web and the expansion of bibliometrics approach to non-scientific production has entailed the introduction of broader labels in the 1990s and the 2000s: infometrics, webometrics or cybermetrics. These terms have not been extensively adopted, as they partly overlap with pre-existing research practices, such as information retrieval.

## History

Scientific works, studies and researches that have a bibliometric character can be identified, depending on the definition, already for the 12th century in the form of Jewish indexes.

### Early experiments (1880–1914)

Bibliometric analysis appeared at the turn of the 19th and the 20th century. These developments predate the first occurrence of the concept of *bibiometrics* by several decades. Alternative label were commonly used: *bibliography statistics* became especially prevalent after 1920 and continued to remain in use until the end of the 1960s. Early statistical studies of scientific metadata were motivated by the significant expansion of scientific output and the parallel development of indexing services of databases that made this information more accessible in the first place. Citation index were first applied to case law in the 1860s and their most famous example, *Shepard's Citations* (first published in 1873) will serve as a direct inspiration for the Science Citation Index one century later.

The emergence of social sciences inspired new speculative research on the *science of science* and the possibility of studying science itself as a scientific object: "The belief that social activities, including science, could be reduced to quantitative laws, just as the trajectory of a cannonball and the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, traces back to the positivist sociology of Auguste Comte, William Ogburn, and Herbert Spencer." Bibliometric analysis was not conceived as a separate body studies but one of the available methods for the quantitative analysis of scientific activity in different fields of research: science history (*Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siècles* of Alphonse de Candolle in 1885, *The history of comparative anatomy, a statistical analysis of the literature* by Francis Joseph Cole and Nellie B. Eales in 1917), bibliography (*The Theory of National and International Bibliography* of Francis Burburry Campbell in 1896) or sociology of science (*Statistics of American Psychologists* of James McKeen Cattell in 1903).

Early bibliometrics and scientometrics work were not simply descriptive but expressed normative views of what science should be and how it could progress. The measurement of the performance of individual researchers, scientific institutions or entire countries was a major objective. The statistical analysis of James McKeen Cattell acted as a preparatory work for a large scale evaluation of American researchers with eugenicists undertones: *American Men of Science* (1906), "with its astoundingly simplistic rating system of asterisks attached to individual entries in proportion to the estimated eminence of the starred scholar."

### Development of bibliography statistics (1910–1945)

After 1910, bibliometrics approach increasingly became the main focus in several study of scientific performance rather than one quantitative method among others. In 1917, Francis Joseph Cole and Nellie B. Eales argued in favor of the primary statistical value of publications as a publication "is an isolated and definite piece of work, it is permanent, accessible, and may be judged, and in most cases it is not difficult to ascertain when, where, and by whom it was done, and to plot the results on squared paper." Five years later, Edward Wyndham Hulme expanded this argument to the point that publications could be considered as the standard measure of an entire civilization: "If civilization is but the product of the human mind operating upon a shifting platform of its environment, we may claim for bibliography that it is not only a pillar in the structure of the edifice, but that it can function as a measure of the varying forces to which this structure is continuously subjected." This shift toward publication had a limited impact: well until the 1970s, national and international evaluation of scientific activities "disdained bibliometric indicators" which were deemed too simplistic, in favor of socological and economic measures.

Both the enhanced value attached to scientific publications as a measure of knowledge and the difficulties met by libraries to manage the growing flow of academic periodicals entailed the development of the first citation indexes. In 1927, P. Gross and E. M. Gross compiled the 3,633 references quoted by the *Journal of the American Chemical Society* during the year 1926 and ranked journals depending on their level of citation. The two authors created a set of tools and methods still commonly used by academic search engines, including attributing a bonus to recent citations since "the *present trend* rather than the *past performance* of a journal should be considered first." Yet the academic environment measured was markedly different: German rather than English ranked by far the main language of science of chemistry with more than 50% of all references.

In the same period, fundamental algorithms, metrics and methods of bibliometrics were first identified in several unrelated projects, most of them being related to the structural inequalities of scientific production. In Alfred Lotka introduced its law of productivity from an analysis of the authored publications in the *Chemical Abstracts* and the *Geschichtstafeln der Physik*: the number of authors producing an n number of contributions is equal to the 1/n^2 number of authors that only produced one publication. In, the chief librarian of the London Science Museum, Samuel Bradford derived a *law of scattering* from his experience in bibliographic indexing: there are exponentially diminishing returns of searching for references in science journals, as more and more work need to be consulted to find relevant work. Both the Lotka and Bradford law have been criticized as they are far from universal and rather uncovers a rough power law relationship rendered by deceivingly precise equations.

### Periodical crisis, digitization and citation index (1945–1960)

After the Second World War, the growing challenge in managing and accessing scientific publications turned into a full-fledged "periodical crisis": existing journals could not keep up with the rapidly increasing scientific output spurred by the big science projects. The issue became politically relevant after the successful launch of Sputnik in 1957: "The Sputnik crisis turned the librarians' problem of bibliographic control into a national information crisis.." In a context of rapid and dramatic change, the emerging field of bibliometrics was linked to large scale reforms of academic publishing and nearly utopian visions of the future of science. In 1934, Paul Otlet introduced under the concept of *bibliométrie* or *bibliology* an ambitious project of measuring the impact of texts on society. In contrast with the bounded definition of *bibliometrics* that will become prevalent after the 1960s, the vision of Otlet was not limited to scientific publication nor in fact to *publication* as a fundamental unit: it aimed for "by the resolution of texts into atomic elements, or ideas, which he located in the single paragraphs (alinéa, verset, articulet) composing a book." In 1939 John Desmond Bernal envisioned a network of scientific archives, which was briefly considered by the Royal Society in 1948: "The scientific paper sent to the central publication office, upon approval by an editorial board of referees, would be microfilmed, and a sort of print-on-demand system set in action thereafter." While not using the concept of *bibliometrics*, Bernal had a formative influence of leading figures of the field such as Derek John de Solla Price.

The emerging computing technologies were immediately considered as a potential solution to make a larger amount of scientific output readable and searchable. During the 1950s and 1960s, an uncoordinated wave of experiments in indexing technologies resulted in the rapid development of key concepts of computing research retrieval. In 1957, IBM engineer Hans Peter Luhn introduced an influential paradigm of statistical-based analysis of word frequencies, as "communication of ideas by means of words is carried out on the basis of statistical probability." Automated translation of non-English scientific work has also significantly contributed to fundamental research on natural language processing of bibliographic references, as in this period a significant amount of scientific publications were not still available in English, especially the one coming from the Soviet block. Influent members of the National Science Foundation like Joshua Ledeberg advocated for the creation of a "centralized information system", SCITEL, partly influenced by the ideas of John Desmond Bernal. This system would at first coexist with printed journals and gradually replace them altogether on account of its efficiency. In the plan laid out by Ledeberg to Eugen Garfield in November 1961, a centralized deposit would index as much as 1,000,000 scientific articles per year. Beyond full-text searching, the infrastructure would also ensure the indexation of citation and other metadata, as well as the automated translation of foreign language articles.

The first working prototype on an online retrieval system developed in 1963 by Doug Engelbart and Charles Bourne at the Stanford Research Institute proved the feasibility of these theoretical assumptions, although it was heavily constrained by memory issues: no more than 10,000 words of a few documents could be indexed. The early scientific computing infrastructures were focused on more specific research areas, such as MEDLINE for medicine, NASA/RECON for space engineering or OCLC Worldcat for library search: "most of the earliest online retrieval system provided access to a bibliographic database and the rest used a file containing another sort of information—encyclopedia articles, inventory data, or chemical compounds." Exclusive focus on text analysis proved limitative as the digitized collections expanded: a query could yield a large number results and it was difficult to evaluate the relevancy and the accuracy of the results.

The *periodical crisis* and the limitations of index retrieval technologies motivated the development of bibliometric tools and large citation index like the Science Citation Index of Eugene Garfield. Garfield's work was initially primarily concerned with the automated analysis of text work. In contrast with ongoing work largely focused on internal semantic relationship, Garfield highlighted "the importance of metatext in discourse analysis", such as introductory sentences and bibliographic references. Secondary forms of scientific production like literature reviews and bibliographic notes became central to Garfield's vision as they have already been to John Desmond Bernal's vision of scientific archives. By 1953, Garfield's attention was permanently shifted to citation analysis: in a private letter to William C. Adair, the vice-president of the publisher of the Shepard's Citation index, "he suggested a well tried solution to the problem of automatic indexing, namely to "shepardize" biomedical literature, to untangle the skein of its content by following the thread of citation links in the same way the legal citator did with court sentences." In 1955, Garfield published his seminal article "Citation Indexes for Science", that both laid out the outline of the Science Citation Index and had a large influence on the future development of bibliometrics. The general citation index envisioned by Garfield was originally one of the building block of the ambitious plan of Joshua Lederberg to computerize scientific literature. Due to lack of funding, the plan was never realized. In 1963, Eugene Garfield created the Institute for Scientific Information that aimed to transform the projects initially envisioned with Lederberg into a profitable business.

### Bibliometric reductionism, metrics, and structuration of a research field (1960–1990)

The field of bibliometrics coalesced in parallel to the development of the Science Citation Index, that was to become its fundamental infrastructure and data resource: "while the early twentieth century contributed methods that were necessary for measuring research, the mid-twentieth century was characterized by the development of institutions that motivated and facilitated research measurement." Significant influences of the nascent field included along with John Desmond Bernal, Paul Otlet the sociology of science of Robert K. Merton, that was re-interpreted in a non-ethic manner: the Matthew Effect, that is the increasing concentration of attention given to researchers that were already notable, was no longer considered *as a derive*(?) but a feature of normal science.

A follower of Bernal, the British historian of science Derek John de Solla Price has had a major impact on the disciplinary formation of bibliometrics: with "the publication of *Science Since Babylon* (1961), *Little Science, Big Science* (1963), and *Networks of Scientific Papers* (1965) by Derek Price, scientometrics already had a sound empirical and conceptual toolkit available." Price was a proponent of *bibliometric reductionism*. As Francis Joseph Cole and Nellie B. Eales in 1917, he argued that a publication is the best possible standard to lay out a quantitative study of science: they "resemble a pile of bricks (…) to remain in perpetuity as an intellectual edifice built by skill and artifice, resting on primitive foundation." Price doubled down on this reductionist approach by limiting in turn the large set of existing bibliographic data to citation data.

Price's framework, like Garfield's, takes for granted the structural inequality of science production, as a minority of researchers creates a large share of publication and an even smaller share have a real measurable impact on subsequent research (with as few as 2% of papers having 4 citations or more at the time). Despite the unprecedented growth of post-war science, Price claimed for the continued existence of an *invisible college* of elite scientists that, as in the time of Robert Boyle undertook the most valuable work. While Price was aware of the power relationships that ensured the domination of such an elite, there was a fundamental ambiguity in the bibliometrics studies, that highlighted the concentration of academic publishing and prestige but also created tools, models and metrics that normalized pre-existing inequalities. The central position of the Scientific Citation Index amplified this performative effect. In the end of the 1960s Eugene Garfield formulated a *law of concentration* that was formally a reinterpretation of the Samuel Bradford's *law of scattering*, with a major difference: while Bradford talked for the perspective of a specific research project, Garfield drew a generalization of the law to the entire set of scientific publishing: "the core literature for all scientific disciplines involves a group of no more than 1000 journals, and may involve as few as 500." Such law was also a justification of the practical limitation of the citation index to a limited subset of *core* journals, with the underlying assumption that any expansion into second-tier journals would yield diminishing returns. Rather than simply observing structural trends and patterns, bibliometrics tend to amplify and stratify them even further: "Garfield's citation indexes would have brought to a logical completion, the story of a stratified scientific literature produced by (…) a few, high-quality, "must-buy" international journals owned by a decreasing number of multinational corporations ruling the roost in the global information market."

Under the impulsion of Garfield and Price, bibliometrics became both a research field and a testing ground for quantitative policy evaluation of research. This second aspect was not a major focus of the Science Citation Index has been a progressive development: the famous Impact Factor was originally devised in the 1960s by Garfield and Irving Sher to select the core group of journals that were to be featured in *Current Contents* and the Science Citation Index and was only regularly published after 1975. The metric itself is a very simple ratio between the total count of citation received by the journal on the past year and its productivity on the past two years, to ponderate the prolificity of some publications. For example, *Nature* had an impact factor of 41.577 in 2017:

$\text{IF}\_{2017}={\frac {{\text{Citations}\_{2017}{{\text{Publications}\_{2016}+{\text{Publications}\_{2015}={\frac {74090}{880+902}=41.577.}}}}}}}$

The simplicity of the impact factor has likely been a major factor in its wide adoption by scientific institutions, journals, funders or evaluators: "none of the revised versions or substitutes of ISI IF has gained general acceptance beyond its proponents, probably because the alleged alternatives lack the degree of interpretability of the original measure."

Alongside these simplified measurements, Garfield continued to support and fund fundamental research in science history and sociology of science. First published 1964, *The Use of Citation Data in Writing the History of Science* compiles several experimental case studies relying on the citation network of the Science Citation Index, including a quantitative reconstruction of the discovery of the DNA. Interest in this area persisted well after the sell of the Index to Thomson Reuters: as late as 2001, Garfield unveiled *HistCite*, a software for "algorithmic historiography" created in collaboration with Alexander Pudovkin, and Vladimir S. Istomin.

### The Web turn (1990–…)

The development of the World Wide Web and the Digital Revolution had a complex impact on bibliometrics.

The web itself and some of its key components (such as search engines) were partly a product of bibliometrics theory. In its original form, it was derived from a bibliographic scientific infrastructure commissioned to Tim Berners-Lee by the CERN for the specific needs of high energy physics, ENQUIRE. The structure of ENQUIRE was closer to an internal web of data: it connected "nodes" that "could refer to a person, a software module, etc. and that could be interlined with various relations such as made, include, describes and so forth." Sharing of data and data documentation was a major focus in the initial communication of the World Wide Web when the project was first unveiled in August 1991 : "The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and documentation. We are very interested in spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers for other data." The web rapidly superseded pre-existing online infrastructure, even when they included more advanced computing features. The core value attached to hyperlinking in the design of the web seem to validate the intuitions of the funding figures of bibliometrics: "The onset of the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made Garfield's citationist dream more likely to come true. In the world network of hypertexts, not only is the bibliographic reference one of the possible forms taken by a hyperlink inside the electronic version of a scientific article, but the Web itself also exhibits a citation structure, links between web pages being formally similar to bibliographic citations." Consequently, bibliometrics concepts have been incorporated in major communication technologies the search algorithm of Google: "the citation-driven concept of relevance applied to the network of hyperlinks between web pages would revolutionize the way Web search engines let users quickly pick useful materials out of the anarchical universe of digital information."

While the web expanded the intellectual influence of bibliometrics way beyond specialized scientific research, it also shattered the core tenets of the field. In contrast with the wide utopian visions of Bernal and Otlet that partly inspired it, the Science Citation Index was always conceived as a closed infrastructure, not only from the perspective of their users but also from the perspective of the collection index: the logical conclusion of Price's theory of *invisible college* and Garfield's law of concentration was to focus exclusively on a limited set of core scientific journals. With the rapid expansion of the Web, numerous forms of publications (notably preprints), scientific activities and communities suddenly became visible and highlighted by contrast the limitations of applied bibliometrics. The other fundamental aspect of bibliometric reductionism, the exclusive focus on citation, has also been increasingly fragilized by the multiplication of alternative data sources and the unprecedented access to full text corpus that made it possible to revive the large scale semantic analysis first envisioned by Garfield in the early 1950s: "Links alone, then, just like bibliographic citations alone, do not seem sufficient to pin down critical communication patterns on the Web, and their statistical analysis will probably follow, in the years to come, the same path of citation analysis, establishing fruitful alliances with other emerging qualitative and quantitative outlooks over the web landscape."

The close relationship between bibliometrics and commercial vendors of citation data and indicators has become more strained since the 1990s. Leading scientific publishers have diversified their activities beyond publishing and moved "from a content-provision to a data analytics business." By 2019, Elsevier has either acquired or built a large portofolio platforms, tools, databases and indicators covering all aspects and stages of scientific research: "the largest supplier of academic journals is also in charge of evaluating and validating research quality and impact (e.g., Pure, Plum Analytics, Sci Val), identifying academic experts for potential employers (e.g., Expert Lookup5), managing the research networking platforms through which to collaborate (e.g., SSRN, Hivebench, Mendeley), managing the tools through which to find funding (e.g., Plum X, Mendeley, Sci Val), and controlling the platforms through which to analyze and store researchers' data (e.g., Hivebench, Mendeley)." Metrics and indicators are key components of this vertical integration: "Elsevier's further move to offering metrics-based decision making is simultaneously a move to gain further influence in the entirety of the knowledge production process, as well as to further monetize its disproportionate ownership of content." The new market for scientific publication and scientific data has been compared with the business models of social networks, search engines and other forms of *platform capitalism* While content access is free, it is indirectly paid through data extraction and surveillance. In 2020, Rafael Ball envisioned a bleak future for bibliometricians where their research contribute to the emerge of a highly invasive form of "surveillance capitalism":scientists "be given a whole series of scores which not only provide a more comprehensive picture of the academic performance, but also the perception, behaviour, demeanour, appearance and (subjective) credibility (…) In China, this kind of personal data analysis is already being implemented and used simultaneously as an incentive and penalty system."

The *Leiden manifesto for research metrics* (2015) highlighted the growing rift between the commercial providers of scientific metrics and bibliometric communities. The signatories stressed the potential social damage of uncontrolled metric-based evaluation and surveillance: "as scientometricians, social scientists and research administrators, we have watched with increasing alarm the pervasive misapplication of indicators to the evaluation of scientific performance." Several structural reforms of bibliometric research and research evaluation are proposed, including a stronger reliance on qualitative assessment and the reliance on "open, transparent and simple" data collection. The Leiden Manifesto has stirred an important debate in bibliometrics/scientometrics/infometrics with some critics arguing that the elaboration of quantitative metrics bears no responsibility on their misuse in commercial platforms and research evaluation.

## Usage

Historically, bibliometric methods have been used to trace relationships amongst academic journal citations. Citation analysis, which involves examining an item's referring documents, is used in searching for materials and analyzing their merit. Citation indices, such as Institute for Scientific Information's Web of Science, allow users to search forward in time from a known article to more recent publications which cite the known item.

Data from citation indexes can be analyzed to determine the popularity and impact of specific articles, authors, and publications. Using citation analysis to gauge the importance of one's work, for example, has been common in hiring practices of the late 20th century. Information scientists also use citation analysis to quantitatively assess the core journal titles and watershed publications in particular disciplines; interrelationships between authors from different institutions and schools of thought; and related data about the sociology of academia. Some more pragmatic applications of this information includes the planning of retrospective bibliographies, "giving some indication both of the age of material used in a discipline, and of the extent to which more recent publications supersede the older ones"; indicating through high frequency of citation which documents should be archived; comparing the coverage of secondary services which can help publishers gauge their achievements and competition, and can aid librarians in evaluating "the effectiveness of their stock." There are also some limitations to the value of citation data. They are often incomplete or biased; data has been largely collected by hand (which is expensive), though citation indexes can also be used; incorrect citing of sources occurs continually; thus, further investigation is required to truly understand the rationale behind citing to allow it to be confidently applied.

Bibliometrics can be used for understanding the research hot topics, for example, in housing Bibliometrics, the results show that Keywords such as influencing factors of housing prices, supply and demand analysis, policy impact on housing prices, and regional city trends are commonly found in housing price research literature. Recent popular keywords include regression analysis and house price predictions. The USA has been a pioneer in housing price research, with well-established means and methods leading the way in this field. Developing countries, on the other hand, need to adopt innovative research approaches and focus more on sustainability in their housing price studies. Research indicates a strong correlation between housing prices and the economy, with keywords like gross domestic product, interest rates, and currency frequently appearing in economic-related cluster analyses.

Bibliometrics are now used in quantitative research assessment exercises of academic output which is starting to threaten practice based research. The UK government has considered using bibliometrics as a possible auxiliary tool in its Research Excellence Framework, a process which will assess the quality of the research output of UK universities and on the basis of the assessment results, allocate research funding. This has met with significant skepticism and, after a pilot study, looks unlikely to replace the current peer review process. Furthermore, excessive usage of bibliometrics in assessment of value of academic research encourages gaming the system in various ways including publishing large quantity of works with low new content (see least publishable unit), publishing premature research to satisfy the numbers, focusing on popularity of the topic rather than scientific value and author's interest, often with detrimental role to research. Some of these phenomena are addressed in a number of recent initiatives, including the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment.

Guidelines have been written on the using of bibliometrics in academic research, in disciplines such as Management, Education, and Information Science. Other bibliometrics applications include: creating thesauri; measuring term frequencies; as metrics in scientometric analysis, exploring grammatical and syntactical structures of texts; measuring usage by readers; quantifying value of online media of communication; in the context of technological trend analyses; measuring Jaccard distance cluster analysis and text mining based on binary logistic regression.

In the context of the big deal cancellations by several library systems in the world, data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals are used by libraries to assist with big deal cancellations: libraries can avoid subscriptions for materials already served by instant open access via open archives like PubMed Central.

## Bibliometrics and open science

The open science movement has been acknowledged as the most important transformation faced by bibliometrics since the emergence of the field in the 1960s. The free sharing of a wide variety of scientific outputs on the web affected the practice of bibliometrics at all levels: the definition and the collection of the data, infrastructure, and metrics.

Before the crystallization of the field around the Science Citation Index and the reductionist theories of Derek de Solla Price, bibliometrics has been largely influenced by utopian projects of enhanced knowledge sharing beyond specialized academic communities. The scientific networks envisioned by Paul Otlet or John Desmond Bernal have gained a new relevancy with the development of the Web: "The philosophical inspiration of the pioneers in pursuing the above lines of inquiry, however, faded gradually into the background (…) Whereas Bernal's input would eventually find an ideal continuation in the open access movement, the citation machine set into motion by Garfield and Small led to the proliferation of sectorial studies of a fundamentally empirical nature."

### From altmetrics to open metrics

In the early developments, the open science movement partly co-opted the standard tools of bibliometrics and quantitative evaluation: "the fact that no reference was made to metadata in the main OA declarations (Budapest, Berlin, Bethesda) has led to a paradoxical situation (…) it was through the use of the Web of Science that OA advocates were eager to show how much accessibility led to a citation advantage compared to paywalled articles." After 2000, an important bibliometric literature was devoted to the citation advantage of open access publications.

By the end of the 2000s, the impact factor and other metrics have increasingly held responsible a systemic *locked-in* of prestigious non-accessible sources. Key figures of the open science movement like Stevan Harnad called for the creation of "open access scientometrics" that would take "advantage of the wealth of usage and impact metrics enabled by the multiplication of online, full-text, open access digital archives." As the public of open science expanded beyond academic circles, new metrics should aim for "measuring the broader societal impacts of scientific research."

The concept of *alt-metrics* was introduced in 2009 by Cameron Neylon and Shirly Wu as *article-level metrics*. In contrast with the focus of leading metrics on journals (impact factor) or, more recently, on individual researchers (h-index), the article-level metrics makes it possible to track the circulation of individual publications: "(an) article that used to live on a shelf now lives in Mendeley, CiteULike, or Zotero – where we can see and count it" As such they are more compatible with the diversity of publication strategies that has characterized open science: preprints, reports or even non-textual outputs like dataset or software may also have associated metrics. In their original research proposition, Neylon and Wu favored the use of data from reference management software like Zotero or Mendeley. The concept of *altmetrics* evolved and came to encover data extracted "from social media applications, like blogs, Twitter, ResearchGate and Mendeley.". Social media sources proved especially to be more reliable on a long-term basis, as specialized academic tools like Mendeley came to be integrated into a proprietary ecosystem developed by leading scientific publishers. Major altmetrics indicators that emerged in the 2010s include Altmetric.com, PLUMx and ImpactStory.

As the meaning of altmetrics shifted, the debate over the positive impact of the metrics evolved toward their redefinition in an open science ecosystem: "Discussions on the misuse of metrics and their interpretation put metrics themselves in the center of open science practices." While altmetrics were initially conceived for open science publications and their expanded circulation beyond academic circles, their compatibility with the emerging requirements for open metrics has been brought into question: social network data, in particular, is far from transparent and readily accessible. In 2016, Ulrich Herb published a systematic assessment of the leading publications' metrics in regard to open science principles and concluded that "neither citation-based impact metrics nor alternative metrics can be labeled open metrics. They all lack scientific foundation, transparency and verifiability."

Assessment of leading publication metrics and altmetrics in regard to open science principles
| Metric | Provider | Sources | Free<br>access | Data<br>access | Open<br>Data | Open<br>Software |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Journal Impact Factor | Clarivate | Citations (Web of Science) | No | No | No | No |
| SCImago Journal Rank | Elsevier | Citations (Scopus) | Yes | Yes | No | No |
| SNIP | Elsevier | Citations (Scopus) | Yes | Yes | No | No |
| Eigenfactor | Clarivate | Citations (Web of Science) | Yes | No | No | No |
| Google Journal Ranking | Google Scholar | Citations (Google) | Yes | No | No | No |
| h-index | Clarivate | Citations (Web of Science) | No | No | No | No |
| h-index | Elsevier | Citations (Scopus) | No | No | No | No |
| h-index | Google Scholar | Citations (Google) | Yes | No | No | No |
| Altmetrics | PLUM Analytics | Varied sources | No | No | No | No |
| Altmetrics | Altmetric (Macmillan) | Varied sources | Partial | No | No | No |
| Altmetrics | PLOS | Varied sources | Yes | Yes | Partial (include proprietary data) | Yes |
| Altmetrics | ImpactStory | Varied sources | Yes | Yes | Partial (include proprietary data) | Yes |
| Open Citation Data | OpenCitations Corpus | Varied sources | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |

Herb laid an alternative program for open metrics that have yet to be developed. The main criteria included:

* A large selection of publication items (journal articles, books, dataset, software) that agree with the writing and reading practices of scientific communities.
* Fully documented data sources.
* Transparent and reproducible process for the calculation of the metrics and other indices.
* Open software.
* Promotion of reflexive and interpretive uses of the metrics, to prevent their misuse in quantitative assessments.

This definition has been implemented in research programs, like ROSI (*Reference implementation for open scientometric indicators*). In 2017, the European Commission Expert Group on Altmetrics expanded the open metrics program of Ulrich Herb under a new concept, the *Next-generation metrics*. These metrics should be managed by "open, transparent and linked data infrastructure". The expert group underline that not everything should be measured and not all metrics are relevants: "Measure what matters: the next generation of metrics should begin with those qualities and impacts that European societies most value and need indices for, rather than those which are most easily collected and measure".

### Infrastructure for open citation data

Until the 2010s, the impact of open science movement was largely limited to scientific publications: it "has tended to overlook the importance of social structures and systemic constraints in the design of new forms of knowledge infrastructures." In 1997, Robert D. Cameron called for the development of an open databases of citation that would completely alter the condition of science communication: "Imagine a universal bibliographic and citation database linking every scholarly work ever written—no matter how published—to every work that cites and every work that cites it. Imagine that such a citation database was freely available over the Internet and was updated every day with all the new works published that day, including papers in traditional and electronic journals, conference papers, theses, technical reports, working papers, and preprints." Despite the development of specific indexes focused on open access works like CiteSeer, a large open alternative to the Science Citation Index failed to materialize. The collection of citation data, remained dominated by large commercial structure such as the direct descendant of the Scientific Citation Index, the Web of Science. This had the effect of maintaining the emerging ecosystem of open resources at the periphery of academic networks: "common pool of resources is not governed or managed by the current scholarly commons initiative. There is no dedicated hard infrastructure and though there may be a nascent community, there is no formal membership."

Since 2015, open science infrastructures, platforms and journals have converged to the creation of digital academic commons, increasingly structured around a shared ecosystem of services and standards has emerged through the network of dependencies from one infrastructure to another. This movement stem from an increasingly critical stance toward leading proprietary databases. In 2012, the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) called for "ending the use of journal impact factors in funding, hiring and promotion decisions." The Leiden Manifesto for research metrics (2015) encouraged the development of "open, transparent and simple" data collection.

Collaborations between academic and non-academic actors collectively committed in the creation and maintenance of knowledge commons has been a determining factor in the creation of new infrastructure for open citation data. Since 2010, a dataset of open citation data, the *Open Citation Corpus*, has been collected by several researchers from a variety of open access sources (including PLOS and Pubmed). This collection was the initial kernel of the Initiative for OpenCitations, incepted in 2017 in response to issues of data accessibility faced by a Wikimedia project, Wikidata. A conference, given by Dario Taraborelli, head of research at the Wikimedia Foundation showed that only 1% of papers in Crossref had citations metadata that were freely available and references stored on Wikidata were unable to include the very large segment of non-free data. This coverage expanded to more than half of the recorded papers, when Elsevier finally joined the initiative in January 2021.

Since 2021, OpenAlex has become a major open infrastructure for scientific metadata. Initially created as a replacement for the discontinued *Microsoft Academic Graph*, OpenAlex indexed in 2022 209 millions of scholarly works from 213 millions authors as well as their associated institutions, venues and concepts in a knowledge graph integrated into the semantic web (and Wikidata). Due to its large coverage and large amount of data properly migrated from the Microsoft Academic Graph (MAG), OpenAlex "seems to be at least as suited for bibliometric analyses as MAG for publication years before 2021." In 2023, a study on the coverage of data journals in scientific indexes found that OpenAlex, along with Dimensions, "enjoy a strong advantage over the two more traditional databases, WoS and Scopus" and is overall especially suited for the indexation of non-journal publications like books or from researchers in non-western countries

The opening of science data has been a major topic of debate in the bibliometrics and scientometrics community and had wide range social and intellectual consequences. In 2019, the entire scientific board of the *Journal of Infometrics* resigned and created a new open access journals, *Quantitative Science Studies*. The journal was published by Elsevier since 2007 and the members of the board were increasingly critical of the lack of progress in the open sharing of open citation data: "Our field depends on high-quality scientific metadata. To make our science more robust and reproducible, these data must be as open as possible. Therefore, our editorial board was deeply concerned with the refusal of Elsevier to participate in the Initiative for Open Citations (I4OC)."

### Bibliometrics without evaluation: the shift to quantitative science studies

The unprecedented availability of a wide range of scientific productions (publications, data, software, conference, reviews...) has entailed a more dramatic redefinition of the bibliometrics project. For new alternative works anchored in the open science landscape, the principles of bibliometrics as defined by Garfield and Price in the 1960s need to be rethought. The pre-selection of a limited corpus of important journals seem neither necessary nor appropriate. In 2019, the proponents of the Matilda project, "do not want to just "open" the existing closed information, but wish to give back a fair place to the whole academic content that has been excluded from such tools, in a "all texts are born equal" fashion." They aim to "redefine bibliometrics tools as a technology" by focusing on the exploration and mapping of scientific corpus.

Issues of inclusivity and more critical approach of structural inequalities in science have become more prevalent in scientometrics and bibliometrics, especially in relation to gender imbalance. After 2020, one of the most heated debate in the field revolved around the reception of a study on the gender imbalance in fundamental physics.

The structural shift in the definition of bibliometrics, scientometrics or infometrics has entailed the need for alternative labels. The concept of *Quantitative Science Studies* was originally introduced in the late 2000s in the context of a renewed critical assessment of classic bibliometric findings. It has become more prevalent in the late 2010s. After leaving Elsevier, the editors of the *Journal of Infometrics* opted for this new label and created a journal for *Quantitative Science Studies*. The first editorial removed all references to metric and aimed for a wider inclusion of quantitative and qualitative research on the science of science:

> We hope that those who identify under labels such as scientometrics, science of science, and metascience will all find a home in QSS. We also recognize the diverse range of disciplines for whom science is an object of study: We welcome historians of science, philosophers of science, and sociologists of science to our journal. While we bear the moniker of quantitative, we are inclusive of a breadth of epistemological perspectives. Quantitative science studies cannot operate in isolation: Robust empirical work requires the integration of theories and insights from all metasciences.

## Bibliography

### Books & thesis

### Journal articles

### Book sections

### Reports

### Conferences

* Priem, Jason; Piwowar, Heather; Orr, Richard (16 June 2022). *OpenAlex: A fully-open index of scholarly works, authors, venues, institutions, and concepts*. STI 2022. arXiv:2205.01833.
* Scheidsteger, Thomas; Haunschild, Robin (2022). *Comparison of metadata with relevance for bibliometrics between Microsoft Academic Graph and OpenAlex until 2020*. STI 2022. arXiv:2206.14168. doi:10.5281/zenodo.6975102.


title: Bibliometro

abstract: Bibliometro is a Chilean program of the Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Heritage created in 1995 through a cultural alliance between the Directorate of Libraries, Archives, and Museums (DIBAM) and the Santiago Metro.

text:
# Bibliometro

**Bibliometro** (stylized as *BiblioMetro*) is a Chilean program of the Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Heritage created in 1995 through a cultural alliance between the Directorate of Libraries, Archives, and Museums (DIBAM) and the Santiago Metro.

## History

Bibliometro was created by DIBAM with the aim of increasing reading habits to general public.

On June 26, 1996, Bibliometro began operating, with its first three branches located at the Cal y Canto (Line 2), Los Héroes (Line 1), and Tobalaba (Line 1). Initially, each Bibliometro branch had 532 titles and 1,596 volumes.

From its inception, the main goal was to have a library service network, allowing users to request books at one service point and return them at any other, an innovative system for the time made possible by the software used, which keeps the branches connected in a network.

In 2019, the program expanded to the Valparaíso Metro as part of a partnership between the National Cultural Heritage Service and the public company.

Bibliometro has been successfully emulated in other countries, such as in the Madrid Metro and Metrovalencia in Spain, as well as in the Medellín Metro in Colombia.

As of 2023, the network has 35 in-person service branches, as well as 3 self-service modules, and a train car converted into a public library located next to the National Library of Chile.

## Branches

|
**Line 1**
*West to east* |
**Line 2**
*North to south* |
**Line 3**
*Northwest to southeast* |
**Line 4**
*Northeast to southeast* |
**Line 5**
*Southwest to Southeast* |
**Line 6**
*Southwest to Northeast* |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |  |  |  |

## InfoBox

| Bibliometro | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Bibliometro at Baquedano station | |
| Location | Chile |
| Established | June 26, 1996 (1996-06-26) |
| Service area | Santiago Metro |
| Branches | 35 *(2023)* |
| Collection | |
| Size | 115,000 |
| Other information | |
| Website | bibliometro.cl |


title: Robert Bell Cotton

abstract: Robert Bell Cotton was a Democratic member of the Mississippi House of Representatives, representing Alcorn County, from 1911 until his death.

text:
# Robert Bell Cotton

**Robert Bell Cotton** (June 8, 1859 - 1917) was a Democratic member of the Mississippi House of Representatives, representing Alcorn County, from 1911 until his death.

## Biography

Robert Bell Cotton was born on June 8, 1859, in Tippah County, Mississippi, to James Madison Cotton and Martha Ellen (Bell) Cotton. He married Eldora Wiggs in 1885. He was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives, representing Alcorn County, in 1911 in a special election to choose the successor of W. T. Bennet and served in the 1911 session. He was re-elected to the House in 1911 and 1915. He was a Democrat. He died in Alcorn County, Mississippi, in 1917, and was replaced by J. R. Hill.

1. History, Mississippi Department of Archives and (1917). *The Official and Statistical Register of the State of Mississippi*. Department of Archives and History.
2. History, Mississippi Department of Archives and (1912). *The Official and Statistical Register of the State of Mississippi*. Department of Archives and History.
3. "Mississippi, Death Certificate Index, 1912-1943", database, *FamilySearch* (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:CLWT-FZ2M  : 29 March 2020), Robert B. Cotton, 1917.
4. Representatives, Mississippi Legislature House of (1918). *Journal*.

## InfoBox

| Robert Bell Cotton | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the Mississippi House of Representatives
from the Alcorn County district | |
| **In office**
1911-1917 | |
| Preceded by | W. T. Bennet |
| Succeeded by | J. R. Hill |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1859-06-08)June 8, 1859
Tippah County, Mississippi, U.S. |
| Died | 1917(1917-00-00) (aged 57–58)
Alcorn County, Mississippi, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic |
|  | |


title: Robert Bell (priest)

abstract: Robert Bell D.D. was an Irish Anglican priest who was Archdeacon of Cashel from 1879 to 1883. The son of Robert Bell, Precentor of Emly, he was born in Tipperary and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was the Incumbent at Tipperary; Archdeacon of Waterford from 1845 to 1879; and Archdeacon of Cashel from 1879 until his death on 10 January 1883.

text:
# Robert Bell (priest)

**Robert Bell** D.D. (1808 – 10 January 1883) was an Irish Anglican priest who was Archdeacon of Cashel from 1879 to 1883.

The son of Robert Bell, Precentor of Emly, he was born in Tipperary and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was the Incumbent at Tipperary; Archdeacon of Waterford from 1845 to 1879; and Archdeacon of Cashel from 1879 until his death on 10 January 1883.


title: Robert Bell Hamilton

abstract: Robert Bell Hamilton was a notable Australian architect and also Member of the Legislative Assembly for the State electoral district of Toorak in Victoria.

text:
# Robert Bell Hamilton

**Robert Bell Hamilton** (20 October 1892 – 15 May 1948) was a notable Australian architect and also Member of the Legislative Assembly for the State electoral district of Toorak in Victoria.

## Biography

Robert Bell Hamilton's architectural works include some of the most expensive properties in Toorak, Melbourne's richest suburb. He was Victoria's foremost practitioner of the inter-war Old English/Tudor Revival style during the 1930s. Hamilton aided in the design, along with the firm Prevost Synnot and Rewald, of the heritage-listed Bruce Manor, former estate of Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce. For his contribution to Victorian architecture Hamilton was appointed as a Fellow of the Royal Victorian Institute of Architects in 1931.

Hamilton served as a Councillor on Prahran City Council for Toorak Ward and then Mornington Shire Council. He later served as President of Mornington Shire Council, and subsequently became the Member for Toorak for the Liberal and Country Party in the November 1945 election that saw the Labor Party win a small majority over their coalition counterparts. During his short time in Parliament, Hamilton sat on the Public Works Committee and the Library Committee.

Hamilton died in 1948 at Mornington Nursing Hospital before serving a full-term in office. In an obituary published in The Standard, the then President of Mornington Shire Council wrote:

> *His work and his planning for the future of Mornington have put us in his debt, and his name will be remembered because his energy and his ideas have been given for the future and the advancement of our district...I pay homage to Robert Bell Hamilton, a citizen with true public spirit and a man who discharged all obligations of friendship.*

The by-election triggered by his death, held in June 1948, saw the re-election of a Liberal and Country Party member, Edward Reynolds.

## InfoBox

| Robert Bell Hamilton | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
for Toorak | |
| **In office**
10 November 1945  15 May 1948 | |
| Preceded by | Harold Thonemann |
| Succeeded by | Edward Reynolds |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1892-10-20)20 October 1892
East Melbourne, Victoria |
| Died | 14 May 1948(1948-05-14) (aged 55)
Mornington, Victoria, Australia |
| Resting place | Springvale Botanical Cemetery |
| Nationality | Australian |
| Political party | Liberal Party |
| Spouse | Olive Berry (m. 1920) |
| Profession | Architect |
| Committees | Library Committee, Public Works Committee |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | Australia |
| Branch/service | Australian Imperial Force |
| Unit | 14th Battalion |
|  | |


title: Robert Kavanaugh

abstract: Robert Murray Kavanaugh GC was an Australian recipient of the Albert Medal, formerly the highest decoration for gallantry awarded to civilians or to military personnel for actions "not in the face of the enemy" in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth. A dental student, Kavanaugh was awarded the Albert Medal following his rescue of a youth during a shark attack at Bondi Beach in January 1929. With the establishment of the George Cross, the Albert Medal was discontinued and, in 1971, living recipients of the decoration were invited to exchange their medal for the George Cross; Kavanaugh took up the offer and formally became a recipient of the George Cross.

text:
# Robert Kavanaugh

**Robert Murray Kavanaugh** GC (18 December 1906  12 September 1976) was an Australian recipient of the Albert Medal, formerly the highest decoration for gallantry awarded to civilians or to military personnel for actions "not in the face of the enemy" in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth. A dental student, Kavanaugh was awarded the Albert Medal following his rescue of a youth during a shark attack at Bondi Beach in January 1929. With the establishment of the George Cross, the Albert Medal was discontinued and, in 1971, living recipients of the decoration were invited to exchange their medal for the George Cross; Kavanaugh took up the offer and formally became a recipient of the George Cross.

## Early life and education

Kavanaugh was born in Wingham, New South Wales, on 18 December 1906 to Herbert Leo Kavanaugh, a dentist, and his wife Alice Rose (née Flood). In 1917, the family moved to Sydney where Kavanaugh was educated at Waverley and Burwood public schools, as well as by a private tutor. He was active in sport, playing Rugby union for the Eastern Suburbs District Football Club, and belonging to the Sydney Rowing Club and the Kensington Amateur Athletic Association. Aged fifteen, Kavanaugh undertook study through the Dental Board of New South Wales and was apprenticed to his father as a dental student.

## Albert Medal

On 12 January 1929, Kavanaugh was swimming at Bondi Beach approximately 45 metres (49 yd) from the shore when fourteen-year-old Colin Stewart was attacked by a shark and dragged underwater. The shark inflicted severe wounds to Stewart's side and hip, and Kavanaugh—who was located only a few metres away—immediately swam to his assistance. The shark made a second pass at Stewart as Kavanaugh neared. Securing a hold on Stewart, Kavanaugh struggled towards the shore. As the pair neared, they were assisted by two other men who dragged Stewart ashore, where he received medical attention before being rushed to hospital. Stewart subsequently died of his injuries the following morning.

The coroner who investigated the incident commented on Kavanaugh's "heroic act", and noted that he should be decorated with the highest honour possible for the circumstances. For his actions, Kavanaugh was subsequently awarded the Surf Life Saving Association of Australia's meritorious award in silver and the Albert Medal. The announcement and accompanying citation for the latter award was published in the *London Gazette* on 17 October 1930, reading:

> *Board of Trade, Great George Street, London, S.W. 1. 16th October, 1930.*
>
> His Majesty The KING has been graciously pleased to confer the Decoration of the Albert Medal for Gallantry in Saving Life at Sea on Robert Murray Kavanaugh, of Darlinghurst, New South Wales, in recognition, of his gallantry in the following circumstances:—
>
> On the evening of the 12th January, 1929, Colin J. Stewart, a boy of 14 years of age, was bathing at Bondi Beach, New South Wales, some fifty yards from the shore, when he was attacked by a shark which inflicted serious injuries to his right side and hip. Robert Murray Kavanaugh, aged 22 years, of Darlinghurst, New South Wales, who was bathing some few yards from Stewart, without hesitation swam to his assistance and had almost reached him when the shark made a second attack on Stewart. Undeterred by the danger to himself, Kavanaugh secured hold of Stewart and struggled with him towards the shore. He had gone a considerable distance when he was met by two other men and together they carried Stewart to the beach, where he was given medical attention and then conveyed to hospital. Stewart, however, succumbed to his injuries the following morning.

## Later life

Following the completion of his apprenticeship, Kavanaugh was registered as a dental surgeon in June 1930. By 1933, he had established his own practice at Narromine. On 22 April that year, he married Mary Sylvia Potter, a stenographer, in a Catholic ceremony at the Sacred Heart Church, Darlinghurst; the pair would later have a son and three daughters. During this time, Kavanaugh obtained a civil flying licence and was active in the local musical and drama societies.

On 7 October 1940, Kavanaugh enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service during the Second World War. Although wishing to be selected as a pilot, he was instead commissioned as a flight lieutenant in the medical branch as a dental officer. Promoted to squadron leader in October 1942, he served throughout the war in Australia. He was last posted to RAAF Station Bradfield Park before taking his discharge on 9 June 1945.

In 1946, Kavanaugh entered the University of Sydney studying for a Bachelor of Dental Surgery degree. During his time at the university, he won the Percy A. Ash Prize in 1948 and the Annie Praed Prize in 1949, before graduating with his degree in 1950. Kavanaugh continued to practice dentistry in Sydney until the late 1950s, when he purchased Karalinga, a sheep station on the Wollondilly River, and entered semi-retirement. In his semi-retirement, Kavanaugh divided his time between Karalinga and serving as a locum tenens dentist.

In 1971, owing to the decline in status and significance of the Albert Medal, the British Government announced that the decoration would be abolished and living recipients would henceforth be regarded as holders of the George Cross. The change came into effect from 21 October, and living recipients were accordingly invited to exchange their medals. All six Australian Albert Medal recipients living at the time opted to accept the offer, Kavanaugh and four others travelling to London to receive their awards. The five men, Jack Chalmers, Stanley Gibbs, William McAloney, Dick Richards and Kavanaugh, were presented with their George Crosses by Queen Elizabeth II in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 12 July 1972.

Kavanaugh died of cardiac failure at the age of 69 at the Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, on 12 September 1976. He was interred in the Field of Mars Cemetery, Sydney, in the Anglican section, in the same grave as his wife Mary Sylvia, who had died on 27 July 1976, aged 68.

1. Oakes, Gerard (1996). "Kavanaugh, Robert Murray (1906  1976)". *Australian Dictionary of Biography*. Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7. ISSN 1833-7538. OCLC 70677943. Retrieved 15 February 2009.
2. Staunton 2005, p. 302
3. "No. 33653". *The London Gazette*. 17 October 1930. pp. 6316–6317.
4. "KAVANAUGH, ROBERT MURRAY". *World War II Nominal Roll*. Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 15 February 2009.
5. Price 2015, pp. 33–34
6. Staunton 2005, p. 299
7. Staunton 2005, p. 297

## Bibliography

* Price, John (2015). *Everyday Heroism: Victorian Constructions of the Heroic Civilian*. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4742-4795-5.
* Staunton, Anthony (2005). *Victoria Cross: Australia's Finest and the Battles they Fought*. Prahran, Victoria, Australia: Hardie Grant Books. ISBN 1-74066-288-1.

## InfoBox

| Robert Murray Kavanaugh | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | 18 December 1906
Wingham, New South Wales |
| Died | 12 September 1976(1976-09-12) (aged 69)
Concord, New South Wales |
| Occupation(s) | Dentist
Royal Australian Air Force officer |
| Known for | Albert Medal/George Cross recipient |


title: Robert Findlay (architect)

abstract: Robert Findlay (1859–1951) was a Scottish-born Canadian architect. He was born in Inverness, Scotland, and moved to Montreal in 1885. He won the competition to expand the first Sun Life Building and was the architect for that project, which he began in 1890. The Sun Life company left that building for the current Sun Life Building in 1913.

text:
# Robert Findlay (architect)

**Robert Findlay** (1859–1951) was a Scottish-born Canadian architect. He was born in Inverness, Scotland, and moved to Montreal in 1885. He won the competition to expand the first Sun Life Building and was the architect for that project, which he began in 1890. The Sun Life company left that building for the current Sun Life Building in 1913.

## Career

Findlay cultivated an extensive practice, working in later years with his son, Frank. He designed several mansions in the Golden Square Mile and a number of other large private houses in Westmount, as well as Westmount City Hall. His private clients included four members of the Molson family, Robert Wilson Reford, F.E. Meredith, Charles Meredith, J.K.L. Ross, Sir Edward Beatty, Charles Francis Smithers, A.A. Bronfman and Sir Mortimer Davis.

Many of the Golden Square Mile homes that he designed were later purchased by McGill University, including the Sir Mortimer Davis House (now Purvis Hall). Findlay designed the Calvary Congregational Church (1911) in Westmount, located at the intersection of Greene Street and Dorchester Boulevard (demolished in 1961). He also designed the base for Montreal's *Lion of Belfort* monument in Dorchester Square.

Findlay was responsible for the design of Mull Hall (1916) on Lakeshore Road, later known as Stewart Hall, and for the Alice Graham Hallward House (1925) at 3605 Mountain Street, known from 1971 to 2004 as McGill's Martlet House (not to be confused with McGill's current Martlet House at 1430 Peel Street, which was built by David Jerome Spence in 1928).

## InfoBox

| Robert Findlay | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | 1859<br>Inverness, Scotland |
| Died | 1951 |
| Nationality | Canadian |
| Occupation | Architect |
|  | |
| Buildings | Westmount City Hall |
|  | |


title: Bicton College

abstract: Bicton College is a college with around 1,000 full-time and 3,500 part-time pupils, located near Budleigh Salterton, Devon, England. It is part of the Cornwall College group. The college specialises in agriculture and currently offers courses in such topics as animal care, countryside management, horticulture, veterinary nursing, and agricultural engineering, aboriculture and floristry. The college's courses range from level 1 all the way to foundation degrees. For the level-4 courses the college works in partnership with the University of Plymouth. The college was founded under the name Bicton Farm Institute in 1947, when the Devon County Council leased Bicton House and part of the Bicton Park estate from Lord Clinton. The name was changed in 1967 to Bicton College of Agriculture and in 2002 to Bicton College. For the years 2007-2008 Bicton College was recognised as a Centre of Excellence in Teacher Training for its training of teachers in the Post Compulsory sector.

text:
# Bicton College

**Bicton College** is a college with around 1,000 full-time and 3,500 part-time pupils, located near Budleigh Salterton, Devon, England. It is part of the Cornwall College group. The college specialises in agriculture and currently offers courses in such topics as animal care, countryside management, horticulture, veterinary nursing, and agricultural engineering, aboriculture and floristry. The college's courses range from level 1 all the way to foundation degrees. For the level-4 courses the college works in partnership with the University of Plymouth.

The college was founded under the name Bicton Farm Institute in 1947, when the Devon County Council leased Bicton House and part of the Bicton Park estate from Lord Clinton. The name was changed in 1967 to Bicton College of Agriculture and in 2002 to Bicton College.

For the years 2007-2008 Bicton College was recognised as a Centre of Excellence in Teacher Training for its training of teachers in the Post Compulsory (Post 16) sector.

50°40′12″N 3°19′01″W / 50.6701°N 3.3169°W / 50.6701; -3.3169


title: Robert M. Brown

abstract: Robert M. Brown was the Chief Engineer for Union Pacific Railroad in the 1960s and 1970s. For his work with the railroad, Modern Railways magazine selected Brown to receive the magazine's Man of the Year award in 1978; the award has since been continued by Railway Age magazine as the Railroader of the Year. He was the first railway Chief Engineer to receive this honor that was previously awarded only to top-level executives. Brown was also involved in the hiring process at Union Pacific for Bill Wimmer, the 2007 recipient of the Railroader of the Year award, and coincidentally, only the second Chief Engineer to be chosen for the honor.

text:
# Robert M. Brown

**Robert M. Brown** was the Chief Engineer for Union Pacific Railroad in the 1960s and 1970s. For his work with the railroad, Modern Railways magazine selected Brown to receive the magazine's Man of the Year award in 1978; the award has since been continued by Railway Age magazine as the Railroader of the Year. He was the first railway Chief Engineer to receive this honor that was previously awarded only to top-level executives. Brown was also involved in the hiring process at Union Pacific for Bill Wimmer, the 2007 recipient of the Railroader of the Year award, and coincidentally, only the second Chief Engineer to be chosen for the honor.