abstract: The Tennessee Lady Volunteers women's tennis team represents the University of Tennessee, in Knoxville, TN. The program has qualified for 31 NCAA Tournaments, including 20 straight from 1995 to 2014. They are led by former player and current 8th year head coach Alison Ojeda. Along with all other UT women's sports teams, it used the nickname "Lady Volunteers" until the 2015–16 school year, when the school dropped the "Lady" prefix from the nicknames of all women's teams except in basketball. In 2017 the university announced the return of the “Lady Volunteer” name.

text:
# Tennessee Lady Volunteers women's tennis

The **Tennessee Lady Volunteers women's tennis** team represents the University of Tennessee, in Knoxville, TN. The program has qualified for 31 NCAA Tournaments, including 20 straight from 1995 to 2014. They are led by former player and current 8th year head coach Alison Ojeda.

Along with all other UT women's sports teams, it used the nickname "Lady Volunteers" (or the short form "Lady Vols") until the 2015–16 school year, when the school dropped the "Lady" prefix from the nicknames of all women's teams except in basketball. In 2017 the university announced the return of the “Lady Volunteer” name.

## History

All-time, the Lady Vols have appeared in 30 NCAA tournaments with their best result being a semifinal berth in 2002. This puts them at 4th in the SEC in terms of NCAA appearances behind Florida (40), Georgia (36), and South Carolina (32). Additionally the women's tennis team is one of only 2 programs at Tennessee (the other is women's golf) to never win a conference championship. The Lady Vols have finished 2nd in the SEC Regular Season 5 times (2001, 2003, 2009, 2010, 2011), and lost in the final of the SEC Tournament 4 times (2001, 2009, 2010, 2011).

### Mike Patrick and Sonia Hahn-Patrick era

Mike Patrick led the Lady Volunteer Tennis program for 30 years, 20 of which where he served as Co-Head Coach with his with Sonia Han-Patrick, before he resigned on November 16, 2016. Patrick was the winningest coach in Lady Vol program history compiling a 473-310 all-time record. Of Patrick's 30 seasons, 23 teams finished the year ranked in the top 25. Patrick's best finish in the NCAA tournament came with a semifinal appearance in 2002. Additionally, the 2001 team achieved the programs first #1 national ranking, and finished 6th in the nation with a 25-4 (10-1 SEC) record. They came within 1 match of an SEC Regular season title following a 4-3 loss to #5 Florida, and subsequently lost the SEC Tournament final to #2 Georgia. Patrick's assistant coach Alison Ojeda, a former All-American at Tennessee, took over the program in 2017.

### Alison Ojeda era

In Ojeda's first six seasons as head coach, she has guided the Lady Vols to the NCAA Tournament every season but 2020 when the tournament was cancelled.

The 2017 season saw Tennessee finish with their most wins since 2011, posting a 19-12 record, and finishing the season ranked #24 in the ITA rankings. The season ended in the NCAA round of 32 with a 4-1 loss to #15 seed Duke.

The 2018 season began with a 12-0 record, the programs best start in program a history; however, the team struggled in SEC play finishing with a 3-10 conference record. The year ended with an 18-12 mark, and a 4-2 loss to Oregon in the first round of the NCAA Tournament.

In Ojeda's third season (2019), Tennessee reached new heights by finishing with their most wins since 2003, and making their third consecutive NCAA tournament. The team finished 4th in the SEC with a 9-4 record, and was ranked #20 in the ITA rankings with a 20-8 record. The run ended with a 4-0 loss in the NCAA second round to #12 seed NC State.

In 2020, Tennessee got off to a 10-3 (1-2 SEC) before the season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic after their 4-3 match win against Ole Miss.

The 2021 season saw Tennessee finish 5th in the SEC with an 8-5 mark in SEC play. They entered the NCAA Tournament with a 16-8 record after a loss in the SEC tournament semifinal to #3 ranked Georgia. Despite being ranked 15th in the ITA rankings, the Lady Vols were not awarded one of the NCAA Tournament's top 16 seeds, who host the first and second rounds of the tournament. Thus, they travelled to the Charlottesville regional, where the beat James Madison 4-0 in the round of 64, then fell to #14 seed Virginia, in a close match, 4-2. This concluded the 2021 season, and the team's 17-9 campaign.

The 2022 season saw the Lady Vols return to the NCAA tournament for the 5th season in a row (2020 tournament was cancelled), and finish 7th in the conference with a 7-6 record. They advanced to the semifinals of the SEC Tournament via a 4-2 upset of #2 seed and twelfth ranked Auburn. The season concluded with a 16-10 record and a 4-1 loss to #6 NC State in the NCAA round of 32.

Under Ojeda, the 2023 team had their best season in over a decade. Big SEC wins over #17 Vanderbilt (4-3), #8 Auburn (6-1), and #17 Florida (4-1) propelled the Lady Vols a 3rd place SEC finish, their highest since 2013. Tennessee advanced to the semifinals of the SEC tournament for the 3rd year in a row, and hosted an NCAA Regional for the first time since 2011. As the #15 seed, Tennessee defeated Southeast Missouri State (4-0), and Wake Forest (4-1) to advance to the Round of 16 for the first time since 2010. There, they concluded the 21-6 campaign by falling in the College Station Super Regional to #2 Texas A&M 4-1.

## Head coaches

Source

| **#** | **Coach** | **Years** | **Seasons** | **Overall** | | | **Conference** | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | | | Won | Lost | % | Won | Lost | % |
| 1 | Mary Jane Ramsey | 1977–1978 | 2 | 21 | 17 | .553 |  |  |  |
| 2 | Mary Ellis Richardson | 1978–1981 | 3 | 49 | 14 | .778 |  |  |  |
| 3 | Frank Ackley | 1981–1983 | 2 | 46 | 19 | .708 | 13 | 5 | .722 |
| 4 | Elizabeth Henderson | 1983–1987 | 4 | 52 | 57 | .477 | 8 | 32 | .200 |
| 5 | Mike Patrick | 1988–2016 | 29 | 473 | 310 | .604 | 187 | 133 | .584 |
| 6 | Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 1998–2016 | 19 | 314 | 203 | .607 | 122 | 95 | .562 |
| 7 | Alison Ojeda | 2016-Pres. | 7 | 121 | 60 | .669 | 43 | 38 | .531 |
| Total | | | 47 | 762 | 477 | .615 | 251 | 208 | .547 |

## Yearly Record

Source

| Season | Coach | Record | | Conference
standing | Conference
tournament | ITA
rank | Postseason |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | **Overall** | **Conference** | | | | |
| **Independent** *(AIAW)* | | | | | | | |
| 1977 | Mary Jane Ramsey | 7-4 |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1978 | Mary Jane Ramsey | 14-13 |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1979 | Mary Ellis Richardson | 14-3 |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1980 | Mary Ellis Richardson | 16-4 |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1981 | Mary Ellis Richardson | 19-7 |  |  |  |  |  |
|
| **Southeastern Conference** *(NCAA)* | | | | | | | |
| 1982 | Frank Ackley | 25-7 | 7-2 | 4th |  |  |  |
| 1983 | Frank Ackley | 21-12 | 6-3 | 4th |  |  |  |
| 1984 | Elizabeth Henderson | 9-16 | 2-9 | 9th |  |  |  |
| 1985 | Elizabeth Henderson | 14-14 | 3-8 | 6th |  |  |  |
| 1986 | Elizabeth Henderson | 14-14 | 1-8 | 8th |  |  |  |
| 1987 | Elizabeth Henderson | 15-13 | 2-7 | 8th |  |  |  |
| 1988 | Mike Patrick | 17-8 | 6-3 | 5th |  | 24th |  |
| 1989 | Mike Patrick | 15-7 | 7-2 | 3rd |  | 17th | NCAA First Round |
| 1990 | Mike Patrick | 19-8 | 6-2 | 4th | Semifinal | 12th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 1991 | Mike Patrick | 17-14 | 5-6 | 5th | Quarterfinal | 15th | NCAA First Round |
| 1992 | Mike Patrick | 20-9 | 8-3 | 3rd | Semifinal | 11th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 1993 | Mike Patrick | 13-14 | 6-5 | 6th | Quarterfinal | 21st |  |
| 1994 | Mike Patrick | 6-16 | 3-8 | 9th | First Round | 39th |  |
| 1995 | Mike Patrick | 16-8 | 8-3 | 3rd | Quarterfinal | 12th | NCAA First Round |
| 1996 | Mike Patrick | 16-13 | 8-3 | 4th | Quarterfinal | 17th | NCAA Second Round |
| 1997 | Mike Patrick | 20-10 | 8-3 | 4th | Semifinal | 13th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 1998 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 20-11 | 6-5 | 6th | Semifinal | 15th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 1999 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 18-8 | 5-6 | 7th | Quarterfinal | 14th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 2000 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 20-12 | 7-4 | 5th | Semifinal | 14th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 2001 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 25-4 | 10-1 | 2nd | Final | 6th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 2002 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 21-10 | 7-4 | 5th | Quarterfinal | 12th | NCAA Semifinal |
| 2003 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 22-7 | 9-2 | T-2nd | Semifinal | 10th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 2004 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 15-14 | 7-4 | 4th | Quarterfinal | 19th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| 2005 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 15-9 | 7-4 | T-4th | Quarterfinal | 18th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2006 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 12-13 | 6-5 | 5th | Semifinal | 32nd | NCAA First Round |
| 2007 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 14-11 | 6-5 | T-5th | Semifinal | 23rd | NCAA Second Round |
| 2008 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 15-10 | 6-5 | 4th | Quarterfinal | 24th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2009 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 18-7 | 8-3 | 2nd | Final | 10th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2010 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 19-9 | 8-3 | 2nd | Final | 13th | NCAA Quarterfinal |
| 2011 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 20-8 | 9-2 | 2nd | Final | 17th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2012 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 15-13 | 4-7 | 5th | Quarterfinal | 24th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2013 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 13-12 | 7-6 | 3rd | Quarterfinal | 31st | NCAA Second Round |
| 2014 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 13-13 | 6-7 | 6th | Second Round | 34th | NCAA First Round |
| 2015 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 11-15 | 3-10 | 13th | First Round | 61st |  |
| 2016 | Mike Patrick & Sonia Hahn-Patrick | 8-17 | 1-12 | 13th | First Round |  |  |
| 2017 | Alison Ojeda | 19-12 | 4-9 | 11th | Second Round | 24th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2018 | Alison Ojeda | 18-12 | 3-10 | 12th | Second Round | 40th | NCAA First Round |
| 2019 | Alison Ojeda | 20-8 | 9-4 | 4th | Quarterfinal | 22nd | NCAA Second Round |
| 2020 | Alison Ojeda | 10-3 | 1-2 |  |  |  | Postseason not held (COVID-19) |
| 2021 | Alison Ojeda | 17-9 | 8-5 | 5th | Semifinal | 18th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2022 | Alison Ojeda | 16-10 | 7-6 | 7th | Semifinal | 24th | NCAA Second Round |
| 2023 | Alison Ojeda | 21-6 | 11-2 | 3rd | Semifinal | 14th | NCAA Round of 16 |
| Total | | 762–477 | SEC: 251-208 |  |  |  | 30 NCAA Appearances |

## NCAA Tournament Results

In the NCAA Tournament, Tennessee holds a 37-30 record. In the first two rounds of regional matches hosted in Knoxville, the Lady Vols have a 17-2 record, compared with a 32-20 record at other regional sites. In the Round of 16 and beyond, the team is 3-10.

| Year | Seed | Round | Opponent | Result |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1989 |  | First Round | #15 San Diego | L 7-2 |
| 1990 | #10 | Round of 16 | #7 USC | L 7-2 |
| 1991 |  | First Round | #15 San Diego St | L 5-1 |
| 1992 | #13 | Round of 16 | #4 Georgia | L 5-0 |
| 1995 | #16 | First Round | LSU | L 5-3 |
| 1996 |  | Regional QF
Regional SF | Auburn
#14 Georgia | **W** 5-0
L 5-3 |
| 1997 | #12 | Regional QF
Regional SF
Regional Final
Round of 16 | Baylor
Houston
LSU
#5 UCLA | **W** 5-1
**W** 5-0
**W** 5-2
L 5-0 |
| 1998 | #15 | Regional QF
Regional SF
Regional Final
Round of 16 | Clemson
South Alabama
Vanderbilt
#2 Stanford | **W** 5-0
**W** 5-3
**W** 5-4
L 6-0 |
| 1999 | #15 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | Tennessee Tech
Wisconsin
#2 Stanford | **W** 5-0
**W** 5-2
L 5-1 |
| 2000 |  | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | Princeton
#14 William & Mary
#3 Wake Forest | **W** 5-1
**W** 5-3
L 5-0 |
| 2001 | #5 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | Furman
Washington State
#12 Washington | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-0
L 4-3 |
| 2002 | #13 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16
Quarterfinals
Semifinals | Marshall
Alabama
#4 Vanderbilt
VCU
#1 Florida | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-0
**W** 4-2
**W** 4-3
L 4-1 |
| 2003 | #7 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | Murray State
Virginia
#10 Vanderbilt | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-1
L 4-3 |
| 2004 | #14 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | Wisconsin
North Carolina
#3 Vanderbilt | **W** 4-3
**W** 4-3
L 4-1
 |
| 2005 |  | First Round
Second Round | Boston U
#16 Harvard | **W** 4-0
L 4-1 |
| 2006 |  | First Round | Penn | L 4-2 |
| 2007 |  | First Round
Second Round | Tulsa
#16 Vanderbilt | **W** 4-0
L 4-0 |
| 2008 |  | First Round
Second Round | Illinois
#3 Georgia Tech | **W** 4-0
L 4-0 |
| 2009 | #10 | First Round
Second Round | East Tennessee State
South Carolina | **W** 4-0
L 4-3 |
| 2010 | #13 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16
Quarterfinals | Winthrop
Vanderbilt
#4 Michigan
#5 Notre Dame | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-1
**W** 4-0
L 4-2 |
| 2011 | #13 | First Round
Second Round | College of Charleston
Vanderbilt | **W** 4-1
L 4-3 |
| 2012 |  | First Round
Second Round | VCU
#14 Virginia | **W** 4-0
L 4-1 |
| 2013 |  | First Round
Second Round | VCU
#2 North Carolina | **W** 4-0
L 4-1 |
| 2014 |  | First Round | Georgia State | L 4-3 |
| 2017 |  | First Round
Second Round | Winthrop
#15 Duke | **W** 4-1
L 4-1 |
| 2018 |  | First Round | Oregon | L 4-2 |
| 2019 |  | First Round
Second Round | Furman
#12 NC State | **W** 4-0
L 4-0 |
| 2021 |  | First Round
Second Round | James Madison
#14 Virginia | **W** 4-0
L 4-2 |
| 2022 |  | First Round
Second Round | VCU
#6 NC State | **W** 4-1
L 4-1 |
| 2023 | #15 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16 | SE Missouri State
Wake Forest
#2 Texas A&M | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-1
L 4-1 |
| 2024 | #16 | First Round
Second Round
Round of 16
Quarterfinals
Semifinals | Murray State
Duke
#1 Oklahoma State
#8 UCLA
#13 Texas A&M | **W** 4-0
**W** 4-0
**W** 4-2
**W** 4-3
L 4-1 |

## InfoBox

| Tennessee Lady Volunteers tennis | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Founded | 1977 |
| University | University of Tennessee |
| Athletic director | Danny White |
| Head coach | Alison Ojeda (8th season) |
| Conference | SEC |
| Location | Knoxville, TN |
| Home Court | Barksdale Stadium
(Capacity: 2,000) |
| Nickname | Lady Volunteers |
| Colors | Orange and white
 |
| NCAA Tournament Semifinals | |
| **2002, 2024** | |
| NCAA Tournament Quarterfinals | |
| **2002, 2010, 2024** | |
| NCAA Tournament Round of 16 | |
| **1990, 1992, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2010, 2023, 2024** | |
| NCAA Tournament Round of 32 | |
| **1989, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024** | |
| NCAA Tournament appearances | |
| **1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024** | |


title: Section (United States land surveying)

abstract: In U.S. land surveying under the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), a section is an area nominally one square mile, containing 640 acres, with 36 sections making up one survey township on a rectangular grid. The legal description of a tract of land under the PLSS includes the name of the state, name of the county, township number, range number, section number, and portion of a section. Sections are customarily surveyed into smaller squares by repeated halving and quartering. A quarter section is 160 acres (65 ha) and a "quarter-quarter section" is 40 acres (16 ha). In 1832 the smallest area of land that could be acquired was reduced to the 40-acre (16 ha) quarter-quarter section, and this size parcel became entrenched in American mythology. After the Civil War, freedmen were reckoned to be self-sufficient with "40 acres and a mule." In the 20th century real estate developers preferred working with 40-acre (16 ha) parcels. The phrases "front 40" and "back 40," referring to farm fields, indicate the front and back quarter-quarter sections of land. One of the reasons for creating sections of 640 acres (260 ha) was the ease of dividing into halves and quarters while still maintaining a whole number of acres. A section can be halved seven times in this way, down to a 5-acre (2 ha) parcel, or half of a quarter-quarter-quarter section—an easily surveyed 50-square-chain (2 ha) area. This system was of great practical value on the American frontier, where surveyors often had a shaky grasp of mathematics and were required to work quickly. A description of a quarter-quarter section in standard abbreviated form, might look like "NW 1/4, NE 1/4, Sec. 34, T.3S, R.1W, 1st P.M." or, alternatively, "34-3-1 NW4NE4 1PM". In expanded form, this would read:The Northwest quarter of the Northeast quarter of Section 34 of Township 3 South, Range 1 West, first Principal Meridian.

text:
# Section (United States land surveying)

In U.S. land surveying under the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), a **section** is an area nominally one square mile (2.6 square kilometers), containing 640 acres (260 hectares), with 36 sections making up one survey township on a rectangular grid.

The legal description of a tract of land under the PLSS includes the name of the state, name of the county, township number, range number, section number, and portion of a section. Sections are customarily surveyed into smaller squares by repeated halving and quartering. A quarter section is 160 acres (65 ha) and a "quarter-quarter section" is 40 acres (16 ha). In 1832 the smallest area of land that could be acquired was reduced to the 40-acre (16 ha) quarter-quarter section, and this size parcel became entrenched in American mythology. After the Civil War, freedmen (freed slaves) were reckoned to be self-sufficient with "40 acres and a mule." In the 20th century real estate developers preferred working with 40-acre (16 ha) parcels. The phrases "front 40" and "back 40," referring to farm fields, indicate the front and back quarter-quarter sections of land.

One of the reasons for creating sections of 640 acres (260 ha) was the ease of dividing into halves and quarters while still maintaining a whole number of acres. A section can be halved seven times in this way, down to a 5-acre (2 ha) parcel, or half of a quarter-quarter-quarter section—an easily surveyed 50-square-chain (2 ha) area. This system was of great practical value on the American frontier, where surveyors often had a shaky grasp of mathematics and were required to work quickly.

A description of a quarter-quarter section in standard abbreviated form, might look like "NW 1/4, NE 1/4, Sec. 34, T.3S, R.1W, 1st P.M." or, alternatively, "34-3-1 NW4NE4 1PM". In expanded form, this would read:

> The Northwest quarter of the Northeast quarter of Section 34 of Township 3 South, Range 1 West, first Principal Meridian.

## History

The existence of section lines made property descriptions far more straightforward than the old metes and bounds system. The establishment of standard east-west and north-south lines ("township" and "range lines") meant that deeds could be written without regard to temporary terrain features such as trees, piles of rocks, fences, and the like, and be worded in the style such as "Lying and being in Township 4 North; Range 7 West; and being the northwest quadrant of the southwest quadrant of said section," an exact description in this case of 40 acres, as there are 640 acres (260 ha) in a square mile.

The importance of "sections" was greatly enhanced by the passage of "An Ordinance for ascertaining the mode of disposing of lands in the Western Territory" of 1785 by the U.S. Congress (see Land Ordinance of 1785). This law provided that lands outside the then-existing states could not be sold, otherwise distributed, or opened for settlement prior to being surveyed. The standard way of doing this was to divide the land into sections. An area of six sections by six sections would define a township. Within this area, one section was designated as school land. As the entire parcel would not be necessary for the school and its grounds, the balance of it was to be sold, with the monies to go into the construction and upkeep of the school.

On May 20, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Homestead Act, by which settlers could "claim" 160 acres (a quarter section) of public land. Claimants were required to "live on" and “improve” their plots by cultivating the land. After five years, the original filer of the claim was entitled to the property, free and clear, except for a small registration fee.

### Roads and urban planning

## Numbering within a township

Every township is divided into 36 sections, each usually 1 mile (1.6 km) square. Sections are numbered boustrophedonically within townships as follows (north at top):

| 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
| 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 13 |
| 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 |
| 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 |
| 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 |

## Section subdivisions

Sections can be divided into **quarter sections** of 160 acres (65 ha), named by intercardinal direction (northwest, northeast, etc.). For instance, the southwest quarter of a section is named SW 1/4.

| NW | NE |
| --- | --- |
| SW | SE |

Sections can be further broken up into 40-acre (16 ha) blocks, or **quarter-quarter sections**. These add a second intercardinal direction label. For instance, the southeast quarter of the southwest quarter section mentioned above is labeled SE 1/4, SW 1/4:

| NWNW | NENW | NWNE | NENE |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| SWNW | SENW | SWNE | SENE |
| NWSW | NESW | NWSE | NESE |
| SWSW | SESW | SWSE | SESE |

## Measurement anomalies

The curvature of the Earth makes it impossible to superimpose a regular grid on its surface, as the meridians converge toward the North Pole. As the U.S. is in the Northern Hemisphere, if a section's or township's east and west sides lie along meridians, its north side is shorter than its south side. As sections were surveyed from south and east to north and west, accumulated errors and distortions resulted in the north and west lines, and north and west sections diverged the most from the ideal shape and size.

The entire township grid shifts to account for the Earth's curvature. Where the grid is corrected, or where two grids based on different principal meridians meet, section shapes are irregular.

Sections also differ from the PLSS ideal of one square mile for other reasons, including errors and sloppy work by surveyors, poor instrumentation, and difficult terrain. In addition, the primary survey tool was the magnetic compass, which is influenced by local irregularities.

Once established, even an imperfect grid remains in force, mainly because the monuments of the original survey, when recovered, hold legal precedent over subsequent resurveys.

## Alternatives and legacy systems

The Public Land Survey System was not the first to define and implement a survey grid. A number of similar systems were established, often using terms like section and township but not necessarily in the same way. For example, the lands of the Holland Purchase in western New York were surveyed into a township grid before the PLSS was established. In colonial New England land was often divided into squares called towns or townships and further subdivided into parcels called lots or sections.

Sections are also used in land descriptions in the portion of northwestern Georgia that was formerly part of the territory of the Cherokee Nation. They are not, however, part of the PLSS and are irregular in shape and size. See Cherokee County, Georgia for more information on the historical reasons for this.

Another exception to the usual use of sections and section numbering occurs when most of a parcel, or lot, falls under a body of water. The term "government lot" is used for such parcels and they are usually described separately from the rest of the section using single numbers (such as "Government Lot 5 of Section 15"). Also, parcels within a platted subdivision are often specified by lot number rather than using PLSS descriptions.

Where Spanish land grants in Florida have descriptions that predate PLSS or even the U.S. itself, deviation from typical section numbering and size and shape often takes place. In an effort to honor these land grants after the U.S. took control of Florida, surveyors would use descriptions from confirmed land grants to establish their initial boundaries and created PLSS sections that extrapolated from those lines. Often, the amount of land left over in areas immediately surrounding the grants was grossly undersized or awkwardly shaped. Those tracts are referred to as "fractional sections" and often are not subject to township or range definitions. An example of such a legal description's beginning would read "Being a portion of Fractional Sec. 59, Township 0 South, Range 0 West".

Also, land north of the Watson Line near the Georgia border was not subject to the standard U.S. section, township and range designations, since the State of Georgia had claimed and laid out counties and surveyed its public lands south of that line into what eventually became part of the State of Florida. The exact location of the Georgia–Florida state line was ultimately confirmed by an Act of Congress, approved April 9, 1872.

## Further reading


title: Callionymus sphinx

abstract: Callionymus sphinx, the sphinx dragonet, is a species of dragonet known from the waters off of the Northern Territory, Australia. This species grows to a length of 5.1 centimetres (2.0 in) SL.

text:
# Callionymus sphinx

***Callionymus sphinx***, the **sphinx dragonet**, is a species of dragonet known from the waters off of the Northern Territory, Australia. This species grows to a length of 5.1 centimetres (2.0 in) SL.

## InfoBox

| *Callionymus sphinx* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Callionymiformes |
| Family: | Callionymidae |
| Genus: | *Callionymus* |
| Species: | ***C. sphinx*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Callionymus sphinx***<br>R. Fricke & Heckele, 1984 | |
|


title: Siri Sande

abstract: Siri Sande is a Professor Emerita of Archaeology. She specialises in Roman material culture, specifically late antique culture and visual art.

text:
# Siri Sande

**Siri Sande** (born 27 September 1943) is a Professor Emerita of Archaeology. She specialises in Roman material culture, specifically late antique culture and visual art.

## Education

Sande studied classical archaeology, art history, and classical languages at the University of Oslo. In 1972, the University of Oslo awarded her an MA in classical archaeology. Her MA dissertation focused on Roman portraits in the sixth century CE.

## Career

From 1975, Sande was assistant professor in classical archaeology at the University of Oslo, and was Professor from 1996. Sande contributed to the excavation of the Temple to Castor and Pollux in the Roman Forum in Rome, 1983–9. She was deputy director of the Norwegian Institute in Rome 1983–1990. She became Director of the Institute 2003–07.

Sande is the daughter of the writer Jakob Sande (1906–1967).

## Bibliography

* Siri Sande, “The Arch of Constantine -- Who Saw What?,” in Patrons and Viewers in Late Antiquity, eds. Stine Birk and Birte Poulsen (Aarhus University Press, 2012)
* Kjell Aage Nilson, Claes B. Persson, Siri Sande, and Jan Zahle, *The Temple of Castor and Pollux III: The Augustan Temple. Occasional papers of the Nordic Institutes in Rome, 4*. Roma: "L'Erma" di Bretschneider, 2009

## Reference list


title: Battle of Eckernförde

abstract: The Battle of Eckernförde was a Danish naval assault on Schleswig. The Danes were defeated and two of their ships were lost with the surviving crew being detained.

text:
# Battle of Eckernförde

The **Battle of Eckernförde** was a Danish naval assault on Schleswig. The Danes were defeated and two of their ships were lost with the surviving crew being detained.

## Background

When the fighting resumed after the armistice in 1849, the Danes attacked Sundeved and Schleswig. To support the offensive, the Danish Navy would carry out a diversionary attack on the town of Eckernförde and destroy the German coastal batteries there. A smaller force of 250 troops would also be put ashore to give the impression of a larger landing force. The German flanks were vulnerable to landings along the coasts of Schleswig and such a company could not be ignored by the Germans. Commander Frederik August Paludan was appointed commander of the operation.

## The Danish Squadron

The Danish force assigned to the attack consisted of:

## German fortress defense

Eckernförde was defended by two coastal batteries with the following equipment:

* 2x 84-pound bomb cannons
* 4x 18-pound cannons

The crew consisted of 91 artillerymen from the Schleswig-Holstein 5th Fortress Artillery Regiment.

## Battle

At 07:30 on the morning of April 5, the Danish squadron sailed into Eckernfördeviken. The bombing of the German batteries began immediately and the northern fortress was soon put out. Suddenly, the wind increased in strength and drove frigate *Gefion* away from its place in the Danish battle line. When *Geiser* tried to tow the frigate back, the steamer was subjected to murderous firing from the remaining battery. A hit knocked out *Geiser'*s steam engine and left the ship unmaneuverable.

Soon, *Christian VIII* also came out of position, and when *Hekla* tried to save the liner, she was also seriously damaged by the concentrated attack by the Germans. The strong wind prevented the sailing ships from getting out of the bay and Paludan asked for a ceasefire. During the ceasefire, the Danes made an unsuccessful attempt to move their ships to safety. The fighting resumed at 17:30 and *Gefion* was soon forced to fly the white flag. Despite the violent bombardment, the crew of *Christian VIII* continued to resist. Paludan, however, soon realized that continued combat was pointless and ordered the ship to be abandoned.

During the evacuation, a fire broke out on board and firefighting attempts by the crew failed. A German non-commissioned officer boarded and demanded that the wounded crew members remain on the ship and that its gunpowder stock not be emptied. Paludan protested with reference to the fire on board, but was eventually forced to agree to the Germans' demands to surrender. Despite this, he still ordered that the gunpowder be thrown overboard. However, the order came late as the fire spread across the ship at a rapid pace. At 20:00, *Christian VIII* exploded. Most of those on board, including many wounded, died immediately from the explosion. Paludan watched the shipwreck from ashore.

## Aftermath

The attack cost the Danes dearly. Two ships had been lost and over 1,100 sailors had either been killed, wounded or captured, including the Danish naval officer Christian Krieger, who commanded the steamship *Geiser* and died after the gunpowder exploded underneath the deck. The Schleswig-Holstein losses were lighter with only 4 dead and 14 wounded.

## In Fiction

The battle makes an appearance early in the novel *We, the Drowned* by Danish author Carsten Jensen.

### Bibliography

## InfoBox

| Battle of Eckernförde | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of the First Schleswig War | |
|
Battle between the navies of Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein at Eckernförde Fjord | |
| Date 5 April 1849  Location Schleswig Bay, near Kiel  Result  Schleswig-Holsteinian victory | |
| Belligerents | |
| Schleswig-Holstein | Denmark |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Eduard Jungmann
Ernest II | Frederik Paludan
Christian Krieger |
| Strength | |
| 91 artillerymen
10 guns:
* 2 84-pounder guns * 2 24-pounder guns * 6 18-pounder guns | 1 ship of the line (Christian VIII, 84 guns)
1 frigate (Gefion, 48 guns)

2 steamers (Hekla & Geiser)
3 chases |
| Casualties and losses | |
| 4 killed
14 wounded | 231 killed
89 wounded
936 captured
1 ship of the line destroyed
1 small ship captured |


title: Shib Koh District

abstract: Shib Koh is a district in Farah Province, Afghanistan which borders Iran. Its population, which is 50% Pashtun and 45% Tajik, along with other ethnic groups, was estimated at 328,000 in January 2005. The district fell to the Taliban on 12 December 2018, after Afghan troops withdrew.

text:
# Shib Koh District

**Shib Koh** is a district in Farah Province, Afghanistan which borders Iran. Its population, which is 50% Pashtun and 45% Tajik, along with other ethnic groups, was estimated at 328,000 in January 2005. The district fell to the Taliban on 12 December 2018, after Afghan troops withdrew.

## InfoBox

| Shib Koh شیب کوه | |
| --- | --- |
| District | |
| Shib KohLocation within Afghanistan | |
| Coordinates: 32°08′29″N 61°12′35″E / 32.1415°N 61.2096°E / 32.1415; 61.2096 | |
| Country | Afghanistan |
| Province | Farah |
| Population (2010) | |
| Total | 22,700 |
| Control | Taliban |


title: Evan Finney

abstract: Evan Wade Finney is an American soccer player who plays as a goalkeeper.

text:
# Evan Finney

**Evan Wade Finney**  (born December 9, 1994) is an American soccer player who plays as a goalkeeper.

## Career

### Youth

Finney spent two season playing at the IMG Academy from 2011 to 2013 where he won Goalkeeper Of The Year in 2012.

### College and amateur

Finney played college soccer at Penn State University between 2013 and 2017, making just 27 appearances during his time with the Nittany Lions due to injuries. Finney won a Big Ten Conference championship in 2013, was a two-time Academic All-B1G selection, a B1G First Team All Tournament Team Selection in 2015, and a two-time Big Ten Defensive player of the week winner in 2016.

Finney also played with USL Premier Development League side IMG Academy Bradenton in 2017.

### Professional

On February 11, 2019, Finney signed for Real Monarchs of the USL Championship. While with the Monarchs, Finney won a USL Championship Western Conference Title and a USL Championship Final.

## InfoBox

Evan Finney
|  | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Personal information | | | |
| Full name | Evan Wade Finney | | |
| Date of birth | (1994-12-09) December 9, 1994 | | |
| Place of birth | San Francisco, California, United States | | |
| Height | 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) | | |
| Position(s) | Goalkeeper | | |
| College career | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2013–2017 | Penn State Nittany Lions | 27 | (0) |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 2017 | IMG Academy Bradenton | 3 | (0) |
| 2019 | Real Monarchs | 2 | (0) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals | | | |


title: The Highwayman (novel)

abstract: The Highwayman is a 2004 fantasy novel by American writer R. A. Salvatore, set in his world of Corona, shared with his Demon Wars Saga. The Highwayman tells the story of a young crippled boy named Bransen Garibond. The orphaned son of the Jhesta Tu mystic Sen Wi and the Abellican priest Brother Dynard, he eventually is able to move normally by learning to center his body to become the hero known as the Highwayman.

text:
# The Highwayman (novel)

***The Highwayman*** is a 2004 fantasy novel by American writer R. A. Salvatore, set in his world of Corona, shared with his Demon Wars Saga. *The Highwayman* tells the story of a young crippled boy named Bransen Garibond. The orphaned son of the Jhesta Tu mystic Sen Wi and the Abellican priest Brother Dynard, he eventually is able to move normally by learning to center his body to become the hero known as the *Highwayman.*

## Plot

Pryd Holding, where much of the story is set, is troubled by the threat of powrie dwarves, domination by other kingdoms and religious conflicts between the brutal Samhaists, led by the cruel and evil Bernivvigar and the seemingly more benevolent brothers of Blessed Abelle, to which Brother Bran Dynard belongs. Also complicating matters is that Prince Prydae, the last of his line, suffers an injury in battle that leaves him impotent. Brother Dynard has recently returned from the south, where he was sent to enlighten the people, but instead became fascinated and enlightened by the people, and took a wife, the beautiful Jhesta Tu mystic Sen Wi. Sen Wi has come to Pryd holding with Dynard to help explain the ways of her people to the brothers of Blessed Abelle.

One night, a beautiful young woman, Callen Duwornay, is sentenced to death for adultery. Forced to endure sexual humiliation as part of her punishment, she is stripped completely naked in front of the community, is bitten by a poison snake and then left for dead, hung over the road that is being constructed to connect Pryd Holding with the other kingdoms as a warning to others. Sen Wi and Dynard find her hanging naked and rescue her from the dwarves that are beating her. Sen Wi uses her training to heal Callen and they take her to Dynard's friend, Garibond, to heal. After recovering, an apparently still naked Callen leaves Garibonds home and disappears. Some time later, after changing her name, Callen gives birth to a daughter, whom she names Cadayale.

Brother Dynard and Sen Wi go before the brothers of Abelle, but they are appalled to find that he was "enlightened" by the "beasts of Behr" rather than enlightening them as he was supposed to. Additionally, the brothers refuse to recognize Sen Wi as his wife, referring to her instead dismissively as his concubine. Sen Wi realizes that she is pregnant and that her baby is suffering within her due to her having taken the poison and pain from Callen into herself. Sen Wi later dies giving birth in Garibond's home, using the last of her strength to save her son, whom Garibond names Bransen, combining his parents name. Dynard himself is later killed by a dwarf on the highway when he is sent to see the higher order of Abelle.

Adopted by Garibond, Bransen is a constant source of ridicule, mockery and abuse in the town by local bullies due to his disfigurement, shown kindness only by Cadayale, daughter of Callen. With old age overtaking him and suffering a terrible injury to himself due to the cruel machinations of Bernivvigar, who wishes to sacrifice Bransen, Garibond makes a deal with the brothers of Abelle to take in Bransen should he die. Garibond himself is later burned to death for heresy and for harboring the Book of Jhest, written by Dynard. After this, Bransen is taken in by the monks, but most of them treat him cruelly as well.

Bransen utilizes both sides of his heritage in the novel to overcome his crippled state and become the Highwayman. With help from a soul stone, the hematite, combined with his knowledge of The Book of Jhest, Bransen overcomes his physically weak form by centering his chi, which greatly increases his mobility. With his newfound ability, he rescues Cadayale from the bullies who wished to rape and beat her for helping him, killing the lead bully, Tarkus Breen. After weeks of robbing from the tax collectors to give back to the poor, becoming a local Robin Hood, Bransen risks everything to rescue Cadayale and Callen from Bernivvigar and Prydae, who sought to rape Cadayale to beget an heir, leading to the deaths of both men. Afterward, Bransen, Cadayale and Callen are banished from Pryd Holding by Bannagran, Prydae's closest friend and temporary ruler. With hope in their hearts, the three depart for the south to seek a better life.

In 2007, Matthew Hansen of Marvel Comics/Dabel Brothers Productions adapted *The Highwayman* to a comic book.

* Salvatore, R.A. (2004). *The Highwayman: A Novel of Corona*. CDS Books. ISBN 1-59315-016-4.
* Arune Singh (May 2, 2006). "The Dabel Bros and R.A Salvatore Join Forces". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03.

## InfoBox

The Highwayman
| Cover | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | R. A. Salvatore |
| Language | English |
| Series | Corona |
| Genre | Fantasy/Ethnic |
| Publisher | CDS books |
| Publication date | 2004 |
| Publication place | United States |
| Pages | 405 (paperback) |


title: Telethusa

abstract: Telethusa was the Cretan mother of Iphis by Ligdus in Greek mythology.

text:
# Telethusa

**Telethusa** (Ancient Greek: Τελέθουσα) was the Cretan mother of Iphis by Ligdus in Greek mythology.

## Mythology

Telethusa was told by her husband Ligdus that if she gave birth to a girl, the child would be put to death. But when the child was about to be born Telethusa had a vision in her dreams in which Isis, in the company of other Egyptian gods (Anubis, Bubastis, Apis, Harpocrates and Osiris), told her not to obey her husband's orders. Doing as the vision said, Telethusa then raised her daughter Iphis as a boy to spare her from Ligdus's wrath. Iphis was later transformed into a man by the Egyptian goddess Isis in order to marry her true love, the maiden Ianthe.

1. Ovid, *Metamorphoses* 9.789–937


title: Section (military unit)

abstract: A section is a military sub-subunit. It usually consists of between 6 and 20 personnel. NATO and U.S. doctrine define a section as an organization "larger than a squad, but smaller than a platoon." As such, two or more sections usually make up an army platoon or an air force flight.

text:
# Section (military unit)

A **section** is a military sub-subunit. It usually consists of between 6 and 20 personnel. NATO and U.S. doctrine define a section as an organization "larger than a squad, but smaller than a platoon." As such, two or more sections usually make up an army platoon or an air force flight.

## Land forces

### NATO

| NATO Map Symbols |
| --- |
|
 |
| A section |
|
 |
| A mechanized infantry section |
|
 |
| a psychological operations section |
|
 |
| a light anti-tank section |

Standard NATO symbol for a *section* consists of two dots (●●) placed above a framed unit icon.

Names of sections in NATO member armed forces
| American | Section |
| --- | --- |
| Belgium | Section/Sectie |
| British | (Not Applicable - See Below) |
| Bulgaria | Otdelenie (Отделение) |
| Canadian | Section |
| Croatia | Sekcija |
| Czech Republic | Družstvo |
| Denmark | Sektion |
| Estonia | Poolrühm |
| French | Groupe, or Patrouille |
| German | Gruppe, or Rotte |
| Greece | Homas or Stoecheon |
| Hungary | Kezelőszemélyzet or Raj |
| Italian | Pattuglia |
| Norway | Gruppe |
| Polish | Drużyna |
| Portuguese | Secção |
| Spain | Pelotón |
| Turkey | Kisim |

### Australian Army

At the start of World War I, the Australian Army used a section that consisted of 27 men including the section commander, a sergeant.

During World War II, a rifle section comprised ten soldiers with a corporal in command and a lance-corporal as his second-in-command. The corporal used an M1928 Thompson submachine gun, while one of the privates used a Bren gun. The other eight soldiers all used No.1 Mk.3 Lee–Enfield rifles with a bayonet and scabbard. They all carried two or three No.36 Mills bomb grenades.

After World War II, and during the Vietnam War, a rifle section consisted of ten personnel comprising a *command and scout group* (three people – two sub-machineguns/M16A1 and a L1A1 SLR); a *gun group* (three people – an M60 machine gun and two L1A1 SLRs) and a *rifle group* (four people – L1A1 SLRs). The section was later reduced to nine men, and consisted of the section commander, a two-man scout group, the section 2IC and two other men in the gun group, and a three-man rifle group; the section commander would usually move with the latter.

Under the new structure of the infantry platoon, Australian Army sections are made up of eight men divided into two four-man fireteams. Each fireteam consists of a team leader (corporal/lance-corporal), a marksman with enhanced optics, a grenadier with an M203 grenade launcher and an LSW operator with an F89 Minimi light support weapon.

Typical fire team structure:

| Position | Armament |
| --- | --- |
| Team leader | F88 Steyr |
| Marksman | F88 Steyr w/enhanced optic (e.g. 3.4× Wildcat) |
| Grenadier | F88 Steyr w/M203 under-barrel grenade launcher |
| Machine gunner | F89 Minimi |

### British military

A section in the British Armed Forces is equivalent to a NATO squad, and the British Army has no organization equivalent to a NATO section.

#### British Army (World War II and the Cold War)

The rifle section of a Second World War infantry battalion was generally formed of a corporal as the section commander, a lance corporal as the section 2iC from April 1943 onwards, and a varying number of private soldiers depending on the year of the war. The corporal variously carried a Lee-Enfield rifle, a Thompson submachine gun, or a Sten submachine gun depending on the year of the war, one private would be the section gunner with a Bren light machine gun, and all other section members were armed with Lee–Enfield rifles (though the corporal might swap his machine carbine with another member of the section). At the onset of hostilities in 1939, the section consisted of the section commander, one Bren gunner and his assistant, and five riflemen for a total of eight men; in 1940, this was increased to ten men. A typical section as of 1944 was divided into a 'rifle group' consisting of the section commander and six riflemen, and a 'gun group' consisting of the section 2IC and gun controller, the section gunner or Bren No. 1, and the Bren No. 2 carrying a spare barrel for the Bren gun; the six riflemen each carried two Bren magazines and a bandolier with a further fifty rounds, the Bren No. 2 carried five magazines, and the other two members of the gun group carried four magazines for a total of a thousand rounds of ammunition for the Bren. Three sections together formed a platoon, with two being forward sections and the third being a reserve.

The 1950s initially had no meaningful changes to the infantry section and its armament save for the rifle group gaining a seventh man, but later saw the replacement of .303in weapons with new models chambered for 7.62mm NATO, as well as a shift from the magazine-fed Bren to the belt-fed L7A1 (later L7A2) general purpose machine gun (GPMG). Most battalions reverted to a ten-man section organisation, with the rifle group now consisting of the section commander (corporal) with an L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle (SLR) and six riflemen with L1A1 SLRs, while the gun group consisted of the section 2IC and gun controller (Lance corporal) with an SLR, the section gunner or GPMG No. 1 with the GPMG, and the GPMG No. 2 with an SLR and a spare GPMG barrel. A certain amount of 7.62mm linked ammunition was carried by all members of the section (200 rounds per gun group member, 50 rounds per rifle group member), with ammunition held by the rifle group being redistributed to the gun group prior to an assault. In a mechanised battalion, the section nominally consisted of ten men as well, but two of these were detailed as vehicle crewmen, thus giving a dismounted strength of eight men. As a result of this, a mechanised section's rifle group only had four riflemen; two of these could be detailed as a Medium Anti-tank Weapon (MAW) No. 1 with an L14A1 84mm anti-tank weapon and a MAW No. 2 with additional 84mm rounds but otherwise continued to act as riflemen (in other battalions, the MAW No. 1 and No 2 were normally part of the platoon headquarters). Rifle-launched No. 95 anti-tank grenades that had been used with the Lee-Enfield rifle continued to be made available for anti-armour defence in lieu of or in addition to the L14A1, with these later being replaced by shoulder-fired L1 66mm HEAT rockets. There also were a number of M79 40mm grenade launchers available.

Tactical doctrine stated that, where casualties were sustained, a section could only be reduced to one NCO and five other ranks before bayonet power in the assault or the ability to organise a proper system of double sentries at night time were fatally compromised. Later sections would all consist of eight men (as well as any men detailed as vehicle crew) regardless of the battalion type; this reorganisation also saw the rifle group being modified to consist of the section commander with an SLR and four riflemen with SLRs and 66mm HEAT rockets. In the event of a significant armour threat, two riflemen would be re-roled as a MAW No. 1 with an L14A1 84mm anti-tank gun and either a 9mm L2A3 9mm submachine gun or an SLR and a MAW No. 2 with an SLR and additional 84mm ammunition. No changes were made to the gun group.

Both World War II and Cold War section tactics were designed with a view to bringing the section machine gun to bear on the enemy and providing support to it; once the gun group had suppressed the enemy ("winning the firefight"), the rifle group would assault and destroy the enemy position with the gun group providing fire until the last safe moment.

#### British Army (Late and Post–Cold War)

The introduction of the 5.56mm select-fire SA80 series (L85 rifle or individual weapon and L86 light support weapon) to replace 7.62mm weapons and the L2A3 submachine gun and of the LAW 80 to replace the L14A1 gun and the L1A3 66mm rockets from the mid-to-late 1980s onwards led to the rifle group/gun group organisation being abandoned in favour of fireteam groupings, with this being officially mentioned as early as 1982 and being given full doctrinal definition by 1986; however, sections organised according to the earlier rifle group/gun group model would still be in existence until at least 1988, with changes in such sections mostly being limited to earlier weapons being replaced by their newer equivalents. The British section continued to consist of eight soldiers, but under normal circumstances these were now divided into a Charlie and Delta fireteam with each team comprising an NCO and three other men. The platoon continued, and continues, to be composed of three sections.

The normal section organisation during the late 1980s, the 1990s, and the early 2000s was as follows:

* Charlie Fireteam
    + Section Commander/Charlie Commander (Corporal) armed with an L85A1 5.56mm rifle (Upgraded to L85A2 from 2002 to 2006)
    + Two Riflemen armed with L85A1 5.56mm rifles (Upgraded to L85A2 from 2002 to 2006)
    + Gunner armed with an L86A1 5.56mm light support weapon (Upgraded to L86A2 from 2002 to 2006; often replaced informally by the earlier L7A2 7.62mm general purpose machine gun owing to the L86's shortcomings in the section machine gun role, and later officially replaced by the L110A1 5.56mm light machine gun)
* Delta Fireteam
    + Section 2IC/Delta Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L85A1 5.56mm rifle (Upgraded to L85A2 from 2002 to 2006)
    + Two Riflemen armed with L85A1 5.56mm rifles (Upgraded to L85A2 from 2002 to 2006)
    + Gunner armed with an L86A1 5.56mm light support weapon (Upgraded to L86A2 from 2002 to 2006; often replaced informally by the earlier L7A2 7.62mm general purpose machine gun owing to the L86's shortcomings in the section machine gun role, and later officially replaced by the L110A1 5.56mm light machine gun)

This grouping provided a balanced organisation, with either fireteam being capable of moving to assault or supporting the other fireteam's movement (though doctrine still had the Lance Corporal's fireteam providing covering fire in the initial stages of a section attack). The fireteam concept was intended to introduce an element of flexibility, and consequently two other section groupings were devised; an assault team/support team grouping where the Delta fireteam (consisting of the section 2IC, a rifleman, and both section gunners) was responsible for covering the Charlie fireteam (consisting of the section commander and three riflemen, though this could be raised to four if the rifleman in the Delta fireteam was moved to the Charlie fireteam) during the latter's movement from one position to another, and a modified version of the earlier rifle group/gun group organisation, used if it was felt that the strongest possible manoeuvre force was required, where both section gunners formed the gun group and all remaining personnel formed the Charlie fireteam which acted as the rifle group. There were also groupings devised in relation to specific combat scenarios; sections engaged in trench clearing could either be organised as usual or be split into four assault teams of two men each, while sections tasked with clearing a house were organised into a command group, a covering group comprising both section gunners (and possibly the section 2IC), and two assault groups of two riflemen each.

Fireteams could also be split into smaller sub-divisions of two men each outside of these groupings, particularly during fire and manoeuvre. Two LAW 80 launchers (designated as the L1A1 94mm HEAT rocket system and henceforth referred to as LAWs) were part of the standard equipment allocation for each section and were carried as needed; the normal section grouping had one LAW per fireteam, while the assault team/support team grouping could have a LAW carried by one or both teams depending on the perceived armour threat. It was also possible to have the platoon's reserve section equipped with all six LAWs, leaving the two forward sections unencumbered for fire and manoeuvre and providing them with anti-armour defence. In April 1998 the Rifle Grenade General Service was introduced into service; issue was scaled at twelve L85A1 HE rifle grenades and six L15A1 rifle grenade launcher sights per section, effectively allowing all rifle-equipped members of the section to carry and use two rifle grenades each.

Not all sections consisted of eight men; units mounted aboard the FV510 Warrior infantry fighting vehicle consisted of seven men, with one fireteam's second rifleman usually being the section member that was omitted. While the FV432 armoured personnel carrier can accommodate a section consisting of ten men, this is in relation to the earlier Cold War section organisation, with sections organised according to the later and post-Cold War organisation remaining at eight men.

Changes were made to the section's equipment during the 2000s in response to operational demands and experience; the L85A1 rifle was upgraded to L85A2 standard between 2002 and 2006, with a further upgrade package consisting of a Picatinny rail handguard and alternative optical sights being introduced for select units in 2007 and more generally from 2009 onwards, the L123 40mm underslung grenade launcher (UGL) was introduced as a replacement for the L85A1 HE rifle grenade, the L86 light support weapon was replaced as the section machine gun by the L110A1-A3 5.56mm light machine gun acquired as an Urgent Operational Requirement, and the second rifleman in the fireteam was re-roled as a designated marksman carrying either the L86A2 light support weapon or, in later years, the L129A1 7.62mm sharpshooter rifle. By 2005 therefore, the normal section grouping was reorganised as follows:

* Charlie Fireteam
    + Section Commander/Charlie Commander (Corporal) armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle
    + Rifleman armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle and L123A1-A3 40mm UGL (though this could be carried by the fireteam commander instead)
    + Gunner armed with an L110A1-A3 5.56mm light machine gun
    + Designated marksman armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light support weapon (Supplemented and then largely replaced by L129A1 7.62mm sharpshooter rifle from 2010 onwards)
* Delta Fireteam
    + Section 2IC/Delta Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle
    + Rifleman armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rifle and L123A1-A3 40mm UGL (though this could be carried by the fireteam commander instead)
    + Gunner armed with an L110A1-A3 5.56mm light machine gun
    + Designated marksman armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light support weapon (Supplemented and then largely replaced by L129A1 7.62mm sharpshooter rifle from 2010 onwards)

The two other section groupings were also modified; the assault team/support team grouping now had the Charlie fireteam consist of the section commander, a rifleman with UGL, and both section gunners, with the Delta fireteam consisting of the section 2IC, both section marksmen, and a rifleman with UGL. The rifle group/gun group organisation was replaced by a fast assault/fire support grouping where the Charlie fireteam consisted of the section commander with UGL and a rifleman, while all remaining personnel formed the Delta fireteam. Trench clearing and house clearing groupings remained unchanged. Some units operating in Afghanistan carried on using the L7A2 GPMG as the section machine gun or included it as an additional weapon on the scale of one per fireteam; in the case of the latter, this meant that only two L85A2s (at least one of which was fitted with the UGL) were carried per section. The 84mm AT-4 (L1A2 or L2A1) and then the 150mm NLAW replaced the L1A1 94mm HEAT rocket as the section anti-armour weapon, though carrying arrangements were essentially unchanged; the Javelin can also be carried for anti-armour capability. The L128A1 12 bore combat shotgun was introduced for use by the section point man, with this position subject to rotation within the section to avoid excessive stress for individual soldiers.

The L85A2 began being upgraded to L85A3 standard from 2018 onwards, while the L86A2 and L110A3 began to be removed from service in 2019, leaving the L129A1 and L7A2 as the standard section designated marksman rifle and standard section machine gun respectively. With section commanders now also being able to tailor equipment formations as needed instead of having to deploy in a pre-set lineup, the current British infantry section is as follows:

* Section Commander/Charlie Fireteam Commander (Corporal) armed with an L85A2/A3 5.56 mm rifle
* Section 2IC/Delta Fireteam Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L85A2/A3 5.56 mm rifle
* Four Riflemen (Privates) armed with L85A2/A3 5.56 mm rifles, two of which will normally be equipped with an L123A3 40 mm UGL.
* Gunner (Private) armed with an L7A2 7.62 mm general purpose machine gun (at the section commander's discretion, the gunner can be re-designated as an additional rifleman with an L85A2/A3 5.56 mm rifle)
* Designated marksman (Private) armed with an L129A1 7.62 mm sharpshooter rifle

#### Royal Marines

The Royal Marines have generally fielded sections that have been organised similarly to those of the British Army. Under the Future Commando Force programme, however, smaller section organisations are currently being trialled.

#### Cadet Forces

The Army Cadet Force and the Army Sections of the Combined Cadet Force also make use of infantry sections; these are equipped similarly to their British Army counterparts though with explosives limited to smoke grenades and hand-fired rocket flares, and with a different small arms selection. The following section groupings were used until 2018:

* Normal section grouping (Until 1990)
    + Rifle group
        - Section Commander (Corporal) armed with a No. 4 .303 rifle (Partially and then completely substituted by the L98A1 5.56mm cadet GP rifle in the late 1980s and the 1990s)
        - Five Riflemen armed with No. 4 .303 rifles (Partially and then completely substituted by L98A1 5.56mm cadet GP rifles in the late 1980s and the 1990s)
    + Gun group
        - Section 2IC (Lance Corporal) armed with a No. 4 .303 rifle (Partially and then completely substituted by the L98A1 5.56mm cadet GP rifle in the late 1980s and the 1990s)
        - Gunner armed with a Bren .303 light machine gun
* Normal section grouping (1990 onwards)
    + Charlie Fireteam
        - Section Commander/Charlie Commander (Corporal) armed with an L98A1/A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Two Riflemen armed with L98A1/A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifles
        - Gunner armed with an L86A1/A2 5.56mm light support weapon
    + Delta Fireteam
        - Section 2IC/Delta Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L98A1/A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Two Riflemen armed with L98A1/A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifles
        - Gunner armed with an L86A1/A2 5.56mm light support weapon
* Assault team/Support team grouping (2013 onwards)
    + Charlie Fireteam (Assault team)
        - Section Commander/Charlie Commander (Corporal) armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Three Riflemen armed with L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifles
    + Delta Fireteam (Support team)
        - Section 2IC/Delta Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Two Gunners armed with L86A2 5.56mm light support weapons
        - Rifleman armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
* Fast assault/Fire support grouping (2013 onwards)
    + Charlie Fireteam (Fast assault)
        - Section Commander/Charlie Commander (Corporal) armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Rifleman armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
    + Delta Fireteam (Fire support)
        - Section 2IC/Delta Commander (Lance Corporal) armed with an L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifle
        - Three Riflemen armed with L98A2 5.56mm cadet GP rifles
        - Two Gunners armed with L86A2 5.56mm light support weapons

L86A2s in Cadet Forces use began to be withdrawn from service at the same time as those held by the British Armed Forces, with no direct replacement for the weapon being identified; as such, all members of an Army Cadet Force or Combined Cadet Force section are currently riflemen armed with L98A2s.

### Canadian Army

The Canadian Army also uses the section, which is roughly the same as its British counterpart, except that it is led by a sergeant, with a master corporal as the 2IC. The section is further divided into two assault groups of four soldiers each (equivalent to the Australian and British fireteams) and a vehicle group consisting of a driver and a gunner. Assault groups are broken down to even smaller 'fireteams' consisting of two soldiers, designated Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Delta. Alpha and Bravo make up Assault Group 1; Charlie and Delta make up Assault Group 2. The section commander will have overall control of the section, and is assigned to Fireteam Alpha of Assault Group 1. The 2IC will be in command of Assault Group 2, and is assigned to Fireteam Charlie.

Groupings are as follows:

* Assault Group 1
    + Fireteam Alpha
        - Section Commander armed with a C7 rifle.
        - LMG Gunner armed with a C9 light machine gun.
    + Fireteam Bravo
        - Rifleman armed with a C7 rifle.
        - Grenadier armed with a C7 rifle and an underslung M203 grenade launcher.
* Assault Group 2
    + Fireteam Charlie
        - Section 2IC armed with a C7 rifle.
        - LMG Gunner armed with a C9 light machine gun.
    + Fireteam Delta
        - Rifleman armed with a C7 rifle.
        - Grenadier armed with a C7 rifle and an underslung M203 grenade launcher.
* Vehicle Group
    + Driver armed with a C8 carbine.
    + Vehicle Gunner armed with a C8 carbine.

In a mechanised section, the vehicle group gains a commander and stays with the section vehicle (Currently the LAV VI), while the second assault group loses its rifleman

### Danish Army

In the Danish Army, the section consists of two squads, usually commanded by a Sergeant First Class. Sections are usually highly specialized support units providing heavy weapons support, EOD support etc.

### Finnish Army

A Finnish infantry section or *ryhmä* consists of one section commander or *ryhmänjohtaja*, one section 2IC or *ryhmänvarajohtaja*, and six or seven other soldiers.

The standard section organisation, a "half-section" (*puoliryhmä*) model, is as follows:

* First half-section
    + Section Commander armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
    + First fire-and-manoeuvre team (*Taistelijapari*)
        - Machine gunner armed with a 7.62 KK PKM general purpose machine gun.
        - Rifleman armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
* Second half-section
    + Second fire-and-manoeuvre team
        - Two riflemen armed with 7.62 RK 62 series rifles and 66 KES anti-tank weapons
    + Third fire-and-manoeuvre team
        - Rifleman armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
        - Section 2IC armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
        - Driver armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.

The section can also be divided into three equally sized fireteams, with organisation being as follows:

* Section commander's fireteam (*Ryhmänjohtajan partio*)
    + Fireteam leader (Section Commander) armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
    + Combat lifesaver armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
    + Designated marksman armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle with enhanced optics.
* Point fireteam (*Kärkipartio*)
    + Fireteam leader (Section 2IC) armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
    + Machine gunner armed with a 7.62 KK PKM general purpose machine gun.
    + Rifleman armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle and a 66 KES anti-tank weapon
* Support fireteam (*Tukipartio*)
    + Fireteam leader (To be appointed by the section commander) armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.
    + Machine gunner armed with a 7.62 KK PKM general purpose machine gun.
    + Engineer armed with a 7.62 RK 62 series rifle.

### French Army

In the French Army, the word *section* describes an organization equivalent to an English-language platoon and is a subunit of a company, in most military contexts. (In cavalry or armoured units, a subunit of a company is a *peloton* \[platoon\].)

The equivalent organization to a NATO *section* is a *groupe de combat* ("combat group"), which is divided into:

### German Army

#### Bundeswehr

The equivalent to *section* is the *Gruppe'*, a sub-unit of 8 to 12 soldiers, in the German Bundeswehr, Austrian Bundesheer and Swiss Army.

#### Wehrmacht

During World War II the German infantry *Gruppe* was mainly a general purpose machine gun (GPMG) based unit. The advantage of the GPMG concept was that it added greatly to the overall volume of fire that could be put out by a squad-sized unit. The MG 34 or MG 42 GPMGs were normally used in the LMG (light machine gun) role. An infantry *Gruppe* consisted of generally nine or ten men; a non-commissioned officer (*Unteroffizier*) squad leader, deputy squad leader, a two-man machine gun element (machine gunner and assistant gunner) and four to six riflemen.

As personal small arms the squad leader was issued a rifle (as of around 1941 a submachine gun such as the MP 40), the machine gunner and his assistant were issued pistols and the deputy squad leader and the riflemen were issued rifles. The riflemen carried additional ammunition, hand grenades, explosive charges or a machine gun tripod as required. The riflemen would provide security and covering fire for the machine gun element. Two of the standard issue bolt-action Karabiner 98k rifles in the squad could be replaced with semi-automatic Gewehr 43 rifles and occasionally, StG-44 "assault" rifles could be used to re-arm the whole squad, besides the machine-gun.

### Irish Army

In the Irish Army, the infantry section consists of one Corporal or *Ceannaire* as section commander and eight other ranks. Section armament consists of eight Steyr AUG A1 rifles (including versions reconfigured to Mod 14 standard with a Picatinny rail and an ACOG 4x magnification optical sight), with two of these being equipped with an M203 grenade launcher, and one FN MAG 58 general purpose machine gun; two soldiers are additionally armed with AT4 short range anti-armour weapons (SRAAW) for anti-armour defence, while Heckler & Koch USP pistols are available for distribution at the platoon level. Three sections together with a headquarters element form a platoon.

### Singapore Army

Singapore Army's infantry section consists of seven men led by a Third Sergeant and assisted by a Corporal or Corporal First Class as 2IC. Each section is divided into one 3-man group – including the section commander, and two 2-man groups. Weapons carried by each section include two light anti-tank weapons, two section automatic weapons (SAW), and two M203 grenade launchers.

### South African Army

In the South African Army Infantry Formation (which is responsible for all South African Army infantry), the standard infantry section is divided into a seven-man rifle group and a three-man machine gun group as per the earlier British model; the rifle group consists of a section commander (Corporal) and six riflemen, all armed with R4 5.56mm rifles, while the gun group consists of a section 2IC (Lance Corporal) with a R4 5.56mm rifle, a Machine Gun No. 1 with an FN MAG 7.62mm general purpose machine gun, SS-77 7.62mm general purpose machine gun, or Mini-SS 5.56mm light machine gun, and a Machine Gun No. 2 with a R4 5.56mm rifle. In a mechanised infantry section, the rifle group is reduced to five men for a total of eight men in the section.

### United States Army

Historically, a section of US Infantry was a "half platoon" (the platoon itself being a "half company"). The section was led by a sergeant assisted by one or (later) two corporals and consisted of a total of from 12–50 soldiers, depending on the time period. In the US Cavalry, a section was roughly equivalent to a squad in the US Infantry. In Armor, Armored Cavalry, Mechanized Infantry, and Stryker Infantry units, a section consists of two tanks/armored vehicles, with two sections to a platoon. The platoon leader leads one section and the platoon sergeant leads the other. Some branches, such as Air Defense Artillery and Field Artillery, use the term *section* to denote a squad-sized unit that may act independently of each other in the larger platoon formation. (I.e., the Firing Platoon consists of several gun sections, which are the basic firing elements of the unit.) The section is used as an administrative formation and may be bigger than the regular squad formation often overseen by a Staff Sergeant.

### United States Marine Corps

The USMC employs sections as intermediate tactical echelons in infantry, armored vehicle units (individual vehicles being the base tactical element), and low altitude air defense (LAAD) units, and as the base tactical element in artillery units. Infantry sections can consist of as few as eight Marines (heavy machinegun section) to as many as 32 in an 81-mm mortar section. In headquarters, service, and support units throughout the USMC (CE, GCE, ACE, and LCE), sections are used as functional sub-units of headquarters or platoons. For example, the intelligence section (S-2) of a battalion or squadron headquarters; the communications-electronics maintenance section, communication platoon, regimental headquarters company; armory section, Marine aviation logistics squadron. In Marine aircraft squadrons, section is also used to designate a flight of two or three aircraft under the command of a designated section leader. Some sections, such as weapons platoon sections are led by a staff non-commissioned Officer (SNCO), usually a staff sergeant. Tank and other armored vehicle sections, as well as service and support sections, may be led by either an officer, usually a lieutenant (or a CWO, in the case of service and support units), or a SNCO ranging from staff sergeant to master sergeant. Headquarters and aircraft sections are always led by a commissioned officer. Rifle squads generally contain 13 marines.

In infantry units, weapons platoons have sections consisting of the squads and teams that man the crew-served weapons.

Weapons platoon, rifle company:

* a machine gun section, consisting of a section leader and three machine gun squads, each containing two machine gun teams of three men each
* an LWCMS mortar section, consisting of a section leader and three 60mm mortar squads, each containing one mortar and four man crew
* an assault section, consisting of a section leader and three assault squads, each containing two assault teams of two men each

Weapons company, infantry battalion:

* an 81mm mortar platoon, consisting of a five-man platoon headquarters and two 81mm mortar sections, each section containing four 81mm mortar squads of six men each and an eight-man section headquarters.
* an antiarmor platoon, consisting of a three-man platoon headquarters and a Javelin section, containing a section leader and two Javelin squads, each having two teams of two men each, and an antitank (TOW) section, containing a section leader and four antitank squads, each having a squad leader and two TOW teams of two men each
* a heavy machine gun (HMG) platoon, consisting of a four-man platoon headquarters and three HMG sections, each having two HMG squads of four men each.

In armored vehicle units, platoons consist of sections consisting of individual vehicles and their crews:

* tank and light armored reconnaissance platoons consist of two sections, each containing two tanks/light armored vehicles and crews
* assault amphibian vehicle (AAV) platoons consist of four sections, each containing three AAV's and crews
* combat engineer assault breacher sections consist of two CEV assault breacher vehicles and crews

In low altitude air defense (LAAD) batteries, the firing platoons consist of three sections, each consisting of a section leader and five two-man Stinger missile teams.

In artillery batteries, the firing platoon consists of a platoon headquarters and six artillery sections, each containing a section chief (staff sergeant) eight-member gun crew with one howitzer, and a driver and prime mover (i.e., a truck to tow the artillery piece and transport the gun crew and baggage). The gun crew consists of a gunner (sergeant), two assistant gunners (corporals), and five cannoneers (lance corporals and/or PFCs).

## Air forces

In some air forces, a section is a unit containing three to four aircraft (if it is a flying unit) and up to 20 personnel. Two or three sections usually make up a flight.

The United States Air Force uses the term element, as well as section, to designate two or three subunits within a flight.

In the context of British Empire military aviation during World War I, the term half flight or half-flight was used for equivalent formations; at the time a flight was normally four to six aircraft. Hence the Mesopotamian Half Flight, the first Australian flying unit to see action, initially comprised three aircraft. After the war, the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces adopted the term section for a formation of three aircraft, while a flight was normally six aircraft. The Royal Air Force Regiment, the ground-based component of the Royal Air Force, currently employs a section structure similar to that of the British Army.

During the Second World War:

* in the German *Luftwaffe*, the equivalent in fighter units was a *Schwarm* of four aircraft and, in bomber units, a *Kette* (three aircraft), along with headquarters and support personnel, and;
* the Soviet Red Air Force the equivalent was a *zveno* (three or four aircraft).

## Other organisations

A section is also the name for a shift or team of police officers in various police forces, particularly in the Commonwealth. The term is no longer used in the British police, in which it originated and where it was the group of officers headed by a Sergeant.

1. The Lee-Enfield No. 4 rifle and Bren light machine gun were not replaced with 7.62mm weapons like they were in the Armed Forces; when the Armed Forces then adopted the select-fire L85, the Cadet Forces were instead issued with the straight-pull L98A1. While the self-loading L98A2 version that has been issued since 2009 is closer in appearance and function to the L85, it is still restricted to producing one shot per trigger pull.
2. While the unit size is closer to that of a NATO squad, *Sotilaan käsikirja* 's official English versions (*Soldier's Guide*) use "section" rather than "squad".
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42. Major (Rtd) John Hobbis Harris; Major C.J.M. Wood.T.D. (1988). *The Volunteer's Pocket Book*. p. 93.
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47. http://regimentalrogue.com/blog/caj\_vol13.3\_06\_e.pdf
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49. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/33843/desider\_22\_Feb2010.pdf#6
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* *APP-6D NATO Joint Military Symbology*. NATO Standardization Office. October 2017.


title: Callionymus stigmatopareius

abstract: Callionymus stigmatopareius, the Mozambique dragonet, is a species of dragonet only known from the Indian Ocean off of Mozambique.

text:
# Callionymus stigmatopareius

***Callionymus stigmatopareius***, the **Mozambique dragonet**, is a species of dragonet only known from the Indian Ocean off of Mozambique.

## InfoBox

| *Callionymus stigmatopareius* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Callionymiformes |
| Family: | Callionymidae |
| Genus: | *Callionymus* |
| Species: | ***C. stigmatopareius*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Callionymus stigmatopareius***<br>R. Fricke, 1981 | |
|


title: Fairmount School

abstract: Fairmount School, which became known as Helen Dickinson School from 1925 until 1958 and is now the Fairmount House, is a historic school building located in Richmond, Virginia. The two-story brick building was constructed circa 1895 on a high basement in the Gothic Revival style. It features two slate-covered, mansard roofed towers. A two-story addition designed by Albert F. Huntt (1868–1920) was added in 1908–1909. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. The school is similar architecturally to Randolph School which also survives. September 1958, upon its conversion to a Negro school with pupils from Bowler, Buchanan, George Mason, and Woodville. Under Plan III, Fairmount was paired with Francis. It became Fairmount School again in 1958, after being renamed Helen Dickinson in 1925 to honor a former principal, and became a school for African-Americans. It closed in 1979, was sold by the City of Richmond in 1981, and was restored by Churchill-Fairmount Limited Partnership for use by elderly and handicapped persons.

text:
# Fairmount School

**Fairmount School**, which became known as **Helen Dickinson School** from 1925 until 1958 (when it returned to its original name) and is now the **Fairmount House**, is a historic school building located in Richmond, Virginia. The two-story brick building was constructed circa 1895 on a high basement in the Gothic Revival style. It features two slate-covered, mansard roofed towers. A two-story addition designed by Albert F. Huntt (18681920) was added in 19081909.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. The school is similar architecturally to Randolph School (Richmond, Virginia) which also survives.

September 1958, upon its conversion to a Negro school with pupils from Bowler, Buchanan, George Mason, and Woodville. Under Plan III, Fairmount was paired with Francis.

It became Fairmount School again in 1958, after being renamed Helen Dickinson in 1925 to honor a former principal, and became a school for African-Americans. It closed in 1979, was sold by the City of Richmond in 1981, and was restored by Churchill-Fairmount Limited Partnership for use by elderly and handicapped persons.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Fairmount School | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| Virginia Landmarks Register | |
|  | |
| Fairmount School, July 2011 | |
|  | |
| Location | 1501 N. 21st St., Richmond, Virginia |
| Coordinates | 37°32′36″N 77°24′46″W / 37.5434°N 77.4128°W / 37.5434; -77.4128 |
| Area | 2.4 acres (0.97 ha) |
| Built | 1895 (1895) |
| Architect | Huntt, Albert F. |
| Architectural style | Gothic Revival |
| MPS | Public Schools of Richmond MPS |
| NRHP reference No. | 05001227 |
| VLR No. | 127-0308 |
| Significant dates | |
| Added to NRHP | November 9, 2005 |
| Designated VLR | September 14, 2005 |


title: Residual entropy

abstract: Residual entropy is the difference in entropy between a non-equilibrium state and crystal state of a substance close to absolute zero. This term is used in condensed matter physics to describe the entropy at zero kelvin of a glass or plastic crystal referred to the crystal state, whose entropy is zero according to the third law of thermodynamics. It occurs if a material can exist in many different states when cooled. The most common non-equilibrium state is vitreous state, glass. A common example is the case of carbon monoxide, which has a very small dipole moment. As the carbon monoxide crystal is cooled to absolute zero, few of the carbon monoxide molecules have enough time to align themselves into a perfect crystal. Because of this, the crystal is locked into a state with 2 N different corresponding microstates, giving a residual entropy of S = N k ln  = n R ln , rather than zero. Another example is any amorphous solid (glass). These have residual entropy, because the atom-by-atom microscopic structure can be arranged in a huge number of different ways across a macroscopic system. The residual entropy has a somewhat special significance compared to other residual properties, in that it has a role in the framework of residual entropy scaling, which is used to compute transport coefficients directly from the equilibrium property residual entropy, which can be computed directly from any equation of state.

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# Residual entropy

**Residual entropy** is the difference in entropy between a non-equilibrium state and crystal state of a substance close to absolute zero. This term is used in condensed matter physics to describe the **entropy at zero kelvin** of a glass or plastic crystal referred to the crystal state, whose entropy is zero according to the third law of thermodynamics. It occurs if a material can exist in many different states when cooled. The most common non-equilibrium state is vitreous state, glass.

A common example is the case of carbon monoxide, which has a very small dipole moment. As the carbon monoxide crystal is cooled to absolute zero, few of the carbon monoxide molecules have enough time to align themselves into a perfect crystal (with all of the carbon monoxide molecules oriented in the same direction). Because of this, the crystal is locked into a state with $2^{N}$ different corresponding microstates, giving a residual entropy of $S=Nk\ln(2)=nR\ln(2)$, rather than zero.

Another example is any amorphous solid (glass). These have residual entropy, because the atom-by-atom microscopic structure can be arranged in a huge number of different ways across a macroscopic system.

The residual entropy has a somewhat special significance compared to other residual properties, in that it has a role in the framework of residual entropy scaling, which is used to compute transport coefficients (coefficients governing non-equilibrium phenomena) directly from the equilibrium property residual entropy, which can be computed directly from any equation of state.

## History

One of the first examples of residual entropy was pointed out by Pauling to describe water ice. In water, each oxygen atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. However, when water freezes it forms a tetragonal structure where each oxygen atom has four hydrogen neighbors (due to neighboring water molecules). The hydrogen atoms sitting between the oxygen atoms have some degree of freedom as long as each oxygen atom has two hydrogen atoms that are 'nearby', thus forming the traditional H2O water molecule. However, it turns out that for a large number of water molecules in this configuration, the hydrogen atoms have a large number of possible configurations that meet the 2-in 2-out rule (each oxygen atom must have two 'near' (or 'in') hydrogen atoms, and two far (or 'out') hydrogen atoms). This freedom exists down to absolute zero, which was previously seen as an absolute one-of-a-kind configuration. The existence of these multiple configurations (choices for each H of orientation along O--O axis) that meet the rules of absolute zero (2-in 2-out for each O) amounts to randomness, or in other words, entropy. Thus systems that can take multiple configurations at or near absolute zero are said to have residual entropy.

Although water ice was the first material for which residual entropy was proposed, it is generally very difficult to prepare pure defect-free crystals of water ice for studying. A great deal of research has thus been undertaken into finding other systems that exhibit residual entropy. Geometrically frustrated systems in particular often exhibit residual entropy. An important example is spin ice, which is a geometrically frustrated magnetic material where the magnetic moments of the magnetic atoms have Ising-like magnetic spins and lie on the corners of network of corner-sharing tetrahedra. This material is thus analogous to water ice, with the exception that the spins on the corners of the tetrahedra can point into or out of the tetrahedra, thereby producing the same 2-in, 2-out rule as in water ice, and therefore the same residual entropy. One of the interesting properties of geometrically frustrated magnetic materials such as spin ice is that the level of residual entropy can be controlled by the application of an external magnetic field. This property can be used to create one-shot refrigeration systems.