title: Chiba International Cross Country

abstract: The Chiba International Cross Country is an annual cross country running competition which takes place in Chiba, Japan in mid-February. It is one of the IAAF permit meetings which serve as qualifying events for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships. Initiated in 1966, the Chiba Cross Country is held in Showa-No-Mori Park and features a competition schedule of eight races. These include a senior men's long course (12 km), a senior women's course (6 km), and a senior men's short course (4 km). Furthermore, there are three races for junior athletes which are of shorter distances, as well as two 3 km races for high school runners. Four of the races act as qualifiers for the World Cross Country Championship: the men's 12 km and the women's 6 km allow athletes to enter the senior world competition while the junior men's 8 km and junior women's 5 km enable runners to qualify for the junior section of the championships. The competition is one of three in which Japanese athletes can qualify for the World Championships; the others being the annual Fukuoka International Cross Country and the biennial Asian Cross Country Championships. Over a thousand runners compete at the meeting each year, although the attendance record set in 1991 featured nearly twice as many participants. A select number of international athletes are invited to compete each year, although the majority of the field typically comprise a mix of Japanese runners and Japan-based Kenyan athletes. Previous winners include Olympic gold medallists Samuel Wanjiru and Derartu Tulu, eight-time European cross country champion Serhiy Lebid, and Tegla Loroupe – twice winner of the New York City Marathon. The competition is televised on the NHK BS-1 channel by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation, the country's public broadcaster. After the International Chiba Ekiden, the Chiba International Cross Country is the prefecture's premier athletics event. The Chiba International Cross Country has also hosted the Asian Cross Country Championship race on two occasions.

text:
# Chiba International Cross Country

The **Chiba International Cross Country** is an annual cross country running competition which takes place in Chiba, Japan in mid-February. It is one of the IAAF permit meetings which serve as qualifying events for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships.

Initiated in 1966, the Chiba Cross Country is held in Showa-No-Mori Park and features a competition schedule of eight races. These include a senior men's long course (12 km), a senior women's course (6 km), and a senior men's short course (4 km). Furthermore, there are three races for junior athletes which are of shorter distances, as well as two 3 km races for high school runners.

Four of the races act as qualifiers for the World Cross Country Championship: the men's 12 km and the women's 6 km allow athletes to enter the senior world competition while the junior men's 8 km and junior women's 5 km enable runners to qualify for the junior section of the championships. The competition is one of three in which Japanese athletes can qualify for the World Championships; the others being the annual Fukuoka International Cross Country and the biennial Asian Cross Country Championships.

Over a thousand runners compete at the meeting each year, although the attendance record set in 1991 featured nearly twice as many participants. A select number of international athletes are invited to compete each year, although the majority of the field typically comprise a mix of Japanese runners and Japan-based Kenyan athletes. Previous winners include Olympic gold medallists Samuel Wanjiru and Derartu Tulu, eight-time European cross country champion Serhiy Lebid, and Tegla Loroupe – twice winner of the New York City Marathon.

The competition is televised on the NHK BS-1 channel by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation, the country's public broadcaster. After the International Chiba Ekiden, the Chiba International Cross Country is the prefecture's premier athletics event.

The Chiba International Cross Country has also hosted the Asian Cross Country Championship race on two occasions (1995, 1997).

## Past senior race winners

* *Note: Race data unavailable prior to 1987.*

**Key:**   **Asian Championship race**   **8 km course** *(All other men's races 12 km and women's races 6 km)*

| Edition | Year | Men's winner | Time (:) | Women's winner | Time (:) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1st | 1966 | *Not available* |  | *Not available* |  |
|  | | | | | |
| 22nd | 1987 | Shuichi Yoneshige (JPN) | 35:17 | Jacqueline Perkins (AUS) | 19:45 |
| 23rd | 1988 | Andrew Lloyd (AUS) | 35:03 | Carolyn Schuwalow (AUS) | 21:19 |
| 24th | 1989 | Arturo Barrios (MEX) | 34:28 | Carolyn Schuwalow (AUS) | 19:33 |
| 25th | 1990 | Brahim Boutayeb (MAR) | 34:04 | Carolyn Schuwalow (AUS) | 19:01 |
| 26th | 1991 | Addis Abebe (ETH) | 34:39 | Derartu Tulu (ETH) | 19:36 |
| 27th | 1992 | Thomas Osano (KEN) | 35:03 | Delilah Asiago (KEN) | 19:24 |
| 28th | 1993 | Mathias Ntawulikura (RWA) | 36:01 | Viktoriya Nenasheva (RUS) | 20:04 |
| 29th | 1994 | Gert Thys (RSA) | 35:35 | Nadezhda Galliamova (RUS) | 19:25 |
| 30th | 1995 | Daniel Njenga (KEN) | 35:32 | Tudorita Chidu (ROU) | 19:17 |
| 31st | 1996 | Brad Barquist (USA) | 36:37 | Iulia Olteanu (ROU) | 20:05 |
| 32nd | 1997 | Mathias Ntawulikura (RWA) | 35:50 | Tegla Loroupe (KEN) | 19:55 |
| 33rd | 1998 | Julius Gitahi (KEN) | 36:32 | Sally Barsosio (KEN) | 20:37 |
| 34th | 1999 | Julius Kiptoo (KEN) | 35:14 | Tegla Loroupe (KEN) | 26:00 |
| 35th | 2000 | Serhiy Lebid (UKR) | 35:38 | Yoshiko Ichikawa (JPN) | 26:53 |
| 36th | 2001 | Samuel Kabiru (KEN) | 23:33 | Iulia Olteanu (ROU) | 19:26 |
| 37th | 2002 | Craig Mottram (AUS) | 35:29 | Benita Johnson (AUS) | 25:43 |
| 38th | 2003 | Ricardo Ribas (POR) | 36:27 | Benita Johnson (AUS) | 26:09 |
| 39th | 2004 | Samuel Wanjiru (KEN) | 35:04 | Benita Johnson (AUS) | 18:38 |
| 40th | 2005 | Samuel Wanjiru (KEN) | 34:54 | Miwako Yamanaka (JPN) | 20:01 |
| 41st | 2006 | Ryan Hall (USA) | 35:22 | Sara Hall (USA) | 19:12 |
| 42nd | 2007 | Joseph Gitau (KEN) | 35:05 | Anália Rosa (POR) | 19:15 |
| 43rd | 2008 | Harun Mbugua (KEN) | 35:27 | Lucy Wangui (KEN) | 19:50 |
| 44th | 2009 | Bedan Karoki (KEN) | 34:40 | Yuko Shimizu (JPN) | 19:38 |
| 45th | 2010 | Bedan Karoki (KEN) | 34:52 | Misaki Katsumata (JPN) | 19:39 |
| 46th | 2011 | Bedan Karoki (KEN) | 33:58 | Hitomi Niiya (JPN) | 25:53 |
| 47th | 2012 | Charles Ndirangu (KEN) | 34:59 | Susan Wairimu (KEN) | 26:41 |
| 48th | 2013 | Charles Ndirangu (KEN) | 35:01 | Rosemary Wanjiru (KEN) | 26:08 |
| 49th | 2014 | *cancelled due to snow storms* | | | |
| 50th | 2015 | Charles Ndirangu (KEN) | 36:14 | Zoe Buckman (AUS) | 28:37 |
| 51st | 2016 | Rodgers Kwemoi (KEN) | 25:05 | Yuki Kanehira (JPN) | 29:04 |

General Specific

## InfoBox

| Chiba International Cross Country | |
| --- | --- |
| The races are held in the Showa Forest near Chiba | |
| Date | Mid-February |
| Location | Chiba, Japan |
| Event type | Cross country |
| Distance | 12 km and 4 km for men
6 km for women
8 km junior men
5 km junior women |
| Established | 1966 |


title: Chief Minister of Madhesh Province

abstract: The chief minister of the Madhesh Province is the head of government of Madhesh Province. The chief minister is appointed by the governor of the province according to Article 167 of the Constitution of Nepal. The chief minister remains in office for five years or until the provincial assembly is dissolved, and is subject to no term limits, given that they have the confidence of the assembly. The current chief minister is Satish Kumar Singh of the Janamat Party, in office since 7 June 2024.

text:
# Chief Minister of Madhesh Province

The **chief minister of the Madhesh Province** is the head of government of Madhesh Province. The chief minister is appointed by the governor of the province according to Article 167 of the Constitution of Nepal. The chief minister remains in office for five years or until the provincial assembly is dissolved, and is subject to no term limits, given that they have the confidence of the assembly.

The current chief minister is Satish Kumar Singh of the Janamat Party, in office since 7 June 2024.

## Qualification

The Constitution of Nepal sets the qualifications required to become eligible for the office of chief minister. A chief minister must meet the qualifications to become a member of the provincial assembly.

A member of the provincial assembly must be:

* a citizen of Nepal
* a voter of the concerned province
* of 25 years of age or more
* not convicted of any criminal offense
* not disqualified by any law
* not holding any office of profit

In addition to this, the chief minister must be the parliamentary party leader of the party with the majority seats in the provincial assembly. If no party has a majority, the chief minister must have a majority in the assembly with the support from other parties. If within thirty days of the election, a chief minister is not appointed as such, or fails to obtain a vote of confidence from the assembly, the parliamentary party leader of the party with the most seats in the assembly is appointed chief minister. If the chief minister such appointed fails to obtain a vote of confidence in the assembly, any assembly member who can command a majority in the floor, irrespective of party allegiance, is appointed chief minister. If this chief minister also fails to obtain a vote of confidence, the governor dissolves the assembly and fresh elections are called.

## List of chief ministers of Madhesh province

| No. | | Portrait | Name
Constituency
(Lifespan) | Term of office | | | Assembly
Mandate | Party | Cabinet | Ref. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Assumed office | | | Left office | Time in office || | | |
|  | **1** |  | Lalbabu Raut
MPA for Parsa 1 (B)
(born 1966) | 14 February 2018 | 13 January 2023 | 4 years, 333 days | 1st
(2017) | Federal Socialist Forum | Raut |  |
|  | | | | | | | | Samajbadi Party | | |
|  | | | | | | | | People's Socialist Party, Nepal | | |
| | | **2** |  | Saroj Kumar Yadav
MPA for Bara 1 (B)
(born 1972) | 13 January 2023 | 7 June 2024 | 1 year, 146 days | 2nd
(2022) | Yadav |  |
|  | **3** |  | Satish Kumar Singh
MPA for Saptari 2 (A)
(born 1982) | 7 June 2024 | *Incumbent* | | 121 days | Janamat Party | Singh |  |

## InfoBox

| Chief Minister of Madhesh Province | |
| --- | --- |
| मधेश प्रदेशका मुख्यमन्त्री | |
| Incumbent
Satish Kumar Singh
since 7 June 2024 | |
| Government of Madhesh Province | |
| Style | Honorable
Mr. Chief Minister |
| Status | Head of Government |
| Abbreviation | CMO |
| Member of |  |
| Appointer | Governor |
| Term length | Until majority confidence retained in provincial assembly
Assembly term is 5 years unless dissolved earlier
No term limits |
| Formation | 2018 (2018) |
| First holder | Lalbabu Raut |
| Salary | रु. \- 61,000 |
| Website | Official website |


title: Chiara Maria Gemma

abstract: Chiara Maria Gemma is an Italian politician who was elected as a member of the European Parliament in 2019.

text:
# Chiara Maria Gemma

**Chiara Maria Gemma** (born 20 September 1968) is an Italian politician who was elected as a member of the European Parliament in 2019.

## InfoBox

| Chiara Maria GemmaMEP | |
| --- | --- |
| Official portrait, 2024 | |
|  | |
| Member of the European Parliament
for Southern Italy | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
2 July 2019 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Chiara Maria Gemma
(1968-09-20) 20 September 1968
Brindisi, Italy |
| Political party | FdI (2023–present) |
| Other political
affiliations | M5S (2019–2022)
IpF (2022) |
| Alma mater | University of Bari |
| Occupation | University professor
Politician |
|  | |


title: Chiasmocleis lacrimae

abstract: Chiasmocleis lacrimae, the central humming frog, is a frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to Brazil, where it lives in lowland forest habitats.

text:
# Chiasmocleis lacrimae

***Chiasmocleis lacrimae***, the **central humming frog**, is a frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to Brazil, where it lives in lowland forest habitats.

## InfoBox

| *Chiasmocleis lacrimae* | |
| --- | --- |
| Conservation status | |
|
Endangered  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Microhylidae |
| Genus: | *Chiasmocleis* |
| Species: | ***C. lacrimae*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Chiasmocleis lacrimae***
Peloso, Sturaro, Forlani, Gaucher, Motta, and Wheeler, 2014 | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Chiasmocleis carvalhoi* Cruz, Caramaschi, and Izecksohn, 1997 * *Chiasmocleis (Chiasmocleis) lacrimae* de Sá, Tonini, van Huss, Long, Cuddy, Forlani, Peloso, Zaher, and Haddad, 2018 | |


abstract: The Sociedad Explotadora de Tierra del Fuego was a historically important company operating within the Chilean and Argentine region of Patagonia. It was founded in 1893 and cultivated over 1,000,000 ha land for sheep farming and private factories like Puerto Bories to process, freeze and export sheep meat.

text:
# Sociedad Explotadora de Tierra del Fuego

The **Sociedad Explotadora de Tierra del Fuego** (**SETF**; Spanish: *Company for the Exploitation of Tierra del Fuego*) was a historically important company operating within the Chilean and Argentine region of Patagonia. It was founded in 1893 and cultivated over 1,000,000 ha (2,500,000 acres) land for sheep farming and private factories like Puerto Bories to process, freeze and export sheep meat.

## History

In 1881, the Treaty of Boundaries was negotiated between Argentina and Chile to settle the overlapping boundary dispute concerning Patagonia, which had occurred when each country gained their independence from Spain. By 1886, José Nogueira, a Portuguese shipping magnate, had begun to plan a ranching enterprise for the area. He leased 180,000 ha (440,000 acres) of Fuegian land in April 1889 and in November, his brother-in-law, Mauricio Braun acting as Nogueira's agent, leased an additional 170,000 ha (420,000 acres) of land. In 1890, Nogueira and his wife, Sara Braun, secured a lease from President José Manuel Balmaceda's administration on a third of the available land in Tierra del Fuego, containing 1,009,000 ha (2,490,000 acres). A condition of the last lease was that Nogueira establish a Chilean business to manage the land. As he was Portuguese and his wife was Latvian, Nogueira made a deal with Ramón Serrano Montaner to sell him a third of the lease, at cost, in exchange for Serrano's recruitment of Chilean investors. Before they were able to finalize the organization of the business, Nogueira died, leaving his vast estate to his wife.

Upon her husband's death, Braun contacted her brother Mauricio to determine what to do about the lease assignment of Serrano. The siblings agreed that Serrano's involvement complicated the business venture and after a lengthy negotiation, Braun was able to secure Serrano's exchange of his lease rights for 100 shares in the business. On 31 August 1893, the *Sociedad Explotadora de Tierra del Fuego* (Society for the Exploitation of Tierra del Fuego) was founded by the Braun siblings with the major shareholders being Sara Braun; her brother Mauricio and other family members; Juan Blanchard, a partner in the firm Braun & Blanchard; and Peter H. McClelland, the head of the firm Duncan, Fox & Co Ltd. This group controlled slightly less than a half of the shares, to meet the requirement that the business venture have a majority of Chilean participants. Among the remaining shareholders were Serrano, Juan and Gustavo Oehninger, Cruz Daniel Ramírez, and Guillermo Wilms, who each owned 100 shares of the stock and various minor shareholders from Magallanes and Valparaíso.

Initially the company was involved in sheep raising and land speculation, but as their desire to obtain additional land in Argentine Patagonia grew they recruited José Menéndez and his son-in-law, Francisco Campos Torreblanca to join in the venture. Initially the Braun and Menéndez families were business rivals, but in 1895, Menéndez became Mauricio's father-in-law when Braun married Menéndez's daughter, Josefina. While the investors varied over time, until her death Sara Nogueira Braun remained the largest individual shareholder in the association.

While the business acquisitions created an oligarchical group which controlled production and development of southern Chile, it also displaced the original inhabitants of those lands. Fences created obstacles for the nomadic life of the Selk'nam people and introduction of sheep herds displaced their main food source, the guanaco. Facing starvation and with no concept of ownership, they began to steal livestock. The Exploitation Society asked and received permission from the Chilean government to remove the indigenous population from the area. Menéndez gave orders for the extermination of the Selk'nam, paying a bounty for each death. Repression against the Selk'nam, who now numbered only roughly a hundred, continued after the genocide. Chile moved the remaining Selk'nam people to Dawson Island, where they were placed in concentration camps. Argentina eventually allowed Salesian missionaries to aid the Selk'nam and attempt to culturally assimilate them, with their traditional culture and livelihoods at this point completely destroyed.

Under agrarian reforms in the 1960s, the society changed its name in 1964 to *Ganadera Tierra del Fuego S.A.* and was dissolved officially in 1973.


abstract: The Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País were private associations established in various cities throughout Enlightenment Spain, and to a lesser degree in some of Spain's overseas territories including the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guatemala, Chile, Venezuela, Mexico, and elsewhere.

text:
# Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País

The ***Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País*** (Economic Societies of Friends of the Country) were private associations established in various cities throughout Enlightenment Spain, and to a lesser degree in some of Spain's overseas territories including the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guatemala, Chile, Venezuela, Mexico, and elsewhere.

## History

The Sociedades Económicas were founded as part of a movement to stimulate the economic and intellectual development of Spain. Many Spaniards recognized that Spain was lagging behind other European states and sought to diffuse and apply the principles of the Enlightenment. A principal promoter of the Societies' foundation was Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, a highly influential statesman and one of the most important thinkers in contemporary Spain. Campomanes, on a more practical level, saw that the Societies could stimulate improvements in agriculture, husbandry, industry, the professions and arts. The first one, the Basque Society of Friends of the Country, was founded in 1765 by the Marquis de Peñaflorida, Xavier María de Munibe e Idiáquez. According to Popescu, within a few years, the number of Economic Societies in Spain had passed 50, and they were present in all major population centers.

## In Spain

In Spain the organizations are credited with some success in sponsoring economic activity, stimulating new industries, and publicizing recent advances in philosophy and science (most of which emanated from England, France and Germany). These organizations were autonomous, although required to be licensed by royal authority, and their fortunes depended on a combination of the dedication of local members, official patronage, and the receptivity of the local community.

## In the Americas

In the American colonies, the Sociedades Económicas were established in Havana (1793), Santiago, Chile, Santa Cruz de Mompox (1784), Santa Fe de Bogotá (under the name of "Patriotic Society", 1801) Buenos Aires, Guatemala, Quito, Caracas etc. Dr. José Gualberto Padilla and together with Román Baldorioty de Castro, founded the Puerto Rican chapter of the Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País and called it "La Sociedad de Amigos del País de Puerto Rico". Only one of these American groups, that of Guatemala, is known to have had any significant local influence at the time, and only one of them lasted for a long period of time (that of Havana exists today). Their mission of promoting local economic development, especially industry, conflicted with the dictates of mercantilism, which held that the colonies should remain dependent on the mother country. To the degree that intellectual development lagged in the New World, the Societies also had to fight an uphill battle to popularise Enlightenment thinking in the context of a very conservative culture.

Members were generally drawn from the local aristocracy, the university faculty if there was one in the city, professionals (e.g. lawyers), and skilled artisans. It is noteworthy that in the New World colonies, the later independence movements' first members were drawn from the same social categories.

Some of the groups in the Americas also strayed into activity that bordered on the political, and were punished by having their legal licenses revoked, which forced them to close, as happened repeatedly to the Society in Guatemala, for example. In some cities, the actual amount of useful work done was little, and they were rather more like faddish pet projects of a local intellectual and withered with the departure of the main personality who had gotten it started.

## In the Philippines

The Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País de Manila was founded in 1780.

Composed of leading men in business, industry and profession, the society was tasked to explore and exploit the islands' natural resources. The society led to the creation of Plan General Economico of Governor-General José Basco y Vargas, 1st Count of the Conquest of Batanes Islands, which implemented the monopolies on the areca nut, tobacco, spirited liquors and explosives.

It offered local and foreign scholarships, besides training grants in agriculture and established an academy of design. It was also credited to the carabao ban of 1782, the formation of the silversmiths and gold beaters guild and the construction of the first papermill in the Philippines in 1825.

The society was introduced in the Philippines in 1780, vanished temporarily in 1787-1819, 1820–1822 and 1822-1875 and ceased to exist at the end of the 1890s, when the United States took over as a colonial power.

## Legacy

In the larger view, the work of the New World Economic Societies was important for bringing Enlightenment ideas to the Spanish colonies, which was a necessary precondition for independence struggles after 1810. Some of the societies published essays on new developments in agriculture, industry, and other fields; they often advocated for relaxation of Imperial mercantilist economic regulation, with occasional (though short-lived) success. The Society in Santiago de Chile offered classes to the public in various trades, even venturing into teaching rhetoric, painting and drawing. Members of the Economic Societies defied local censorship to bring in copies of Diderot's *Encyclopédie*, the works of Voltaire, Locke, and others (books often available in Spain itself), and shared them amongst their friends.

In both Spain and the colonies, the Sociedades Económicas were incubators for modern forms of socialization, in which people (mostly men) gathered publicly to discuss the issues of the day. This represents a departure from the French Enlightenment's *salon*, which was a private gathering in someone's home. The Sociedades generally organized themselves formally, maintaining minutes of meetings, and having a set structure of officials to discharge various organizational duties.

## List of societies

### In Spain

* Real Sociedad Caritativo Económica from villa de Alaejos, founded in 1785.
* Real Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País , founded in 1776.
* Real Sociedad Económica Extremeña de Amigos del País from Badajoz , founded in 1816.
* Societat Economica Barcelonesa D'Amics del Pais , founded in Barcelona in 1822.
* Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País  , founded in 1765.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Cádiz, founded in 1774.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Gran Canaria , founded in 1776.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Granada, asked its inception in 1775.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Ciudad de Jaca  y sus Montañas, founded in October 1783, seceded from the Aragon.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Jaén , founded in 1786.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País de Jerez de la Frontera (est. 1786)
* Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros del País from La Rioja, founded in 1783.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Liébana , founded in 1839.
* Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País , founded in 1775 by Carlos III.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Málaga.
* Sociedad de Amigos del País del Reino de Mallorca , founded in 1778.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Medina Sidonia, founded in 1786.
* Real Sociedad Econòmica de Amigos del Paìs from Navarra, founded in 1773.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Oviedo.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from El Puerto de Santa María, founded in 1788.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Puerto Real, founded in 1785.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Sanlúcar de Barrameda, founded in 1780.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santiago.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País de la Provincia from Segovia , founded in 1780.
* Sociedad Económica Sevillana  de Amigos del País, founded in 1775.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Sigüenza.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Tenerife , founded in La Laguna (Tenerife) in 1777.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Teruel, asked its inception in 1803, but for lack of members it was not until 1834.
* Real Sociedad Tudelana de los Deseosos del Bien Público , founded in 1773.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Valencia , founded in 1776.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Valladolid, founded in 1783.
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Vera (Almería), founded in 1775.

### Spanish Americas

* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santiago de Cuba  founded in 1787
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santa Fé (under the name of "Patriotic Society of Friends of the Country",  (Bogotá) founded in 1801
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Colombia  founded on October 19 - 1956 at Bogotá, Has some branch offices in others towns of Colombia.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Cartagena de Indias  (Reformed) in 1812
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País en Puerto Rico  founded in 1813
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santiago de Chile   founded in 1813
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from México  founded in 1799
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Caracas   founded in 1829
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Matanzas  (Cuba) founded in 1830
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Panamá  founded in 1834
* Real Sociedad de Amigos del País from Cartagena de Indias founded in 1790.
* Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País de la Habana  , founded in 1792 and currently active.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Quito  founded in 1792
* Real Sociedad Económica de Amantes de la Patria from Guatemala  founded in 1795 and refounded in 1966
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Chiapas   founded in 1819
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Lima  founded in 1822
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Valencia (Venezuela)  founded in 1841
* Sociedad de Amigos del País from Los Angeles, California founded in 1844, disbanded after a few months.
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Guayaquil  founded in 1825
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santa Cruz de Mompox  founded in 1784
* Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Santa Marta  founded in 1835
* Sociedad de Amantes del País|Sociedad Académica de Amantes del País from Lima, founded in 1790.

### Spanish Philippines

* Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País from Manila  founded in 1781

### Elsewhere

* Economic Society of Friends from Dublin founded in 1762
* Wirtschaftliche Gesellschaft von Freunden from Bern founded in 1762

## Sources

Popescu, Oreste. *Studies in the history of Latin American economic thought*. London: Routledge, 1997.
Schafer, Robert J. *The economic societies in the Spanish world, 1763-1821*. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1958.


title: Sociedad Financiera de Objeto Múltiple

abstract:
A Sociedad Financiera de Objeto Múltiple is a form of enterprise under Mexican law. A Sofom's main objective is to provide loans and credit. They can either be regulated entities (ER) or non-regulated entities (ENR). The Multiple Purpose Financial Society (Sofom) is a type of company contemplated in Mexican legislation whose main objective is the granting of credit. They can be regulated (ER) or unregulated (ENR) entities. There are also Limited Purpose Financial Companies (Sofol). Some conditions that must be met are:
  - In the case of these companies, if they are regulated, they must add to their corporate name the expression "multiple purpose financial company" or its acronym "SOFOM", followed by the words "regulated entity" or its abbreviation "ER", in the case of Unregulated companies must add the expression "multiple purpose financial company" or its acronym "SOFOM", followed by the words "non-regulated entity" or its abbreviation "ENR"
  - Regulated multiple-purpose financial companies must be subject to the supervision of the National Banking and Securities Commission, the unregulated ones are only subject to the supervision of the National Banking and Securities Commission for issues related to the prevention of money laundering.
  - Unregulated multiple-purpose financial companies comply as of December 18, 2011 with article 115 of the Credit Institutions Law in relation to article 87-D of the General Law of Credit Auxiliary Organizations and Activities and 95 -Bis of this last ordinance, this provision was published on March 17, 2011 in the Official Gazette of the Federation, which establishes the Mandatory Actions that Auxiliary Credit Organizations must implement in the area of Laundering Prevention. of Money and Financing of Terrorism.

text:
# Sociedad Financiera de Objeto Múltiple

A **Sociedad Financiera de Objeto Múltiple** (also known as **Sofom**) is a form of enterprise under Mexican law. A Sofom's main objective is to provide loans and credit. They can either be regulated entities (ER) or non-regulated entities (ENR).

The Multiple Purpose Financial Society (Sofom) is a type of company contemplated in Mexican legislation whose main objective is the granting of credit. They can be regulated (ER) or unregulated (ENR) entities. There are also Limited Purpose Financial Companies (Sofol).

Some conditions that must be met are:

* In the case of these companies, if they are regulated, they must add to their corporate name the expression "multiple purpose financial company" or its acronym "SOFOM", followed by the words "regulated entity" or its abbreviation "ER", in the case of Unregulated companies must add the expression "multiple purpose financial company" or its acronym "SOFOM", followed by the words "non-regulated entity" or its abbreviation "ENR"
* Regulated multiple-purpose financial companies must be subject to the supervision of the National Banking and Securities Commission, the unregulated ones are only subject to the supervision of the National Banking and Securities Commission for issues related to the prevention of money laundering.
* Unregulated multiple-purpose financial companies comply as of December 18, 2011 with article 115 of the Credit Institutions Law in relation to article 87-D of the General Law of Credit Auxiliary Organizations and Activities and 95 -Bis of this last ordinance, this provision was published on March 17, 2011 in the Official Gazette of the Federation, which establishes the Mandatory Actions that Auxiliary Credit Organizations must implement in the area of Laundering Prevention. of Money and Financing of Terrorism.


title: Solar tower

abstract:
Solar tower may refer to:
  - Solar telescope § Solar tower, a structure used to support equipment for studying the Sun
  - Solar flower tower, a hybrid power generator
  - Solar power tower, a type of solar furnace using a tower to receive the focused sunlight
  - Solar updraft tower, a concept for a power plant that generates electricity from low temperature solar heat
  - Solar chimney, a vertical shaft using solar energy to enhance ventilation
  - Solar furnace, a structure that uses concentrated solar power to produce high temperatures, usually for industry
  - STACEE, Solar Tower Atmospheric Cherenkov Effect Experiment, to study Cherenkov radiation
  - Solar (room), a room in many English and French medieval manor houses

text:
# Solar tower

**Solar tower** may refer to:

* Solar telescope § Solar tower, a structure used to support equipment for studying the Sun
* Solar flower tower, a hybrid power generator
* Solar power tower, a type of solar furnace using a tower to receive the focused sunlight
* Solar updraft tower, a concept for a power plant that generates electricity from low temperature solar heat
* Solar chimney, a vertical shaft using solar energy to enhance ventilation
* Solar furnace, a structure that uses concentrated solar power to produce high temperatures, usually for industry
* STACEE, Solar Tower Atmospheric Cherenkov Effect Experiment, to study Cherenkov radiation
* Solar (room), a room in many English and French medieval manor houses


title: Solar thermal collector

abstract: A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non-water heating devices such as solar cookers or solar air heaters. Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area is roughly the same as the absorber area. A common example of such a system is a metal plate that is painted a dark color to maximize the absorption of sunlight. The energy is then collected by cooling the plate with a working fluid, often water or glycol running in pipes attached to the plate. Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area. The aperture is typically in the form of a mirror that is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the pipes carrying the working fluid. Due to the movement of the sun during the day, concentrating collectors often require some form of solar tracking system, and are sometimes referred to "active" collectors for this reason. Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential, industrial and commercial buildings for space heating, while concentrating collectors in concentrated solar power plants generate electricity by heating a heat-transfer fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator.

text:
# Solar thermal collector

A **solar thermal collector** collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non-water heating devices such as solar cookers or solar air heaters.

Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the solar radiation) is roughly the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). A common example of such a system is a metal plate that is painted a dark color to maximize the absorption of sunlight. The energy is then collected by cooling the plate with a working fluid, often water or glycol running in pipes attached to the plate.

Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area. The aperture is typically in the form of a mirror that is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the pipes carrying the working fluid. Due to the movement of the sun during the day, concentrating collectors often require some form of solar tracking system, and are sometimes referred to "active" collectors for this reason.

Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential, industrial and commercial buildings for space heating, while concentrating collectors in concentrated solar power plants generate electricity by heating a heat-transfer fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator.

## Heating water

Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are mainly used to collect heat for space heating, domestic hot water, or cooling with an absorption chiller. In contrast to solar hot water panels, they use a circulating fluid to displace heat to a separated reservoir. The first solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the "Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof".

Evacuated flat-plate solar collectors are a more recent innovation and can be used for Solar Heat for Industrial Cooling (SHIC) and Solar Air Conditioning (SAC), where temperature in excess of 100 °C (212 °F) are required. These non-concentrating collectors harvest both diffuse and direct light and can make use of steam instead of water as fluid.

### Flat plate collectors

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in Europe. They consist of an (1) enclosure containing (2) a dark-colored absorber plate with fluid circulation passageways, and (3) a transparent cover to allow transmission of solar energy into the enclosure. The sides and back of the enclosure are typically insulated to reduce heat loss to the ambient. A heat transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber's fluid passageways to remove heat from the solar collector. The circulation fluid in tropical and sub-tropical climates is typically water. In climates where freezing is likely, a heat transfer fluid similar to an automotive antifreeze solution may be used instead of water, or in a mixture with water. If a heat transfer fluid is used, a heat exchanger is typically employed to transfer heat from the solar collector fluid to a hot water storage tank. The most common absorber design consists of copper tubing joined to a high conductivity metal sheet (copper or aluminum). A dark coating is applied to the sun-facing side of the absorber assembly to increase its absorption of solar energy. A common absorber coating is black enamel paint.

In higher performance solar collector designs, the transparent cover is tempered soda-lime glass having reduced iron oxide content same as for photovoltaic solar panels. The glass may also have a stippling pattern and one or two anti-reflective coatings to further enhance transparency. The absorber coating is typically a selective coating, where selective stands for having the special optical property to combine high absorption in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum coupled to low emittance in the infrared one. This creates a selective surface, which reduces black body energy emission from the absorber and improves performance. Piping can be laser or ultrasound welded to the absorber sheet to reduce damage to the selective coating, which is typically applied prior to joining to large coils in a roll-to-roll process.

Absorber piping configurations include:

* harp: traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;
* serpentine: one continuous S-shaped pipe that maximises temperature but not total energy yield in variable flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems (no space heating role);
* flooded: consisting of two sheets of metal molded to produce a wide circulation zone that improves heat transfer;
* boundary layer: consisting of several layers of transparent and opaque sheets that enable absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed in the boundary layer, heat conversion may be more efficient than for collectors where absorbed heat is conducted through a material before being accumulated in the circulating liquid.

A flat plate collector making use of a honeycomb structure to reduce heat loss also at the glass side too has also been made available commercially. Most flat plate collectors have a life expectancy of over 25 years..

### Evacuated tube collectors

Evacuated tube collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in the world. They make use of a glass tube to surround the absorber with high vacuum and effectively resist atmospheric pressure. The vacuum that surrounds the absorber greatly reduces convection and conduction heat loss, therefore achieving greater energy conversion efficiency. The absorber can be either metallic as in the case of flat plate collectors or being a second concentric glass tube ("Sydney Tube"). Heat transfer fluid can flow in and out of each tube or being in contact with a heat pipe reaching inside the tube. For the latter, heat pipes transfer heat to the fluid in a heat exchanger called a "manifold" placed transversely with respect to the tubes. The manifold is wrapped in insulation (glass wool) and covered by a protective metal or plastic case also used for fixing to supports.

Glass-metal evacuated tubes are made with flat or curved metal absorber sheets same as those of flat plates. These sheets are joined to pipes or heat pipes to make "fins" and placed inside a single borosilicate glass tube. An anti-reflective coating can be deposited on the inner and outer surfaces of such tubes to improve transparency. Both selective and anti-reflective coating (inner tube surface) will not degrade until the vacuum is lost. A high vacuum-tight glass-metal seal is however required at one or both sides of each evacuated tube. This seal is cycled between ambient and fluid temperature each day of collector operation and might lead to failures in time.

Glass-glass evacuated tubes are made with two borosilicate glass tubes fused together at one or both ends (similar a vacuum bottle or dewar flask). The absorber fin is placed inside the inner tube at atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a very reliable seal, but the two layers of glass reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the absorber. The selective coating can be deposited on the inner borosilicate tube (high vacuum side) to avoid this, but heat has then to flow through the poorly conducting glass thickness of the inner tube in this case. Moreover, moisture may enter the non-evacuated area inside the inner tube and cause absorber corrosion in particular when made from dissimilar materials (galvanic corrosion).

A Barium flash getter pump is commonly evaporated inside the high vacuum gap in between tubes to keep the internal pressure stable through time.

The high temperatures that can occur inside evacuated tubes may require special design to prevent thermal shock and overheating. Some evacuated tube collectors work as a thermal one-way valve due to their heat pipes. This gives them an inherent maximum operating temperature that acts as a safety feature. Evacuated tubes collectors can also be provided with low concentrating reflectors at the back of the tubes realising a CPC collector.

### Comparisons of flat plate and evacuated tube collectors

A longstanding argument exists between proponents of these two technologies. Some of this can be related to the structure of evacuated tube collectors which have a discontinuous absorbance area. An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof has space between the individual tubes and a vacuum gap between each tube and its absorber inside, covering only a fraction of the installation area on a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared with flat-plate collectors on the basis of the area of roof occupied (gross area), a different conclusion might be reached than if the absorber or aperture areas were compared. The recent revision of the ISO 9806 standard states that the efficiency of solar thermal collectors should be measured in terms of gross area and this might favour flat plates in respect to evacuated tube collectors in direct comparisons.

Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes because there is no insulation at the glass side. Evacuated tube collectors intrinsically have a lower absorber to gross area ratio (typically 60–80% less) than flat plates because tubes have to be spaced apart. Although several European companies manufacture evacuated tube collectors (mainly glass-metal type), the evacuated tube market is dominated by manufacturers in China, with some companies having track records of 15–30 years or more. There is no unambiguous evidence that the two designs differ in long-term reliability. However, evacuated tube technology (especially for newer variants with glass-metal seals and heat pipes) still needs to demonstrate competitive lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can be advantageous in terms of extensibility and maintenance, for example, if the vacuum in one heat pipe tube is lost it can be easily be replaced with minimal effort.

In most climates, flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated tubes. However, evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and work well in situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout the year. Unglazed flat plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool water. Unglazed collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical environments if domestic hot water needs to be heated by less than 20 °C (36 °F) over ambient temperature. Evacuated tube collectors have less aerodynamic drag, which may allow for a simpler installation on roofs in windy locations. The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall through the collector, minimizing the loss of production in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated heat from the tubes can also prevent effective shedding of accumulated snow. Flat plate collectors might be easier to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease of installation are more subjective and difficult to compare.

### Evacuated flat plate collectors

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors provide all the advantages of both flat plate and evacuated tube collectors combined together. They surround a large area metal sheet absorber with high vacuum inside a flat envelope made of glass and metal. They offer the highest energy conversion efficiency of any non-concentrating solar thermal collector, but require sophisticated technology for manufacturing. They should not be confused with flat plate collectors featuring low vacuum inside. The first collector making use of high vacuum insulation was developed at CERN, while TVP SOLAR SA of Switzerland was the first company to commercialise Solar Keymark certified collectors in 2012.

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors require both a glass-metal seal to join the glass plate to the rest of the metal envelope and an internal structure to support such plate against atmospheric pressure. The absorber has to be segmented or provided with suitable holes to accommodate such structure. Joining of all parts has to be high vacuum-tight and only materials with low vapour pressure can be used to prevent outgassing. Glass-metal seal technology can be based either on metallized glass or vitrified metal and defines the type of collector. Different from evacuated tube collectors, they make use of non-evaporable getter (NEG) pumps to keep the internal pressure stable through time. This getter pump technology has the advantage of providing some regeneration in-situ by exposure to sunlight. Evacuated flat plate solar collectors have been studied for solar air condition and compared to compact solar concentrators.

#### Polymer flat plate collectors

These collectors are an alternative to metal collectors. These may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber. Polymers are flexible and therefore freeze-tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By dispensing with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or otherwise, can be more efficient, particularly at low solar irradiance levels. Some early selectively coated polymer collectors suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the polymer's melting point. For example, the melting point of polypropylene is 160 °C (320 °F), while the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 °C (356 °F) if control strategies are not used. For this reason, polypropylene is not often used in glazed selectively coated solar collectors. Increasingly, polymers such as high temperate silicones (which melt at over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene polymer based glazed solar collectors are matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to damage from freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected so that they do not crack. Many metal collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having potable water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a locally determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the mixture. The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the addition of an extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.

A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent cover. Typically, polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used as an absorber. Used for pool heating, it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these collectors become less effective.

#### Bowl collectors

A *solar bowl* is a type of solar thermal collector that operates similarly to a parabolic dish, but instead of using a tracking parabolic mirror with a fixed receiver, it has a fixed spherical mirror with a tracking receiver. This reduces efficiency but makes it cheaper to build and operate. Designers call it a *fixed mirror distributed focus solar power system*. The main reason for its development was to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the sun as with parabolic dish systems.

A fixed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky. Only when the mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus on one point. That is why parabolic dish systems track the sun. A fixed spherical mirror focuses the light in the same place independent of the sun's position. The light, however, is not directed to one point but is distributed on a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius (along a line that runs through the sphere center and the sun).

As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any fixed collector changes. This causes changes in the amount of captured sunlight, producing what is called the *sinus effect* of power output. Proponents of the solar bowl design claim the reduction in overall power output compared with tracking parabolic mirrors is offset by lower system costs.

The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical reflector is collected using a tracking receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The receiver may consist of pipes carrying fluid for thermal transfer or photovoltaic cells for direct conversion of light to electricity.

The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the Texas Technical University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe power plant. A solar bowl was built for the town of Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility. The bowl had a diameter of 65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15° angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33° would have maximized yield). The rim of the hemisphere was "trimmed" to 60°, creating a maximum aperture of 3,318 square feet (308.3 m2). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a rate of 10 kW peak.

A 15-metre (49 ft) diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed from an earlier test of a 3.5-metre (11 ft) bowl in 1979–1982 by the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed the use of the solar bowl in the production of steam for cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and kitchen ran from 1996 and was fully operational by 2001.

In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately 1.2 to 2.4 square decimeter per liter of one day's hot water use.

### Applications

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied to large-scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to the available collector area, the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than swimming pool temperatures where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made of polypropylene and must be drained fully to avoid freeze damage when air temperatures drop below 44 °F (7 °C) on clear nights. A smaller but growing percentage of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can withstand water freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern only needs to be the water-filled piping and collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be installed to "drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insufficient. There are no thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in swimming pool heating since solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat swimming pool water directly without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed collectors, the pressure difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load (pressurized cold city water). Large-scale unglazed solar hot water heaters, like the one at the Minoru Aquatic Center in Richmond, BC operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or boxed and glazed collector systems. Although they require larger, more expensive heat exchangers, all other components including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce the costs of this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature collector types. When heating hot water, we are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold to warm as efficiently with unglazed collectors, just as we can heat warm to hot with high-temperature collectors.

## Heating air

A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via conduction heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the process area where the heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs. Functioning in a similar manner as a conventional forced-air furnace, solar-thermal-air systems provide heat by circulating air over an energy collecting surface, absorbing the sun's thermal energy, and ducting air coming in contact with it. Simple and effective collectors can be made for a variety of air conditioning and process applications.

Many applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from the use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse season extension, pre-heating ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices. In the field of 'solar co-generation', solar thermal technologies are paired with photovoltaics (PV) to increase the efficiency of the system by taking heat away from the PV collectors, cooling the PV panels to improve their electrical performance while simultaneously warming air for space heating.

### Space heating and ventilating

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of solar air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building envelope or from the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air warms via conduction from the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or with the assistance of a fan. A pioneering figure of this type of system was George Löf, who built a solar-heated air system in 1945 for a house in Boulder, Colorado. He later included a gravel bed for heat storage.

Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and institutional buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater, the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time of HRV's. The higher your ventilation and temperature the better your payback time will be.

### Process heating

Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (*i.e*. tea, corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture content of the material.

High temperature process heat can be produced by a solar furnace.

### Solar air heating collector types

Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one of three types:

* through-pass collectors
* front-pass
* back pass
* combination front and back pass collectors

Collectors can also be classified by their outer surface:

* glazed
* unglazed

### Through-pass air collector

Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air ducted onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from the conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air. Through-pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

#### Back, front, and combination passage air collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

#### Glazed systems

Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to minimize heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can have absorptivity of more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating and drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels can be less than 9–15 years depending on the fuel being replaced.

#### Unglazed systems

Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been used to heat make-up or ventilation air in commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber plate which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-transparent glazing materials are less expensive and decrease expected payback periods. Transpired collectors are considered "unglazed" because their collector surfaces are exposed to the elements, are often not transparent and not hermetically sealed.

### Unglazed transpired solar collectors

#### Background

The term "unglazed air collector" refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal absorber without any glass or glazing over top. The most common type of unglazed collector on the market is the transpired solar collector. The technology has been extensively monitored by these government agencies, and Natural Resources Canada developed the feasibility tool RETScreen™ to model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time, several thousand transpired solar collector systems have been installed in a variety of commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process applications in countries around the world. This technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where there were high ventilation requirements, stratified ceiling heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across the entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water heating.

Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat applications. It is typically the most cost-effective of all the solar technologies, especially in large scale applications, and it addresses the largest usage of building energy in heating climates, which is space heating and industrial process heating. They are either glazed or unglazed.

#### Method of operation

Unglazed air collectors heat ambient (outside) air instead of recirculated building air. Transpired solar collectors are usually wall-mounted to capture the lower sun angle in the winter heating months as well as sun reflection off the snow and achieve their optimum performance and return on investment when operating at flow rates of between 4 and 8 CFM per square foot (72 to 144 m3/h.m2) of collector area.

The exterior surface of a transpired solar collector consists of thousands of tiny micro-perforations that allow the boundary layer of heat to be captured and uniformly drawn into an air cavity behind the exterior panels. This heated ventilation air is drawn under negative pressure into the building's ventilation system where it is then distributed via conventional means or using a solar ducting system.

Hot air that may enter an HVAC system connected to a transpired collector that has air outlets positioned along the top of the collector, particularly if the collector is west facing. To counter this problem, Matrix Energy has patented a transpired collector with a lower air outlet position and perforated cavity framing to perpetrate increased air turbulence behind the perforated absorber for increased performance.

This cutaway view shows the MatrixAir transpired solar collector components and air flow. The lower air inlet mitigates the intake of heated air to the HVAC system during summer operation.

The extensive monitoring by Natural Resources Canada and NREL has shown that transpired solar collector systems reduce between 10-50% of the conventional heating load and that RETScreen is an accurate predictor of system performance. Transpired solar collectors act as a rainscreen and they also capture heat loss escaping from the building envelope which is collected in the collector air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system. There is no maintenance required with solar air heating systems and the expected lifespan is over 30 years.

#### Variations of transpired solar collectors

Unglazed transpired collectors can also be roof-mounted for applications in which there is no suitable south-facing wall or for other architectural considerations. Matrix Energy Inc. has patented a roof-mounted product called the "Delta", a modular, roof-mounted solar air heating system where south-, east-, or west-facing facades are simply not available.

Each ten-foot (3.05 m) module will deliver 250 CFM (425 m3/h)of preheated fresh air typically providing annual energy savings of 1100 kWh (4 GJ) annually. This unique two-stage, modular roof-mounted transpired collector operating a nearly 90% efficiency each module delivering over 118 L/s of preheated air per two square meter collector. Up to seven collectors may be connected in series in one row, with no limit to the number of rows connected in parallel along one central duct typically yielding 4 CFM of preheated air per square foot of available roof area.

Transpired collectors can be configured to heat the air twice to increase the delivered air temperature making it suitable for space heating applications as well as ventilation air heating. In a 2-stage system, the first stage is the typical unglazed transpired collector and the second stage has glazing covering the transpired collector. The glazing allows all of that heated air from the first stage to be directed through a second set of transpired collectors for a second stage of solar heating.

## Generating electricity

Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost exclusively in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Parabolic troughs have been used for some commercial solar air conditioning systems. Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics. Solar thermal collectors may also be used in conjunction with photovoltaic collectors to obtain combined heat and power.

### Parabolic trough

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe, placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to the boilers in the power station.

### Parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a single focal point, similar to the way a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.

The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. Light from the sun arrives at the Earth's surface almost completely parallel, and the dish is aligned with its axis pointing at the sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reflected towards the focal point of the dish. Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect reflection.

Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day, light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere, which significantly reduces the efficiency of a parabolic dish. In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo is placed at the focus of the dish. This absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into electricity.

### Power tower

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of the tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam turbine or a direct high-temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt. By concentrating sunlight, current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells. Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via optical fiber cable for such uses as illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids. Molten salts have been used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals, have also been proposed due to their superior thermal properties.

However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain sunlight focus at the collector. They are unable to provide significant power in diffused light conditions. Solar cells are able to provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy, but power output from concentrating systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be concentrated well.

## General principles of operation

A solar thermal collector functions as a heat exchanger that converts solar radiation into thermal energy. It differs from a conventional heat exchanger in several aspects. The solar energy flux (irradiance) incident on the Earth's surface has a variable and relatively low surface density, usually not exceeding 1100 W/m2 without concentration systems. Moreover, the wavelength of incident solar radiation falls between 0.3 and 3 μm, which is significantly shorter than the wavelength of radiation emitted by most radiative surfaces.

The collector absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converting it into thermal energy. This thermal energy is then transferred to a heat transfer fluid circulating within the collector. The heat transfer fluid can be air, water, oil, or a mixture including glycol (an antifreeze fluid), especially in forced circulation systems. Concentration systems may utilize phase change materials such as molten salts. The thermal energy of the heat transfer fluid can then be used directly or stored for later use. The transfer of thermal energy occurs through convection, which can be either natural or forced depending on the specific system.

## Standards

* ISO test methods for solar collectors.
* EN 12975: Thermal solar systems and components. Solar collectors.
* EN 12976: Thermal solar systems and components. Factory-made systems.
* EN 12977: Thermal solar systems and components. Custom-made systems.
* Solar Keymark: Thermal solar systems and components. Higher level EN 1297X series certification which includes factory visits.
* International Code Council / Solar Rating & Certification Corporation: Testing is performed by independent laboratories and typically includes selection of a collector to be tested from a sample group of at least six solar collectors.
* ICC 901/ICC-SRCC™ 100: Solar Thermal Collector Standard
* ICC 900/ICC-SRCC™ 300: Solar Thermal System Standard
* ICC 902/APSP 902/ICC-SRCC™ 400: Solar Pool and Spa Heating System Standard


title: Socrum, Florida

abstract: Socrum is an unincorporated community in Polk County, in the U.S. state of Florida.

text:
# Socrum, Florida

**Socrum** is an unincorporated community in Polk County, in the U.S. state of Florida.

## History

A post office called Socrum was established in 1907, and remained in operation until 1918. According to tradition, the name is a contraction of "soak 'em", on account of the marshy town site. An alternate derivation is a conjunction of "soak & rum", as early settlers would keep barrels of rum both relatively cool and safe from native populations by immersing said barrels in "Indian Lake" - a small lake at 28° 09.89" N, 82° 00.54" W as part of modern-day Bethel Baptist Church near the corner of North Socrum Loop Road and North Campbell Road

28°10′05″N 82°01′08″W / 28.16806°N 82.01889°W / 28.16806; -82.01889


title: Sokołów-Towarzystwo

abstract: Sokołów-Towarzystwo is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kiernozia, within Łowicz County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland. It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) south-west of Kiernozia, 17 km (11 mi) north of Łowicz, and 58 km (36 mi) north-east of the regional capital Łódź.

text:
# Sokołów-Towarzystwo

**Sokołów-Towarzystwo** \[sɔˈkɔwuf tɔvaˈʐɨstfɔ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kiernozia, within Łowicz County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland. It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) south-west of Kiernozia, 17 km (11 mi) north of Łowicz, and 58 km (36 mi) north-east of the regional capital Łódź.

## InfoBox

| Sokołów-Towarzystwo | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Sokołów-Towarzystwo | |
| Coordinates: 52°14′33″N 19°50′41″E / 52.24250°N 19.84472°E / 52.24250; 19.84472 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Łódź |
| County | Łowicz |
| Gmina | Kiernozia |


title: Chick-O-Stick

abstract: Chick-O-Stick is a candy produced by the Atkinson Candy Company that has been manufactured since the 1950s. It is made primarily from peanut butter, cane sugar, corn syrup, toasted coconut, natural vanilla flavor, and salt with no hydrogenated oils or artificial preservatives added. There is also a sugar-free version of the candy which uses Splenda as a sweetener. Chick-O-Stick is currently produced as a naturally-colored stick of varying length and thickness, dusted with ground coconut. The interior of the stick is honeycombed with peanut butter and a hardened syrup/sugar mixture that also forms the shell. When eaten fresh, the candy is dry and brittle, but it has a tendency to absorb moisture and become hard and chewy if left in the open air for an extended period. Formerly the color of Chick-O-Stick candy was a rather bright-orange color produced by artificial red and blue coloring ingredients, however, in 2019, Atkinson announced that the Chick-O-Stick recipe would be simplified to utilize vegetable juice and turmeric root for the new, natural light-brown color of the candy, and to replace artificial preservatives and hydrogenated oils with healthier alternatives. Chick-O-Stick is available in 0.35-ounce (9.9 g), 0.70-ounce (20 g), 1.0-ounce (28 g), and 1.6-ounce (45 g) sizes, as well as bags of individually wrapped bite-sized pieces. The size of the largest variant has been reduced by 20% since 2022, when it was 2.0-ounce (57 g), according to the history of this document. Chick-O-Sticks are Kosher, gluten-free, and "vegan friendly" and are one of the few full-size products that Atkinson Candy Company makes. Most other products made by this company come only in individually-wrapped bite size or Halloween size portions.

text:
# Chick-O-Stick

**Chick-O-Stick** is a candy produced by the Atkinson Candy Company that has been manufactured since the 1950s. It is made primarily from peanut butter, cane sugar, corn syrup, toasted coconut, natural vanilla flavor, and salt with no hydrogenated oils or artificial preservatives added. There is also a sugar-free version of the candy which uses Splenda as a sweetener.

Chick-O-Stick is currently produced as a naturally-colored stick of varying length and thickness, dusted with ground coconut. The interior of the stick is honeycombed with peanut butter and a hardened syrup/sugar mixture that also forms the shell. When eaten fresh, the candy is dry and brittle, but it has a tendency to absorb moisture and become hard and chewy if left in the open air for an extended period.

Formerly the color of Chick-O-Stick candy was a rather bright-orange color produced by artificial red and blue coloring ingredients, however, in 2019, Atkinson announced that the Chick-O-Stick recipe would be simplified to utilize vegetable juice and turmeric root for the new, natural light-brown color of the candy, and to replace artificial preservatives and hydrogenated oils with healthier alternatives.

Chick-O-Stick is available in 0.35-ounce (9.9 g), 0.70-ounce (20 g), 1.0-ounce (28 g), and 1.6-ounce (45 g) sizes, as well as bags of individually wrapped bite-sized pieces. The size of the largest variant has been reduced by 20% since 2022, when it was 2.0-ounce (57 g), according to the history of this document.

Chick-O-Sticks are Kosher, gluten-free, and "vegan friendly" and are one of the few full-size products that Atkinson Candy Company makes. Most other products made by this company come only in individually-wrapped bite size or Halloween size portions.

## Packaging and name

Chick-O-Stick's original wrapper design featured a stylized cartoon of a chicken wearing a cowboy hat and a badge in the shape of the Atkinson logo. The chicken is absent from the more recent wrapper; some commentators have indicated that it contributed to confusion over whether the Chick-O-Stick was candy or a chicken-flavored cracker. The Atkinson Candy Company's website states that one of their sales representatives just "came up with the name one day, and well, it just stuck." The company had once written in correspondence that they felt the Chick-O-Stick resembled "fried chicken" and that contributed to the name.

Kimmerle, Beth (2003). *Candy: The Sweet History*. Collectors Press, Incorporated. pp. 78–79. ISBN 1888054832.


title: Chile in the OTI Festival

abstract: The participation of Chile in the OTI Festival first began at the inaugural OTI Festival in 1972 held in Madrid and continued continuously until the last edition in 2000 held in Acapulco. Televisión Nacional de Chile (TVN), Canal 13, Chilevisión, Megavisión, and La Red, members of the Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana (OTI), were responsible in turn –or jointly– for the Chilean participation.

text:
# Chile in the OTI Festival

The participation of **Chile in the OTI Festival** first began at the inaugural OTI Festival in 1972 held in Madrid and continued continuously until the last edition in 2000 held in Acapulco. Televisión Nacional de Chile (TVN), Canal 13, Chilevisión, Megavisión, and La Red, members of the Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana (OTI), were responsible in turn –or jointly– for the Chilean participation.

## History

Chile won the contest in two occasions: in 1984 with the singer-songwriter Fernando Ubiergo with the song "Agualuna", and in 1998 with the rapper and comedian Florcita Motuda with the song "Fin de siglo, es hora de inflamarse deprimirse o transformarse".

In addition to these victories, their placed second with Alberto Plaza and the song "Canción contra la tristeza" in 1995. They also got three third places: in 1976 with José Alfredo Fuentes and the song "Era solo un chiquillo", in 1985 with Juan Carlos Duque and the song "Para poder vivir", and in 1992 with Pablo Herrera and his song "Para poder vivir".

Televisión Nacional de Chile (TVN) and Canal 13, organised jointly the event two times: in 1978, due to the refusal of the Nicaraguan broadcaster –the previous year's winner– to organise the event because of the Nicaraguan Revolution, and in 1986. Both events were held in the Municipal Theatre of Santiago.

## National final

Chile was one of the few OTI Festival participating countries who organised an annual national final in order to select their participating entrant in the contest, produced in turn –or jointly– by TVN, Canal 13, Chilevisión, Megavisión, and La Red. The winner, who was elected by a professional jury, would later represent the country in the festival.

The Festival OTI Nacional, which was the official name of the selection process, was also very popular between the local audience and in fact, many famous musicians participated in the national final in order to represent their country in the main event.

## Participation overview

|
|  |
Table key
| 1 | First place |
| 2 | Second place |
| 3 | Third place |
| F | Finalist |
| SF | Semi-finalist |
| **X** | Contest cancelled |

| Year | Participant | Artist | Song | Songwriter(s) | Conductor | Place | Points |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1972 | TVN | Guillermo Basterrechea | "Una vez, otra vez" | * Eduardo Tarifa * Guillermo Basterrechea | Eddy Guerín | 7 | 4 |
| 1973 | TVN | Antonio Zabaleta | "Cuando tú vuelvas" | Antonio Zabaleta | Horacio Saavedra | 6 | 5 |
| 1974 | TVN | José Alfredo Fuentes | "Amor, volveré" | José Alfredo Fuentes | Chucho Ferrer | 8 | 4 |
| 1975 | TVN | Osvaldo Díaz | "Las puertas del mundo" | Luis "Poncho" Venegas | Horacio Saavedra | 5 | 5 |
| 1976 | TVN | José Alfredo Fuentes | "Era sólo un chiquillo" | * José Alfredo Fuentes * Óscar Cáceres | Horacio Saavedra | 3 | 12 |
| 1977 | Canal 13 | Capri | "Oda a mi guitarra" | Nano Acevedo | Juan Azúa | 11 | 2 |
| 1978 |  | Florcita Motuda | "Pobrecito mortal, si quieres ver menos televisión descubrirás que aburrido estarás por la tarde" | Florcita Motuda | Horacio Saavedra | 7 | 17 |
| 1979 |  | Patricia Maldonado | "La música" | Scottie Scott | Juan Salazar | 14 | 10 |
| 1980 | Canal 13 | Nino García | "Sin razón" | Nino García | Gonzalo García | 14 | 9 |
| 1981 |  | Florcita Motuda | "Si hoy tenemos que cantar a tanta gente, ¡pensémoslo!" | Florcita Motuda | Juan Salazar | 5 | 10 |
| 1982 | Canal 13 | Juan Pablo Méndez | "Si no hubieras estado tú" | Juan Pablo Méndez | Francisco Aranda | 11 | 14 |
| 1983 | Teleonce | Wildo | "La misma vida, el mismo modo" | Wildo | Francisco Aranda |  |  |
| 1984 | Teleonce | Fernando Ubiergo | "Agualuna" | Fernando Ubiergo | Francisco Aranda | 1 |  |
| 1985 | Canal 13 | Juan Carlos Duque | "Para poder vivir" | Juan Carlos Duque | Francisco Aranda | 3 |  |
| 1986 |  | Pancho Puelma | "Desde las nubes" | Pancho Puelma | Francisco Aranda |  |  |
| 1987 | Canal 11 | Eduardo Valenzuela | "Chocando paredes" | Eduardo Valenzuela | Francisco Larraín |  |  |
| 1988 | Canal 13 | Cecilia Castro | "Es mi libertad" | * Loreto Valenzuela Baudrand * Alfredo Sauvalle | Miguel Pizarro | 7 | 6 |
| 1989 | TVN | Catalina Telias | "La movida" | Scottie Scott | Toly Ramírez |  |  |
| 1990 | Canal 11 | Osvaldo Díaz | "Si no te tuviera a ti" | Eduardo Carrasco | Miguel Zabaleta |  |  |
| 1991 | Canal 13 | Claudio Escobar | "Haciendo música" | Scottie Scott | René Calderón | SF |  |
| 1992 | TVN | Pablo Herrera | "Te prometo" | * Pablo Herrera * Alejandra Silva | Andrés Pollak | 3 |  |
| 1993 | RTU | Keko Yunge | "María y Manuel" | Keko Yunge | Marc Friedler |  |  |
| 1994 | Megavisión | María Inés Naveillán | "La vida va" | Luis "Poncho" Venegas | Francisco Aranda | 9 |  |
| 1995 | Canal 13 | Alberto Plaza | "Canción contra la tristeza" | Alberto Plaza | Roberto Trujillo | 2 |  |
| 1996 | TVN | José Luis Moya | "Te confieso" | José Luis Ubiergo | Hugo Manzi |  |  |
| 1997 | Megavisión | Rachel | "Nunca sabrás cuánto te amo" | Alejandro Afani | René Calderón | F |  |
| 1998 | La Red | Florcita Motuda | "Fin de siglo: Es tiempo de inflamarse, deprimirse o transformarse" | Florcita Motuda | Olivia Alarcón | 1 |  |
| 1999 | Contest cancelled **X** | | | | | | |
| 2000 | Canal 13 | Magdalena Matthey | "Tú, naturaleza" | Magdalena Matthey | Tilo González |  |  |
|

## Hosting

| Year | Host broadcasters | City | Venue | Hosts |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | * TVN * Canal 13 * Canal 9 * UCV Televisión | Santiago | Municipal Theatre |  |  |
| 1986 | | | * TVN * Canal 13 * Canal 11 |  |  |

1. "Ubiergo desclasifica archivos de su triunfo en la OTI". *mercuriovalpo.cl*. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
2. "La Nación Digital. El País". *wvw.nacion.com*. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
3. "Festival OTI de la Canción 1978". *OTI Festival* (in Spanish). 2 December 1978. Televisión Nacional de Chile / Canal 13 / Canal 9 / UCV Televisión / OTI.
4. "Festival OTI de la Canción 1986". *OTI Festival* (in Spanish). 15 November 1986. Televisión Nacional de Chile / Canal 13 / Canal 11 / OTI.

## InfoBox

| Chile | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Participating broadcaster |  |
| Participation summary | |
| Appearances | 28 |
| First appearance | 1972 |
| Last appearance | 2000 |
| Highest placement | 1st: 1984, 1998 |
| Host | 1978, 1986 |


title: Chimnaji Damodar

abstract: Chimnaji Damodar Moghe, popularly known as Chimnaji Damodar, was among the first Sardars to cross the boundary of Maharashtra to engage Mughal forces located in the central and northern regions of India in 1698. He also served as Rajadnya in the court of Shahu I and as Peshwa in the court of Sambhaji II of Kolhapur.

text:
# Chimnaji Damodar

**Chimnaji Damodar Moghe**, popularly known as **Chimnaji Damodar**, was among the first *Sardars* to cross the boundary of Maharashtra to engage Mughal forces located in the central and northern regions of India in 1698. He also served as *Rajadnya* in the court of Shahu I and as *Peshwa* (Prime Minister) in the court of Sambhaji II of Kolhapur.

## Early life and career

Chimnaji Damodar was born in a Karhade Brahmin family. The year of his birth is not known, however, it must have been around 1675.

He was the *Sardar* of Parola located in the Khandesh region of Maharashtra. During the regime of Rajaram I, Ramchandra Pant Amatya encouraged the independent Maratha warriors to invade Mughal areas with intention to distract Mughal army concentrated in Maharashtra under the leadership of Aurangzeb. Chimnaji Damodar, along with Nemaji Shinde, happened to be the first to successfully respond to this strategy by crossing the boundary of Maharashtra and entering into Malwa. His troops attacked Mughal subjects in Central and Northern parts of India and looted enormous money and treasure.

## Later life

In 1707, when Shahu was released by Mughals, Chimnaji Damodar left Tarabai and joined Shahu.

He contributed a lot in Shahu’s victory against Tarabai at Khed as a result of which Shahu appointed him as *Mutalik* (Deputy Prime Minister). Subsequently, he was appointed to the prestigious post of *Rajadnya* (Deputy to the Crown). In 1718-1719, he accompanied *Peshwa* Balaji Vishwanath in his expedition to Delhi. In 1720, after Balaji Vishwanath’s death, Bajirao became the new *Peshwa* over objections raised by Damodar that Bajirao lacked the experience required for such a responsible post. As a result, he withdrew himself from Shahu’s court.

In 1727, Sambhaji II appointed him as *Peshwa* of Kolhapur state. In 1731, he joined hands with Dabhade and fought with Bajirao at Dabhai but lost. However, since then his relations with Bajirao went on improving till the end of his life. He had one son named Balwantrao Damodar.

## InfoBox

| Chimnaji Damodar Moghe | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Rajadnya* to Emperor Shahuji of the Maratha Empire,
*Peshwa* of Kolhapur,
*Sardar* of Parola | |
|  | |
| Born | est. 1675
Parola, Khandesh |
| Died | est. 1740
Kolhapur, Maharashtra |
| Religion | Hindu |


title: Chimnabai II

abstract: Maharani Chimnabai II was a queen and the second wife Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad of the princely state of Baroda, Gujarat, British India. She is the author of the treatise The position of Women in Indian Life (1911), and was the first president of the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1927-1928, as well as the president of the National Council of Women in India in 1928-1937.

text:
# Chimnabai II

Maharani **Chimnabai II** (1872 – 23 August 1958) was a queen and the second wife Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad of the princely state of Baroda, Gujarat, British India. She is the author of the treatise *The position of Women in Indian Life* (1911), and was the first president of the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1927-1928, as well as the president of the National Council of Women in India in 1928-1937.

## Biography

Shrimant Gajarabai became Chimnabai II upon marrying Sayajirao Gaekwad in 1885.

A progressive woman, she worked toward education for girls, abolishing the purdah system and child marriage, and became the first president of the AIWC in 1927. She is the author of the treatise *The position of Women in Indian Life* (1911).

Her daughter Indira Devi became the consort of Jitendra Narayan, Maharajah of Cooch Behar.

## Works

* Chimnabai II (Maharani of Baroda.); Siddha Mohana Mitra (1911). *Position Of Women In Indian Life*. New York: Longman's, Green & Co.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Chimnabai II | |
| --- | --- |
| Maharani Chimnabai of Baroda | |
|  | |
| Born | 1872 |
| Died | 1958  (aged 85–86) |


title: Chief Oil & Gas

abstract: Chief Oil & Gas is a company founded in Dallas, Texas in 1994 by Trevor Rees-Jones. Its primary holdings of natural gas were developed in the core areas of the Barnett Shale in Tarrant County, Denton County and Parker County. In 1999, new technology in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing along with rising gas prices made the Barnett Shale, an unconventional resource for natural gas, more economical. Chief rapidly expanded its leasehold position and drilling and production program in the Barnett Shale to become the fields second largest producer there. After selling, in 2006, the majority of its leasehold and production assets to Devon Energy and its pipeline and midstream assets to Crosstex Energy for $2.63 billion, Chief entered the Marcellus Formation gas play in Appalachia, with its primary leasehold position in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and New York. Chief drilled their first Marcellus Shale gas well in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania in Watson Township in the fall of 2007. The company also has a leasehold position in the Utah Thrust Belt in central Utah with development expected to begin in 2009. Quicksilver Resources Inc., a Fort Worth-based company, purchased another portion of Chief's Barnett Shale holdings in July 2008. Quicksilver purchased natural gas producing properties in Tarrant and Denton counties from several companies including Chief Oil & Gas LLC, Hillwood Oil & Gas LP and Collins and Young LLC for $1.3 billion. In December 2010, Chief entered into an asset purchase and sale agreement to sell certain natural gas properties in the Marcellus Shale to EXCO Holding PA, a subsidiary of EXCO Resources Inc., for approximately $459 million. The sale assets include 15 producing wells, 11 wells waiting on completion and approximately 50,000 net acres located in Lycoming, Sullivan and Columbia counties in Pennsylvania. In January 2022, it was announced Chesapeake Energy will acquire the company for $2,6 billion.

text:
# Chief Oil & Gas

**Chief Oil & Gas** is a company founded in Dallas, Texas in 1994 by Trevor Rees-Jones. Its primary holdings of natural gas were developed in the core areas of the Barnett Shale in Tarrant County, Denton County and Parker County. In 1999, new technology in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing along with rising gas prices made the Barnett Shale, an unconventional resource for natural gas, more economical. Chief rapidly expanded its leasehold position and drilling and production program in the Barnett Shale to become the fields second largest producer there.

After selling, in 2006, the majority of its leasehold and production assets to Devon Energy and its pipeline and midstream assets to Crosstex Energy for $2.63 billion, Chief entered the Marcellus Formation gas play in Appalachia, with its primary leasehold position in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and New York. Chief drilled their first Marcellus Shale gas well in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania in Watson Township in the fall of 2007. The company also has a leasehold position in the Utah Thrust Belt in central Utah with development expected to begin in 2009.

Quicksilver Resources Inc., a Fort Worth-based company, purchased another portion of Chief's Barnett Shale holdings in July 2008. Quicksilver purchased natural gas producing properties in Tarrant and Denton counties from several companies including Chief Oil & Gas LLC, Hillwood Oil & Gas LP and Collins and Young LLC for $1.3 billion.

In December 2010, Chief entered into an asset purchase and sale agreement to sell certain natural gas properties in the Marcellus Shale to EXCO Holding PA, a subsidiary of EXCO Resources Inc., for approximately $459 million. The sale assets include 15 producing wells, 11 wells waiting on completion and approximately 50,000 net acres located in Lycoming, Sullivan and Columbia counties in Pennsylvania.

In January 2022, it was announced Chesapeake Energy will acquire the company for $2,6 billion.

## Technology

Chief Oil & Gas develops natural gas from shale gas plays in the United States. Advances in the technology of 3-D seismic imaging, drilling and completion technology, including hydraulic fracturing techniques has enabled Chief to produce gas from the low permeability Barnett Shale and Marcellus Shale that otherwise would not be economically feasible.

Technology has also helped Chief reduce the size of the footprint on the environment. The size of a drill site today has been reduced significantly compared to 50 years ago. Horizontal drilling has made a significant contribution to reducing the company's footprint on the environment. Horizontal drilling technology enables operators to reach their target site and avoid environmentally difficult areas. It also allows multiple wells to be drilled from the same pad site which not only reduces the environmental impact, but the cost to drill.

In September 2008, Chief unveiled a first of its kind drilling rig designed specifically for drilling horizontal wells in the rugged terrain of the Marcellus shale. The 1,600-horsepower rig is quieter, gives off fewer emissions, is safer to operate and can be broken down and carted off quickly.

## Controversies

* In October 2010, Chief Oil & Gas donated $50,000 to then-gubernatorial candidate and eventual winner Tom Corbett, which some believe was a payoff in exchange for no severance tax and the repeal of environmental policies created to protect the environment from natural gas drilling.
* In January 2011, the Chief Gathering, LLC., a subsidiary of Chief Oil & Gas, was fined $34,000 by the Department of Environmental Protection for releasing approximately 25,200 gallons of hydrostatic testing water into the Big Run watershed in August 2010 at a pipeline project in Penn Township, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania.
* In the first six months of 2010, Chief Oil & Gas was cited for 78 violations by the Pennsylvania DEP, more than any other Marcellus shale driller in the state and with the highest ratio of violations at 3.5 per well.
* In June 2010, a well blowout and fire at a Chief-owned site injured seven contractors in Moundsville, West Virginia, and burned for days. No one from the emergency response crews had been given instruction on how to fight a well blowout and the burning site was found abandoned when the responders arrived.
* Chief is part of an industry consortium of producers that organized the Appalachian Shale Water Conservation and Management Committee (ASWCMC) in the Spring of 2008 to address water issues long term. The ASWCMC has made a financial investment to research water recycling, treatment and minimum water quality needed for the hydraulic fracture stimulation process.

## InfoBox

Chief Oil and Gas
|
|  |
| Company type | Private company |
| Industry | Oil and gas |
| Founded | 1994 |
| Headquarters | Dallas, Texas, US |
| Key people | Trevor Rees-Jones, president and chief executive officer |
| Number of employees | 125 |
| Website | chiefog.com |