title: First same-sex marriage in Spain

abstract: The first same-sex marriage in Spain occurred on 8 June 1901. Two women, Marcela Gracia Ibeas and Elisa Sánchez Loriga, attempted to get married in A Coruña. To achieve it Elisa had to adopt a male identity: Mario Sánchez, as listed on the marriage certificate. It is the first attempt at same-sex marriage in Spain for which there is recorded evidence. It was performed by the Church, in the parish church of Saint George of the same city. The marriage certificate was never annulled. Their matrimonial union took place more than 100 years before same-sex couples were permitted to be married in Spain. The two worked as teachers at a time when the vast majority of the Galician population was illiterate. This event could be considered a precedent for same-sex marriage in Spain. News of their wedding was spread to all Spain and to various European countries. The couple escaped to Argentina.

text:
# First same-sex marriage in Spain

The **first same-sex marriage in Spain** occurred on 8 June 1901. Two women, Marcela Gracia Ibeas and Elisa Sánchez Loriga, attempted to get married in A Coruña (Galicia, Spain). To achieve it Elisa had to adopt a male identity: Mario Sánchez, as listed on the marriage certificate. It is the first attempt at same-sex marriage in Spain for which there is recorded evidence. It was performed by the Church, in the parish church of Saint George of the same city. The marriage certificate was never annulled.

Their matrimonial union took place more than 100 years before same-sex couples were permitted to be married in Spain. The two worked as teachers at a time when the vast majority of the Galician population was illiterate. This event could be considered a precedent for same-sex marriage in Spain. News of their wedding was spread to all Spain and to various European countries. The couple escaped to Argentina.

## First encounter, separation and reunion

Marcela and Elisa met while studying in the Teacher-Training College for Teachers in A Coruña, where the future teachers of elementary education were educated. Their friendship gave way to a more intimate relationship. Marcela's parents, seeing that the friendship was growing beyond what was socially permitted and fearing a possible scandal, sent their daughter to Madrid. Time went by and both, one in A Coruña and the other in Madrid, finished their studies. They were reunited again when Elisa was appointed as a temporary teacher at Couso, a small parish of Coristanco in A Coruña. Nearby, in Vimianzo, in the village of Calo, Marcela established herself already as a superior teacher. As a consequence of the same, they decided to live together in Calo, where Elisa worked. In 1889, Marcela had to go to teach classes at Dumbría while Elisa remained in Calo, but they stayed in contact until Elisa moved to the town where Marcela lived.

## False identity and marriage

In 1901, Elisa adopted a masculine appearance (with which she appeared in the Teaching College to apply for a certificate of study), fabricated a past, and was transformed into Mario. For this invented past, she took as reference a cousin of hers killed in a shipwreck. Furthermore, she made up that she had passed her childhood in London and that her father was an atheist. Considering this last circumstance, Father Víctor Cortiella, parish priest of San Jorge, baptized Mario on 26 May 1901 (furthermore, he received first communion), and subsequently married the couple on 8 June 1901 after the publication of the banns. The marriage ceremony was short; the sponsors bore witness to its validity; and the couple passed the night of the wedding in the boarding house Corcubión, on the street of San Andrés.

### Consequences

Finally, the neighbours could not remain indifferent as before, with what was at the moment known as "a marriage without a man". The couple were exposed by Galician and Madrid newspapers and, as a consequence of this, both quickly lost their jobs, were excommunicated, and were issued an arrest warrant. It appears that, so that the excommunication could take place, the parish priest requested a doctor examine Mario to check if he was a man or a woman. Mario agreed. When the doctor issued his verdict, Mario attempted to pass for a hermaphrodite whose condition had been diagnosed in London. The Civil Guard pursued the couple to the town of Dumbrías, where they both worked as teachers. There is evidence that they passed for Vigo and Oporto in their escape. The last that is known of them is that they managed to board a ship destined for South America (possibly Argentina, as so many other Spaniards of the era), where they spent their honeymoon and, finally, stayed to live. One of the cases that one of the courts took against them was closed. Several years later, some residents of Dumbría spread a rumour about the death of Elisa and the subsequent marriage of Marcela to a man. This rumour has not been confirmed.

The wedding, according to the Diocesan Archive, is still valid, as neither the Church nor the civil registry annulled the marriage certificates, so this is the first recorded same-sex marriage in Spain.

On 18 December 2008, the book *Elisa e Marcela – Alén dos homes* (Elisa and Marcela – Beyond men), by Narciso de Gabriel, was published in A Coruña. The 300-page book, written in Galician, tells the story of the two women from the time they fled Coruña in 1901 until 1904. It narrates the events in Porto, Portugal, where they were imprisoned, tried, and later released. They fled to Argentina after the Spanish government demanded their extradition from Portugal.

Before leaving Porto for the Americas, Marcela gave birth to a girl. After they landed in Buenos Aires, Elisa (under the alias of Maria) married Christian Jensen, a wealthy immigrant from Denmark 24 years her senior, in 1903. Marcela, under the alias of Carmen, stayed there with her sister and her daughter.

Elisa refused to consummate the marriage with Jensen. He grew suspicious and tried to have the marriage annulled on the grounds that Elisa wasn't, in fact, a woman. This claim was never substantiated: Three medical examinations confirmed that Elisa was a woman. Since the marriage was between a man and a woman, and therefore valid, no charges were brought against Elisa. After this time, there is no further record of Marcela and Elisa.

In current media the courage of these two women is emphasized, stressing that they went into history as the first gay marriage in Spain. Isaías Lafuente (editor in chief of Cadena SER), in his book *Agrupémonos todas*, looks at the highlights of feminism in the twentieth century and indicates the story of Marcela and Elisa as one of the most significant events related to the movement occurring in Galicia (another is the figure of Emilia Pardo Bazán).

The group Milhomes founded the Marcela and Elisa Award, which, with the help of the FELGTB, is already in its sixth edition. They also claim a long street with their name in A Coruña, with little success so far.

In 1902 the book *La sed de amar*, by the Extremaduran writer Felipe Trigo, was published in Spain. This was a book of great impact in that period. It includes the story of Marcela and Elisa, using the names of Rosa and Claudia, respectively. The profile of these two women and the story of their relationship is transcribed to the fiction of the book with almost total equivalence to the real story. Felipe Trigo's own footnotes in one edition of the book state that the story is real and happened in A Coruña in 1901.

## First documented marriage between people of the same sex in 1061

Nowadays this event is considered one of the oldest precursors to same-sex marriage between two consenting people of the same gender in Spain. However, it may not actually have been the first. In the Middle Ages, a same-sex marriage between the two men Pedro Díaz and Muño Vandilaz in the Galician municipality of Rairiz de Veiga was recorded on 16 April 1061. The historic documents about the church wedding were found at Monastery of San Salvador de Celanova in Celanova, Ourense, from where they were transferred to the National Historical Archive of Madrid. It is not known whether the priest was aware of the gender of both.

## 2005 legislation

Same-sex marriage was legalized in Spain in 2005, by law 13/2005. The first same-sex marriage under that law took place on 11 July of that year, in Tres Cantos, Madrid, between Emilio Menéndez and Carlos Baturín, who had lived as a couple for more than thirty years. The first marriage of two women under the law was 11 days later, in Barcelona.

## Representation in film

The story of Marcela Gracia Ibeas and Elisa Sánchez Loriga was the basis of the 2019 film *Elisa & Marcela*, directed by Isabel Coixet.

## Today

In 2020, an Argentine lady, Norma Graciela Moure, discovered she is the great-granddaughter of Marcela who went by the name Marcela Carmen Garcia in Argentina. It is thought that Elisa committed suicide in Veracruz in 1909, however, this has not been confirmed.


abstract: The First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V is one of the six Letters of relation written by Pedro de Valdivia to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor by his name in the Holy Roman Empire in which he relates his journey to Chile and the conquest of that land. This first letter was dated on 20 August 1545, the late winter of the southern hemisphere. It differs from other letters sent from conquistadores to Charles V by emphasizing the difficulties, called "trabajos", literally "works" in the letter, of conquest. It [Chile] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine that is not necessary to resort to fire. The summer is so temperate, with delicious airs, that man can go all day under the sun. It is rich in pastures and cultivated fields, in which all kind of animals and plants can be bred or grown, there is plenty of very beautiful wood for making houses, and plenty of firewood, and rich gold mines, and all land is full of them...

text:
# First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V

The **First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V** is one of the six *Letters of relation* written by Pedro de Valdivia to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor by his name in the Holy Roman Empire in which he relates his journey to Chile and the conquest of that land. This first letter was dated on 20 August 1545, the late winter of the southern hemisphere. It differs from other letters sent from conquistadores to Charles V by emphasizing the difficulties, called "trabajos", literally "works" in the letter, of conquest.

> It \[Chile\] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine that is not necessary to resort to fire. The summer is so temperate, with delicious airs, that man can go all day under the sun. It is rich in pastures and cultivated fields, in which all kind of animals and plants can be bred or grown, there is plenty of very beautiful wood for making houses, and plenty of firewood, and rich gold mines, and all land is full of them...
>
> Excerpt from the letter.


title: Junkers Ju 322

abstract: The Junkers Ju 322 Mammut was a heavy transport military glider, resembling a giant flying wing, proposed for use by the Luftwaffe in World War II; only two prototypes were completed, a further 98 were scrapped before completion.

text:
# Junkers Ju 322

The **Junkers Ju 322 *Mammut*** (German for mammoth) was a heavy transport military glider, resembling a giant flying wing, proposed for use by the *Luftwaffe* in World War II; only two prototypes were completed, a further 98 were scrapped before completion.

## Development

Designed in late 1940 by Junkers as the **Junkers EF 094**, the Ju 322 was to fulfill the same role as the Me 321 *Gigant* heavy transport glider. Fulfilling a requirement to be built out of non-strategic materials, using all-wooden construction, the Ju322 was to be able to carry 20,000 kg (44,000 lb) of cargo, equivalent to either a Panzer IV tank, a 88mm anti-aircraft gun, a half-track or a self propelled gun, including attendant personnel, ammunition and fuel. The cargo door was located in the centre section of the leading edge of the wing, with the cockpit offset to the port side above the cargo bay. The glider's tailplane extended from the centre section, and had a typical arrangement of stabilizing fins and vertical rudder. Armament for production gliders would have consisted of three manned turrets, each with a single 7.92 mm MG 15 machine gun.

## Testing

During construction of the first prototype (**Ju 322 V1**), problems were encountered with building an all-wooden glider as Junkers did not have expertise in the use of such materials. A test with a battle tank compacted the cargo floor, leading to redesign, further reducing the payload. Consequently, the planned payload weight for the Ju 322 was reduced to 16,000 kg (35,000 lb; 16 long tons), and later to 11,000 kg (24,000 lb; 11 long tons).

The Ju 322 V1 made its maiden flight in April 1941, towed by a Junkers Ju 90 four-engined transport. The test flight was largely successful after the Ju 90 had managed, with some effort, to tow the glider off the ground before running out of runway. However, the Ju 322 quickly gained height above the Ju 90 and so pulled the tugs tail up and prevented it from climbing and releasing the tow cable at the right height. The glider was also highly unstable under tow. After being released, it stabilized but landed in a field from which it took two weeks to be towed back to the launch airfield by tanks. Although design improvements were planned for the Ju 322, the RLM ordered the Ju 322 project dropped in May 1941, considering it an inherently poor design.

Following the cancellation of the project, the Ju 322 V1 completed a few more test flights, but was cut up for fuel along with the **Ju 322 V2** and 98 partially completed gliders.

## Specifications Ju 322 V1

*Data from* *German Aircraft of the Second World War*

**General characteristics**

* **Crew:** 3
* **Capacity:** 140 troops or 20,000 kg (44,000 lb) of cargo (estimated), limited to 12,000 kg (26,000 lb)
* **Length:** 30.25 m (99 ft 3 in)
* **Wingspan:** 62 m (203 ft 5 in)
* **Height:** 3.08 m (10 ft 1 in)
* **Wing area:** 595 m2 (6,400 sq ft)
* **Empty weight:** 25,401 kg (56,000 lb)
* **Gross weight:** 40,823 kg (89,999 lb)

**Armament**

* **Guns:** 3x 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 15 machine-guns

**Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era**

## Further reading

* Green, William; Punnett, Dennis (with line drawings by) (1970). *The warplanes of the Third Reich* (4. impression. ed.). London: Macdonald & Co. ISBN 0-356-02382-6.

## InfoBox

| Ju 322 *Mammut* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Type | Heavy transport glider |
| Manufacturer | Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG |
| Designer | Heinrich Hertel |
| Primary user | Luftwaffe |
| Number built | 2 |
| History | |
| First flight | April 1941 |


title: 1964 New Zealand Grand Prix

abstract: The 1964 New Zealand Grand Prix was a race held at Pukekohe Park Raceway on 11 January 1964. The race had 16 starters. It was the eleventh New Zealand Grand Prix and doubled as round two of the 1964 Tasman Series. Bruce McLaren broke through to finally win his home grand prix in this the first official Tasman Series. This win paved the way for McLaren's overall victory in the first Tasman Series.

text:
# 1964 New Zealand Grand Prix

The **1964 New Zealand Grand Prix** was a race held at Pukekohe Park Raceway on 11 January 1964. The race had 16 starters.

It was the eleventh New Zealand Grand Prix and doubled as round two of the 1964 Tasman Series. Bruce McLaren broke through to finally win his home grand prix in this the first official Tasman Series. This win paved the way for McLaren's overall victory in the first Tasman Series.

## Classification

Results as follows:

| Pos | No. | Driver | Team | Car | Laps | Time | Points |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 47 | Bruce McLaren | Bruce McLaren Motor Racing | Cooper T70 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 50 | 1h 14m 20.7s | **9** |
| 2 | 5 | Denny Hulme | Brabham Racing | Brabham BT4 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 50 | 1h 14m 25.1s | **6** |
| 3 | 48 | Timmy Mayer | Bruce McLaren Motor Racing | Cooper T70 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 50 | 1h 14m 36.4s | **4** |
| 4 | 8 | John Youl | John Youl | Cooper T55 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 50 | 1h 15m 21.6s | **3** |
| 5 | 41 | Jim Palmer | Frank Garrett | Cooper T53 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 49 |  | **2** |
| 6 | 11 | Tony Shelly | Shelly Motors Ltd. | Lotus 18/21 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 48 |  | **1** |
| 7 | 12 | Andy Buchanan | Wilson Motors Ltd. | Brabham BT6 / Ford 1.6 | 46 |  |  |
| 8 | 6 | David Young | David Young | Cooper T59 / Ford 1.5 | 46 |  |  |
| 9 | 22 | Roly Levis | R.A. Levis | Lotus 22 / Ford 1.6 | 45 |  |  |
| 10 | 23 | Dene Hollier | Dene Hollier Ltd. | Cooper T52 / Ford 1.5 | 43 |  |  |
| 11 | 7 | Ken Sagar | J.H. Sagar | Lotus 20 / Ford 1.5 | 43 |  |  |
| 12 | 25 | Rex Flowers | Flowers Transport | Lotus 20B / Ford 1.5 | 43 |  |  |
| Ret | 4 | Jack Brabham | Brabham Racing | Brabham BT7A / Climax FPF 2.5 | 29 |  |  |
| Ret | 2 | Frank Matich | Team Total | Brabham BT7A / Climax FPF 2.5 | 27 |  |  |
| Ret |  | Arnold Glass | Capitol Motors | Lotus 27 / Ford 1.5 | 26 |  |  |
| Ret | 3 | Chris Amon | Reg Parnell Racing | Lola Mk4 / Climax FPF 2.5 | 12 |  |  |
| Ret | 16 | Jim Boyd | Jack Malcolm | Valour VP1 / Ford 1.1 | 11 |  |  |
| DNS | 9 | Bill Thomasen | Corsair Racing Team | Cooper T51 / Climax FPF 2.0 |  |  |  |
| DNQ | 15 | Ken Smith | M.J. Smith | Lola Mk.2 / Ford 1.5 |  |  |  |
|

## InfoBox

| 1964 New Zealand Grand Prix | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Race 2 of 8 in 1964 Tasman Series | | | |
|  | | | |
| Race details | | | |
| Date | 11 January 1964 | | |
| Location | Pukekohe Park Raceway, Pukekohe, New Zealand | | |
| Course | Permanent racing facility | | |
| Course length | 2.82 km (1.76 miles) | | |
| Distance | 50 laps, 141 km (88 miles) | | |
| Weather | Sunny | | |
| Pole position | | | |
| Driver |  | Brabham-Climax |
| Fastest lap | | | |
| Driver | Frank Matich | Brabham-Climax |
| Time | 1'26.2 | | |
| Podium | | | |
| First |  | Cooper-Climax |
| Second |  | Brabham-Climax |
| Third |  | Cooper-Climax |


title: Preben Eriksen

abstract: Preben Kollster Eriksen in Odense, Denmark, is a former motorcycle speedway rider from Denmark. He earned 41 caps for the Denmark national speedway team.

text:
# Preben Eriksen

**Preben Kollster Eriksen** (born 9 August 1958) in Odense, Denmark, is a former motorcycle speedway rider from Denmark. He earned 41 caps for the Denmark national speedway team.

## Career

Eriksen rode with the Wolverhampton Wolves in 1977 but was recalled by the Danish Federation because he was refused clearance over the fact that he did not have senior status. His return to Wolves was thwarted when Ipswich Witches beat them to his signature for the 1979 British League season. He spent five years at Ipswich, building his average up from 4.45 in 1979 to 8.83 in 1982 and won the Knockout Cup in 1981. He finally joined Wolves for the 1984 British League season and spent five years with the Midlands club.

He was part of the Danish national team during their period of domination during the 1980s and won the World Team Cup with Denmark in 1984 and 1985, riding alongside some of the world's best riders at the time Hans Nielsen, Erik Gundersen and Tommy Knudsen.

## World Final Appearances

### Individual World Championship

### World Team Cup

## InfoBox

Preben Eriksen
| Born | (1958-08-09) 9 August 1958<br>Odense, Denmark |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Danish |
| Career history | |
| **Denmark** | |
| **Great Britain** | |
| 1977, 1984-1988 | Wolverhampton Wolves |
| 1979-1983 | Ipswich Witches |
| 1989 | Mildenhall Fen Tigers |
|  | |
| Team honours | |
| 1984, 1985 | World Team Cup |
| 1981 | British League KO Cup winner |
|  | |


title: Casimir Zeglen

abstract: Casimir Zeglen, CR was a Polish Catholic priest who invented a silk bulletproof vest in the late 19th century. He was a vowed member of the Resurrectionists.

text:
# Casimir Zeglen

**Casimir Zeglen**, CR (Polish: **Kazimierz Żegleń**; 4 March 1869 – before 1927) was a Polish Catholic priest who invented a silk bulletproof vest in the late 19th century. He was a vowed member of the Resurrectionists.

## Life and career

Born in 1869 in Kaczanówka near Tarnopol, at the age of 18 he entered the Resurrectionist Order in Lwów (today Lviv). In 1890, he moved to the United States.

In 1893, after the assassination of Carter Harrison Sr., the mayor of Chicago, he worked on an improved silk bulletproof vest. In 1897, he worked on it with Jan Szczepanik. It saved the life of Alfonso XIII, the King of Spain—his carriage was covered with Szczepanik's bulletproof armour when a bomb exploded near it.

He was the pastor of St. Stanislaus Kostka Catholic Church in Chicago, then the largest Polish church in the country, with 40,000 in the parish. In his early twenties, he began experimenting with the cloth, using steel shavings, moss, and hair. In his research, he came upon the work of Dr. George E. Goodfellow, who had written about the bullet-resistive properties of silk. In his mid-thirties he discovered a way to weave the silk, to enable it to capture the bullet, while visiting weaving mills in Vienna, Austria and Aachen, Germany. A 18 in (3.175 mm) thick, four-ply bulletproof vest produced there was able to protect the wearer from the lower velocity pistol bullets of that era.

He died in 1927.

## Sources

* "Three Grades of Fabric", *Brooklyn Eagle*, 9 October 1902
* Łotysz, Sławomir. "Mnich wynalazca" (Monk-inventor). Polonia (Chicago) Vol. 13, No. 1-2 (2007) pp. 68–71, and Vol. 14, No. 3-4 (2007) pp. 64–67.
* Articles in Nowy Dziennik (a Polish Daily News) published in New York City): Kuloodporny ksiądz (*Bulletproof priest*), 5 May 2006; Polski ksiądz i Polski Edison (*A Polish priest and the Polish Edison*), 13 May 2006; Od habitu do opony (*From a Religious habit to a tire*), 20 May 2006.

## InfoBox

| The ReverendCasimir ZeglenCR | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Kazimierz Żegleń
(1869-03-04)March 4, 1869
Kaczanówka, Austria-Hungary (now Ukraine) |
| Died | 1927(1927-00-00) (aged 57–58)
unknown |
| Nationality | Polish |
| Alma mater | Warsaw University of Technology |
| Occupation | priest |
| Known for | invention of bulletproof vest |


title: Carron Bridge (River Spey)

abstract: The Carron Bridge is a bridge at Carron in Moray, Scotland, which crosses the River Spey between the parishes of Knockando and Aberlour. It was built for the Strathspey Railway in 1863, to a design by Alexander Gibb, an engineer for the Great North of Scotland Railway, and fabricated by the iron founders William McKinnon and Co. It originally carried both the railway and a roadway, but the railway has now closed.

text:
# Carron Bridge (River Spey)

The **Carron Bridge** is a bridge at Carron in Moray, Scotland, which crosses the River Spey between the parishes of Knockando and Aberlour. It was built for the Strathspey Railway in 1863, to a design by Alexander Gibb, an engineer for the Great North of Scotland Railway, and fabricated by the iron founders William McKinnon and Co. It originally carried both the railway and a roadway, but the railway has now closed.

## Description

Carron Bridge is located near the town of Carron, in Moray, Scotland. The main span, a 45.7-metre-wide (150 ft) segmental arch, is supported by three cast iron ribs, each cast in seven parts and bolted together, with masonry flood arches on each bank, which have spans of 7.6 metres (25 ft). The spandrels linking the main arch to the carriageways are composed of delicate cast iron lattice work. At either end are abutment piers of rustic ashlar, protected by triangular cutwaters.

## History

The bridge was constructed between 1862 and 1863 by engineer Alexander Gibb of the Great North of Scotland Railway, and ironfounders William McKinnon and Co. It was the last cast iron railway bridge to be built in Scotland and was also the last to be used by railway traffic. When the Strathspey line closed in 1968, the railway tracks adjoining the road were removed. It was designated a Category A listed building in 1987. Proposals were put forward in 1993 to replace the bridge with a steel structure. Historic Scotland successfully objected to these, and the original structure was preserved and renovated to include the current single-lane road with adjoining footpath.

## InfoBox

| Carron Bridge | |
| --- | --- |
| The Carron Bridge arching over the Spey | |
| Coordinates | 57°27′15″N 3°17′38″W / 57.45417°N 3.29389°W / 57.45417; -3.29389 |
| Carries | Railway and road (railway now closed) |
| Crosses | River Spey |
| Heritage status | Category A listed building |
| Characteristics | |
| Material | Cast iron |
| Longest span | 45.7 metres |
| History | |
| Architect | Alexander Gibb |
| Fabrication by | William McKinnon and Co, Aberdeen |
| Opened | 1863 |
| Location | |
|  | |


title: Democratic Society Party closure case

abstract: The closure case of the Democratic Society Party (DTP) between 2007 and 2009 was against a pro-Kurdish political party in Turkey which was accused of opposing the unity of the country and having links to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). The case was opened in September 2007 and resulted in the closure of the party in December 2009. The DTP was the 25th political party which was banned in the Turkish Republic since 1962.

text:
# Democratic Society Party closure case

The **closure case** of the Democratic Society Party (DTP) between 2007 and 2009 was against a pro-Kurdish political party in Turkey which was accused of opposing the unity of the country and having links to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). The case was opened in September 2007 and resulted in the closure of the party in December 2009. The DTP was the 25th political party which was banned in the Turkish Republic since 1962.

## Background

The Republic of Turkey has a history of closing a number of pro-Kurdish parties. The Democracy Party (DEP), the People's Labor Party (HEP) and also the People's Democracy Party (HADEP) have been closed before. At the same time of the DTP closure case, also the Justice and Development Party (AKP) of Recep Tayyip Erdogan was facing a closure trial.

### Requirements

For the closure of a party the Constitutional Court of Turkey needs a ruling of a qualified majority which in the closure case of the Democratic Society Party (DTP) meant a majority of 7 judges out of 11.

## Trial

### Indictment

On 16 September 2007, the state prosecutor of the Supreme Court Abdurrahman Yalcinkaya submitted an indictment before the Constitutional Court demanding the closure of the DTP. In the indictment the prosecutor reasoned that the speeches and actions of the party were against the unity of the state which was contrary to the Turkish Constitution and the Law on Political Parties. That the DTP demanded education in the native language and a federal administration were viewed as evidence of the party receiving orders by Abdullah Öcalan, the imprisoned leader of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). The prosecution also requested a political ban for 221 party members of the DTP. The state prosecutor Abdurrahman Yalcinkaya repeated his demand for the closure of the party in June 2008.

### Defense

The DTP submitted their written defense in June 2008, arguing that 129 out of 141 evidences provided by the prosecution should be viewed in light of freedom of expression. After the DTP requested more time for an oral defense, the court ordered the postponement of the oral defense to the 16 September 2008. In the oral defense, DTP-chairman Ahmet Türk argued that the court should take into consideration the values of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) and the Venice Commission and opposed the use of weapons to solve the problems of the country while urging for a democratic solution.

### Further developments

Following the oral defense of the DTP, the court began to view the provided evidence and defense. The Courts presiding judge Haşim Kılıç stated that there were about 150 trials of DTP politicians which needed to be examined before coming to a conclusion and announced a decision might come after the Municipal Elections in 2009. The Turkish politician Devlet Bahçeli of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) supported the party's prosecution in 2008 and the European Union, of which Turkey aspired a membership, had opposed the trial and demanded more rights for the Kurdish population in Turkey. After the DTP suggested an autonomy in Southeast Anatolia in order to find a solution to the Kurdish Turkish conflict, the state prosecutor pressured the Court of Cassation to ban the party in early November 2009. Just days before the verdict, the Human Rights Association of Turkey demanded a democratic solution for the Kurdish Question in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.

### Verdict

On 11 December 2009 the Court of Cassation under the presidency of Haşim Kılıç banned the party with eleven votes, thus making it a unanimous decision. Kılıç reasoned that there was no difference between the PKK and the DTP and that nowhere in the world had a terrorist organization the right to express itself freely. Additionally to the closure, thirty-seven politicians received a five-year ban on political activities. Among the notable politicians targeted with the political ban were the party co-Chairs Ahmet Türk and Aysel Tugluk, and Nurettin Demirtas, Hüseyin Kalkan, Leyla Zana, Musa Farisoğulları, and Selim Sadak.

### Aftermath

As a result of the verdict, the parties′ properties were transferred to the Turkish treasury. The party closure was contrary to the aims of the Government of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) which supported a political solution. The European Union, of which Turkey aspired a membership, had opposed the trial in the past. The remaining politicians of the DTP announced their withdrawal from the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, but at the request of Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) the politicians returned to the assembly.

## Appeal before the European Court of Human Rights

In January 2010 Hasip Kaplan, a former member of the DTP appealed to the European Court of Human Rights. In 2016 the ECHR ruled that the speeches and actions by the DTP politicians were not seen as support of Abdullah Öcalan or the Kurdistan Workers' Parties even though the co-presidents of the DTP refused to call the PKK a terrorist organization and ordered Turkey to pay a monetary compensation of €30,000 to each of the two co-chairs.


title: The Shape of Time

abstract: The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things is a short book by George Kubler, published in 1962 by Yale University Press. It presents an approach to historical change which challenges the notion of style by placing the history of objects and images in a larger continuum. Kubler proposes new forms of historical sequencing where objects and images provide solutions to evolving problems. Kubler lays out a perspective where processes of innovation, replication, and mutation are in continuous conversation through time.

text:
# The Shape of Time

***The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things*** is a short book by George Kubler, published in 1962 by Yale University Press. It presents an approach to historical change which challenges the notion of style by placing the history of objects and images in a larger continuum. Kubler proposes new forms of historical sequencing where objects and images provide solutions to evolving problems. Kubler lays out a perspective where processes of innovation, replication, and mutation are in continuous conversation through time.

## Summary

### Chapter 1: The History of Things

Kubler begins the chapter by discussing "The Limitations of Biography" where he lays out the problems encountered when thinking about objects through the histories of their makers. Within this section he discusses the importance of the point of entrance of the individual maker into the ongoing history of their objects, the role of biological and physical metaphors, and the relation between scientists and artists.

When looking back at the history of things, the historian using biological metaphors is not useful. "Purpose has no place in biology, but history has no meaning without it" (8). Kubler chose the phrase the "history of things" with the intention of rejoining objects with their ideas. The pursuit of the historian is to "identify and reconstruct" problems, actions, and solutions. "We always may be sure that every man-made thing arises from a problem as a purposeful solution" (8). In *The Shape of Time*, Kubler considers all man-made objects with the idea that everything is invented because of human desire and need.

While both scientists and artists are inventors, one creates solutions to solve physical problems while the other spiritual. Their histories share traits of invention, change and obsolescence (10). Although, at the same time has its extreme differences. The mechanics of a tool may be complicated but is always "intrinsically simple" (11). while a work of art may appear simple yet hold the most complex set of thoughts.

Kubler also discusses the role of the historian, the nature of actuality, and lays out his idea of self-signals and adherent signals.

**Talent and Genius**

The comparisons between talent and genius are explored in regard to time and degree. Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael are provided as examples; to debate between who is more talented is a moot point. Both were extremely talented artists but the other artists of the time "came late when the feast was over through no fault of their own" (7). The ideas of 'nature vs. nurture' in regard to the inheritable traits of genius; Kubler concludes that genius is indeed a result of 'nurture' as learning is not a biological concern.

### Chapter 2: The Classing of Things

This chapter begins with Kubler's thoughts about the way objects become sequences. He discusses the difference between the existence of objects created from short term fashionable durations versus objects that provide solutions to concrete or conceptual problems.

**Prime Object and Replications**

A Prime Object is an original - whether that be an actual object or an idea. Replications are the reproductions of the Prime Object. It is often difficult to trace or track the origin of a prime occurrence as we typically see the offspring and relatives to the prime through replications and mutations. Frequently a perceived Prime Object is the result of subtle changes to a true Prime Object through: social, economic or political influences. The person copying the prime object will never have the same circumstances or feelings as the original maker. Investigating the history of an object or idea can give clues as to how authentic is the Prime Object. It is equally difficult to generate a prime occurrence, which is why replicating one is a more prevalent practice. For example, today's hammer is generally various permutations of a T-shaped object with a metal head placed on a wooden handle - if the entire object itself is not metal. The Prime Object of that hammer may have been a rock used to pound something into the ground.

The problem with classifying a Prime Object is knowing when we are in the presence of a prime object, especially since most (if not all) objects that we come across are really replications of a previous concept. Quite often, Primes are not evident without a significant amount of replications, over a significant period of time, to observe that something influential and indivisible of its parts has presented itself: "When we consider the class of these great moments, we are usually confronted with dead stars. Even their light has ceased to reach us. We know of their existence only indirectly, by their perturbations, and by the immense detritus of derivative stuff left in their paths."

At this point in Chapter 2 Kubler compares great moments in art and inspired ideas to "dead stars". This is an interesting metaphor because of the mythology behind dead stars. On the planet earth it takes many years to see the death of a star, because of the great distance between the stars and the earth. The light of a dead star still can be seen as from earth because when the light began to travel visually to earth the star was still an existence. When applied to that of an idea it is an interesting parallel. Do viewers of art and artists themselves know the style is already dead and outdated because of the constant evolution of ideas and artistic trends, do they know they are seeing a dying star's last light?

**Mutants**

Mutations of a Prime Object occur when a replication of the original concept becomes better, or different, than the original. The rock might have been the earliest form of a hammer, but it was improved when someone tied a handle onto the rock so it would swing harder and faster. Another example is a family recipe that is handed down from generation to generation. Each new generation working with that family recipe may make small changes improving the taste or look of the food. The later manifestations of that original recipe tend to be even better than the Prime Source.

**Adherent and Self-signals**

The self-signal, as Kubler contends, is the obvious purpose of objects—artwork or tool. The self-signal of a hammer, for example, is its "mute declaration" that its intended use is to be grasped by the handle, thus extending the individual's fist through the peen for driving a nail into a plank(24). The adherent signal of the hammer is the patent and protected trademark of a specific manufacturing address stamped on the handle. Using the example of fine art, Kubler explains that the self-signal of a painting is its colors and their arrangement on the two-dimensional surface that alerts the viewer to concede to a visual language that will produce enjoyment. "Part of the self-signal," writes Kubler, "is that thousands of years of painting still have not exhausted the possibilities of such an apparent simple category of sensation" (24, 25). The adherent signal of the painting is, for example, the culturally recognized depiction of a well-known myth or historical scene.

Kubler points out that neither adherent signals, which speak only of meaning, nor self-signals, which prove only existence, are enough to assign value to a tool or artwork. The combination of the two is key. As Kubler explains, "...existence without meaning seems terrible in the same degree as meaning without existence seems trivial" (25).

**Serial Appreciation**

Kubler declares that nearly everything is based from an original object. Whether the copy, manipulated or not, is better or worse than the original ultimately does not matter; The object is still a copy. However, it is up to the maker to decide how to mutate the original as well as to create another domain for the object. The maker is the one who subconsciously creates boundaries on the object thus limiting its full potential.

Kubler notes that art has "an unmistakable erosion" (46) that wears down any work of art. This 'erosion' is particularly caused from the artist's failing to describe the process that was needed to obtain the finished piece as well as "the steps in the artist's elaboration of his conceptions." Some of these descriptions may be trivial but what lies between the trivial and the factual is the work.

**Solitary and Gregarious Artist**

Kubler says that "Today the artist is neither a rebel nor an entertainer."(53) he explains how art is affected by different personalities. He explains how more social personalities work well in music and theatre while introverted personalities are more common in visual art. However, even within visual art a certain amount of sociability allows for artists to be more in tune with their clients and rivals. The social artist has even been used as a kind of entertainment in royal houses. He has also used social characteristics to rebel. However, Kubler ends the section saying that the artist no longer functions as an entertainer or rebel. "More lonely than ever, the artist today is like Dedalus, the strange artificer of wonderful and frightening surprises for his immediate circle."(53)

The revelation of the prime is often revealed in hindsight when history presents itself distant and more easily observed. The momentary actions of our everyday lives are herald by a much greater force of previous history. Therefore, each action is a compression and replication of the past. The unique personality reforms the replica as prime by an erosion of its former manifestation understanding of its conceptual replication and places it within contemporary language.

### Chapter 3: The Propagation of Things

This chapter is concerned with the use of things and examines the point when they become less viable and gradually discarded. There are several topics that Kubler addresses in this chapter: invention and variation, replication, discard and retention. Society is hurt by both too much replication and too much invention. Stagnation occurs when ideas and objects are perpetually replicated, and chaos ensues when society is bombarded with numerous inventions. In discussing artistic invention, Kubler makes an important distinction between artistic invention and useful invention. Kubler states, "In rough terms, artistic invention is one among many ways of altering the set of the mind, while useful invention marks out the scope of the knowledge the instrument was previously designed to encompass"(66). Kubler shows that there is a certain complicated logic to the propagation of things, and it is important to follow the different patterns of change in ideas and things.

Kubler considers several ideas surrounding the development of things in the world. He examines the ways in which our conceptions of time and our attitudes toward change affect the invention, replication, discard, and retention of objects and discusses useful and artistic invention. These concepts are differentiated in their effect upon humans; thus, artistic inventions change perceptions of our reality and our situation within it, while useful inventions hew more to an alteration of our quotidian needs and concerns based in our physical concrete experiences. Kubler asserts that society dislikes change to a degree that militates against invention, resulting in a circumstance where it is only those few who escape the bonds of "convention" who produce true inventions.

He posits two manners of this production. The first has to do with the meeting of previously divergent information whose conflux results in a new awareness of solutions or the coming together of "practice" and "principle." The second way in which things develop is more resonant of pure invention, in that the inventor creates solely by means of his own engagement with his milieu: the invention. In this case, the invention is experientially and theoretically untied to earlier thinking. Kubler states that an artistic invention does not relate to previous solutions in a formal sequence as readily as a useful invention will.

The useful object, because of its very nature, will proceed by smaller incremental steps to advance through its refinements and toward its greater complexity. Therefore, in Kubler's thinking, there may be no perceptible links between two iterations in an artistic sequence of things, the transformations apparently being magical or immediate, while we may easily apprehend the links in a chain of useful inventions. Replication of the object, in Kubler's terms, is rife with a natural variation produced through inevitable minute changes within the production process. It is thus impossible to reproduce an object with exactitude, which in Kubler's mind results in an inexorable "drift" away from the object's manifestation at inception. Kubler notes that this movement of a replica over time may be either toward or away from quality. If a replica moves toward betterment, it may arise from our natural wish to improve upon a model, or native talent in a practitioner. When a replica's quality decreases, it may be the result either of economic factors, or the manufacturer's lack of ability in comprehending the whole of the object. The replica, according to Kubler, has to do with regular occurrences, of things which happen at regular intervals; thus, it is time-based. The invention, on the other hand, appertains to the historical and to variations and change within the object. Kubler contends that invention without replication "would approach chaos", whereas extended replication without the intervention of invention would conclude in "formlessness".

Kubler claims that we tend to retain the artistic or aesthetic object for a longer time than a useful object (resulting in a longer duration of the sequence) because the useful object can only fulfill one function in our world, whereas an artistic object, in its appeals to our metaphysical lives, and its putative enhancement of them, remains of greater value to us. This more total disappearance of the useful object results in more thoroughly closed sequences. (An example of a closed sequence in the world of the useful object is the buggy whip, which was rendered obsolete through the invention of the automobile.) The ways in which we think about change and respond to our environments, in Kubler's estimation, govern not only the rate at which inventions are made, but also whether we choose to retain them, and to what extent they remain in our consciousness after the fact.

### Chapter 4: Some Kinds of Duration

**Fast and Slow Happening**

Time has a multitude of different "categorical varieties" (84). From the "gravitational field\[s\]...in the cosmos" to the "different systems of intervals and periods" of humans, animals, and nature, time is so diverse that it is hard to "describe all the...kinds of duration" (84). There are artifacts that "are so durable" they may be able to surpass time (84). In looking at the "history more than the future of man-made things", we can make an assessment of how to deduce the "rate of change" (84). Social Scientists use a "quantitative" model, in describing "material culture" (84). They look at things in broad strokes to make "assessments of cultural effort" (84). However, the existence of so many replicas and copies in our world, clue us into "an altogether different rule of order", in which the public feeds and functions off of the things that already exist (85). We have been working off of prime objects since the beginning of time. We must look at the "sequence of forms" which have stemmed from the original primes, in order to "explore the nature of change" (85).

**Inventors and Artists Role in the Progress of Ideas**

Kubler discusses how the general public is not interested in furthering the progress of culture. The masses are content with copies or replications of an idea; these copies are still recognizably linked to the thought, object, or idea being copied. This general public merely requires modest updating, little change of the actual object. "Public demand recognizes only what exists, unlike the inventors and artists whose minds turn more upon future possibilities, whose speculations and combinations obey an altogether different rule of order, described here as a linked progression of experiments composing a formal sequence" (85). Artists challenge the limitations of their historical time and view change as an opportunity to create a unique occurrence. These occurrences are only possible within the structure of a formal sequence of development. These new inventions need to make sense, or to answer a need, or curiosity on the part of the artist/inventor. Within these new events change can occur gradually or quickly. Kubler examines the temperaments of artists and how temperament influences their work. Some artists work within the current tradition, finding new ways to progress its development into uncharted territories. This artist is able to perceive what others have not and expands upon the current environment. "Sometimes the map seems finished: nothing more can be added; the class of forms looks closed until another patient man takes a challenge from the seemingly complete situation, and succeeds once more in enlarging it" (88). Kubler juxtaposes these artists with a different type of artist that he refers to as the "versatile men" (88). He describes how the entrance of the versatile artist occurred during an historical time of "social and technical renovation" (88). These "fast happening" artists push the artistic tradition far into the future; these prolific artists are "adumbrating another new series before the one in which they are engaged has been played out" (89). Artists are the visionaries throughout the continuum of time.

**The Shapes of Time**

It is difficult to categorize time due to the lack of a measuring constant or "fixed scale." Kubler notes, "History has no periodic table of elements, and no classification of types or species . . . no theory of temporal structure" (96). A series of events that occur quickly is described as dense; whereas, "a slow succession with many interruptions is sparse" (97). In regard to art history, works of art occur in sequences and are grouped together to be understood in a certain way. He uses paintings of the Twelve Apostles as an example ('*Apostolado* by Zurbarán); individually they can stand alone, but grouped together there is more of a sense of the artist's intention of how they are to be viewed and interpreted: "usually our comprehension of a thing is incomplete until its positional value can be reconstructed" (97). In addition to art, architecture (as well as public fixtures or monuments) is to be read the same way, "buildings in their settings are a sequence of spaces best seen in an order intended by the architect" (97).

**Periods and Their Lengths**

Kubler already establishes that there are two standards of duration, "absolute age" and "systematic age." He sees these as different "envelopes" of time established by the content of each segment of time. He focuses on the overall shapes of time at this point, rather than a personal diminutive shape of time, that may span one human life or a collective duration of more life spans. Using a broad scope of time segments, Kubler divides the segments into "families" that scale from smallest to largest. The smallest being the "annual crop of fashions" which he backs up with contemporary and historical patterns, and the largest, which he says are few, are our defined periods in history: "Western Civilization, Asiatic culture, prehistoric to barbarian and primitive societies" (91). The areas of time in-between the smallest and the largest are measured by our calendars and our mathematical methods of measurement.

Kubler returns to the manageable interval of a year, thinking that this span is a known and workable measurement of duration as a tractable system of time duration. He explains how different cultures measure in different modes or segments: the Roman lustrum, a census occurring every five years or the Aztec practice of measuring in durations of 52 years (4 sections of 13 years instead of a 100-year century) called Calendar Round. The Aztecs understood this duration to be an estimate of an adult life, a perception of time duration as it relates to human life duration.

Kubler seems to like the idea of linking time duration to human life or generational spans, that perhaps a century could be thought of as three life spans. He uses fashion, the smallest family of time duration, as a resurfacing measurement suggesting that the interest and tastes of the older grandparent generation would appeal to the youngest generation, the grandchildren. This would make for a reusable system of measurement duration neatly tucked into a century; however, Kubler notes that most of these smaller events of happenings cycle through just about every fifty years, halfway through a century and are subject to other segments of happenings outside the specific event.

**The Indiction as Module**

These thoughts of life or generational duration can be thought of as outdated due to the increase in our current life expectancy. Technological advances have increased our quality of life; therefore, there is no calendrical duration correlating with individual life expectancies. When analyzing the age classes (infant, child, adolescent, young adult, mature adult, and old adult), Kubler applies the working lifetime for an artist: 60 years, with 50 of the years at full working capacity. The artist's life can be categorized into four periods:"preparation, early, middle, and late maturity, each lasting about 15 years, resemble the indictions of the Roman calendar" (102). Very similar to the duration of an artist is the time required to develop significant movements in art history. It takes about 60 years for the development of an object and another 60 years for its "first systematic applications" (102). Kubler uses changes in Greek vase painting; the appearance changed in two stages, about every sixty years. Examples that support his 60-year theory are the doubled 60-year durations, such as the Mayan sculpture in the fourth and fifth centuries as well as Japanese woodblock prints around 1650.

## Critical reviews

Neil MacGregor, director of the British Museum, stated, "Kubler's telling of the history of things remains a key text, his vision a compelling mixture of the habitual and the poetic in human behavior. For him, human creativity is a constantly repeated attempt to refine answers to a set of questions that change only slowly. But this universal habit is punctuated by the great works of art, ways of doing and seeing that he compares to stars, influencing, shaping and illuminating even after they have been destroyed."

Priscilla Colt of the Dayton Art Museum reviewed *The Shape of Time* in *Art Journal* in 1963. She identified five major themes in the work including a critical views of, "1) the separation of the history of art and the history of science... 2) all cyclical theories of cultural change, especially those using the biological metaphor of life stages... 3) the biological and narrative approaches to art history... 4) the severing of meaning and form... 5) the concept of style as a means of classification... ." Another crucial aspect she identifies is the "coexistence of several formal sequences within one object and, it follows, in a given present". She uses the example of a cathedral, which embodies traits from different sequences and systems. The ability of this theory to return the object to the flow of time, rather than pin it to a certain time period, is appealing to her. She regards Kubler's theory of the Prime Object as a difficulty in the theory, due to the difficulty in describing the qualities that a Prime Object embodies. If we are reduced to describing objects in terms of the traits that they possess, "are we not arriving again at an historical concept very close to that of style in some of its more refined interpretations?" Colt believes that *The Shape of Time* "makes proposals rather than putting forth adamant claims" and believes that it will "evoke fruitful thinking along productively new lines".

Kubler himself responded to this review nearly 20 years later in the journal *Perspecta* in an article titled *The Shape of Time. Reconsidered*. He claimed that Priscilla Colt provided "a summary of the book so concise that I have nothing to change in it, nor would I do it better".

## Influence on artists of the 1960s

Several prominent artists in were influenced by and wrote about the ideas presented in *The Shape of Time*. The abstract painter Ad Reinhardt reviewed Kubler's book in an article for *ArtNews* in 1966. This article, along with many other of Reinhardt's writings were included in *Art as Art* edited by Barbara Rose, University of California Press, 1991. Another artist who referred to *The Shape of Time* in his writing and thinking was the seminal land artist Robert Smithson. In an article titled *Quasi-Infinities and the Waning of Space* Smithson discusses Kubler's thoughts about time and communication across time, as well as his theory of Prime Objects.

In her book titled *Robert Smithson: Learning from New Jersey and Elsewhere*, Anne Reynolds highlights George Kubler's influence on Smithson and how differently from Kubler he believed in an "equality between... prime \[objects\] and the replication"(147). Pages 145, 146, and 147 have additional examples about the ways in which Smithson disagreed with Kubler's theories about *prime object* and *replica mass*.

Conceptual Artist John Baldessari made a painting based on Kubler's ideas titled *Painting for Kubler* 1966-68, which sold May 13, 2009 at Christie's "Post-war and Contemporary Art Evening Sale" for $1,874,500.

## Concerns raised

A frequent concern about Kubler's text is that it is a dense and difficult read. Kubler himself acknowledges this issue but asserts that without the controversy the book would lack a relevant and defining feature. In his 1982 lecture, "The Shape of Time, Reconsidered" which appears in *Perspecta* (Volume 19, MIT Press) Kubler writes, "I was surprised, while preparing this lecture, to notice how, among my friends who had read the book, a division into two groups appeared. Both groups are equally discerning and educated, and as far as I can tell, equal in numbers. One group is eager to say that they don't understand a word of it, and there are artists and historians among them. Those of the other group claim that they understood it all on first reading, without difficulty. Of course I believe them both, without understanding the combination that separates them so sharply. Perhaps distinctive and contrasting features in the comprehension of works of art are responsible. What I say speaks to some, but not to others. Some are ready, and others are not. But when both someday find that they agree in understanding it, that day may be its last as a book alive in the dissension over its intelligibility." Kubler's text has been compared by some to reading a work by Shakespeare; spending time with it rewards the diligent reader. Once recurrent themes are grasped, the language becomes more comprehensible.

There have been comments that Kubler offers many variables and possibilities but no concrete and identifiable system of categorizing frames of codification. Kubler's opinion that there is no one system, but many systems to judge a particular event, is intrinsic to his view that trying to identify a closed system would be hypocritical to his primary premise. All events and ways to measure these events evolve and shift with calendrical time.

In considering Kubler's model for the 60 year change duration (Chapter 4) it has been suggested that a new type of cycle might be considered and researched considering that the advent of the new media millennia was just in the infant stages at the 1st edition of *The Shape Of Time.* With the advent of new distribution systems and accessibility to a new paradigm of existence, the 60-year cycle may be an outdated model. For example, hyper-acceleration and globalization of knowledge may induce change as rapidly as the internet changed the way we shop, acquire information, or share ideas.

## InfoBox

The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things
| First edition | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | George Kubler |
| Language | English |
| Subject | Art theory, art history |
| Publisher | Yale University Press |
| Publication date | 1962 |
| Publication place | United States |
| Media type | Print (Softcover) |
| Pages | 136 |
| ISBN | 0300001444 |


title: Podkrzemionka

abstract: Podkrzemionka is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wasilków, within Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland.

text:
# Podkrzemionka

**Podkrzemionka** \[pɔtkʂɛˈmjɔŋka\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Wasilków, within Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland.

## InfoBox

| Podkrzemionka | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Podkrzemionka | |
| Coordinates: 53°15′30″N 23°18′00″E / 53.25833°N 23.30000°E / 53.25833; 23.30000 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Podlaskie |
| County | Białystok |
| Gmina | Wasilków |


title: Prudence Wright

abstract: Prudence "Pru" Cummings Wright was a militia commander during the American Revolutionary War.

text:
# Prudence Wright

**Prudence "Pru" Cummings Wright** (26 November 1740 – 2 December 1824) was a militia commander during the American Revolutionary War.

## Life

Born in Dunstable, Massachusetts, she was the daughter of Prudence and Samuel Cummings. She had two brothers who pledged allegiance to the crown (Samuel and Thomas) while her youngest brother Benjamin) was a Patriot; also two sisters (Mary and Sibbel). Her father was the town clerk. Prudence was a patriot, but many of her family members were loyal to the British crown. In 1761, she married David Wright, a private in the American militia, an ardent Whig, and strong believer in independence.

The two had eleven children—David, Prudence, Cummings, Mary, Wilkes, Caroline, Liberty, Deverd, Liberty, Artemas, and Daniel. Mary and the first Liberty did not survive childhood. She joined the Congregationalist church in 1770.

According to a legend printed in 1899, Wright was elected by the townsfolk to command a women's militia known as the Mrs. David Wright's Guard, based in Pepperell, Massachusetts. The group consisted of about 30 or 40 local Patriot women, whose husbands were mostly members of the regular militia ordered to march towards Boston after the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The women dressed in their husbands' clothes and carried "anything that would serve as a potential weapon", including pitchforks. Wright appointed Sarah Hartwell Shattuck of Groton, Massachusetts, as her lieutenant and began organizing patrols of the town and the surrounding area. The two directed the arrest of loyalist spies (two of Wright's own brothers) at Jewett's Bridge over the Nashua River in April 1775.

Wright and her group apprehended Captain Leonard Whiting of Hollis, New Hampshire—a noted Loyalist—as he passed the bridge on horseback. He was held prisoner overnight in a Pepperell tavern before being moved to Groton where he was taken into custody. Based on a family legend, Wright's brother, Samuel Cummings, was with Whiting on the day of his capture, but he turned back once he sighted his sister in arms at the bridge.

Although women were not to be paid for militia service, in 1777 the town convened a committee to compensate Mrs. David Wright's Guard (whom they called Leonard Whiting's Guard) for their actions. Leonard Whiting was a British Army officer and a friend of the two arrested spies.

On March 19, 1777, Prudence Wright's guard was paid 7 pounds, 17 shillings, and sixpence by the Town of Pepperell's Committee of Estimation. The Town Meeting Minutes referred to her guard as Leonard Whiting's Guard because women could not overtly be paid for services performed during the revolution.

## Further reading

* Shattuck, Mary Lucinda Parker. (1912). *The Story of Jewett's Bridge.* 3rd Printing: April 19, 1964 entitled *Prudence Wright and the Women Who Guarded the Bridge.*

## InfoBox

| Prudence Wright | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 26 November 1740<br>Dunstable, Massachusetts |
| Died | 2 December 1824 |


title: Daniel Christian Fueter

abstract: Daniel Christian Fueter (1720–1785), whose name was variously written as Fouaitier and Fouetter, was a Swiss-American silversmith and medalist, active in New York City from about 1754 until 1764 or 1766. Fueter was born in Bern, Switzerland, where he worked as a goldsmith until 1749. After he took part in a failed political conspiracy, he was condemned to death, and fled to London. His son, the medalist Christian Fueter, was born in London in 1752, and Fueter himself is mentioned in W. Chaffee's Gilda Aurifabrorum as living in Chelsea, "next door to Man in ye Moon, on the 8th December, 1753." Around 1754 he arrived in New York City, where he was made freeman in 1759 and established his business as gold and silversmith. While in New York, he published a series of advertisements: Daniel Fueter, Gold and Silver-Smith, Lately arrived in the Snow Irene, Capt. Garrison from London, living back of Mr. Hendrick Van De Waters, Gun-Smith, near the Brew-House of the late Harmanus Rutgers, deceased, makes all sorts of Gold and Silver work, after the newest and neatest Fashion; He also gilds Silver and Metal, and refines Gold and Silver after the best Manner, and makes Essays on all sorts of Metal and Oar; all at a reasonable Rate. N.B. he buys old Gold and Silver Lace, and Gold-Smith's Sweeps. Daniel Fueter, Silver Smith and Jeweller, next Door to Mr. Peter Curtenius, facing the Oswego Market, Has lately imported: A Beautiful Assortment of Jewellery, which for Elegance and Taste is greatly superior to any Thing hitherto brought to this Place; Consisting of a great Variety of Rings, set knot Fashion, Entourage, Cluster, &c. Viz. Brilliant Diamonds and Rose Diamonds of all Sizes, Rubies, Topazes, Emeralds, Saphirs, and all Kinds of Precious Stones, warranted. Ear-rings of all Sizes, Fashions and Prices; Paste Shoe and knee Buckles, fine Twezer Cases, and Snuff Boxes of curious Workmanship. Also a genteel Parcel of Silver Work, tea Pots, Milk Pots, Sauce Boats, Shoe and knee Buckles, and other Articles too numerous to mention, all extremely Cheap. N.B. The said Daniel Fueter, importer of the above Goods, who was bred a Jeweller and Goldsmith, will give full Satisfaction to those Gentlemen and Ladies who will honour him with their Custom: and will undertake to execute on the shortest Notice, and as Cheap as may be done in London, any Orders he receives in the several Branches of Jewellery, and Gold or Silver Smith's Work; being furnished with the best of Workmen, and all Requisites for the purpose. Also he will make exact Assays of all Sorts of Ores and Metals; and will perform Refining and Gilding in the neatest Manner. He gives ready money for old Gold and Silver. Daniel Fueter, imports Blackwood's true cordial elixir, at 5s. per bottle, for all cold, coughs, sore throats,... Daniel & Lewis Fueter. — This serves to inform the Public, and our former kind Customers, that we the Subscribers, are return'd to this City, in the House we remov'd out, in Dock-Street, next to Mr. G. Dyckinck's, and purpose to carry on the Business of Gold, Silver-smith's and Jewelry Work, in all its Branches, as also gilding, assaying oar, refining, &c. at the most reasonable rates; and we return Thanks to our former Customers, and assure them and the Public that will be pleased to employ us, that they shall be serv'd with punctuality, and Honour, by their Very oblig'd and humble Servants, Daniel and Lewis Feuter. Daniel Fueter, Silversmith, from London, Begs Leave to acquaint the Public, that he is removed into the House of Mrs. Pinto, between Mr Sherbroke's, and Mr. M'Cartney's, in Bayard Street, and Jewellery in all its Branches; also Gilding, assaying of Ores, and refining in the exactest Manner; and all at the most reasonable Prices. He also informs the Public that Mr. John Anthony Beau, Chaiser, from Geneva, works with him; where Chaising in general, viz. Snuff Boxes, Watch Cases, &c. &c. is done in the best and cheapest Manner... Sometime around 1764 or 1766 he retired and moved to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. In 1769 political turmoil in Switzerland had subsided, and he returned to live beside Lake Neuchâtel until his death. His medals include the 1764 George III Indian Peace Medal, as well as a 1761 medal bestowed on a Native American chief for the storming of Montreal by the British in 1760. His silver is collected in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Brooklyn Museum, Historic Deerfield, Winterthur Museum, and Yale University Art Gallery.

text:
# Daniel Christian Fueter

**Daniel Christian Fueter** (1720–1785), whose name was variously written as **Fouaitier** and **Fouetter**, was a Swiss-American silversmith and medalist, active in New York City from about 1754 until 1764 or 1766.

Fueter was born in Bern, Switzerland, where he worked as a goldsmith until 1749. After he took part in a failed political conspiracy, he was condemned to death, and fled to London. His son, the medalist Christian Fueter, was born in London in 1752, and Fueter himself is mentioned in W. Chaffee's *Gilda Aurifabrorum* as living in Chelsea, "next door to Man in ye Moon, on the 8th December, 1753." Around 1754 he arrived in New York City, where he was made freeman in 1759 and established his business as gold and silversmith. While in New York, he published a series of advertisements:

> Daniel Fueter, Gold and Silver-Smith, Lately arrived in the Snow Irene, Capt. Garrison from London, living back of Mr. Hendrick Van De Waters, Gun-Smith, near the Brew-House of the late Harmanus Rutgers, deceased, makes all sorts of Gold and Silver work, after the newest and neatest Fashion; He also gilds Silver and Metal, and refines Gold and Silver after the best Manner, and makes Essays on all sorts of Metal and Oar; all at a reasonable Rate. N.B. he buys old Gold and Silver Lace, and Gold-Smith's Sweeps.
>
> *The New-York Gazette or the Weekly Post-Boy*, May 27, 1754

> Daniel Fueter, Silver Smith and Jeweller, next Door to Mr. Peter Curtenius, facing the Oswego Market, Has lately imported: A Beautiful Assortment of Jewellery, which for Elegance and Taste is greatly superior to any Thing hitherto brought to this Place; Consisting of a great Variety of Rings, set knot Fashion, Entourage, Cluster, &c. Viz. Brilliant Diamonds and Rose Diamonds of all Sizes, Rubies, Topazes, Emeralds, Saphirs, and all Kinds of Precious Stones, warranted. Ear-rings of all Sizes, Fashions and Prices; Paste Shoe and knee Buckles, fine Twezer Cases, and Snuff Boxes of curious Workmanship. Also a genteel Parcel of Silver Work, tea Pots, Milk Pots, Sauce Boats, Shoe and knee Buckles, and other Articles too numerous to mention, all extremely Cheap.
>
> N.B. The said Daniel Fueter, importer of the above Goods, who was bred a Jeweller and Goldsmith, will give full Satisfaction to those Gentlemen and Ladies who will honour him with their Custom: and will undertake to execute on the shortest Notice, and as Cheap as may be done in London, any Orders he receives in the several Branches of Jewellery, and Gold or Silver Smith's Work; being furnished with the best of Workmen, and all Requisites for the purpose.
>
> Also he will make exact Assays of all Sorts of Ores and Metals; and will perform Refining and Gilding in the neatest Manner. He gives ready money for old Gold and Silver.
>
> *The New-York Gazette or the Weekly Post-Boy*, March 10, 1763

> Daniel Fueter, imports Blackwood's true cordial elixir, at 5s. per bottle, for all cold, coughs, sore throats,...
>
> *The New-York Gazette or the Weekly Post-Boy*, September 6, 1764

> Daniel & Lewis Fueter. — This serves to inform the Public, and our former kind Customers, that we the Subscribers, are return'd to this City, in the House we remov'd out, in Dock-Street, next to Mr. G. Dyckinck's, and purpose to carry on the Business of Gold, Silver-smith's and Jewelry Work, in all its Branches, as also gilding, assaying oar, refining, &c. at the most reasonable rates; and we return Thanks to our former Customers, and assure them and the Public that will be pleased to employ us, that they shall be serv'd with punctuality, and Honour, by their Very oblig'd and humble Servants, Daniel and Lewis Feuter.
>
> *The New York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury*, January 30, 1769

> Daniel Fueter, Silversmith, from London, Begs Leave to acquaint the Public, that he is removed into the House of Mrs. Pinto, between Mr Sherbroke's, and Mr. M'Cartney's, in Bayard Street, and Jewellery in all its Branches; also Gilding, assaying of Ores, and refining in the exactest Manner; and all at the most reasonable Prices. He also informs the Public that Mr. John Anthony Beau, Chaiser, from Geneva, works with him; where Chaising in general, viz. Snuff Boxes, Watch Cases, &c. &c. is done in the best and cheapest Manner...
>
> *The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury*, July 31, 1769

Sometime around 1764 or 1766 he retired and moved to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. In 1769 political turmoil in Switzerland had subsided, and he returned to live beside Lake Neuchâtel until his death.

His medals include the 1764 George III Indian Peace Medal (also known as the Happy While United Medal), as well as a 1761 medal bestowed on a Native American chief for the storming of Montreal by the British in 1760. His silver is collected in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Brooklyn Museum, Historic Deerfield, Winterthur Museum, and Yale University Art Gallery.


title: Damisha Croney

abstract: Damisha Croney is a Barbadian netball player who represents Barbados internationally and plays in the positions of wing attack and centre. She competed at the Netball World Cup on two occasions in 2011 and 2019. She also represented Barbados at the Commonwealth Games in 2010, 2014 and in 2018.

text:
# Damisha Croney

**Damisha Croney** (born 3 November 1991) is a Barbadian netball player who represents Barbados internationally and plays in the positions of wing attack and centre. She competed at the Netball World Cup on two occasions in 2011 and 2019. She also represented Barbados at the Commonwealth Games in 2010, 2014 and in 2018.

## InfoBox

Damisha Croney
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Born | (1991-11-03) 3 November 1991<br>Bridgetown | | |
| Height | 1.72 m (5 ft 7+12 in) | | |
| Occupation | netball player | | |
| Netball career | | | |
| **Playing position(s):** wing attack, centre | | | |


title: Dan Crippen

abstract: Dan Crippen was the executive director of the National Governors Association from 2011 to 2015. He now serves as member of the Board of Trustees to the Center for Health Care Strategies, Inc. and a member of the advisory board of the Peterson Center on Healthcare. He is a former director of the Congressional Budget Office and assistant to the president for Ronald Reagan. Crippen served on NASA's Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel. He graduated from the University of South Dakota and Ohio State University.

text:
# Dan Crippen

**Dan Crippen** (born March 18, 1952, in Canistota, South Dakota) was the executive director of the National Governors Association from 2011 to 2015. He now serves as member of the Board of Trustees to the Center for Health Care Strategies, Inc. and a member of the advisory board of the Peterson Center on Healthcare. He is a former director of the Congressional Budget Office and assistant to the president for Ronald Reagan. Crippen served on NASA's Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel. He graduated from the University of South Dakota (B.S. 1974) and Ohio State University (M.A. 1976; Ph.D. 1981).

## Reagan years

From 1981-1985 Crippen served as chief counsel and economic policy advisor for Senate Minority Leader Howard Baker. When Baker became President Reagan's Chief of Staff in 1987, Crippen followed Baker to the White House as Deputy Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy from 1987-1988 and Domestic Policy Advisor and Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy from 1988-1989. Republicans hoped that Crippen would be a strong proponent of Reagan's appropriations bills and that he could mend relations with Congress. After Reagan left office in 1989, Crippen turned to the private sector, as a principal of Washington Counsel (1996-1999), a law and lobbying firm; Merrill Lynch as an executive director; and The Duberstein Group, a public relations consulting firm, as founder and vice president.

## Congressional Budget Office

He was Director of the Congressional Budget Office from 1999-02-01 to 2003. Republican leaders selected Crippen as a somewhat moderate candidate, drawing the ire of members of both parties, who sought a more ideological director. A 2003 article in *The Wall Street Journal* suggested that he may have lost his chance at reappointment for failing to support dynamic scoring, a practice inspired by supply-side economics.

## NASA and present day

On July 28, 2004 NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe selected him to serve on NASA's Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP).

He was also a member of the Stafford-Covey Return to Flight Task Group, which helped set policies to return the Space Shuttle to flight after the Space Shuttle *Columbia* disaster.

In February 2005, he was briefly mentioned as a possible NASA Administrator.

Crippen still works in the private sector, largely focusing on healthcare issues, and does some public speaking. In a 2005 editorial in *The Washington Post*, Crippen called for increased use of technology to reduce healthcare costs, altering the service structure by delegating more services to nurses and other hospital staff, and studying the subset of the Medicare population which uses the majority of the resources. Crippen serves on the board of directors of Eclipsys.

In early 2011, Crippen was named executive director of the National Governors Association. He served in that position until 2015. He also served on the board of directors of the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget.

In 2012 Crippen was elected a fellow of the National Academy of Public Administration.

## Notes or references

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Dan Crippen | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| 5th Director of the Congressional Budget Office | |
| **In office**
February 3, 1999  January 3, 2003 | |
| Preceded by | Robert Reischauer |
| Succeeded by | Douglas Holtz-Eakin |
| Director of the Domestic Policy Council | |
| **In office**
September 8, 1988  January 20, 1989 | |
| President | Ronald Reagan |
| Preceded by | David McIntosh |
| Succeeded by | Roger Porter |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1952-03-18) March 18, 1952
Canistota, South Dakota, U.S. |
| Political party | Republican |
| Education | University of South Dakota (BS)
Ohio State University (MA, PhD) |
|  | |


title: Dangerous Women (American TV series)

abstract: Dangerous Women is a syndicated nighttime American soap opera about a group of women who served time in prison together. It was created and written by Reg Watson and produced by Reg Grundy Productions.

text:
# Dangerous Women (American TV series)

***Dangerous Women*** is a syndicated nighttime American soap opera about a group of women who served time in prison together. It was created and written by Reg Watson and produced by Reg Grundy Productions.

## Synopsis

*Dangerous Women* was loosely based on the 1979 Australian series *Prisoner* which had enjoyed success in syndication on many networks around the US from late 1979 to around mid 1982. With both series created by Reg Watson, *Dangerous Women* initially shared many similarities with its Australian counterpart, although this became far less apparent as the series continued.

The characters in *Dangerous Women* were based on the original characters of *Prisoner*: The characters of Karen Travers and Lynne Warner from the latter became Maria Trent and Holly Warner in *Dangerous Women* and both of their opening storylines were based on those originally shown in *Prisoner*. Similarly, Rita Jones's personality was based on Bea Smith, Crystal Fox shared the characteristics of nymphomaniac Marilyn Mason, and Cissie Johnson was based on the character 'Mum' Brooks - Cissie's daughter rejected her just as Mum's daughter disowned her when she was released in *Prisoner*.

Although many characters and storylines were clearly borrowed from *Prisoner*, the main character who tied the show together was Faith Cronin (Valerie Wildman), a mobster's wife. This character and storyline was unique and created especially for the new version of the series. Faith had been seriously disfigured by her mobster husband, and on leaving prison, she framed her ex-husband for murder after she staged her own death. Faith then had plastic surgery and created a new identity, becoming the confident and glamorous Patricia Meadows. She bought a lakefront inn, The Cedar Lake Inn, a destination she'd loved as a child and somewhere she'd always dreamed of living once she was released from prison - only to find her past catching up with her when one by one, her fellow former convicts converge on the Cedar Lake area as they are released from prison.

As the series progressed, the prison angle was gradually phased out as all of the characters had been released. They eventually took refuge at the Inn and attempted to rebuild their lives together.

## Cast

* Valerie Wildman as Patricia Meadows/Faith Cronin
* Lynn Hamilton as Cissie Johnson
* Katherine Justice as Rita Jones/Roxy Lawrence
* Kelli Van Londersele as Holly Warner
* Maria Rangel as Maria Trent
* Melanie Vincz as Crystal Fox
* Anthony Addabbo as Michael Torres
* Mark McCoy as Joe Holland
* Ed Monaghan as Jerry Vernon
* Fred Mancuso as Randy Carter
* Casper Van Dien as Brad Morris
* Kansas Long as Ricky Robbins
* Kelly Read as Debbie Jones
* Stephen Liska as Jack Fisher
* Louise Fitch as Minnie Wells
* Susan Powell as Warden Grayson
* Mary Barbara Alexander as Karen Holland
* Kat Sawyer as Kath Morris
* Paul Carr as Ben Cronin

## Airings and cancelation

*Dangerous Women* premiered August 7, 1991 and aired only one season. The show was syndicated on a limited basis, mainly among the stations of United TelevisionWWOR-TV in New York City, KMSP-TV in Minneapolis–Saint Paul, WPWR-TV in Chicago (not owned by United) and KCOP in Los Angeles were known to have carried the program. WDCA in Washington, D.C. carried the program but soon relegated it to a 2 AM time slot. In some markets, two one-hour episodes aired back to back every Wednesday night with encores on Saturday nights. It had reasonable ratings in New York, but it wasn't enough to keep the show going. It was pulled from syndication on January 1, 1992 after 52 episodes.

Several weeks before the show was officially canceled, all six lead actresses appeared on *The Richard Bey Show*, a talk show that originated from WWOR. The cast also appeared on two episodes of *NY At Night*, a primetime talk show on WWOR starring entertainer Clint Holmes. These appearances were their last attempt to keep the show on the air.

## UK transmission

Shortly after its American cancellation, the show was broadcast on Central Television – the ITV franchise for the United Kingdom's English Midlands. It aired on Sunday and Monday nights from March 1992 replacing *Prisoner* in the schedule (which had finished December the previous year). All 52 episodes aired. No other ITV regions broadcast the series. The show was also later aired twice by cable TV station Living, in a late-night time-slot and repeated weekdays.

## InfoBox

| *Dangerous Women* | |
| --- | --- |
| Genre | Soap opera |
| Created by | Reg Watson |
| Written by | Scott K. Anderson
Lois Booton
Roccin Chatfield
AJ Nathan
Cindy Prial
Thom Racina
Betsy Snyder
Reg Watson |
| Directed by | Joseph Behar
Anthony Morina
Dennis Steinmetz |
| Starring | Valerie Wildman
Katherine Justice
Lynn Hamilton
Melanie Vincz
Maria Rangel
Kelli Vanlondersele |
| Composers | Marc Ellis
Ray Ellis |
| Country of origin | United States |
| Original language | English |
| No. of seasons | 1 |
| No. of episodes | 52 |
| Production | |
| Executive producers | Peter Pinnie
Reg Watson |
| Producers | Fran Calderone
Bob Crystal |
| Editor | Leigh Anne Branch |
| Running time | 45–48 minutes |
| Production company | Central Independent Television |
| Original release | |
| Network | Syndicated |
| Release | August 7, 1991 (1991-08-07)
January 1, 1992 (1992-01-01) |


title: Dangerous and offensive trades

abstract: Dangerous and offensive trades or offensive trades, are business activities that deal with processing dead animals or that generate unpleasant smells, are subject to regulation in many jurisdictions including India and former British possessions.

text:
# Dangerous and offensive trades

**Dangerous and offensive trades** or **offensive trades**, are business activities that deal with processing dead animals or that generate unpleasant smells, are subject to regulation in many jurisdictions including India and former British possessions.

## Definition

The Oxford Dictionary of Public Health defines offensive trades as

> An official designation used in some countries to describe an industry or trade that damages the health and/or economic interests of significant numbers of people in the neighborhood or environment of that industry. The term is usually applied to an industry that produces unpleasant odors, such as a tannery or rendering plant, which in many jurisdictions is subject to public health regulations dealing with abatement of nuisances.

Such offensive industries can encompass a variety of commercial activities, but mainly involve the handling of animal carcasses and hides. Their regulation is aimed at public health, addressing risks such as physical risk of injury or death, chemical risks from natural or synthetic substances used, or biological risk from pathogens and vermin.

## History

The regulation of offensive trades dates back at least to the Sanitary movement in the mid-1800's and the passage of the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts which regulated certain trades in cities in the United Kingdom as part of an effort to address the problem of cholera.

## Individual Countries

### Barbados

In Barbados, the following are considered offensive trades:

* Blood or offal boiling
* Bone boiling or crushing
* Chemical or acid making
* Fellmongering
* Glue making
* Gut spinning
* Gut scraping
* Manure manufacturing
* Slaughtering
* Soap boiling
* Tallow melting
* Tanning

### India

They are classified under the Municipalities of India by an Act passed by the Legislature of India requires licensing and this also serve as a source of income for the states and municipalities. The trades practiced by the traders are called as "D & O Traders".


title: Daniel Garodnick

abstract: Daniel Garodnick is an American lawyer and a former Democratic New York City Councilmember for the 4th district. He is currently the Chair of the New York City Planning Commission. He also served as president and chief executive officer of the Riverside Park Conservancy.

text:
# Daniel Garodnick

**Daniel Garodnick** (born May 5, 1972) is an American lawyer and a former Democratic New York City Councilmember for the 4th district. He is currently the Chair of the New York City Planning Commission. He also served as president and chief executive officer of the Riverside Park Conservancy.

## Early life and education

Garodnick was born in New York City and is a graduate of Trinity School (1990). He received his B.A. from Dartmouth College (1994). He earned a J.D. from the University of Pennsylvania Law School (2000), where he was Editor-in-Chief of the *University of Pennsylvania Law Review*.

Between college and law school, Garodnick spent time in both Millen, Georgia and Portsmouth, Virginia helping to rebuild African American churches that had been burned by arson. He also spent two years working for the New York Civil Rights Coalition as the director of a program to teach New York City public school ways to combat racial discrimination, and how to use government to effect social change.

## Career

An attorney, Garodnick practiced as a litigator at the New York law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison where he focused on securities litigation and internal investigations of companies. While there, he represented the Partnership for New York City in the successful Campaign for Fiscal Equity lawsuit regarding public school funding., and same-sex couples seeking marriage equality in New York State.

Prior to joining the firm, he served as a law clerk to Judge Colleen McMahon of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.

## Personal life

In May 2008, Garodnick married Zoe Segal-Reichlin, senior associate general counsel and director of advocacy of Planned Parenthood. They have two children.

## New York City Council

Garodnick was elected to New York City Council in 2005, winning 63 percent of the vote in the general election and defeating both the Republican and Libertarian candidates. In the five-way Democratic primary that year he won 59% of the vote. He won reelection in 2009 and 2013.

During his twelve-year tenure, *The New York Times* praised Garodnick for his “independent streak” and noted that he had “distinguished himself in the fight to preserve middle-class housing.” *The Wall Street Journal* has called him “smart and fair” and POLITICO New York noted that he is known as a “policy wonk” who has “bucked the establishment."

In 2017, City & State called Garodnick a “no-nonsense negotiator.” Garodnick earned this reputation for repeatedly bringing parties to an agreement in difficult negotiations. In 2007, Garodnick successfully stepped in to broker an agreement between renowned Chef Daniel Boulud and the staff at his eponymous restaurant, who sought redress and compensation after Asian and Latino employees had been discriminated against and passed over for promotions. In 2008, when a developer proposed rezoning the largest stretch of undeveloped, privately owned land in Manhattan, Garodnick was able to adjust the plan to reduce the height of the towers, provide for acres of gardens and a school, as well as a $10 million contribution from the developer for a future pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive. In 2015, when the de Blasio administration and Council Member Carlos Menchaca were at a logjam over the $115 million redevelopment of the South Brooklyn Marine Terminal, Garodnick helped broker an agreement between both sides.

Garodnick is best known for his work fighting for his childhood home in Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village, where he spearheaded the largest housing preservation deal in New York City history in 2015, with 5,000 units for middle-class families. He wrote a book on the subject, called "Saving Stuyvesant Town: How One Community Defeated the Worst Real Estate Deal in History," published by Three Hills Press, an imprint of Cornell University Press. He also negotiated the East Midtown Rezoning in 2017, covering an 80 block area in midtown Manhattan, which almost immediately began to generate new commercial space, and to deliver significant public improvements to the area.

Garodnick's last term as councilman ended on December 31, 2017, when he was succeeded by Keith Powers.

Garodnick authored and passed over 60 laws during his tenure on the New York City Council.

## New York City Comptroller campaign

On April 3, 2012 Garodnick announced that he would seek the Democratic nomination for New York City Comptroller. On November 28, 2012 Garodnick dropped out of the Comptroller race, and immediately endorsed Scott Stringer, while pledging to run for re-election in District 4. Stringer had previously been running for Mayor. Garodnick was opposed in his bid for re-election by attorney Helene Jnane.

## City Planning

On February 7, 2022, Mayor Eric Adams appointed Garodnick as Director of the Department of City Planning, and Chair of the City Planning Commission. In that role he is leading the administration’s ambitious land use agenda, including proposed changes related to the impact of zoning on climate, changes to the city zoning law related to business development and housing, including for office to housing conversions. Garodnick is also focused on support for proposed changes near the new Metro-North Stations coming to the Bronx, a key stretch of Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, Manufacturing Districts in Midtown Manhattan, and downtown Jamaica in Queens. In July 2023, Garodnick was named in the top ten of City & State Newspaper's Real Estate Power 100.

## Election history

New York City Council: District 4
| Election |  | Candidate | Party | Votes | Pct |  | Candidate | Party | Votes | Pct |  | Candidate | Party | Votes | Pct |  | Candidate | Party | Votes | Pct |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2005 Primary |  | **Dan Garodnick** | Dem | 7,270 | 58.01% |  | Jack Lester | Dem | 2,116 | 16.89% |  | Meryl Brodsky | Dem | 2,015 | 16.08% |  | Jack Karako | Dem | 1,113 | 9.03% |
| 2005 General |  | **Dan Garodnick** | Dem | 23,304 | 63.77% |  | Patrick M. Murphy | Rep | 13,153 | 35.24% |  | Jak Karako | Lib | 370 | 0.99% |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2009 General |  | **Dan Garodnick** | Dem | 23,431 | 74.60% |  | Ashok G. Chandra | Rep | 7,972 | 25.40% |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| 2013 General |  | **Dan Garodnick** | Dem | 21,366 | 70.51% |  | Helene Jnane | Rep | 8,911 | 29.49% |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

## InfoBox

| Dan Garodnick | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Chair of the New York City Planning Commission | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
January 19, 2022 | |
| Mayor | Eric Adams |
| Preceded by | Anita Laremont |
| Member of the New York City Council
from the 4th district | |
| **In office**
January 1, 2006  December 31, 2017 | |
| Preceded by | Eva Moskowitz |
| Succeeded by | Keith Powers |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1972-05-05) May 5, 1972
New York, New York, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | Zoe Segal-Reichlin |
| Children | 2 |
| Residence(s) | New York, New York, U.S. |
| Education | Dartmouth College (BA)
University of Pennsylvania (JD) |
| Website | Official website |
|  | |


title: Tabachnik Garden

abstract: Tabachnik National Garden is a National Park located on the southern slopes of Mount Scopus in Jerusalem, next to the Hebrew University. The garden preserves some Jewish burial caves from the Second Temple period and two small modern cemeteries, the American Colony Cemetery and the Bentwich Cemetery. Two lookouts are also located within the park, an eastward one facing the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, and a westward one towards the Temple Mount.

text:
# Tabachnik Garden

**Tabachnik National Garden** is a National Park located on the southern slopes of Mount Scopus in Jerusalem, next to the Hebrew University. The garden preserves some Jewish burial caves from the Second Temple period and two small modern cemeteries, the American Colony Cemetery and the Bentwich Cemetery. Two lookouts are also located within the park, an eastward one facing the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, and a westward one towards the Temple Mount.

## Jerusalem American Colony Cemetery on Mount Scopus

The main cemetery of the American Colony is located here. Another cemetery of the Colony is situated on Mount Zion.

## Bentwich Cemetery

A small cemetery beside the American Colony cemetery is dedicated to Herbert Bentwich and his family.

## InfoBox

Tabachnik Garden
| הגן הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי ע"ש טבצ'ניק (The Morris and Freda Tabachnik National and University Park) | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Shown within Israel | |
| Location | Jerusalem, Israel |
| Region | Mount Scopus |
| Coordinates | 31°47′28.16″N 35°14′29.45″E / 31.7911556°N 35.2415139°E / 31.7911556; 35.2415139 |
| Type | archaeological park |
| Site notes | |
| Public access | yes |


title: Dan Folke

abstract: Dan Folke was a Danish composer, lyricist, publisher, and theater director.

text:
# Dan Folke

**Dan Folke** (March 11, 1906 – September 16, 1954) was a Danish composer, lyricist, publisher, and theater director.

## Biography

Folke was born in Frederiksberg. He enrolled at Frederiksberg High School in 1924, by which time he had already written several melodies for the Copenhagen revues Scala Revyen, Co-Optimisterne, and the Apollo Theater. He became a bookseller's apprentice at C.A. Reitzels Forlag and was employed there until 1928. After his apprenticeship, in 1928 he started working for Wilhelm Hansen, where he remained until 1936. For two seasons, 1936 and 1937, Folke was the director of the Bellevue Theater, and he then returned to Reitzels Forlag in 1938–1939, this time as the director. In 1939 he was employed as a proxy at companies under the Egmont H. Petersen Fund (now Egmont Group), and in 1942 became its director. At Egmont, it was especially magazine publication that he was responsible for, and it was Folke who, among other things, introduced *Reader's Digest* and Disney comics (1948) to the Danish market.

Together with Arvid and Børge Müller, Folke wrote the lyrics for "Glemmer du" and "Gå med i lunde."

Folke disappeared from his home in Hellerup, Copenhagen on September 10, 1954, and his body was found six days later in Svanemølle Bay.

## InfoBox

| Dan Folke | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1906-03-11)March 11, 1906
Frederiksberg, Denmark |
| Died | September 16, 1954(1954-09-16) (aged 48)
Copenhagen, Denmark |
| Nationality | Danish |
| Occupation(s) | Composer, theater director, magazine editor |