title: Pine Mountain Settlement School

abstract: The Pine Mountain Settlement School is a historic cultural and educational institution in rural Harlan County, Kentucky. Founded in 1913 as a settlement school near Bledsoe, it now focuses on classes related to the culture of Appalachia and environmental education. It first operated as a boarding grade school for students of the rural region, then in 1930 shifted to operating as a boarding school for high school students. In the later 20th century, it was integrated into the Harlan County Public School System. Its campus is designated as a National Historic Landmark District, for its role as the first major effort to adapt urban settlement reform work into a rural setting.

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# Pine Mountain Settlement School

The **Pine Mountain Settlement School** is a historic cultural and educational institution in rural Harlan County, Kentucky. Founded in 1913 as a settlement school near Bledsoe, it now focuses on classes related to the culture of Appalachia and environmental education. It first operated as a boarding grade school for students of the rural region, then in 1930 shifted to operating as a boarding school for high school students. In the later 20th century, it was integrated into the Harlan County Public School System. Its campus is designated as a National Historic Landmark District, for its role as the first major effort to adapt urban settlement reform work into a rural setting.

## Location

Pine Mountain Settlement School is located in a rural mountain setting about 19 miles (31 km) northeast of Harlan, the county seat of Harlan County, Kentucky, and southeast of the junction of Kentucky Routes 221 and 510. Pine Mountain is a ridge of the Appalachian Mountains that runs about 125 miles through Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee.

## History

### Founding

Pine Mountain Settlement School was founded during a period of time when more than two hundred schools were founded across Southern Appalachia in order to bring educational opportunities to rural communities across the region. "...Pine Mountain Settlement School was founded in 1913 as a school for children in the commonwealth's remote southeastern mountains and a social center for surrounding communities. The school was the dream of a local man, William Creech Sr., who was troubled by the area's lack of educational opportunities, and the prevalence of social problems and rampant disease. He donated land for the school and recruited two women, Katherine Pettit of Lexington, Kentucky, and Ethel de Long, a New Jersey native, to establish and run the new institution. These two women enlisted the help of architect Mary Rockwell Hook of Kansas City to draw up plans for the campus and its buildings." Luigi Zande, a stonemason, educator, and the husband of Ethel de Long, helped to design and build several buildings on the schools campus, including the stone reservoir and the chapel. It has been designated as a National Historic Landmark District for its importance as a rural example of the urban settlement schools.

### Uses

Pine Mountain Settlement School developed as a rural example of the urban settlement movement, which established institutions such as Hull House in Chicago, to provide education and social services to the new populations of immigrants and migrants in the cities. The school has served many purposes since its founding in 1913, more than a century ago. It continues to operate primarily as an educational institution.

From 1913 to 1930, Pine Mountain served as a boarding school for children of elementary and middle school age.

In 1930, Pine Mountain was adapted as a boarding high school, encouraging vocational and artistic development for students from the Appalachian region, as well as academics.

In 1937, a pack horse library (part of the WPA Travelling Libraries) and community services program was headquartered at Pine Mountain.

In 1949, Pine Mountain and the Harlan County educational system began to jointly operate an elementary school as part of the county public school system.

In the 1970s, Pine Mountain began to focus its efforts on environmental education.

In addition to operating as an educational institution, Pine Mountain Settlement School has served its community in other ways. For example, during Pine Mountain's time as a high school, it sponsored Work Experience Training. This was focused on providing job training to men and helping them find employment.

Pine Mountain has also operated as a farm, health clinic, and a hospital. It has supported local music and craft initiatives such as Fireside Industries. Today, in addition to cultural and environmental education, Pine Mountain Settlement School offers agricultural, culinary, and arts and crafts programming for adults and students.

### Relationship with Alpha Sigma Tau

Alpha Sigma Tau Sorority adopted Pine Mountain Settlement School in 1945 as its national philanthropy. The partnership lasted 71 years until its conclusion in 2016.

Members of alumnae and collegiate chapters and colonies of Alpha Sigma Tau raised money annually for Pine Mountain Settlement School. The Sorority supported Pine Mountain Settlement School through the Alpha Sigma Tau National Foundation, Inc.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Pine Mountain Settlement School | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. National Historic Landmark District | |
|  | |
| Pine Mountain Settlement School, photographed by Marion Post Wolcott in 1940 | |
|  | |
| Nearest city | Bledsoe, Kentucky |
| Coordinates | 36°56′55″N 83°10′59″W / 36.94861°N 83.18306°W / 36.94861; -83.18306 |
| Area | 54 acres (22 ha) |
| Built | 1913 (1913) |
| Architect | Mary Rockwell Hook; Luigi Zande |
| NRHP reference No. | 78001337 |
| Significant dates | |
| Added to NRHP | September 6, 1978 |
| Designated NHLD | December 4, 1991 |


title: Pinjara (TV series)

abstract: Pinjara is an Indian Marathi language television series which aired on Zee Marathi. It starred Bhushan Pradhan and Sanskruti Balgude in lead roles. It is produced by Sangita Sarang under the banner of Camps Club Production. It premiered from 17 January 2011 by replacing Amarprem.

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# Pinjara (TV series)

***Pinjara*** (transl.Cage) is an Indian Marathi language television series which aired on Zee Marathi. It starred Bhushan Pradhan and Sanskruti Balgude in lead roles. It is produced by Sangita Sarang under the banner of *Camps Club Production*. It premiered from 17 January 2011 by replacing *Amarprem*.

## Plot

"Pinjara", a captivating tale, revolves around Anandi, a young woman immersed in the world of Lavani, a traditional Maharashtrian dance form. Her lifelong dream is to grace a live stage with her dance, a passion ingrained in her from witnessing Tamashas throughout her upbringing.

Set in the picturesque town of Manikpur, the narrative intricately weaves through two influential families, the Shelars and the Waghmares. Akka, the matriarch of the Shelar family, commands immense respect in Manikpur, whereas Tatyarao Waghmare, patriarch of the Waghmare family, resists acknowledging Akka's sway over the villagers.

Tensions escalate when Tatyarao decides to organize a Tamasha in Manikpur to enhance his popularity. Akka vehemently opposes this, setting the stage for a clash of ideologies. Anandi, a part of the Tamasha group, becomes the focal point of a transformative moment that alters the destinies of both families.

Amidst the cultural richness and familial conflicts, Anandi harbors a mysterious past, concealed from her fellow Tamasha members. The convergence of dreams, traditions, and hidden histories unfolds in "Pinjara," promising a riveting narrative brimming with drama, dance, and the complexities of intertwined lives.

## Cast

### Main

### Recurring

* Girish Oak as Macchindra Shelar
* Sumukhi Pendse as Akka Shelar
* Sunil Tawde as Tatyarao Waghmare
* Sara Shravan as Narayani Shelar
* Pournima Manohar as Kumudini Waghmare
* Shubhangi Latkar as Tatya's wife
* Supriya Pathare as Anandi's mother
* Namrata Kadam
* Vijay Patwardhan
* Atul Todankar

## Awards

Zee Marathi Awards 2011
| Category | Recipient | Role |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Best Actor | Bhushan Pradhan | Virendra |
| Best Father | Girish Oak | Macchindra |
| Best Negative Actress | Sumukhi Pendse | Akka |
| Best Negative Actor | Sunil Tawde | Tatya |
| Best Couple | Bhushan Pradhan-Sanskruti Balgude | Veer-Anandi |
| Best Supporting Female |  | Shalini |
| Best Series |  |  |

## InfoBox

| *Pinjara* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Genre | Drama |
| Starring | See below |
| Country of origin | India |
| Original language | Marathi |
| No. of episodes | 504 |
| Production | |
| Producers | Rakesh Sarang
Sangeeta Sarang |
| Camera setup | Multi-camera |
| Running time | 22 minutes |
| Production company | Camps Club Production |
| Original release | |
| Network | Zee Marathi |
| Release | 17 January 2011 (2011-01-17)
25 August 2012 (2012-08-25) |


title: Piotr Kasperkiewicz

abstract: Piotr Kasperkiewicz is a Polish male track cyclist, riding for the national team. He competed in the team pursuit event at the 2010 UCI Track Cycling World Championships.

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# Piotr Kasperkiewicz

**Piotr Kasperkiewicz** (born 9 February 1989) is a Polish male track cyclist, riding for the national team. He competed in the team pursuit event at the 2010 UCI Track Cycling World Championships.

1. "2010 Track Cycling World Championships: Entries list". tissottiming.com. Retrieved 1 February 2016.

## InfoBox

Piotr Kasperkiewicz
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1989-02-09) 9 February 1989 |
| Team information | |
| Discipline | Track cycling |
| Role | Rider |
| Rider type | endurance |


title: Piotr Kiszka

abstract: Piotr Kiszka was a noble of the House of Kiszka from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to the military census of 1528, he was the 10th wealthiest magnate in the Grand Duchy. In case of war he had to provide 224 fully equipped cavalrymen to the army. That meant that he had more than 23,000 peasants in his dominions. He was the only son of Stanisław Kiszka who was active in Volhynia. From his father he inherited the title of starosta of Drohiczyn. Piotr was Voivode of Polotsk from 1521 to 1532. After the death of his brother-in-law Stanislovas Kęsgaila in 1532, he was elected as Elder of Samogitia and castellan of Trakai. Piotr had three sons: Piotr Kiszka, who followed grandfather's footsteps and became Marshal of Volhynia, Stanisław Kiszka who was Voivode of Vitebsk, and Mikołaj Kiszka who was Voivode of Podlaskie.

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# Piotr Kiszka

**Piotr Kiszka** (died in 1534) was a noble of the House of Kiszka from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to the military census of 1528, he was the 10th wealthiest magnate in the Grand Duchy. In case of war he had to provide 224 fully equipped cavalrymen to the army. That meant that he had more than 23,000 peasants in his dominions.

He was the only son of Stanisław Kiszka who was active in Volhynia. From his father he inherited the title of starosta of Drohiczyn. Piotr was Voivode of Polotsk from 1521 to 1532. After the death of his brother-in-law Stanislovas Kęsgaila in 1532, he was elected as Elder of Samogitia and castellan of Trakai.

Piotr had three sons: Piotr Kiszka, who followed grandfather's footsteps and became Marshal of Volhynia, Stanisław Kiszka who was Voivode of Vitebsk, and Mikołaj Kiszka who was Voivode of Podlaskie.

## InfoBox

| Piotr Kiszka | |
| --- | --- |
| Coat of arms | Dąbrowa |
| Died | 1534 |
| Family | Kiszka |
| Spouse(s) | Anna Ilinicz |
| Issue | Stanisław Kiszka
Piotr Piotrowicz Kiszka
Mikołaj Kiszka
Zofia Kiszczanka |
| Father | Stanisław Kiszka |


title: Pinky swear

abstract: yubikiri To make a pinky promise, or pinky swear, is a traditional gesture most commonly practiced amongst children involving the locking of the pinkies of two people to signify that a promise has been made. The gesture is taken to signify that the person can break the finger of the one who broke the promise. The tradition appears to be a relatively modern invention, possibly as a continuation of older finger traditions.

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# Pinky swear

To make a **pinky promise**, or **pinky swear**, is a traditional gesture most commonly practiced amongst children involving the locking of the pinkies of two people to signify that a promise has been made. The gesture is taken to signify that the person can break the finger of the one who broke the promise. The tradition appears to be a relatively modern invention, possibly as a continuation of older finger traditions.

## Prevalence worldwide

In North America, it is most common amongst school-aged children or adults and close friends and has existed since at least 1860, when the *Dictionary of Americanisms* listed the following accompanying promise:

> Pinky, pinky bow-bell,
> Whoever tells a lie
> Will sink down to the bad place
> And never rise up again.

Pinky swearing has origins in Japan from 1600 to 1803, where it is called ***yubikiri*** (指切り, "finger cut-off") and often additionally confirmed with the vow "Pinky swear, whoever lies will be made to swallow a thousand needles." (指切り拳万、嘘ついたら針千本呑ます, *"Yubikiri genman, uso tsuitara hari senbon nomasu"*).

Recently, in South Korea, the hooked pinky has been followed by a "seal", wherein the thumbs touch each other while the pinkies are still hooked.

In Taiwan, stamping after hooking pinkies has been commonplace for over 30 years.

In Belfast, Northern Ireland it is referred to as a "piggy promise".

In Italy, a similar tradition is called "giurin giurello" or "giurin giuretto/-a".

In Maharashtra (India), this concept similarly using Marathi calls this "Gatti fu".

There is also another pinky swear promise made between children in the Isle of Man. It goes: "Make friends, make friends, Never ever break friends, If you do, You'll catch the flu, And that will be the end of you!"


title: Pietro Tabarrani

abstract: Pietro Tabarrani was an Italian physician and professor of Anatomy at the University of Siena.

text:
# Pietro Tabarrani

**Pietro Tabarrani** (3 may 1702  5 April 1779) was an Italian physician and professor of Anatomy at the University of Siena.

## Biography

He was born in Lombrici (Camaiore) in the Republic of Lucca. He found patronage with Cardinal Salviati in Rome, where he studied anatomy. From there he moved to Bologna, where he became friends with the doctors Beccari and Galeazzi. He then moved to Padua to work under the renowned anatomist Morgagni. In 1759, he obtained a professorship in the University of Siena. He would die in Siena in 1779, and his pupil Paolo Mascagni would take his position. His *Observatione Anatomiche* was published in Lucca in 1733.


title: Political history of New Zealand

abstract: The political history of New Zealand covers political events and trends related to the history of New Zealand, from the precolonial to the contemporary period, including significant milestones such as the attainment of self-government, transition to Dominion status, and ultimately, independence. Prior to British colonisation, politics in New Zealand was dominated by Māori chiefs (rangatira) as leaders of iwi and hapū, utilising Māori customs as a political system. New Zealand became a British colony after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori forces resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. The Colony of New Zealand was initially directly ruled by the governor. Early settlers desired representative democracy, leading to the first nationwide parliamentary election in 1853. In the 1st Parliament, there was a debate over whether ministers should be chosen by the governor or be responsible to Parliament; parliamentarians prevailed, leading to the formation of the first responsible government in 1856. Similar to Britain, suffrage in New Zealand was initially limited to males over 21 who were British subjects and owned a certain amount of land, effectively excluding Māori from voting rights. In 1867, Māori seats were established, allowing Māori to vote without property qualification. New Zealand granted voting rights to women in 1893, becoming the first self-governing country to do so. The party system in New Zealand began to take shape in the 1890s, prior to which all members of parliament were independents. The Liberal Party, formed in 1891, passed many significant progressive social and economic measures during its 21-year period in government. It was the sole political party until the establishment of the conservative Reform Party in 1909. The Liberal Party declined in the 1920s and became the United Party. The early 20th-century working class and trade unions, discontent with existing political representation, founded the Labour Party in 1916. After Labour won office in 1935, the United and Reform parties amalgamated to form the National Party, marking the start of a two-party system dominated by Labour and National. Labour expanded New Zealand's welfare state, which was largely maintained by alternating Labour and National governments, until the 1980s when Labour initiated free-market reforms, further advanced by the National government in the 1990s. Third parties did not gain significant power until the electoral system was reformed in 1993, transitioning to a proportional representation system known as mixed-member proportional (MMP). The new MMP system has resulted in a multi-party system, with New Zealand governments since consisting of various parties.

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# Political history of New Zealand

The **political history of New Zealand** covers political events and trends related to the history of New Zealand, from the precolonial to the contemporary period, including significant milestones such as the attainment of self-government, transition to Dominion status, and ultimately, independence.

Prior to British colonisation, politics in New Zealand was dominated by Māori chiefs (*rangatira*) as leaders of *iwi* and *hapū*, utilising Māori customs as a political system. New Zealand became a British colony after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori forces resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land.

The Colony of New Zealand was initially directly ruled by the governor. Early settlers desired representative democracy, leading to the first nationwide parliamentary election in 1853. In the 1st Parliament, there was a debate over whether ministers should be chosen by the governor or be responsible to Parliament; parliamentarians prevailed, leading to the formation of the first responsible government in 1856. Similar to Britain, suffrage in New Zealand was initially limited to males over 21 who were British subjects and owned a certain amount of land, effectively excluding Māori from voting rights. In 1867, Māori seats were established, allowing Māori to vote without property qualification. New Zealand granted voting rights to women in 1893, becoming the first self-governing country to do so. The party system in New Zealand began to take shape in the 1890s, prior to which all members of parliament were independents. The Liberal Party, formed in 1891, passed many significant progressive social and economic measures during its 21-year period in government. It was the sole political party until the establishment of the conservative Reform Party in 1909. The Liberal Party declined in the 1920s and became the United Party.

The early 20th-century working class and trade unions, discontent with existing political representation, founded the Labour Party in 1916. After Labour won office in 1935, the United and Reform parties amalgamated to form the National Party, marking the start of a two-party system dominated by Labour and National. Labour expanded New Zealand's welfare state, which was largely maintained by alternating Labour and National governments, until the 1980s when Labour initiated free-market reforms, further advanced by the National government in the 1990s. Third parties did not gain significant power until the electoral system was reformed in 1993, transitioning to a proportional representation system known as mixed-member proportional (MMP). The new MMP system has resulted in a multi-party system, with New Zealand governments since consisting of various parties.

## Māori society

The original Māori society of New Zealand was based on a collective identity found on the *iwi* and *hapū*. *Iwi* are the largest social units in Māori society. In Māori *iwi* roughly means "people" or "nation", and is often translated as "tribe", or "a confederation of tribes". *Iwi* groups trace their ancestry to the original Polynesian migrants who, according to tradition, arrived from Hawaiki. Some *iwi* cluster into larger groupings that are based on whakapapa (genealogical tradition) and known as waka (literally "canoes", with reference to the original migration voyages). Māori use *rohe* to describe the territory or boundaries of iwi. In pre-European times, most Māori were allied to relatively small groups in the form of *hapū* ("sub-tribes") and whānau ("family"). Each iwi contains a number of hapū; among the hapū of the Ngāti Whātua iwi, for example, are Te Uri-o-Hau, Te Roroa, Te Taoū, and Ngāti Whātua-o-Ōrākei.

From the early 1500's, settlements were based around the *.* The *pā were* village or defensive hillforts–fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces–or fortified villages. A great  represented the mana (prestige or power) and strategic ability of an *iwi*, as personified by a rangatira (chieftain). Māori built pā in various defensible locations around the *rohe* of an *iwi* to protect fertile plantation-sites and food supplies. A person's *mana* on the other hand could based on one of two sources: *mana tangata*, authority derived from *whakapapa* and *mana huānga*, defined as "authority derived from having a wealth of resources to gift to others to bind them into reciprocal obligations". Political leadership or governance traditionally came from the ariki and the rangatira. The Ariki are "persons of the highest rank and seniority". The rangatira are the hereditary Māori leaders of hapū, often described by Europeans as chieftains.

The first impacts of Europeans in Oceania involved the effect of new weapons on traditional conflict. The Musket Wars were a series of as many as 3,000 battles and raids fought throughout New Zealand (including the Chatham Islands) among Māori between 1807 and 1837, after Māori first obtained muskets and then engaged in an intertribal arms race in order to gain territory or seek revenge for past defeats. The battles resulted in the deaths of between 20,000 and 40,000 people and the enslavement of tens of thousands of Māori and significantly altered the *rohe*. The wars also included the Moriori genocide. In the aftermath of the conflicts, three notable military leaders emerged as dominant figures in New Zealand's landscape: Hongi Hika from the Ngāpuhi *iwi*, Te Wherowhero of Waikato, and Te Rauparaha representing Ngāti Toa. Not just firearms but also innovative tactics and strategies shook up traditional tribal structures.

## Colonial New Zealand

New Zealand's connection to the British Empire began in 1830, initiated by Te Rauparaha, who sought the help of English Captain Stewart. In 1831, leaders from the Bay of Islands reached out to King William IV, requesting British protection against both British subjects and potential French incursions. Official British involvement took a modest step forward in May 1833 with the arrival of James Busby as the British Resident, funded by the Colony of New South Wales. In 1835, Busby crafted a Declaration of Independence, which was initially endorsed by 35 rangatira under The United Tribes of New Zealand. An additional 17 rangatira later signed the document, effectively proclaiming New Zealand as an independent state under British protection.

### Establishment of the New Zealand Government

The Treaty of Waitangi between rangatira and British representatives of Queen Victoria was subsequently signed on 6 February 1840. In the English version of the treaty, Māori ceded sovereignty in return for the rights, privileges and protections of being a British subject. The Māori translation of the treaty refers to *kāwanatanga* which is generally translated as governance rather than sovereignty and this point remains a subject of much controversy and political debate. With the establishment of the Crown colony, Hobson became governor of New Zealand. The first organs of the New Zealand Government were also established to assist the governor: an Executive Council and a (General) Legislative Council. The Legislative Council had the power to issue laws called Ordinances. The colony was initially divided into three provinces: New Ulster Province (the North Island), New Munster Province (the South Island), and New Leinster Province (Stewart Island).

In 1840 the New Zealand Company, a company chartered in the United Kingdom for the systematic colonisation of New Zealand, raised the flag of the United Tribes at their settlement in Port Nicholson (Wellington), proclaiming government by "colonial council" that claimed to derive its powers from authority granted by local chiefs. Interpreting the moves as "high treason", Governor William Hobson declared British sovereignty over the entirety of the North Island on 21 May 1840, and on 23 May declared the council illegal. He then despatched his Colonial Secretary, Willoughby Shortland, with 30 soldiers and six mounted police on 30 June 1840, to Port Nicholson to tear down the flag. Shortland commanded the residents to withdraw from their "illegal association" and to submit to the representatives of the Crown.

The New Zealand Constitution Act was passed in 1852 and became the central constitutional document of the colony. It created the General Assembly, which consisted of the governor-appointed Legislative Council and an elected House of Representatives. The first general election for the House of Representatives was held from 14 July 1853 until early October. The 1st New Zealand Parliament was opened on 24 May 1854. The Administrator of Government, Robert Wynyard, was quickly confronted by the demands of the new parliament that responsible government be granted to the colony immediately; on 2 June the House of Representatives passed a resolution, sponsored by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, to that effect. Wynyard refused, and prorogued parliament for two weeks.

Parliament met on 8 August 1855, by which time Wynyard had received instructions from the Colonial Office to introduce responsible government. The new governor, Sir Thomas Gore Browne, arrived on 6 September 1855 and relieved Wynyard of his duties. Governor Thomas Gore Browne subsequently announced that self-government would begin with the 2nd New Zealand Parliament, elected in 1855. The Sewell Ministry constituted the first responsible government, with control over all domestic matters other than native policy. Formed in 1856, it lasted from 18 April to 20 May. From 7 May onward, Henry Sewell was titled "colonial secretary", and is generally regarded as having been the country's first prime minister.

### Māori resistance

The New Zealand Wars took place from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand colonial government and allied Māori on one side, and Māori and Māori-allied settlers on the other. Although Māori were initially fought by British Army forces, the New Zealand government developed its own military force, including local militia, rifle volunteer groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and kūpapa (pro-government Māori). Traders, Sydney businessmen and the New Zealand Company had bought large tracts of land before 1840. The Treaty of Waitangi included the right of pre-emption on land sales, and the New Zealand colonial government, pressured by immigrant European settlers, tried to speed up land sales to provide farmland. This met resistance from the Māori King Movement that emerged in the 1850s and opposed further European encroachment.

The Māori King Movement, or Kīngitanga, arose among a group of central North Island iwi in the 1850s as a means of attaining Māori unity to halt the alienation of land at a time of rapid population growth by European colonists. The movement sought to establish a monarch who could claim status similar to that of Queen Victoria, and thus allow Māori to deal with *Pākehā* (Europeans) on equal footing. It took on the appearance of an alternative government with its own flag, newspaper, bank, councillors, magistrates and law enforcement. Violence over land ownership broke out first in the Wairau Valley in the South Island in June 1843, but rising tensions in Taranaki eventually led to the involvement of British military forces at Waitara in March 1860. The war between the government and Kīngitanga Māori spread to other areas of the North Island, with the biggest single campaign being the invasion of the Waikato in 1863–1864, before hostilities concluded with the pursuits of Riwha Tītokowaru in Taranaki (1868–1869) and Rangatira Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki on the East Coast (1868–1872).

At the peak of hostilities in the 1860s, 18,000 British Army troops, supported by artillery, cavalry and local militia, battled about 4,000 Māori warriors in what became a gross imbalance of manpower and weaponry. Guerrilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns, the lives of about 1,800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, and total Māori losses over the course of all the wars may have exceeded 2,100. The New Zealand land confiscations took place during the 1860s to punish the Kīngitanga movement for attempting to set up an alternative Māori form of government that forbade the selling of land to European settlers. The confiscation law targeted Kīngitanga Māori against whom the government had waged war to restore the rule of British law. More than 1,200,000 hectares (3,000,000 acres) or 4.4 percent of land were confiscated, mainly in Waikato, Taranaki and the Bay of Plenty, but also in South Auckland, Hauraki, Te Urewera, Hawke's Bay and the East Coast.

### Development of national institutions

The termination of provincial governance in 1876 led New Zealand to adopt a political framework with a unitary and centralized structure, featuring a bicameral system. The lower house was elected through universal male suffrage starting in 1879, an upper house, composed of property owners, was appointed. Māori men gained the right to vote 12 years prior to European settlers, a move aimed at alleviating tensions arising from past conflicts and from 1867 onwards, Māori males aged 21 or older, even those of mixed descent, could vote for representatives in four dedicated Māori parliamentary seats.' The expansion of voting rights to all adult men in December 1879, combined with the implementation of the secret ballot in 1870, positioned New Zealand as an early adopter of democratic principles and led to a shift towards national issues in electoral debates.

During the so-called Vogel Era, Julius Vogel was premier from 1873 to 1875 and again in 1876. From 1876 to 1881, he was agent-general for New Zealand in London, and, in 1884, he was again a member of the government of the colony. Vogel is best remembered for his "Great Public Works" scheme of the 1870s. Before 1870, New Zealand was a country largely dominated by provincial interests and pork-barrel politics. After Vogel, as colonial treasurer, proposed borrowing the large sum of 10 million pounds, New Zealand developed a significant infrastructure of roads, railways and communication, all administered by central government. During his political career, Vogel worked generally successfully for reconciliation with the Māori.

The Liberal Government of New Zealand was the first responsible government in New Zealand politics organised along party lines. The government formed following the founding of the Liberal Party after the victory of liberal-leaning members of Parliament, led by John Ballance, at the 1890 general election. Despite an attempt by Harry Atkinson and other members of the previous government to stack the Legislative Council against the new government, it took office on 24 January 1891 and governed New Zealand for over 21 years until 10 July 1912, becoming the longest-serving government in New Zealand's history. Under Richard Seddon, the government was also historically notable for enacting significant social and economic changes, such as the Old Age Pensions Act. It also passed the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 that established a conciliation and compulsory arbitration system with the aim of providing the unions with the means of protecting their members.

### Women's suffrage

In 1887, Julius Vogel introduced the first women's suffrage bill to Parliament, but it was unsuccessful. Women's suffrage in New Zealand was eventually granted after about two decades of campaigning by women such as Kate Sheppard and Mary Ann Müller and organisations such as the New Zealand branch of the Women's Christian Temperance Union. On 19 September 1893 the governor, Lord Glasgow, signed a new Electoral Act into law. As a result, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation in the world in which all women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Women cast their first votes in the 1893 general election, with a high 85% turnout, compared to the 70% turnout among men.

### Radical politics

At the turn of the 20th century, the radical side of New Zealand working class politics was represented by the Socialist Party, founded in 1901. In 1905 a group of working-class politicians who were dissatisfied with the Liberal approach established the Independent Political Labour League, which managed to win a seat in Parliament in the 1908 election. At the same time, moderates contested as "Lib-Lab" candidates, aligning with the Liberal Party while enjoying the endorsement of the labour movement. A Blackball miners' strike in 1908 led to the founding of the first nationwide federation of trade unions (the "Red Federation"). In 1912, the labour movement went through the Waihi miners' strike, a major industrial disturbance prompted by radicals in the union movement. The movement split over supporting or opposing the radicals, and in the end, the conservative Reform Party government of William Massey suppressed the strike by force. Eventually the founding of the New Zealand Labour Party, on 7 July 1916 in Wellington, brought together different socialist groups.

The Kotahitanga movement, which sought unity among various Māori iwi , played a pivotal role in advocating for indigenous rights and established a separate Māori parliament. The first session of this Māori parliament was convened in 1897 at Papawai, near Greytown in the Wairarapa region, in specifically constructed facilities. The Kīngitanga (Māori King) movement had also set up a competing parliament, giving rise to the Young Māori Party. A compromise in 1900 led to the formation of Māori Land Councils to replace the Parliament. These councils were meant to strike a balance between the indigenous communities' desires to retain their remaining land and settler demands for new territory. but the influence of the councils waned when they were perceived as obstacles to settlement by the government. Following the enactment of the Native Land Act in 1909, which lifted limitations on land sales, the pace of land loss among indigenous communities accelerated significantly.

## Independence

### Dominion status

Following the 1907 Imperial conference, the House of Representatives passed a motion requesting that King Edward VII "take such steps as he may consider necessary" to change the designation of New Zealand from the *Colony of New Zealand* to the *Dominion of New Zealand*. The adoption of the designation of Dominion would, "raise the status of New Zealand" stated Prime Minister Sir Joseph Ward and "… have no other effect than that of doing the country good". A royal proclamation granting New Zealand the designation of 'Dominion' was issued on 9 September 1907.

With the attaining of Dominion status, the Colonial Treasurer became the Minister of Finance and the Colonial Secretary's Office was renamed the Department of Internal Affairs. The proclamation of 10 September also designated members of the House of Representatives as "M.P." (Member of Parliament). Previously they were designated "M.H.R." (Member of the House of Representatives). Dominion status allowed New Zealand to become virtually independent, while retaining the monarch as head of state, represented by a governor appointed in consultation with the New Zealand Government. Control over defence, constitutional amendments, and (partially) foreign affairs remained with the British Government, however.

### Conservative rule, 1912–1928

The Reform Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand from 1912 to 1928, led by the conservative Reform Party. In the 1911 general election, the Reform Party won thirty-seven seats compared with thirty-three for the Liberals. Supporters of the Liberals denied that Reform had won a mandate to rule, however, pointing out that the country quota (a system in which rural electorates were smaller than urban ones, meaning that rural areas were slightly over-represented in Parliament) worked to "inflate" Reform's vote. Nevertheless, it did not take long for the Liberal government, now ruling only with the support of independents, to fall. William Massey became prime minister on 10 July 1912. In government, the Reform Party implemented many of its policies regarding freehold and public service reform. Many other Liberal-era policies were not changed, however, and Reform gained further support from disillusioned members of the Liberal Party.

Following the outbreak of World War One, the Reform and Liberal parties formed a National Government in August 1915. In the first action of New Zealand in the war, following the sailing of a Samoa Expeditionary Force on 15 August, the Occupation of German Samoa soon took place without any fighting. On 17 December 1920, the League of Nations formally conferred a Class C Mandate over the former German Samoa to the Dominion of New Zealand. On 1 April 1922, the Samoa Act 1921 came into force. Under the Act, the New Zealand Governor-General appointed an administrator based in Apia to hold executive power and to report to the New Zealand Minister of External Affairs in Wellington; lawmaking power was held by the administrator and a local legislative council, although Wellington had final authority. The Mau (translates as "strongly held opinion") was a popular non-violent movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s (decade) in Savai'i, which in 1920s saw the resurgence of the Mau in opposition to the New Zealand administration.

### United Party, coalition governments and party merger, 1928–1935

In the 1920s the Liberal Party, although previously dominant in New Zealand party politics, seemed in serious long-term decline following the advent of the Labour Party, and its organisation had decayed to the point of collapse. The United Party represented an unexpected resurgence of the Liberals, and some historians consider it nothing more than the Liberal Party under a new name. In the 1928 general election, the new United Party performed surprisingly well, winning twenty-seven seats. The United Party subsequently formed a government with the backing of the Labour Party. In 1931 the United government passed a number of economic measures which appeared unfavourable to workers, and the Labour Party withdrew its support. The United Party continued in office with reluctant support from the Reform Party, which feared that a collapse of government (and thus a general election) would see large gains for Labour. Later the same year, formal coalition talks took place between United, Reform, and Labour, with a "unity government" proposed to counter the Great Depression. Labour eventually walked out of the talks, but Reform leader Gordon Coates (pressed by Downie Stewart) eventually agreed to form a coalition between United and Reform.

The coalition went into the 1935 general election under the title of the "National Political Federation", a name adopted to indicate that the grouping intended to represent New Zealanders from all backgrounds (in contrast to the previous situation, where United served city-dwellers and Reform served farmers). However, because of the effects of the depression and a perception that the existing coalition government had handled the situation poorly, the National Political Federation lost heavily in 1935 to the Labour Party, the rise of which had prompted the alliance. The two parties were cut down to 19 seats between them. Another factor was a third party, the Democrat Party formed by Albert Davy, a former organiser for the coalition who disapproved of the "socialist" measures that the coalition had introduced. The new party split the conservative vote and aided Labour's victory. United and Reform maintained their coalition while in opposition. In 1936 they decided to make the coalition permanent and to merge United and Reform into the National Party, which became one of New Zealand's two dominant political parties from that point on.

### First Labour Party government, 1935–1949

In the early 1930s the rigours of the Great Depression brought the Labour Party considerable popularity. In the 1935 election, Labour gained a significant majority, gaining 53 seats to the coalition's 19, and returned to government. Party leader Michael Joseph Savage became prime minister on 6 December 1935, marking the beginning of Labour's first term in office. The new government quickly set about implementing a number of significant reforms, including a reorganisation of the social-welfare system (with the Social Security Act 1938) and setting up the state housing scheme. Workers also benefited from the introduction of the forty-hour week, and legislation making it easier for unions to negotiate on their behalf. Savage himself was highly popular with the working classes, and his portrait could be found on walls in many houses around the country. At this time the Labour Party pursued an alliance with the Māori Rātana movement. This alliance was formalised with the Rātana movement joining with the Labour Party in a meeting between Rātana and Prime Minister Michael Savage on 22 April 1936.

Savage died in 1940 and Peter Fraser, who became Labour's longest-serving prime minister, replaced him. Fraser became best-known as New Zealand's head of government for most of World War II. In the 1944 Speech from the Throne the Governor-General announced the Fraser government's intention to adopt the Statute of Westminster. In 1946, Fraser instructed Government departments not to use the term "Dominion" any longer. The adoption of the Statute of Westminster took place on 25 November 1947 with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947. This Act allowed passing of the New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947, which granted the New Zealand Parliament full legislative powers, extra-territorial control of the New Zealand military forces and legally separated the New Zealand Crown from the British Crown. In 1948, the New Zealand Parliament passed the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, altering the New Zealand nationality law. From 1 January 1949 all New Zealanders became New Zealand citizens.

### Return of conservative government, 1949–1972

In the 1949 election, the National Party campaigned on "the private ownership of production, distribution and exchange". It saw the governing Labour Party defeated by the opposition and the beginning of the First National government. Once in power the new government led by Sidney Holland proved decidedly administratively conservative, retaining, for instance, compulsory unionism and the welfare state set up by the previous Labour government. In 1951, the Waterfront Dispute broke out, lasting 151 days. The National government stepped into the conflict, acting in opposition to the maritime unions. Holland also used this opportunity to call the snap 1951 general election. Campaigning on an anti-Communist platform and exploiting the Labour Opposition's apparent indecisiveness, National returned with an increased majority, gaining 54 parliamentary seats out of 80. In the 1954 general election, National was elected to a third term, though losing some of its seats. Towards the end of his third term, however, Holland became increasingly ill, and stepped down from the leadership shortly before the general election in 1957. Keith Holyoake, the party's long-standing deputy leader, took Holland's place. Holyoake, however, had insufficient time to establish himself in the public mind as prime minister, and lost in the general election later that year to Labour, then led by Walter Nash. The resulting Second Labour Government of New Zealand from 1957 to 1960 only lasted for one term, however, largely owing to the unpopular tax increases of the 1958 Black Budget.

Holyoke and the National Party returned to power in 1960. The Holyoake government implemented numerous reforms of the public services and government institutions: for example, it created the Office of the Ombudsman and numerous quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations, and strengthened parliamentary scrutiny of the executive. Public broadcasting was removed from direct government oversight and placed under corporation control. Holyoake's government rewrote the criminal legal code, passing the Crimes Act 1961; the Act abolished capital punishment in New Zealand, though only ten National MPs voted for its abolition. Holyoake accepted the post-war political consensus; he believed in the necessity of a mixed economy, championing a Keynesian strategy of public investment to maintain demand. However, as an anti-socialist, Holyoake sought to reduce the role of trade unions in industrial relations and the National government introduced a form of voluntary unionism. In February 1972, Holyoake stood aside and was replaced by his deputy, Jack Marshall, who took steps to reinvigorate the party. In the 1972 general election Labour's slogan was "It's Time – Time for a change, time for Labour", which expertly captured the national mood and Labour, led by Norman Kirk, defeated the governing National Party.

### Labour Party reforms, 1972–1975

The Third Labour Government of New Zealand from 1972 to 1975 carried out a wide range of reforms in areas such as overseas trade, farming, public works, energy generation, local government, health, the arts, sport and recreation, regional development, environmental protection, education, housing, and social welfare. The government's most significant policies concerned attempts to create a distinct New Zealand identity, both internally and in the world. For most of its history, New Zealand had been, economically, culturally and politically, highly dependent on Britain. However, by the early 1970s many New Zealanders felt the need for genuine national independence, a feeling strengthened when Britain joined the European Economic Community in 1973, causing serious problems for New Zealand trade. This was the first government to give serious recognition to the Treaty of Waitangi, first by making the anniversary of its signing a national public holiday, and then by establishing the Waitangi Tribunal to investigate contemporary breaches of it. Both were concessions to increasingly angry Māori protest, as was the appointment of Matiu Rata to Minister of Māori Affairs (and initially Lands). He was the first Māori Minister of Māori Affairs since the 1930s and the first ever Māori Minister of Lands. Māori also benefited from revisions to the laws relating to land, together with a significant increase in a Māori and Island Affairs building programme. The government lasted for one term before being defeated a year after the death of its popular leader, Norman Kirk.

### Conservative rule under Robert Muldoon, 1975–1984

After the 1975 general election, the National Party under Robert Muldoon came to power promising to lead "a Government of the ordinary bloke". Although he used populist rhetoric to rail against elites and the political establishment, he consistently tried to centralise power under himself during his premiership. His tenure was plagued by an economic pattern of stagnation, high inflation, growing unemployment, and high external debts and borrowing. Economic policies of the Muldoon Government included national superannuation, wage and price freezes, industrial incentives, and the Think Big industrial projects. He reintroduced and intensified the previous government's policies of the Dawn Raids, which racially targeted Pasifika overstayers. To engage with crime, Muldoon built "unusually close relationships" with criminal gangs; he personally favoured Black Power, and he and his wife Thea met with them on several occasions.

Muldoon led his party to two additional election victories in 1978 and 1981. Departing significantly from National Party convention, Muldoon had a controversial public image. He has been called the first world leader to be so openly informal and abrasive. He became more and more controversial as his premiership progressed. His refusal to stop a Springbok rugby tour of New Zealand divided the country and led to unprecedented civil disorder in 1981. In addition to the controversy of the Springbok tour, he began a smear campaign against Labour MP Colin Moyle for allegedly being gay, visited strip clubs, and once personally punched demonstrators at a protest.

The Social Credit Party, which was New Zealand's third party for much of the 20th century, reached its zenith in 1981, achieving an unprecedented 20.7% of the nationwide vote but only two seats. In 1978 and 1981 Labour secured more votes than the National Party but failed to win a majority of seats. Labour leader Bill Rowling claimed both results as a moral victory.

At the 1984 snap election—which Muldoon infamously called while visibly drunk—National finally suffered a significant defeat to Labour. Shortly before leaving office, amid a constitutional crisis, Muldoon was forced by the incoming Government to devalue the New Zealand dollar (*see below*).

### Constitutional crisis and reform

During the 1980s, New Zealand underwent significant constitutional changes. In 1983, the Government replaced the outdated Letters Patent of 1917 that delineated the powers and duties of the governor-general; new Letters Patent issued in 1983 "patriated" the office of governor-general, transferring control from imperial to New Zealand authority.

In 1984, Robert Muldoon lost power after nine years as prime minister. Convention required him to follow the instructions of the incoming government during the transition period, but he refused to cooperate, leading to a constitutional crisis amidst a major currency crisis. The constitutional crisis led the incoming Labour government to review New Zealand's constitutional structures, which resulted in the Constitution Act 1986. The new Constitution Act rationalised New Zealand's legal framework by revoking the New Zealand Constitution Act 1952 and the Statute of Westminster. It nullified the authority of the British Parliament to enact laws for New Zealand (even with the consent of the New Zealand Parliament).

### Labour's return and economic liberalisation, 1984–1990

The Fourth Labour Government governed from 26 July 1984 to 2 November 1990 (the period up to 8 August 1989). It was the first Labour government to win a second consecutive term since the First Labour Government. The policy agenda of the Fourth Labour Government differed significantly from that of previous Labour governments: it enacted major social reforms (such as homosexual law reform) and economic reforms (including corporatisation of state services and reform of the tax system). The economic reforms became known as "Rogernomics" (echoing Reaganomics), after Finance Minister Roger Douglas. Rogernomics featured market-led restructuring and deregulation and the control of inflation through tight monetary policy, a 20% devaluation of the dollar, corporatisation of state-owned business, removal of subsidies to industries (particularly agricultural subsidies), reduction of tariff protection, and a significant overhaul of the tax system. Tax cuts were implemented, and a Goods and Services Tax (initially set at 10%) was introduced.

Rogernomics represented a sharp departure from the post-war political consensus that emphasised heavy interventionism, protectionism, and full employment. Instead, it embraced principles of small government, balanced budgets, and free-market policies influenced by the Chicago school of economics. Douglas' adoption of policies more usually associated with the political right (or New Right), and their implementation by a Labour government, became the subject of lasting controversy. The Labour government also enacted nuclear-free legislation, which led to the United States suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand under the ANZUS alliance. David Lange led the government for most of its two three-year terms in office. Disagreements between Lange and Douglas split the party, with Douglas' supporters later forming the ACT Party. The government suffered a defeat at the 1990 general election, but the incoming National government retained most of the reforms.

### Electoral reforms and political changes under the National Party, 1990–1999

For the first six years, the National Party governed alone under the leadership of Jim Bolger. Following in the footsteps of the previous Labour government, the Fourth National Government embarked on an extensive programme of spending cuts. This programme, popularly known as "Ruthanasia" after Finance Minister Ruth Richardson, involved the reduction of social welfare benefits and the introduction of fees for healthcare and tertiary education. This was highly controversial, as was the retention of the superannuation surtax, a tax on old age pensions which National had promised to abolish. Also controversial, but in a different way, was the beginning of the Treaty settlement process.

Extreme dissatisfaction with both National and Labour led to the reform of the electoral system and the introduction of proportional representation in the form of mixed-member proportional (MMP) representation. The first MMP election was held in 1996, and resulted in the populist and nationalist New Zealand First party winning 17 MPs only three years after its founding. This led to a coalition between National and New Zealand First in which Bolger continued as prime minister. Bolger was ousted in 1997 and replaced as National leader and prime minister by Jenny Shipley. Disagreement between Shipley and NZ First leader Winston Peters caused the coalition to collapse in 1998; the consequent cobbling together of another coalition between National and the deserters of various parties contributed to the government's defeat in 1999.

### New Labour government under Helen Clark, 1999–2008

While in opposition, the Labour Party, under the leadership of Helen Clark, distanced itself from Rogernomics. This made it an attractive ally for the Alliance, a grouping of left-wing parties, which included defectors from Labour. In the 1999 general election, the Labour Party defeated the National Party easily, becoming the largest single party in the House of Representatives. The Fifth Labour Government was established through a coalition with the Alliance, supported by the Green Party. During its first term, the government pursued a number of progressive reforms. The controversial Employment Contracts Act was repealed, replaced by an Employment Relations Act more friendly to unions and collective bargaining; a state-owned bank, Kiwibank, was created at the behest of the Alliance; a majority stake in the national airline, Air New Zealand, was purchased; and the public health sector was reorganised with the re-establishment of partly-elected district health boards. Closing the Gaps, an affirmative action strategy targeting socio-economic inequalities between Māori and Pasifika ethnic groups and other groups, was a particularly controversial reform among right-wing National and ACT voters.

With the disintegration of the Alliance in 2002, Helen Clark called a snap election, even though she still had the confidence of the House. Labour handily won the election. The Alliance failed to return to Parliament, although a rump returned as the Progressives. Labour formed a coalition with the Progressives, and turned to the centrist United Future party for confidence and supply. This second term was notable largely for its social and constitutional legislation, with the government establishing a Supreme Court and ending appeals to the Privy Council, decriminalising prostitution, and providing for civil unions. The government was also faced in this term with the foreshore and seabed controversy. While Labour, in cooperation with the New Zealand First party, eventually resolved the legal dispute by vesting foreshore and seabed title in the Crown, a dissident Labour minister, Tariana Turia, formed the Māori Party. In the 2005 general election, the Labour government was returned with a slim margin on the strength of the Working for Families assistance package and financial assistance to students.

### National's return to power, 2008–2017

In the 2008 election, the Labour Party lost convincingly to National, and the government was succeeded by the National Party led by John Key as prime minister. National came to power in the continuing wake of a financial crisis. In response to New Zealand's rising debt, Finance Minister Bill English made budget deficit-reduction his main priority for the first term. The government also cut taxes on all income; the top personal tax rate was lowered from 39% to 38% and then 33% in 2010. At the 26 November 2011 general election, National gained 47.31% of the party vote, the highest percentage gained by any political party since MMP was introduced, helped by a lower voter turnout and the misfortunes of its traditional support parties. The government then introduced the "mixed ownership model" plan, in which the Government planned to reduce its share in Genesis Energy, Meridian Energy, Mighty River Power and Solid Energy from 100% to 51% and Air New Zealand from 74% to 51%, and sell off the remainder. The plans to sell down Solid Energy were later axed due to the company's poor financial position. A citizens-initiated referendum on the sell-downs returned a 67.3% vote in opposition (on a turnout of 45.1%). The Fifth National Government won a third term at the 2014 general election. After serving for eight years, Key announced his resignation as the party leader on 5 December 2016. He stepped down as Prime Minister on 12 December. Key's deputy Bill English was proclaimed as the party's new leader on 12 December 2016 after Health Minister Jonathan Coleman and Minister of Police Judith Collins withdrew from the leadership election.

### New Zealand under Jacinda Ardern and Labour, 2017–2023

On 1 August 2017, Jacinda Ardern succeeded Andrew Little as both leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition. Labour's support increased rapidly after Ardern became leader, and she led her party to gain 14 seats at the 2017 general election on 23 September, winning 46 seats to the National Party's 56. After negotiations, New Zealand First chose to enter a minority coalition government with Labour, supported by the Green Party, with Ardern as prime minister. She was sworn in by the governor-general on 26 October 2017. She became the world's youngest female head of government at age 37. Ardern gave birth to her daughter on 21 June 2018, making her the world's second elected head of government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto). The Sixth Labour Government faced challenges from the New Zealand housing crisis, child poverty, and social inequality. In March 2019, in the aftermath of the Christchurch mosque shootings, Ardern reacted by rapidly introducing strict gun laws, winning her wide recognition.

Ardern moved the Labour Party further to the centre towards the October 2020 general election, promising to cut spending during the remainder of the COVID-19 recession. She led the Labour Party to a landslide victory, gaining an overall majority of 65 seats in Parliament. This was the first time a single-party majority government had been formed under MMP. On 19 January 2023, Ardern announced she would resign as Labour leader. Following the unopposed election of Chris Hipkins as her successor, she resigned as leader of the Labour Party on 22 January and submitted her resignation as prime minister to the governor-general on 25 January.

### National–ACT–NZ First, 2023–present

On 30 November 2021, Christopher Luxon was elected National Party leader, after a party crisis caused the removal of previous party leader Judith Collins. He led his party into the October 2023 general election, after which National became the largest party with 38% of the party vote. Chris Hipkins' Labour Party lost nearly half of its seats.

Coalition-formation negotiations between National, ACT and New Zealand First ended on 24 November 2023, and Luxon was sworn in as prime minister by the governor-general on 27 November. The National–ACT–NZ First coalition government opposes co-governance, and supports conservative law and justice reforms and tax cuts.

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## Further reading


title: Pinto Valley Mine

abstract: The Pinto Valley Mine is a large copper mine located in Arizona, in the southwestern part of the United States. Pinto Valley represents one of the largest copper reserves in the United States and in the world, having estimated reserves of 446 million tonnes of ore grading 0.25% copper. It is located in Gila County, near the town of Miami. The mine owns the San Manuel Arizona Railroad.

text:
# Pinto Valley Mine

The **Pinto Valley Mine** is a large copper mine located in Arizona, in the southwestern part of the United States. Pinto Valley represents one of the largest copper reserves in the United States and in the world, having estimated reserves of 446 million tonnes of ore grading 0.25% copper. It is located in Gila County, near the town of Miami.

The mine owns the San Manuel Arizona Railroad.

33°25′55″N 110°57′27″W / 33.43194°N 110.95750°W / 33.43194; -110.95750

## InfoBox

Pinto Valley Mine
| Location | |
| --- | --- |
| Gila County, Arizona | |
| Country | United States |
| Production | |
| Products | Copper |
| Owner | |
| Company | Capstone Mining |
| Website | capstonemining.com |


title: Phyllium philippinicum

abstract: Phyllium philippinicum is a species of leaf insect in the family Phylliidae. It is endemic to the Philippines.

text:
# Phyllium philippinicum

***Phyllium philippinicum*** is a species of leaf insect in the family Phylliidae. It is endemic to the Philippines.

## Taxonomy

*Phyllium philippinicum* was described on the basis of a female holotype from Ilanin Forest in the Bataan Province. The holotype is currently stored in the Bavarian State Collection of Zoology.

It is in the subgenus *Phyllium*.

## Distribution

It is found on Luzon.

## InfoBox

| *Phyllium philippinicum* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Phasmatodea |
| Family: | Phylliidae |
| Genus: | *Phyllium* |
| Species: | ***P. philippinicum*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Phyllium philippinicum***<br>Hennemann, Conle, Gottardo & Bresseel, 2009 | |
|


title: Ferdinand Piloty

abstract: Ferdinand von Piloty II was a German lithographer. He was the father of artist Karl von Piloty.

text:
# Ferdinand Piloty

**Ferdinand von Piloty II** (b. 28 August 1786, Homburg  d. 8 January 1844, Munich) was a German lithographer. He was the father of artist Karl von Piloty.

## Early life and works

He initially studied painting, but his interests soon switched to lithography. From 1808 to 1815, with Johann Nepomuk Strixner (1782–1855), he produced a series of 423 lithographs, titled *Les oeuvres lithographiques par Strixner, Piloty et Comp.*.

From 1836, with Joseph Löhle (1807–1840), he produced a series of copies from the Alte Pinakothek and the Schleissheim Gallery. Following the death of Gottlieb Bodmer in 1837, Piloty and Löhle continued publication of his works.


title: Caribbean literature

abstract: Caribbean literature is the literature of the various territories of the Caribbean region. Literature in English from the former British West Indies may be referred to as Anglo-Caribbean or, in historical contexts, as West Indian literature. Most of these territories have become independent nations since the 1960s, though some retain colonial ties to the United Kingdom. They share, apart from the English language, a number of political, cultural, and social ties which make it useful to consider their literary output in a single category. Note that other non-independent islands may include the Caribbean unincorporated territories of the United States, however literature from this region has not yet been studied as a separate category and is independent from West Indian literature. The more wide-ranging term "Caribbean literature" generally refers to the literature of all Caribbean territories regardless of language—whether written in English, Spanish, French, Hindustani, or Dutch, or one of numerous creoles. The literature of Caribbean is exceptional, both in language and subject. Through themes of innocence, exile and return to motherland, resistance and endurance, engagement and alienation, self determination, Caribbean literature provides a powerful platform for Post-Colonial studies and to Caribbean literatures in importance the context of all literature.

text:
# Caribbean literature

**Caribbean literature** is the literature of the various territories of the Caribbean region. Literature in English from the former British West Indies may be referred to as **Anglo-Caribbean** or, in historical contexts, as **West Indian literature**. Most of these territories have become independent nations since the 1960s, though some retain colonial ties to the United Kingdom. They share, apart from the English language, a number of political, cultural, and social ties which make it useful to consider their literary output in a single category. Note that other non-independent islands may include the Caribbean unincorporated territories of the United States, however literature from this region has not yet been studied as a separate category and is independent from West Indian literature. The more wide-ranging term "Caribbean literature" generally refers to the literature of all Caribbean territories regardless of language—whether written in English, Spanish, French, Hindustani, or Dutch, or one of numerous creoles.

The literature of Caribbean is exceptional, both in language and subject. Through themes of innocence, exile and return to motherland, resistance and endurance, engagement and alienation, self determination, Caribbean literature provides a powerful platform for Post-Colonial studies and to Caribbean literatures in importance the context of all literature.

## "Caribbean literature" vs. "West Indian literature"

As scholarship expands, there is debate about the correct term to use for literature that comes from the region. Both terms are often used interchangeably despite having different origins and referring to slightly different groups of people. Since so much of Caribbean identity is linked to "insidious racism" and "the justification of slave labor", it is usual to refer to the author of the piece for their identity preference.

West Indian is defined as coming from the "West Indies", which includes "the islands of the Caribbean" and was "used first \[for\] indigenous population, and subsequently both \[for\] settlers of European origin and of people of African origin brought to the area as slaves." West Indian can also refer to things that can be "traced back" to the West Indies but the creators "live elsewhere". West Indian "was a term coined by colonising European powers." Caribbean, on the other hand, is defined as "of the Caribbean...its people, and their cultures" only.

Further issues include language classifications like Creole Caribbean literature and Anglophone Caribbean literature. Different languages also make different references to the texts. While there is no terminology that is obsolete, the issue requires acknowledgement, since it is the literature of historically oppressed people. The Spanish Caribbean islands include Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Panama as well as the islands of Venezuela and the Caribbean coast of Colombia.

## Territories included in the category West Indian

The literature of Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Curaçao, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Martin, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos and the U.S. Virgin Islands would normally be considered to belong to the wider category of West Indian literature.

## Development of the concept of West Indian literature

The term "West Indies" first began to achieve wide currency in the 1950s, when writers such as Samuel Selvon, John Hearne, Edgar Mittelholzer, V. S. Naipaul, Andrew Salkey, and George Lamming began to be published in the United Kingdom. A sense of a single literature developing across the islands was also encouraged in the 1940s by the BBC radio programme *Caribbean Voices*, which featured stories and poems written by West Indian authors, recorded in London under the direction of founding producer Una Marson and later Henry Swanzy, and broadcast back to the islands. Magazines such as *Kyk-Over-Al* in Guyana, *Bim* in Barbados, and *Focus* in Jamaica, which published work by writers from across the region, also encouraged links and helped build an audience.

Many—perhaps most—West Indian writers have found it necessary to leave their home territories and base themselves in the United Kingdom, the United States, or Canada in order to make a living from their work—in some cases spending the greater parts of their careers away from the territories of their birth. Critics in their adopted territories might argue that, for instance, V. S. Naipaul ought to be considered a British writer instead of a Trinidadian writer, or Jamaica Kincaid and Paule Marshall American writers, but most West Indian readers and critics still consider these writers "West Indian".

West Indian literature ranges over subjects and themes as wide as those of any other "national" literature, but in general many West Indian writers share a special concern with questions of identity, ethnicity, and language that rise out of the Caribbean historical experience.

One unique and pervasive characteristic of Caribbean literature is the use of "dialect" forms of the national language, often termed creole. The various local variations in the language adopted from the colonial powers such as Britain, Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands, have been modified over the years within each country and each has developed a blend that is unique to their country. Many Caribbean authors in their writing switch liberally between the local variation—now commonly termed nation language—and the standard form of the language. Two West Indian writers have won the Nobel Prize for literature: Derek Walcott (1992), born in St. Lucia, resident mostly in Trinidad during the 1960s and '70s, and partly in the United States since then; and V. S. Naipaul (2001), born in Trinidad and resident in the United Kingdom since 1950. (Saint-John Perse, who won the Nobel Prize in 1960, was born in the French territory of Guadeloupe.)

Other notable names in (anglophone) Caribbean literature have included Una Marson, Earl Lovelace, Austin Clarke, Claude McKay, Louise Bennett, Orlando Patterson, Andrew Salkey, Edward Kamau Brathwaite (who was born in Barbados and has lived in Ghana and Jamaica), Linton Kwesi Johnson, Velma Pollard and Michelle Cliff, to name only a few. In more recent times, a number of literary voices have emerged from the Caribbean as well as the Caribbean diaspora, including Kittitian Caryl Phillips (who has lived in the UK since one month of age); Edwidge Danticat, a Haitian immigrant to the United States; Anthony Kellman from Barbados, who divides his time between Barbados and the United States; Andrea Levy of the United Kingdom; Jamaicans Alecia McKenzie, who has lived in Belgium, Singapore and France, and Colin Channer and Marlon James, the author of the 2015 Man Booker Prize-winning novel *A Brief History of Seven Killings* (as well as *John Crow's Devil*, *The Book of Night Women*, the unpublished screenplay "Dead Men", and the short story "Under Cover of Darkness"), Antiguan Marie-Elena John, and Lasana M. Sekou from Saint Martin.

## Themes of migration, landscape, nature

Caribbean lands and seas have been depicted as a paradise on earth by foreign artists and writers. Scholars and writers in Postcolonial Studies have researched and published on this cultural phenomenon of an empty island, and the racist implications of a fantasy void of local people and their cultures. Caribbean classic novels such as Jean Rhys's Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) have inspired films, stories, and poems by other artists who seek to decolonize the relationship of people and landscapes.

Caribbean novelists imbue island landscape with bustling life of the locals and migrants. The migration of Caribbean workers to the Panama Canal is often used as a narrative foundation. Maryse Condé’s novel *Tree of Life* (1992) discusses the involvement of family ties and how people seek to improve their lot in life by working to build the Panama Canal. Another contemporary classic about migrant cultures is Ramabai Espinet’s novel *The Swinging Bridge* (2003), which explores trauma of displacement, Indian indentureship, and the phenomena of invisibility relating to women.

Caribbean stories and poems are ripe with references to storms, hurricanes, and natural disasters. Derek Walcott's wrote "The Sea is History," and dramatized the impact of tropical storms and hurricanes on the locals.

Caribbean writing deploys agricultural symbolism to represent the complexities of colonial rule and the intrinsic values of the lands. Native fruits and vegetables appear in colonized and decolonizing discourse. Derek Walcott describes the complications of colonialism using local fruit metaphors, such as star apples, in his poetry to connote the complexity of acidity and the sweetness. Giannina Braschi's postcolonial work United States of Banana imagines a political and economic deal between China and Puerto Rico as the exchange of a bowl of rice for a bowl of beans, and a Lychee for a Quenepa.

## Poetry

Caribbean poetry is vast and rapidly evolving field of poetry written by people from the Caribbean region and the diaspora.

Caribbean poetry generally refers to a myriad of poetic forms, spanning epic, lyrical verse, prose poems, dramatic poetry and oral poetry, composed in Caribbean territories regardless of language. It is most often, however, written in English, Spanish, Spanglish, French, Hindustani, Dutch, or any number of creoles. Poetry in English from the former British West Indies has been referred to as Anglo-Caribbean poetry or West Indian poetry.

Since the mid-1970s, Caribbean poetry has gained increasing visibility with the publication in Britain and North America of several anthologies. Over the decades the canon has shifted and expanded, drawing both on oral and literary traditions and including more women poets and politically charged works. Caribbean writers, performance poets, newspaper poets, singer-songwriters have created a popular art form, a poetry heard by audiences all over the world. Caribbean oral poetry shares the vigour of the written tradition.

Among the most prominent Caribbean poets whose works are widely studied (and translated into other languages) are: Derek Walcott (who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature), Kamau Brathwaite, Edouard Glissant, Giannina Braschi, Lorna Goodinson, Aimé Fernand Césaire, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Kwame Dawes, and Claudia Rankine.

Common themes include: exile and return to the motherland; the relationship of language to nation; colonialism and postcolonialism; self-determination and liberty; racial identity.

## Women writers

There is great abundance of talent, styles, and subjects covered by Caribbean women writers spanning the genres of poetry, theater, short stories, essays, and novels. There is also a burgeoning field of scholarship on how women authors address women's lives under dictatorships, eroticism and the body, history and identity, migration, Afro Caribbean history, decolonization, revolution, queer theory, among countless other topics.

Major novelists include Maryse Conde (Guadeloupe), Merle Hodge (Trinidad), Paule Marshall (Barbadian-American), Cynthia McLeod (Suriname), Elizabeth Nunez (Trinidad-American ), Tiphanie Yanique (Virgin Islands), Rosario Ferre, (Puerto Rico), and Michelle Cliff (Jamaica).

Poets include Mahadai Das (Guyana), Lenelle Moïse (Haiti), Nancy Morejón, Pamela Mordecai (Jamaica), Lorna Goodison (Jamaica), Julia de Burgos, Mara Pastor, Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico), Merle Collins (Grenada), Shara McCallum (Jamaica), Chiqui Vicioso (Dominican Republic), Jennifer Rahim (Trinidad and Tobago), and Olive Senior (Jamaica).

Playwrights include Una Marson who wrote in English, and Ina Césaire (Martinique) and Simone Schwarz-Bart (France/Guadeloupe) who write in French.

## Epics

There are many epic stories, plays, and poems written in and about the Caribbean. Dating to the 16th century, Juan de Castellanos's *Elegy to the Illustrious Gentlemen of the Indies (1589)* is an epic in verse that traces Columbus's arrival to the conquest of Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Margarita. The work relates Juan Ponce de León's colonization of Puerto Rico in search for the mythic fountain of youth. Later epics of the Spanish West Indies include Manuel de Jesus Galvan's national epic "The Sword and the Cross" (1954) that relates the myths and histories of the colony of Hispaniola.

In the 20th century, epics approach subjects such racist legacies, economic terrorism, and the decolonization of Caribbean culture and politics. Nobel prize winner Derek Walcott pens one of greatest modern epic written in the English language, Omeros (1990). This epic poem is divided into seven books containing sixty-four chapters. Most of the poem is composed in a three-line form that is reminiscent of the terza rima form that Dante used for *The Divine Comedy*. The work uses local island folklore and ancient Greek myths such as Homer' *Iliad* to address legacies of Greek, Roman, and American culture including racism and slavery. Parts of the story occur on Walcott's native island St. Lucia, but there are also time travels to ancient Greece and Rome, as well as travels to modern day Lisbon, London, Dublin, Toronto.

Giannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams (1988) is a postmodern epic composed of six books of poetry that blend elements of eclogues, epigrams, lyrics, prose poem, diary, jingles, Puerto Rican folklore, and political manifesto. The work traces the history of the Spanish language from medieval times to contemporary Puerto Rico, Cuban, Chicano, and Nuyorican culture. Braschi's later epic, written in English, is United States of Banana (2011), a geopolitical tragic-comedy about the fall of the American empire, the liberation of Puerto Rico, and the realignment of powers among Caribbean nations. Mixing elements of poetry, lyric essay, Caribbean songs, and socratic dialogues, this epic tackles the subjects of global debt, financial terrorism, and decolonization.

Trinidadian playwright and novelist Earl Lovelace's work has been described as performative epics that mix the rhythms of steelband and calypso with complex narratives about black power and the political, spiritual, and psychic struggles for decolonization. His best known works are *The Dragon Can't Dance* (1979) and *Salt* (1996) which won the Commonwealth Book Prize.

## Literary festivals

Many parts of the Caribbean have begun in recent years to host literary festivals, including in Anguilla, the Anguilla Lit Fest, in Cuba the Havana International Book Fair, in Trinidad and Tobago the NGC Bocas Lit Fest, in Jamaica the Calabash International Literary Festival, in Saint Martin/Sint Maarten the St. Martin Book Fair, in Barbados Bim Literary Festival, in the Dominican Republic the Santo Domingo International Book Fair, in Dominica the Nature Island Literary Festival and Book Fair, Alliouagana Festival of the Word in Montserrat, the Virgin Islands Literary Festival and Book Fair, the International Poetry Festival - Puerto Rico, and Antigua and Barbuda Literary Festival.

## Prizes

## Notable West Indian writers

(Grouped by territory of birth or upbringing)

### Antigua

### The Bahamas

### Barbados

### Belize

### Bonaire

### Cuba

### Curaçao

### Dominica

### Dominican Republic

### Grenada

### Guadeloupe

### Guyana

### Haiti

### Jamaica

### Martinique

### Montserrat

### Puerto Rico

### St Kitts and Nevis

### St Lucia

### Saint Martin

### St Vincent and The Grenadines

### Suriname

### The British Virgin Islands

### Trinidad and Tobago

### Virgin Islands

## West Indian literary periodicals

## Further reading

* Donnell, Alison, ed. (December 2020). *Caribbean Literature in Transition Series*. Cambridge University Press.
* Badejo, Fabian Adekunle. *Salted Tongues – Modern Literature in St. Martin*, House of Nehesi Publishers, 2003. ISBN 0913441627
* Brown, Stewart; Wickham, John, eds. (21 March 2002). *The Oxford Book of Caribbean Short Stories*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192802293.
* Brown, Stewart; McWatt, Mark, eds. (7 May 2009). *The Oxford Book of Caribbean Verse*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199561599.
* Figueredo, D. H., ed. (30 December 2005). *Encyclopedia of Caribbean Literature \[2 volumes\], Illustrated Edition*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313327421.
* Joseph, Margaret Paul. *Caliban in Exile: the Outsider in Caribbean Fiction*, Greenwood Press, 1992.


title: Pleasant Township, Henry County, Ohio

abstract: Pleasant Township is one of the thirteen townships of Henry County, Ohio, United States. As of the 2020 census the population was 1,882.

text:
# Pleasant Township, Henry County, Ohio

**Pleasant Township** is one of the thirteen townships of Henry County, Ohio, United States. As of the 2020 census the population was 1,882.

## Geography

Located in the southwestern corner of the county, it borders the following townships:

Most of the village of Holgate is located in northeastern Pleasant Township, and the village of New Bavaria (the smallest village in Henry County) is located in the center of the township.

## Name and history

It is one of fifteen Pleasant Townships statewide.

## Government

The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.

Public education for the township is administered by the Holgate Local School District.

## InfoBox

| Pleasant Township, Henry County, Ohio | |
| --- | --- |
| Township | |
| Emanuel's Christian Church, a landmark in the township | |
| Location of Pleasant Township in Henry County | |
| Coordinates: 41°13′24″N 84°9′36″W / 41.22333°N 84.16000°W / 41.22333; -84.16000 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Ohio |
| County | Henry |
| Area | |
| Total | 36.0 sq mi (93.3 km2) |
| Land | 36.0 sq mi (93.3 km2) |
| Water | 0.0 sq mi (0.0 km2) |
| Elevation | 722 ft (220 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 1,882 |
| Density | 52/sq mi (20/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (EDT) |
| FIPS code | 39-63296 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1086295 |