title: Ronald B. Linsky

abstract: Ronald Benjamin Linsky was an American marine biologist who served as Executive Director of the National Water Research Institute (NWRI) for 15 years, where he was responsible for overseeing an institute dedicated to supporting cooperative research to create new sources of water and to protect freshwater and marine environments. Under his leadership, NWRI grew into the third largest water research institute in the United States.

text:
# Ronald B. Linsky

**Ronald Benjamin Linsky** (June 16, 1934 – August 14, 2005) was an American marine biologist who served as Executive Director of the National Water Research Institute (NWRI) for 15 years, where he was responsible for overseeing an institute dedicated to supporting cooperative research to create new sources of water and to protect freshwater and marine environments. Under his leadership, NWRI grew into the third largest water research institute in the United States.

## Background

Linsky was born during the Great Depression on June 16, 1934, in Los Angeles, California, to Walter and Helen Linsky. He attended the University of Southern California (USC) beginning in 1952, but put his education on hold when he volunteered to join the army. After 21 months as a private in the Army Security Agency, he was discharged for medical reasons after coming down with appendicitis, but completed his 8-year service through the army reserve. He returned to USC and continued studying biology, earning both his B.S. and M.S. degrees at the same time in 1962.

## Early career

Immediately following his university education as a science teacher, Linsky began working at Westminster High School in Westminster, California. During the summer of 1963, he offered to teach marine biology as a summer school class. The course was so successful that, over the subsequent 5 years, Linsky went from biology teacher to Chairman of the Science Department at Westminster and Fountain Valley High Schools, as well as President of the District Education Association in the Huntington Beach Union High School District. He also became a research assistant at the University of California, Irvine, working in Back Bay Newport, and served on the Accrediting Commission for Western Association of Schools and Colleges.

In 1967, he was offered a job as the Coordinator of Marine Sciences for the Orange County Department of Education in Santa Ana, California. There, he developed the Floating Laboratory Program, a federally funded project that drew thousands of people to learn hands-on marine science. Twenty school districts took part in the program in its first year of operation, and in 3 years, 32,000 students and their teachers had gone to sea with the Floating Lab. The program later expanded to include extended classes for college students, such as a weekend study session on Catalina Island and short cruises through the Channel Islands.

Linsky began lecturing at various local libraries and colleges to inform people about topics such as marine mammals or ocean pollution. In 1969, he appeared at a 2-day State Marine Science Convention in Florida to encourage funding for water research. In the same year, he spent 1 month in Mexico City as a lecturer and consultant at the invitation of the Mexican Government to help develop marine science programs within the Mexican educational system. As part of that effort, he was the first North American educator to be invited to the Congresso Nacional de Oceanografica, where he conducted a 2-day workshop in oceanography for 1,200 selected educators, technicians, and scientists throughout Mexico.

Though Linsky was becoming more and more recognized as an expert oceanographer, he had no formal training in the field. Despite this fact, he held marine science workshops at the University of California system and served as an advisor to the Fullerton College Oceanographic Technology Program. He was also appointed Vice President of Educational Affairs for both the American Society for Oceanography and the National Oceanography Association. Eventually, Linsky even worked with famous oceanographer Jacques Cousteau after being hired by Doubleday Multi-Media, Inc. to edit, re-script, develop, and market educational resource materials for The Undersea World of J.Y. Cousteau film series.

## The Sea Grant Program at the University of Southern California

In 1970, several universities approached Linsky to recruit him to lead their ocean research programs. Linsky chose to work with his alma mater, USC, and began his career overseeing the brand-new Sea Grant Program. The program goals were to: train and educate the next generation of marine scientists and engineers; support research in marine resources management and development; and provide advisory services to the business and science communities, as well as the general public.

During his Directorship, Linsky visited 15 countries in a 3-year period to conduct research, organize international conferences, or present at leading oceanographic institutions throughout the world.

## International Work with the Sea Grant Program

### North America

Linsky was responsible for organizing bilingual international conferences and training programs in Mexico, including exploring the environmental impacts of opening the Trans-Peninsula Highway in Baja California.

### South Pacific

Linsky traveled across French Polynesia, stopping in Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, New Zealand, and Australia to lecture and investigate marine resources development programs.

### Asia

He toured Thailand and India as a lecturer and consultant in marine and coastal resources planning and development.

### Europe

As a member of the National Academy of Engineering’s Committee on Ocean Research, he worked with Great Britain, France, and Germany to encourage information exchange and to expand knowledge in the field of integrated coastal zone management. A year later, he traveled through Great Britain, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, and the Netherlands on an NOAA-sponsored research grant to study the impacts of North Sea oil exploration and development upon the coasts.

## Directorship in Hawaii

In 1975, Linsky decided to direct the Sea Grant Program at the University of Hawaii at Manoa (UH). The Sea Grant programs at USC and UH were different in that USC was dealing with the management of existing resources while Hawaii, made up of eight main islands rich in resources, needed to better plan its marine future.

Linsky directed much of the Sea Grant program's funding (UH had the largest in the nation) towards research for improving aquaculture and fisheries. Aquaculture became such an important component of Linsky's work that he became Special Assistant to the Dean of the College of Tropical Agriculture for aquaculture research and development in 1977.

One of his greatest accomplishments at the time was the creation of a statewide market for the aquaculture industry in Hawaii, representing more than 300 acres (1.2 km2) and $5 million in investments.

## Independent career

In 1978, Linsky ended his service as Director of Sea Grant in Hawaii and moved back to California to work for himself. He was soon contracted by the United Nations (UN) to work in Southeast Asia. His first job with the UN involved planning and conducting a workshop on developing coastal and offshore resources in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific. A contact from the workshop sent him to Sri Lanka twice to serve as a consultant and UN rep in coastal resource development.

Linsky then moved to the Caribbean to become the UN's Chief Technical Advisor and, later, CEO of the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) in Trinidad and Tobago. He spent 2 years working hard to establish the IMA in a developing country with diminishing offshore resources. In the process, he built a laboratory, purchased an ocean research ship, and established programs revolving around the fishing industry, coastal zone management, education, and advisory services. He also introduced aquaculture as a viable resource.

## National Water Research Institute

In 1991, Linsky was selected to become the founding Executive Director of the National Water Research Institute (NWRI), a non-profit organization devoted to creating new sources of water through research and technology. Linsky was known for his pioneering spirit and willingness to fund new and exciting technology to explore its benefit to the water industry.

One of Linsky's earliest projects with NWRI included traveling to Oman to help establish the Middle East Desalination Research Center. The center was created to research desalination technology and share knowledge in the Middle East and North Africa, with the express purpose of encouraging these countries to work together on the same problem.

More recently, he was involved with introducing and encouraging the use of riverbank filtration, a predominately European drinking-water treatment process, within the United States. He had also planned to introduce this low-cost technology to developing nations by holding a conference in China in 2006.

Linsky was also internationally known and respected for his advocacy and belief in the value of water. He encouraged the concept of viewing water as an asset that provides services that are valued by the consumer. To Linsky, the value of water was not just the cost of treating and distributing it; it was in the ability to enjoy a day at the beach, drought-proof a region, or purchase a product, like a newspaper or pair of jeans, that could not be manufactured without water.

Altogether, NWRI had supported over 160 water-related projects under Linsky's directorship, focusing on the areas of exploratory research, treatment and monitoring, water quality assessment, and knowledge management.

Linsky died on August 14, 2005 at age 71 of myelodysplastic syndrome, a bone marrow ailment.

## Awards

* 2005: Southern California Water Committee, Inc. Lifetime of Achievement Award
* 1971: Premi Tridente d’Ora Ustica Oceanographic Institution, Italy
    + Awarded for outstanding contributions in the field of Oceanography.

## The NWRI Ronald B. Linsky Fellowship for Outstanding Water Research

One of Linsky's greatest passions was education. He believed that it is essential to support and encourage young people who are interested in water science. Whether that was through giving out awards at science fairs or in sending kids to Water Camp, Linsky ensured that NWRI took an active role in educational outreach programs. For instance, he loved to invite secondary school students to dinner to meet experts in the water industry at NWRI's Research Advisory Board meetings. Whenever a young person called asking for an internship or scholarship to help attend a water festival, he immediately made arrangements to help them out.

In 2006, NWRI established a fellowship in honor of Linsky's memory as part of NWRI's graduate fellowship program. Funding for this special fellowship was contributed by Patricia Linsky, Dr. David and May Hsu, Dr. Stephen Lyon, H.S. and Ponnamma Muralidhara and the Joan Irvine Smith/Athalie R. Clarke Foundation.


title: Remnants of launchpads in Germany

abstract:
In Germany, military test rockets were launched in Peenemünde and Cuxhaven, and larger non-military rockets were launched in Hespenbusch, Cuxhaven and Zingst.
In World War II, A4-rockets were also launched as weapons from several western areas of Germany. Several launchpads were also constructed for the Bachem Ba 349, developed in 1944/45.

text:
# Remnants of launchpads in Germany

In Germany, military test rockets were launched in Peenemünde (including Greifswalder Oie) and Cuxhaven, and larger non-military rockets were launched in Hespenbusch, Cuxhaven and Zingst. In World War II, A4-rockets were also launched as weapons from several western areas of Germany. Several launchpads were also constructed for the Bachem Ba 349 (also known as Natter), developed in 1944/45.

## Peenemünde

From Test stand VII, the most important launchpad for test rockets in Peenemünde, the mud wall, the channel for static tests, the concrete slab used for launches and some remains of the assembly hall still exist. The area is not open to tourists.

## Greifswalder Oie

From the former launchpad, a piece of rail and the former observation shelter still exist. The area is open to tourists.

## Cuxhaven

In the area of Cuxhaven, a launchpad was constructed only for Operation Backfire. Launches for other operations in this area were made from mobile pads. A trench and some shelter remnants of the Backfire launchpad still exist. Also, the old Navy shelter used Hermann-Oberth-Gesellschaft as control shelter still exists. The area is open to tourists.

## Hespenbusch

In Hespenbusch only small rockets were launched from mobile launch pads.

## Zingst

In Zingst, a lighted roadway indicates that there was once an important facility. It is possible that the concrete slab on which the launchpad stood still exists.

## Liebenau

In Liebenau, the concrete slab probably still exists, which was used for launching the last A4-rockets in World War II in Germany in April 1945.

## Launch sites for war use of A4

The war launches of A4 were made from mobile launch sites, for which no permanent construction was necessary. Nevertheless, there are at some sites concrete pads still in existence (in Hillscheid, for example).

## Launch sites for Bachem Ba 349

On the Ochsenkopf high ground in Lager Heuberg near Stetten am kalten Markt, there is still the concrete pad from which the first manned launch of a Bachem Ba 349 that took place on 1 March 1945, which ended with the pilot Lothar Sieber being killed. The site is on an active *Bundeswehr* military exercise area and therefore is not open to tourists.

Three other launch sites for the unmanned Bachem Ba 349 test flights are situated in the Hasenholz forest near Kirchheim/Teck. This area is accessible for the public.


title: Roman (vehicle manufacturer)

abstract: ROMAN is a truck and bus manufacturer from Brașov, Romania. It was established after World War II on the foundation of the old ROMLOC automotive factory built in 1921. In 1948, the industrial plant was named Steagul Roșu, and later Intreprinderea de Autocamioane Brașov. In 1990, it became ROMAN SA. The company has a special truck division, under the DAC brand name.

text:
# Roman (vehicle manufacturer)

**ROMAN** (with the **DAC** division) is a truck and bus manufacturer from Brașov, Romania. It was established after World War II on the foundation of the old *ROMLOC* automotive factory built in 1921. In 1948, the industrial plant was named *Steagul Roșu* (*The Red Flag*), and later *Intreprinderea de Autocamioane Brașov* (*Brașov Truck Works*). In 1990, it became ROMAN SA. The company has a special truck division, under the DAC brand name.

## History

The Romanian Locomotive and Wagon Factory (ROMLOC) was established in 1921. In 1936, ROMLOC merged with Astra and became the Astra Works. In 1938, Astra began manufacturing weapons, which fueled company growth, and in 1940 was renamed to the Astra Romanian Wagon, Motor, Armaments, and Munitions Factory, under which name they contributed to the Romanian war effort in World War II.

After WWII and the establishment of the People's Republic, Astra was nationalized, named (in the spirit of the communist days) "The Red Flag" - "Steagul Roșu" (SR), and began to produce trucks.

In 1954, the first batch of **SR-101** trucks came out of the factory. The SR-101 was in fact a clone of the ZIS-150 Soviet truck and it came with the same specifications.

In 1958, the company decided to produce a new type, as the SR-101 no longer complied with international vehicle standards. The new design used a Ford Y-block pattern V8 gasoline engine of 140 HP, and its cab has been designed at the Chausson Plant in France. The first V8 **SR-131** truck of 3-ton load named **Carpati** was produced in the summer of 1960, and from 1962 the **SR-132** model of 2.5 tons load and 4x4 transmission. In 1964 it started the production of the series named **Bucegi**, **SR-113** a truck of 5-ton load and **SR-114** of 4-ton load and 4×4 transmission. Generally, these trucks included all the western technology elements of the time. The range had been completed in five years by the following versions: military vehicle, long vehicle, tip-lorry, crane, forward cab. Torpedo, Perkins, Saviem and Mercedes-Benz diesel engines were used for export products.

In 1967, as *Carpati* and *Bucegi* types became old fashioned, a tender was launched for a new type featuring the following specifications: load capacity of 12-18 tons, diesel engine, a forward cab, observance of CEE-ONU standards. Büssing, Mercedes-Benz, MAN, Saviem and Unic came to make offers, and the decision was to sign a contract with the MAN of West Germany. This contract led to the construction, under licence, of two types of **ROMAN** trucks: medium 135 hp (101 kW) and heavy 215 hp (160 kW), with a load capacity of up to 36 tons. They use the same cabin as the German MAN F7. It also led to the production (at the Autobuzul Works, in Bucharest) of eight types of buses: the town, suburban, intercity and tourism versions.

In the 1970s, the company became to produce trucks under the DAC brand, which shared the same construction platforms with the Roman trucks but it was not part of the 1971 joint-venture between the German company MAN and the Romanian government. Since 1990, DAC has been the special truck division of Roman trucks company.

In 1976, the Romanian's National Institute for Thermal Engines (INMT) produced the new V8 360 hp (268 kW) engine in cooperation with the Austrian company AVL.

After 1989, the Brașov plant started updating the cabin and using Caterpillar diesel engines. In 1999, Roman trucks took 2nd and 3rd places in *Rallye of Tunis*.

Until 2000, ROMAN produced 750,000 trucks, of which 130,000 were exported in 30 countries.

Since 2002, the heavy truck range has had a new reshaped cabin, called *Millennium*. As of December 2005, Roman produced military truck equipment for Iraqi military forces. In 2005, Roman also unveiled its new line of buses, with urban and inter-city versions. They were briefly produced with help from Romanian engineer and businessman Dorian Igescu, founder of El Car. The main football club in the city of Brașov, which shares its history with the trucks manufacturer, used a ROMAN 17.360 coach.

In May 2014, the company was taken over by the Pro Roman Association (led by businessman Ioan Olaru) from Prescon Braşov (led by Ioan Neculaie). In August 2014, Roman became insolvent. The truck producing arm of the factory was mothballed as of 2016, with small numbers of trucks and specialty vehicles.

At the beginning of 2017 a contract worth 12 million euro was signed to produce 100 vehicles and ship them to Taiwan.

## InfoBox

ROMAN S.A.
|
|  |
| Company type | Private |
| Industry | Automotive |
| Headquarters | Brașov, Romania |
| Key people | Ioan Olaru |
| Products | Trucks, Buses, Diesel engines |
| Operating income | €79.8 million (2017) |
| Number of employees | 300 (2017) |


title: Falstaff's Wedding

abstract: Falstaff's Wedding is a play by William Kenrick. It is a sequel to Shakespeare's plays Henry IV, Part 2 and The Merry Wives of Windsor. Most of the characters are carried over from the two Shakespeare plays. The play was first staged in 1766, but was not a success. It was infrequently revived thereafter. The play exists in two quite different versions. The first version, published in 1760, is written in verse. Its main storyline involves an embittered Falstaff being drawn into a plot to kill Henry V of England. The second version, staged in 1766, drops the serious plot and expands the roles of the comic characters, becoming a farce about their plans to marry into money. It is mostly in prose with snatches of verse appended to the end of several scenes.

text:
# Falstaff's Wedding

***Falstaff's Wedding*** (1760 and 1766) is a play by William Kenrick. It is a sequel to Shakespeare's plays *Henry IV, Part 2* and *The Merry Wives of Windsor*. Most of the characters are carried over from the two Shakespeare plays. The play was first staged in 1766, but was not a success. It was infrequently revived thereafter.

The play exists in two quite different versions. The first version, published in 1760, is written in verse. Its main storyline involves an embittered Falstaff being drawn into a plot to kill Henry V of England. The second version, staged in 1766, drops the serious plot and expands the roles of the comic characters, becoming a farce about their plans to marry into money. It is mostly in prose with snatches of verse appended to the end of several scenes.

## First version

### Characters

characters derived from *The Merry Wives of Windsor* are marked (MW); those from the Henry IV plays are marked (H.IV)

* King Henry V
* Duke of Gloucester
* Duke of Bedford
* Duke of Clarence
* Duke of York
* Duke of Exeter
* Archbishop of Canterbury,
* The Pope's Legate.
* Lord Scroop of Masham.
* The Earl of Cambridge.
* Sir Thomas Grey.
* Mithridate, a Doctor.
* Sir John Falstaff \- (MW);(H.IV)
* Justice Shallow \- (MW);(H.IV)
* Abraham Slender - (MW)
* Mr Pleadwell
* Friar Lawrence
* Friar Paul
* Ancient Pistol (MW);(H.IV)
* Bardolph \- (MW);(H.IV)
* Francis - (H.IV)
* Peto - (H.IV)
* Dame Ursula - (H.IV)
* Eleanor Poins - (H. IV)
* Mistress Quickly \- (MW);(H.IV)
* Doll Tearsheet \- (H.IV)

### Plot

Smarting from his dismissal from Hal's presence, Falstaff meets up with Doll Tearsheet and Mistress Quickly, who have bribed their way free of jail. They are both shocked by what has happened. Lord Scroop and his accomplices plot against the new king. Scroop says that Henry's rejection of his old companions is proof of how hypocritical and untrustworthy he is. A Friar is asked to try to reform Falstaff. The Friar is told that the king's relationship with Poins' beautiful sister Eleanor has helped Poins escape the fate of the other former companions. The king has sent Eleanor to a nunnery, nominally to protect her. But he is disturbed to see her at his coronation.

Shallow plots to get back the thousand pounds he lent to Falstaff. In the Boar's Head Tavern, Falstaff pours out his bitterness to Bardolph. Shallow consults lawyer Mr. Pleadwell, but is advised that legal attempts to get his money will fail. Falstaff, Doll, Bardolph and Quickly discuss what they will do for the future. Scroop visits Eleanor Poins and attempts to seduce her, but she rejects him. An Apothecary visits the dejected Falstaff but can do nothing for him; Falstaff only perks up when Bardolph tells him that his old fiancée Mistress Ursula has inherited money. He writes to her, telling her of his enduring love. The king discusses challenges to his power from the church and the French. Ursula discusses Falstaff's intentions with her maid Bridget. The Friar confronts Falstaff about his lifestyle. Falstaff says marriage will be his penance.

The king angers church leaders when he refuses a demand from the Pope to change a law that requires parliamentary approval for some church financial matters. Scroop and the Papal Legate plot against him. Shallow, frustrated, determines to challenge Falstaff to a duel. Scroop and the Earl of Cambridge plan to kill Henry and place Edmund Mortimer on the throne. They think Falstaff is the man to do the deed, because of his known criminality and his grievance against Henry. Falstaff and Shallow meet for their duel. Falstaff beats Shallow, who is forced to concede he will never get back his money.

The Friar learns from Eleanor of Scroop's behaviour. Scroop appears. He attempts to rape Eleanor, but is overpowered by the friars. He leaves. The Friar reveals to Eleanor that he has discovered Scroop's plot against the king. Having agreed to kill the king, Falstaff waits for him at Southampton with the Earl of Cambridge. He ponders his options as, unaware of the plot, his new wife expresses excitement at the thought of meeting the king. The king hears from the friars about the plot, but remains unsure of the truth. He allows Falstaff an audience. Falstaff produces a knife, but then offers it to the king and tells him of the plot. The king leaves to find the conspirators. Alone Falstaff says that he knew the conspirators intended to hang him after he'd killed the king. The conspirators arrive, but deny their guilt. Proof of their plan arrives, and they are led away. The king returns Falstaff to his favour. Falstaff says he is too old to join in the French war, and wishes only to retire - as long as the king will give him some more money. The king agrees.

## Second version

### Characters

characters derived from *The Merry Wives of Windsor* are marked (MW); those from the Henry IV plays are marked (H.IV)

### Plot

Having been rejected by the new king Henry V, Falstaff and his cronies must find a new way to advance themselves. Doll Tearsheet and Mistress Quickly have bribed their way free of jail. Pistol tells Nym he intends to hide by using a false name. Falstaff still has the thousand pounds he borrowed from Shallow. Shallow consults Mr Pleadwell, a lawyer, about the money, but Pleadwell says that since no contract was drawn up for the loan, Shallow will have to rely on Falstaff's sense of honour. Shallow despairs of the money.

At a fencing school, Pistol and Nym meet Shallow and Slender. Disguised as Spanish swordsman "Anticho del Pistolo", Pistol impresses Shallow with his swordsmanship. Convinced that he can use "Pistolo" against Falstaff, Shallow invites him and Nym to work for him. Nym has an idea that they can trick Shallow and Slender into believing that Doll and Quickly are two well-known wealthy women, whom they resemble. The women will then pretend to fall in love with the two squires, knowing that the greedy Shallow and Slender will seize the chance to marry them.

Falstaff and Bardolph consult Dr Caius about Peto, who is very ill. Caius' track-record does not bode well for Peto. Bardolph informs Falstaff that Mistress Ursula, Falstaff's old fiancée, has come into money. Falstaff immediately plans to marry her at last. Doll and Quickly agree to Nym's plan. Meanwhile "Pistolo" sets out to woo Ursula for himself. Nym has already been pursuing her maid Bridget. Falstaff wins over Ursula, while Quickly and Doll adopt airs of demure gentility, convincing Shallow and Slender of their fake identities. Pistol attempts to impress Ursula, but is forced to flee when Falstaff approaches. A friar attempts to make Falstaff repent of his wayward ways with no success. Bardolph learns of Nym's deception plan. He informs Falstaff. Shallow challenges Falstaff to a duel, intending that "Pistolo" will do the fighting. Falstaff tries to get Bardolph to fight for him.

When neither "Pistolo" nor Bardolph are willing to fight, the two old men are forced to fight the duel themselves. Shallow repeatedly stabs Falstaff but fails to penetrate his body, breaking his sword. Falstaff captures Shallow. He agrees to release him if he will say they are quits. When Shallow agrees, Falstaff tells him about Nym's marriage plot. The pair devise a plan to outwit the plotters. Shortly afterwards Pistol receives a letter, apparently from Ursula, saying that she wants to marry him rather than Falstaff. Bridget will marry Nym. By contriving that the marriage will be at a masquerade, Shallow and Slender manage to switch places with Pistol and Nym, who marry Quickly and Doll. Falstaff marries Ursula. The deceptions are revealed. Pistol, Quickly, Doll and Nym accept their fate, and Falstaff invites everyone to the marriage feast.

## Creation and productions

Kenrick was a well known commentator on Shakespeare in the 18th century, who took the common view at the time that Shakespeare's plays were only acceptable to modern audiences in heavily adapted versions. *Falstaff's Wedding* contains very little directly derived from Shakespeare apart from a few phrases and the characters themselves. The ending of the second version, however, is a pastiche of the final scene of *The Merry Wives of Windsor*. The play was one of several adaptations of Shakespeare centring on the character of Falstaff, but is "the most remarkable" of them according to critic Adam Hansen. Hansen describes the first version of the play as "an ingenious exploitation of some hints and inconsistencies in the Shakespearean original". In particular Kenrick picks up on the hint that Hal has a relationship with Poins' sister, who is portrayed in *Falstaff's Wedding* as the king's "quondam mistress".

After the first version was published in 1760, Kenrick was encouraged to adapt it into a viable performance version. He wrote that,

> The success, which a juvenile sketch of this Play hath met with in publication, having induced the Author to bring it on the stage; he flatters himself the alterations, which were thought necessary to accommodate it to a theatrical audience, will not give less satisfaction to the reader than such scenes as he was obliged on that account to reject.

The revised version is almost a completely different play. Eleanor Poins and all the upper class characters are dropped, including the conspirators. Only a minority of scenes remain unchanged. A wholly new story centring on Nym's plans for Doll and Quickly was created. Thus the earlier version, described as a sequel to *Henry IV, Part 2*, is mimicking the manner of the Henriad plays, but the second version is much more indebted to *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.

The original version of the play was dedicated to the best-known Falstaff of the era James Quin. When the revised version was performed in 1766, the title role was played by James Love, who was also a well-known Falstaff. It was performed the following year in Liverpool.

Though the revised version was not a success on stage, the original version was popular in print and widely reprinted. Kendrick later complained that David Garrick had tried to stop productions of the play. In his poem *Roscius* a character based on Garrick says of him "Ne'er shall his Falstaff come again to life".

## Significance

Though not a major success, the play was very significant in the process of expanding the imaginary world created in Shakespeare's *Henry IV* plays, especially by creating the characters of Eleanor Poins and Mistress Ursula, both of whom are only mentioned in passing in the original. David A. Brewer refers to this as "detachability with a vengeance", in which characters take on a life of their own detached from the original dramatic context. The play represents Falstaff's cronies breaking out of their restricted roles.

The play was an influence on James White's *Falstaff's Letters* (1796), originally entitled *Original Letters, etc, of Sir John Falstaff and his friends*. White's friend Charles Lamb considered it to be "full of goodly quips and rare fancies, 'all deftly masked like hoar antiquity'—much superior to Dr. Kenrick's *Falstaff 's Wedding*." He published a review of the book in *The Critical Review* in which he criticised Kenrick because "the peculiar quaintness of the character \[of Falstaff\] was lost by being sunk in modern wit", a defect supposedly avoided in White's book.

## InfoBox

| Falstaff's Wedding | |
| --- | --- |
| Title page of the 1760 edition | |
| Written by | William Kenrick |
| Date premiered | 1766 |
| Place premiered | Drury Lane, London |
| Original language | English |
| Subject | Original version: Falstaff is drawn into a plot to kill Henry V<br>Revised version: Falstaff and his cronies plot to marry into money |
| Genre | Period piece; farce |
| Setting | London, shortly after the coronation of King Henry V |


title: Falstaff (Balfe)

abstract: Falstaff is an Italian-language opera by Michael William Balfe, written to a libretto by Manfredo Maggioni, given at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, 19 July 1838.

text:
# Falstaff (Balfe)

***Falstaff*** is an Italian-language opera by Michael William Balfe, written to a libretto by Manfredo Maggioni, given at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, 19 July 1838.

## Recordings

* *Falstaff* Marcel Vanaud (Falstaff), Majella Cullagh (Mistress Ford), Sam McElroy (Ford), Barry Banks (Fenton) RTÉ Concert Orchestra, conducted by Marco Zambelli, in association with Opera Ireland for RTÉ

* Céline Frigau Manning: *Le Falstaff de Manfredo Maggioni et Michael Balfe : façonner un opéra italien pour le public anglais*. Revue LISA, December 2011 doi:10.4000/lisa.4351

## InfoBox

| Falstaff | |
| --- | --- |
| Opera by Michael William Balfe | |
|  | |
| Librettist | Manfredo Maggioni |
| Premiere | 19 July 1838 (1838-07-19)<br>Her Majesty's Theatre, London |


title: Blato (Sjenica)

abstract: Blato is a village in the municipality of Sjenica, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 65 people.

text:
# Blato (Sjenica)

**Blato** is a village in the municipality of Sjenica, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 65 people.

43°09′N 19°50′E / 43.150°N 19.833°E / 43.150; 19.833

## InfoBox

| Blato (Sjenica) | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Blato (Sjenica) | |
| Coordinates: 43°09′N 19°50′E / 43.150°N 19.833°E / 43.150; 19.833 | |
| Country | Serbia |
| District | Zlatibor District |
| Municipality | Sjenica |
| Population (2002) | |
| Total | 65 |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Falsozorilispe

abstract: Falsozorilispe is a genus of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. Its only species is Falsozorilispe linearis. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1943.

text:
# Falsozorilispe

***Falsozorilispe*** is a genus of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. Its only species is ***Falsozorilispe linearis***. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1943.

## InfoBox

| *Falsozorilispe* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Tribe: | Pteropliini |
| Genus: | *Falsozorilispe* |
| Species: | ***F. linearis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Falsozorilispe linearis***<br>Breuning, 1943 | |
|


title: Falsotrachystola torquata

abstract: Falsotrachystola torquata is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Holzschuh in 2007.

text:
# Falsotrachystola torquata

***Falsotrachystola torquata*** is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Holzschuh in 2007.

## InfoBox

| *Falsotrachystola torquata* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Suborder: | Polyphaga |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Genus: | ***Falsotrachystola*** |
| Species: | ***F. torquata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Falsotrachystola torquata***<br>Holzschuh, 2007 | |
|


title: Falsotrachystola

abstract:
Falsotrachystola is a genus of longhorn beetles of the subfamily Lamiinae, containing the following species:
  - Falsotrachystola asidiformis
  - Falsotrachystola torquata Holzschuh, 2007

text:
# Falsotrachystola

***Falsotrachystola*** is a genus of longhorn beetles of the subfamily Lamiinae, containing the following species:

## InfoBox

| *Falsotrachystola* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Subfamily: | Lamiinae |
| Genus: | ***Falsotrachystola*** |
|


title: Romanian nationality law

abstract: The Romanian nationality law addresses specific rights, duties, privileges, and benefits between Romania and the individual. Romanian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis. Current citizenship policy in Romania is in accordance with the Romanian Citizenship Law, which was adopted by the Romanian Parliament on March 6, 1991, and the Constitution of Romania, which was adopted on November 21, 1991.

text:
# Romanian nationality law

The **Romanian nationality law** addresses specific rights, duties, privileges, and benefits between Romania and the individual. Romanian nationality law is based on *jus sanguinis* ("right of blood"). Current citizenship policy in Romania is in accordance with the Romanian Citizenship Law, which was adopted by the Romanian Parliament on March 6, 1991, and the Constitution of Romania, which was adopted on November 21, 1991.

## Background

Romania was under communist rule between 1947 and 1989. During the early phases of communism, the principles of *Jus Sanguinis* were emphasized and a strong sense of nationalism was demanded of all Romanian citizens. International migration was rigorously controlled by the regime and the population was under strict observation. The 1971 Law on Romanian Citizenship upheld these principles and expressed the superiority of Romanian citizenship. “Law No. 24 on Romanian Citizenship of December 1971 stipulated that descendants of a Romanian woman were automatically ascribed Romanian citizenship, regardless of the father’s citizenship”. Article 5 of the Law reads: “As an expression of the relationship between parents and children, of the uninterrupted continuity on the fatherland of previous generations that fought for social and national freedom, children born from Romanian parents on the territory of the Socialist Republic of Romania are Romanian citizens.” The law also stipulates that “the president of the republic alone, as representative of the executive power..." could grant or withdraw Romanian citizenship.

Economic and socio-political crises of the 1980s brought with it a change in understanding Romanian homogeneity. Conflict arose between the Hungarian and Romanian nations and confusion between citizenship and national identity led to many questions regarding the boundaries of the nation and the rights of Hungarian minorities living in Romania. After the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989, citizenship laws in Romania were redrafted in the newly formed constitution. Interactions between the citizenship policies of the various Eastern European countries led to new discussions regarding dual-citizenship, which had traditionally been forbidden for Romanian citizens.

## Current law's foundation

Romanian nationality law is founded on the social policy of *jus sanguinis* by which nationality or citizenship is not determined by place of birth, but by the citizenship of one's ancestor. It contrasts with *jus soli* ("right of soil"), in which citizenship is determined by one's place of birth.

In respect to foundlings, Romanian nationality law does contain an element of *jus soli*. Foundlings who are found in Romania are considered Romanian citizens until proven otherwise.

## The law

From Article #5; Law 21 – The children born from Romanian citizens on Romanian territory are Romanian citizens. Furthermore, Romanian citizens are also those:

* born on Romanian territory, even if only one of the parents is a Romanian citizen;
* born abroad with at least one parent holding Romanian citizenship.

Romanian citizenship can be acquired after eight years of residency in the country while demonstrating a working knowledge of the Romanian language and knowledge of Romanian culture.

## Acquiring Romanian citizenship

Citizenship in Romania can be acquired by four methods: birth, adoption, repatriation, and request.

* **Birth**: All children born to Romanian citizens acquire citizenship at birth. The child may be born on Romanian territory or abroad and only one parent must be a Romanian citizen. Additionally, any child found on Romanian territory is granted citizenship if neither of the parents are known.
* **Adoption**: Citizenship is granted to any child who is legally adopted by Romanian citizens. If only one foster parent is a Romanian citizen, the child is still eligible for Romanian citizenship and the decision is made by the foster parents. If they are unable to reach a mutual agreement, the qualified court of law will decide. If the child is 14 years of age or older, their consent is necessary.
* **Repatriation**: Any person who has lost Romanian citizenship can regain citizenship if he so wishes. Additionally, any child or grandchild of someone who has lost their citizenship is entitled to repatriation.
* **Acquiring by Request**: Citizenship may be granted to foreign citizens or a person without citizenship who qualify by inclusion of one of the following three categories:
    + Was born in Romania and currently reside there;
    + Has resided in Romania for at least eight years; or
    + Has resided in Romania and been married to a Romanian citizen for at least five years.

Applicants must also be at least 18 years of age and have a good understanding of the Romanian language and culture. There are a number of qualifiers that may allow removing up to half of the time-requirements to gain Romanian citizenship, such as if the applicant is an internationally recognized personality; the applicant is a citizen of a European Union Member State; the applicant has obtained refugee status; or the applicant has invested in Romania amounts exceeding €1,000,000.

### The consequences of naturalization and restoration of Romanian nationality

Article #10 of the law stipulates that: "Romanian nationality can be granted to the person who lost this nationality and requests its restoration, keeping his/her foreign nationality..."

Certain countries do not allow for multiple citizenship or, in the case that they do allow it, they provide for automatic loss of their citizenship upon obtaining the nationality of another country through a voluntary decision (free choice). The Romanian state cannot guarantee that the foreign citizen keeps their foreign citizenship when restoring their Romanian nationality. All Dutch citizens who restored their Romanian nationality before 1 April 2003, have lost their Dutch citizenship. All Dutch citizens who restored their Romanian nationality after 1 April 2003 and do not fulfill one of the three exceptions from the automatic loss of citizenship have lost their Dutch nationality. All adult Belgian citizens who restored their Romanian nationality before 9 June 2007 have lost their Belgian nationality.

The same applies to people who become naturalized as Romanian nationals.

This does not constitute a fault of the Romanian state, since "according to the Romanian Constitution and Article #1; paragraph 3; Law No. 21/1991 with the subsequent changes and additions, republished, the nationals of Romania enjoy the protection of the Romanian state — such provisions do not mention any duty of the Romanian state in respect to former and/or future Romanian nationals".

The implementation of dual citizenship led to many criticisms in the years that followed. The policy was criticized for being both too inclusive and too exclusive. Some scholars argued that the policy attempted to uphold the principle in the Romanian constitution that "Romanian sovereignty belongs to the Romanian people", by focusing its efforts towards ethnic homogeneity rather than diversity. Contrarily, neighboring Eastern European countries claimed that the policy was a tool of "creeping expansion" and remained skeptical of the motives behind Romania's new-found inclusiveness. While the policy is still discussed today, Romania's acceptance into the European Union in 2007 changed the focus on the citizenship discussion within Romania and with neighboring countries seeking acceptance into the EU themselves, criticism has dwindled abroad.

### Honorary Citizen

Article #40 of the Romanian Citizenship Law states: "The Romanian citizenship titled 'honorary citizenship' may be granted to some foreigners for special services in favor of the country and the Romanian people, on the Government proposal, with no other formality, by the Romanian Parliament. The persons who acquire honorary citizenship enjoy all the civilian and political rights that are recognized to the Romanian citizens, except the right of electing and being elected and that of carrying out a public rank."

## Dual citizenship

In accordance with the Law on Romanian Citizenship of 1991, Romanian citizens currently have the right to hold dual citizenship. Romanian citizens who apply for dual citizenship are not required to establish their residency in Romania and, if accepted, are granted all the same rights as non-dual citizens. The Romanian policy on dual citizenship is irrelevant to other states policy. In order to successfully become a dual citizen of Romania, a person must also meet the requirements of dual citizenship in the other country. There have been cases in which applicants have successfully restored their Romanian citizenship and as a result, lost citizenship of another country. The Romanian state does not claim responsibility for the loss of citizenship to another state as a result of being granted dual citizenship by Romania.

## Citizenship of the European Union

Because Romania is a member state of the European Union, Romanian citizens are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. When in a non-EU country where there is no Romanian embassy, Romanian citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. Romanian citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.

## Losing Romanian Citizenship

Romanian Citizenship can be lost by withdrawing Romanian Citizenship or accepting the disclaiming of Romanian citizenship. Committing serious crimes that harm the Romanian state, or enlisting in the army of a state that Romania has broken any diplomatic relations with, while abroad are both means for withdrawal. A citizen can disclaim his citizenship so long as he is not being charged in a criminal case or owes some sort of debt to any individual or corporate body of the state.

Regardless of an individual's actions, Romanian Citizenship cannot be withdrawn if acquired by birth.

## Travel freedom of Romanian citizens

Visa requirements for Romanian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Romania. In 2017, Romanian citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 149 countries and territories, ranking the Romanian passport 21st in the world according to the Visa Restrictions Index.

In 2017, the Romanian nationality is ranked twenty-fifth in the Nationality Index (QNI). This index differs from the Visa Restrictions Index, which focuses on external factors including travel freedom. The QNI considers, in addition to travel freedom, on internal factors such as peace & stability, economic strength, and human development as well.

## InfoBox

| Romanian Citizenship Act | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Parliament of Romania | |
| **Long title** * An Act relating to Romanian citizenship | |
| Enacted by | Government of Romania |
| **Status:** Current legislation | |


title: Jorge Castelblanco

abstract: Jorge Castelblanco is a long-distance runner from Panama. At the 2016 Olympics he became the first Panamanian athlete to run the Olympic marathon. He also competed in the men's marathon at the 2020 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan. Castelblanco graduated from the Technological University of Panama and works as a police officer. He is married and has a son, Ethan.

text:
# Jorge Castelblanco

**Jorge Castelblanco** (born 23 September 1987) is a long-distance runner from Panama. At the 2016 Olympics he became the first Panamanian athlete to run the Olympic marathon. He also competed in the men's marathon at the 2020 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan.

Castelblanco graduated from the Technological University of Panama and works as a police officer. He is married and has a son, Ethan.

## InfoBox

Jorge Castelblanco
| Castelblanco at the 2016 Olympics | |
| --- | --- |
| Personal information | |
| Born | 23 September 1987 (1987-09-23) (age 37) |
| Height | 169 cm (5 ft 7 in) |
| Weight | 58 kg (128 lb) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Athletics |
| Event(s) | Half marathon, marathon |
| Club | panama runners association |
| Coached by | Juan Carlos Cardona Rios |
| Achievements and titles | |
| Personal best(s) | HM – 1:06:49 (2011)<br>Marathon – 2:15:57 (2016) |


title: Renato Piccolotto

abstract: Renato Piccolotto is an internationally renowned Italian chef who was born in Asolo in 1954 and is the Executive Chef of the Hotel Cipriani in Venice where he started working in 1983. In the recent years he has been the head chef for the events of Elton John for the "Elton John AIDS Foundation" that is set during the Academy Award ceremony.

text:
# Renato Piccolotto

**Renato Piccolotto** is an internationally renowned Italian chef who was born in Asolo (Province of Treviso) in 1954 and is the Executive Chef of the Hotel Cipriani in Venice where he started working in 1983.

In the recent years he has been the head chef for the events of Elton John for the "Elton John AIDS Foundation" that is set during the Academy Award ceremony.

## InfoBox

| Renato Piccolotto | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1954 (2024-10-05UTC19:08:32)<br>Asolo, Italy |
| **Culinary career** | |
| Cooking style | Italian cuisine |
| Current restaurant(s) * Hotel Cipriani | |
|  | |
| Website | www.piccolotto.com |


title: Romanian numbers

abstract: Romanian numbers are the system of number names used in Romanian to express counts, quantities, ranks in ordered sets, fractions, multiplication, and other information related to numbers. In Romanian grammar, the words expressing numbers are sometimes considered a separate part of speech, called numeral, along with nouns, verbs, etc. Nevertheless, these words play the same roles in the sentence as they do in English: adjective, pronoun, noun, and adverb. This article focuses on the mechanism of naming numbers in Romanian and the use of the number names in sentences. The symbols for numbers in Romanian texts are the same as those used in English, with the exception of using the comma as the decimal separator and the period or the space for grouping digits by three in large numbers. For example, in Romanian 1,5 V means one and a half volts, and 1.000.000 or 1 000 000 means one million.

text:
# Romanian numbers

**Romanian numbers** are the system of number names used in Romanian to express counts, quantities, ranks in ordered sets, fractions, multiplication, and other information related to numbers.

In Romanian grammar, the words expressing numbers are sometimes considered a separate part of speech, called *numeral* (plural: *numerale*), along with nouns, verbs, etc. (Note that the English word "numeral" can mean both the symbols used for writing numbers and the names of those numbers in a given language; also, Romanian *număr* only partially overlaps in meaning with English *number*.) Nevertheless, these words play the same roles in the sentence as they do in English: adjective, pronoun, noun, and adverb. This article focuses on the mechanism of naming numbers in Romanian and the use of the number names in sentences.

The symbols for numbers in Romanian texts are the same as those used in English, with the exception of using the comma as the decimal separator and the period or the space (ideally a narrow space) for grouping digits by three in large numbers. For example, in Romanian *1,5 V* means one and a half volts, and 1.000.000 or 1000000 means one million.

## General characteristics

As in other numeral systems, the Romanian number names use a limited set of words and combining rules, which can be applied to generate the name of any number within sufficiently large limits.

The general characteristics of the number formation rules in Romanian are:

* The numeration base used is decimal.
* Word order is big-endian with the exception of numbers from 11 to 19.
* Large numbers use a combined form of the long and short scales.
* Connection words are used in certain situations.
* Some number names have two gender-specific forms.

## Cardinal numbers

Cardinal numbers are the words we use for counting objects or expressing quantity.

### Number name for 0

The number  is called *zero*. Like in English, it requires the plural form of nouns: *zero grade* "zero degrees", with *grade* being the plural form of *grad*). Unlike English, the reading of number/numeral *0* is always *zero* and never replaced with words like *oh*, *naught*, *nil*, *love*, etc.

### Numbers from 1 to 10

The number names from 1 to 10 derive from Latin. The table below gives the cardinal numbers in Romanian and the three other Eastern Romance languages (sometimes considered to be its dialects): Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian.

| Number | Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Istro-Romanian | Latin |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | *unu*1 | *unu*1 | *unu*1 | *ur*1 | *unus* |
| 2 | *doi*1 | *doi*1 | *doi*1 | *doi*1 | *duo* |
| 3 | *trei* | *trei* | *trei* | *trei* | *tres* |
| 4 | *patru* | *patru* | *patru* | *påtru* | *quattuor* |
| 5 | *cinci* | *ținți*2 | *ținți* | *ținț* | *quinque* |
| 6 | *șase* | *șase* | *șasi* | *șåse* | *sex* |
| 7 | *șapte*3 | *șapte* | *șapti* | *șåpte* | *septem* |
| 8 | *opt* | *optu* | *uopt* | *opt* | *octo* |
| 9 | *nouă* | *noauă* | *nou* | *devet*4 | *novem* |
| 10 | *zece* | *zațe* | *zeți* | *deset*4 | *decem* |

Notes

1. When counting, the number names for 1 and 2 have the forms given in the table; however, when used in a sentence, they change according to the gender of the noun they modify or replace. It is worth noting that the two adjectival forms of the cardinal number for 1 (*un* and *o*) are identical with the corresponding indefinite articles.

* *un băiat* "one boy, a boy",
* *unul dintre băieți* "one of the boys",
* *o fată* "one girl, a girl",
* *una dintre fete* "one of the girls",
* *doi băieți* "two boys",
* *două fete* "two girls".

2. The name for number *five* in Aromanian, written *ținți* or *tsintsi*, might be responsible for nicknaming the Aromanians *țințar*.

3. Sometimes pronounced as *șepte* (initially a regionalism), more common when communicating telephone numbers, in order to avoid a possible confusion between *șase* and *șapte*.

4. In Istro-Romanian, depending on the speaker, some number names are replaced with their Croatian (Slavic) equivalents.

### Numbers from 11 to 19

Unlike all other Romance languages, Romanian has a consistent way of naming the numbers from 11 to 19. These are obtained by joining three elements: the units, the word *spre* (derived from Latin *super* "over", but now meaning "towards" in Romanian), and the word for "ten". For example, *fifteen* is *cincisprezece* *cinci + spre + zece*, which literally means "five over ten". This is the only exception to the big-endian principle of number naming.

The table below gives the forms of all nine such number names. Each number in the series has one or more shortened variants, often used in informal speech, where the element '*-sprezece* is replaced by *-șpe*. Prescriptive grammarians consider the informal variants to be indicative of careless speech.

| Number | Formal Romanian | Informal Romanian | Aromanian |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 11 | *unsprezece* | *unșpe* | *unsprăd̦ațe* |
| 12 | *doisprezece*1 | *doișpe* | *doisprăd̦ațe* |
| 13 | *treisprezece* | *treișpe* | *treisprăd̦ațe* |
| 14 | *paisprezece*2 | *paișpe* | *pasprăd̦ațe* |
| 15 | *cincisprezece*3 | *cinșpe* (not *cincișpe*) | *tsisprăd̦ațe* |
| 16 | *șaisprezece*2 | *șaișpe* | *șasprăd̦ațe* |
| 17 | *șaptesprezece* | *șapteșpe*, *șaptișpe* | *șaptesprăd̦ațe* |
| 18 | *optsprezece*4 | *optișpe*, *optâșpe*/*optîșpe*, *opșpe* | *optusprăd̦ațe* |
| 19 | *nouăsprezece* | *nouășpe* | *naosprăd̦ațe* |

Notes

1. The number name for 12 given in the table is the masculine form; this is the only number in this range that also has a feminine form: *douăsprezece* (informal *douășpe*). However, the masculine form is sometimes used even with feminine nouns, especially when the number follows the noun it determines, as in *ora doisprezece* "12 o'clock" or *clasa a doisprezecea* ("12th grade", see below for ordinal numbers); such use is considered incorrect.

2. Number names for 14 and 16 do not exactly follow the forming rule, possibly under the influence of the number names for 12 and 13. The forms *patrusprezece* and *șasesprezece* do exist, but are perceived as hypercorrect and very rarely used (one might hear them in telephone conversations, for the sake of correct transmission).

3. Instead of *cincisprezece* sometimes *cinsprezece* is used.

4. The number name for 18 is notorious for being the word in Romanian with the longest consonant cluster (five consonants with no intervening vowels): *ptspr*, split into two syllables, *o**pt-spr**e-ze-ce*. For this reason, the variants *opsprezece* (with a missing *t*) and *optâsprezece/optîsprezece* or *optisprezece* (with an additional vowel to break the consonant cluster) are frequent.

### Numbers from 20 to 99

The numbers in this range that are multiple of 10 (that is, 20, 30, ..., 90) are named by joining the number of tens with the word *zeci* (the plural of *zece*), as shown in the table below. Note that they are spelled as a single word.

| Number | Romanian | Aromanian |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 20 | *douăzeci* | *yinghiț*3 |
| 30 | *treizeci* | *treid̦îți* |
| 40 | *patruzeci* | *patrud̦îți* |
| 50 | *cincizeci*1 | *țind̦îți* |
| 60 | *șaizeci*2 | *șaid̦îți* |
| 70 | *șaptezeci* | *șaptid̦îți* |
| 80 | *optzeci*1 | *opd̦îți* |
| 90 | *nouăzeci* | *naud̦îți* |

Notes

1. *Cincizeci* is often pronounced (but not written) *cinzeci*. Similarly, *optzeci* is often pronounced *obzeci*.

2. *șaizeci* does not follow the formation rule exactly. The expected form *șasezeci* does not exist.

3. This is a direct descendant of Latin *vīgintī*, which did not survive in Romanian.

The other numbers between 20 and 99 are named by combining three words: the number of tens, the conjunction *și* "and", and the units. For example, 42 is *patruzeci și doi*.

For those numbers whose unit figure is 1 or 2 the corresponding number name has two gender-dependent forms:

* masculine: *treizeci și unu de bărbați* "31 men"; *treizeci și doi de bărbați* "32 men";
* feminine: *treizeci și una de femei* "31 women"; *treizeci și două de femei* "32 women";
* neuter: *treizeci și unu de grade* "31 degrees"; *treizeci și două de grade* "32 degrees".

#### Short versions

The numbers from 20 to 99 also have an informal, simplified pronunciation: The part *zeci* shortens to *ș* /ʃ/ when the units name starts with an unvoiced consonant or a vowel. For 50 and 80 this contraction is incomplete, *zeci* reducing only to *zeș*. When the next word starts with a voiced consonant the same rule applies except that *ș* is pronounced voiced as *j* /ʒ/. The same rule applies if the units number is 0 and if the next word is the preposition *de*. Examples:

* *șaptezeci și cinci**șapteșcinci* ("75");
* *cincizeci și unu**cinzeșunu* ("51");
* *optzeci și opt**obzeșopt* ("88");
* *treizeci și doi**treijdoi* ("32");
* *douăzeci de ori**douăjde ori* ("20 times").

In regional speech further simplification is possible (*cincizeci și* becoming *cinș* and *optzeci și* becoming *opș*). Also, the number 48, when it refers to the revolutions of 1848, is pronounced *pașopt*, which also gave words like *pașoptist* (meaning "participant in the Romanian 1848 Revolution" or "supporter of its ideology").

### Numbers from 100 to 999

Any given number from 100 to 999 can be named by first saying the hundreds and then, without any connecting word, the two-digit number of tens and units; for example, 365 is *trei sute șaizeci și cinci*.

Note that the word for "hundred" is *sută*, and that if the number of hundreds is 2 or larger, the plural *sute* is required. The noun *sută* itself is feminine and as such the numbers 100 and 200 are *o sută* and *două sute*.

In fast utterances, the numbers 500 and 800 are usually pronounced *cinsute* and *opsute*, instead of the standard forms *cinci sute* and *opt sute*, respectively. In writing, however, the informal variants are only used for stylistic effects.

### Large numbers

The table below lists the numbers representing powers of 10 larger than 100, that have a corresponding single-word name. The word for 1000 is feminine, all the others are neuter; this is important in the number naming. In Romanian, neuter nouns behave like masculine in the singular and like feminine in the plural.

| Number | Singular | Plural |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 100 | *o sută* | (*două*) *sute* |
| 1.000 | *o mie* | (*două*) *mii* |
| 1.000.000 | *un milion* | (*două*) *milioane* |
| 1.000.000.000 | *un miliard*, *un bilion* | (*două*) *miliarde*, *bilioane* |
| 1.000.000.000.000 | *un trilion* | (*două*) *trilioane* |
| 1.000.000.000.000.000 | *un cvadrilion* (occasionally *triliard*) | (*două*) *cvadrilioane* (occasionally *triliarde*) |
| 1.000.000.000.000.000.000 | *un cvintilion* | (*două*) *cvintilioane* |
| 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 | *un sextilion* | (*două*) *sextilioane* |
| ... | ... | ... |

To say any cardinal number larger than 1000 the number is split in groups of three digits, from right to left (into units, thousands, millions, etc.), then the groups are read from left to right as in the example below.

12,345,678 (written in Romanian 12.345.678) = *douăsprezece milioane trei sute patruzeci și cinci de mii șase sute șaptezeci și opt*

When a digit is zero, the corresponding quantity is simply not pronounced:

101,010 (written in Romanian 101.010) = *o sută una mii zece*

In writing, the groups of three digits are separated by dots. The comma is used as decimal separator. This may be confusing for native English speakers, who use the two symbols the other way around.

### Decimal fractions

Numbers represented as decimal fractions (for example *1.62*) are expressed by reading in order the integer part, the decimal separator, and the fractional part. This is the same as in English, with the following exceptions:

* The decimal separator is the comma, in Romanian *virgulă*. For example, 2.5 is written 2,5 and pronounced *doi virgulă cinci*.
* The fractional part is read as a multi-digit number, not by saying each digit independently. For example, 3.14 (written 3,14) is pronounced *trei virgulă paisprezece* (literally *three comma fourteen*). However, when the number of decimals is too large, they can be read one by one as a string of digits: *trei virgulă unu patru unu cinci nouă* (3.14159).
* Decimal fractions whose integer part is 0 (such as 0.6) are always written and pronounced in Romanian together with the initial *zero*: 0,6 is read *zero virgulă șase*, unlike English *point six*.

In some situations it is customary to say *cu* "with" instead of *virgulă*. For example, medical staff might be heard stating the body temperature in words like *treizeci și șapte cu cinci*, meaning 37.5 °C.

### Percents

Percentages (%) and permillages (‰) are read using the words *la sută* and *la mie*, like in the examples: *cinci la sută* (5%), *nouă la mie* (9‰). For percentages an alternative reading uses the neuter noun *procent*, meaning 1%; the previous example becomes *cinci procente*.

### Negative numbers

Negative numbers are named just like in English, by placing the word *minus*, pronounced \[ˈminus\], at the beginning: *−10 m* is *minus zece metri*.

### Preposition *de*

Syntactically, when a cardinal number determines a noun and when the number has certain values, the preposition *de* (roughly equivalent to *of*) is inserted between the number name and the modified noun in a way similar to English *hundreds **of** birds*. Example: *șaizeci de minute* "sixty minutes".

The rules governing the use of preposition *de* are as follows:

* For numbers from 0 to 19 *de* is not used. The same applies to numbers whose last two digits make a number in the range from 1 to 19. Examples: *șapte case* "seven houses", *șaisprezece ani* "16 years (old)", *o sută zece metri* "110 meters".
    + An exception to this rule is when the objects that are counted are symbols (letters, numbers). In this case, for better understanding the meaning, *de* can be used, although the practice is sometimes criticized. Example: *se scrie cu doi de i* "it's written with two i's", *doi de zece* "two tens", "two A grades".
    + Another exception is for numbers whose last two digits are 01, in which case an optional *de* is sometimes used. Examples: *o mie una de ori* "1001 times", *o sută unu de dalmațieni* "101 Dalmatians". In the latter case the choice might be influenced by euphony (avoidance of the alliteration).
* For integer numbers from 20 to 100, preposition *de* is placed between the number name and the modified noun. The same applies to numbers whose last two digits are either 00 or make a number in the range from 20 to 99. Examples: *douăzeci de metri* "twenty meters", *o mie de ori* "a thousand times".
    + In technical contexts, to save space, the preposition *de* may be dropped, especially in writing: *200 metri plat* "200 meters sprint". In expressing quantities using measurement unit symbols the preposition *de* is never written, but usually pronounced: *24 V**douăzeci și patru de volți* "24 V, twenty-four volts".
* For non-integer decimal numbers *de* is never used: *20,5 kg* (read *douăzeci virgulă cinci kilograme*, "20.5 kg").
* For negative numbers all the rules and exceptions above apply unchanged: *−20 °C* is *minus douăzeci de grade Celsius*, *−5 m* is *minus cinci metri*, *−23,4 V* is *minus douăzeci și trei virgulă patru volți*, etc.

The preposition *de* is also used within the syntax of the number itself, for stating the number of thousands, millions, billions, etc.: *douăzeci de mii* "twenty thousand" (also note the plural *mii*, unlike the singular *thousand* in English). The rules for this *de* are the same as those described above: it is used when the last two digits of the number of thousands, millions, etc. are 00 or 20–99. Again, in technical contexts, this *de* may be dropped: *treizeci milioane euro* "thirty million euros".

### Agreement between number name and modified noun

The number name and the noun it modifies must agree in number and gender.

The rule for number agreement is simple: When the number is 1, the modified noun is put in its singular form, otherwise it takes the plural form, including the case of number 0 and all non-integer numbers.

The gender agreement is somewhat complicated by the fact that the Romanian nouns are classified into three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Specifically, the neuter gender is a combination of the other two: A neuter noun behaves like a masculine noun in the singular, and like a feminine noun in the plural. The gender has implications on the morphology of some of the grammatically connected words, including the number names.

When the units digit of a number is 1 or 2, its name has two distinct forms, masculine and feminine. The only exception is *unsprezece* "eleven" which has only one form used for both genders.

The gender agreement requires the choice of masculine number names for masculine nouns, and feminine number names for feminine nouns. For the neuter nouns the agreement is obtained by choosing the masculine name of the number not just for number 1, but for all other numbers whose units digit is 1, despite the fact that the noun behaves as feminine; for numbers whose last digit is 2 the feminine numeral is chosen. Examples:

| Number | Masculine noun | Neuter noun | Feminine noun |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | *copil* "child" | *scaun* "chair" | *oră* "hour" |
| 1 | *un copil* | *un scaun* | *o oră* |
| 2 | *doi copii* | *două scaune* | *două ore* |
| 11 | *unsprezece copii* | *unsprezece scaune* | *unsprezece ore* |
| 12 | *doisprezece copii* | *douăsprezece scaune* | *douăsprezece ore* |
| 21 | *douăzeci și unu de copii* | *douăzeci și **unu** de scaune*1 | *douăzeci și una de ore* |
| 22 | *douăzeci și doi de copii* | *douăzeci și două de scaune* | *douăzeci și două de ore* |

Note

1. Although, as a neuter noun in the plural, *scaune* behaves like a feminine noun, the masculine form of the numeral *douăzeci și unu* is used. This is because *unu* "one" also represents a number by itself; in the singular, the neuter noun requires a masculine modifier. If the noun is also modified by an adjective, the feminine form of the adjective is used: *douăzeci și unu de scaune galbene* "21 yellow chairs".

## Distributive numbers

Distributive numbers are used to show how a larger quantity is divided into smaller, equal portions. These numbers are named using the cardinal number names and the word *câte* (or *cîte*, depending on the spelling convention), roughly meaning "each", but requiring a different word order. The following examples show some distributive numbers in various cases:

* *Punem câte patru prăjituri pe fiecare farfurie.* "We put four cakes on each plate."
* *Copiii merg doi câte doi.* "The children are walking two by two."
* *Hai să ne despărțim în grupe de câte trei.* "Let's split in groups of three each."
* *Au fost expuse desenele a câte doi elevi din fiecare clasă.* "The drawings of two students in each class were displayed."
* *Am dat formularele câte unui copil din fiecare grupă.* "I gave the forms to one child in each group." – *Am dat formularele la cîte doi copii din fiecare grupă.* "I gave the forms to two children in each group."

## Collective numbers

Collective numbers are used when all members of a group are referred to by their number, like English *all four wheels*. Generally, for sets of more than a few elements, the word *toți* / *toate* ("all", masculine / feminine) is used together with the cardinal number. The use of the demonstrative *cei* / *cele* is optional in the nominative-accusative, but required in the genitive-dative. The genitive-dative form is *tuturor celor* for both genders. In the following examples note that the modified noun always has the nominative form, and that the definite article goes to the demonstrative where it is used:

* nominative-accusative:
    + masculine: *toți șapte piticii*, *toți cei șapte pitici* "all seven dwarfs";
    + feminine: *toate trei fiicele*, *toate cele trei fiice* "all three daughters";
* genitive-dative:
    + *tuturor celor șapte pitici* "of/to all seven dwarfs";
    + *tuturor celor trei fiice* "of/to all three daughters";
* genitive (another pattern, using the preposition *a*):
    + *numele a toți șapte piticii*, *numele a toți cei șapte pitici* "the names of all seven dwarfs";
    + *numele a toate trei fiicele*, *numele a toate cele trei fiice* "the names of all three daughters";
* dative (another pattern, using the preposition *la*):
    + *le-am spus la toți șapte piticii*, *le-am spus la toți cei șapte pitici* "I told all seven dwarfs";
    + *le-am spus la toate trei fiicele*, *le-am spus la toate cele trei fiice* "I told all three daughters".

### Special words

When the number is 2 or sometimes 3 or 4, special words are used instead of *toți*, just as the word *both* replaces *\*all two* in English. The most frequent of these words are:

* *amândoi/amîndoi*, *amândouă/amîndouă* "both", with the genitive-dative form *amândurora/amîndurora*, which does not follow the usual declension rules;
* *ambii*, *ambele* (also "both", but somewhat formal);
* *tustrei*, *tustrele* "all three". This and the following collective numerals are used mainly for people and reflects a rather old style.
* *câteșitrei/cîteștrei*, *câteșitrele/cîteștrele* "all three";
* *tuspatru* "all four";
* *câteșipatru/cîteșipatru* "all four".

## Adverbial numbers

The adverbial number is the number used to show the repetition of a certain event, in constructions such as *de cinci ori* "five times". The table below shows a few examples of adverbial numbers.

| Number | Adverbial number | English |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | o dată | once |
| 2 | de două ori | twice |
| 3 | de trei ori | three times (thrice) |
| 12 | de douăsprezece ori | twelve times |
| 21 | de douăzeci și una de ori | twenty-one times |
| 22 | de douăzeci și două de ori | twenty-two times |

For number 1 the usual form is *o dată* ("once", "one time"). The construction *o oară* is possible, but rarely used. In the plural, the adverbial numbers are formed using the preposition *de*, the cardinal number in the feminine, and the noun *ori* "times", which is the plural of the feminine noun *oară*.

Sample sentences:

* *Am citit cartea de trei ori.* "I've read the book three times."
* *„Poștașul sună întotdeauna de două ori”* "The postman always rings twice"

Approximate numbers can be used, like in the examples below.

* *ți-am spus de zeci de ori că nu mă interesează.* "I've told you dozens (textually: *tens*\] of times I'm not interested."
* *Am ascultat cîntecul acesta de sute de ori.* "I've listened to this song hundreds of times."

## Multiplicative numbers

For some numbers, special words are used to show multiplication of size, number, etc. The table below gives the most frequent such words, with their English equivalents.

| Number | Multiplicative number | | Adverbial equivalent | English |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | traditional | neologism | | |
| 2 | îndoit | dublu | de două ori mai (mult) | double, twice as (much) |
| 3 | întreit | triplu | de trei ori mai (mult) | triple, three times as (much) |
| 4 | împătrit | cvadruplu | de patru ori mai (mult) | quadruple, four times as (much) |
| 5 | încincit | cvintuplu | de cinci ori mai (mult) | quintuple, five times as (much) |
| 10 | înzecit |  | de zece ori mai (mult) | ten times as (much) |
| 100 | însutit |  | de o sută de ori mai (mult) | a hundred times as (much) |
| 1000 | înmiit |  | de o mie de ori mai (mult) | a thousand times as (much) |

The traditional multiplicative numbers are formed from the respective cardinal number with the prefix *în-* (changed into *îm-* when the following sound is a bilabial plosive), and the suffix *-it*, the same used to form the past participle of a large category of verbs.

In contemporary Romanian the neologisms are more frequently used.

The multiplicative number can be used as adjective and as adverb. Examples:

* Adjective (note the gender agreement):
    + *salariu întreit*, *salariu triplu* ("triple wage", "wage three times as much");
    + *putere întreită*, *putere triplă* "three times more power".
* Adverb (no agreement required):
    + *Am muncit întreit.* *Am muncit triplu.* "I worked three times harder."
    + *Am economisit înzecit față de anul trecut.* "I saved ten times as much as last year."

Often instead of the multiplicative numbers an adverbial construction is used. This can be applied for any number larger than 1.

* *Am muncit de trei ori mai mult față de anul trecut și am primit un salariu de zece ori mai mare.* "I worked three times more than last year and earned a salary ten times bigger."

## Fractional numbers

Numbers expressed as parts of a unit (such as "two thirds") are named using the cardinal number, in its masculine form, with the suffix *-ime*. Other morphological changes take place, as shown below.

| Number | Name | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1/2 | (*o*) *doime* | Also: *o jumătate* and, by haplology, *o jumate*, *o juma*, *o jumăta* |
| 1/3 | (*o*) *treime* |  |
| 1/4 | (*o*) *pătrime* | Also: *un sfert* |
| 1/5 | (*o*) *cincime* |  |
| 1/6 | (*o*) *șesime* |  |
| 1/7 | (*o*) *șeptime* |  |
| 1/8 | (*o*) *optime* |  |
| 1/9 | (*o*) *noime* |  |
| 1/10 | (*o*) *zecime* |  |
| 1/100 | (*o*) *sutime* |  |
| 1/1000 | (*o*) *miime* |  |
| 1/1,000,000 | (*o*) *milionime* |  |

A number like 3/5 is expressed as *trei cincimi* "three fifths". Since all the fractional number names behave like feminine nouns, when the numerator is 1, 2, or any other number with a distinct feminine form, that form must be used: *două treimi* (2/3). The preposition *de* is used depending also on the numerator: *douăzeci de sutimi* (20/100), *o sută zece miimi* (110/1000).

In music several other such words are frequently used for note lengths:

Fractions involving larger numbers tend to become hard to read. Especially in mathematics it is common to read fractions only using cardinal numbers and the words *pe* or *supra* ("on", "over"). For example, *două treimi* "two thirds" becomes *doi pe trei* or *doi supra trei*.

## Ordinal numbers

The ordinal number (linguistics) is used to express the position of an object in an ordered sequence, as shown in English by words such as *first*, *second*, *third*, etc. In Romanian, with the exception of number 1, all ordinal numbers are named based on the corresponding cardinal number. Two gender-dependent forms exist for each number. The masculine form (also used with neuter nouns) ends in *-lea*, whereas the feminine form ends in *-a*. Starting from 2 they are preceded by the possessive article *al* / *a*.

Examples:

* *Am terminat de scris al treilea roman.* "I finished writing the third novel."
* *Locuim la a cincea casă pe dreapta.* "We live in the fifth house on the right."

### Basic forms

The basic forms of the ordinal number are given in the table below. All other forms are made using them.

| Number | Ordinal number | | Meaning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | masculine | feminine | |
| 1 | *primul* (*întâiul*/*întîiul*) | *prima* (*întâia*/*întîia*) | "the first" |
| 2 | *al doilea* | *a doua* | "the second" |
| 3 | *al treilea* | *a treia* | "the third" |
| 4 | *al patrulea* | *a patra* | "the fourth" |
| 5 | *al cincilea* | *a cincea* | "the fifth" |
| 6 | *al șaselea* | *a șasea* | "the sixth" |
| 7 | *al șaptelea* | *a șaptea* | "the seventh" |
| 8 | *al optulea* | *a opta* | "the eighth" |
| 9 | *al nouălea* | *a noua* | "the ninth" |
| 10 | *al zecelea* | *a zecea* | "the tenth |
| 100 | *al o sutălea* | *a o suta* | "the one hundredth" |
| 1000 | *al o miilea* | *a o mia* | "the one thousandth" |
| 106 | *al un milionulea* | *a o milioana* | "the one millionth" |
| 109 | *al un miliardulea* | *a o miliarda* | "the one billionth" |
| ... | ... | ... | ... |

### 11-19

Ordinal numbers in this range can be formed by modifying the corresponding cardinal number: the ending *-zece* is transformed into *-zecelea* and *-zecea* for the masculine and feminine ordinal number. Examples:

* *al unsprezecelea*, *a unsprezecea* "the 11th";
* *al doisprezecelea*, *a douăsprezecea* "the 12th", note the gender difference *doi-*, *două-*;
* *al treisprezecelea*, *a treisprezecea* "the 13th", and so on.

### 20-99

Ordinal numbers in this range that have the unit digit 0 are formed by replacing the ending *-zeci* of the corresponding cardinal number with *-zecilea* and *-zecea* (masculine and feminine):

* *al douăzecilea*, *a douăzecea* "the 20th";
* *al treizecilea*, *a treizecea* "the 30th", and so on.

When the unit digit is not 0, the cardinal number is used for the tens and the ordinal number for the units. The only exception is when the unit digit is 1; in this case, instead of *primul*, *prima* a different word is used: *unulea*, *una*. Examples:

* *al douăzeci și unulea*, *a douăzeci și una* "the 21st";
* *al douăzeci și doilea*, *a douăzeci și doua* "the 22nd";
* *al douăzeci și treilea*, *a douăzeci și treia* "the 23rd", and so on.

### All other numbers

The general rule for ordinal number formation is to combine the following elements:

* the possessive article *al*, *a*;
* the cardinal number without the last pronounced digit;
* the ordinal number corresponding to the last pronounced digit.

Examples:

* 101st: *al o sută unulea*, *a o sută una*;
* 210th: *al două sute zecelea*, *a două sute zecea*;
* 700th: *al șapte sutelea*, *a șapte suta*;

As seen in the last example above, the ordinal form of the plural of 100, 1000, etc. is needed for this process. These forms are:

| Number | Ordinal number | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| | masculine | feminine |
| n × 100 | *sutelea* | *suta* |
| n × 1000 | *miilea* | *mia* |
| n × 106 | *milioanelea* | *milioana* |
| n × 109 | *miliardelea* | *miliarda* |
| ... | ... | ... |

Examples with large numbers:

* 1500th: *al o mie cinci sutelea*, *a o mie cinci suta*;
* 2000th: *al două miilea*, *a două mia*;
* 17,017th: *al șaptesprezece mii șaptesprezecilea, a șaptesprezece mii șaptesprezecea*
* 20,000th: *al douăzeci de miilea*, *a douăzeci de mia*;
* 2,000,000th: *al două milioanelea*, *a două milioana*;
* 2,000,000,000th: *al două miliardelea*, *a două miliarda*;
* 5,500,000,000th: *al cinci miliarde cinci sute de miloanelea, a cinci miliarde cinci sute de miloana*
* 8,621,457,098th: *al opt miliarde, șase sute douăzeci și unu de milioane, patru sute cincizeci și șapte de mii, nouăzeci și optulea*; *a opt miliarde, șase sute douăzeci și una de milioane, patru sute cincizeci și șapte de mii, nouăzeci și opta*

### Reverse order

In certain situations the word order in expressing the ordinal number is reversed. This occurs when the object is not necessarily perceived as an element in a sequence but rather as an indexed object. For example, instead of *al treilea secol* the expression *secolul al treilea* "third century" is used. Note that the noun must have the definite article appended. Other examples:

* *etajul al cincilea* "fifth floor";
* *partea a doua* "second part, part two";
* *volumul al treilea* "third volume, volume three";
* *grupa a patra* "fourth group".

For simplification, often the cardinal number replaces the ordinal number, although some grammarians criticize this practice: The form *secolul douăzeci* is seen as an incorrect variant of *secolul al douăzecilea* "20th century".

For number 1, the form of the ordinal number in this reverse-order construction is *întâi* (or *întîi*), in both genders: *deceniul întâi* "first decade", *clasa întâi* "first grade". For the feminine, sometimes *întâia* is used, which until recently used to be considered incorrect by normative works.

The same reverse order is used when naming historical figures:

As seen above, ordinal numbers are often written using Roman numerals, especially in this reverse order case. The ending specific to the ordinal numbers (*-lea*, *-a*) must be preserved and connected to the Roman numeral with a hyphen. Examples:

* *secolul al XIX-lea* "19th century";
* *clasa a V-a* "5th grade";
* *volumul I*, *volumul al II-lea* "volume I, II".

## Pronunciation

In the morphological processes described above, some pronunciation changes occur that are usually marked in writing. This section gives a few details about those pronunciation aspects not "visible" in the written form.

### Non-syllabic "i"

The letter *i* in the word *zeci* (both as a separate word and in compounds), although thought by native speakers to indicate an independent sound, is only pronounced as a palatalization of the previous consonant. It does not form a syllable by itself: *patruzeci* "forty" is pronounced /patruˈzet͡ʃʲ/. The same applies to the last *i* in *cinci*: /ˈt͡ʃint͡ʃʲ/, including compounds: 15 is pronounced /ˈt͡ʃint͡ʃʲ.sprezet͡ʃe/ and 50 is /t͡ʃint͡ʃʲˈzet͡ʃʲ/.

However, in the case of ordinal numbers in the masculine form, before *-lea* the nonsylabic *i* becomes a full syllabic *i* in words like *douăzecilea* "20th" /dowəˈzet͡ʃile̯a/ and in *cincilea* "5th" /ˈt͡ʃint͡ʃile̯a/.

Semivocalic *i* can remain a semivowel or switch to a full vowel when followed by *-lea*: *doi* /ˈdoj/, *al doilea* /al ˈdojle̯a/ or /al ˈdo.ile̯a/ ("the second", masculine). It remains a semivowel when followed by *-a*: *a treia* /a ˈtreja/ ("the third", feminine).

### Stress

The stress in numbers from 11 to 19 is on the units number, that is, the first element of the compound. Since in all nine cases that element has the stress on its first syllable, the compound itself will also have the stress on the first syllable. The same is valid for the informal short versions:

* *unsprezece* /ˈunsprezet͡ʃe/, *unșpe* /ˈunʃpe/ (11);
* *șaptesprezece* /ˈʃaptesprezet͡ʃe/, *șapteșpe* /ˈʃapteʃpe/ (17);

Numbers in the series 20, 30, ..., 90 have the normal stress on the element *-zeci*. However, a stress shift to the first element often occurs, probably because that element carries more information:

* *treizeci* /trejˈzet͡ʃʲ/ (30);
* *„șaizeci? – Nu, **șapte**zeci!”* /ˈʃaptezet͡ʃʲ/ "Sixty? – No, **seven**ty!"

## Etymology

With few exceptions, the words involved in the formation of Romanian number names are inherited directly from Latin. This includes the names of all the non-zero digits, all the connecting words (*și*, *spre*, *de*), most of the words and prefixes used to express the non-cardinal types of numbers (*toți*, *ori*, *al*, *în-* etc.), and part of the multiple names (*zece*, *mie*). The remainder are largely relatively recent borrowings from French, such as *zero*, *dublu*, *triplu*, *minus*, *plus*, *virgulă*, *milion*, *miliard*, etc., most of which are used internationally.

But the most remarkable exception is the word *sută*, whose origin is still debated. It is possibly an old Slavic borrowing, although the phonetic evolution from *sŭto* to *sută* proves hard to explain. A Persian origin has also been suggested.

## Usage

**Dates.** Calendar dates in Romanian are expressed using cardinal numbers, unlike English. For example, "the 21st of April" is *21 aprilie* (read *douăzeci și unu aprilie*). For the first day of a month the ordinal number *întâi* is often used: *1 Decembrie* (read *Întâi Decembrie*; upper case is used for names of national or international holidays). Normally the masculine form of the number is used everywhere, but when the units digit is 2, the feminine is also frequent: *2 ianuarie* can be read both *doi ianuarie* and *două ianuarie*; the same applies for days 12 and 22.

**Centuries.** Centuries are named using ordinal numbers in reverse order: "14th century" is *secolul al paisprezecelea* (normally written *secolul al XIV-lea*). Cardinal numbers are often used although considered incorrect: *secolul paisprezece*. See above for details.

**Royal titles.** Ordinal numbers (in reverse word order) are used for naming ruling members of a monarchy and the Popes. For example: *Carol al II-lea*, *Papa Benedict al XVI-lea*. See above for details.

## Particularities

* In Romanian, a number like 1500 is never read in a way similar to English *fifteen hundred*, but always *o mie cinci sute* "one thousand five hundred".
* Sometimes, the numbers 100 and 1000 are spelled out as *una sută* and *una mie*, instead of the usual *o sută*, *o mie*. This is to ensure that the number of hundreds or thousands is understood correctly, for example when writing out numbers as words, mostly in contexts dealing with money amounts, in forms, telegrams, etc. For example, the 100 lei note is marked with the text "UNA SUTĂ LEI". Such a spelling is very formal and used almost exclusively in writing.
* The title of the book *Arabian Nights* is translated into Romanian as *O mie și una de nopți* (textually *One thousand and one nights*), using the conjunction *și* although not required by the number naming rules.

1. Carlton, Charles M. (1980). "The Romanian Numerical System". In Izzo, Herbert J. (ed.). *Italic and Romance Linguistic Studies in Honor of Ernst Pulgram*. John Benjamins. pp. 295–315. ISBN 9027235112.
2. Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (2016-09-05). *The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages*. Oxford University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-19-106325-1.
3. Cucu, Horia; Caranica, Alexandru; Buzo, Andi; Burileanu, Corneliu (July 2015). "On transcribing informally-pronounced numbers in Romanian speech". *2015 38th International Conference on Telecommunications and Signal Processing (TSP)*. Prague, Czech Republic: IEEE. pp. 372–376. doi:10.1109/TSP.2015.7296286. ISBN 978-1-4799-8498-5. S2CID 1913345.
4. (in Romanian) Mioara Avram, *Gramatica pentru toți*, second edition, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 1997
5. Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică (2010). Coteanu, Ion (ed.). *Micul dicționar academic* (in Romanian) (a II-a ed.). Editura Univers Enciclopedic. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
6. Alexandru Ciorănescu, *Dicționarul etimologic român*, *sută*, Universidad de la Laguna, Tenerife, 1958–1966


title: Reggie Northrup

abstract: Reggie Northrup is an American football linebacker for the DC Defenders of the United Football League (UFL) and an MMA fighter. He played college football at Florida State.

text:
# Reggie Northrup

**Reggie Northrup** (born October 17, 1993) is an American football linebacker for the DC Defenders of the United Football League (UFL) and an MMA fighter. He played college football at Florida State.

## Professional football career

### Washington Redskins

On May 9, 2016, Northrup was signed to the Washington Redskins as an undrafted free agent. On May 16, he was waived.

### Workout with Detroit Lions

On October 9, 2016, Northrup worked out with the Detroit Lions along with Brandon Chubb.

### Los Angeles Rams

On December 19, 2016, Northrup was signed to the Los Angeles Rams's practice squad. On January 3, 2017, he was signed to a futures deal. He was waived on June 20, 2017.

### Montreal Alouettes

On September 20, 2017, Northrup was signed with the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League (CFL). In week 15, Northrup made his professional debut and compiled six defensive tackles. He played again in week 18 and made two tackles. In week 19, Northrup had 4 defensive tackles. In his final game in the CFL, week 20, Northrup made 10 defensive tackles and 1 special teams tackle.

### Orlando Apollos

In 2019, Northrup joined the Orlando Apollos of the Alliance of American Football (AAF). When the AAF suspended operations in week 8, he finished with 35 solo tackles, 27 assists, 62 total tackles, and 1 sack. He led the league with assists and tied for fifth in total tackles.

### Tampa Bay Vipers

In October 2019, Northrup was selected by the Tampa Bay Vipers in the 2020 XFL draft. Northrup ended up starting 1 of 5 games, and finished with 12 solo tackles, 3 assists, 15 total tackles, and 1 sack. He had his contract terminated when the league suspended operations on April 10, 2020.

### Houston Gamblers

Northrup was selected in the 21st round of the 2022 USFL draft by the Houston Gamblers. He became a free agent when his contract expired on December 31, 2022.

### DC Defenders

On January 1, 2023, Northrup was selected by the DC Defenders in the second round of the 2023 XFL Supplemental Draft.

## Mixed Martial Arts career

| Reggie Northrup | |
| --- | --- |
| Other names | Black Dragon |
| Height | 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) |
| Weight | 205 lb (93 kg) |
| Division | Light Heavyweight |
| Style | Jeet Kune Do |
| Fighting out of | Jacksonville, Florida, United States |
| Years active | 2020–present |
|  | |
| Mixed martial arts record | |
| **Total** | 2 |
| **Wins** | 2 |
| By knockout | 1 |
| By decision | 1 |
| **Losses** | 0 |
|  | |
|  | |
| Amateur record | |
| **Total** | 5 |
| **Wins** | 5 |
| By knockout | 3 |
| By submission | 2 |
|  | |
| Other information | |
| Mixed martial arts record from Sherdog | |

### Amateur career

In December 2020, Northrup made his amateur MMA debut, in which he defeated Mike Anderson by submission in the first round. In March 2021, he fought Josh Mercado in which he won via submission in the third round. In July 2021 he fought Kevin Church, in which he won by knockout. In December 2021, he defeated Darius Kennedy in bare knuckle by knockout in the first round. Northrup's final match was in January 2022, where defeated Jay Mitchell in 35 seconds by knockout. On January 26th, 2024 Northrup competed on the main card of Karate Combat: Kickback 1 in Miami Florida. He would go on to lose via split decision.

## Mixed martial arts record

Professional record breakdown
| **2 matches** | **2 wins** | **0 losses** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **By knockout** | 1 | 0 |
| **By decision** | 1 | 0 |

| Res. | Record | Opponent | Method | Event | Date | Round | Time | Location | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Win | 2–0 | Cody Herbert | Decision (unanimous) | Gamebred Fighting Championship 5 | September 8, 2023 | 3 | 5:00 | Jacksonville, Florida, United States | Bare Knuckle MMA. |
| Win | 1–0 | Michael Johnson | TKO (punches) | iKon Fighting Championship 6 | December 2, 2022 | 1 | 2:24 | Kissimmee, Florida, United States |  |

## InfoBox

Reggie Northrup
| No. 5 – DC Defenders | |
| --- | --- |
| Position: | Linebacker |
| Personal information | |
| Born: | (1993-10-17) October 17, 1993
Jacksonville, Florida, U.S. |
| Height: | 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) |
| Weight: | 205 lb (93 kg) |
| Career information | |
| High school: | First Coast
(Jacksonville, Florida) |
| College: | Florida State (2012–2015) |
| Undrafted: | 2016 |
| Career history | |
|  | |
| * Offseason and/or practice squad member only | |
|  | |
| Roster status: | Active |
|  | |


title: Blue Jupiter

abstract: Blue Jupiter is an a cappella pop-funk singing group. Formed in late 2001, Blue Jupiter sings covers and renditions of songs. Most of their songs are a cappella, but sometimes acoustic instruments have small and light parts.

text:
# Blue Jupiter

**Blue Jupiter** is an a cappella pop-funk singing group.

Formed in late 2001, Blue Jupiter sings covers and renditions of songs. Most of their songs are a cappella, but sometimes acoustic instruments have small and light parts.

## Biography

Blue Jupiter is a vocal band from New York City. Three of the members attended Berklee College of Music. The group first surfaced when it won Oreo's "Milk's Favorite Jingle Contest" hosted by Randy Jackson from American Idol. It later performed at VH1's Save The Music Event and at Breaking the Cycle (an annual AIDS fundraiser), and toured Hong Kong. It also appeared in the Harmony Sweepstakes in Chicago, Washington, D.C., and New York City. Blue Jupiter has toured in Asia, from China to Japan.

## Musical style

Blue Jupiter covers and produces renditions of popular songs without instruments. The group's first album was *Ear Candy*.

## Members

* Diana Preisler: female lead
* Jeff Washburn: tenor lead
* Jonathan Minkoff: baritone lead, instrument mimicry
* Marty Gasper: beatbass (Vocal percussion and vocal bass combined)

## InfoBox

| Blue Jupiter | |
| --- | --- |
| Origin | New York City, New York, U.S. |
| Genres | Vocal, A cappella, Pop/Rock |
| Years active | 2001–present |
| Labels | Independent |
|  | |
| Members | Marty Gasper
Jonathan Minkoff
Diana Preisler
Jeff Washburn |
|  | |
| Website | http://www.bluejupiter.com/ |