title: Frances Kellor

abstract: Frances Alice Kellor was an American social reformer and investigator, who specialized in the study of immigrants to the United States and women. She was secretary and treasurer of the New York State Immigration Commission in 1909 and chief investigator for the Bureau of Industries and Immigration of New York State in 1910–13. She also oversaw the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers.

text:
# Frances Kellor

**Frances Alice Kellor** (October 20, 1873 – January 4, 1952) was an American social reformer and investigator, who specialized in the study of immigrants to the United States and women. She was secretary and treasurer of the New York State Immigration Commission in 1909 and chief investigator for the Bureau of Industries and Immigration of New York State in 1910–13. She also oversaw the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers.

## Early life and education

Kellor was born October 20, 1873, in Columbus, Ohio. During Kellors’ childhood, her father left the family, forcing her mother to move to Michigan to work as a laundress. Kellor could not afford to finish high school, leading her to work at a local news company where she eventually became an investigative reporter at the company. It was there that two sisters, Mary and Frances Eddy, took notice of her and helped fund Kellors’ college education. She received her law degree in 1897 from Cornell Law School, and received a scholarship to study sociology and social work at the University of Chicago. At the University of Chicago she wrote her first scholarly article about equality among women and men in physical education, and began her study of prisons which led to her first book, *Experimental Sociology* (1901).

## Career

She was secretary and treasurer of the New York State Immigration Commission in 1909 and chief investigator for the Bureau of Industries and Immigration of New York State in 1910–13. She became managing director of the North American Civic League for Immigrants and a member of the Progressive National Committee. She also oversaw the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers.

She directed the National Americanization Committee (NAC), the most important private organization promoting Americanization during World War I. Speaking for the NAC in 1916, proposed to combine efficiency and patriotism in her Americanization programs. It would be more efficient, she argued, once the factory workers could all understand English and therefore better understand orders and avoid accidents. Once Americanized, they would grasp American industrial ideals and be open to American influences and not subject only to strike agitators or foreign propagandists. The result, she argued would transform indifferent and ignorant residents into understanding voters, to make their homes into American homes, and to establish American standards of living throughout the ethnic communities. Ultimately, she argued it would "unite foreign-born and native alike in enthusiastic loyalty to our national ideals of liberty and justice." Unlike African-American social reformers of the time, Kellor believed that enslavement made it impossible for African-American women to lead moral, respectable lives. Kellor and her cohort of white reformers focused on improving recently emancipated African-American women's efficiency, rather than attempt to challenge the racially restrictive segregationist practices of the Northern society.

In 1916, she became the chairman of the Women's Committee for the National Hughes Alliance, headquartered in the Hotel Astor. The goal of the Hughes Alliance was to organize the women of the country to support Charles E. Hughes in his bid for President of the United States in 1916.

### Women's activism

Kellor focused her works on Women's Rights on studying the treatment of women in education and the work force. Kellor did her work on Women's Rights by completing field work at various locations including studying women in prison, women in the Hull-House in Chicago, women employees, and women in educational settings. In 1904 Kellor published the book *Out of Work*, in which she discusses immigrant unemployment in the United States. In it Kellor notes that little data had been taken on women's unemployment due to the social opinion that unemployment had little to do with women. She also discussed reasons why women employees had not been able to attain the same standards through union organization as men, the helplessness of unemployed women, and unemployed women and prostitution. Kellor argued for equal treatment of women in educational settings, specifically in physical education. In 1909, she published a book in collaboration with Gertrude Dudley called *Athletic Games in the Education of Women,* in which they argued that participating in sports could have positive effects for women, since it would allow to them to leave the confines of the home and would make them more socially active.

### Immigrant rights

Kellor was secretary and treasurer of the New York State Immigration Commission in 1909 and chief investigator for the Bureau of Industries and Immigration of New York State in 1910–13. She was brought on by Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 presidential campaign, to help write the Progressive Party's platform. This election marked the first time the party had taken up immigration as a key issue. The platform promised to provide immigrants more opportunities to succeed, as well as reverse policies that neglected immigrants and their rights. Roosevelt lost the election to Woodrow Wilson, but Kellor continued her fight for immigrant rights. At the time, Kellor was the director of the North American Civic League. She began advocating for increased collaboration between private, state, and national efforts, aimed at assimilating, educating, and protecting the rapidly growing immigrant population. In 1914, she left the American Civic League and formed the Committee for Immigrants in America. This committee fought for immigrant rights and education. Kellor's efforts resulted in more than 13% of non-English-speaking immigrants enrolling in citizenship classes by 1915. The movement continued to make progress, but Kellor was not satisfied. She began pressuring the federal government to act and aide immigrants in regards to protection, education, and opportunity. Kellor organized and promoted the National Americanization Day, to be held on July 4, 1915. More than 150 cities nationwide partook in this holiday, which celebrated and welcomed naturalized immigrants. She also oversaw the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers. She directed the National Americanization Committee (NAC), an important private organization promoting Americanization during World War I. Speaking for the NAC in 1916, she proposed Americanization programs that to combined efficiency and patriotism. It would be more efficient, she argued, once the factory workers could all understand English and therefore better understand orders and avoid accidents. Once Americanized, immigrants would grasp American industrial ideals and be open to American influences. This would make them less subject to strike agitators or and foreign propagandists. The result, she argued would transform less knowledgeable residents into understanding voters, making their homes into American homes, and to establishing American standards of living throughout the ethnic communities. Ultimately, she argued it would "unite foreign-born and native alike in enthusiastic loyalty to our national ideals of liberty and justice."

### Prisons

Kellor felt that crime was due to poor education and unemployment, which ran contrary to the popular belief of the time that criminality was biological. She published several articles on the American prison systems as well as one book, *Experimental Sociology: Descriptive and Analytical*. In her research, Kellor examined race and the many conditions that led Southern African Americans to engage in crime. In her articles Kellor also discussed the effect of prison life on crime and placed special emphasis on how debilitating it could be for the social life of African Americans, which in turn could perpetuate crime. She felt that two of the solutions to this issue would be rehabilitation as well as reintegration programs.

## Personal life

Kellor never married. She maintained a long-term relationship with another woman, Mary Dreier. Dreier was one of several wealthy, progressive Brooklyn-born sisters who played leading roles in the progressive movement in New York, the other siblings were the artists Katherine Sophie Dreier and Dorothea Dreier, and activist Margaret Dreier. Kellor and Mary shared a home from 1905 until Kellor's death.

She died in New York City on January 4, 1952, and is buried alongside Mary Dreier at Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York.

## Selected works

### Books

* *Experimental Sociology: Descriptive and Analytical* (1901)
* *Out of Work* (1904) with Gertrude Dudley
* *Athletic Games in the Education of Women* (1909)
* *Notaries Public and Immigrants* (1909)
* *Straight America: A Call to National Service* (1916)
* *Immigration and the Future* (1920) Kellor discusses how views on immigration changed over time, most specifically before and after World War 1. The book delves into how immigration policy will impact flows of people to America. The book discusses the economic implications of open immigration and how a dual economic system was born separating foreign born and native born Americans. The book continues, covering immigration's impact on American business, investment, and assimilation.
* *The Federal Administration and the Alien* (1921)

### Articles

* "Arbitration and the Legal Profession" (undated)
* "Sex and Crime" in *International Journal of Ethics* (October 1898)
* "Immigration and Household Labor" in *Charities* (1904)
* "Where Slave Girls are Sold" in *The New York Herald* (February 14, 1904)
* "Emigration From the South  The Women" in *Charities* (October 1905)
* "The Immigrant Woman" in *The Atlantic Monthly* (September 1907)
* "What is Americanization?". *Yale Review*. January 1919.
* "Criminal Anthropology in Its Relation to Jurisprudence" (January 1899)\[4\]
* "Criminal Anthropology in Its Relation to Jurisprudence II" (March 1899)\[4\]
* "Psychological and Environmental Study of Women Criminals I" (January 1900)\[4\]
* "Psychological and Environmental Study of Women Criminals II" (March 1900)\[4\]
* "The Criminal Negro: I. A Sociological Study" (January–June 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: II. Southern Conditions that Influence Negro Criminality" (February 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: III. Some of His Characteristics" (March 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: IV. Advantages and Abuses of Southern Penal Systems" (April 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: V. Physical Measurements of Females" (January–June 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: VI. Psychological Tests of Females" (July 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: VII. Childhood Influences" (September 1901)\[3\]
* "The Criminal Negro: VIII. Environmental Influences" (November 1901)\[3\]

## Sources

* Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green, eds., *Notable American Women: The Modern Period: A Biographical Dictionary*, Volume 4 (Radcliffe College, 1980), 393–5, available online


title: Francesco Zucco

abstract: Francesco Zucco was an Italian painter. Zucco was born in Bergamo. The year of his birth is uncertain, but is known to be no later than 1575. Zucco studied art for a time in Cremona before returning to Bergamo; there he associated with painters such as Giovanni Paolo Cavagna and Enea Salmeggia. He painted both religious and secular pieces in a fairly traditional Baroque style; the Adoration of the Magi and Virgin and Child in the parish church of Levate are reminiscent of the work of Giovanni Battista Moroni. He was active for the duration of his career all around the Province of Bergamo, and painted works for churches in Albino, Alzano Lombardo, Brembate, Camerata Cornello, Capriate San Gervasio, Entratico, Foresto Sparso, Orio al Serio, Scanzorosciate, Villa di Serio, Ubiale Clanezzo, Peia, Suisio, Luzzana, Selvino, Sorisole, and Zandobbio. Some of his religious works may still be seen in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, while other paintings are in that city's Accademia Carrara. Zucco married one Aurelia Chiesa, and had three children; he died at home in Bergamo in 1627.

text:
# Francesco Zucco

**Francesco Zucco** (Italian pronunciation: \[franˈtʃesko dˈdzukko; tˈtsukko\], c.1570  May 3, 1627) was an Italian painter.

Zucco was born in Bergamo. The year of his birth is uncertain, but is known to be no later than 1575. Zucco studied art for a time in Cremona before returning to Bergamo; there he associated with painters such as Giovanni Paolo Cavagna and Enea Salmeggia. He painted both religious and secular pieces in a fairly traditional Baroque style; the *Adoration of the Magi* and *Virgin and Child* in the parish church of Levate are reminiscent of the work of Giovanni Battista Moroni. He was active for the duration of his career all around the Province of Bergamo, and painted works for churches in Albino, Alzano Lombardo, Brembate, Camerata Cornello, Capriate San Gervasio, Entratico, Foresto Sparso, Orio al Serio (a *Virgin and Child*), Scanzorosciate, Villa di Serio, Ubiale Clanezzo, Peia, Suisio, Luzzana, Selvino, Sorisole, and Zandobbio. Some of his religious works may still be seen in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, while other paintings are in that city's Accademia Carrara.

Zucco married one Aurelia Chiesa, and had three children; he died at home in Bergamo in 1627.

* *"Cavagna, Salmeggia, Zucco e Palma il giovane - Il secondo cinquecento bergamasco"*, Silvana Milesi, Corponove editrice, 1992.


title: Karl Heinrich Klingert

abstract: Karl Heinrich Klingert was a German mechanic and inventor, best known for the invention of an early surface-supplied diving suit.

text:
# Karl Heinrich Klingert

**Karl Heinrich Klingert** (born 16 January 1760 in Herrnprotsch near Breslau, died 1 March 1828 in Breslau) was a German mechanic and inventor, best known for the invention of an early surface-supplied diving suit.

## Biography

Klingert's father ran a small brandy distillery northwest of Breslau. Heinrich Klingert attended the Maria-Magdalenen Gymnasium in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) for four years, where Johann Friedrich Täsch, who was a teacher at the Magdaleneum at the time, recognized the talents of his student Klingert. A six-year apprenticeship in the mechanical workshop in Täsch, which was attached to the grammar school, was arranged, and which Klingert took over after the death of his teacher. Klingert was particularly interested in chemistry, thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, galvanic energy production, and hydraulics. He was made an honorary member of the "Leipzig Economic Society" in 1798 in recognition of his work on cavitation. His inventions were not commissioned, the practical implementation was costly, and he had no sponsors. Without concern for the cost of living, Klingert may have had even greater success. He had one daughter by his marriage, which was probably before 1785, and died as a royal Prussian government mechanic at the age of 68.

## Achievements

Klingert built the first electric clock (1815), the first electric motors, a hydraulic ram, and aids for the sick and disabled. He invented a thermometer and a compass for the blind. A diver equipped with diving apparatus developed by Klingert demonstrated its functionality by sawing through a tree trunk in the river Oder. The suit had a rigid helmet with two small viewpoets and a corselet, connected by a leather jacket which allowed some relative movement between the rigid components. Leather trousers, a weight system, and a jocking harness completed the suit. An air supply was towed behind the diver in a barrel, with two hoses to the helmet. In about 1799 he built an artificial arm for a man who had shot off his right arm while hunting. In 1803 Klingert was made an honorary member of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Breslau. In 1803, Christian Heinrich Müller (1772–1849) who had also attended the Maria-Magdalenen Gymnasium, where he met Klingert, founded a society which, from 1809, was called the "Schlesische Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur", and Klingert became one of the first members. This society had a good reputation both nationally and internationally, and took the place of an Academy of Sciences and Arts in Silesia. By 1827, Klingert had published about 40 articles in various publications of the society. The "Tauchermaschine" (diving machine) is probably his best-known invention.

## Publications

* K.H. Klingert: *Beschreibung einer in allen Flüssen brauchbaren Tauchermaschine*. \[Description of a diving machine suitable for use in rivers\], Breslau 1797
* K.H. Klingert: *Kurzer Nachtrag zur Geschichte und Beschreibung einer Tauchermaschine nebst der Erklärung einer Laterne oder Lampe, die in jeder verdorbenen Luft und im Wasser brennt*. \[A Brief Supplement to the History and Description of a Diving Machine : Together with the Explanation of a Lantern Or Lamp which Burns in Any Vitiated Air, and in Water\], Breslau 1822
* K.H. Klingert: *Anzeige eines neu erfundenen Werkzeuges zum Einstreichen der Zähne in Zahnstangen und Cylinder-Röhren zum Gebrauch für mathematische Instrumente*. \[Announcement of a newly invented tool for rubbing in the teeth of racks and cylinder-tubes for use in mathematical instruments\], Breslau 1826
* In Gilbert's *Annalen d. Physik* \[Annals of physics\], Halle, Volume 2, 1799; volume 4, 1800; Volume 5, 1800; Volume 7. 1801; Volume 53, 1816

### Sources

* Michael Jung: Karl Heinrich Klingert. *Tauchgeschichtekompendium* \[Diving History Compendium\], Merzig-Weiler 1998
* *Encyklopedia Wrocławia*. Wrocław 2001
* Günter Christmann: *Karl Heinrich Klingert (1760–1828). Ein Breslauer Leonardo.* In: Schlesien Heute, Senfkorn-Verlag, Görlitz, Nr. 149, Heft 2/2011, S. 40–42


abstract: The 1993 Lipton Championships was a tennis tournament played on Hard courts in Key Biscayne, Florida, United States. The event was part of the 1993 ATP Tour and 1993 WTA Tour. The tournament was held from 12 to 21 March 1993. Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Larisa Neiland were the defending champions, but Sánchez Vicario did not compete this year Neiland teamed up with Jana Novotná and won the title, by defeating Jill Hetherington and Kathy Rinaldi 6–2, 7–5 in the final.

text:
# 1993 Lipton Championships – Women's doubles

The **1993 Lipton Championships** was a tennis tournament played on Hard courts in Key Biscayne, Florida, United States. The event was part of the 1993 ATP Tour and 1993 WTA Tour. The tournament was held from 12 to 21 March 1993.

Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Larisa Neiland were the defending champions, but Sánchez Vicario did not compete this year

Neiland teamed up with Jana Novotná and won the title, by defeating Jill Hetherington and Kathy Rinaldi 6–2, 7–5 in the final.

## Seeds

All seeds received a bye into the second round.

1. Gigi Fernández /  Natasha Zvereva *(quarterfinals)*
2. **Larisa Neiland /  Jana Novotná (champions)**
3. Lori McNeil /  Rennae Stubbs *(semifinals)*
4. Pam Shriver /  Elizabeth Smylie *(quarterfinals)*
5. Jill Hetherington /  Kathy Rinaldi *(final)*
6. Mary Joe Fernández /  Zina Garrison-Jackson *(quarterfinals)*
7. Katrina Adams /  Manon Bollegraf *(third round)*
8. Isabelle Demongeot /  Elna Reinach *(quarterfinals)*
9. Sandra Cecchini /  Patricia Tarabini *(second round)*
10. Amanda Coetzer /  Linda Harvey Wild *(second round)*
11. Yayuk Basuki /  Nana Miyagi *(third round)*
12. Sandy Collins /  Mary Lou Daniels *(second round)*
13. Kimberly Po /  Robin White *(third round)*
14. Nathalie Tauziat /  Judith Wiesner *(second round)*
15. Debbie Graham /  Brenda Schultz *(semifinals)*
16. Eugenia Maniokova /  Leila Meskhi *(third round)*

## Draw

### Key

### Finals

### Top half

#### Section 1

#### Section 2

### Bottom half

#### Section 3

#### Section 4

## InfoBox

| Women's doubles | |
| --- | --- |
| 1993 Lipton Championships | |
| Champions |  |
| Runners-up |  |
| Score | 6–2, 7–5 |
| Draw | 48 (2WC/2Q) |
| Seeds | 16 |


title: Karl Pfeifer

abstract: Karl Pfeifer was an Austrian journalist.

text:
# Karl Pfeifer

**Karl Pfeifer** (22 August 1928 – 6 January 2023) was an Austrian journalist.

## Life

Karl Pfeifer was born to a Jewish family on 22 August 1928 in Baden bei Wien, near Vienna. After the Anschluss of 1938 his family fled to Hungary. In 1943 the Socialist-Zionist youth organization Hashomer Hatzair decided to evacuate Pfeiffer to Palestine together with a group of other young refugees. He lived in a kibbutz there and from 1946 served in Palmach, the elite troop of the underground Jewish army Haganah, whose members subsequently became part of the Israel Defense Forces. Pfeiffer left Israel in 1951.

In 1982 Pfeiffer became the editor of *"Gemeinde"*, the official organ of the Viennese Jewish community. In this function he wrote in an article in 1995, that the political scientist Werner Pfeifenberger had used "Nazi tones" in the yearbook of the freedom party academy. Karl Pfeifer said that Pfeifenberger had played the Nazi regime down and accused the Jews of being responsible for Hitler's war in 1933. Afterwards Pfeifer was sued by Pfeifenberger and acquitted in two instances. When in 2000, the Vienna public prosecutor brought charges of re-Nazi activity against Pfeifenberger, he committed suicide. The editor of the right magazine *ZurZeit*, Andreas Mölzer, called Pfeifer then in a press release to its subscribers, to be part of a "hunting party" which had Pfeifenberger driven into suicide – The "Jewish journalist" had released the "legal avalanche against Pfeifenberger". In consequence, Pfeifer sued for compensation in the Austrian courts. On 15 November 2007, Pfeifer got under article 8 of the European Court of Human Rights right adjudicated – at the same time, the Republic of Austria was convicted and required to pay € 5,000 compensation for the failure of the courts.

From the early 1990s, Pfeifer worked as a Vienna correspondent for Israeli radio and as a freelance journalist for the London monthly anti-fascist magazine *Searchlight* and the Budapest weekly newspaper *Hetek*. Pfeifer also belonged to the board of trustees of the documentation archive of Austrian resistance.

In 2008, Mary Kreutzer produced a documentary for the Society for Critical Research on Antisemitism about his life entitled *Zwischen allen Stühlen.Lebenswege des Journalisten Karl Pfeifer*. It was shown in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy and Israel. In 2011, the film was shown in the presence of Karl Pfeifer at the Austrian Institute of the Minnesota University in Minneapolis and at the Austrian Cultural Forum in New York.

Pfeifer died on 6 January 2023, at the age of 94.

## Merits

https://archive.today/20130421031700/http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=39599&sectioncode=1


title: Karl Philipp Fohr

abstract: Karl Philipp Fohr, a brother of Daniel Fohr, was a German painter, born at Heidelberg in 1795.

text:
# Karl Philipp Fohr

**Karl Philipp Fohr** (26 November 1795 – 29 June 1818), a brother of Daniel Fohr, was a German painter, born at Heidelberg in 1795.

## Life and education

Fohr started his studies of painting with Friedrich Rottmann, and was largely self-taught. In 1810 he was discovered by the painter Georg Wilhelm Issel, who invited him to Darmstadt in 1811. There, his future biographer Johann Philipp Dieffenbach introduced him to the grand-ducal court at Darmstadt and to Princess Wilhelmine of Baden, who acted as a patron, placed small orders from him, and offered him later an annual salary. While hiking through the Odenwald and the valley of the river Neckar, Fohr executed a serial of preliminary sketches to the watercolors for the *Skizzenbuch der Neckargegend*, which was finalized in the winter of 1813/14 and dedicated to Princess Wilhelmine, offering pittoresque views, historical and fairy-tale subjects of the region. In 1814, he was part of Princess Wilhelmine's convoy to her summer-resort to the spa town of Baden-Baden. The *Badisches Skizzenbuch*, commissioned by Princess Wilhelmine, was a result of his tours through the Black Forest, containing pittoresque views e.g. of Kloster Lichtenthal, the burial place of the Margraves of Baden.

It was with Princess Wilhelmine's thereupon granted scholarship that Fohr went to Munich to study at the Academy of Fine Arts from July 1815 to May 1816. There he became friends with fellow student Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, from whom he learned the basics of oil-painting. In autumn 1815 he hiked through Tyrol to Venice. From May to October 1816 Fohr had a stop in Heidelberg where he came in contact to a circle of political engaged students.

## Rome

When Fohr dropped out of the academy of Munich to travel on foot to northern Italy, and arrived in Rome in 1816, he briefly joined the circles of the Nazarenes and the Deutsch-Römer. In Rome, where Fohr increasingly developed his own style, he shared a studio with the landscape painter Joseph Anton Koch, whose heroic Italian landscapes influenced his own works. Like many of the Nazarenes, Deutsch-Römer, Lukasbrüder (as a sub-group of the Nazarenes was called Lukasbund ), and other northern artists and writers in Rome, he frequented the Caffè Greco – many of them twice a day or more: in 1817 for example, 82 German artists stayed in Rome, a record says. By the end of the year 1817, Fohr started with single portrait drawings as preparation for his renowned group portrait of the artists in Rome at the Caffè Greco, which belongs to his most important works and is one of the most important contributions to the romantic cult of friendship, which arose around 1800. First approach in developing the group portrait were, as Wilhelm Schlink has widely discussed, two designs of the composition in its entirety (Frankfurt am Main, Städel Museum). Single portrait studies followed (lots of them in Heidelberg, Kurpfälzisches Museum), among them portraits of fellow artists like Peter Cornelius, Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Theodor Rehbenitz, Philipp Veit, the copperplate engraver and draftsman Carl Johann Barth, or the architect Johannes Buck, but also the admired landscape painter and teacher Joseph Anton Koch, the landscape painter Martin von Rohden, the architect Kaspar Waldmann, the poet and writer Friedrich Rückert, and not least Fohr himself. Although Fohr obviously intended to depict the crowd of artists that gathered in the Caffé Greco, the design should not – with respect to the cult of friendship mentioned above – be considered as a snap-shot or a realistic impression. Fohr was actually more a landscape painter than a portraitist. Whatever the intention of the group portrait was, maybe a copper engraving to be sold to friends and colleagues, the project was stopped by Fohr's tragic death. On 29 June 1818 Fohr drownd whilst bathing in the river Tiber with his friends Carl Johann Barth, Johann Anton Ramboux, and Samuel Amsler. To raise funds for a monument in his memory, they created a print after a drawing of Fohr by Barth. Samuel Amsler produced the print, as Barth was too distressed to make the print himself. Fohr is buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome.

## Legacy

Despite his premature death Fohr left an impressive oeuvre (see catalogue raisonnée), which includes around 800 drawings, watercolors, and prints, but only seven paintings, predominantly preserved in Frankfurt am Main, Städel Museum, and in Darmstadt Hessisches Landesmuseum,.

## Selected works

1. *Das Leben des Malers Karl Fohr*, geschrieben von Prof. PhDieffenbach, erstmalig gedruckt 1823, re-edited by Rudolf Schrey, Frankfurt am Main 1918.
2. *Carl Philipp Fohr 1795–1818. Skizzenbuch der Neckargegend, Badisches Skizzenbuch*, exh. cat. Kurpfälzisches Museum Heidelberg, Heidelberg 1968.
3. Boskamp-Priever, Katrin (1995): "Entrückte Idylle und vaterländisches Denkmal. Kloster Lichtenthal in Ansichten des 19. Jahrhunderts" In *750 Jahre Zisterzienserinnen-Abtei Lichtenthal*, Sigmaringen, p. 159–160.
4. "Fohr, Carl (auch: Karl) Philipp". *darmstadt-stadtlexikon.de*. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
5. "Fohr, Carl (auch: Karl) Philipp". *darmstadt-stadtlexikon.de*. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
6. Biographie, Deutsche. "Fohr, Carl – Deutsche Biographie". *deutsche-biographie.de* (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2021.
7. "Carl Philipp Fohr". *British Museum*. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
8. Andersson, Ulrike; Frese, Annette (1995). *Carl Philipp Fohr und seine Künstlerfreunde in Rom*. Heidelberg.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
9. Schlink, Wilhelm (1997). "Verletzliche Gesichter. Bildnisse deutscher Künstler im 19. Jahrhundert" In id. (ed.). *Bildnisse. Die europäische Tradition der Portraitkunst*, Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, p. 228
10. Lankheit, Klaus (1952). *Das Freundschaftsbild der Romantik*. Heidelberg.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
11. Schlink, Wilhelm (1997). "Verletzliche Gesichter. Bildnisse deutscher Künstler im 19. Jahrhundert" In id. (ed.). *Bildnisse. Die europäische Tradition der Portraitkunst*, Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, p. 225, 227.
12. Schlink, Wilhelm (1997). "Verletzliche Gesichter. Bildnisse deutscher Künstler im 19. Jahrhundert" In id. (ed.). *Bildnisse. Die europäische Tradition der Portraitkunst*, Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, p. 229–230.
13. Bessau, Margarete (1953). "Barth, Carl". *Neue Deutsche Biographie*. Retrieved 29 March 2022.
14. "Der Kupferstecher Carl Barth und der Architekt Johannes Buck aus Hildburghausen". *Digitale Sammlung* (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2021.
15. Schlink, Wilhelm (1997). "Verletzliche Gesichter. Bildnisse deutscher Künstler im 19. Jahrhundert" In id. (ed.). *Bildnisse. Die europäische Tradition der Portraitkunst*, Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, p. 229–230
16. Dirkmann, Sigrid (1993). *Carl Philipp Fohr (1795–1818). Studien zu den Landschaften*. Frankfurt am Main.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
17. Biographie, Deutsche. "Fohr, Carl – Deutsche Biographie". *deutsche-biographie.de* (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2021.
18. Märker, Peter (2015). *Carl Philipp Fohr 1795 – 1818. Im Unvollendeten vollendet. Monographie und kritisches Werkverzeichnis*. München: Hirmer. ISBN 978-3-7774-2174-2.
19. "Carl Philipp Fohr". *Digitale Sammlung* (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2021.
20. "Bildindex der Kunst & Architektur – Startseite Bildindex". *bildindex.de*. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
21. "Hessian Biography : Extended Search : LAGIS Hessen". *lagis-hessen.de*. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
22. "Hommage an Carl Philipp Fohr – Deutsch". *hlmd.de* (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2021.
* This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bryan, Michael (1886). "Fohr, Karl Philipp". In Graves, Robert Edmund (ed.). *Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers (A–K)*. Vol. I (3rd ed.). London: George Bell & Sons.

## Further reading

* Hardenberg, Kuno Graf von; Schilling, Edmund (1925). *Karl Philipp Fohr. Leben und Werk eines Malers der deutschen Romantik*. Freiburg im Breisgau.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Jensen, Jens Christian (1968). *Carl Philipp Fohr in Heidelberg und im Neckartal*. Karlsruhe: G. Braun.

Media related to Karl Philipp Fohr at Wikimedia Commons


title: Karl Herzog

abstract: Karl Herzog was a German officer in the Wehrmacht during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Herzog surrendered to the Red Army in the course of the Soviet April 1945 Zemland Offensive. Convicted as a war criminal in the Soviet Union, he was held until 1955. Herzog joined the Bundeswehr in 1957 and retired in 1966 as a Generalmajor.

text:
# Karl Herzog

**Karl Herzog** (6 July 1906 – 25 January 1998) was a German officer in the Wehrmacht during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.

Herzog surrendered to the Red Army in the course of the Soviet April 1945 Zemland Offensive. Convicted as a war criminal in the Soviet Union, he was held until 1955. Herzog joined the Bundeswehr in 1957 and retired in 1966 as a Generalmajor.

## Awards and decorations

### Citations

### Bibliography

* Fellgiebel, Walther-Peer (2000) \[1986\]. *Die Träger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939–1945 — Die Inhaber der höchsten Auszeichnung des Zweiten Weltkrieges aller Wehrmachtteile* \[*The Bearers of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross 1939–1945 — The Owners of the Highest Award of the Second World War of all Wehrmacht Branches*\] (in German). Friedberg, Germany: Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 978-3-7909-0284-6.

## InfoBox

| Karl Herzog | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 6 July 1906
Nuremberg |
| Died | 25 January 1998(1998-01-25) (aged 91) |
| Allegiance | Nazi Germany
West Germany |
| Service/branch | Army |
| Years of service | ?–1945
1957–66 |
| Rank | Oberst (Wehrmacht)
Generalmajor (Bundeswehr) |
| Battles/wars | Zemland Offensive |
| Awards | Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross |


title: Karl Herxheimer

abstract: Karl Herxheimer was a German-Jewish dermatologist who was a native of Wiesbaden. He studied medicine at the universities of Freiburg, Strasbourg and Würzburg, receiving his doctorate in 1885 with a thesis on cerebral syphilis. Following graduation he worked as an assistant to Karl Weigert at the Institute of Pathology in Frankfurt am Main, and to Albert Neisser at the university skin clinic in Breslau. He later worked with his older brother, Salomon Herxheimer (1841–1899) in Frankfurt, where in 1894, he became director of the municipal dermatology clinic. Along with Paul Ehrlich, he was instrumental in founding the University of Frankfurt. In 1914 he became a professor for skin and venereal diseases at the new university. In August 1942, at the age of 81, he was taken to the Theresienstadt concentration camp, where he died a few months later. Herxheimer is credited with providing an early description of acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans, which is a dermatological disorder associated with the later stages of Lyme disease. This condition is sometimes referred to as "Pick–Herxheimer disease", named along with co-discoverer Philipp Josef Pick (1834–1910). With Austrian dermatologist Adolf Jarisch (1850–1902), the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction ("herxing") is named, which is an inflammatory reaction to Salvarsan, antibiotics or mercury, when using these agents to treat syphilis. The clinical pharmacologist Andrew Herxheimer was his great nephew.

text:
# Karl Herxheimer

**Karl Herxheimer** (German pronunciation: \[kaʁl ˈhɛʁksˌhaɪmɐ\]; 26 June 1861  6 December 1942) was a German-Jewish dermatologist who was a native of Wiesbaden.

He studied medicine at the universities of Freiburg, Strasbourg and Würzburg, receiving his doctorate in 1885 with a thesis on cerebral syphilis. Following graduation he worked as an assistant to Karl Weigert at the Institute of Pathology in Frankfurt am Main, and to Albert Neisser at the university skin clinic in Breslau.

He later worked with his older brother, Salomon Herxheimer (1841–1899) in Frankfurt, where in 1894, he became director of the municipal dermatology clinic. Along with Paul Ehrlich, he was instrumental in founding the University of Frankfurt. In 1914 he became a professor for skin and venereal diseases at the new university. In August 1942, at the age of 81, he was taken to the Theresienstadt concentration camp, where he died a few months later.

Herxheimer is credited with providing an early description of acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans (Taylor's disease), which is a dermatological disorder associated with the later stages of Lyme disease. This condition is sometimes referred to as "Pick–Herxheimer disease", named along with co-discoverer Philipp Josef Pick (1834–1910). With Austrian dermatologist Adolf Jarisch (1850–1902), the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction ("herxing") is named, which is an inflammatory reaction to Salvarsan, antibiotics or mercury, when using these agents to treat syphilis.

The clinical pharmacologist Andrew Herxheimer was his great nephew.

## Published works

* *Über acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans*. Archiv für Dermatologie und Syphilis, Berlin, 1902, 61: 57-76.
* *Ueber eine bei Syphilitischen vorkommende Quecksilberreaktion*. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1902, Berlin, 1902, 28: 895-897.


title: Rola (name)

abstract: Rola is a given name, nickname and surname. Notable people that are known by this name include the following:

text:
# Rola (name)

**Rola** is a given name, nickname and surname. Notable people that are known by this name include the following:

## Mononym

* Rola (model) stagename of Eri Sato (born 1990), Japanese fashion model of Bangladeshi descent

## Nickname

* Rola Chen, stagename of Chen Yi (born 1987), Chinese model and actress who works in Japan

## Given name

* Rola Bahnam, Lebanese TV presenter of an Iraqi descent
* Rola Dashti (born 1964), Kuwaiti economist, business executive, politician and minister
* Rola El-Halabi (born 1985), professional German boxer of Lebanese origin
* Rola El Haress (born 1983), Lebanese swimmer
* Rola Hallam, British-Syrian consultant anaesthetist, humanitarian, international advocate and speaker
* Rola Khaled (born 1984), Lebanese Muay Thai practitioner
* Rola Nashef (fl. 2012–present), American director, screenwriter, producer and multimedia artist
* Rola Saad (born 1978), Lebanese pop singer and model
* Rola Saad (producer) (born 1948), Lebanese pan-Arab television personality
* Rola Sleiman (born 1975), Lebanese-Syrian female pastor
* Rola Tabash (fl. 2018-2022), Lebanese politician

## Surname


title: Charles Sacleux

abstract: Charles Joseph Sacleux, CSSp (1856–1943) was a French Catholic missionary and linguist. He is known also as a botanist, having collected a herbarium of over 2,000 plants in East Africa and Zanzibar.

text:
# Charles Sacleux

**Charles Joseph Sacleux**, CSSp (1856–1943) was a French Catholic missionary and linguist. He is known also as a botanist, having collected a herbarium of over 2,000 plants in East Africa and Zanzibar.

## Life

Sacleux was born on 5 July 1856 in Enquin, Pas-de-Calais in northern France, the second of three sons born to Auguste Sacleux, who died when he was five, and his wife, Marie Firmine Bayart. Charles joined the junior seminary at Arras in 1869 before spending a year at senior seminary beginning in 1874. He joined the Holy Ghost Fathers in 1875 and was ordained a priest in 1878.

Sacleux went to Zanzibar in 1879 and was posted to Bagamoyo and began studying Swahili in depth. He spent almost twenty years on the East African coast. Sacleux's work on Swahili is notable for being one of the few accounts of Swahili prior to its standardization and the influence of English.

In 1898, he returned to France, and took a teaching position in Chevilly. He died in Grasse on 16 May 1943.

In 1890, the botanist Henri Ernest Baillon published *Sacleuxia*, a genus of flowering plants from Kenya and Tanzania, in the family Apocynaceae and named in Charles Sacleux's honor.

## Works

Sacleux wrote:

* *Essai de phonétique avec son application à l'étude des idiomes'* (1905)
* *Grammaire des dialectes swahilis* (1909)
* *Dictionnaire swahili-français* (1939). Online version (open access)

His dictionary of the Comorian language was published in 1979 in two volumes by Mohamed Ahmed Chamanga and Noël Jacques Gueunier.

The standard author abbreviation Sacleux is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

## InfoBox

| Charles SacleuxCSSp | |
| --- | --- |
| Sacleux in 1897 | |
| Personal | |
| Born | (1856-07-05)5 July 1856
Enquin, France |
| Died | 16 May 1943(1943-05-16) (aged 86)
Grasse, France |
| Religion | Roman Catholic |
| Organization | |
| Order | Spiritans |
| Senior posting | |
| Ordination | 1878 |


title: Doug Mitchell (Canadian football)

abstract: Doug Herbert Mitchell is a former offensive lineman who played eight seasons in the Canadian Football League, winning three Grey Cups. A born in the United Kingdom, Mitchell took to Canadian football and starred with the Western Ontario Mustangs. He began his pro career with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, playing 8 seasons, 98 games and 2 Grey Cup championships. He finished his final year with 8 games with the Montreal Alouettes, and won his final Grey Cup in 1974. After retiring, Mitchell was the head football coach at Mount Allison University and the University of Toronto. His brother is CFL player Bill Mitchell.

text:
# Doug Mitchell (Canadian football)

**Doug Herbert Mitchell** is a former offensive lineman who played eight seasons in the Canadian Football League, winning three Grey Cups.

A born in the United Kingdom, Mitchell took to Canadian football and starred with the Western Ontario Mustangs. He began his pro career with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, playing 8 seasons, 98 games and 2 Grey Cup championships. He finished his final year with 8 games with the Montreal Alouettes, and won his final Grey Cup in 1974. After retiring, Mitchell was the head football coach at Mount Allison University and the University of Toronto.

His brother is CFL player Bill Mitchell.

## InfoBox

Doug Mitchell
| Date of birth | (1942-06-14) June 14, 1942 |
| --- | --- |
| Place of birth | Harrow, United Kingdom |
| Career information | |
| Position(s) | Center |
| Height | 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) |
| Weight | 240 lb (110 kg) |
| US college | University of Western Ontario |
| Career history | |
| As coach | |
| 1978–1982 | Mount Allison University |
| 1983–1987 | University of Toronto |
| As player | |
| 1967–1974 | Hamilton Tiger-Cats |
| 1974 | Montreal Alouettes |
|  | |
| Honors | Grey Cup \- 1967, 1972, 1974 |


title: Ed Bruneteau

abstract: Edward Ernest H. Bruneteau was a Canadian ice hockey right winger. Bruneteau played 181 games with the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League over seven seasons between 1941 and 1948. He also coached the Omaha Lancers of the United States Hockey League for 21 games in the 1986–87 season leading the team to a 0–21 record. Ed is the younger brother of "Mud" Bruneteau, famous for ending the longest overtime game in NHL history.

text:
# Ed Bruneteau

**Edward Ernest H. Bruneteau** (August 1, 1919 — July 30, 2002) was a Canadian ice hockey right winger. Bruneteau played 181 games with the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League over seven seasons between 1941 and 1948. He also coached the Omaha Lancers of the United States Hockey League for 21 games in the 1986–87 season leading the team to a 0–21 record. Ed is the younger brother of "Mud" Bruneteau, famous for ending the longest overtime game in NHL history.

## Professional career

### Minor league hockey

Brunetau was born in St. Boniface, Manitoba. He played junior hockey with the Winnipeg Rangers of the MJHL and the Duluth Zephyrs of the TBSHL. He showed promise as a scorer and his rights were traded to the Detroit Red Wings on October 2, 1939 for cash. Detroit allowed Bruneteau to remain in the minors, as a member of the American Hockey Association's Omaha Knights, who were formed after the Zephyrs home rink roof collapsed during a heavy snowstorm in the winter of 1939. He went on to score 28 points in 37 games that season and along with chipping in two goals during a short playoff run.

### Playing for the Red Wings

The following season saw Bruneteau starting again with the Knights, being transferred for a short time to the Indianapolis Capitals of the American Hockey League, and then heading into the big leagues by starting in 11 games for the Red Wings. He rejoined his older brother, Mud, who had joined the team the preceding season. Bruneteau finished the season with a goal and an assist and played in Detroit's first three playoff games before being let go.

### Back in the minors

Bruneteau was signed as a free agent by the Quebec Aces of the Quebec Senior Hockey League on November 13, 1941 and began play on the top line for the 1941–42 season. He scored 28 points in the 38 games of the regular season and the Allan Cup championship. Bruneteau also scored four goals and an assist in the Aces' playoff run. The following season, Bruneteau worked on increasing his speed and it showed. Bruneteau ended the 1942–43 season with 37 points in the 31-game regular season and 23 points in the 9-game Allan Cup Championship. In 1943–44, He scored 41 points in just 25 games and helped the Aces win the Allan Cup by adding another 26 points in their 15 playoff games.

### Playing for the Red Wings, take two

Bruneteau had made himself valuable again and the Quebec Aces traded him back to the Detroit Red Wings for Bob Thorpe on November 16, 1944. This time Bruneteau made himself a staple on the big team and played three full seasons for Detroit. He often formed a solid line with Carl Liscombe and Murray Armstrong and ended with 77 points over a three-year span. After the 1946–47 season, Bruneteau began spending less time in Detroit a more time in the minors. In 1948–49, Bruneteau played his last NHL game, but remained a scoring threat playing for Indianapolis. He knocked in 38 points in 61 games before being moved to rejoin with the Omaha Knights, now of the USHL. He again was reunited with his older brother who was head coach of the Knights. Under his brother's leadership, Bruneteau would score 149 points for Omaha in the two following seasons, including leading the team in scoring in 1949–50 and being named to the USHL Second All-Star Team both years. For the 1951–52 season, Bruneteau would be back with the Indianapolis Capitals, scoring 41 points in 56 games. Detroit released Bruneteau after that season and he found his way to the Milwaukee Clarks of the International Hockey League where he again went on a scoring frenzy, putting up 51 points and being named to the IHL Second All-Star Team. Bruneteau felt he had one more good season in him and spent it playing with the Sherbrooke Saints of the Quebec Hockey League. After scoring 49 points that year, Bruneteau retired from playing ice hockey. He died in Omaha, Nebraska in 2002.

## Career statistics

### Regular season and playoffs

|  | | |  | Regular season | | | | |  | Playoffs | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | Team | League | | GP |  |  | Pts | PIM | | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM |
| 1936–37 | Winnipeg Rangers | MJHL | | 16 | 17 | 6 | 23 | 6 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 |
| 1937–38 | Duluth Zephyrs | IASHL | | 27 | 26 | 11 | 37 | 10 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1938–39 | Duluth Zephyrs | TBSHL | | 10 | 7 | 1 | 8 | 8 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1938–39 | Duluth Zephyrs | TBSHL | | 12 | 8 | 2 | 10 | 12 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1939–40 | Omaha Knights | AHA | | 37 | 13 | 15 | 28 | 16 | | 9 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
| 1940–41 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 11 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1940–41 | Omaha Knights | AHA | | 18 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 6 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1940–41 | Indianapolis Capitals | AHL | | 13 | 3 | 4 | 7 | 6 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1941–42 | Quebec Aces | QSHL | | 30 | 10 | 5 | 15 | 17 | | 7 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 0 |
| 1941–42 | Quebec Aces | Al-Cup | |  |  |  |  |  | | 8 | 8 | 5 | 13 | 0 |
| 1942–43 | Quebec Morton Aces | QSHL | | 31 | 20 | 17 | 37 | 0 | | 9 | 9 | 14 | 23 | 4 |
| 1942–43 | Quebec Morton Aces | Al-Cup | |  |  |  |  |  | | 9 | 9 | 14 | 23 | 4 |
| 1943–44 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1943–44 | Quebec Aces | QSHL | | 25 | 14 | 27 | 41 | 6 | | 15 | 10 | 16 | 26 | 4 |
| 1944–45 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 42 | 12 | 13 | 25 | 6 | | 14 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 0 |
| 1944–45 | Quebec Aces | QSHL | | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 0 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1945–46 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 46 | 17 | 12 | 29 | 11 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1946–47 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 60 | 9 | 14 | 23 | 14 | | 4 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 0 |
| 1947–48 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 18 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1947–48 | Indianapolis Capitals | AHL | | 42 | 19 | 19 | 38 | 16 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1948–49 | Detroit Red Wings | NHL | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1948–49 | Indianapolis Capitals | AHL | | 61 | 20 | 18 | 38 | 16 | | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1949–50 | Omaha Knights | USHL | | 69 | 43 | 40 | 83 | 16 | | 7 | 5 | 3 | 8 | 0 |
| 1950–51 | Omaha Knights | USHL | | 56 | 39 | 27 | 66 | 10 | | 10 | 6 | 5 | 11 | 0 |
| 1951–52 | Indianapolis Capitals | AHL | | 56 | 20 | 21 | 41 | 0 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1952–53 | Milwaukee Chiefs | IHL | | 43 | 23 | 28 | 51 | 2 | |  |  |  |  |  |
| 1953–54 | Sherbrooke Saints | QSHL | | 71 | 14 | 35 | 49 | 4 | | 5 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 0 |
| AHL totals | | | | 172 | 62 | 62 | 124 | 38 | | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| NHL totals | | | | 180 | 40 | 42 | 82 | 35 | | 27 | 6 | 6 | 12 | 0 |

## Awards and achievements

## InfoBox

| Ed Bruneteau | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Born | (1919-08-01)August 1, 1919
St. Boniface, Manitoba, Canada | | |
| Died | July 30, 2002(2002-07-30) (aged 82)
Omaha, Nebraska, U.S. | | |
| Height | 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) | | |
| Weight | 175 lb (79 kg; 12 st 7 lb) | | |
| Position | Right Wing | | |
| Shot | Right | | |
| Played for | Detroit Red Wings | | |
| Playing career | 19371954 | | |


title: Digestion

abstract: Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food compounds into small water-soluble components so that they can be absorbed into the blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth through mastication and in the small intestine through segmentation contractions. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small compounds that the body can use. In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food. The saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food; the electrolyte hydrogencarbonate (HCO−3), which provides the ideal conditions of pH for amylase to work; and other electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl−). About 30% of starch is hydrolyzed into disaccharide in the oral cavity (mouth). After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. In infants and toddlers, gastric juice also contains rennin to digest milk proteins. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus and bicarbonates are secreted by the stomach. They provide a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of chemicals like concentrated hydrochloric acid while also aiding lubrication. Hydrochloric acid provides acidic pH for pepsin. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides or proteoses, which is further broken down into dipeptides and amino acids by enzymes in the small intestine. Studies suggest that increasing the number of chews per bite increases relevant gut hormones and may decrease self-reported hunger and food intake. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, partially digested food (chyme) enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic (about 5.6 ~ 6.9). Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K2MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Absorption of water, simple sugar and alcohol also takes place in stomach. Waste material (feces) is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

text:
# Digestion

**Digestion** is the breakdown of large insoluble food compounds into small water-soluble components so that they can be absorbed into the blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term **mechanical digestion** refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth through mastication and in the small intestine through segmentation contractions. In **chemical digestion**, enzymes break down food into the small compounds that the body can use.

In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food. The saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food; the electrolyte hydrogencarbonate (HCO3), which provides the ideal conditions of pH for amylase to work; and other electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl). About 30% of starch is hydrolyzed into disaccharide in the oral cavity (mouth). After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. In infants and toddlers, gastric juice also contains rennin to digest milk proteins. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus and bicarbonates are secreted by the stomach. They provide a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of chemicals like concentrated hydrochloric acid while also aiding lubrication. Hydrochloric acid provides acidic pH for pepsin. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides or proteoses, which is further broken down into dipeptides and amino acids by enzymes in the small intestine. Studies suggest that increasing the number of chews per bite increases relevant gut hormones and may decrease self-reported hunger and food intake.

When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, partially digested food (chyme) enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic (about 5.6 ~ 6.9). Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K2MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Absorption of water, simple sugar and alcohol also takes place in stomach. Waste material (feces) is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

## Digestive system

Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

### Secretion systems

Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.

#### Channel transport system

In a channel transport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein. This secretion system transports various chemical species, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20–900 kDa). The chemical species secreted vary in size from the small *Escherichia coli* peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the *Pseudomonas fluorescens* cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.

#### Molecular syringe

A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of *Salmonella*, *Shigella*, *Yersinia*) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in *Y. pestis* and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than be secreted into the extracellular medium.

#### Conjugation machinery

The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in *Agrobacterium tumefaciens*, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* is the prototypic system.

In the nitrogen-fixing *Rhizobia*, conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the *Agrobacterium* Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the *tra*, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the *vir*, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent *Agrobacteria*.

#### Release of outer membrane vesicles

In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.

### Gastrovascular cavity

The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.

In a plant such as the Venus flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.

### Phagosome

A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, *Entamoeba histolytica* can phagocytose red blood cells.

### Specialised organs and behaviours

To aid in the digestion of their food, animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, radulae, teeth, crops, gizzards, and others.

A Catalina Macaw's seed-shearing beakSquid beak with ruler for size comparison

#### Beaks

Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.

The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.

#### Tongue

The **tongue** is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates, that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is used to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.

The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.

#### Teeth

Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.

#### Crop

A crop, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.

Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.

#### Abomasum

Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.

Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.

The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

#### Specialised behaviours

Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.

Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).

Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.

### In earthworms

An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

## Overview of vertebrate digestion

In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

1. Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
2. Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex chemical species into simple structures,
3. Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
4. Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.

## Human digestion process

The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 metres (30 feet) long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.

Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus and bicarbonates are secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. Mainly proteins are digested in stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells are covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine. Bile helps in emulsification of fats and also activates lipases.

In the large intestine, the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here, water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.

### Neural and biochemical control mechanisms

Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.

The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.

The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid, which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.

The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

## Breakdown into nutrients

### Protein digestion

Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

### Fat digestion

Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, but no glycerol.

### Carbohydrate digestion

In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.

Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by genetic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.

Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.

### DNA and RNA digestion

DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.

## Non-destructive digestion

Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B12) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B12 non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B12 molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.

After the B12-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B12 molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B12-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B12-IF complexes in the blood.

## Digestive hormones

There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. Connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin system) have been uncovered.

* Gastrin – is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
* Secretin – is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
* Cholecystokinin (CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
* Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
* Motilin – is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.

## Significance of pH

Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.

In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.

## InfoBox

| Digestive system | |
| --- | --- |
| Details | |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | *systema digestorium* |
| MeSH | D004063 |
| Anatomical terminology | |


title: Becoming Babasaheb: The Life

abstract: Becoming Babasaheb: The Life is a book about B. R. Ambedkar written by Aakash Singh Rathore. The first of an ambitious two-volume biography, Becoming Babasaheb traces Ambedkar's life journey, from his birth in 1891 to the transformative Mahad Satyagraha in 1929. It was published on 13 April 2023 by HarperCollins.

text:
# Becoming Babasaheb: The Life

***Becoming Babasaheb: The Life*** is a book about B. R. Ambedkar written by Aakash Singh Rathore. The first of an ambitious two-volume biography, Becoming Babasaheb traces Ambedkar's life journey, from his birth in 1891 to the transformative Mahad Satyagraha in 1929. It was published on 13 April 2023 by HarperCollins.

## Critical reception

Uma Mahadevan-Dasgupta of *The Hindu* wrote "Every day, in the 21st century, the life of this tremendous intellectual and activist continues to be an inspiration to all those who care for social justice and equality". A Critic of *The Tribune* says "Rathore’s book refreshingly restarts and re-discovers Ambedkar. It gives us a panoramic-cinematic view and this addition of a newer version on Ambedkar’s life is always a must-read". Pratul Sharma of *The Week* wrote "The biography will enlighten the new and young readers amid renewed interest in Ambedkar, and of course those politically and ideologically inclined, and the academic researchers who have been missing out on the crucial details while referring to the older biographies".

## InfoBox

Becoming Babasaheb: The Life
| Author | Aakash Singh Rathore |
| --- | --- |
| Language | English |
| Publisher | HarperCollins |
| Publication date | 13 April 2023 |
| Publication place | India |
| Media type | Print (hardback) |
| Pages | 273 |
| ISBN | 978-9356991224 |


title: Chris Karan

abstract: Chris Karan is a Britain-based Australian jazz drummer and percussionist of Greek descent.

text:
# Chris Karan

**Chris Karan** (born **Chrisostomos Karanikis**, 14 October 1939) is a Britain-based Australian jazz drummer and percussionist of Greek descent.

## Life and career

Karan was born in 1939 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

Karan played in the Three Out trio with Mike Nock and Freddy Logan in Sydney in the early 1960s.

After moving to London in 1962, Karan became the drummer in the Dudley Moore Trio; he toured and recorded with Moore for many years, including the trio's appearances on the TV series *Not Only But Also* and the soundtrack of the 1967 movie *Bedazzled*. Their association continued until Moore's last major public appearance at Carnegie Hall in New York City in 2001. With Roy Budd he was a member of the Roy Love Trio and performed on the *Get Carter* soundtrack.

Karan has worked with the Yardbirds, Michel Legrand, Lalo Schifrin, Charles Aznavour, Stanley Myers, Basil Kirchin, Tony Hatch, Jackie Trent, Quincy Jones, Herbie Hancock, Jerry Goldsmith, Jerry Fielding, Pat Williams, André Previn, Richard Rodney Bennett, Barry Tuckwell, Carl Davis, Henry Mancini, the Beatles, the Seekers and Roy Budd. He toured with John Dankworth and Cleo Laine, the Bee Gees, Caterina Valente, Dusty Springfield, Lulu and the Swingle Singers. He was a member of the Harry Stoneham group, which provided the musical backing for the Michael Parkinson shows on BBC-TV.

He has worked with Katie Melua, along with putting out albums of his own. Other than drums he has an interest in percussion styles of the world. He plays the tabla on some albums, having studied the instrument under the Indian musician Alla Rakha.

## Discography

### As sideman

**With Mike Batt**

* *Schizophonia* (Epic, 1977)
* *Caravans* (CBS, 1978)
* *Tarot Suite* (Epic, 1979)
* *Arabesque* (Epic, 1995)

**With Roy Budd**

* *Is the Sound of Music* (Pye, 1967)
* *Pick Yourself Up!!!* (Pye, 1967)
* *Roy Budd at Newport* (Pye, 1968)
* *Budd 'n' Bossa* (Pye, 1970)
* *Get Carter* (Odeon, 1971)
* *Fear Is the Key* (Pye, 1972)
* *Everything's Coming Up Roses* (Pye, 1976)

**With Dudley Moore**

* *Plays the Theme from Beyond the Fringe & All That Jazz* (Atlantic, 1962)
* *The Other Side of Dudley Moore* (Decca, 1965)
* *Genuine Dud* (Decca, 1966)
* *Bedazzled* (Decca, 1968)
* *The Dudley Moore Trio* (Decca, 1969)
* *Today* (Atlantic, 1972)
* *At the Wavendon Festival* (Black Lion, 1976)
* *Dudley Down Under* (Cube, 1978)
* *The Music of Dudley Moore* (Cube, 1978)
* *Jazz Jubilee* (Martine, 2004)

**With others**

1. "Jazz jubilees October". Home.nestor.minsk.by. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
2. "Chris Karan official website - Biography". Chriskaran.com. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
3. "Interview with Chris Karan at Vinyl Vulture". Vinylvulture.co.uk. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.


title: Resurrecting Reality

abstract: Resurrection Reality is an EP by American hardcore band Vision of Disorder, released in early 1998.

text:
# Resurrecting Reality

Professional ratings
| Review scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| AllMusic |  |

***Resurrection Reality*** is an EP by American hardcore band Vision of Disorder, released in early 1998.

## Track listing

1. "Clone"
2. "Soul Craft" (Bad Brains cover) (old version)
3. "Element" (demo)
4. "Ways to Destroy One's Ambition" (demo)

## InfoBox

| Resurrection Reality (EP) | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| EP by Vision of Disorder | |
| Released | 1998 |
| Recorded | 1998 |
| Genre |  |
| Label | Crisis/Revelation Records |
| Producer | Vision of Disorder |
| Vision of Disorder chronology | |
| *Still*
(1995) ***Resurrection Reality (EP)***
(1998) | |


title: Beaunay

abstract: Beaunay is a commune in the Marne department in northeastern France.

text:
# Beaunay

**Beaunay** (French pronunciation: \[bonɛ\]) is a commune in the Marne department in northeastern France.

## Population

Historical population
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1968 | 99 |  |
| 1975 | 91 | −1.20% |
| 1982 | 112 | +3.01% |
| 1990 | 113 | +0.11% |
| 1999 | 114 | +0.10% |
| 2009 | 99 | −1.40% |
| 2014 | 112 | +2.50% |
| 2020 | 102 | −1.55% |
| Source: INSEE | | |

## Personalities

Beaunay is the birthplace of thoroughbred racehorse trainer, François Boutin.

## InfoBox

| Beaunay | |
| --- | --- |
| Commune | |
| The church in Beaunay | |
| Location of Beaunay | |
| BeaunayBeaunay | |
| Coordinates: 48°53′06″N 3°52′42″E / 48.885°N 3.8783°E / 48.885; 3.8783 | |
| Country | France |
| Region | Grand Est |
| Department | Marne |
| Arrondissement | Épernay |
| Canton | Dormans-Paysages de Champagne |
| Government | |
| Mayor (20202026) | Maurice Lombard |
| Area**1** | 3.53 km2 (1.36 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | 103 |
| Density | 29/km2 (76/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| INSEE/Postal code | 51045 /51270 |
| Elevation | 173 m (568 ft) |
| **1** French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers \> 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |


title: Dorcadion maljushenkoi

abstract: Dorcadion maljushenkoi is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Pic in 1908. It is known from the Caucasus.

text:
# Dorcadion maljushenkoi

***Dorcadion maljushenkoi*** is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Pic in 1908. It is known from the Caucasus.

## InfoBox

| *Dorcadion maljushenkoi* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Tribe: | Lamiini |
| Genus: | *Dorcadion* |
| Species: | ***D. maljushenkoi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Dorcadion maljushenkoi***<br>Pic, 1908 | |
|


title: 1994 Women's Rugby World Cup

abstract: The 1994 Women's Rugby World Cup was the second world cup for women. It was originally scheduled to be held in Amsterdam, Netherlands but was cancelled only weeks before. However, a replacement competition was organised around the same dates in Scotland. England beat the defending champions USA 38–23 in the final.

text:
# 1994 Women's Rugby World Cup

The **1994 Women's Rugby World Cup** was the second world cup for women. It was originally scheduled to be held in Amsterdam, Netherlands (10–24 April) but was cancelled only weeks before. However, a replacement competition was organised around the same dates in Scotland. England beat the defending champions USA 38–23 in the final.

## Background

The official reason for the cancellation was that the event organisers failed to get official endorsement of the event as the "Women's World Cup" from the International Rugby Board (IRB). The minutes of the 1993 Interim meeting of the IRB state the following about the "1994 Women's International Tournament":

"The Council agreed to defer consideration of participation by member unions in the tournament until such time as a formal request is received from the organizers."

Hence not only was there uncertainty to whether it really was the "Women's World Cup" or not, but the IRB refused to endorse it regardless of its status – the "deferral" (above) was in practice a refusal to endorse as the next scheduled IRB meeting was only days before the event was due to start. It was not until 2009 that the IRB officially endorsed the event as a "world cup" when it published, for the first time, a list of previous winners.

Because of this, the Unions of some countries decided not to pay team expenses (including New Zealand, where women's rugby was by now fully integrated in the national union, and ultimately others as well) or withdrew their entries. Several team members decided to go ahead and raised the money themselves, but the surrounding uncertainty of the event status and the financial risk from teams pulling out prompted the event organizers to (rather abruptly) cancel it.

The women who had trained so hard, and had gone to much trouble raising money etc., were so disappointed at the cancellation that an alternative tournament in Scotland was soon organized. Despite the IRB threatening sanctions against unions taking part in this unendorsed event, it went ahead.

This Women's Rugby World Cup, like its predecessor in 1991, was never endorsed by the IRB and the Scottish organizers did not pursue official sanctioning. However, all of the participating teams regarded it as the "real" World Cup.

Eventually eleven of the original sixteen entrants took part – as well as New Zealand, Netherlands also withdrew from both participation as well as hosts, and Spain pulled out very late – after the groups had been drawn – and were replaced by a Scottish Students team. Italy and Germany were also notable absentees. The Soviet Union would have competed but due to their dissolution, they were replaced by Russia and Kazakhstan.

Once the event was underway it proved to be a great success, England exacting revenge for their 1991 defeat to USA, beating the defending champions 38–23 in the final.

## Squads

## Match Officials

J Fleming (Boroughmuir)

## Pool stages

### Pool A

| Team | Pld | W | D | L | PF | PA | PD |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| United States | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 232 | 0 | +232 |
| Japan | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 126 | 116 |
| Sweden | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 121 | 116 |

Source:

| Sweden | 0–111 | United States |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Japan | 10–5 | Sweden |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Japan | 0–121 | United States |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Pool B

| Team | Pld | W | D | L | PF | PA | PD |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| England | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 92 | 0 | +92 |
| Scotland | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 51 | 26 | +25 |
| Russia | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 117 | 117 |

Source:

| England | 66–0 | Russia |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scotland | 51–0 | Russia |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scotland | 0–26 | England |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Pool C

| Team | Pld | W | D | L | PF | PA | PD |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| France | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 108 | 8 | +100 |
| Ireland | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 18 | 36 | 18 |
| Scottish Students | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 95 | 82 |

Source:

| Scottish Students | 8–77 | France |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scottish Students | 5–18 | Ireland |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| France | 31–0 | Ireland |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Pool D

| Team | Pld | W | D | L | PF | PA | PD |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Wales | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 40 | 13 | +27 |
| Canada | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 33 | 11 | +22 |
| Kazakhstan | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 57 | 49 |

Source:

| Canada | 5–11 | Wales |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Kazakhstan | 8–29 | Wales |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Canada | 28–0 | Kazakhstan |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

## Plate competition

### Round robin

| Team | Pld | W | D | L | PF | PA | PD | Ladder |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Kazakhstan | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 83 | 12 | +71 | 9th |
| Sweden | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 46 | 56 | 10 | 10th |
| Russia | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 37 | 57 | 20 | 11th |
| Scottish Students | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 24 | 65 | 41 | 12th |

Source:

| Russia | 13–20 | Sweden |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scottish Students | 0–27 | Kazakhstan |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

---

| Scottish Students | 12–14 | Sweden |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Kazakhstan | 25–0 | Russia |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

---

| Kazakhstan | 31–12 | Sweden |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scottish Students | 12–24 | Russia |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Plate final

| Kazakhstan | 29–12 | Sweden |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

## Championship

### Bracket

#### Championship

#### Shield

### Quarter-finals

| United States | 76–0 | Ireland |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| England | 24–10 | Canada |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| France | 99–0 | Japan |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scotland | 0–8 | Wales |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Championship semi-finals

| United States | 56–15 | Wales |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| England | 18–6 | France |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Shield semi-finals

| Canada | 57–0 | Japan |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| Scotland | 10–3 | Ireland |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Shield 3rd/4th (7th place)

| Ireland | 11–3 | Japan |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Shield final (5th place)

| Scotland | 11–5 | Canada |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Cup 3rd/4th place

| France | 27–0 | Wales |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

### Cup final

| England | 38–23 | United States |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |

| 1994 Women's Rugby World Cup winners |
| --- |
| **
England
First title** |

## InfoBox

1994 Women's Rugby World Cup
| Cupa Cruinne Rugbaidh nam Ban 1994 | |
| --- | --- |
| Tournament details | |
| Host nation | Scotland |
| Dates | 11 – 24 April 1994 |
| No. of nations | 12 |
| Final positions | |
| Champions | England (1st title) |
| Runner-up | United States |
| Tournament statistics | |
| Matches played | 31 |
| 1991 1998 | |


title: Charles Pearson, Lord Pearson

abstract: Charles John Pearson, Lord Pearson was a Scottish politician and judge who rose to be a Senator of the College of Justice.

text:
# Charles Pearson, Lord Pearson

**Charles John Pearson, Lord Pearson** (6 November 1843 – 15 August 1910) was a Scottish politician and judge who rose to be a Senator of the College of Justice.

## Life

He was born in Edinburgh on 6 November 1843. He was second son of Charles Pearson, chartered accountant, of Edinburgh, by his wife Margaret, daughter of John Dalziel, solicitor, of Earlston, Berwickshire. The family lived at Murrayfield House in west Edinburgh.

After attending Edinburgh Academy, he proceeded to the University of St. Andrews, and thence to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he distinguished himself in classics, winning the Gaisford Greek prizes for prose (1862) and verse (1863). He graduated B.A. with a first class in the final classical school in 1865.

He afterwards attended law lectures in Edinburgh, and became a member of the Juridical Society, of which he was librarian in 1872–3, and of the Speculative Society (president 1869–71). He was called to the English bar (from the Inner Temple) on 10 June 1870, and on 19 July 1870 passed to the Scottish bar, where he rapidly obtained a large practice. Though not one of the crown counsel for Scotland, he was specially retained for the prosecution at the trial of the City of Glasgow Bank directors (January 1879), became sheriff of chancery in 1885, and Procurator and cashier for the Church of Scotland in 1886.

In 1887, he was knighted, and was appointed sheriff of Renfrew and Bute in 1888 and of Perthshire in 1889. Pearson was a conservative, though not a keen politician, and in 1890 was appointed Solicitor General for Scotland in Lord Salisbury's second administration, and was elected (unopposed) as Edinburgh and St Andrews Universities. In the same year he became Q.C.

In 1891, he succeeded James Patrick Bannerman Robertson, as lord advocate, and was sworn of the privy council. At the general election of 1892, he was again returned unopposed for Edinburgh and St. Andrews Universities. After the fall of Lord Salisbury's ministry in 1892, he ceased to be lord advocate, and was chosen dean of the Faculty of Advocates. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh University in 1894, and on the return of the conservatives to power in the following year became again lord advocate, and resigned the deanship. In 1896, on the resignation of Andrew Rutherfurd-Clark, Lord Rutherfurd-Clark, he was raised to the bench, from which he retired, owing to bad health, in 1909.

In later life he lived at 7 Drumsheugh Gardens, a large Victorian townhouse in Edinburgh's West End.

He died at home in Edinburgh on 15 August 1910, and was buried in the Dean Cemetery. He is buried against the north wall of the Victorian northern extension, near the north-west corner.

## Family

On 23 July 1873, Pearson married Elizabeth Hewat, daughter of M. Grayhurst Hewat of St. Cuthbert's, Norwood, by whom he had three sons.