title: First Battle of Fort McAllister

abstract: The First Battle of Fort McAllister was a series of naval attacks that took place from January 27 to March 3, 1863, at Fort McAllister in Bryan County, Georgia, during the American Civil War. The commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron Rear Adm. Samuel F. Du Pont decided to test operation of new monitors against Fort McAllister before conducting a major naval operation against Charleston, South Carolina.

text:
# First Battle of Fort McAllister

The **First Battle of Fort McAllister** was a series of naval attacks that took place from January 27 to March 3, 1863, at Fort McAllister in Bryan County, Georgia, during the American Civil War. The commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron Rear Adm. Samuel F. Du Pont decided to test operation of new monitors against Fort McAllister before conducting a major naval operation against Charleston, South Carolina.

## Earlier operations

Fort McAllister was a small earthen fort located along Genesis Point and armed with several heavy cannon to defend the Great Ogeechee River approach south of Savannah, Georgia. It was expanded repeatedly by adding more guns, traverses and bombproofs. Obstructions and eventually torpedoes (mines) completed the riverine defenses.

In July 1862 the blockade runner *Nashville* ran up the river to escape blockaders, and would remain trapped. Learning that the *Nashville* was lying near the fort, Adm. Du Pont ordered Commander Charles Steedman to make a "reconnaissance in force" and to destroy the fort if possible. At this time the garrison was commanded by Capt. Alfred L. Hartridge of Co. A., 1st Georgia Volunteer Infantry, the "DeKalb Riflemen." The main battery consisted of five 32-pounder and one 42-pounder smoothbore. On July 29, Steedman led the wooden gunboats USS *Paul Jones, Unadilla, Huron* and *Madgie* against the work in a 90-minute long-range exchange. Steedman found that approaching the fort would cause unacceptable losses and withdrew.

An 8" Columbiad was added to the fort in August and the garrison was replaced with the Emmett Rifles and the Republican Blues. Under Cdr. John L. Davis the Federal gunboats USS *Wissahickon* and *Dawn* and a mortar schooner engaged the fort for several hours on November 19. The fort did not reply to the initial long-range bombardment and waited until the warships ascended the river to the guns' effective range. When the lead vessels reached 3,000 yards the garrison opened fire and immediately scored a hit, holing the *Wissahickon* below the waterline. The Federals withdrew. Damage to the fort was minor and readily repaired and only three men were slightly wounded in the fortifications.

## Initial attacks

Adm. Du Pont dispatched an ironclad in an attempt to capture the fort, sink the *Nashville* and burn the Atlantic and Gulf railway bridge farther up the river. This would provide the first test of the new *Passaic* class of ironclad monitor armed with the massive new 15" Dahlgren cannon, at the time the heaviest cannon mounted on a warship. The single turret of the new class contained one 11" Dahlgren in addition to the 15". On January 27, 1863 the monitor USS *Montauk,* three gunboats, and a mortar schooner again engaged the fort. Commander John L. Worden of the *Montauk* shelled the fort for five hours at a range of 1,500-1,800 yards, penetrating and tearing up the parapets, but causing no lasting damage or casualties. Likewise, thirteen hits scored by the fort's artillery did little beside denting the monitor's plate and sink a small launch. The defenders simply repaired the damaged earthworks during the night.

On February 1, Worden tried again to silence the fort. The prior night Federal scouts had removed several mines from the channel so that the vessels could more closely approach. The *Montauk* spent another five hours bombarding at only 600 yards distance. The garrison commander, Maj. John B. Gallie, was killed and seven were wounded. Major George Wayne Anderson was placed in Command of the fort following the death of Major Gallie. The monitor was struck by 48 rounds and the turret jammed for a time. Following this engagement, the river defenses would be augmented with the placement of nine "Rains torpedoes" in the channel near where the *Montauk* had engaged the fort.

## Destruction of the *Nashville/Rattlesnake*

Unable to run the Federal blockade, the *Nashville* had been sold and converted into an armed commerce raider under Capt. Thomas H. Baker. It was renamed the *Rattlesnake* and on February 27 Baker attempted to make the open sea during rainy weather, but was deterred by a blockader. Returning, the raider ran aground on a bend upriver from the fort but still visible to the blockaders. The next morning Worden anchored the *Montauk* about 1,200 yards from the fort, and about equidistant to the *Rattlesnake* stuck in the river bend. The monitor began firing on the stranded ship and the fort fired on the ironclad in an attempt to distract the Union vessel. After only a few minutes the *Montauk* sent its fifth shot into the raider's hull. This and subsequent shells produced a fire and eventually explosions which destroyed the ship. The *Montauk* had fired fourteen rounds in all.

As the *Montauk* withdrew down the river, it struck a torpedo (mine). Quick action by the commander and pilot steered the vessel onto a mud bank as the tide receded, sealing the leak until repairs could be effected. Following temporary patching, the rising tide refloated the boat. Eventually the *Montauk* was sent to Port Royal for permanent repairs.

## The final naval battle

After the early engagements with the fort, Adm. Du Pont recognized that a single monitor turret lacked the rate of fire to force the capitulation of the earthen battery. He therefore ordered three ironcladsUSS *Patapsco*, *Passaic*, and *Nahant*to test their guns and mechanical appliances and practice artillery firing by attacking the fort. The *Montauk* was to be held in reserve as its 15" gun had already fired a large number of rounds and its durability was unknown at the time. Capt. Percival Drayton of the *Passaic* would command this expedition.

Anticipating an attack, the malleable fort was again expanded, adding a 10" Columbiad. The fort then consisted of a "32-pounder rifle" (an old 32-pounder smoothbore rifled so that it would fire an approximately 64-pound rifled bolt or somewhat lighter shell), a 10" Columbiad, an 8" Columbiad, a 42-pounder smoothbore, three 32-pounder smoothbores (one being a "hot shot" gun), and 10" mortar in a connected work. Additionally, several sharpshooters were placed in the marsh on the opposite side of the river near where the monitors were likely to station during an attack.

On March 3, 1863, the three newer ironclads conducted an eight-hour bombardment. They were supported by five gunboats and three mortar schooners held out of range of the fort's guns. Several steamers containing the 47th New York Infantry awaited nearby to occupy the fort when subdued.

The lead monitors anchored about 1,200 yards from the fort and commenced shelling as the fort attempted to target the gun ports when the turrets rotated to fire. The bombardment knocked out the 8" Columbiad, tore large holes in the face of the fort, and for a time disabled all but the 10" Columbiad, before several other guns could be returned to service.

The Confederate sharpshooters hidden in the marsh fired on Capt. Drayton and Cmdr. Miller when they emerged on the deck of the *Passaic.* Neither was seriously injured, and they withdrew into the vessel. Grapeshot was fired into the marsh to discourage any further sharpshooting.

While most of the damage experienced by the ironclads was the result of firing of their own cannon, the 10" Confederate mortar battery inflicted some potentially fatal damage to the *Passaic.* The mortar battery commander, Capt. Robert Martin, realized that explosive mortar shells would have little effect, so he filled each shell with sand instead of gunpowder, to increase its weight and density. This would result in it retaining more velocity and momentum when it struck the thinly armored deck. One of these struck and partially penetrated the ironclad, only being stopped from penetrating all the way through the vessel because it struck on a beam.

As the tide was receding and nightfall was coming, the naval vessels withdrew. Capt. Drayton attempted to prevent repair of the earthworks overnight by maintaining 13" mortar fire on the fort overnight. This prevented slave labor from conducting the repair, but it did not prevent Confederate soldiers from working. The damage had been repaired by the next afternoon, and the loss of the fort's mascot, Tom Cat, reported to General Beauregard.

The attack on the fort had failed and no further naval assaults against it were ordered. Valuable information about several deficiencies of the monitors had been revealed by the action, and efforts would be made to remedy them where possible.

## Aftermath and conclusions

The first test of the 15-inch Dahlgren gun and single-turret monitors against the sand parapets of Fort McAllister had revealed several things:

* The very slow rate of fire of the very large cannon in two-gun turrets resulted in little offensive power and allowed defenders time to fire against the open gun ports, then take cover. The defenders could fire several times as rapidly. Even several monitors firing at once did not create a sufficient volume of fire to suppress the battery.
* The monitors were subject to jamming of their turret rings or other mechanical failures of the guns that could take their battery out of action.
* Spalling effects of broken bolts on impact posed a hazard to the crew even though the armor prevented penetration.
* The thin monitor decks were vulnerable to plunging fire from heavy mortars.
* Earthworks could be rapidly repaired overnight or the following day so that a garrison could return to full effectiveness.
* Long-range mortar fire against a fort was so inaccurate as to be ineffective.
* Suppressing fire against earthworks would be required overnight to limit the ability to repair damage.
* Obstructions and mines prevented passage past forts, even though the monitors might be "invulnerable" to the fort's guns during the passage.
* Sand forts held up well to shelling, while mud forts did not.
* Properly constructed traverses and bombproofs prevented forts from easily being taken out of action on the flank.

Du Pont attempted to address the shortcomings as best he could while preparing for the attack on Charleston. He ordered the strengthening of the decks with additional armor. He attempted to create a "submarine torpedo exploder" on the bow of his vessels to clear mines. He added as many ironclads to the assault as possible to increase the total volume of fire against the defenses.

Adm. Du Pont's warnings and concerns about the inability of monitors to reduce earthen forts would go unheeded as he prepared the assault on Charleston harbor. The assault was a failure and an ironclad (USS *Keokuk*) was lost in the attempt. Du Pont accepted responsibility for the failure at Charleston by resigning.

Fort McAllister would not be subdued by naval bombardment, but would succumb to an infantry assault at the end of Sherman's March to the Sea in December 1864.

31°53′24″N 81°11′51″W / 31.89009°N 81.19738°W / 31.89009; -81.19738

## InfoBox

| First Battle of Fort McAllister | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of the American Civil War | |
|
GA Richmond Hill Fort McAllister inside | |
| Date January 27, 1863 (1863-01-27)  March 3, 1863 (1863-03-03)  Location Bryan County, Georgia  Result Confederate victory | |
| Belligerents | |
| United States (Union) | CSA (Confederacy) |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Capt. Percival Drayton
Cdr. John L. Worden
Cdr. Daniel Ammen | Maj. John B. Gallie
George Wayne Anderson |
| Units involved | |
| *U.S.S Montauk*
*U.S.S Patapsco*
*U.S.S Passaic*
*U.S.S Nahant* | Fort McAllister Garrison-
Emmett Rifles
Georgia Sharpshooters
Republican Blues
Chatham Artillery |
| Casualties and losses | |
| unknown | unknown |


title: First Battle of Jaunde

abstract: The First Battle of Jaunde involved the attempted British and French assault on the German capital of Jaunde during the Kamerun campaign of the First World War. Due to a lack of coordination, difficult terrain, adverse weather conditions, and stiff German resistance, the attack was forced to retreat in late June 1915. Another assault on the capital would not be conducted until later that year.

text:
# First Battle of Jaunde

The **First Battle of Jaunde** involved the attempted British and French assault on the German capital of Jaunde during the Kamerun campaign of the First World War. Due to a lack of coordination, difficult terrain, adverse weather conditions, and stiff German resistance, the attack was forced to retreat in late June 1915. Another assault on the capital would not be conducted until later that year.

* Burg, David F., and L. Edward. Purcell. Almanac of World War I. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky, 1998.
* Dane, Edmund. British Campaigns in Africa and the Pacific, 1914-1918,. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1919.
* O'Neill, Herbert C. The War in Africa and the Far East. London: London Longmans Green, 1918.
* Strachan, Hew. The First World War. Vol. I: To Arms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

03°52′N 11°31′E / 3.867°N 11.517°E / 3.867; 11.517

## InfoBox

| First Battle of Jaunde | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of the Kamerun campaign in World War I | |
| Date 1 May – late June 1915  Location Area around Jaunde, German Kamerun  Result  German victory | |
| Belligerents | |
| British Empire
France
* French Equatorial Africa | Germany |


title: Superior labial vein

abstract: The superior labial vein is the vein receiving blood from the upper lip.

text:
# Superior labial vein

The **superior labial vein** is the vein receiving blood from the upper lip.

## Additional images

## InfoBox

| Superior labial vein | |
| --- | --- |
| Veins of the head and neck. (Superior labial vein visible at center right.) | |
| Details | |
| Drains from | Upper lip |
| Drains to | Facial vein |
| Artery | Superior labial |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | *vena labialis superior* |
| TA98 | A12.3.05.025 |
| TA2 | 4824 |
| FMA | 52538 |
| Anatomical terminology | |


title: Darwin's rhea

abstract: Darwin's rhea or the lesser rhea is a large flightless bird, the smaller of the two extant species of rheas. It is found in the Altiplano and Patagonia in South America.

text:
# Darwin's rhea

**Darwin's rhea** or the **lesser rhea** (***Rhea pennata***) is a large flightless bird, the smaller of the two extant species of rheas. It is found in the Altiplano and Patagonia in South America.

## Description

The lesser rhea stands at 90 to 100 cm (35–39 in) tall. Length is 92 to 100 cm (36–39 in) and weight is 15 to 28.6 kg (33–63 lb). Like most ratites, it has a small head and a small bill, the latter measuring 6.2 to 9.2 cm (2.4 to 3.6 in), but has long legs and a long neck. It has relatively larger wings than other ratites, enabling it to run particularly well. It can reach speeds of 60 km/h (37 mph), enabling it to outrun predators. The sharp claws on the toes are effective weapons. Their feathers are similar to those of ostriches, in that they have no aftershaft. Their plumage is spotted brown and white, and the upper part of their tarsus is feathered. The tarsus is 28 to 32 cm (11 to 13 in) long and has 18 horizontal plates on the front.

## Etymology

It is known as *ñandú petiso*, or *ñandú del norte*, in Argentina, where the majority live. Other names are *suri* and *choique*. The name *ñandú* comes from the greater rhea's name in Guaraní, *ñandu guazu*, meaning big spider, possibly in relation to their habit of alternately opening and lowering their wings when they run. In English, Darwin's rhea gets its scientific name from Rhea, a Greek goddess, and *pennata*, meaning winged. The specific name was bestowed in 1834 by Darwin's contemporary and rival Alcide d'Orbigny, who first described the bird to Europeans from a specimen from the lower Río Negro south of Buenos Aires, Argentina. As late as 2008, it was classified in the monotypic genus *Pterocnemia*. This word is formed from two Greek words *pteron*, meaning feathers, and *knēmē*, meaning the leg between the knee and the ankle, hence feather-legged, alluding to their feathers that cover the top part of the leg. In 2008, the SACC subsumed *Pterocnemia* into the genus *Rhea*.

## Taxonomy

Three subspecies have traditionally been recognized:

The IUCN considers the former two northern taxa *R. p. tarapacensis* and *R. p. garleppi* as a separate species, the puna rhea (*R. tarapacensis*). Both *garleppi* and *tarapacensis* were described by Charles Chubb in 1913. It is possible *garleppi* should be considered a junior synonym of *tarapacensis*.

## Behavior

The lesser rhea is mainly a herbivore, with the odd small animal (lizards, beetles, grasshoppers) eaten on occasion. It predominately eats saltbush and fruits from cacti, as well as grasses, roots, seeds, and leaves. They tend to be quiet birds, except as chicks when they whistle mournfully, and as males looking for a female, when they emit a booming call.

The males of this species become aggressive once they are incubating eggs, even towards females. The females thus lay the later eggs near the nest, rather than in it. Most of the eggs are moved into the nest by the male, but some remain outside, where they rot and attract flies. The male, and later the chicks, eat these flies. The incubation period is 30–44 days, and the clutch size is from 5–55 eggs. The eggs are 87 to 126 mm (3.4–5.0 in) and are greenish yellow. Chicks mature by three years of age. Outside the breeding season, Darwin's rhea is quite sociable: it lives in groups of from 5 to 30 birds, of both sexes and a variety of ages.

## Distribution and habitat

Darwin's rhea lives in areas of open scrub in the grasslands of Patagonia and on the Andean plateau (the Altiplano), through the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. All subspecies prefer grasslands, brushlands and marshland. However, the nominate subspecies prefers elevations less than 1,500 m (4,900 ft), where the other subspecies typically range from 3,000 to 4,500 m (9,800–14,800 ft), but locally down to 1,220 m (4,000 ft) in the south.

## History of the discovery of the genus *Rhea*

During the second voyage of HMS *Beagle*, the young naturalist Charles Darwin made many trips on land, and around August 1833 heard from gauchos in the Río Negro area of Northern Patagonia about the existence of a smaller rhea, "a very rare bird which they called the Avestruz Petise". He continued searching fruitlessly for this bird, and the *Beagle* sailed south, putting in at Port Desire in southern Patagonia on 23 December. On the following day, Darwin shot a guanaco (similar to a llama) which provided them with a Christmas meal, and in the first days of January, the artist Conrad Martens shot a rhea which they enjoyed eating before Darwin realised that this was the elusive smaller rhea rather than a juvenile, and preserved the head, neck, legs, one wing, and many of the larger feathers. As with his other collections, these were sent to John Stevens Henslow in Cambridge. On 26 January the *Beagle* entered the Straits of Magellan, and at St Gregory's Bay Darwin met Patagonians he described as "excellent practical naturalists". A half Indian, who had been born in the Northern Provinces, told him that the smaller rheas were the only species this far south, while the larger rheas kept to the north. On an expedition up the Santa Cruz River, they saw several of the smaller rheas, which were too wary to be approached closely or caught.

In 1837, Darwin's rhea was described as *Rhea darwinii* (later synonymized with *R. pennata*) by the ornithologist John Gould in a presentation to the Zoological Society of London, in which he was followed by Darwin reading a paper on the eggs and distribution of the two species of rheas.

When Gould classified Darwin's rhea and the greater rhea as separate species, he confirmed a serious problem for Darwin. These birds mainly live in different parts of Patagonia, but there is also an overlapping zone where the two species coexist. As every living being had been created in a fixed form, as accepted by the science of his time, they could only change their appearance by a perfect adaptation to their way of life, but would still be the same species. But now he had to deal with two different species. This started to form his idea that species were not fixed at all, but that another mechanism might be at work.

## Conservation

Darwin's rhea is categorized as least concern by the IUCN. The former southern nominate subspecies remains relatively widespread and locally fairly common. Its range is estimated at 859,000 km2 (332,000 sq mi). The situation for the two former northern subspecies is more worrying, with their combined population estimated as being possibly as low as in the hundreds. However, they are classified as *Rhea tarapacensis* by the IUCN, which regards it as being near threatened, with the primary threats being hunting, egg-collecting, and fragmentation of its habitat due to conversion to farmland or pastures for cattle-grazing.

Patagonia National Park in Chile's Aysén Region hosts the Centro de Reproducción para la Conservación del Ñandú ('Reproduction Centre for Darwin's rhea Conservation'). The centre is run by Tompkins Conservation with the support of the National Forest Corporation.

## Footnotes

1. *Pterocnemia pennata pennata* is included in Appendix II.

## InfoBox

| Darwin's rhea | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| At Zurich Zoo, Switzerland | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| CITES Appendix I (CITES) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Infraclass: | Palaeognathae |
| Order: | Rheiformes |
| Family: | Rheidae |
| Genus: | *Rhea* |
| Species: | ***R. pennata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Rhea pennata***
d'Orbigny, 1837 | |
|
| Subspecies | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Pterocnemia pennata* (d'Orbigny 1834) Chubb 1913 * *Rhea darwinii* Gould 1837 * *Pterocnemia darwinii* (Gould 183) * *Struthio darwinii* (Gould 1837) * *Rhea nana* Lyddekker 1894 | |


title: Docking sleeve

abstract: In mechanical engineering, a docking sleeve or mounting boss is a tube or enclosure used to couple two mechanical components together, or for chilling, or to retain two components together; this permits two equally sized appendages to be connected via insertion and fixing within the construction. Docking sleeves may be physically solid or flexible, their implementation varying widely according to the required application of the device. The most common application is the plastic appendage that receives a screw in order to attach two parts.

text:
# Docking sleeve

In mechanical engineering, a **docking sleeve** or **mounting boss** is a tube or enclosure used to couple two mechanical components together, or for chilling, or to retain two components together; this permits two equally sized appendages to be connected via insertion and fixing within the construction. Docking sleeves may be physically solid or flexible, their implementation varying widely according to the required application of the device. The most common application is the plastic appendage that receives a screw in order to attach two parts.


title: Ferme ornée

abstract: The term ferme ornée as used in English garden history derives from Stephen Switzer's term for 'ornamental farm'. It describes a country estate laid out partly according to aesthetic principles and partly for farming. During the eighteenth century the original ferme ornée was Woburn Farm, made by Philip Southcote, who bought the property in 1734. William Shenstone's garden at The Leasowes was also a ferme ornée. Marie Antoinette made a later example at Versailles in the form of the Hameau de la Reine, created between 1783 and 1787, but it was much more for pleasure than for food production. The Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm was said to be the largest ferme ornée in 18th-century Europe. The most complete surviving example is said to be Larchill near Kilcock, Ireland. Stephen Switzer, in The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener's Recreation (1715), describes the practice of the ferme ornée "By mixing the useful and profitable parts of Gard'ning with the Pleasurable in the Interior Parts of my Designs and Paddocks, obscure enclosures, etc. in the outward, My Designs are thereby vastly enlarg'd and both Profit and Pleasure may be agreeably mix'd together". His English readers would detect, in the juxtaposition of useful and pleasurable, the classical view of the twin aims of poetry, inherited from Horace, "to instruct and to delight".

text:
# Ferme ornée

The term ***ferme ornée*** as used in English garden history derives from Stephen Switzer's term for 'ornamental farm'. It describes a country estate laid out partly according to aesthetic principles and partly for farming. During the eighteenth century the original *ferme ornée* was Woburn Farm, made by Philip Southcote, who bought the property in 1734. William Shenstone's garden at The Leasowes was also a *ferme ornée*. Marie Antoinette made a later example at Versailles in the form of the Hameau de la Reine, created between 1783 and 1787, but it was much more for pleasure than for food production. The Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm was said to be the largest *ferme ornée* in 18th-century Europe. The most complete surviving example is said to be Larchill near Kilcock, Ireland.

Stephen Switzer, in *The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener's Recreation* (1715), describes the practice of the *ferme ornée* "By mixing the useful and profitable parts of Gard'ning with the Pleasurable in the Interior Parts of my Designs and Paddocks, obscure enclosures, etc. in the outward, My Designs are thereby vastly enlarg'd and both Profit and Pleasure may be agreeably mix'd together". His English readers would detect, in the juxtaposition of useful and pleasurable, the classical view of the twin aims of poetry, inherited from Horace, "to instruct and to delight".

## Cultural background and spirituality

The 'Ferme Ornée' gardens of the 18th century were an expression in landscape gardening of the Romantic movement. Emulating Arcadia, a pastoral paradise was created to reflect Man's harmony with the perfection of nature. A working farm, domestic animals and the natural landscape were ornamented by allusions to Arcadia: follies and grottoes, statuary and classical texts were combined with serpentine avenued walks, flowing water and lakes, areas of light and shade, special planting and inspirational framed views. Freed from the restrictions of the 17th century formal garden, the 'Ferme Ornée' was the first move towards the Brownian landscape parkland.

The functioning aspect of the ferme ornée was not easily kept from being sidelined by its picturesque aspects, as happened at Marie Antoinette's artificial "Hameau" at Versailles, where no commercial farming was carried on.

Annick Lodge Estate, built by Captain Montgomerie, the brother of the Earl of Eglinton, was described by John Stoddart in 1800 as "a complete specimen of the English Ferme Ornee." In the nearby Eglinton Estate, Ayrshire is also an example of the principles of Ferme Ornee: "Near to the gardens, in a remote corner, more than half encircled by the river, a remarkably handsome cottage has been reared, and furnished, under the direction of Lady Jean Montgomery (Countess of Eglinton), who has contrived to unite neatness and simplicity, with great taste, in the construction of this enchanting hut. That amiable lady, spends occasionally, some part of her leisure hours, about this delightful cottage: viewing the beauties, and contemplating the operations of nature, in the foliage of leaves, blowing of flowers, and maturation of fruits; with other rational entertainments, which her enlightened mind is capable of enjoying."

## Period examples of the *ferme ornée*

## Sources

1. From the feminine French noun *la ferme*, (Larousse French Dictionary) c.f. cottage orné
2. Historic England. "FARNBOROUGH HALL (1000110)". *National Heritage List for England*. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
3. "MADOCKS, William Alexander (1773-1828), of Tan-yr-allt, Caern. | History of Parliament Online". *www.historyofparliamentonline.org*. Archived from the original on 2022-01-17. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
4. Hayman, Richard (2014-06-01). "'All Impetuous Rage': The Cult of Waterfalls in Eighteenth-century Wales". *Landscapes*. **15** (1): 23–43. doi:10.1179/1466203513Z.00000000017. ISSN 1466-2035. S2CID 130820784. Archived from the original on 2022-08-28. Retrieved 2022-07-25.


title: Fermentation Fest

abstract: Fermentation Fest is a 10-day celebration of farming, food, and art in Reedsburg, and Sauk County, Wisconsin. It was established in 2010 based on a Smithsonian Institution travelling exhibit titled "Key Ingredients: America by Food" and includes classes, the Farm/Art DTour, which is a self-guided driving tour on 50 miles of Wisconsin backroads including signposts, art installations, market stands and live performances. Cheesemakers, beekeepers, composters, picklers, organic farmers, writers, and sculptors take part. There are hay bale sculptures. Venues involved include the historic Beastro & Barley, Wormfarm Institute, and Harvest Park in Reedsburg, which features Ruminant, the Grand Masticator. It is funded with National Endowment for the Arts and ArtPlace grant money, as well as funding from Sauk County's tourism department, and the State of Wisconsin's tourism department. which is touting the event throughout the Midwest. The event is run in conjunction with Sauk County's long-standing Fall Art Tour of art gallery exhibitions and the Mid-Continent Railway Museum's seven-mile Autumn Color Railroad Tour in the Baraboo Hills.

text:
# Fermentation Fest

**Fermentation Fest** is a 10-day celebration of farming, food, and art in Reedsburg, and Sauk County, Wisconsin. It was established in 2010 based on a Smithsonian Institution travelling exhibit titled "Key Ingredients: America by Food" and includes classes, the Farm/Art DTour, which is a self-guided driving tour on 50 miles of Wisconsin backroads including signposts, art installations, market stands and live performances. Cheesemakers, beekeepers, composters, picklers, organic farmers, writers, and sculptors take part. There are hay bale sculptures. Venues involved include the historic Beastro & Barley, Wormfarm Institute, and Harvest Park in Reedsburg, which features Ruminant, the Grand Masticator.

It is funded with National Endowment for the Arts and ArtPlace grant money, as well as funding from Sauk County's tourism department, and the State of Wisconsin's tourism department. which is touting the event throughout the Midwest. The event is run in conjunction with Sauk County's long-standing Fall Art Tour of art gallery exhibitions and the Mid-Continent Railway Museum's seven-mile Autumn Color Railroad Tour in the Baraboo Hills.

43°31′56″N 90°00′38″W / 43.53222°N 90.01056°W / 43.53222; -90.01056

## InfoBox

| Fermentation Fest | |
| --- | --- |
| Venue | Farms along county roads |
| Location(s) | Sauk County, Wisconsin |
| Established | 2010 |


title: Feza Gürsey Institute

abstract: Feza Gürsey Institute is a joint institute of Boğaziçi University and TÜBİTAK on physics research, founded in 1983 by Erdal İnönü with the name Research Institute for Basic Sciences. It continues as the Feza Gürsey Institute, renamed in honor of Feza Gürsey, a distinguished Turkish physicist. The institute is located within the Kandilli Campus of the Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey. Currently, it hosts researchers in mathematics and theoretical physics.

text:
# Feza Gürsey Institute

**Feza Gürsey Institute** (Turkish: *Feza Gürsey Enstitüsü*) is a joint institute of Boğaziçi University and TÜBİTAK (Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) on physics research, founded in 1983 by Erdal İnönü with the name *Research Institute for Basic Sciences*. It continues as the *Feza Gürsey Institute*, renamed in honor of Feza Gürsey, a distinguished Turkish physicist. The institute is located within the Kandilli Campus of the Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey. Currently, it hosts researchers in mathematics and theoretical physics.


title: Fightland (2022)

abstract: Fightland (2022) was a professional wrestling supercard event produced by Major League Wrestling (MLW). It took place on October 30, 2022, at the 2300 Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was the fourth event in the Fightland chronology, and served as a television taping for MLW Fusion. Other matches from the event aired as part of MLW's new flagship series, Underground Wrestling, which premiered on February 7, 2023.

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# Fightland (2022)

**Fightland (2022)** was a professional wrestling supercard event produced by Major League Wrestling (MLW). It took place on October 30, 2022, at the 2300 Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was the fourth event in the Fightland chronology, and served as a television taping for *MLW Fusion*. Other matches from the event aired as part of MLW's new flagship series, *Underground Wrestling*, which premiered on February 7, 2023.

## Production

### Background

On August 15, 2022, MLW announced that Fightland will take place on October 30 at the 2300 Arena in Philadelphia.

### Storylines

The show features several professional wrestling matches that result from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches.

Through MLW's "Open Door Policy", several free agents would appear at the event. This includes Willie Mack and former MLW World Middleweight Champion Lio Rush. On October 7, MLW announced the signing of Sam Adonis, who will make his MLW debut at Fightland. On October 11, it was announced that Davey Boy Smith Jr. would return to the company at the event. On October 18, Ring of Honor (ROH) veteran Delirious was announced for Fightland. On October 25, independent middleweight wrestler Alec Price was announced for Fightland.

At Battle Riot IV, Alexander Hammerstone retained the MLW World Heavyweight Championship against Richard Holliday in a falls count anywhere match. After the match, Hammerstone would be confronted by MLW World Tag Team Champion EJ Nduka, who was looking to get the next shot at the title. Hammerstone would accept, but would later be attacked by Nduka, who had turned heel for the first time since arriving in MLW. The attack ended when Nduka put Hammerstone through a table. Their rivalry continued at Super Series, where Nduka jumped Hammerstone after the latter's match against Bandido, and then Hammerstone returned that favor after Nduka's match. On October 6, MLW announced on their website that Hammerstone and Nduka will face off for the title in a last man standing match.

## Results

| No. | Results | Stipulations | Times |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Dr. Dax defeated Vinny Pacifico by pinfall | Singles match | 1:57 |
| 2 | Alex Kane (with Eel O'Neal and O'Shay Edwards) defeated The Marvelous Jafar by referee stoppage | Prize Fight Challenge | 1:26 |
| 3 | Mance Warner defeated nZo by pinfall | Singles match | 0:31 |
| 4 | Lince Dorado defeated Shun Skywalker (c) by pinfall | Singles match for the MLW World Middleweight Championship | 13:01 |
| 5 | The Samoan SWAT Team (Lance Anoa'i and Juicy Finau) (with Jacob Fatu) defeated The Full Blooded Italians (Little Guido and Ray Jaz) by pinfall | Tag team match | 2:41 |
| 6 | Taya Valkyrie (c) (with Cesar Duran) defeated Trish Adora by pinfall | Singles match for the MLW World Women's Featherweight Championship | 5:26 |
| 7 | Calvin Tankman defeated Willie Mack by pinfall | Singles match | 9:40 |
| 8 | Alexander Hammerstone (c) defeated EJ Nduka by pinfall | Last Man Standing match for the MLW World Heavyweight Championship | 11:26 |
| 9 | Sam Adonis (with Cesar Duran) defeated Johnny Patch by pinfall | Singles match | 2:16 |
| 10 | Davey Boy Smith Jr. and The Billington Bulldogs (Thomas and Mark Billington) defeated The Bomaye Fight Club (Alex Kane, Myron Reed, and Mr. Thomas) by pinfall | Six-man tag team match | 8:55 |
| 11 | nZo defeated Mance Warner by pinfall | Street Fight | 5:20 |
| 12 | Microman and Lince Dorado defeated Azteca Underground (Delirious and Mini Abismo Negro) (with Cesar Duran) by pinfall | Tag team match | 8:31 |
| 13 | Alec Price defeated TJ Crawford by pinfall | Singles match | 5:50 |
| 14 | Trish Adora defeated Gia Scott by pinfall | Singles match | 4:00 |
| 15 | Jacob Fatu defeated Lio Rush by pinfall | Singles match | 9:32 |
| (c)  – the champion(s) heading into the match | | | |

## InfoBox

| Fightland (2022) | |
| --- | --- |
| Promotional poster featuring various wrestlers | |
| Promotion | Major League Wrestling |
| Date | October 30, 2022 |
| City | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| Venue | 2300 Arena |
| Event chronology | |
| **Previous**
Super Series **Next**
Blood and Thunder | |
| Fightland chronology | |
| **Previous**
2021 **Next**
2023 | |


title: Filipinos in China

abstract: There are a significant number of Filipinos in China consisting of migrants and expatriates from the Philippines to the People's Republic of China.

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# Filipinos in China

There are a significant number of **Filipinos in China** consisting of migrants and expatriates from the Philippines to the People's Republic of China.

## Employment

Many domestic workers from the Philippines have been coming to China to work as maids. Figures from the Philippines government in 2009 shows that mainland China has become the top destination for Filipino maids seeking work overseas as Chinese families are willing to employ them for better household services and for their fluency in the English language.

## Distribution

Based on records from the Philippine Department of Foreign Affairs, there were about 12,254 overseas Filipinos in mainland China. Most of them live in cities such as Beijing (2,492), Chongqing (164), Guangzhou (4,564), Shanghai (4,264) and Xiamen (7,707).

## InfoBox

Filipinos in China
在华菲律宾人
Mga Pilipino sa Tsina
| Total population | |
| --- | --- |
| 12,254 | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Beijing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Xiamen, Macau | |
| Languages | |
| Spanish, Filipino, English, other languages of the Philippines, Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin) | |
| Religion | |
| Roman Catholicism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Overseas Filipinos, Filipinos in Hong Kong | |


title: Fiji Human Rights Commission

abstract: The Fiji Human Rights Commission (FHRC) was created by presidential decree in 2009, succeeding the entity of the same name established as an independent statutory body under the 1997 Constitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands.

text:
# Fiji Human Rights Commission

The **Fiji Human Rights Commission** (**FHRC**) was created by presidential decree in 2009, succeeding the entity of the same name established as an independent statutory body under the 1997 Constitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands.

## The 1997 Commission

The Constitution defined the Commission's purpose as to protect and promote human rights for the people of Fiji and to help build and strengthen a culture of human rights in Fiji.

The mandate of the Commission, set out in the Human Rights Commission Act 1999, was to educate the general public about human rights and to make recommendations to the government about matters affecting human rights. The Commission's complaints and legal divisions were empowered to receive complaints of alleged violations of human rights, investigate them, and seek to resolve the issues by conciliation or by referral to the Commission's legal division for court action. The Commission could refer complaints to the relevant ministry or department if the matter was not within the Commission's jurisdiction.

In 2007, the Fiji Human Rights Commission created controversy when its chairwoman Dr Shaista Shameem expressed support for the 2006 coup. Consequently, the FHRC was suspended from (and later resigned from) the regional network of human rights bodies, the Asia Pacific Forum, and from the International Co-ordinating Committee, the co-ordinating and accreditation body for national human rights institutions (NHRIs). A review by the ICC stated that the FHRC "lacked both credibility and independence". The interim Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama issued an assurance that his government was committed to upholding the law and protecting human rights as in the constitution.

The FHRC later commissioned an inquiry into the 2006 general election which had brought the subsequently deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase to power. The Commission of Inquiry delivered a report which "identifie\[d\] deficiencies and anomalies at every stage of the election process", maintaining that the democratic legitimacy of Prime Minister Qarase's deposed government had been questionable.

In October 2007, Shameen criticised United Nations Human Rights Commissioner Louise Arbour for allegedly "only hearing one side of the story regarding what was happening in Fiji" – that is, for criticising Commodore Bainimarama's interim government.

During the 2009 Fijian constitutional crisis, the Fiji Human Rights Commission supported the then President, Ratu Josefa Iloilo, stating that "the President had no choice but to abrogate the 1997 Constitution after the Fiji Court of Appeal ruled that the interim government was illegal." Shameen also stated that the Commission would act as if the Bill of Rights part of the Constitution was still legally in effect. The Commission was closed by police for one day but then allowed to reopen.

## The 2009 Commission

In May 2009, President Iliolo's Human Rights Commission Decree 2009 (No. 11) reconstituted the institution, considerably reducing its independence. The Decree stipulated that "the functions, powers and duties of the Commission do not extend to receiving complaints against, or investigating, questioning or challenging, the legality or validity of the Fiji Constitution Amendment Act 1997 Revocation Decree 2009, or such other Decrees made or as may be made by the President", thus prohibiting it from challenging any extant or future Decrees whether or not they were compatible with human rights. Any complaints or proceedings already under way on such matters were annulled.

The new Commission, according to the Decree, was to have a chair appointed by the President, and two other members appointed by him on the advice of the Prime Minister. Notwithstanding provisions in the UN Paris Principles as to the security in office of NHRI members, Decree No. 11 stated that any of the three members could be removed from office by the President for matters such as "misbehaviour", or by giving one month's notice. The government had unlimited powers to give the Commission "general policy guidance", and was responsible for the structure and management of the body.

The appointments envisaged by the Decree, which removed Shaista Shameen from office as Chairwoman (and as Ombudsman, an office to which she had also been appointed), have never been made (as of October 2011); thus the Commission has since existed merely as an office and a staff group, but without the members required to direct its operations. Although there have been numerous allegations of serious human rights abuses in Fiji after the Decree, the Commission has not brought any proceedings in relation to them.

1. Human Rights Commission Act 1999
2. "Fiji Human Rights Commission suspended from international body". *Radio New Zealand International*. April 2, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
3. Neilson, David (October 15, 2007). "David Neilson: What if Fiji ballot was less than 'free and fair'?". *The New Zealand Herald*. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
4. "Arbour upsets Shameem" Archived 2012-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, Amelia Vunileba, *Fiji Times*, October 17, 2007
5. No other way for the President Archived 2012-04-04 at the Wayback Machine, *Fiji Times*, April 11, 2009
6. Fiji Police guard empty offices Archived 2012-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Fiji Live, April 15, 2009
7. *Republic of Fiji Islands Government Gazette*, vol. 10, no. 22, 22 May 2009.
8. *Sri Lanka Guardian*, "Sri Lanka and Fiji: Ghost Human Rights Commissions", 20 September 2011.


title: Fiji Indian organisations

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# Fiji Indian organisations

This is a synopsis of organisations formed by Indians in Fiji. When they became free from the bondage of indenture and were able to organise themselves, they founded numerous organizations to seek social and political justice. These organisations promoted the teaching of Indian languages and religious practices and also to help others in time of need. Some of the successful organisations are listed below in the order in which they were established. Some, such as the National Federation Party, are no longer exclusively Indian, but are still predominantly so.

## British Indian Association (1911)

The **British Indian Association** was established in 1911, following a severe hurricane that had brought much hardship to the Fiji Indians in the Central Division. It was formed by a group that included J.P. Maharaj (a Suva Storekeeper), Totaram Sanadhya (a pundit and social worker from Rewa), Ram Singh (a Suva printer) and Ram Rup. The meeting was chaired by Shriyut Rupram and discussed grievances such as the lack of educated leadership amongst the Fiji Indians and the dependence on European lawyers. Totaram Sanadhya was responsible for its Hindi language correspondence.

## Indian Imperial Association (1918)

The **Indian Imperial Association** (I.I.A.) came into existence in Fiji on 2 June 1918 to further the well-being of the Indian settlers in Fiji. Manilal Doctor became its first President and Ram Singh its Secretary. The association contained mainly educated Fiji Indians. It sent petitions to the Government seeking review of marriage law, an end to the death penalty and representation into the Legislative Council. The aim of the association was to ‘watch the interests of and to assist in the general improvement of the Indian community in Fiji’. As president of the I.I.A., Manilal Doctor wrote to Gandhi, other Indian leaders and the British Labour Party on the sad plight of Indian indentured labourers in Fiji. Following, the strike of 1920, the I.I.A. organised petitions in different languages, asking for Manilal to be allowed to stay in Fiji but after he was deported from Fiji in 1920, the I.I.A. collapsed.

## Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji (1918)

The **Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji** (Arya Representative Society), the national body for all the Arya Samajs in Fiji, was formed in 1918, although Arya Samaj had existed in Fiji since 1904. Its first President was Swami Manoharanand Saraswati. The Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji is affiliated to Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha (World Council of Arya Samaj) based in New Delhi. Immediately after its formation the Sabha went about establishing schools in Fiji, with the first one, Gurukul Primary School, established in 1918 in Saweni, Lautoka. The *Sabha* owns and manages 14 pre-schools, 18 primary schools, 7 secondary schools, a commercial school, a religious training centre, a youth development centre and has provided the facilities and resources for the establishment of the University of Fiji.

## Indian Cane Growers Association (1919)

The **Indian Cane Growers Association** was formed on 28 September 1919 and was based in Ba district, one of the cane growing districts in the Western Division of Fiji. It was led by a former overseer of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company and included some well-to-do Indian cane farmers from Ba. The Association proposed a scheme for co-operative stores and an agricultural bank financed by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company but the company refused to finance it. The Association asked for a higher price and Indian cane farmers refused to plant any more cane. The company made concessions, although it refused to guarantee the price increases for future years and refused to continue the bonus in 1921.

## Indian Association of Fiji (1920)

The **Indian Association of Fiji** was formed in 1920 by N. B. Mitter, who was the headmaster of a school in Nadi. The Association organised labourers from the Western Division, which included Ba, Nadi, Lautoka and Nadroga. In the early 1920s Ram Singh tried to revive the defunct Indian Imperial Association as the Indian Association of Fiji but having representatives from all sections of the Indian community. It made representations to the Secretary of State for the Colonies about residential tax and other issues, but the Government regarded it as representing only the urban educated Indians and refused to recognise it. On 9 December 1934, The Indian Association was reformed, this time as a successor to the Fiji Indian National Congress. Its president was A. D. Patel and Vishnu Deo was its secretary. The Association made representations to England and India opposing the proposal for a purely nominated system of choosing members to the Legislative Council. In 1935, the Association protested to restrictions to Indian immigration to Fiji.

## Indian Reform League (1924)

The **Indian Reform League** was formed in Fiji in 1924, following the refusal of the Suva Y.M.C.A. to admit Indians. Its founder was A.W. McMillan of the New Zealand Y.M.C.A and educated Indians and Government clerks and interpreters. Its aim was to carry out social work and apply pressure for social reform, like changes to marriage laws. Since most of its members were Indian Christians, it soon acquired a sectional character. It provided volunteer nurses during the typhoid epidemic of 1925. It had a women's wing known as the *Stri Sewa Sabha* (Women's Service League), founded in 1934, which carried out social work amongst Fiji Indian women. The League encouraged participation in sports, including in cricket, football, hockey and lawn tennis. The League was instrumental in the formation of the Suva Football Association, which was one of the original Associations that formed the Fiji Indian Football Association.

## Then India Sanmarga Ikya Sangam (1926)

The ***Then India Sanmarga Ikya Sangam*** (TISI Sangam) was founded in Fiji by Sadhu Kuppuswami, an ex-indentured labourer, who inspired South Indians to form an organisation to promote their language and culture. On 10 January 1926, while celebrating the birth of Swami Vivekananda in Rakiraki, attended by people of all districts, the idea of forming the South Indian organisation was proposed. On 24 May 1926, at a meeting in Nadi, the Then India Sanmargya Ikya Sangam (TISI Sangam) was formed with Sadhu Swami. Sadhu Kuppuswami was elected the first President of Sangam and he remained its president for his lifetime. On 26 December 1927, the Madras Maha Sangam, was formed in Suva by Verrappa Muthiah Pillai in Suva and branches were soon established in Levuka and Labasa. In 1937 the Madras Maha Sangam merged with the TISI Sangam. The arrival of Swami Avinashananda and Swami Rudrananda from the Ramakrishna Mission of India provided impetus to the Sangam which proceeded to promote South Indian language and culture.

## Fiji Muslim League (1926)

The **Fiji Muslim League** is a Muslim religious and social organisation based in Suva, Fiji. The League was formed on 31 October 1926, at a meeting at the Jame Masjid in Toorak, although a number of Muslim organisations had existed in Fiji since 1908. The League has made valuable contribution in the field of education in Fiji. The first school, Islamic Girls School, was already in existence in 1926. Today, the League owns and manages seventeen primary and five secondary schools plus a tertiary institution. Besides education, the League from its outset has attempted to assist in satisfying all the social needs of Muslims. Currently its involvement in social welfare is both at national and branch levels. In times of natural disasters or turmoil the League directly helps Muslims whose homes and lives are disrupted. Its charity keeps many Muslim families clothed, fed and housed, and helps them send their children to school. Since 1929 the Fiji Muslim League has sought to obtain separate representation for Muslims, in the Legislative Council till 1970, and in Parliament (both the House of Representatives and the Senate) since 1970.

## Hindu Maha Sabha (1926)

**Hindu Maha Sabha** was an organisation representing various Hindu organisations and was formed in Fiji in late 1926, following the formation of All-India Hindu Maha Sabha in India. Although the organisation was formed to unite all the Hindu groups, its leadership soon came under the control of the better organised Arya Samajis. When Shri Krishna Sharma arrived in Fiji in 1927, he assumed leadership of the Sabha. The Hindu Maha Sabha (and the Fiji Muslim League) contested with the Indian Reform League (mainly supported by Indian Christians) for the right to represent Indians. The Sabha was organised at village level into *sangathans* (religious unions) and was led in the Suva-Nausori area by Vishnu Deo, K. B. Singh, Kundan Singh Kush and the western districts of Viti Levu by Chattur Singh and Sahodar Singh. Conflict with Muslims and orthodox Hindus led to court action and a conviction in the early 1930s and the Sabha ceased to represent all the Hindu organisations in Fiji.

## Fiji Indian National Congress (1929)

The **Fiji Indian National Congress** started as two different organisations, one formed by Vishnu Deo in Lautoka on 12 October 1929 and another formed by Dr Hamilton Beattie in Suva on 14 October 1929. As both organisations had the same aim, S. B. Patel was able to persuade them to amalgamate on 7 November 1929 to form a single organisation. The aim of the Congress was to improve the status of the Fiji Indians by uniting the Indians and demanding common franchise. Vishnu Deo tried to model the Congress on the Indian National Congress, but it failed when non-Hindu members left following disagreement over the distribution of relief funds following floods in 1930.

## Fiji Teachers Union (1929)

**Fiji Teachers Union** is a union representing school teachers in Fiji. It had its beginning when on 7 December 1929, an organisation known as the Teachers' Association of Fiji was formed in Lautoka, with Pandit Ami Chandra as president and W. K. Phillip as Secretary. The aim of this Association was to improve the standard of education in Fiji schools, to raise the status and to improve and safeguard the conditions of employment of its members and to work for the betterment of the community as a whole. Its membership was open to all teachers whether from Fiji or overseas, whose certification was approved by the Department of Education of Fiji. Later this Association became the Fiji Teachers Union. Although it is a multi-racial organisation, the overwhelming majority of its members are of Indian origin.

## Fiji Bharatiya Mazdur Sangh (1930)

The ***Fiji Bharatiya Mazdur Sangh*** (Fiji Indian labour Union) was a short-lived union formed in June 1930 by Vishnu Deo and K. B. Singh for the benefit of the newly arrived Punjabi immigrants who were finding it hard to find employment in Fiji.

## Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat-i-Islam (1933)

**Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat-i-Islam** was formed in 1933 by some educated Muslims in Fiji who had earlier led the Fiji Muslim League but lost control of the League they offended the majority of Muslims in Fiji, who are Sunnis, by bringing Ahmadiyya missionaries from India. Some prominent Fiji Muslim who were Ahmadiyyas were Mohammed Towahir Khan and Mohammed Sahu Khan of Lautoka, and X.K.N. Dean of Suva.

## Kisan Sangh (1937)

***Kisan Sangh*** (Farmers Union) was the first successful farmers' union formed in Fiji on 27 November 1937 by Ayodhya Prasad. After initially opposing its formation, the Government and the sole sugar milling company in Fiji, Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR), were forced to recognise the Sangh as it gained support from most of the farmers and in 1941 won major gains for sugar cane farmers. This early success was not to be repeated with the formation of rival unions and the use of unions as power base for political aspirants. It gradually lost support and at present has an insignificant influence on Fiji's sugar industry.

## Fiji Indian Football Association (1938)

The **Fiji Indian Football Association** was formed under the leadership of Arthur Stanley Farebrother, a Suva businessman, as teams from Suva, Rewa, Ba, Levuka and Lautoka gathered in Suva for an inter-district tournament on 8 October 1938. The first inter-district football tournament was played for the Lloyd - Farebother trophy donated by Lloyd and Company and A.S. Farebrother and Company. The following year Nadi, Nadroga and Rakiraki also joined the Association. In 1943 Navua and Tailevu/Naitasiri joined the Association and Taveuni joined in 1947. In 1958, when the association celebrated its 21st inter-district tournament, 14 districts took part.

## Dakshina India Andhra Sangam (1941)

The ***Dakshina India Andhra Sangam*** of Fiji was formed on 20 April 1941, under the leadership of Alipati Tataiya and Veeranna, at the Gallau Temple in Ra. The aim of the new *Sangam* was to promote Telugu language and culture. Initially Telugus in Fiji were members of the TISI Sangam, but its domination by the more numerous Tamils led to the formation of the A*ndhra Sangam*.

## Maha Sangh (1941)

***Akhil Fiji Krishak Maha Sangh*** (All Fiji Farmers’ Grand Union) was a sugar cane farmers' union formed on 15 June 1941 in opposition to the existing union, the Kisan Sangh. The people responsible for the formation of a second sugar cane farmers' union in Fiji were A. D. Patel and Swami Rudrananda. The union was supported mainly by the South Indian sugar cane farmers in Fiji. The Maha Sangh provided the support base for the launch of the political career of A. D. Patel. The Sangh was one of the unions that joined the umbrella organisation, the Federation of Cane Growers to negotiate the 1960 sugar cane contract with the CSR and remained within this organisation as it grew to be a fully fledged union. The original members of the Sangh remained the main support base for the Federation of Cane Growers and its successor, the Fiji Cane Growers Association.

## Maunatul Islam Association of Fiji (1942)

**Maunatul Islam Association of Fiji** (MIAF) represents approximately 30% of the Sunni Muslims in Fiji who are mostly followers of Imam Shafi. The followers of Imam Shafi in Fiji are the descendants of Muslims of Malayalam origin who came to Fiji under the indenture system from Kerala in South India between 1903 and 1916. The other Sunni Muslim organisation in Fiji, the Fiji Muslim League, represents all other Sunni Muslims in Fiji who are mostly followers of Imam Hanafi. The organisation originally operated under the name of Then India Maunatul Islam Association of Fiji since it was officially formed in 1942. One of the most prominent past President and Speaker of the Association was the late Hon S.M. Koya.

## Rewa Planters Union (1943)

The **Rewa Planters Union** was formed on 14 July 1943 at a meeting attended by 1500 cane farmers from Rewa Province, Fiji. The union was formed in reaction to the strike of cane farmers taking place in the Western Division. The Government had appointed a commission to inquire into the farmers' grievances and the Rewa farmers wanted to send a representative to it. The Rewa Planters Union took an active role in the negotiations for the 1950 cane contract. With the closure of the Nausori sugar mill in 1959, the union ceased to exist.

## Southern Division Kisan Sangh (1946)

The **Southern Division Kisan Sangh** was formed in 1946 by a former member of parliament, K. B. Singh, due to personal differences with the president of the Rewa Planters Union. There was widespread opposition to this until Vishnu Deo took over its leadership. The Southern Division Kisan Sangh took an active role in the negotiations for the 1950 cane contract. With the closure of the Nausori sugar mill in 1959, the union ceased to exist.

## Vishal Sangh (1946)

***Vishal Sangh*** (Great Union) was a cane farmers union established in Fiji on 1 September 1946, by mainly Sikh farmers, who refused to re-join the Kisan Sangh after its reunification following the split of the Kisan Sangh into two factions in 1943. It was led by Mehar Singh, one of the founding members of the Kisan Sangh and its former vice-president. The Vishal Sangh played an active role in negotiations for cane contracts in 1950 and 1960 but always aligned itself with A. D. Patel and the Maha Sangh.

## Labasa Kisan Sangh (1950)

The ***Labasa Kisan Sangh*** (Labasa Farmers Union) was formed in 1950 as negotiations began for the new cane contract and was based on the island of Vanua Levu in Fiji. It was sponsored by the Kisan Sangh and Ayodhya Prasad based in the western districts of Viti Levu and was in competition of the Maha Sangh, which had also spread its activities to Vanua Levu. Due to its distance from the main island and communication problems, this union remained autonomous from the main body in Viti Levu and provided the political power base for Vijay R. Singh.

## Federation of Cane Growers (1959)

The **Federation of Cane Growers** was formed as an umbrella organisation to negotiate the new cane contract due to take effect from 1960 with the Colonial Sugar Refining Company. Talks on the new contract started on 5 January 1960. The farmers’ representatives were from the Maha Sangh, the Vishal Sangh, the Labasa Kisan Sangh, and the Kisan Sangh. The united front did not last as the two Kisan Sanghs accepted the contract offered by the company while the Maha Sangh and Vishal Sangh opposed it and called their members out on strike.

## Ahmadiyya Muslim Community (1960)

The **Ahmadiyya Muslim Community,** although not an Indian only organisation, it does however originate from India and many of the members in Fiji are of an Indian descent. The community also runs a school in Fiji, the Ahmadiyya Muslim school and holds the distinction of managing the largest mosque in the South Pacific, the Fazle Omar Mosque.

## Citizens Federation (1963)

The Federation of Cane Growers Committee contested the 1963 Legislative Council election under the banner of **Citizens Federation**. It was not a properly constituted political party but sought to promote economic, cultural and political progress and stability in a united Fiji. All three Citizen's Federation candidates were elected to the Legislative Council. In the Western Constituency, A.D. Patel defeated the president of the Kisan Sangh by 6244 votes to 3346, in the North Viti Levu Constituency, Sidiq Koya defeated James Shankar Singh by 3,998 votes to 3,480 and in the Northern Constituency James Madhavan defeated won by 2,753 votes to 2,175. There was no Citizens Federation candidate in the Southern Constituency, won by Andrew Deoki. All the three candidates opposing the Citizens Federation candidates were supporters of the Kisan Sangh

## Federation Party (1964)

The success of the Citizens Federation in the 1963 elections, and the impending constitutional convention, prompted A. D. Patel to transform the Citizens Federation into a fully fledged political party. The Federation Party came into existence on 21 June 1964, with A.D. Patel as president and S.M. Koya as vice-president. In 1968 it merged with the National Democratic Party to form the National Federation Party, which is still a player on the Fijian political scene.

## National Congress of Fiji (1965)

The **National Congress of Fiji** was formed on 10 January 1965 in Lautoka, Fiji by Ayodhya Prasad, the Secretary of the Kisan Sangh. The Congress sent a telegram to the Secretary General of the United Nations stating that 80,000 Fiji Indians wanted to settle in a foreign country. The telegram had the desired result, as under pressure from the United Nations the Colonial Secretary called a Constitutional Conference for 26 July 1965. Ayodhya The Congress was bitterly opposed to A. D. Patel and the Federation Party. In October 1965, Ayodhya Prasad met Ratu Kamisese Mara and suggested the establishment of a new political party made up of the Fijian Association and National Congress of Fiji. In the 1966 elections, two members of the Congress contested the election for the Alliance Party and lost. With Vijay R. Singh supporting direct membership of the Alliance, relations between him and Prasad worsened and the National Congress was wound up in 1967.


title: Fernando Coronil

abstract: Fernando Coronil was a Venezuelan anthropologist and historian best known for his study of the politics of oil in Venezuela.

text:
# Fernando Coronil

**Fernando Coronil** (November 30, 1944 Caracas – August 16, 2011, New York City) was a Venezuelan anthropologist and historian best known for his study of the politics of oil in Venezuela.

## Biography

Fernando Coronil was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on November 30, 1944, to public health professionals Lya Imber de Coronil (1914–1981) and Fernando Rubén Coronil (1911-2004). His mother was of Russian Jewish descent, and was the first woman to graduate from medical school in Venezuela. During her medical career, she served as the director of Caracas's *Hospital de Niños*. Coronil’s father, a Venezuelan man of Andalusian descent, occupied an influential position as an experimental surgeon at the *Hospital Vargas de Caracas*.

From 1958 to 1962, Coronil attended the public high school Liceo Andrés Bello. During this time, Coronil was elected president of the Liceo Andrés Bello student association. In this position, Coronil took an active role in politics, which at one point led him to distribute material criticizing the policies of then-president Rómulo Betancourt. This political activity attracted the attention of local law enforcement. The local authorities’ interest in Coronil’s political activity contributed to his parents’ later decision that his university education should take place abroad.

In 1963, Following his early engagement with Venezuelan politics, Coronil traveled to the United States, where he attended Stanford University as an undergraduate student. He initially pursued a pre-medical course of study, but eventually decided to adopt a liberal arts education instead. At Stanford, Coronil met his future wife and frequent coauthor Julie Skurski.

Coronil graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Stanford in early 1967, with a Bachelor of Arts in history and social thought. After graduating from Stanford, Coronil spent a year at Cornell University before leaving in 1968 to pursue a Ph.D. in anthropology at the University of Chicago. At the University of Chicago, he studied alongside Julie Skurski, Victor Turner, Terrence Turner, Bernard Cohn, and John Coatsworth.

As a part of their Ph.D. fieldwork, Skurski and Coronil had originally planned to conduct research in Cuba. However, Coronil was unable to secure permission from the Cuban government to conduct research in the country. Upon his return to the United States, Coronil was detained by the Immigration and Naturalization Service and subsequently expelled from the country "as a subversive agent, although no specific charges were ever disclosed". As a result, Coronil returned to Venezuela, where he taught at the Universidad Católica Andrés Bello and focused on writing a dissertation on Venezuela. The Immigration and Naturalization Service later lifted the unstated charges against Coronil, at which point he returned to the United States. He ultimately earned a Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Chicago in 1987.

In 1988, Coronil became a member of the society of fellows at the University of Michigan, after which the university hired him into a position as a professor of anthropology and history in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts. At the University of Michigan, Coronil was actively involved in the department of History, the department of Anthropology, the Program in the Comparative Study of Social Transformations, the Interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in Anthropology and History, and the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Program.

Coronil retired from his active position at the University of Michigan on December 31, 2008. Starting February 1, 2009, he took on a position as a Professor of Anthropology for the City University of New York.

On August 16, 2011, Fernando Coronil died of lung cancer at Sloan Kettering Memorial Hospital in New York City. He was 66 years old.

## Influences

Coronil’s academic work is influenced by leftist postcolonial and anti-imperial literature, poetics, state theory, and Marxist geography. His work draws heavily on Antonio Gramsci’s concept of the subaltern, and contributes to the related field of subaltern studies. In addition, Coronil’s concepts of occidentalism and globalcentrism draw significant inspiration from Edward Said’s *Orientalism*.

## Major works

Coronil's doctoral dissertation, completed in 1987, was entitled *The Black El Dorado: Money Fetishism, Democracy, and Capitalism in Venezuela*. Like Coronil's later work, the dissertation dealt with the Venezuelan oil economy and its relationship with both state and global politics.

In 1997, Coronil published his best known work, *The Magical State,* in which he explores the relationship between the Venezuelan state and the country's petroleum-reliant economy. *The Magical State* also discusses how the Venezuelan state is transformed not only by oil, but by the relationship between the state, society, and nature. Coronil's work in *The Magical State* has influenced academics such as Andrew Apter and Suzana Sawyer, whose own work also mapped the role of oil wealth in influencing cultural practices among nation states.

In 2000, Coronil published an essay entitled *Beyond Occidentalism*, which refers to the writing of post-colonial Marxist scholar and psychiatrist Frantz Fanon to introduce a geohistorical critique of Western self-conception, as part of a larger deconstruction of the poetics behind imperial geographic ideas. In the same year, Coronil also published *Towards a Critique of Globalcentrism*, an article that draws on concepts introduced in *Beyond Occidentalism* to critique the role of discourse surrounding globalization in perpetuating certain imperial modes of thought. Together, these articles contribute to an argument “for the recognition of the neoliberal global order as an imperial formation,” and contribute to Coronil’s view of capitalist globalization discourse as a mode of West-privileging occidentalist thought.

Coronil also co-edited a volume entitled *States of Violence* in 2006.

At the time of his death, Coronil was working on a book entitled *Crude Matters*, regarding the former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez and the attempted 2002 coup against his administration.


title: Ferney-Voltaire

abstract: Ferney-Voltaire is a commune in the Ain department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of eastern France. It lies between the Jura Mountains and the Swiss border; it forms part of the metropolitan area of Geneva. It is named for Voltaire, who lived there from 1758.

text:
# Ferney-Voltaire

**Ferney-Voltaire** (French pronunciation: \[fɛʁ'nɛ vɔl'tɛʁ\]) is a commune in the Ain department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of eastern France. It lies between the Jura Mountains and the Swiss border; it forms part of the metropolitan area of Geneva. It is named for Voltaire, who lived there from 1758.

## History

Ferney was first noted in 14th-century Burgundian registers as "Fernex" and changed several times until the 19th century to Fernay, Fernaj, Fernai or Fernex before adopting its current name as 'Ferney-Voltaire' in 1791, after the French Revolution which saw a number of city names unchristened and then given more republican names.

During Voltaire's residence in Ferney in the second part of the 18th century, the town saw rapid expansion. Today Ferney is a peaceful town with a Saturday market and a large international community, due to the proximity of CERN and the United Nations Office at Geneva. Ferney is growing very quickly. It is also home to the *Lycée International*. Voltaire still presides over Ferney with his statue in the centre of town.

## Voltaire

From 1758 to 1778 Ferney was home to French writer and philosopher Voltaire, sometimes referred to as "the patriarch of Ferney." His influence on the town was profound. He built the local church and founded cottage industries that produced some of the finest potters and watchmakers of modern France. The town was eventually renamed "Ferney-Voltaire" in his honour.

In 1758, after having lived in Geneva for less than two years, Voltaire purchased the estate of Ferney in France, near the Swiss border. A prime reason for his leaving Geneva was that theatre was forbidden in that Calvinist city, so he had decided to become the enlightened "patriarch" of the little village of Ferney, setting up potteries, a watchmaking industry and, of course, theatres, attracting rich people from Geneva to watch his plays.

During Voltaire's residence, the population of Ferney increased to more than 1,000. Voltaire lived there for the last 20 years of his life before returning to Paris, where he died in 1778.

## Population

Historical population
| Year Pop. ±% p.a.  1793  856       1800  884 +0.46%  1806  944 +1.10%  1821  686 −2.11%  1831  935 +3.15%  1836  1,194 +5.01%  1841  1,214 +0.33%  1846  1,238 +0.39%  1851  1,173 −1.07%  1856  1,138 −0.60%  1861  1,166 +0.49%  1866  1,288 +2.01%  1872  1,232 −0.74%  1876  1,403 +3.30%  1881  1,274 −1.91%  1886  1,222 −0.83%  1891  1,200 −0.36%  1896  1,232 +0.53% | Year Pop. ±% p.a.  1901  1,269 +0.59%  1906  1,169 −1.63%  1911  1,172 +0.05%  1921  1,102 −0.61%  1926  1,209 +1.87%  1931  1,232 +0.38%  1936  1,224 −0.13%  1946  991 −2.09%  1954  1,275 +3.20%  1962  1,805 +4.44%  1968  2,984 +8.74%  1975  5,642 +9.53%  1982  6,399 +1.81%  1990  6,408 +0.02%  1999  7,083 +1.12%  2007  7,741 +1.12%  2012  8,844 +2.70%  2017  9,766 +2.00% |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968–2017) | |

## Schools

The community has two public preschools/primary schools: École Jean-Calas and École Florian. A nearby intercommunal school, École Intercommunale Jean de la Fontaine in Prévessin-Moëns, also serves the community. As of 2018 the three schools had a combined total of 952 students, with Jean-Calas, Florian, and Jean de la Fontaine respectively having 278, 307, and 367 students. Around 1940 a primary school, the École de Ferney-Voltaire, was established. About 1970 it was renamed *École Florian*, after the French poet and fabulist Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian, whose uncle and guardian, the Marquis de Florian, had married a niece of Voltaire, Madame Dompierre de Fontaine. The school is notable for having had a large number of pupils who were children of physicists at CERN, which is located in the vicinity. Ferney-Voltaire also has a private preschool/primary school, École Saint-Vincent.

Collège Le Joran (junior high school), in Prévessin-Moëns, serves Ferney-Voltaire. Lycée international de Ferney-Voltaire, including a junior high school/middle school (*collège*) and a senior high school/sixth form college (*lycée*) was created in 1961 in Ferney-Voltaire. As of 2016, the Lycée includes a branch campus in Saint-Genis-Pouilly.

## Sights

Ferney's main attraction is Voltaire's house (*château*), built 1758–66, now owned and administered by the *Centre des monuments nationaux* (an arm of the French Ministry of Culture). The chateau includes the main building, with a reconstruction of Voltaire's room (moved from its original location by later private owners), a garden with a fine view of the Alps, and a church dedicated, contrary to custom, directly to God. In the church's inscription, "*Deo erexit VOLTAIRE*" ("Erected to God by VOLTAIRE"), Voltaire's name is written in the largest characters.

A few dozen metres from the chateau is another impressive house, built in 1900 by *Monsieur* Lambert (the sculptor of the statue of Voltaire; his family owned the chateau before it was purchased by the French government). The house, now privately owned, had been used to store provisions and wine for the chateau, and to accommodate the household staff.

The village features 18th-century houses and artisans' workshops; a life-size statue of Voltaire; a smaller bust of him, surmounting a fountain; many restaurants, French and foreign; and proximity to the nearby cosmopolitan city of Geneva, Switzerland.

Every Saturday, a market is held in the main street of Ferney.

The old road at the centre of the village is a remnant of the time when Voltaire resided at the chateau in Ferney-Voltaire.

The pedestal of the Voltaire statue, erected in 1890, dedicates that memorial to the town's "benefactor", noting that he built over a hundred houses for the inhabitants, as well as a school and church, gave the town interest-free loans, and fed its inhabitants in time of need.

On 31 May 2018, Président Emmanuel Macron officially visited the Château for the re-opening after renovation.

## Personalities

## InfoBox

| Ferney-Voltaire | |
| --- | --- |
| Commune | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Ferney-Voltaire | |
| Ferney-VoltaireFerney-Voltaire | |
| Coordinates: 46°15′21″N 6°06′29″E / 46.2558°N 6.1081°E / 46.2558; 6.1081 | |
| Country | France |
| Region | Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes |
| Department | Ain |
| Arrondissement | Gex |
| Canton | Saint-Genis-Pouilly |
| Intercommunality | CA Pays de Gex |
| Government | |
| Mayor (20202026) | Daniel Raphoz |
| Area**1** | 4.78 km2 (1.85 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | 10,920 |
| Density | 2,300/km2 (5,900/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| INSEE/Postal code | 01160 /01210 |
| Elevation | 409–446 m (1,342–1,463 ft)
(avg. 423 m or 1,388 ft) |
| **1** French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers \> 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |


title: Fernheim Colony

abstract: The Fernheim Colony is a Plautdietsch-speaking settlement of Mennonites originally from Russia of about 5000 in the Chaco of Paraguay. Mennonites from the Soviet Union founded it between 1930 and 1932. Filadelfia is the administrative center of the colony, seat of Boquerón department and is considered the 'Capital of the Chaco'. In the late 1920s, some Mennonite refugees tried to escape persecution of "Kulaks" in Stalinist Russia, which meant the total destruction of the Mennonite religious and cultural life. They left their home villages and gathered in Moscow. For humanitarian reasons they were admitted into Germany, because of their German ethnicity that they had adopted during their 200- to 250-year stay in German-speaking lands, even though most of their ancestors came from Flanders and Frisia. Because there was no place in Germany where they could settle together as a community, they moved to Paraguay a year later. There already was a large settlement of Mennonites with the same Russian Mennonite background in Paraguay: Menno Colony. This first Mennonite settlement in the Chaco was founded by conservative Chortitza, Sommerfeld and Bergthal Mennonites from Canada in the 1920s. The Mennonite refugees from the Soviet Union settled nearby, founding Fernheim Colony. The journey to Paraguay was extremely difficult. Their destination, set aside by Paraguayan government decree, was completely undeveloped. Travel was exhausting: a steamboat was taken up the Paraguay River to Puerto Casado, from where a narrow gauge railway went 150 kilometres (93 mi) west into the Chaco bush. From there it was a few more long days of travel by oxcart to their settlement area. It was not until 1956 that the construction of the trans-Chaco highway connecting Asunción to Filadelfia was started. The economic base of Fernheim is agriculture and processing of agricultural products. The most important products are cotton, peanuts, beef, milk and dairy products. Fernheim is the second Mennonite colony in Paraguay, after Menno Colony.

text:
# Fernheim Colony

The **Fernheim Colony** is a Plautdietsch-speaking settlement of Mennonites originally from Russia of about 5000 in the Chaco of Paraguay. Mennonites from the Soviet Union founded it between 1930 and 1932. Filadelfia is the administrative center of the colony, seat of Boquerón department and is considered the 'Capital of the Chaco'.

In the late 1920s, some Mennonite refugees tried to escape persecution of "Kulaks" in Stalinist Russia, which meant the total destruction of the Mennonite religious and cultural life. They left their home villages and gathered in Moscow. For humanitarian reasons they were admitted into Germany, because of their German ethnicity that they had adopted during their 200- to 250-year stay in German-speaking lands, even though most of their ancestors came from Flanders and Frisia. Because there was no place in Germany where they could settle together as a community, they moved to Paraguay a year later. There already was a large settlement of Mennonites with the same Russian Mennonite background in Paraguay: Menno Colony. This first Mennonite settlement in the Chaco was founded by conservative Chortitza, Sommerfeld and Bergthal Mennonites from Canada in the 1920s. The Mennonite refugees from the Soviet Union settled nearby, founding Fernheim Colony.

The journey to Paraguay was extremely difficult. Their destination, set aside by Paraguayan government decree, was completely undeveloped. Travel was exhausting: a steamboat was taken up the Paraguay River to Puerto Casado, from where a narrow gauge railway went 150 kilometres (93 mi) west into the Chaco bush. From there it was a few more long days of travel by oxcart to their settlement area. It was not until 1956 that the construction of the trans-Chaco highway connecting Asunción to Filadelfia was started.

The economic base of Fernheim is agriculture and processing of agricultural products. The most important products are cotton, peanuts, beef, milk and dairy products.

Fernheim is the second Mennonite colony in Paraguay, after Menno Colony.

## Further reading

* Heinrich Duerksen (Hrsg.): *50 Jahre Kolonie Fernheim. Ein Beitrag in der Entwicklung Paraguays*, Filadelfia, Kolonie Fernheim, 1980
* Kai Rohkohl: *Die plautdietsche Sprachinsel Fernheim, Chaco (Paraguay)*, Elwert, Marburg, 1993, ISBN 3-7708-1020-1

22°20′24″S 60°01′48″W / 22.34000°S 60.03000°W / -22.34000; -60.03000


title: Filter Bunker Raigmore Inverness

abstract: The Filter Bunker Raigmore Inverness is the one remaining of a group of three subterranean bunkers situated around Raigmore in Inverness, Scotland. All three bunkers were constructed around 1940 for use by the Royal Air Force to process RADAR signals from Chain Home masts. The three bunkers in the cluster were Operations, Filter and Command. It is a B listed building because of its historic interest.

text:
# Filter Bunker Raigmore Inverness

The **Filter Bunker Raigmore Inverness** is the one remaining of a group of three subterranean bunkers situated around Raigmore in Inverness, Scotland. All three bunkers were constructed around 1940 for use by the Royal Air Force to process RADAR signals from Chain Home masts. The three bunkers in the cluster were Operations, Filter and Command. It is a B listed building because of its historic interest.

## History

Historically these bunkers were important in the processing of the Chain Home RADAR signals.

The filter bunker was used by the Civil Defence Corps from 1958 and by the Royal Observer Corps from 1968; it was acquired by Highland Council for use as their emergency centre in 1988.

In 2016 the filter room bunker was put up for sale by the Highland Council. In 2019 it moved into private hands and is now owned by CSP Partnership. Change of use planning permission has been granted to allow part of the building to be developed as a private museum.

57°28′53″N 4°11′57″W / 57.4813°N 4.1991°W / 57.4813; -4.1991


title: Final Battle (2017)

abstract: Final Battle (2017) was the 16th Final Battle professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by Ring of Honor (ROH). It took place on December 15, 2017, at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City, New York.

text:
# Final Battle (2017)

**Final Battle (2017)** was the 16th Final Battle professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by Ring of Honor (ROH). It took place on December 15, 2017, at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City, New York.

## Storylines

Final Battle 2017 features professional wrestling matches, which involve different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds, plots, and storylines. Wrestlers portray villains or heroes as they follow a series of events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches.

At War of the Worlds UK: Liverpool, ROH World Champion Cody defeated Sanada. After the match, he proclaimed that he had beaten everyone, but Dalton Castle interrupted. Cody avoided a confrontation and attacked Castle the next night, injuring Castle's shoulder. At Global Wars: Chicago, Cody was taking pictures with fans prior to his match, only for one of the fans to be a masked Castle. Castle later issued a challenge for Cody's championship, which was made official.

## Event

**Other on-screen personnel**
| Role: | Name: |
| --- | --- |
| Commentators | Colt Cabana |
| | Ian Riccaboni |
| Ring announcer | Bobby Cruise |
| Referees | Todd Sinclair |
| | Paul Turner |
| | Mike Posey |

### Preliminary matches

The event opened with Matt Taven, accompanied by Kingdom teammates T. K. O'Ryan and Vinny Marseglia, facing Will Ospreay. Taven performed the *Climax* on Ospreay after countering the OsCutter. for the win.

Next, War Machine faced The Addiction. War Machine performed the *Fallout* On Christopher Daniels, and Raymond Rowe made the cover to score the win.

After that, Jay Lethal faced off against Marty Scurll.In the end as Scurll attempted a chickenwing, Lethal attempted to hit Scurll with his own umbrella, but Scurll ducked and hit a European Uppercut on Lethal, knocking the umbrella out of his hand. As referee Todd Sinclair reached for the umbrella, Lethal low blowed Scurll and performed the *Lethal Injection* on Scrull to win the match.

Later, The Motor City Machine Guns (Chris Sabin and Alex Shelley) defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship against The Best Friends (Chuckie T. and Barretta). The Best Friends went for a double tag team move, after Chuckie performed on Sabin a piledriver, Chris Sabin was able to roll Beretta, the legal wrestler in the match, into a Jackknife, to retain the title.

Next, Kenny King defended the ROH World Television Championship in a Four-way elimination match against Punishment Martinez, Silas Young (accompanied by The Beer City Bruiser) and Shane Taylor. Taylor was the first to be eliminated. While Bruiser distracted the referee, Young hit King with a beer bottle to eliminate him as well. Young later performed the *Misery* on Martinez to win the championship.

Later, The Briscoes (Mark and Jay) faced Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer in a New York Street Fight. Bully performed a plash on Jay through a table for a near fall. Dreamer gave him fluid as Ray attempted to light another table on fire. Mark hit him with an enzuigiri and the Briscoes performed "3B", their parody of the Dudley Boyz move 3D. As Jay held Bully down on the table, Mark performed the *Froggy Bow* on Ray through a table, and Jay pinned Ray to score the win.

Before the penultimate match, lead announcer Ian Riccaboni introduced the new Women of Honor Championship. Riccaboni announced that a tournament for the championship will start on January 20, 2018.

After that, The Hung Bucks defended the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship against Dragon Lee, Flip Gordon and Titán. When Gordon attempted a springboard moonsault, all Hung Buck members superkicked him. They stacked Gordon and Dragon Lee on Page and hit a combination of the Indy Taker and Rite of Passage as Matt pinned Gordon to retain the title.

### Main event

Cody, accompanied by his wife Brandi Rhodes, defended the ROH World Championship against Dalton Castle, who was accompanied by The Boys. Castle performed the *Bang-A-Rang* on Cody to win the match and the title, giving Castle his first singles title in ROH.

## Reception

Larry Csonka of 411Mania rated the show "average", calling the tag team title match "disappointing", the TV title match "bad" and the street fight "lethargic". Wade Keller of Pro Wrestling Torch called the main event "solid ... but not must-see or epic by any means", adding that it "didn't do anything to change the perception that Cody is good for a solid three-star-and-change type of match, but not much better".

## Results

| No. | Results | Stipulations | Times |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1P | The Dawgs (Rhett Titus and Will Ferrara) defeated Cheeseburger and Delirious | Tag team match |  |
| 2P | Jonathan Gresham defeated Josh Woods | Singles match |  |
| 3 | Matt Taven (with T. K. O'Ryan and Vinny Marseglia) defeated Will Ospreay | Singles match | 10:58 |
| 4 | War Machine (Hanson and Raymond Rowe) defeated The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian) | Tag team match | 9:35 |
| 5 | Jay Lethal defeated Marty Scurll | Singles match | 15:55 |
| 6 | The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin) (c) defeated Best Friends (Beretta and Chuckie T.) | Tag team match for the ROH World Tag Team Championship | 10:20 |
| 7 | Silas Young (with Beer City Bruiser) defeated Kenny King (c), Punishment Martinez and Shane Taylor | Four-way elimination match for the ROH World Television Championship | 17:25 |
| 8 | The Briscoes (Jay Briscoe and Mark Briscoe) defeated Bully Ray and Tommy Dreamer | New York Street Fight | 16:30 |
| 9 | The Hung Bucks (Adam Page, Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) (c) defeated Dragon Lee, Flip Gordon and Titán | Six-man tag team match for the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship | 15:11 |
| 10 | Dalton Castle (with The Boys) defeated Cody (c) (with Brandi Rhodes) | Singles match for the ROH World Championship | 12:55 |
| (c)  – the champion(s) heading into the match  P  – the match was broadcast on the pre-show | | | |

### ROH World Television Championship match

| Eliminated | Wrestler | Eliminated by | Method of elimination | Time |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Shane Taylor | Punishment Martinez | Pinned after a springboard corkscrew senton | 9:20 |
| 2 | Kenny King | Silas Young | Pinned after Young hit him with a beer bottle | 13:05 |
| 3 | Punishment Martinez | Silas Young | Pinned after a *Misery* | 17:25 |
| **Winner** | **Silas Young** | |  | |

## InfoBox

| Final Battle (2017) | |
| --- | --- |
| Promotional poster for the event, featuring Cody and Dalton Castle | |
| Promotion | Ring of Honor |
| Date | December 15, 2017 |
| City | New York City, New York |
| Venue | Hammerstein Ballroom |
| Pay-per-view chronology | |
| **Previous**
Global Wars **Next**
16th Anniversary Show | |
| Final Battle chronology | |
| **Previous**
2016 **Next**
2018 | |


title: Fighter Weapons School RSAF

abstract: Fighter Weapons School is a training unit of the Royal Saudi Air Force that operates the Panavia Tornado IDS and the McDonnell Douglas F-15SA Strike Eagle at King Abdulaziz Air Base, Dhahran, Eastern Province, in Saudi Arabia within RSAF 11 Wing.

text:
# Fighter Weapons School RSAF

**Fighter Weapons School** is a training unit of the Royal Saudi Air Force that operates the Panavia Tornado IDS and the McDonnell Douglas F-15SA Strike Eagle at King Abdulaziz Air Base, Dhahran, Eastern Province, in Saudi Arabia within RSAF 11 Wing.

## InfoBox

| Fighter Weapons School RSAF
(Weapons & Tactics School) | |
| --- | --- |
| Active | Unknown-present |
| Country | Saudi Arabia |
| Branch | Royal Saudi Air Force |
| Type | Training unit |
| Base | King Abdulaziz Air Base |
| Aircraft | Panavia Tornado IDS
McDonnell Douglas F-15SA Strike Eagle |


title: Finnish Landrace goat

abstract: The Finnish Landrace, also called the Finngoat, is a landrace-derived breed of goat originating in western Finland. The breed can come in a variety of colors but is usually grey, pied, or white, and both horned and polled individuals occur. Finnish Landrace goats are typically used for milking, as there is not a strong tradition of goat meat in Finnish cuisine, unlike in southern Europe. Finngoats are the only breed of goat native to Finland, and originate from native goats crossed with other European imports, especially from Switzerland.

text:
# Finnish Landrace goat

The **Finnish Landrace**, also called the **Finngoat** (Finnish: *Suomenvuohi*), is a landrace-derived breed of goat originating in western Finland. The breed can come in a variety of colors but is usually grey, pied, or white, and both horned and polled individuals occur. Finnish Landrace goats are typically used for milking, as there is not a strong tradition of goat meat in Finnish cuisine, unlike in southern Europe. Finngoats are the only breed of goat native to Finland, and originate from native goats crossed with other European imports, especially from Switzerland.