title: Siege of Mafeking

abstract: The siege of Mafeking was a 217-day siege battle for the town of Mafeking in South Africa during the Second Boer War from October 1899 to May 1900. The siege received considerable attention as Lord Edward Cecil, the son of the British prime minister, was in the besieged town, as also was Lady Sarah Wilson, a daughter of the Duke of Marlborough and aunt of Winston Churchill. The siege turned the British commander, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, into a national hero. The Relief of Mafeking, while of little military significance, was a morale boost for the struggling British.

text:
# Siege of Mafeking

The **siege of Mafeking** was a 217-day siege battle for the town of Mafeking (now called Mahikeng) in South Africa during the Second Boer War from October 1899 to May 1900. The siege received considerable attention as Lord Edward Cecil, the son of the British prime minister, was in the besieged town, as also was Lady Sarah Wilson, a daughter of the Duke of Marlborough and aunt of Winston Churchill. The siege turned the British commander, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, into a national hero. The **Relief of Mafeking** (the lifting of the siege), while of little military significance, was a morale boost for the struggling British.

## Prelude

Shortly before the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899, Lord Wolseley, Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, who had failed to persuade the British government to send troops to the region, instead sent Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, accompanied by a handful of officers, to the Cape Colony to raise two regiments of mounted rifles from Rhodesia. Their aims were to maintain a mobile cavalry force on the frontier with the Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

Like the British government, politicians in South Africa feared that increased military activity might provoke a Boer attack, so the British officers were provided with rifles and ammunition, but no artillery or horses – in those days, generally regarded as quite important for a mobile column. They decided to obtain many of their own stores, organise their own transport and recruit in secret. Although the two regiments were raised in Rhodesia, Baden-Powell chose Mafeking to store supplies for his forces due to its location – both near the border and on the railway between Bulawayo and Kimberley – and because of its status as a local administrative centre. Also, the town had good stocks of food and other necessities. However, Mafeking was isolated, exposed and close to Boer-controlled areas. Baden-Powell, whose orders were to command a highly mobile field force of cavalry, chose to immobilise half his force to hold Mafeking against a Boer attack. Many of Baden-Powell's recruits were untrained and he was aware of the Boers' greatly superior numbers, commando tactics and the failure of the earlier Jameson Raid and decided that the best way to tie down Boer troops would be through defence rather than attack. In August 1899, Baden-Powell started recruiting (in secret, to avoid negative political effects) and many of his recruits were untrained, many had never ridden before, so were unsuited for a "mobile column". His forces that remained outside the besieged town were well trained, had their own horses, and they performed remarkably well in their intended mobile role.

The forces defending Mafeking totalled about 2,000, including the Protectorate Regiment of about 500 men, about 300 from the Bechuanaland Rifles and the Cape Police and a further 300 men from the town. The British garrison armed 300 African natives with rifles, these were nicknamed the "Black Watch" and used to guard the perimeter. Prior to the siege, Lord Edward Cecil formed the Mafeking Cadet Corps of boys aged 12 to 15 who acted as messengers and orderlies and released men to fight (later claimed to be one of the inspirations for the Boy Scouts).

## Siege

Work to build defences around the 6-mile (10 km) perimeter of Mafeking started on 19 September 1899; the town would eventually be equipped with an extensive network of trenches and gun emplacements. President Kruger of the Boer South African Republic declared war on 12 October 1899. Under orders of General Piet Cronje the Mafeking railway and telegraph lines were cut the same day, and the town began to be besieged from 13 October. Mafeking was first shelled on 16 October after the British commanders ignored Cronje's 9 o’clock deadline to surrender.

Although usually considerably outnumbered by Boer troops, the garrison withstood the siege for 217 days, defying the predictions of the politicians on both sides. In reality, the Boers risked little to tie up Baden-Powell's force and stores and for most of the time the number of Boers actively engaged in the siege were few. While at one time the Boer troops numbered over 8,000 and more artillery was briefly brought up, most of these were merely moving through the siege camp. The Boers were able to take control of the railway and roads just outside the town and used the siege camp as a staging post. Baden-Powell remained invested in the town despite repeated orders and, for most of the time until he ate his own horses, having the capacity to break out. But he would still have needed a base from which to operate. With few soldiers, no modern artillery and little risk, the defenders kept as many as 8,000 Boers from deploying to other war fronts in Natal and the Orange Free State. Some authors believe that this has been overattributed to cunning deceptions instituted by Baden-Powell. Fake landmines were laid around the town in view of the Boers and their spies within the town, and his soldiers were ordered to simulate avoiding barbed wire (non-existent) when moving between trenches; guns and a searchlight (improvised from an acetylene lamp and biscuit tin) were moved around the town to increase their apparent number. A howitzer was built in Mafeking's railway workshops, and even an old cannon (dated 1770, it coincidentally had "B.P. & Co." engraved on the barrel) was pressed into service. Noticing that the Boers had failed to remove any of the rails, the British commanders had an armoured train from the Mafeking railyard loaded with sharpshooters, armed with the Martini-Henry Mark IV rifle, sent up the rail line in a daring attack right into the heart of the Boer camp, followed by a return to Mafeking. However, the casualties made this Baden-Powell's only attempt at such an attack and, again, it raised questions as to why Baden-Powell did not mount a break-out. Often British soldiers had to dress as women just to undertake normal activities such as fetching water and sewing to deceive the enemy.

The morale of the civilian population was given attention, and Sunday ceasefires were negotiated so that sports, competitions and theatrical performances could be held. Notable were the cricket matches held on a Sunday. Initially, the religious sensibilities of General Jacobus Philippus Snyman (in command after Cronje departed) were offended, and he threatened to fire upon the players if they continued. Eventually Snyman relented and even invited the British to a game. Baden-Powell replied that first he had to finish the present match, in which the score was "200 days, not out"!

As in the case of the nearby siege of Kimberley, the Boers decided that the town was too heavily defended to take. On 19 November 1899, 4,000 Boers were redeployed elsewhere, although the siege remained and shelling of Mafeking continued. Aware of the approaching British relief columns, the Boers launched a final major attack early in the morning of 12 May that succeeded in breaching the perimeter defences and setting fire to some of the town, but were finally beaten back.

### Boer attack

On 12 May, at about 4 a.m., Field Cornet S. Eloff led a force of 240 Boers in a daring assault on Mafeking. Covered by a feint attack on the east side of the town, the attackers slipped between the Hidden Hollow and Limestone forts on the western face of the defences. Guided by a British deserter, they followed a path beside the Molopo River to where it enters the stadt, the village where the native Africans lived. Eloff's party burst into the stadt unopposed and set fire to the huts in order to signal the attack's progress to Snyman. By about 5:30 a.m., the Boers seized the police barracks on the outskirts of Mafeking, killing one and capturing the garrison's second-in-command, Colonel C. O. Hore and 29 others. Eloff picked up the telephone connected with the British garrison headquarters and boasted to Baden-Powell of his success.

The fire had, however, already alerted Mafeking's garrison, which responded rapidly to the crisis. The African police (of the Barolong tribe) had wisely stayed out of the way when Eloff's party roared through the stadt. As soon as the Boers moved on, the 109 armed Barolong cut off Eloff's escape route. Snyman, "the most stolid and supine of all the Boer generals in the war", failed to support Eloff. Meanwhile, the elaborate telephone network of the town defences provided timely and accurate information. Major Alick Godley and B Squadron (Protectorate Regiment) were sent to smother the attack and along with D Squadron, some armed railway employees and others. Eloff's men were soon isolated into three groups.

With two squadrons, Godley first surrounded a group of Boers holed up in a stone kraal in the stadt. These men surrendered after a sharp fusillade. Godley drove the second group off a kopje and they mostly managed to escape. All day long, Eloff and the third group held out in the police barracks, finally capitulating in the night. The British lost 12 dead and 8 wounded, mostly Africans. Boer losses were 60 dead and wounded, plus a further 108 captured.

### Stamps and currency

One curious factor that was unexpected was that the Post Office ran out of stamps, and there was a shortage of bank notes for the people to use in everyday dealings. The Postmaster suggested to Baden-Powell that he commission the local printer to print stamps, for use within the town. Baden-Powell agreed to this, but the printer, not wishing to encroach on the Royal Mail's prerogative, decided to use a picture of the Commanding Officer, Baden-Powell, instead of that of Queen Victoria. This was the first occasion where a non-royal's picture was used on a British postage stamp. Two stamps were issued,

* a one-penny, with a photograph of Cadet Sgt. Major Goodyear on a bicycle, designed by Dr W. A. Hayes, and
* a threepenny, with a photograph of Baden-Powell by Mr Ross, designed by Capt. H. Greener

> "Baden-Powell is a wonderfully able scout and quick at sketches. I do not know another who could have done the work at Mafeking if the same conditions had been imposed. All the bits of knowledge he studiously gathered have been utilized in saving that community."

*Siege of Mafeking Abandoned by the Boers*, Frederick Russell Burnham, the American scout, interviewed by *The Times*, 19 May 1900.

Similarly, to ease the problems caused by the lack of genuine banknotes, in late 1899 Baden-Powell authorised the issue of siege banknotes. Made by Townshend & Son, Printers (Mafeking) using woodcut printing, notes were backed by the Standard Bank of South Africa and issued in denominations of one-, two-, three- and 10-shilling coupons as well as £1 notes, of which 620 were printed. The intention was that, after the siege was over, these could be exchanged for genuine currency, but in practice few were; most were kept as souvenirs. The printer believed that perhaps only 20 would be cashed in, making a £600 profit for the Imperial exchequer. They currently sell for around £1500 each but are rarely sold.

Each note has the facsimile signatures of Robert Urry, the manager of the Mafeking branch of the Standard Bank of South Africa. and Captain Herbert Greener, Chief Paymaster of the British South Africa Police. Redemption of the notes ended in 1908.

### Relief

The siege was finally lifted on 17 May 1900, when a flying column of some 2,000 British soldiers, including many South African volunteers from Kimberley, commanded by Colonel B. T. Mahon of the army of Lord Roberts with Prince Alexander of Teck as his Aide-de-camp, relieved the town after fighting their way in.

## Aftermath

Until reinforcements landed in February 1900, the war was going poorly for the British. The resistance to the siege was seen as one of the positive highlights in the media, and it and the eventual relief of the town excited the liveliest sympathy in Britain. There were immense celebrations in the country at the news of its relief, described humorously as 'mafficking' and creating the verb *to maffick*, as a back-formation from the place-name (meaning to celebrate both extravagantly and publicly). Promoted to the youngest major-general in the army, and awarded the CB, Baden-Powell was also treated as a hero when he finally returned to Britain in 1903.

However, the remaining stores that Baden-Powell had amassed in Mafeking were so great that they were able to re-supply Mahon's force and operations in the area for some time. While a sorely needed publicity victory for the British, the British commanders believed Baden-Powell had been foolish to risk so many supplies and allow himself to be besieged and had made no effort to break out and had overstated the number of Boer forces tied up while in fact tying up considerably more British forces. For Baden-Powell, and in the British media, the siege was thought of as a victory, but for the more practical Boers it had been a strategic success. For no significant achievement, the townspeople and garrison suffered 212 killed and over 600 wounded. For the British Army commanders, it was a distraction and nuisance and, after Baden-Powell's further poor combat performance in completely abandoning the mostly Rhodesian soldiers and Australian diggers at Elands River, Baden-Powell was removed from any combat command.

Three Victoria Crosses were awarded as a result of acts of heroism during the siege, to Sergeant Horace Martineau and Trooper Horace Ramsden for acts during an attack on the Boer *Game Tree Fort*, and to Captain Charles FitzClarence for Game Tree and two previous actions.

In September 1904 Lord Roberts unveiled an obelisk at Mafeking bearing the names of those who fell in defence of the town.

The siege established Baden-Powell as a celebrity in Britain, and when he wrote *Scouting for Boys* in 1908, his fame contributed to the rapid growth of the Boy Scout Movement.

## Further reading

* Gardner, Brian. *Mafeking: a Victorian legend* (London: Cassell, 1966).
* Hopkins, Pat, and Heather Dugmore. *The Boy: Baden-Powell and the Siege of Mafeking* (New Holland Books, 1999).
* Willan, Brian. "The Siege of Mafeking." in *The South African War*, ed. Peter Warwick and S.B. Spies (Harlow, 1980) 150–155.
* Yorke, Edmund. *Battle Story Mafeking 1900* (The History Press, 2014).
* Young, Filson. *The Relief of Mafeking: How it was Accomplished by Mahon's Flying Column, with an Account of Some Earlier Episodes in the Boer War of 1899–1900* (Methuen, 1900) online.

### Primary sources

* Sol Plaatje. *Mafeking Diary: A Black Man's View of a White Man's War*.
* Ross, Edward. *Diary of the siege of Mafeking, October 1899 to May 1900* (Van Riebeeck Society, 1980).

## InfoBox

| Siege of Mafeking | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of Second Boer War | |
|
British Troops repelling a Boer attack at Mafeking | |
| Date 13 October 1899 – 17 May 1900
(7 months and 4 days)  Location Mafikeng, Cape Colony
(present-day South Africa)  Result British victory
* Mafeking relieved | |
| Belligerents | |
| British Empire | South African Republic |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Robert Baden-Powell
Bryan Mahon | Piet Cronjé
Jacobus Philippus Snyman |
| Strength | |
| 1,500 | 8,000 |
| Casualties and losses | |
| 812 | 2,000 |


title: Champis

abstract: Champis is a soft drink created by Robert Roberts in 1918. It was sold already in 1910, but then under a different name. The recipe is secret and the extract is produced by Roberts in Örebro and sold to breweries who prepare and distribute the final product. Along with Sockerdricka, Citronil, Pomril, and Pommac, Champis is one in the first generation of Swedish soft drinks.

text:
# Champis

**Champis** is a soft drink created by Robert Roberts in 1918. It was sold already in 1910, but then under a different name. The recipe is secret and the extract is produced by Roberts in Örebro and sold to breweries who prepare and distribute the final product. Along with Sockerdricka, Citronil, Pomril, and Pommac, Champis is one in the first generation of Swedish soft drinks.

## InfoBox

Champis
| Bottles of Champis on a store shelf | |
| --- | --- |
| Type | Soft drink |
| Manufacturer | Roberts AB (extract) |
| Country of origin | Sweden |
| Region of origin | Örebro |
| Introduced | 1918 |
| Flavour | Champagne |


title: The Queen's Messenger

abstract: The Queen's Messenger was the first television drama. The experiment was broadcast by a Schenectady, New York station on September 11, 1928. It was a radio drama adapted for television and broadcast both sound and moving pictures. These were received by televisions three inches (76 mm) in diameter that were set up in various places all around the city. There were special effect props for this broadcast to enhance the actors' performance and their sounds.

text:
# The Queen's Messenger

***The Queen's Messenger***  was the first television drama. The experiment was broadcast by a Schenectady, New York station on September 11, 1928. It was a radio drama adapted for television and broadcast both sound and moving pictures. These were received by televisions three inches (76 mm) in diameter that were set up in various places all around the city. There were special effect props for this broadcast to enhance the actors' performance and their sounds.

## Background

The 1928 one act play written by J. Hartley Manners was the first television drama. It was a radio drama adapted for television. It was made for television in 1928 by station "WGY Television" (W2XAD) using a multiple-camera setup and was an experimental broadcast on September 11 at 1:30 p.m. and 11:30 p.m. The cameras picked up the stage movement action and microphones collected the sound. The television signal was received at a receiving station three miles away, and received much publicity. It was broadcast three years ahead of radio's first soap opera.

The teleplay starred retired actress Izetta Jewell. It was noted by the viewers that in the television receivers she appeared trimmer than in real life and that television made a person look slimmer and younger. *The Brooklyn Daily Eagle* newspaper in an article at the time observed that even the heavy set opera singer Ernestine Schumann-Heink would look like a charming slender woman if on television. The co-star of the television play was Maurice Randall, appearing as a John Bull-type Englishman.

## Plot

A British diplomat has a romantic encounter with a mysterious Russian woman who is secretly trying to obtain secret papers he is carrying in his dispatch case for the queen. The old spy melodrama was selected because it had just two actors and they could alternately select the three television cameras between them and the scene props.

## Television receivers

The televised play was received on televisions that were octagonally shaped and about ten inches (250 mm) high and four inches (100 mm) in depth. The front panel upper part had a three inch square aperture through which the moving picture was viewed. There were knobs on the lower part which controlled how the radio signals for the television part were received.

Six televisions were set up around the WGY studios and connected by closed-circuit television for newspaper journalists. There were television receivers set up in the transmitting control rooms that received the signal from the air that was broadcast several miles away.

## Special effects

Special techniques had to be devised to show the action movements on a three inch television screen. One was where the likeness of a character was shown to the audience instead of the real person. The facial movements of this figure were then presented in sync with the sound of the spoken parts. This sound part came from a separate radio receiver, that was placed under the television receiver.

To show the action parts of the play, special effect props were developed. One example was where the Queen's messenger took a drink of wine – a wine glass appeared and a liquid poured into it from a long-neck bottle. Other props used for the play were watch dials, keys, revolvers, and stacks of documents. The stage for the play consisted of three spotlights, three scanning machines, three microphones, background scenes and other apparatus. The stage coordinator for these props was Mortimer Steward.

## Drawbacks

The transmission was a test of General Electric's 48-line television system and lasted 40 minutes. Ernst Alexanderson was the electrical engineer that developed the mechanics of coordinating the sound and moving images that was the beginning of the "radio movie" that developed into the soap opera. The received radio drama play tended to shift to the right or left of the center of the television screen. This was due to the variation in the speed of the motor used to drive the scanning disc that received the image on the stage. The pictures at the receiving end also flickered somewhat, similarly to the hand-cranked silent films presented at theaters at the time.

## Sources

## InfoBox

| *The Queen's Messenger* | |
| --- | --- |
| Play scene set with actors | |
| Genre | Drama |
| Developed by | Ernst Alexanderson <br>(consulting engineer) |
| Story by | J. Hartley Manners |
| Directed by | Mortimer Stewart |
| Starring | Izetta Jewel, Maurice Randall |
| Original language | English |
| Production | |
| Production location | Schenectady, New York |
| Camera setup | multiple-camera setup |
| Running time | 40 minutes |
| Production company | General Electric |
| Original release | |
| Network | W2XAD |
| Release | September 11, 1928 (1928-09-11) |


title: Dennis Tankersley

abstract: Dennis Lee Tankersley is a former Major League Baseball pitcher. From 2002 through 2004, Tankersley played for the San Diego Padres. He batted and threw right-handed.

text:
# Dennis Tankersley

**Dennis Lee Tankersley** (born February 24, 1979) is a former Major League Baseball pitcher. From 2002 through 2004, Tankersley played for the San Diego Padres. He batted and threw right-handed.

## Career

Tankersley was drafted by the Boston Red Sox in the 38th round of the 1997 Major League Baseball draft, but did not sign. The following year, he was drafted by the Red Sox, yet again in the 38th round, and this time he did sign. In June 2000, he was traded along with Cesar Saba to the Padres for Ed Sprague. Before the 2005 season, the Kansas City Royals acquired Tankersley and outfielder Terrence Long from the San Diego Padres in exchange for pitchers Darrell May and Ryan Bukvich.

On December 16, 2006, the Detroit Tigers signed him to a minor league deal. On November 27, 2007, Tankersley signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals that included an invitation to spring training. He became a free agent at the end of the season, and announced his retirement from baseball in 2008. He decided to come out of retirement in 2012 and attempt a comeback with the Padres.

Tankersley was a 2001 All-Star Futures Game selection.

In a three-season career, Tankersley compiled a 1–10 record with 68 strikeouts and a 7.61 ERA in 86.1 innings.

## InfoBox

| Dennis Tankersley | |
| --- | --- |
| **Pitcher** | |
| **Born:**  (1979-02-24) February 24, 1979<br>Troy, Missouri, U.S. | |
| **Batted:** Right**Threw:** Right | |
| MLB debut | |
| May 10, 2002, for the San Diego Padres | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| September 4, 2004, for the San Diego Padres | |
| MLB statistics | |
| Win–loss record | 1–10 |
| Earned run average | 7.61 |
| Strikeouts | 68 |
|  | |
| Teams | |
|  | |


title: Segmental medullary artery

abstract: Segmental medullary arteries are arteries of varying size in the thoracolumbar region that arise from segmental arteries of this region and pass through intervertebral foramina to supply the spinal cord. They may join the anterior spinal artery. The largest anterior segmental medullary artery is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz.

text:
# Segmental medullary artery

**Segmental medullary arteries** are arteries of varying size in the thoracolumbar region that arise from segmental arteries of this region (posterior intercostal arteries or lumbar arteries) and pass through intervertebral foramina to supply the spinal cord. They may join the anterior spinal artery.

The largest anterior segmental medullary artery is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz.

## Anatomy

### Development

During embryological development, about 75% of the segmental medullary arteries regress, forming the thinner (anterior and posterior) radicular arteries (which supply the two roots and sensory ganglion of each spinal nerve); the remaining segmental medullary arteries persist to contribute arterial supply to the spinal cord, as well as giving rise to the aforementioned radicular arteries.

## InfoBox

| Segmental medullary artery | |
| --- | --- |
| 1: Posterior spinal vein
2: Anterior spinal vein
3: Posterolateral spinal vein
4: Radicular (or segmental medullary) vein
5: Posterior spinal arteries
6: Anterior spinal artery
7: Radicular artery | |
| Details | |
| Branches | Anterior spinal artery |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | *arteria medullaris segmentalis* |
| TA98 | A12.2.11.016
A12.2.08.007
A12.2.12.007 |
| TA2 | 4535 |
| FMA | 86039 |
| Anatomical terminology | |


title: Vasula melones

abstract: Vasula melones is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk, in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

text:
# Vasula melones

***Vasula melones*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk, in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

## Description

The length of the shell attains 49 mm.

The dark chestnut shell is variegated with white, especially upon the periphery and inferior portion of the body. The columella is tinged with pink. The outer lip is frequently black-bordered.

The want of nodules or spines disagrees with the character of the group; yet the relationship of this species with *Vasula deltoidea* is tolerably close. Sometimes the body whorl is, in adults, constricted around the middle.

## Distribution

This marine species occurs off Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands.

* Claremont, M., Vermeij, G. J., Williams, S. T. & Reid, D. G. (2013). Global phylogeny and new classification of the Rapaninae (Gastropoda: Muricidae), dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 66: 91–102.

## InfoBox

| *Vasula melones* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Superfamily: | Muricoidea |
| Family: | Muricidae |
| Subfamily: | Rapaninae |
| Genus: | *Vasula* |
| Species: | ***V. melones*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Vasula melones***<br>(Duclos, 1832) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Purpura crassa* Blainville, 1832 * *Purpura melones* Duclos, 1832 * *Thais* (*Vasula*) *melones* (Duclos, 1832) | |


title: Seton Sands

abstract: Seton Sands is a rocky beach to the east of Port Seton, East Lothian, Scotland. It is situated at the western end of Longniddry Bents and is part of the John Muir Way coastal walk. Low tide reveals many rock pools, then a flat sandy bed to the north which runs about 200 yards out to meet the Firth of Forth. South of the beach there is Seton Sands Holiday Park, a popular holiday destination in the summer months for many visitors, mostly families from the west coast of Scotland and the north of England. At the western edge of the caravan park is a public footpath leading to the Historic Scotland property Seton Collegiate Church, referred to locally as Seton Chapel. A regular bus service to Edinburgh terminates at Seton Sands.

text:
# Seton Sands

**Seton Sands** is a rocky beach to the east of Port Seton, East Lothian, Scotland. It is situated at the western end of Longniddry Bents and is part of the John Muir Way coastal walk.

Low tide reveals many rock pools, then a flat sandy bed to the north which runs about 200 yards out to meet the Firth of Forth.

South of the beach there is Seton Sands Holiday Park, a popular holiday destination in the summer months for many visitors, mostly families from the west coast of Scotland and the north of England.

At the western edge of the caravan park is a public footpath leading to the Historic Scotland property Seton Collegiate Church, referred to locally as Seton Chapel.

A regular bus service to Edinburgh terminates at Seton Sands (Lothian Buses no.26).

55°58′31″N 2°55′27″W / 55.97533°N 2.92425°W / 55.97533; -2.92425


title: Chadwick Tromp

abstract: Chadwick Chandler Tromp is an Aruban professional baseball catcher for the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball (MLB). In 2013 he signed with the Cincinnati Reds organization as an international free agent. He has previously played in MLB for the San Francisco Giants.

text:
# Chadwick Tromp

**Chadwick Chandler Tromp** (born March 21, 1995) is an Aruban professional baseball catcher for the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball (MLB). In 2013 he signed with the Cincinnati Reds organization as an international free agent. He has previously played in MLB for the San Francisco Giants.

## Career

### Cincinnati Reds

On May 24, 2013, Tromp signed with the Cincinnati Reds organization as an international free agent. He was assigned to the AZL Reds, where he spent the season. In 2014, Tromp spent time between the AZL Reds and the Single-A Dayton Dragons. He batted .311/.345/.472 with three home runs and 13 RBI in 106 at bats.

In 2015, Tromp played for Dayton and a game for the Triple-A Louisville Bats. In 2016, Tromp played the entire season for the High–A Daytona Tortugas.

Tromp spent 2017 with Daytona and the Double-A Pensacola Blue Wahoos. He was invited to spring training for the 2018 season, but did not make the club and played in 25 games for Pensacola and 53 for Triple-A Louisville on the year.

In 2019, Tromp spent time with the AZL Reds and Louisville. He batted a combined .280/.397/.568 with nine home runs and 37 RBI in 125 at–bats. Tromp elected free agency following the season on November 4, 2019.

### San Francisco Giants

On January 6, 2020, Tromp signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants organization.

On July 28, 2020, the Giants called him up to MLB for the first time. Tromp made his MLB debut on July 29 against the San Diego Padres and went hitless over four at bats. Tromp hit his first home run in the majors on August 2, in a 9–5 loss to the Texas Rangers. On December 2, Tromp was nontendered by the Giants. On December 9, Tromp re-signed with the Giants on a major league contract. On September 18, 2021, Tromp was designated for assignment by the Giants after hitting .222 during 18 plate appearances.

### Atlanta Braves

On September 21, 2021, the Atlanta Braves claimed Tromp off waivers from San Francisco, and optioned him to the Triple-A Gwinnett Stripers. On April 12, 2022, Tromp was designated for assignment by the Braves. He cleared waivers and was outrighted to Triple-A Gwinnett Stripers on April 19.

On August 6, 2022, Tromp was called up to Atlanta as a backup catcher, following an injury to Travis d'Arnaud. On August 13, Tromp had a three-hit, three RBI performance in his first game started for the Braves against the Miami Marlins. This was the only appearance Tromp made with Atlanta during the 2022 season. Tromp was recalled to the major leagues on April 9, 2023, after d'Arnaud was injured in a game the previous day. On May 8, he was optioned to the Gwinnett Stripers. Tromp played in 6 games for Atlanta in 2023, going 2–for–16 (.125) with one RBI. On November 17, Tromp was non–tendered and became a free agent.

On November 22, 2023, Tromp re–signed with the Braves on a minor league contract. On March 30, 2024, Tromp was selected to the active roster following an injury to Sean Murphy.

## International career

Tromp was selected for the Netherlands national baseball team for the 2016 European Baseball Championship, the training camp in the United States in 2017, the 2017 World Baseball Classic and the 2019 WBSC Premier12.

On September 7, he was selected for the 2016 European Baseball Championship.

On February 7, 2017, he was selected for the training camp in the United States. On March 20, 2017, he was selected for the 2017 World Baseball Classic after Didi Gregorius was injured.

On October 14, 2019, he was selected for the 2019 WBSC Premier12. He represented the Netherlands national baseball team at the 2023 World Baseball Classic.

## InfoBox

| Chadwick Tromp | |
| --- | --- |
| Batting for the Atlanta Braves in 2024 | |
| Atlanta Braves – No. 45 | |
| **Catcher** | |
| **Born:**  (1995-03-21) March 21, 1995
Oranjestad, Aruba | |
| **Bats:** Right**Throws:** Right | |
| MLB debut | |
| July 29, 2020, for the San Francisco Giants | |
| MLB statistics
(through 2024 season) | |
| Batting average | .232 |
| Home runs | 5 |
| Runs batted in | 22 |
|  | |
| Teams | |
|  | |
| Medals      Men's baseball  Representing   Netherlands   European Baseball Championship  2016 Hoofddorp  National team | |


title: Simonsbath

abstract:
Simonsbath is a small village high on Exmoor in the English county of Somerset. It is the principal settlement in the Exmoor civil parish, which is the largest and most sparsely populated civil parish on Exmoor, covering nearly 32 square miles (83 km⁲) but with a population, at the time of the 2001 census, of 203 in 78 households, reducing to 156 at the 2011 census.
The River Exe rises from a valley to the north, and the River Barle runs through the village and is crossed by a triple-arched medieval bridge that was extensively repaired after floods in 1952. The settlement lies on the route of the Two Moors Way and close to the Macmillan Way West.

text:
# Simonsbath

**Simonsbath** (/ˈsɪmənzbɑːθ, -bæθ/) is a small village high on Exmoor in the English county of Somerset. It is the principal settlement in the **Exmoor civil parish**, which is the largest and most sparsely populated civil parish on Exmoor, covering nearly 32 square miles (83 km2) but with a population, at the time of the 2001 census, of 203 in 78 households, reducing to 156 at the 2011 census. The River Exe rises from a valley to the north, and the River Barle runs through the village and is crossed by a triple-arched medieval bridge that was extensively repaired after floods in 1952.

The settlement lies on the route of the Two Moors Way and close to the Macmillan Way West.

## Toponymy

The *-bath* element in this place-name, not recorded before 1791, is easily accounted for: the Old English *bæth* signified "water, a pool". The identity of *Simon* is less sure. R. J. King pointed out that the name is frequently met with in the West of England, "especially in connection with old boundary lines". Thomas Westcote, in his *View of Devonshire in 1630*, preserved a local tradition that "Simon" was a great hunter and Robin Hood-like figure who had his stronghold at Symonsburrow, at the highest point of the Blackdown Hills, a barrow that pre-dates even a medieval legend associated with it.

## History

### Simonsbath House

Simonsbath House was built in 1654 by the merchant, lawyer and philosopher James Boevey (1622–1696), the warden of the Royal forest of Exmoor, and for 150 years his was the only house in the forest, which consists largely of moorland. The Grade II listed building is now the Simonsbath House Hotel and outdoor activity centre.

### Sale by the King

On 4 July 1815 an Act of Parliament (55 Geo. 3. c. 138) was passed to enable the Inclosure of Exmoor, the summary heading of which was: "An Act for vesting in His Majesty certain parts of the Forest of Exmoor otherwise Exmore in the counties of Somerset and Devon and for enclosing the said Forest". After the Forest had been split into allotments and these had been conveyed to the persons who formerly possessed rights over the Forest, 1222nds of the whole remained the property of the King, which equated to 10,262 14 acres, and was formally allotted to him as his personal property in the same way as the other shares went to the traditional graziers and owner of the tithes (Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 10th Baronet (1787–1871), of Holnicote, who received 18th of the total), etc. In 1818 the following sales particulars were published by HM Commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues:

> "Particulars of a freehold farm belonging to His Majesty and of the allotments (tithe free) made to His Majesty on the Inclosure of Exmoor Forest in the counties of Somerset and Devon to be sold by public tender on 23d day of July 1818, viz. the farm called Simon's Bath Farm situated within the said forest (which farm is enclosed & separated from the unenclosed land) containing by estimation 108 a(cres) 2 r(ods) 0 p(erches) & these several allotments of waste land situated in the center of the said forest contiguous & adjoining to each other and to the farm above mentioned & numbered on the map 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41 and containing in the whole 10,262 a(cres) 1 r(od) 6 p(erches). In one lot".

### Purchase by John Knight

The highest bidder was John Knight of Lea Castle, Wolverley, Worcestershire, whose bid was £50,122. He thus acquired 10,262 1/4 acres, and soon thereafter set about buying up the allotments made to the former graziers and owner of the tithes. This brought his holding to about 20,000 acres. Knight was descended from a wealthy family of Ironmasters. Knight set about converting the Royal Forest, covering land now within the Exmoor National Park, into a huge industrial mining complex with canals and railways together with an agricultural estate. He had previously bought and reclaimed uncultivated land in Worcestershire and used similar techniques including burning rough grass, applying lime to change the pH, and ploughing to increase the productivity of the land. He also introduced the Cheviot sheep to the area which are now common throughout Exmoor.

Knight and his son Col. Sir Frederick Winn Knight (1812–1897), KCB, MP, who assumed management in 1841, built most of the large farms in the central section of the moor and laid down 22 miles (35 km) of metalled access roads to Simonsbath. He built a 29 miles (47 km) stone wall around his estate, parts of which still survive. However, progress was slow, and Richard Nicholls Worth stated in 1879 in his "Tourist's Guide to North Devon and the Exmoor district":

> "The mansion was never finished; cultivation has not spread far from the farmstead centres; the walls bother the sportsman more than the deer; and the bogs are as deep, the inner recesses of the moors as wild and solitary, and the coarse grass, and the bracken, and the heathers supreme in their occupancy mile after mile, as if no effort had ever been made to redeem its mingled wildness and sterility."

### 19th-century expansion

The small hamlet developed in the 19th century, when more houses were built along with St Luke's Church (1856), providing a centre for the population. The church has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building. At around the same time as the construction of the church, a mine was developed alongside the River Barle. The mine was originally called Wheal Maria, then changed to Wheal Eliza. It was a copper mine from 184554 and then an iron mine until 1857, although the first mining activity on the site may be from 1552. A restored Victorian water-powered sawmill in the village, which was damaged in the floods of 1992, has now been purchased by the National Park and returned to working order, making the footpath signs, gates, stiles, and bridges for various sites in the National Park.

### Purchase by Fortescues

The reversion of the Simonsbath estate, (referred to also as the "Exmoor estate" by the Fortescues) comprising about 20,000 acres of Exmoor, was purchased from Sir Frederick Knight, following the early death of his only son Frederick Sebright Winn Knight, JP, Deputy Lieutenant of Somerset, in 1879, aged only 28, by Viscount Ebrington, the future Hugh Fortescue, 4th Earl Fortescue (1854–1932), whose family's principal seat was Castle Hill, Filleigh, ten miles SW of Simonsbath. It is thought he was mainly motivated in his purchase by his great fondness for stag-hunting; he served as master, and later chairman, of the Devon and Somerset Staghounds. A painting of him out hunting by Lionel Edwards is owned by his granddaughter Lady Margaret Fortescue. He established, with other landowners, the Badgworthy Land Company, to which were conveyed some freehold land around Badgworthy Water and also the hunting rights in perpetuity over much of the land on Exmoor and of that surrounding it. This was designed to ensure that future owners of piecemeal plots, unfavourably disposed to hunting, would not be able to restrict access to the historic wide expanses of hunting land used by the Devon & Somerset Staghounds and local foxhound packs. When Castle Hill burned down in 1934, the 5th Earl Fortescue resided with his wife and two young daughters at Simonsbath House, previously only used by the family as a hunting box, then named Diana Lodge after the Roman goddess of the hunt, moving back to the rebuilt Castle Hill in May 1936. Lady Margaret Fortescue expressed very fond memories of her childhood at Simonsbath, where she lived between the ages of 11 and 13, having been brought up at Ebrington Manor in Gloucestershire until the family's move to Castle Hill in 1932 on the death of her grandfather the 4th Earl. She recalled in 2001 that Diana Lodge then had panelled rooms downstairs, still in existence, with primitive bedrooms upstairs, linoleum on the floor and one bathroom between the whole family. It was always cold and was heated by smoky peat fires. There was a large team of domestic staff to serve the family, including butler, footman, valet, lady's maid, housemaids, cook, kitchen maids, a scullery maid and odd-job man, some of whom lived in the village. Much of her time was spent hunting on Exmoor with the rest of her family and her young cousins, the children of her uncle Hon. Denzil Fortescue, later the 6th Earl, who had rented nearby Emmett's Grange.

### Sold by Fortescues

In 1927 the eastern part of the estate, comprising 1,745 acres, was sold to the industrialist Sir Robert Waley Cohen (d.1952), who had leased Honeymead since 1924, including the farmsteads of Honeymead, Pickedstones and Winstitchen. The remainder of the estate continued to be held by the Fortescues until after the death of the 5th Earl in 1958, when the latter's eldest daughter and co-heiress, Lady Margaret Fortescue (b. 1923), sold much of the Simonsbath estate, together with much of the two Fortescue estates centred on Challacombe and West Buckland, to pay large death duties. The properties sold were as follows, per the sales particulars headed "The Challacombe Estate and part of the Exmoor Estate, North Devon" dated 18 September 1959:

* EXMOOR
    + Driver Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Driver Cottages, Driver Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Pinkery Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Hoar Oak Herding, Lynton and Lynmouth
    + Exmoor Forest Hotel, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Emmetts Grange Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Wintershead Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Wintershead Cottages, Wintershead Farm, Exmoor
    + 1 Wintershead Cottages, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Horsen Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
    + Wintershead Cottages, Horsen Farm, Exmoor
    + 2 Wintershead Cottages, Simonsbath, Exmoor
* KENTISBURY
    + Breadwick Farm, Kentisbury
    + Northbrook Cottage, Breadwick Farm, Kentisbury
    + Bridwick Cottage, Breadwick Farm, Kentisbury
    + Wistlandpound Farm, Kentisbury
* CHALLACOMBE
    + Westland Farm, Challacombe
    + Little Rowley, Westland Farm, Challacombe
    + Whitefield Barton, Challacombe
    + Twitchen Farm, Challacombe
    + South Swincombe Farm, Challacombe
    + Home Place Farm, Challacombe
    + Shoulsbarrow Farm, Challacombe
    + Buscombe Farm, Challacombe
    + Rooksfoot Cottage, Shoulsbarrow Farm, Challacombe
    + Barton Town Farm, Challacombe
    + Challacombe Mill Farm, Challacombe
    + Twineford Farm, Challacombe
    + Withecombe Farm, Challacombe
    + North Swincombe Farm, Challacombe
    + North Barton Farm, Challacombe
    + West Barton Gate Smallholding, Challacombe
    + East Barton Gate Smallholding, Challacombe
    + Ring of Bells Inn, Challacombe
    + Bickfont Smallholding, Challacombe
    + School House, Challacombe
    + Village Hall, Challacombe
    + 2 Church Cottages, Challacombe

It was a decision she said in 2001 that she then regretted, but had been advised at the time not to burden the remaining estate with the large borrowing required to meet the tax bill. She did, however, retain what she termed "the heart of the Exmoor estate" and started to farm this land in-hand using her own employees, not renewing tenancies on farms when they expired. She established five large flocks of sheep and two large cattle herds, the latter based at Cornham and Simonsbath Barton. Simonsbath sawmill was closed down as it was unprofitable. In 1989 Lady Margaret handed over the family estates to her daughter the Countess of Arran, who, later on, sold the remainder of the Simonsbath estate, namely the Barton and Cornham, to John Ewart, a keen follower of the Staghounds, whilst Exmoor National Park purchased much of the moorland. Some of the houses, however, were retained where occupied by retired Fortescue employees.

### Sold by Ewart

In June 2006 Ewart offered Simonsbath Barton estate for sale via estate agents Savills and Strutt & Parker. This estate was built originally as the home-farm for Simonsbath House, and is situated nearby. The land offered comprised 2,080 acres freehold and a further 3,788 acres rented under a grazing licence from Exmoor National Park expiring in 2031. Also included was a five-bedroom house, another of four bedrooms, and a range of buildings and cottages. The land was then generating £378,333 per annum in government farming grants and subsidies, whilst further profit was accruing from the farming operations which comprised a 640-head home-bred suckler calf herd and a flock of 2,500 Scotch Blackface ewes. The asking price was £4 1/2 million.

## Simonsbath sawmill

The sawmill is situated a hundred yards in front of Simonsbath House, close to the River Barle, from which a leat extends to drive the machinery. It was built by John Knight, between 1818 and 1841, and was refurbished by Viscount Ebrington in 1898. In 1996 it was bought by Exmoor National Park Authority and was restored in 2002–03 with Heritage Lottery Funding, with the intention of using it to make gates and footpath signposts. However, in 2010 production was ceased, and it is now in the care of a volunteer group. It is a very rare survival of an estate sawmill that still retains its 19th-century machinery.

## Governance

The civil parish of Exmoor has its own parish council which has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the non-metropolitan district of Somerset West and Taunton, which was established on 1 April 2019. It was previously in the district of West Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, and part of Dulverton Rural District before that. The district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning. Local health services are managed by the Somerset Coast Primary Care Trust.

An electoral ward with the name 'Greater Exmoor' also exists. This extends from *Simonsbath* to the Devon boundary in the west, and Cutcombe in the east plus Hawkridge in the south east. The total population of this ward at the abovementioned election was 1,123.

It is also part of the Tiverton and Minehead constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

## Geography

Simonsbath is 1,250 feet (381 m) above sea level, in the valley of the River Barle. On the Chains is a 3 acres (1.2 ha) reservoir known as Pinkery Pond. It was formed by damming the River Barle, in the 19th century by John Knight and his son, and was originally intended to be 7 acres (2.8 ha). The purpose is unknown but close to the pond is the remains of a small canal.

On the moor north of the village is Exe Head, which is the source of the River Exe. It lies on peaty soils over rocks dating from the mid Devonian (to which this area gave its name) to early Carboniferous periods. Quartz and iron mineralisation can be detected in outcrops and subsoil. The Devonian Kentisbury Slates are exposed in the small quarry by white water.

The mean annual temperature is 8.3 °C (47 °F). The average annual total rainfall is 69.6 inches (1,768 mm), although 7.35 inches (187 mm) fell in the 24-hour period preceding 10 a.m. on 16 August 1952, which was one of the contributory factors leading to the flooding in Lynmouth.

## Demography

Estimates from the 2001 census show Simonsbath as having a population of 300 in 110 households, 99.7% of which are white and 0.3% Asian or Asian British.

## The Exmoor Forest Inn

The Exmoor Forest Inn was originally known as the Refreshment House, then from 1885 The William Rufus Inn and then The Exmoor Forest Hotel in 1901. For a while it was split in half with the nearest part to the road being the Temperance Hotel, until re-united in 1909. It was teetotal until 1933 when the parish of Exmoor was granted its excise licence. In 2005 the term 'Inn' was reinstated to the name, when the building was renovated.

When known as the William Rufus Inn, it was said to be the haunt of the noted Exmoor Highwayman Tom Faggus, who married 'Girt Jan Ridds' sister whose exploits are recorded in 'Lorna Doone'. Once it was said, Faggus's enemies laid a trap to catch him in the Inn, but Faggus whistled for his strawberry mare Winnie who jumped through the window and kicked all her masters enemies away from him. Faggus jumped on the mare's back and escaped.

## Further reading

* Burton, Roger A. (1996). *Simonsbath: The Inside Story of an Exmoor Village*. ISBN 0-9514419-2-2.

## InfoBox

| Simonsbath | |
| --- | --- |
| SimonsbathLocation within Somerset | |
| Area | 82.07 km2 (31.69 sq mi) |
| Population | 156 |
| Density | 2/km2 (5.2/sq mi) |
| OS grid reference | SS775395 |
| Civil parish |  |
| District |  |
| Shire county |  |
| Region |  |
| Country | England |
| Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
| Post town | Minehead |
| Postcode district | TA24 |
|  | |
| Police | Avon and Somerset |
| Fire | Devon and Somerset |
| Ambulance | South Western |
|  | |
| UK Parliament |  |
|


title: Rarotonga starling

abstract: The Rarotonga starling is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. It is endemic to the Cook Islands. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

text:
# Rarotonga starling

The **Rarotonga starling** (***Aplonis cinerascens***) is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. It is endemic to the Cook Islands.

Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

## InfoBox

| Rarotonga starling | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Vulnerable  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Sturnidae |
| Genus: | *Aplonis* |
| Species: | ***A. cinerascens*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Aplonis cinerascens***
Hartlaub & Finsch, 1871 | |
|


title: Doris Heyden

abstract: Doris Heyden was a prominent scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, particularly those of central Mexico. She was born in East Orange, New Jersey, United States. She died on September 25, 2005, from the lingering aftereffects of a stroke suffered in 1999. Heyden was a member of a group of artists, writers, folklorists, scholars, and political activists who together created the "Mexican Renaissance". The exponents of this post-Revolutionary circle drew upon Mexican history and traditions while contributing to a variety of international movements including realism, Symbolism, surrealism and communism. Important members were mural painters Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros, Zapotec painter Rufino Tamayo, mystical painters Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington, caricaturist and Mesoamerican scholar Miguel Covarrubias, as well as photographer Manuel Álvarez Bravo.

text:
# Doris Heyden

**Doris Heyden** (née **Heydenreich**; June 2, 1905 – September 25, 2005) was a prominent scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, particularly those of central Mexico. She was born in East Orange, New Jersey, United States. She died on September 25, 2005, from the lingering aftereffects of a stroke suffered in 1999.

Heyden was a member of a group of artists, writers, folklorists, scholars, and political activists who together created the "Mexican Renaissance". The exponents of this post-Revolutionary circle drew upon Mexican history and traditions while contributing to a variety of international movements including realism, Symbolism, surrealism and communism. Important members were mural painters Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros, Zapotec painter Rufino Tamayo, mystical painters Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington, caricaturist and Mesoamerican scholar Miguel Covarrubias, as well as photographer Manuel Álvarez Bravo.

## Early life

Born Doris Heydenreich Selz in 1905, Heyden claimed noble German and Austrian descent from a family with titles going back to 1312. She spent a happy and prosperous childhood in Maplewood, New Jersey, and Glencoe, Illinois, with access to New York City and Chicago. Her early life was illuminated by art, music, and books. She began writing and publishing at about age ten, at first concentrating on poetry and mysteries, and then contributing to Newark, New Jersey, newspapers around age thirteen. Heyden started painting even earlier, when she was five years old. Although she never became a great artist, she made her mark in another field.

## Education

Heyden studied art history and design at New York City's Pratt Institute, winning Senior Honors in 1936. After graduation she did illustrations for *Mademoiselle* magazine. It was in New York City that she became fascinated with the drawings of José Clemente Orozco and Mexican art in general. During the mid-1940s she traveled to Mexico. A friend gave her the name of a Mexican photographer. That man was Manuel Álvarez Bravo, arguably Mexico's greatest modernist photographer. Heyden and Álvarez Bravo married and had a son and daughter together. Mexico was Heyden's home for the rest of her life.

Heyden began formal graduate studies at the Escuela de Antropología, part of UNAM, Mexico's national university in 1956. She obtained her M.A. in 1969 and eventually acquired a doctorate there.

## Career

Employed by INAH, Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History, as curator of the Teotihuacan hall at the National Museum of Anthropology, she produced well over a hundred articles, books, and translations, both scholarly and popular, on a variety of topics, but most importantly on ancient architecture, Aztec symbolism, pre-Columbian views of what we would call nature, the importance of caves to Mesoamerican cosmology, and Indian cultural survivals.

## Major works

Heyden was a contributing editor of the influential *Handbook of Latin American Studies* (1961–68). All her writings were solidly based on archaeological fieldwork in many regions of Mexico. She also studied folk art and ethnology. Research in the world's great libraries and archives was another important aspect of her scholarship.

Until her death Doris Heyden maintained a welcoming house in Mexico City, which hosted numerous gatherings of anthropologists and other internationally renowned luminaries in her fields of study.

The influence of Doris Heyden in the field of pre-Columbian studies is evident from the two co-ordinated volumes of essays that have been dedicated to her. The first, in Spanish, is *Chalchihuite* edited by María de Jesús Rodríguez-Shadow and Beatriz Barba Ahuatzin de Piña Chan (1999). The second, in English, is the similarly titled *In Chalchihuitl in quetzalli/Precious Greenstone Precious Quetzal Feather* edited by Eloise Quiñones Keber (2000). The latter volume contains an interview with her.

## Publications

Her published works and contributions include:

* *Pre-Columbian Architecture of Mesoamerica* (1975, written with Paul Gendrop and published in Spanish the previous year)
* *El Ciclo de vida del pilli y del macehual* (1975, The Life Cycle of Noble and Commoner)
* *Economía y religion de Teotihuacan* (1977)
* *La comunicación no verbal en el ritual* (1979)
* *The Great Temple and the Aztec Gods* (1984, with Luis Francisco Villaseñor)
* *Cuentos del Maíz* (1985)
* *Mitología y simbolismo de la flora en el México prehispánico* (1983), Flora y Fauna en el México Prehispánico (1988; with Ana María Velasco)
* *The Eagle, the Cactus, the Rock: The Roots of Mexico Tenochtitlan's Foundation Myth and Symbol* (1989; published in Spanish the year before)
* *Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y islas de Tierra Firme* (1994), a translation of Father Diego Durán's important sixteenth-century account of the religion and customs of pre-Columbian central Mexico.


title: Dennis Talbot (British Army officer)

abstract: Major-General Dennis Edmund Blaquiere Talbot, was a British Army officer.

text:
# Dennis Talbot (British Army officer)

Major-General **Dennis Edmund Blaquiere Talbot**, CB, CBE, DSO, MC (23 September 1908 – 27 June 1994) was a British Army officer.

## Military career

Educated at Tonbridge School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Talbot was commissioned into the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment in 1928. The first few years of his military career were spent with his regiment in India before returning to the United Kingdom where he commanded the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regimental Depot.

After attending and later graduating from a shortened course at the Staff College, Camberley, from January to April 1940, he was made a brigade major of the 30th Infantry Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Claude Nicholson. The brigade was deployed to France in May and, despite fighting bravely against overwhelming odds at the siege of Calais, was mostly captured by German troops. Talbot managed to escape, however, crossing the English Channel and landing at Dover. After briefly serving as brigade major of the 47th (London) Infantry Division's 141st (5th London) Brigade, he then served at Combined Operations Headquarters in from 1941 to 1944, he became Commanding Officer of the 7th Battalion, the Hampshire Regiment, part of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, in North West Europe.

After the war, he became commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment in the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) in 1945 and attended the Royal Naval College, Greenwich the following year. He was then commander of the 18th Infantry Brigade in Malaya in October 1953 during the Malayan Emergency and then commander of 99th Gurkha Infantry Brigade also in Malaya in March 1955. After attending the Imperial Defence College, he went on to be General Officer Commanding East Anglian District in June 1958, Deputy Commander, British Army of the Rhine and Commander British Army Group Troops, Germany in April 1961 and Chief of Staff, British Army of the Rhine and General Officer Commanding Rhine Army Troops, Germany in 1963 before he retired in 1964.

## Family

In 1939, he married Barbara Pyper; they had three sons and two daughters.

## InfoBox

| Dennis Talbot | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 23 September 1908
Norwood, Middlesex, England |
| Died | 27 June 1994 (aged 85)
Barham, Kent, England |
| Allegiance | United Kingdom |
| Service/branch | British Army |
| Years of service | 1928−1964 |
| Rank | Major-General |
| Service number | 40702 |
| Unit | Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment |
| Commands | 7th Battalion, Royal Hampshire Regiment
2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment
18th Infantry Brigade
99th Gurkha Infantry Brigade
East Anglian District
Rhine Army Troops, Germany |
| Battles/wars | Malayan Emergency
Second World War |
| Awards | Companion of the Order of the Bath
Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Distinguished Service Order
Military Cross |


title: Cariquima

abstract: Cariquima is a highland town in Chile. The town is a few kilometers south of Colchane, in the Tarapacá Region of Chile. It can be found on the slopes of Nevado Cariquima or Mama Huanapa. It is a central meeting point for Aymara indigenous communities. The town has a clinic, a school, electricity and an airport which was built by the Chilean Air Force in 2003. The church in Cariquima is the oldest architectural building in the town since 2006 which also serves as a historical monument. Cariquima also has a nearby river.

text:
# Cariquima

**Cariquima** is a highland town in Chile. The town is a few kilometers south of Colchane, in the Tarapacá Region of Chile. It can be found on the slopes of Nevado Cariquima or Mama Huanapa. It is a central meeting point for Aymara indigenous communities. The town has a clinic, a school, electricity (during the afternoons) and an airport which was built by the Chilean Air Force in 2003.

The church in Cariquima is the oldest architectural building in the town since 2006 which also serves as a historical monument. Cariquima also has a nearby river.

## History

The origin of "*Cariquima*" has not yet been determined. On November 24, San Juan, the town's Chief Patron, is celebrated. In addition to the Catholic religion introduced in colonial times, in Cariquima almost 50% of the population are also Pentecostal.

## Nearby towns

1. "Cariquima (Iquique) Colchane". *chile.PueblosAmerica.com* (in Mexican Spanish). Retrieved 2021-05-21.
2. Infodefensa.com, Revista Defensa (2020-11-26). "La FACh efectúa operativos Evacam en el desierto y en la Antártica - Noticias Infodefensa América". *Infodefensa.com* (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-05-21.
3. Cooperativa.cl. "Renovado aeródromo de Colchane fortalecerá vigilancia estratégica en la zona". *Cooperativa.cl* (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-05-21.
4. LR, Redacción (2021-03-12). "Chile inaugura aeródromo para la "vigilancia estratégica de la frontera"". *larepublica.pe* (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-05-21.

19°28′05″S 68°38′39″W / 19.46806°S 68.64417°W / -19.46806; -68.64417

## InfoBox

| Cariquima | |
| --- | --- |
| Town | |
| Cariquima | |
|  | |
| Country | Chile |
| Region | Tarapacá Region |
| Province | El Tamarugal |
| Area code | (+56) 5 |


title: Josef Hirtreiter

abstract: Josef Hirtreiter was an SS functionary of Nazi Germany and a Holocaust perpetrator who worked at Treblinka extermination camp during the Operation Reinhard phase of the Holocaust in Poland. In July 1946, Hirtreiter was arrested by U.S. military occupation authorities and confessed to working at Treblinka. In 1951, Hirtreiter was convicted of killing 10 people, mostly children aged one or two, and sentenced to life in prison. He was released from prison in 1977 and died several months later in a home for the elderly in Frankfurt.

text:
# Josef Hirtreiter

**Josef Hirtreiter** (1 February 1909 – 27 November 1978) was an SS functionary of Nazi Germany and a Holocaust perpetrator who worked at Treblinka extermination camp during the Operation Reinhard phase of the Holocaust in Poland. In July 1946, Hirtreiter was arrested by U.S. military occupation authorities and confessed to working at Treblinka. In 1951, Hirtreiter was convicted of killing 10 people, mostly children aged one or two, and sentenced to life in prison. He was released from prison in 1977 and died several months later in a home for the elderly in Frankfurt.

## SS career

Hirtreiter was born in Bruchsal. After elementary school, he worked as unskilled construction worker and bricklayer. He failed the exam in lock-picking. On 1 August 1932 he became a member of the Nazi Party and *Sturmabteilung* (SA). After the invasion of Poland, in October 1940 he was assigned to the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre where he worked in the kitchen. In summer 1942 he joined the army. Four weeks later he was sent back to Hadamar, and then to Berlin from where Christian Wirth transferred him to Lublin reservation camp complex back in occupied Poland. There, he acquired the rank of SS-*Scharführer* and was shipped to Treblinka death camp. Hirtreiter served at Treblinka II from October 1942 till October 1943 at the camp-zone 2 *Auffanglager* receiving area. He monitored naked women, before gassing them. Later, he served at the Sobibór extermination camp.

After the closing of Treblinka in October 1943, Hirtreiter was ordered to Italy where he joined a police unit for the so-called anti-partisan "cleansing" operations (*Bandenbekämpfung*). His death camp superior, Franz Stangl, went there in order to set up the Risiera di San Sabba killing centre in Trieste.

## Trial and conviction

Hirtreiter was arrested by the U.S. military in July 1946 for having served at Hadamar Euthanasia Centre. American officials were unable to pin anything on Hirtreiter regarding Hadamar, but he did confess to working at a camp called Malkinia. He was sent to an internment camp in Darmstadt in September. A subsequent investigation revealed Malkinia as the Treblinka extermination camp. Unable to pin any specific atrocities on Hirtreiter, a denazification court instead sentenced him to 10 years in a labour camp as a major offender in 1948. However, in 1949, Hirtreiter was charged with murder after a West German prosecutor read about his denazification case in a newspaper article and decided to conduct his own investigation. Hirtreiter was tried by a court in Frankfurt via the testimony of Treblinka prisoner Szyja (a.k.a. Sawek, or Jeszajahu) Warszawski, who survived in a burial pit wounded, and slipped away under the cover of night, and a second witness, Abraham Bomba. In March 1951, Hirtreiter was found guilty of 10 counts of murder and sentenced to life in prison with hard labour. The court ruled that he had killed at least 10 people, mostly children aged one to two, during the unloading of the transports notably, by grabbing them by their feet and smashing their heads against the walls of boxcars.

> "The court considers it proven that Hirtreiter killed at least ten people, including small children, on his own initiative. In addition, the jury determined Hirtreiter's participation in the gassing of people during his deployment in Treblinka. Although it could not be proven that he was directly involved in the killing process in the death zone, his actions in connection with the undressing of the victims were partly responsible for their killing. Hirtreiter also wanted to kill the Jews himself and therefore acted as an accomplice and not just an accessory. This results from the fact that his overall behavior in Treblinka only allows the conclusion that he understood the ideology that led to the establishment of Treblinka, that is, the view that Jews are inferior enemies of the people whose extermination is inevitable, made it his own and considered the killing of the Jews to be right. In doing so, Hirtreiter had carried out murder characteristics of § 211 StGB both in connection with his participation in the mass killings and in his individual acts. First of all, the court considers the murder characteristic of 'other base motives' to be given, since the extermination of people solely out of ideological expediency and in the knowledge of their innocence must be classified as particularly despicable. In addition, Hirtreiter also acted cruelly and insidiously, especially since he himself helped to deceive the victims in Treblinka about their fate by supervising the undressing.”

Hirtreiter was released from prison in 1977 due to illness. He died several months later in a home for the elderly in Frankfurt.

## Sources

## InfoBox

| Josef Hirtreiter | |
| --- | --- |
| Hirtreiter in U.S. custody (1946) | |
| Born | 1 February 1909
Bruchsal, Baden-Württemberg, German Empire |
| Died | 27 November 1978 (1978-11-28) (aged 69)
Frankfurt, Hesse, West Germany |
|  | |
| Conviction(s) | Murder (10 counts) |
| Trial | Treblinka trials |
| Criminal penalty | Life imprisonment with hard labour (1951) |
|  | |
|  | |
| SS service | |
| Allegiance | Nazi Germany |
| Service/branch | Schutzstaffel |
| Years of service | 1932-1945 |
| Rank | Scharführer |
| Unit | SS-Totenkopfverbände |
| Commands | Treblinka extermination camp |
|  | |


abstract: The 2020–21 Princeton Tigers Men's ice hockey season would have been the 119th season of play for the program and the 60th season in the ECAC Hockey conference. The Tigers represent the Princeton University and played their home games at the Hobey Baker Memorial Rink.

text:
# 2020–21 Princeton Tigers men's ice hockey season

The **2020–21 Princeton Tigers Men's ice hockey season** would have been the 119th season of play for the program and the 60th season in the ECAC Hockey conference. The Tigers represent the Princeton University and played their home games at the Hobey Baker Memorial Rink.

## Season

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic the entire college ice hockey season was delayed. Despite the issues, Princeton and most of ECAC Hockey were expecting to start playing some time in November. After the teams had assembled and began practicing, however, a sizable number of Yale's players tested positive for coronavirus. On October 16, Yale raised the campus alert status from green to yellow when the 18th member of the men's ice hockey team tested positive. Less than a month later, the Ivy League, Princeton's primary conference, announced that it was cancelling all winter sports for 2020–21. Additionally the schools would not be participating in any Spring sports until the end of February. The announcement was not particularly surprising, considering that, unlike other conference, the Ivy League does not rely on revenue generated from its athletic programs.

Because the NCAA had previously announced that all winter sports athletes would retain whatever eligibility they possessed through at least the following year, none of Princeton's players would lose a season of play. However, the NCAA also approved a change in its transfer regulations that would allow players to transfer and play immediately rather than having to sit out a season, as the rules previously required. Because of this, players who would have been members of Princeton for the 2021 season had a pathway to leave the program and immediately play for another university.

## Departures

| Player | Position | Nationality | Cause |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Jackson Cressey | Forward | Canada | Graduation (signed with Tyringe SoSS) |
| Joey Fallon | Forward | United States | Graduation |
| Jordan Fogarty | Forward | United States | Graduation (signed with Virserums SGF) |
| Jeremy Germain | Forward | United States | Graduation |
| Liam Grande | Forward | Canada | Graduation (signed with Alfta GIF) |
| Luke Keenan | Forward | Canada | Left University |
| Matthew Thom | Defenseman | Canada | Graduation |
| Derek Topatigh | Defenseman | Canada | Graduation (signed with Macon Mayhem) |

## Recruiting

| Player | Position | Nationality | Age | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Joe Berg | Forward | United States | 20 | Plano, TX |
| Nick Carabin | Defenseman | United States | 20 | Mahwah, NJ |
| Mike Kennedy | Defenseman | United States | 20 | Holyoke, MA |
| MacKenzie Merriman | Forward | Canada | 20 | White Rock, BC |
| Ian Murphy | Forward | United States | 21 | Braintree, MA |

† played junior hockey or equivalent during 2020–21 season.

## Roster

As of October 14, 2020.

| No. | S/P/C | Player | Class | Pos | Height | Weight | DoB | Hometown | Previous team | NHL rights |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 |  | **Jérémie Forget** | Junior |  | 6' 1" (1.85 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 1997-10-15 | Mascouche, Quebec | Carleton Place (CCHL) |  |
| 2 |  | **Mike Ufberg** | Junior |  | 5' 9" (1.75 m) | 180 lb (82 kg) | 1997-09-24 | Richboro, Pennsylvania | Vernon (BCHL) |  |
| 3 |  | **Mike Kennedy** | Freshman |  | 6' 1" (1.85 m) | 190 lb (86 kg) | 2000-07-17 | Holyoke, Massachusetts | Nanaimo (BCHL) |  |
| 6 |  | **Matt Kellenberger** | Junior |  | 6' 1" (1.85 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 1999-01-11 | Toronto, Ontario | Oakville (OJHL) |  |
| 7 |  | **Nick Carabin** | Freshman |  | 5' 10" (1.78 m) | 175 lb (79 kg) | 2000-04-30 | Mahwah, New Jersey | Coquitlam (BCHL) |  |
| 8 |  | **Sami Pharaon** | Junior |  | 5' 10" (1.78 m) | 170 lb (77 kg) | 1999-05-28 | North Vancouver, British Columbia | Alberni Valley (BCHL) |  |
| 9 |  | **Mackenzie Merriman** | Freshman |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 190 lb (86 kg) | 2000-04-14 | White Rock, British Columbia | Nanaimo (BCHL) |  |
| 11 |  | **Adam Robbins** | Sophomore |  | 5' 8" (1.73 m) | 155 lb (70 kg) | 2000-04-12 | New York, New York | Chicago (USHL) |  |
| 12 |  | **Ian Murphy** | Freshman |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 176 lb (80 kg) | 1999-04-06 | Scituate, Massachusetts | Tri-City (USHL) |  |
| 13 |  | **Nick Seitz** | Sophomore |  | 6' 1" (1.85 m) | 190 lb (86 kg) | 2000-01-18 | Manhattan, New York | Corpus Christi IceRays (NAHL) |  |
| 14 |  | **Liam Gorman** | Sophomore |  | 6' 3" (1.91 m) | 197 lb (89 kg) | 2000-05-08 | Arlington, Massachusetts | St. Sebastian's (USHS–MA) | PIT, 177th overall 2018 |
| 15 |  | **Spencer Kersten** | Sophomore |  | 5' 10" (1.78 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 2000-05-16 | Waterloo, Ontario | Oakville (OJHL) |  |
| 16 |  | **Finn Evans** | Junior |  | 6' 4" (1.93 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 1999-08-21 | Toronto, Ontario | Ottawa (CCHL) |  |
| 17 |  | **Reid Yochim** | Senior |  | 5' 7" (1.7 m) | 180 lb (82 kg) | 1998-06-21 | Port Robinson, Ontario | Langley (BCHL) |  |
| 18 |  | **Matt Hayami** | Sophomore |  | 5' 10" (1.78 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 2000-05-21 | Oakville, Ontario | Markham (OJHL) |  |
| 19 |  | **Neil Doef** | Senior |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 175 lb (79 kg) | 1997-02-10 | Smiths Falls, Ontario | Smiths Falls (CCHL) |  |
| 20 |  | **Christian O'Neill** | Junior |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 175 lb (79 kg) | 1998-06-17 | Westwood, Massachusetts | Omaha (USHL) |  |
| 21 |  | **Pito Walton** | Sophomore |  | 6' 2" (1.88 m) | 192 lb (87 kg) | 2000-03-17 | Peapack, New Jersey | Coquitlam (BCHL) |  |
| 22 |  | **Colin Tonge** | Senior |  | 5' 10" (1.78 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 1998-02-10 | Kingston, Ontario | Brockville (CCHL) |  |
| 23 |  | **Joe Berg** | Freshman |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 185 lb (84 kg) | 1999-10-07 | Plano, Texas | Tri-City (USHL) |  |
| 26 |  | **Jake Paganelli** () | Senior |  | 5' 11" (1.8 m) | 175 lb (79 kg) | 1997-03-28 | Verona, New Jersey | Fargo (USHL) |  |
| 27 |  | **Corey Andonovski** | Junior |  | 6' 1" (1.85 m) | 195 lb (88 kg) | 1999-03-26 | Uxbridge, Ontario | Chilliwack (BCHL) |  |
| 30 |  | **Ryan Ferland** | Senior |  | 6' 0" (1.83 m) | 175 lb (79 kg) | 1998-02-11 | Franklin, Massachusetts | New Jersey (NAHL) |  |
| 35 |  | **Aidan Porter** | Sophomore |  | 6' 2" (1.88 m) | 180 lb (82 kg) | 1999-05-18 | Weston, Massachusetts | Vernon (BCHL) |  |

## Standings

|  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Conference record | | | | | | | | | | |  | Overall record | | | | | |
| | GP | W | L | T | OTW | OTL | 3/SW | PTS | PT% | GF | GA | | GP | W | L | T | GF | GA |
| #11 Quinnipiac | 18 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 37 | **.685** | 54 | 34 |  | 29 | 17 | 8 | 4 | 100 | 59 |
| #20 Clarkson | 14 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 25 | **.595** | 29 | 25 |  | 22 | 11 | 7 | 4 | 62 | 52 |
| St. Lawrence * | 14 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 15 | **.357** | 30 | 37 |  | 17 | 6 | 8 | 3 | 40 | 45 |
| Colgate | 18 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 16 | **.352** | 34 | 51 |  | 22 | 6 | 11 | 5 | 48 | 66 |
| Brown | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cornell | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Dartmouth | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Harvard | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Princeton | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Rensselaer | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Union | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Yale | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | **-** | - | - |  | 0 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Championship: March 20, 2021
† indicates conference regular season champion (Cleary Cup)
* indicates conference tournament champion (Whitelaw Cup)
Rankings: USCHO.com Top 20 Poll | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## Schedule and Results

Season Cancelled

## InfoBox

| 2020–21 Princeton Tigers
men's ice hockey season | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Conference | ECAC Hockey |
| Home ice | Hobey Baker Memorial Rink |
| Rankings | |
| USCHO.com | NR |
| USA Today/
US Hockey Magazine | NR |
| Record | |
| Coaches and captains | |
| Head coach | Ron Fogarty |
| Assistant coaches | Brad Dexter
Tommy Davis |
| **Princeton Tigers men's ice hockey seasons**
« 2019–20 2021–22 » | |


title: Chinarem

abstract: Chinarem was a traditional open-deck boat of the Ivatan people from the island of Sabtang in the Philippines. It was around 6 to 8 m long with three or four pair of rowers and a single mast. It was similar to the falua in shape, but differs in that the stern was pointed. It can carry ten passengers and was generally used to ferry goods and people between the islands of Sabtang and Batan. Chinarem is extinct; it disappeared in Sabtang Island around the 1970s.

text:
# Chinarem

**Chinarem** was a traditional open-deck boat of the Ivatan people from the island of Sabtang in the Philippines. It was around 6 to 8 m (20 to 26 ft) long with three or four pair of rowers and a single mast. It was similar to the falua in shape, but differs in that the stern was pointed (hence its name). It can carry ten passengers and was generally used to ferry goods and people between the islands of Sabtang and Batan. Chinarem is extinct; it disappeared in Sabtang Island around the 1970s.


title: Richmond Sixteen

abstract: The Richmond Sixteen were a group of "absolutist" British conscientious objectors during the First World War. Conscripted into the British Army in 1916, they refused to undertake even non-combatant military duties. Brought together at Richmond Castle, Yorkshire, most not knowing each other previously, they were transported to France, where they were court-martialled and formally sentenced to be executed by firing squad, but this sentence was immediately commuted to ten years' penal servitude. They were released in April 1919, several months after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and a few weeks before the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

text:
# Richmond Sixteen

The **Richmond Sixteen** were a group of "absolutist" British conscientious objectors during the First World War. Conscripted into the British Army in 1916, they refused to undertake even non-combatant military duties. Brought together at Richmond Castle, Yorkshire, most not knowing each other previously, they were transported to France, where they were court-martialled and formally sentenced to be executed by firing squad, but this sentence was immediately commuted to ten years' penal servitude. They were released in April 1919, several months after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and a few weeks before the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

## The sixteen men

The group was made up of a Quaker, five International Bible Students, and members of the Methodists, Congregationalists, Churches of Christ, and socialists. They were:

and eight men from Leeds:

* Clifford Cartwright, from the Churches of Christ;
* John William Routledge;
* Ernest Shillito Spencer (1897–1957), a Quaker clerk in a factory;
* Clarence and Stafford Hall, brothers;
* Charles Rowland Jackson;
* Leonard Renton;
* Charles Herbert Senior,

The latter five were all International Bible Students, now known as Jehovah's Witnesses.

## Background

The First World War began with Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia on 28 July 1914. After other states had joined in in support of one side or the other, the impending German invasion of Belgium was considered to justify the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland declaring war against Germany on 4 August. At the time, the British government was responsible for the foreign affairs of the five overseas Dominions, as well as those of the British colonies and protectorates, so its declaration of war was made on behalf of the whole British Empire.

By the winter of 1915, the British Army had suffered so many men killed or disabled that in January 1916 Parliament introduced conscription. The Military Service Act 1916 provided that in Great Britain (but not in Ireland, the whole of which was still part of the United Kingdom), single men aged between eighteen and forty-one were liable to call-up for war service in the Army; an amending Act later in 1916 included married men, and another in 1918 extended the upper age limit to fifty-one. There were exemptions for serving members of the Army and Navy, ministers of religion, those engaged in "work of national importance", men with dependents such as widowers with young children, and men who were disabled or in poor health. There was also provision for those with conscientious objections to fighting: men could object on religious or moral grounds, but even if accepted as genuine conscientious objectors (often referred to as "C.O.s") by the Tribunals set up under the Act, they could, at a tribunal's discretion, still be conscripted into the Army for non-combatant duties.

## Non-Combatant Corps

Thousands of men claiming to be conscientious objectors were questioned by the Military Service Tribunals, but very few were exempted from all war service. The vast majority were designated to fight or to join the Non-Combatant Corps (NCC), specially created exclusively for COs. For those accepted as having genuine moral or religious objections to fighting, being under military orders in the NCC was intended to make them support the war in non-fighting roles, such as transport or non-lethal stores. The relatively small number who refused such non-combatant duties were called "absolutists".

The men who became the "Richmond Sixteen" had appeared before Tribunals, pleading their objections to war and the military, and had all been accepted as conscientious objectors, and instead of being designated for fighting they were designated as non-combatants. They conscientiously ignored notices to report to the NCC, so were arrested by the civil police and taken before a magistrates' court, where they were handed over to a military escort. Eventually they were taken to join the 2nd Northern Company of the Non-Combatant Corps, stationed at Richmond Castle, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. They refused to wear uniform or undertake any duties at all, as they had done ever since they had been "handed over", and were locked in eight small cells, pending court-martial for disobeying military orders. Similar disobedience by forcibly enlisted COs had been taking place over the past two months at military barracks and camps around the country, resulting in courts-martial and sentences of imprisonment.

## France and imprisonment

At some level in the military hierarchy  some have suggested it was the Secretary of State for War in person, Field Marshal Kitchener  it was ordered that four random groups of the resisting COs, including what became the 'Richmond Sixteen', should be sent to the Western Front, where they could be court-martialled for refusing to obey orders and face the death penalty; that was not applicable for such an offence within Great Britain. The others sent to the front at the same time were seventeen men at Harwich, nine at Seaford, and two at Kinmel Park, Abergele, making forty-four absolutists in all. It was later claimed that these "Frenchmen", as they became known, went to France willingly, supposedly anxious to keep up their resistance on a greater stage, but no evidence has been found to support this.

While the seventeen "Frenchmen" sent from Harwich were on a train travelling through the London suburbs, one of them threw a letter out of the train window addressed to the office of the No-Conscription Fellowship (NCF), describing the men's predicament. This was picked up by a friendly railwayman and posted. The NCF passed the letter to Arnold Rowntree, a Quaker member of parliament for York, who took the matter up with H. H. Asquith, the British prime minister.

On arrival in France, the men were moved from place to place, spending their time in a variety of guard rooms, sometimes lodged "on parole" in rest camps, and were eventually held with other prisoners near Boulogne. However, they suffered no "field punishments", as other conscientious objectors before them had done. At Boulogne they were told they were "in the presence of the enemy" and that wilfully disobeying orders could now result in their being shot by firing squad. They were therefore urged to join other COs who had accepted their assigned role in the NCC, however reluctantly, and they were also falsely told that the 'Harwich Frenchmen' had already "saved their lives" by giving in and obeying military orders. The sixteen men were then given twenty-four hours' leave to make up their minds, and they considered their position at leisure, five of them even going swimming. All sixteen remained convinced that supporting the war in any way would be morally wrong, and as a group they decided to hold out, partly on principle and partly because they believed that agreeing to obey military orders would lead to other objectors being treated in the same way. (There is a persistent legend that one of sixteen – never named – decided at this point to "give in", but the names of all sixteen appear in War Office court-martial records of the soldiers formally sentenced to death.) The next day, the men all continued to refuse to obey all orders and were returned to the guard room. They were individually court martialled, eleven (Cartwright, Cryer, Stafford Hall, Herbert Law, William Law, Lown, Martlew, Myers, Renton, Senior, Spencer) on 12 June 1916, and five (Brocklesby, Gaudie, Clarence Hall, Jackson, Routledge) on 13 June 1916. They were all found guilty, and on 24 June 1916 all sixteen were sentenced to be shot at dawn, but this was immediately commuted to ten years' penal servitude. The other "Frenchmen" were tried in separate courts-martial on 7, 10, 13, and 24 June 1916 and similarly sentenced to death and reprieved, except for seven who received shorter terms of imprisonment without any formal sentence of death. The outcome was considered the result of the influence of Asquith, following the death of Kitchener at sea on 5 June, a week before the courts-martial and two weeks before the sentencing.

The men were transferred to Rouen, from where they were sent back to England by ship, after facing an angry French crowd on the quay-side. From the ship they were taken to Winchester Prison, where they found the Harwich seventeen, who had been at Boulogne before them. Some were then taken to Dyce Work Camp. On 11 July 1917 Alfred Martlew was found drowned in the River Ouse, reported in a newspaper under the heading "An Objector Drowned". The other men were released unconditionally in April 1919, well after the Armistice. On returning home, they were widely seen as cowards and were spurned by their local communities. They were formally disfranchised for five years, beginning on 1 September 1921, but as there was at the time no mechanism for putting disfranchisement into effect, the procedure had little effect. However, some of the men were unable to get jobs on release.

## Later life

Robert Armstrong Lown went to live in Stalham, Norfolk, and died there in 1954.

Hubert Brocklesby returned to teaching and moved to Barton-upon-Humber. He died in a Scunthorpe hospital in 1962, leaving a widow, Olive.

## Commemorations

In 1995, the men's story was turned into a Tyne Tees Television documentary called *The Richmond Sixteen*, and in 2007 they were one of the subjects of a book by Will Ellsworth-Jones. At Richmond Castle, early in the 21st century English Heritage laid out an area called the Cockpit Garden as a memorial to the men known as the Richmond Sixteen. However, the decision was controversial in Richmond, as the town's economy depends heavily on business from the nearby British army garrison at Catterick. In June 2013 the Teesdale and Cleveland Area Quaker Meeting organized a silent event at Richmond Castle in honour of the sixteen men. In May 2016 English Heritage announced plans to conserve the copious amounts of graffiti that the men had left on the walls of Richmond Castle. Most of this is in pencil and is deteriorating.

Norman Gaudie's story is depicted in the film *Asunder*, directed by Esther Johnson and funded by 14-18 NOW, a First World War centenary arts commission.

## InfoBox

| External audio | |
| --- | --- |
| Voices from the Walls – Richmond Castle's Conscientious Objectors, *Speaking with Shadows*, published by English Heritage, retrieved 2 December 2019 | |


title: Sicco van Goslinga

abstract: Sicco van Goslinga was a nobleman and politician who served as a field deputy of the States-General of the Dutch Republic in the Dutch States Army. From 1706 to 1709 and in 1711 he served alongside John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough during his campaigns in Flanders in the War of the Spanish Succession. His memoirs form an important source of information for historians of the period.

text:
# Sicco van Goslinga

**Sicco van Goslinga** (1664  12 October 1731) was a nobleman and politician who served as a field deputy of the States-General of the Dutch Republic in the Dutch States Army. From 1706 to 1709 and in 1711 he served alongside John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough during his campaigns in Flanders in the War of the Spanish Succession. His memoirs form an important source of information for historians of the period.

## Biography

### Family life

Goslinga married Jeanette (Joanne) Isabelle baroness thoe Schwartzenberg und Hohenlansberg, vrijvrouwe of Ameland, at Ballum, Friesland, on 12 June 1692. They had five daughters, one of whom, Anna Dodonea, would marry Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer.

### Career

After studies at the University of Franeker and the University of Utrecht he became *Grietman* of Franekeradeel in 1688, a function he would hold until his death. This made him a regent and put him in line for all kinds of functions on a provincial level in the province of Friesland. He also represented that province in the States-General and in the *Raad van State* (Council of State) on many occasions (see "List of functions" in the External links).

As a member of the Council of State (which was the most important executive organ of the Republic in the military field, especially after the Second Stadtholderless Period had started) he became a *field deputy* for Friesland at the headquarters of the Duke of Marlborough from 1706 until Marlborough's dismissal in 1711. As such he was charged with advising Marlborough, and with keeping an eye on him, as agreed when Marlborough was made lieutenant-captain-general of the army of the Republic in 1702. The Dutch deputies-in-the-field had the right to veto Marlborough's tactical decisions if they thought the interests of the Republic demanded it, and this had led to much friction with Marlborough in previous years. Goslinga, however, proved cooperative generally and managed to provide a positive contribution during the battles of Ramillies, Oudenaarde, and Malplaquet.

Though not a general, he was authorized to give orders to Dutch commanders at these battles. At the Battle of Oudenaarde he took it upon himself to throw a Dutch division into battle at a decisive moment. At Malplaquet he was involved in combat from start to finish and, along with the Prince of Orange, personally led the attacks on the French entrenchments. His horse was shot out from under him during one of these attacks. He also personally ordered up reinforcements when the second Dutch assault on the left flank faltered. Struck hard by the slaughter among the Dutch infantry at Malplaquet, he wrote to Anthonie Heinsius, Grand Pensionary of Holland, that:

*"Yesterday, the princes and generals saw the left flank on the battlefield. They saw with horror how our men lay against the field fortifications and entrenchments, still in the ranks as they had fallen. Our infantry is dilapidated and ruined \[...\] The Count of Tilly will draw up a list \[of the dead and wounded\] in accordance with the advice of the generals and colonels. \[...\] It does not suit us to jeopardize our Republic so many times \[...\], but the good Lord has preserved it, at the cost of a river of blood shed by the bravest people in the world.".*

Despite the victory, the limited strategic benefits would mean that Goslinga would still be criticised up to Slingenlandt's time as Grand Pensionary of Holland for giving Marlborough permission for the battle.

Unlike Willem Jan Knoop, Winston Churchill had no high opinion of Goslinga's military abilities. but he nevertheless extensively used his memoirs as a source. To illustrate the good rapport between Marlborough and Goslinga, Churchill mentions the anecdote in which they shared Marlborough's cloak to sleep on after the battle of Ramillies. Although Sicco van Goslinga was generally positive about Marlborough and considered him a genius, he was also critical. Marlborough was good at playing sincerity, had excessive ambition, and was grudgingly greedy. Although brave, according to Van Goslinga, Marlborough also lacked a strong character. He wrote:

*He was sometimes indecisive, especially on the eve of some great undertaking, shrank from difficulties, and sometimes allowed himself to be beaten down by adversity. Maybe that's because he doesn't handle fatigue very well. He knows little about military discipline and gives too much freedom to the soldiers, causing them to commit horrible excesses.*

Goslinga served as plenipotentiary for the Republic at the peace negotiations, leading up to the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). After the conclusion of the peace he served as extraordinary envoy of the Republic to the court of Louis XIV of France in 1714 and 1715. In 1728 he represented the Republic at the congress of Soissons about outstanding European diplomatic issues (like the status of Gibraltar).

Until his death he was involved in Dutch politics. He supported the appointment of William IV, Prince of Orange as stadtholder of Groningen in 1719.

## Works

* Goslinga, S. van (1857) *Mémoires relatifs à la Guerre de succession de 1706-1709 et 1711, de Sicco van Goslinga, publiés par mm. U. A. Evertsz et G. H. M. Delprat, au nom de la Société d’histoire, d’archéologie et de linquistique de Frise*, (Published by G.T.N. Suringar, 1857)
* Goslinga, S. van, Slingelandt, S. van, Rappard, W.A. van (ed.) (1978) *Briefwisseling Tussen Simon Van Slingelandt En Sicco Van Goslinga 1697-1731*, ISBN 90-247-2167-9 ISBN 9789024721672

## Sources

* Churchill, W.S. (2002) *Marlborough: His Life and Times*, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-10635-7, ISBN 978-0-226-10635-9
* Frey, L. and M. (1995) *The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary*, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-313-27884-9, ISBN 978-0-313-27884-6, p. 189
* (in Dutch) Vries, O. (1999) *De Heeren Van Den Raede: biografieën en groepsportret van de raadsheren van het Hof van Friesland (1499-1811)*, Uitgeverij Verloren, ISBN 90-6550-076-6, ISBN 978-90-6550-076-2, p. 347
* De Graaf, Ronald (2021). *Friso: het tragische leven van Johan Willem Friso* \[*Friso: the tragic life of John William Friso*\] (in Dutch). Boom. ISBN 978-90-2443-676-7.
* Wijn, J.W. (1959). *Het Staatsche Leger: Deel VIII-2 Het tijdperk van de Spaanse Successieoorlog (The Dutch States Army: Part VIII-2 The era of the War of the Spanish Succession)* (in Dutch). Martinus Nijhoff.

## InfoBox

| Sicco van Goslinga | |
| --- | --- |
| Sicco van Goslinga, by Lancelot Volders | |
| Born | 1664 |
| Died | 1731 |
| Spouse(s) | Jeanette Isabelle baroness of Schwartzenberg and Hohenlansberg, vrijvrouwe of Ameland |
| Father | Johan van Goslinga |
|  | |
| Military career | |
| Allegiance | Dutch Republic |
| Battles/wars |  |
|  | |