title: Danilo Montaldi

abstract:
Danilo Montaldi was an Italian writer, intellectual and Marxist activist, who participated in the Autonomist Marxism movement. Danilo Montaldi was born in Cremona in 1929. His father was a working class anarchist who was jailed for two years during the fascist regime. Following his release from prison he was placed under close surveillance by the fascist authorities and was unable to regain his position with the Italian railways, thus Montaldi's mother became the sole earner supporting the family. In 1944 Danilo Montaldi joined the Fronte della Gioventù and participated in the Italian resistance movement. Following the overthrow of fascism, Montaldi was briefly a member of the Italian Communist Party, but left owing to their reformism and dogmatism. During the 1950s Montaldi developed links with a diverse range of individuals and organisations involved in far-left politics, such as Socialisme ou Barbarie in France and others in Germany, England and the United States. He also published his material in a broad range of journals such as Discussioni, Nuovi Argomenti, Ragionamenti, Opinione, and Passato e Presente. Between 1960 and 1964 Montaldi worked as a commissioning editor for the Milan publishing house founded by Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, of whom he was a close collaborator in those years. At the same time he began to publish his own books, most importantly Autobiografie della leggera (1961), which has since become a classic of its kind and remains in print to this day. The book collects the life stories of people at the very margins of society, dissidents, partisans, small-time criminals, prostitutes, as well as others, and narrates these in their own words and particular vernacular. During that same period he also opened an art-gallery in Cremona, exhibiting contemporary international artists, and was involved in the making of several documentaries, one of which he directed himself, La Matàna de Po (1959).
While continuing his collaboration with publishers such as Feltrinelli and Einaudi, over the next decade he focused primarily on his own research and publications, moving away also from political activism, until his premature death in 1975.

text:
# Danilo Montaldi

**Danilo Montaldi** (1 July 1929 – 27 April 1975) was an Italian writer, intellectual and Marxist activist, who participated in the Autonomist Marxism movement.

Danilo Montaldi was born in Cremona in 1929. His father was a working class anarchist who was jailed for two years during the fascist regime. Following his release from prison he was placed under close surveillance by the fascist authorities and was unable to regain his position with the Italian railways, thus Montaldi's mother became the sole earner supporting the family. In 1944 Danilo Montaldi joined the Fronte della Gioventù and participated in the Italian resistance movement. Following the overthrow of fascism, Montaldi was briefly a member of the Italian Communist Party, but left owing to their reformism and dogmatism. During the 1950s Montaldi developed links with a diverse range of individuals and organisations involved in far-left politics, such as Socialisme ou Barbarie (Socialism or Barbarity) in France and others in Germany, England and the United States. He also published his material in a broad range of journals such as *Discussioni*, *Nuovi Argomenti*, *Ragionamenti*, *Opinione*, and *Passato e Presente*.

Between 1960 and 1964 Montaldi worked as a commissioning editor for the Milan publishing house founded by Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, of whom he was a close collaborator in those years. At the same time he began to publish his own books, most importantly *Autobiografie della leggera* (1961), which has since become a classic of its kind and remains in print to this day. The book collects the life stories of people at the very margins of society, dissidents, partisans, small-time criminals, prostitutes, as well as others, and narrates these in their own words and particular vernacular. During that same period he also opened an art-gallery in Cremona, exhibiting contemporary international artists, and was involved in the making of several documentaries, one of which he directed himself, *La Matàna de Po* (1959). While continuing his collaboration with publishers such as Feltrinelli and Einaudi, over the next decade he focused primarily on his own research and publications, moving away also from political activism, until his premature death in 1975.

## Works

* *Milano, Corea: Inchiesta sugli immigrati*, (Milan, Korea: An Investigation into Immigration), Feltrinelli, 1960, (reprinted as an expanded edition by Feltrinelli in 1975 and by Donzelli in 2010)
* *Autobiografie della leggera*, (Autobiographies of the Leggera), Einaudi, 1961, (reprinted by Bompiani in 1998, 2012 and 2018)
* *Militanti politici di base*, (Autobiographies of political militants), Einaudi, 1971
* *Korsch e i comunisti italiani*, (Korsch and Italian Communism), Samonà e Savelli, 1975
* *Saggio sulla politica comunista in Italia – 1919-1970*, (Essay on the communist politics in Italy – 1919–1970), Quaderni Piacentini, 1976, (reprinted by Colibrì Edizioni in 2016)
* *Renzo Botti. I disegni della raccolta Montaldi*, (Writings on the painter Renzo Botti), Anali della Biblioteca Statale di Cremona, 1989
* *Bisogna Sognare. Scritti 1952 - 1975*, (Uncollected Writings, Articles and Essays), Colibrì Edizioni/ Centro Luca Rossi, 1995
* *Lettere 1963 - 1975. Danilo Montaldi e Giuseppe Guerreschi*, (The collected letters between Montaldi and the painter Guerreschi), Anali della Biblioteca Statale di Cremona, 2000


title: John Wilson (agriculturalist)

abstract: John Wilson was a British agriculturalist.

text:
# John Wilson (agriculturalist)

**John Wilson** FRSE FGS FCS (November 1812 – 27 March 1888) was a British agriculturalist.

## Life

He was born in London in November 1812, the son of John Wilson and his wife, Matilda. He studied at University College, London, with postgraduate studies of medicine and chemistry in Paris under Anselme Payen, Jean-Baptiste Boussingault and Gay Lussac.

In 1846 Wilson became Principal of the Royal Agricultural College in Cirencester. In 1847 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposer was John Haldane. He resigned his post at Cirencester in 1850, being replaced by the Rev. John Sayer Haygarth.

In 1854 Wilson replaced Prof David Low as Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University. In 1886 Edinburgh University awarded him an honorary doctorate (LLD). In Edinburgh he lived at 3 Whitehouse Terrace in the Grange. In 1868 he succeeded Philip Kelland as Secretary to the Edinburgh University Senate.

Wilson retired in 1885 and died at Sandfield in Tunbridge Wells on 27 March 1888.

## Publications

* *The Agriculture of the French Exhibition* (1855)
* *Agriculture: Past and Present* (1855)
* *Our Farm Crops* (1860)
* *Report on the Present State of Agriculture in Scotland* (1878)

## Artistic recognition

The Scottish National Portrait Gallery holds a sketch of Wilson teaching by William Hole dated 1884.


title: CUBRID

abstract: CUBRID ( "cube-rid") is an open-source SQL-based relational database management system (RDBMS) with object extensions developed by CUBRID Corp. for OLTP. The name CUBRID is a combination of the two words cube and bridge, cube standing for a space for data and bridge standing for data bridge.

text:
# CUBRID

**CUBRID** (/ˈkjuːbrɪd/ "cube-rid") is an open-source SQL-based relational database management system (RDBMS) with object extensions developed by CUBRID Corp. for OLTP. The name CUBRID is a combination of the two words *cube* and *bridge*, *cube* standing for a space for data and *bridge* standing for *data bridge*.

## License policy

CUBRID has a separate license for its server engine and its interfaces. The server engine adopts the Apache License 2.0, which allows distribution, modification, and acquisition of the source code. CUBRID APIs and GUI tools have the Berkeley Software Distribution license in which there is no obligation of opening derivative works. The reason of adopting two separate license systems is to provide complete freedom to Independent software vendors (ISV) to develop and distribute CUBRID-based applications.

## Architecture

The feature that distinguishes CUBRID database from other relational database systems is its 3-tier client-server architecture which consists of the database server, the connection broker and the application layer.

### Database server

The database server is the component of the CUBRID database management system which is responsible for storage operations and statement execution. A CUBRID database server instance can mount and use a single database, making inter-database queries impossible. However, more than one instance can run on a machine.

Unlike other solutions, the database server does not compile queries itself, but executes queries precompiled in a custom access specification language.

### Connection broker

The CUBRID connection broker's main roles are:

* management of client application connections
* caching and relaying information (e.g. query results)
* query syntax analysis, optimization and execution plan generation

Also, a local object pool enables some parts of the execution to be deferred from the database server (e.g. tuple insertion and deletion, DDL statements), thus lowering the database server load.

Since the connection broker is not bound to the same machine as the database server, CUBRID can take advantage of the hardware resources of several machines while processing queries on a single database.

### Application layer

Applications can use one of the available APIs to connect to a CUBRID connection broker.

## Features

### High Availability

CUBRID High Availability provides load-balanced, fault-tolerant and continuous service availability through its shared-nothing clustering, automated fail-over and manual fail-back mechanisms.

CUBRID's 3-tier architecture allows native support for High-Availability with two-level auto failover: the broker failover and server failover.

#### Broker failover

When connecting to a broker via a client API, users can specify, in the connection URL, a list of alternative hosts where brokers are listening for incoming requests. In case of a hardware, network, operating system or software failure on one of the hosts, the underlying client API automatically fails over to the next host that a user has provided.

#### Server failover

The High Availability environment can be built with 1:N master-slave server nodes. Each slave node communicates with the master via CUBRID Heartbeat protocol. When a master node is unresponsive, the first of the slave nodes will get promoted to a master role. Replication between nodes can be achieved in one of two modes: synchronous and asynchronous.

Administrators can specify a list of server hosts each broker can connect to and, in the event of a failure of the master node, another will be used.

### Scalability and Maintainability

#### Backup

CUBRID supports online, offline and incremental backup.

### Performance

#### API-level load balancing

Because a connection broker can be configured in four different modes (read-write, read-only, slave-only, preferred host read only), the list of alternative hosts which a user has provided via the connection URL can be used as a method to balance the load. When *Load Balancing* is used, the client API will randomly choose a host among those specified in the connection URL except the one which was used to connect to last time. If the chosen host is not available, the selection will continue until all the hosts are determined as unavailable. In such case, the driver will report an error.

#### Query plan caching

A query execution plan cache is implemented on the broker in order to skip most of the compilation steps on often used queries. Because the queries are parametrized during parsing, two queries that differ only by the values of literal constants share the same cache entry.

### Storage

#### Indexes

CUBRID has support for B+-tree indexes, both single-column and multi-column. The following types of indexes can be created:

* Indexes and reversed indexes
* Unique indexes and reverse unique indexes
* Function-based indexes
* Filtered indexes

The query optimizer can use indexes to produce faster execution plans using methods such as:

* Identifying covering indexes
* Descending index scans
* ORDER BY skip
* GROUP BY skip
* Multi-range limit optimizations
* Index Loose Scan
* Index Skip Scan

#### Table partitioning

CUBRID supports horizontal partitioning by range, hash and value lists, with a maximum of 1024 partitions per table. Partitions can be accessed independently and support most operations that are valid on a normal table.

As of version 9.0, CUBRID implements execution-time partition pruning.

### SQL support

CUBRID implements a large subset of the ANSI SQL:1999 standard, extended with features from later SQL standards and custom features.

#### Window functions

CUBRID provides support for window functions as defined in the SQL:2003 standard. The implemented functions are ROW\_NUMBER, COUNT, MIN, MAX, SUM, AVG, STDDEV\_POP, STDDEV\_SAMP, VAR\_POP, VAR\_SAMP, RANK, DENSE\_RANK, LEAD, LAG and NTILE.

#### Hierarchical queries

Hierarchical queries using the non-standard `START WITH ... CONNECT BY` Oracle syntax are supported in CUBRID. A number of specialized pseudocolumns and operators are provided for controlling the behavior of the query execution.

#### Built in click-counter

CUBRID optimizes the common scenario in web applications where database fields need to be incremented on certain events (e.g. page views). In contrast to the usual approach of using a SELECT/UPDATE statement combination, CUBRID can increment fields from within the SELECT statement execution, bypassing some expensive compiling, execution and locking overhead associated with an UPDATE statement.

#### Java stored procedures

The only stored procedure language supported in CUBRID is Java, requiring a Java virtual machine to be installed on the system. The virtual machine is started and managed by the server and is used for code execution.

Stored procedure code that requires database access must use the JDBC driver, either using the parent transaction or issuing a new one.

#### Regular expression

In addition to the LIKE operator, CUBRID provides the REGEXP operator for regular expression pattern matching. By default, the operator does a case insensitive matching on the input string, but the modifier BINARY can be used for case sensitive scenarios. An optional alias of REGEXP is RLIKE.

In the prior version of CUBRID 11, CUBRID does not support REGEXP on Unicode strings.

From the CUBRID 11, CUBRID adds the following regular expression functions and supports them on Unicode strings.

* REGEXP\_COUNT, REGEXP\_INSTR, REGEXP\_LIKE, REGEXP\_REPLACE, REGEXP\_SUBSTR

#### Data types

A variety of data types are supported by CUBRID:

* For numeric values:
* For string values:
    + fixed-length character and bit strings: CHAR, BIT
    + variable-length character and bit strings: CHAR VARYING, BIT VARYING
* For date and time values:
    + date values: DATE
    + time values: TIME
    + date and time values: DATETIME, TIMESTAMP (internally stored as a Unix timestamp)
* For collections: SET, MULTISET, LIST
* User defined enumerations: ENUM
* For large objects: BLOB, CLOB
* For JavaScript Object Notation: JSON

## Supported platforms

CUBRID is available for Microsoft Windows and Linux (most distributions), for 32- and 64-bit architectures.

## Interfaces

### Command line

CUBRID comes with a built-in command-line interface named *csql* that can be used to execute SQL statements on the CUBRID server. The tool can be used in one of two modes:

* CS (*client/server*) mode, which can connect to local or remote CUBRID servers
* SA (*stand alone*) mode, used mainly for administration purposes, which mounts a local database by emulating a server instance

CUBRID's *csql* also implements some internal commands related to schema information, plan generation, debugging, transaction control, query timing and more.

### Programming

CUBRID provides a number of language-specific application programming interfaces:  driver (also called *CCI*, CUBRID's native driver), JDBC, PHP/PDO driver, ODBC, OLEDB, ADO.NET, Ruby driver, Python driver, Node.js driver and Perl driver.

### Graphical

Several graphical user interface tools have been developed for CUBRID:

* CUBRID Manager is a query browser and database administration tool distributed under the BSD license on macOS and Linux.
* CUBRID Admin is an administration tool distributed under the BSD license on Windows.
* SQLGate is a query browser tool developed by CHEQUER on Windows.
* CUBRID Migration Toolkit is a tool which allows data migration from Oracle, MS-SQL, MySQL and previous versions of CUBRID databases to the latest CUBRID database server.

## Release history

| Version | Release date | Beta release date | Additions |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 11.3 | September 2023 |  | Connectivity : Improved connectivity by improving database links. |
| 11.2 | May 2022 |  | Connectivity: Provides scalability between homogeneous and heterogeneous DBs through database link and supplementary logging. |
| 11.0 | January 2021 |  | Security : TDE(Transparent Data Encryption) and others. |
| 10.2 | December 2019 |  | New data type: JSON(JavaScript Object Notation) and others. |
| 10.1 | July 2017 |  | Includes useful SQL extensions: CTE(Common Table Expressions) and others. |
| 10.0 | February 2016 |  | Provides snapshot isolations based on MVCC protocol. Includes many SQL extensions and functions/operators. |
| 9.3 | May, 2014 |  | New SQL features, Support schema lock, support various SHOW syntax, Performance Improvement. |
| 9.2 | September, 2013 |  | SQL profiling, New SQL supports, Several improvements |
| 9.1 | March, 2013 |  | New SQL functions and index hint, Performance improvements and optimizations. |
| 9.0 | October, 2012 |  | Internationalization support, function index, filter index, index skip scan, MERGE statement, window functions. |
| 8.4.3 | November 20, 2012 |  | Database sharding, API level load balancing, built-in web manager with monitoring support |
| 8.4.1 | February 24, 2012 | February 1, 2012 | Important performance optimizations, SQL extensions, REGEXP operator. |
| 8.4.0 | July 1, 2011 | May 12, 2011 | High Availability improvements, CUBRID C API improvements, notable performance optimizations, covering index |
| 3.1 | December 31, 2010 | November 12, 2010 | BLOB and CLOB support, High Availability monitoring support, drivers (JDBC, ODBC and CUBRID C API) improvements |
| 3.0 | October 4, 2010 | July 19, 2010 | SQL extensions, High Availability improvements |
| 2.2 | April 30, 2010 |  | High Availability improvements, CUBRID C API improvements, some performance improvements |
| 2.1 | December, 2009 |  |  |
| 2.0 | August, 2009 |  |  |
| 1.4 | March, 2009 |  |  |
| 1.3 | February, 2009 |  |  |
| 1.2 | January, 2009 |  |  |
| 1.1 | November, 2008 |  | CUBRID became an open source project |
| 1.0 | October, 2008 |  | First stable release |

## Applications

Some applications and websites that have added CUBRID support or are powered by CUBRID:

## InfoBox

CUBRID
|
|  |
| Developer(s) | CUBRID Corp. |
| Initial release | November 20, 2008 (2008-11-20) |
|  | |
| Stable release | 11.3 / September 2023 (2023-09) |
|  | |
| Repository | github.com/CUBRID/cubrid |
| Written in | , C++, Java |
| Operating system | Linux, Windows |
| Available in | English, Korean |
| Type | RDBMS |
| License | Apache License for Server Engine and BSD license for APIs and GUI tools |
| Website | cubrid.org |


title: Carmacks Airport

abstract: Carmacks Airport is located 3.5 nautical miles from the community of Carmacks, Yukon, Canada.

text:
# Carmacks Airport

**Carmacks Airport** (TC LID: **CEX4**) is located 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) from the community of Carmacks, Yukon, Canada.

1. *Canada Flight Supplement*. Effective 0901 16 July 2020 to 0901Z 10 September 2020.
2. Synoptic/Metstat Station Information Archived December 1, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

## InfoBox

| Carmacks Airport | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Summary | |
| Airport type | Public |
| Operator | Government of Yukon |
| Location | Carmacks, Yukon |
| Time zone | MST (UTC−07:00) |
| Elevation AMSL | 1,770 ft / 539 m |
| Coordinates | 62°06′39″N 136°10′42″W / 62.11083°N 136.17833°W / 62.11083; -136.17833 |
| Map | |
| CEX4Location in Yukon | |
| Runways | |
| Direction Length Surface  ft m  09/27 5,000 1,524 Gravel | |
| Sources: Canada Flight Supplement<br>Environment Canada | |


title: Rasopone

abstract: Rasopone is genus of ants in the subfamily Ponerinae. The genus is restricted to Central and South America.

text:
# Rasopone

***Rasopone*** is genus of ants in the subfamily Ponerinae. The genus is restricted to Central and South America.

## Species

## InfoBox

| *Rasopone* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Rasopone lunaris* worker | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Formicidae |
| Subfamily: | Ponerinae |
| Tribe: | Ponerini |
| Genus: | *Rasopone*
Schmidt & Shattuck, 2014 |
|
| Type species | |
| *Ponera ferruginea*
Smith, F., 1858 | |
| Diversity | |
| 11 species | |


title: 2017 NHL Stadium Series

abstract: The 2017 NHL Stadium Series was a regular season National Hockey League (NHL) game played outdoors, part of the Stadium Series of games held at football or baseball stadiums. The Philadelphia Flyers played against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on February 25, 2017. This was the only game in the Stadium Series scheduled during the 2016–17 NHL season, although there were three other outdoor games previously played in that season. It was one of the most attended outdoor NHL games in history, with an attendance of 67,318.

text:
# 2017 NHL Stadium Series

The **2017 NHL Stadium Series** was a regular season National Hockey League (NHL) game played outdoors, part of the Stadium Series of games held at football or baseball stadiums. The Philadelphia Flyers played against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on February 25, 2017.

This was the only game in the Stadium Series scheduled during the 2016–17 NHL season, although there were three other outdoor games previously played in that season. It was one of the most attended outdoor NHL games in history, with an attendance of 67,318.

## Background

The game was played to help mark the 50th anniversary of the Expansion of 1967, in which the Flyers and the Penguins, along with four other teams, were formed to double the league's size. This Flyers–Penguins rivalry matchup was originally considered for the 2017 NHL Winter Classic in January, but scheduling conflicts with the National Football League in both cities, along with the belief that Beaver Stadium (a neutral site venue mentioned as a potential site for a Flyers–Penguins outdoor contest) was not properly equipped to host an event during the winter, led to plans for a matchup being moved to a later date as a Stadium Series game in February.

Heinz Field previously hosted the 2011 NHL Winter Classic. This was also the Penguins' fourth outdoor game (after the 2008 and 2011 Winter Classics, and the 2014 Stadium Series), and the Flyers' third (after the 2010 and 2012 Winter Classics).

## Game summary

| February 25, 2017 | Philadelphia Flyers |  | **2-4** |  | **Pittsburgh Penguins** | Heinz Field | Recap |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

Pittsburgh's Jake Guentzel recorded two assists and Matt Murray made 39 saves en route to a 4-2 victory over Philadelphia. The Penguins got goals from Sidney Crosby, Nick Bonino, Matt Cullen and Chad Ruhwedel. Jakub Voracek and Shayne Gostisbehere scored for the Flyers.

| Scoring summary | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Period | Team | Goal | Assist(s) | Time | Score |
| **1st** | PIT | Sidney Crosby (34) | Jake Guentzel (7) and Scott Wilson (13) | 11:18 | 1–0 PIT |
| **2nd** | PIT | Nick Bonino (9) - *pp* | Jake Guentzel (8) and Brian Dumoulin (10) | 6:44 | 2–0 PIT |
| | PHI | Jakub Voracek (16) | Andrew MacDonald (12) | 11:14 | 2–1 PIT |
| **3rd** | PIT | Matt Cullen (10) | Eric Fehr (5) and Tom Kuhnhackl (5) | 1:50 | 3–1 PIT |
| | PHI | Shayne Gostisbehere (5) - *pp* | Claude Giroux (31) and Brayden Schenn (21) | 6:48 | 3–2 PIT |
| | PIT | Chad Ruhwedel (2) | Evgeni Malkin (36) | 14:06 | 4–2 PIT |

*Number in parentheses represents the player's total in goals or assists to that point of the season*

| Penalty summary | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Period | Team | Player | Penalty | Time | PIM |
| **1st** | PIT | Evgeni Malkin | Unsportsmanlike conduct | 6:39 | 2:00 |
| | PHI | Ivan Provorov | Hooking | 16:25 | 2:00 |
| **2nd** | PHI | Shayne Gostisbehere | Interference | 5:08 | 2:00 |
| | PIT | Eric Fehr | Roughing | 7:20 | 2:00 |
| | PIT | Chris Kunitz | Roughing | 10:50 | 2:00 |
| | PHI | Dale Weise | Roughing | 10:50 | 2:00 |
| | PHI | Brandon Manning | Holding | 19:09 | 2:00 |
| **3rd** | PIT | Jake Guentzel | Holding | 6:34 | 2:00 |
| | PIT | Cameron Gaunce | Tripping | 11:19 | 2:00 |
| | PHI | Shayne Gostisbehere | Interference | 15:41 | 2:00 |
| | PHI | Wayne Simmonds | Slashing | 18:00 | 2:00 |

| Three star selections | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Team | Player | Statistics |
| 1st | PIT | Jake Guentzel | 2 assists |
| 2nd | PIT | Sidney Crosby | 1 goal |
| 3rd | PHI | Jakub Voracek | 1 goal |

## Team rosters

Marc-Andre Fleury and Steve Mason dressed as the back-up goaltenders. Neither entered the game.

### Scratches

### Officials

### Pregame/Anthem/Entertainment

Before the game the Steelers' drumline Pittsburgh Steeline performed

During the team intros the Steelers' wide receiver Antonio Brown introduced the Penguins

The anthem was performed by a member of the Los Angeles Kings' ice crew Courtney Daniels (who filled in for Fifth Harmony at the 2017 NHL All-Star Game at Staples Center after one of the members had fallen ill)

Train (band) performed during the first intermission (OneRepublic originally was supposed to perform but one of the members had fallen ill)

## InfoBox

2017 NHL Stadium Series
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| 1 2 3 Total  Philadelphia Flyers 0 1 1 2  **Pittsburgh Penguins** 1 1 2 4 | |
| Date | February 25, 2017 |
| Venue | Heinz Field |
| City | Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania |
| Attendance | 67,318 |
| 2016 2018 | |


title: Shaily Mahendra

abstract: Shaily Mahendra is an Indian-American civil and environmental engineer. She is an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

text:
# Shaily Mahendra

**Shaily Mahendra** is an Indian-American civil and environmental engineer. She is an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

## Career

After earning her PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, Mahendra accepted a research scientist position at Rice University. At Rice, Mahendra studied how silver nanoparticles contained in water filtration membranes, polymers, and oil paints, worked to disinfect viruses, bacteria, and fungi. She also led a project to explore natural and engineered bioremediation of 1,4-dioxane in colder climates.

Mahendra joined the faculty of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 2009. Two years later, she was elected a Hellman Fellow and she conducted a project entitled “Biodegradation of Perfluorinated Compounds" which was submitted to the US Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment. As a result of her research, Mahendra received the 2013 Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) award from the National Science Foundation and UCLA's 2013 DuPont Young Professor award. The Dupont award was given to Mahendra for her development of cost-effective detection and remediation of microbes and fungi that could remedy chemical contaminants in groundwater at industrial sites. The next year, Mahendra was promoted to Associate Professor for the 2014–15 academic year. As an Associate Professor, Mahendra teamed up with Leonard Rom to develop a new technique that uses enzymes to remove pollutants from water which also minimizes risks to public health and the environment.

In 2017, Mahendra and her research team developed a method to package enzymes capable of destroying contaminants through biodegradation together into nanoparticle “vaults.” They then immobilized the enzyme vaults in sol-gels, which would help scale up production and integrate vaults at treatment plants. As a result, Mahendra was elected to the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors Board of Directors. She later received the Paul L. Busch award for technology to clean water of pollutants.

The next year, Mahendra received a 2018 Mahatma Gandhi Pravasi Samman award from the Government of India Non-Resident Indian Welfare Society for her "distinguished record of outstanding service, achievements and contributions." In 2019, Mahendra received the 2019 Walter L. Huber Civil Engineering Research Prize from American Society of Civil Engineers for "pioneering the application of enzyme-nanoparticle vaults in water treatment."

## InfoBox

| Shaily Mahendra | |
| --- | --- |
| Mahendra in 2011 | |
|  | |
| Academic background | |
| Education | B. Tech, 1997, Indian Institutes of Technology
M.S., 2001, Syracuse University
PhD., 2007, University of California, Berkeley |
| Thesis | *Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane by aerobic bacteria: experimental studies and modeling of oxidation kinetics, co-contaminant effects, and biochemical pathways* (2007) |
| Academic work | |
| Institutions | Rice University
University of California, Los Angeles |
| Main interests | environmental toxicology
applications of nanomaterial |
|  | |


title: John Gill Jr.

abstract: John Gill Jr. was a U.S. Representative from Maryland. He also served as a judge in Baltimore and on the Maryland House of Delegates and Maryland State Senate.

text:
# John Gill Jr.

**John Gill Jr.** (June 9, 1850 – January 27, 1918) was a U.S. Representative from Maryland. He also served as a judge in Baltimore and on the Maryland House of Delegates and Maryland State Senate.

## Early life

John Gill Jr. was born on June 9, 1850, in Baltimore, Maryland, to Ann McKim (née Bowly) and George M. Gill. Gill attended Hampden-Sydney College of Virginia, and also graduated from the University of Maryland at Baltimore in 1870. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1871, and commenced practice in Baltimore.

## Career

Gill was a partner in the firm of Gill, Preston & Field with Baltimore Mayor James H. Preston.

Gill served as member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1874 to 1877, and as examiner of titles in the Baltimore city legal department from 1879 to 1884. He won election to the Maryland State Senate multiple times, and served from 1882 to 1886, and again in 1904 and 1905. He also served as delegate to the Democratic National Conventions in 1884, 1888, and 1892, and was a member of the Baltimore Police Department Board of Commissioners from 1888 to 1897.

Gill was elected as a Democrat to the Fifty-ninth, Sixtieth, and Sixty-first Congresses (March 4, 1905 – March 3, 1911), but was not a candidate for reelection in 1910. He served as judge of the appeal tax court of the city of Baltimore from 1912 to 1918, where he died.

## Personal life

Gill married Nannie Kremelberg, daughter of J.D. Kremelberg. Her father was a member of the Austrian Consulate in Baltimore.

## Death

Gill died in Baltimore on January 27, 1918. He was cremated.

This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

## InfoBox

| John Gill Jr. | |
| --- | --- |
| Gill in 1911 newspaper | |
|  | |
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Maryland's 4th district | |
| **In office**
March 4, 1905  March 3, 1911 | |
| Preceded by | James William Denny |
| Succeeded by | John Charles Linthicum |
| Member of Maryland State Senate | |
| **In office**
1882–1886, 1904–1905 | |
| Member of Maryland House of Delegates | |
| **In office**
1874–1877 | |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1850-06-09)June 9, 1850
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. |
| Died | January 27, 1918(1918-01-27) (aged 67)
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | Nannie Kremelberg |
| Parent |  |
| Alma mater | University of Maryland at Baltimore |
|  | |


title: Devachandra

abstract: Devachandra was a Jain scholar who lived in 19th century and wrote Rajavali-Katha.

text:
# Devachandra

**Devachandra** was a Jain scholar who lived in 19th century and wrote *Rajavali-Katha*.

## Works

Devachandra composed *Rajavali-Katha* which mentions Mauryan rulers and their reigns.

## Citations

## Sources

* Daniélou, Alain (2003), *A Brief History of India*, Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3
* Granoff, Phyllis, ed. (1993), "The Minister Cāṇakya, from the Pariśiṣtaparvan of Hemacandra", *The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jaina Literature*, translated by Rosalind Lefeber, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120811508
* Rice, B. Lewis (1889), *Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume II: Inscriptions and Sravana Belgola*, Bangalore: Mysore Government Central Press

## InfoBox

| Devachandra | |
| --- | --- |
| Occupation | Scholar |
| Works | *Rajavali-Katha* |


title: Daniel T. Jones (politician)

abstract: Daniel Terryll Jones was a physician, an American politician and a U.S. Representative from New York, serving two terms in the House from 1851 to 1855.

text:
# Daniel T. Jones (politician)

**Daniel Terryll Jones** (August 17, 1800 – March 29, 1861) was a physician, an American politician and a U.S. Representative from New York, serving two terms in the House from 1851 to 1855.

## Biography

Born in Hebron, Connecticut, Jones was the son of Daniel and Lydia White Jones. He received a liberal schooling, and graduated from the medical department of Yale College in 1826. He began the practice of his profession in Amboy, New York.

## Career

Jones moved to Baldwinsville, New York, in 1841, where he continued to practice medicine and also served as Postmaster. A well-respected doctor, several prospective physicians studied with him before beginning their own practices. He married Eliza Lawrence in Washington D. C.

### Tenure in Congress

Elected as a Democrat, representing New York's twenty-fourth district, to the Thirty-second and Thirty-third Congresses, Jones served from March 4, 1851, to March 3, 1855. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1854.

### Later career and death

After leaving office, he resumed the practice of medicine in Baldwinsville. He became a Republican after the party was founded, and in 1858 he was Chairman of the Republican Convention at Syracuse, New York.

## Death

Jones died in Baldwinsville, New York, on March 29, 1861 (age 60 years, 224 days). He is interred at Riverside Cemetery, Baldwinsville, New York.

This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

## InfoBox

| Daniel Terryll Jones | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from New York's 24th district | |
| **In office**
March 4, 1851  March 3, 1855 | |
| Preceded by | Daniel Gott |
| Succeeded by | Amos P. Granger |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Daniel Terryll Jones
August 17, 1800 (1800-08-17)
Hebron, Connecticut |
| Died | March 29, 1861 (1861-03-30) (aged 60)
Baldwinsville, New York |
| Citizenship | United States |
| Political party | Democratic Party |
| Spouse | Eliza Lawrence Jones |
| Alma mater | Yale College |
| Profession | * physician * postmaster * politician |
|  | |


abstract: The men's snowboard slopestyle competition of the FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2017 was held at Sierra Nevada, Spain on March 9 (qualifying) and March 11 (finals). 62 athletes from 29 countries competed.

text:
# FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2017 – Men's snowboard slopestyle

The **men's snowboard slopestyle** competition of the FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2017 was held at Sierra Nevada, Spain on March 9 (qualifying) and March 11 (finals). 62 athletes from 29 countries competed.

## Qualification

The following are the results of the qualification.

### Heat 1

| Rank | Bib | Name | Country | Run 1 | Run 2 | Best | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 9 | Måns Hedberg | Sweden | 76.75 | **90.25** | **90.25** | **Q** |
| 2 | 4 | Ville Paumola | Finland | **88.00** | 85.75 | **88.00** | **Q** |
| 3 | 1 | Seppe Smits | Belgium | 15.00 | **86.00** | **86.00** | **Q** |
| 4 | 69 | Clemens Schattschneider | Austria | 27.50 | **82.00** | **82.00** | **Q** |
| 5 | 16 | Niklas Mattsson | Sweden | **77.50** | 27.75 | **77.50** | **Q** |
| 6 | 25 | Fridtjof Tischendorf | Norway | 57.75 | **77.25** | **77.25** | **Q** |
| 7 | 5 | Sebbe De Buck | Belgium | **74.00** | 25.75 | **74.00** | **Q** |
| 8 | 8 | Dylan Thomas | United States | 20.50 | **71.75** | **71.75** | **Q** |
| 9 | 17 | Davide Boggio | Italy | 14.00 | **71.50** | **71.50** |  |
| 10 | 12 | Kalle Jarvilehto | Finland | 10.00 | **71.25** | **71.25** |  |
| 11 | 46 | Mikhail Matveev | Russia | 24.75 | **69.75** | **69.75** |  |
| 12 | 20 | Petr Horák | Czech Republic | 15.25 | **65.75** | **65.75** |  |
| 13 | 51 | Ludvig Biltoft | Sweden | **63.75** | 14.75 | **63.75** |  |
| 14 | 32 | Matthew McCormick | Great Britain | **62.25** | 29.50 | **62.25** |  |
| 15 | 24 | Lyon Farrell | United States | 43.50 | **56.75** | **56.75** |  |
| 16 | 28 | Sébastien Konijnenberg | France | **55.75** | 25.25 | **55.75** |  |
| 17 | 33 | Emiliano Lauzi | Italy | **53.00** | 13.00 | **53.00** |  |
| 18 | 42 | Martin Jaureguialzo | Argentina | 30.50 | **52.25** | **52.25** |  |
| 19 | 57 | Samuel Jaroš | Slovakia | **46.75** | 16.00 | **46.75** |  |
| 20 | 37 | Emil Zulian | Italy | **41.50** | 15.25 | **41.50** |  |
| 21 | 45 | Federico Chiaradio | Argentina | **37.75** | 19.75 | **37.75** |  |
| 22 | 13 | Judd Henkes | United States | **37.00** | 25.50 | **37.00** |  |
| 23 | 21 | Michael Schärer | Switzerland | 12.25 | **36.50** | **36.50** |  |
| 24 | 41 | Boris Mouton | Switzerland | **35.50** | 8.25 | **35.50** |  |
| 25 | 70 | Jaba Skhvediani | Georgia | **27.75** | 10.00 | **27.75** |  |
| 26 | 29 | Simon Gschaider | Austria | **24.00** | 22.00 | **24.00** |  |
| 27 | 36 | Mikko Rehnberg | Finland | **23.00** | 22.25 | **23.00** |  |
| 28 | 56 | Stef Vandeweyer | Belgium | 9.50 | **18.75** | **18.75** |  |
| 29 | 50 | Jose Antonio Aragon | Spain | 8.25 | **16.25** | **16.25** |  |
| 30 | 61 | Inaqui Irarrazabal | Chile | **2.50** | DNS | **2.50** |  |
|  | 62 | Matthew Cox | Australia | DNS | DNS | DNS |  |

### Heat 2

| Rank | Bib | Name | Country | Run 1 | Run 2 | Best | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 11 | Carlos Garcia Knight | New Zealand | 17.50 | **94.25** | **94.25** | **Q** |
| 2 | 3 | Tiarn Collins | New Zealand | **88.75** | 9.00 | **88.75** | **Q** |
| 3 | 6 | Chris Corning | United States | **84.00** | 62.00 | **84.00** | **Q** |
| 4 | 53 | Nicolas Huber | Switzerland | 69.75 | **79.25** | **79.25** | **Q** |
| 5 | 35 | Francis Jobin | Canada | **73.75** | 16.50 | **73.75** | **Q** |
| 6 | 15 | Rene Rinnekangas | Finland | 13.50 | **73.00** | **73.00** | **Q** |
| 7 | 7 | Billy Morgan | Great Britain | **72.00** | 8.25 | **72.00** | **Q** |
| 8 | 22 | Vlad Khadarin | Russia | 62.50 | **68.50** | **68.50** | **Q** |
| 9 | 19 | Tim-Kevin Ravnjak | Slovenia | **66.00** | 8.00 | **66.00** |  |
| 10 | 27 | Jonas Bösinger | Switzerland | **59.25** | 56.25 | **59.25** |  |
| 11 | 65 | Lee Min-sik | South Korea | 19.75 | **58.25** | **58.25** |  |
| 12 | 14 | Clemens Millauer | Austria | **53.50** | 11.00 | **53.50** |  |
| 13 | 23 | Matias Schmitt | Argentina | **42.50** | 5.75 | **42.50** |  |
| 14 | 18 | Isak Ulstein | Norway | **42.25** | 2.00 | **42.25** |  |
| 15 | 34 | Alberto Maffei | Italy | 37.75 | **41.50** | **41.50** |  |
| 16 | 2 | Jamie Nicholls | Great Britain | **38.00** | 15.75 | **38.00** |  |
| 17 | 10 | Rowan Coultas | Great Britain | 30.50 | **37.00** | **37.00** |  |
| 18 | 43 | Bendik Gjerdalen | Norway | 4.25 | **27.25** | **27.25** |  |
| 19 | 26 | Niek van der Velden | Netherlands | **25.50** | 18.50 | **25.50** |  |
| 20 | 30 | Maximilian Preissinger | Austria | 13.00 | **24.25** | **24.25** |  |
| 21 | 59 | Anthon Bosch | South Africa | **23.75** | 7.00 | **23.75** |  |
| 22 | 44 | Jan Nečas | Czech Republic | **21.75** | 20.25 | **21.75** |  |
| 23 | 38 | Daniel Porkert | Czech Republic | 8.75 | **18.25** | **18.25** |  |
| 24 | 52 | Petar Gyosharkov | Bulgaria | 7.50 | **17.75** | **17.75** |  |
| 25 | 47 | Siim Aunison | Estonia | **17.00** | 4.50 | **17.00** |  |
| 26 | 58 | Tit Štante | Slovenia | 4.00 | **11.50** | **11.50** |  |
| 27 | 64 | Gustaf Lundström | Sweden | 2.00 | **11.25** | **11.25** |  |
| 28 | 72 | Hui Yining | China | 1.75 | **8.00** | **8.00** |  |
| 29 | 31 | Toms Petrusevics | Latvia | 1.00 | **7.75** | **7.75** |  |
| 30 | 49 | Mathias Ekhoff | Norway | **4.50** | 2.50 | **4.50** |  |
|  | 39 | Aleix López | Spain | DNS | DNS | DNS |  |

## Final

The following are the results of the finals.

| Rank | Bib | Name | Country | Run 1 | Run 2 | Best |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 1 | Seppe Smits | Belgium | 45.50 | **91.40** | **91.40** |
|  | 53 | Nicolas Huber | Switzerland | **83.25** | 43.90 | **83.25** |
|  | 6 | Chris Corning | United States | **82.50** | 28.10 | **82.50** |
| 4 | 5 | Sebbe De Buck | Belgium | **81.20** | 78.80 | **81.20** |
| 5 | 4 | Ville Paumola | Finland | **77.50** | 23.25 | **77.50** |
| 6 | 16 | Niklas Mattsson | Sweden | **74.85** | 18.05 | **74.85** |
| 7 | 11 | Carlos Garcia Knight | New Zealand | **74.40** | 25.70 | **74.40** |
| 8 | 3 | Tiarn Collins | New Zealand | 69.75 | **71.75** | **71.75** |
| 9 | 9 | Måns Hedberg | Sweden | 32.25 | **69.70** | **69.70** |
| 10 | 8 | Dylan Thomas | United States | **68.60** | 37.90 | **68.60** |
| 11 | 35 | Francis Jobin | Canada | **66.60** | 17.60 | **66.60** |
| 12 | 69 | Clemens Schattschneider | Austria | **52.20** | 36.15 | **52.20** |
| 13 | 7 | Billy Morgan | Great Britain | **38.60** | 16.50 | **38.60** |
| 14 | 15 | Rene Rinnekangas | Finland | 25.50 | **32.00** | **32.00** |
| 15 | 25 | Fridtjof Tischendorf | Norway | 22.55 | **26.10** | **26.10** |
| 16 | 22 | Vlad Khadarin | Russia | **21.00** | 19.85 | **21.00** |


title: CUAA Chinese university ranking

abstract: Universities Ranking of China released by CUAA is a domestic university rankings in China. This ranking is operated by a commercial company instead of a registered organization, and is not recognized by the Chinese government or any higher education institution in China. The initiation of the CUAA-Team of China University Evaluation can be traced back to the Research Group of Comparative Studies of Universities in Chinese Academy of Management Science founded in 1989. The Team has the longest history of consistent evaluation and study of Chinese universities with over 30 years. The alumni-related data considers notable politicians, academics at home and abroad, distinguished scholars in humanities and social sciences, and billionaires who graduated from Chinese higher education institutions after the 1952 reorganisation of the sector.

text:
# CUAA Chinese university ranking

**Universities Ranking of China** released by **CUAA** (Chinese Universities Alumni Association, Chinese: 中国校友会网; CUAA.net) is a domestic university rankings in China. This ranking is operated by a commercial company instead of a registered organization, and is not recognized by the Chinese government or any higher education institution in China.

The initiation of the **CUAA-Team of China University Evaluation** can be traced back to the **Research Group of Comparative Studies of Universities in** **Chinese Academy of Management Science** founded in 1989. The Team has the longest history of consistent evaluation and study of Chinese universities with over 30 years. The alumni-related data considers notable politicians, academics at home and abroad, distinguished scholars in humanities and social sciences, and billionaires who graduated from Chinese higher education institutions after the 1952 reorganisation of the sector.

## General Ranking

| Name<br> | 2016 | 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Peking University | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Tsinghua University | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Fudan University | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Wuhan University | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Renmin University of China | 6 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 7 |
| Zhejiang University | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Shanghai Jiaotong University | 7 | 7 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Nanjing University | 8 | 8 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 8 | 8 |
| University of Science and Technology of China | 12 | 9 | 14 | 10 | 9 | 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 17 |
| National University of Defense Technology | 9 | 10 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |

## Billionaire Ranking

In first decade of the 21st century, many Chinese media have been very active in making ranking lists for Chinese colleges and universities according to the number of billionaires they have produced.

These ranking lists are often seen in Chinese TV, newspapers, books, and even academic studies and publications. Such rankings are normally made annually. Most of these rankings are based on the billionaire rankings made by Forbes (American business magazine) and Hurun Report (a business ranking specialized company based in mainland China).

Citation based on:

### Methodology

The methodology for these rankings is rather simple: the amount of billionaires a university or college have, including its alumni and faculty.

### Notable ranking source

There are several notable ranking entities, and most of them are also Internet-based and have their own homepages.

### Ranking

The most recent ranking is: (only top 10 are listed out as below) measured in *billion Chinese Yuan*.

| Ranking | University/College | Location | No. of billionaires | Wealth | Majors |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Peking University | Beijing | 63 | 139 | MBA, management, law, bioengineering, physics, chemistry, mathematics, Chinese language |
| 2 | Tsinghua University | Beijing | 54 | 91.1 | MBA, mechanical engineering, civil engineering & architecture, physics, electronic engineering |
| 3 | Zhejiang University | Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province | 53 | 149.9 | MBA, management, law, computer science, history, civil engineering & architecture |
| 4 | Fudan University | Shanghai | 38 | 135.4 | MBA, management, medicine & pharmacy, photonics, journalism, philosophy |
| 5 | Renmin University | Beijing | 26 | 89.4 | MBA, management, law |
| 6 | Shanghai Jiao Tong University | Shanghai | 19 | 27.9 | MBA, management, electronic engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science |
| 7 | Sun Yat-sen University | Guangzhou, Guangdong Province | 18 | 40.4 | MBA, management, philosophy, Chinese language |
| 8 | Nanjing University | Nanjing, Jiangsu Province | 16 | 27.2 | MBA, management, history, electronic engineering, civil engineering & architecture |
| 9 | South China University of Technology | Guangzhou, Guangdong Province | 15 | 35.3 | telecommunication, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, chemical engineering |
| 10 | Zhejiang University of Technology | Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province | 12 | 30.7 | MBA, management, chemical engineering, automation |
| | Huazhong University of Science and Technology | Wuhan, Hubei Province | 12 | 16.4 | MBA, management, electric engineering, mechanical engineering, computer |
| | Wuhan University | Wuhan, Hubei Province | 12 | 34.2 | MBA, management, physics, bioengineering, statics |
| | Harbin Institute of Technology | Harbin, Heilongjiang Province | 12 | 32.5 | MBA, electric engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, automation |


title: Carlos Damas

abstract:
Carlos Damas is a leading Portuguese classical violinist and recording artist for Dux Records, Brilliant Classics, Et'cetera Records and Naxos. He is particularly known for his Fritz Kreisler interpretations and world premiere recordings of works by the Portuguese composers António Fragoso, Luís de Freitas Branco, Fernando Lopes-Graça and Sérgio Azevedo.
Carlos Damas is widely regarded as the most significant Portuguese violinist currently before the public, with a brilliant international career encompassing the great masterpieces to contemporary works, attested by an impressive international discography. He has often been compared by international critics to such masters as Thomas Zehetmair, Gidon Kremer and Henryk Szeryng.

text:
# Carlos Damas

**Carlos Damas** (born 1973) is a leading Portuguese classical violinist and recording artist for Dux Records, Brilliant Classics, Et'cetera Records and Naxos. He is particularly known for his Fritz Kreisler interpretations and world premiere recordings of works by the Portuguese composers António Fragoso, Luís de Freitas Branco, Fernando Lopes-Graça and Sérgio Azevedo. Carlos Damas is widely regarded as the most significant Portuguese violinist currently before the public, with a brilliant international career encompassing the great masterpieces to contemporary works, attested by an impressive international discography. He has often been compared by international critics to such masters as Thomas Zehetmair, Gidon Kremer and Henryk Szeryng.

## Life and career

Damas was born in Coimbra where he began his musical studies at the Coimbra Conservatory at the age of three. When he was six, his family moved to Lisbon where he continued his violin studies with Vasco Broco, Leonor Prado, and Alexandra Mendes. He made his solo concert debut when he was 15 in a performance with the Portuguese Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Joaquim da Silva Pereira. He then pursued further studies at the Paris Conservatory with Jacqueline Lefèvre and Ivry Gitlis. He was mentored by violinisy Yehudi Menuhin during his time in Paris. He premiered Luís de Freitas Branco's *Concert for Violin* in Paris in 1993. Sérgio Azevedo's *Reflections on a Portuguese Lullaby* for solo violin and string orchestra was written for and dedicated to Damas.

Damas is a regular soloist with Zagreb Philharmonic Orchestra, Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, Camerata de St. Severin, Camerata da Madeira, Winnipeg Symphony, Guanzhou Symphony Orchestra, St. Luke's Orchestra, Mission Chamber Orchestra of San José. He has also performed in Macao with the Macao Chamber Orchestra several times since 1997 and has appeared as a soloist in concerts organized by the Melody for Dialogue Among Civilizations Association in conjunction with UNESCO, including a performance of the Bach Double Violin Concerto at Lincoln Center in 2007.

Carlos Damas has performed as soloist in renowned concert halls, including Salle Gaveau and Salle Cortot (Paris), Tearto D. Pedro V (Macau), Unesco Grand Auditorium (Paris), Calouste de Gulbenkian Foundation, S. Luiz Theater and Belém Cultural Center, Lee Hysan Concert Hall in Hong Kong, Ville Louvigy Orchester Philarmonique du Luxembourg, Oriental Arts Center in Shanghai, Lisinski Zagreb concert hall.

Carlos Damas has a PhD in Education and Psychology of Music, and is violin teacher at Évora University. His instrument is one Giovanni Battista Gabrielli, the "ex-Isham", dated from c.a. 1767.

## Recordings

Carlos Damas made the first world recordings of several Portuguese composers music, recorded for the labels Dux, Brilliant Classics, and Naxos:

## InfoBox

| Carlos Damas | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Background information | |
| Born | 8th of April of 1973<br>Coimbra, Portugal |
| Genres | Classical |
| Occupation(s) | violinist and teacher |
|  | |
| Website | https://www.carlosdamas.com |


title: Rasch model

abstract: The Rasch model, named after Georg Rasch, is a psychometric model for analyzing categorical data, such as answers to questions on a reading assessment or questionnaire responses, as a function of the trade-off between the respondent's abilities, attitudes, or personality traits, and the item difficulty. For example, they may be used to estimate a student's reading ability or the extremity of a person's attitude to capital punishment from responses on a questionnaire. In addition to psychometrics and educational research, the Rasch model and its extensions are used in other areas, including the health profession, agriculture, and market research. The mathematical theory underlying Rasch models is a special case of item response theory. However, there are important differences in the interpretation of the model parameters and its philosophical implications that separate proponents of the Rasch model from the item response modeling tradition. A central aspect of this divide relates to the role of specific objectivity, a defining property of the Rasch model according to Georg Rasch, as a requirement for successful measurement.

text:
# Rasch model

The **Rasch model**, named after Georg Rasch, is a psychometric model for analyzing categorical data, such as answers to questions on a reading assessment or questionnaire responses, as a function of the trade-off between the respondent's abilities, attitudes, or personality traits, and the item difficulty. For example, they may be used to estimate a student's reading ability or the extremity of a person's attitude to capital punishment from responses on a questionnaire. In addition to psychometrics and educational research, the Rasch model and its extensions are used in other areas, including the health profession, agriculture, and market research.

The mathematical theory underlying Rasch models is a special case of item response theory. However, there are important differences in the interpretation of the model parameters and its philosophical implications that separate proponents of the **Rasch model** from the item response modeling tradition. A central aspect of this divide relates to the role of specific objectivity, a defining property of the Rasch model according to Georg Rasch, as a requirement for successful measurement.

## Overview

### The Rasch model for measurement

In the Rasch model, the probability of a specified response (e.g. right/wrong answer) is modeled as a function of person and item parameters. Specifically, in the original Rasch model, the probability of a correct response is modeled as a logistic function of the difference between the person and item parameter. The mathematical form of the model is provided later in this article. In most contexts, the parameters of the model characterize the proficiency of the respondents and the difficulty of the items as locations on a continuous latent variable. For example, in educational tests, item parameters represent the difficulty of items while person parameters represent the ability or attainment level of people who are assessed. The higher a person's ability relative to the difficulty of an item, the higher the probability of a correct response on that item. When a person's location on the latent trait is equal to the difficulty of the item, there is by definition a 0.5 probability of a correct response in the Rasch model.

A Rasch model is a *model* in one sense in that it represents the structure which data should exhibit in order to obtain measurements from the data; i.e. it provides a criterion for successful measurement. Beyond data, Rasch's equations model relationships we expect to obtain in the real world. For instance, education is intended to prepare children for the entire range of challenges they will face in life, and not just those that appear in textbooks or on tests. By requiring measures to remain the same (invariant) across different tests measuring the same thing, Rasch models make it possible to test the hypothesis that the particular challenges posed in a curriculum and on a test coherently represent the infinite population of all possible challenges in that domain. A Rasch model is therefore a model in the sense of an *ideal* or standard that provides a heuristic fiction serving as a useful organizing principle even when it is never actually observed in practice.

The perspective or paradigm underpinning the Rasch model is distinct from the perspective underpinning statistical modelling. Models are most often used with the intention of describing a set of data. Parameters are modified and accepted or rejected based on how well they fit the data. In contrast, when the Rasch model is employed, the objective is to obtain data which fit the model. The rationale for this perspective is that the Rasch model embodies requirements which must be met in order to obtain measurement, in the sense that measurement is generally understood in the physical sciences.

A useful analogy for understanding this rationale is to consider objects measured on a weighing scale. Suppose the weight of an object A is measured as being substantially greater than the weight of an object B on one occasion, then immediately afterward the weight of object B is measured as being substantially greater than the weight of object A. A property we require of measurements is that the resulting comparison between objects should be the same, or invariant, irrespective of other factors. This key requirement is embodied within the formal structure of the Rasch model. Consequently, the Rasch model is not altered to suit data. Instead, the method of assessment should be changed so that this requirement is met, in the same way that a weighing scale should be rectified if it gives different comparisons between objects upon separate measurements of the objects.

Data analysed using the model are usually responses to conventional items on tests, such as educational tests with right/wrong answers. However, the model is a general one, and can be applied wherever discrete data are obtained with the intention of measuring a quantitative attribute or trait.

### Scaling

When all test-takers have an opportunity to attempt all items on a single test, each total score on the test maps to a unique estimate of ability and the greater the total, the greater the ability estimate. Total scores do not have a linear relationship with ability estimates. Rather, the relationship is non-linear as shown in Figure 1. The total score is shown on the vertical axis, while the corresponding person location estimate is shown on the horizontal axis. For the particular test on which the test characteristic curve (TCC) shown in Figure 1 is based, the relationship is approximately linear throughout the range of total scores from about 13 to 31. The shape of the TCC is generally somewhat sigmoid as in this example. However, the precise relationship between total scores and person location estimates depends on the distribution of items on the test. The TCC is steeper in ranges on the continuum in which there are more items, such as in the range on either side of 0 in Figures 1 and 2.

In applying the Rasch model, item locations are often scaled first, based on methods such as those described below. This part of the process of scaling is often referred to as item *calibration*. In educational tests, the smaller the proportion of correct responses, the higher the difficulty of an item and hence the higher the item's scale location. Once item locations are scaled, the person locations are measured on the scale. As a result, person and item locations are estimated on a single scale as shown in Figure 2.

### Interpreting scale locations

For dichotomous data such as right/wrong answers, by definition, the location of an item on a scale corresponds with the person location at which there is a 0.5 probability of a correct response to the question. In general, the probability of a person responding correctly to a question with difficulty lower than that person's location is greater than 0.5, while the probability of responding correctly to a question with difficulty greater than the person's location is less than 0.5. The Item Characteristic Curve (ICC) or Item Response Function (IRF) shows the probability of a correct response as a function of the ability of persons. A single ICC is shown and explained in more detail in relation to Figure 4 in this article (see also the item response function). The leftmost ICCs in Figure 3 are the easiest items, the rightmost ICCs in the same figure are the most difficult items.

When responses of a person are sorted according to item difficulty, from lowest to highest, the most likely pattern is a Guttman pattern or vector; i.e. {1,1,...,1,0,0,0,...,0}. However, while this pattern is the most probable given the structure of the Rasch model, the model requires only probabilistic Guttman response patterns; that is, patterns which tend toward the Guttman pattern. It is unusual for responses to conform strictly to the pattern because there are many possible patterns. It is unnecessary for responses to conform strictly to the pattern in order for data to fit the Rasch model.

Each ability estimate has an associated standard error of measurement, which quantifies the degree of uncertainty associated with the ability estimate. Item estimates also have standard errors. Generally, the standard errors of item estimates are considerably smaller than the standard errors of person estimates because there are usually more response data for an item than for a person. That is, the number of people attempting a given item is usually greater than the number of items attempted by a given person. Standard errors of person estimates are smaller where the slope of the ICC is steeper, which is generally through the middle range of scores on a test. Thus, there is greater precision in this range since the steeper the slope, the greater the distinction between any two points on the line.

Statistical and graphical tests are used to evaluate the correspondence of data with the model. Certain tests are global, while others focus on specific items or people. Certain tests of fit provide information about which items can be used to increase the reliability of a test by omitting or correcting problems with poor items. In Rasch Measurement the person separation index is used instead of reliability indices. However, the person separation index is analogous to a reliability index. The separation index is a summary of the genuine separation as a ratio to separation including measurement error. As mentioned earlier, the level of measurement error is not uniform across the range of a test, but is generally larger for more extreme scores (low and high).

## Features of the Rasch model

The class of models is named after Georg Rasch, a Danish mathematician and statistician who advanced the epistemological case for the models based on their congruence with a core requirement of measurement in physics; namely the requirement of *invariant comparison*. This is the defining feature of the class of models, as is elaborated upon in the following section. The Rasch model for dichotomous data has a close conceptual relationship to the law of comparative judgment (LCJ), a model formulated and used extensively by L. L. Thurstone, and therefore also to the Thurstone scale.

Prior to introducing the measurement model he is best known for, Rasch had applied the Poisson distribution to reading data as a measurement model, hypothesizing that in the relevant empirical context, the number of errors made by a given individual was governed by the ratio of the text difficulty to the person's reading ability. Rasch referred to this model as the *multiplicative Poisson model*. Rasch's model for dichotomous data – i.e. where responses are classifiable into two categories – is his most widely known and used model, and is the main focus here. This model has the form of a simple logistic function.

The brief outline above highlights certain distinctive and interrelated features of Rasch's perspective on social measurement, which are as follows:

1. He was concerned principally with the measurement of *individuals*, rather than with distributions among populations.
2. He was concerned with establishing a basis for meeting a priori *requirements* for measurement deduced from physics and, consequently, did not invoke any *assumptions* about the distribution of levels of a trait in a population.
3. Rasch's approach explicitly recognizes that it is a scientific hypothesis that a given trait is both quantitative and measurable, as operationalized in a particular experimental context.

Thus, congruent with the perspective articulated by Thomas Kuhn in his 1961 paper *The function of measurement in modern physical science*, measurement was regarded both as being founded in theory, and as being instrumental to detecting quantitative anomalies incongruent with hypotheses related to a broader theoretical framework. This perspective is in contrast to that generally prevailing in the social sciences, in which data such as test scores are directly treated as measurements without requiring a theoretical foundation for measurement. Although this contrast exists, Rasch's perspective is actually complementary to the use of statistical analysis or modelling that requires interval-level measurements, because the purpose of applying a Rasch model is to obtain such measurements. Applications of Rasch models are described in a wide variety of sources.

### Invariant comparison and sufficiency

The Rasch model for dichotomous data is often regarded as an item response theory (IRT) model with one item parameter. However, rather than being a particular IRT model, proponents of the model regard it as a model that possesses a property which distinguishes it from other IRT models. Specifically, the defining property of Rasch models is their formal or mathematical *embodiment* of the principle of invariant comparison. Rasch summarised the principle of invariant comparison as follows:

The comparison between two stimuli should be independent of which particular individuals were instrumental for the comparison; and it should also be independent of which other stimuli within the considered class were or might also have been compared. Symmetrically, a comparison between two individuals should be independent of which particular stimuli within the class considered were instrumental for the comparison; and it should also be independent of which other individuals were also compared, on the same or some other occasion.

Rasch models embody this principle because their formal structure permits algebraic separation of the person and item parameters, in the sense that the person parameter can be *eliminated* during the process of statistical estimation of item parameters. This result is achieved through the use of conditional maximum likelihood estimation, in which the response space is partitioned according to person total scores. The consequence is that the raw score for an item or person is the sufficient statistic for the item or person parameter. That is to say, the person total score contains all information available within the specified context about the individual, and the item total score contains all information with respect to item, with regard to the relevant latent trait. The Rasch model requires a specific structure in the response data, namely a probabilistic Guttman structure.

In somewhat more familiar terms, Rasch models provide a basis and justification for obtaining person locations on a continuum from total scores on assessments. Although it is not uncommon to treat total scores directly as measurements, they are actually counts of discrete observations rather than measurements. Each observation represents the observable outcome of a comparison between a person and item. Such outcomes are directly analogous to the observation of the tipping of a beam balance in one direction or another. This observation would indicate that one or other object has a greater mass, but counts of such observations cannot be treated directly as measurements.

Rasch pointed out that the principle of invariant comparison is characteristic of measurement in physics using, by way of example, a two-way experimental frame of reference in which each instrument exerts a mechanical force upon solid bodies to produce acceleration. Rasch stated of this context: "Generally: If for any two objects we find a certain ratio of their accelerations produced by one instrument, then the same ratio will be found for any other of the instruments". It is readily shown that Newton's second law entails that such ratios are inversely proportional to the ratios of the masses of the bodies.

## The mathematical form of the Rasch model for dichotomous data

Let $X\_{ni}=x\in \\{0,1\\}$ be a dichotomous random variable where, for example, $x=1$ denotes a correct response and $x=0$ an incorrect response to a given assessment item. In the Rasch model for dichotomous data, the probability of the outcome $X\_{ni}=1$ is given by:

$$\Pr\\{X\_{ni}=1\\}={\frac {e^{{\beta \_{n}-{\delta \_{i}{1+e^{{\beta \_{n}-{\delta \_{i},}}}}}}}}}$$

where $\beta \_{n}$ is the ability of person $n$ and $\delta \_{i}$ is the difficulty of item $i$. Thus, in the case of a dichotomous attainment item, $\Pr\\{X\_{ni}=1\\}$ is the probability of success upon interaction between the relevant person and assessment item. It is readily shown that the log odds, or logit, of correct response by a person to an item, based on the model, is equal to $\beta \_{n}-\delta \_{i}$. Given two examinees with different ability parameters $\beta \_{1}$ and $\beta \_{2}$ and an arbitrary item with difficulty $\delta \_{i}$, compute the difference in logits for these two examinees by $(\beta \_{1}-\delta \_{i})-(\beta \_{2}-\delta \_{i})$. This difference becomes $\beta \_{1}-\beta \_{2}$. Conversely, it can be shown that the log odds of a correct response by the same person to one item, *conditional* on a correct response to one of two items, is equal to the difference between the item locations. For example,

$$\operatorname {log-odds} \\{X\_{n1}=1\mid \ r\_{n}=1\\}=\delta \_{2}-\delta \_{1},\\,$$

where $r\_{n}$ is the total score of person *n* over the two items, which implies a correct response to one or other of the items. Hence, the conditional log odds does not involve the person parameter $\beta \_{n}$, which can therefore be *eliminated* by conditioning on the total score $r\_{n}=1$. That is, by partitioning the responses according to raw scores and calculating the log odds of a correct response, an estimate $\delta \_{2}-\delta \_{1}$ is obtained without involvement of $\beta \_{n}$. More generally, a number of item parameters can be estimated iteratively through application of a process such as Conditional Maximum Likelihood estimation (see Rasch model estimation). While more involved, the same fundamental principle applies in such estimations.

The ICC of the Rasch model for dichotomous data is shown in Figure 4. The grey line maps the probability of the discrete outcome $X\_{ni}=1$ (that is, correctly answering the question) for persons with different locations on the latent continuum (that is, their level of abilities). The location of an item is, by definition, that location at which the probability that $X\_{ni}=1$ is equal to 0.5. In figure 4, the black circles represent the actual or observed proportions of persons within Class Intervals for which the outcome was observed. For example, in the case of an assessment item used in the context of educational psychology, these could represent the proportions of persons who answered the item correctly. Persons are ordered by the estimates of their locations on the latent continuum and classified into Class Intervals on this basis in order to graphically inspect the accordance of observations with the model. There is a close conformity of the data with the model. In addition to graphical inspection of data, a range of statistical tests of fit are used to evaluate whether departures of observations from the model can be attributed to random effects alone, as required, or whether there are systematic departures from the model.

## Polytomous extensions of the Rasch model

There are multiple polytomous extensions to the Rasch model, which generalize the dichotomous model so that it can be applied in contexts in which successive integer scores represent categories of increasing level or magnitude of a latent trait, such as increasing ability, motor function, endorsement of a statement, and so forth. These polytomous extensions are, for example, applicable to the use of Likert scales, grading in educational assessment, and scoring of performances by judges.

## Other considerations

A criticism of the Rasch model is that it is overly restrictive or prescriptive because an assumption of the model is that all items have equal discrimination, whereas in practice, items discriminations vary, and thus no data set will ever show perfect data-model fit. A frequent misunderstanding is that the Rasch model does not permit each item to have a different discrimination, but equal discrimination is an assumption of invariant measurement, so differing item discriminations are not forbidden, but rather indicate that measurement quality does not equal a theoretical ideal. Just as in physical measurement, real world datasets will never perfectly match theoretical models, so the relevant question is whether a particular data set provides sufficient quality of measurement for the purpose at hand, not whether it perfectly matches an unattainable standard of perfection.

A criticism specific to the use of the Rasch model with response data from multiple choice items is that there is no provision in the model for guessing because the left asymptote always approaches a zero probability in the Rasch model. This implies that a person of low ability will always get an item wrong. However, low-ability individuals completing a multiple-choice exam have a substantially higher probability of choosing the correct answer by chance alone (for a *k*-option item, the likelihood is around 1/*k*).

The three-parameter logistic model relaxes both these assumptions and the two-parameter logistic model allows varying slopes. However, the specification of uniform discrimination and zero left asymptote are necessary properties of the model in order to sustain sufficiency of the simple, unweighted raw score. In practice, the non-zero lower asymptote found in multiple-choice datasets is less of a threat to measurement than commonly assumed and typically does not result in substantive errors in measurement when well-developed test items are used sensibly

Verhelst & Glas (1995) derive Conditional Maximum Likelihood (CML) equations for a model they refer to as the One Parameter Logistic Model (OPLM). In algebraic form it appears to be identical with the 2PL model, but OPLM contains preset discrimination indexes rather than 2PL's estimated discrimination parameters. As noted by these authors, though, the problem one faces in estimation with estimated discrimination parameters is that the discriminations are unknown, meaning that the weighted raw score "is not a mere statistic, and hence it is impossible to use CML as an estimation method". That is, sufficiency of the weighted "score" in the 2PL cannot be used according to the way in which a sufficient statistic is defined. If the weights are imputed instead of being estimated, as in OPLM, conditional estimation is possible and some of the properties of the Rasch model are retained. In OPLM, the values of the discrimination index are restricted to between 1 and 15. A limitation of this approach is that in practice, values of discrimination indexes must be preset as a starting point. This means some type of estimation of discrimination is involved when the purpose is to avoid doing so.

The Rasch model for dichotomous data inherently entails a single discrimination parameter which, as noted by Rasch, constitutes an arbitrary choice of the unit in terms of which magnitudes of the latent trait are expressed or estimated. However, the Rasch model requires that the discrimination is uniform across interactions between persons and items within a specified frame of reference (i.e. the assessment context given conditions for assessment).

Application of the model provides diagnostic information regarding how well the criterion is met. Application of the model can also provide information about how well items or questions on assessments work to measure the ability or trait. For instance, knowing the proportion of persons that engage in a given behavior, the Rasch model can be used to derive the relations between difficulty of behaviors, attitudes and behaviors. Prominent advocates of Rasch models include Benjamin Drake Wright, David Andrich and Erling Andersen.

## Further reading

* Andrich, D. (1978a). A rating formulation for ordered response categories. *Psychometrika*, 43, 357–74.
* Andrich, D. (1988). *Rasch models for measurement*. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
* Baker, F. (2001). The Basics of Item Response Theory. ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. Available free with software included from IRT at Edres.org
* Fischer, G.H. & Molenaar, I.W. (1995). *Rasch models: foundations, recent developments and applications*. New York: Springer-Verlag.
* Goldstein H & Blinkhorn S (1977). *Monitoring Educational Standards: an inappropriate model.* . Bull.Br.Psychol.Soc. 30 309–311
* Goldstein H & Blinkhorn S (1982). *The Rasch Model Still Does Not Fit*. BERJ 82 167–170.
* Hambleton RK, Jones RW. "Comparison of classical test theory and item response," *Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice* 1993; 12(3):38–47. available in the ITEMS Series from the National Council on Measurement in Education
* Harris D. Comparison of 1-, 2-, and 3-parameter IRT models. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice;. 1989; 8: 35–41 available in the ITEMS Series from the National Council on Measurement in Education
* Linacre, J. M. (1999). "Understanding Rasch measurement: Estimation methods for Rasch measures". *Journal of Outcome Measurement*. **3** (4): 382–405. PMID 10572388.
* von Davier, M., & Carstensen, C. H. (2007). *Multivariate and Mixture Distribution Rasch Models: Extensions and Applications*. New York: Springer.
* von Davier, M. (2016). Rasch Model. In Wim J. van der Linden (ed.): Handbook of Item Response Theory (Boca Raton: CRC Press), Routledge Handbooks.
* Wright, B.D., & Stone, M.H. (1979). *Best Test Design*. Chicago, IL: MESA Press.
* Wu, M. & Adams, R. (2007). *Applying the Rasch model to psycho-social measurement: A practical approach*. Melbourne, Australia: Educational Measurement Solutions. Available free from Educational Measurement Solutions


title: Cartucho

abstract: Nellie Campobello's Cartucho: Tales of the Struggle in Northern Mexico is a semi-autobiographical short novel or novella set in the Mexican Revolution and originally published in 1931. It consists of a series of vignettes that draw on Campobello's memories of her childhood and adolescence in Northern Mexico during the war. Though long overlooked, it is now celebrated, among other reasons because it is, as Mexican critic Elena Poniatowska points out, "the only real vision of the Mexican revolution written by a woman."

text:
# Cartucho

Nellie Campobello's ***Cartucho: Tales of the Struggle in Northern Mexico*** (*Cartucho: Relatos de la lucha en el Norte de México*) is a semi-autobiographical short novel or novella set in the Mexican Revolution and originally published in 1931. It consists of a series of vignettes that draw on Campobello's memories of her childhood and adolescence (and the stories her mother told her) in Northern Mexico during the war. Though long overlooked, it is now celebrated, among other reasons because it is, as Mexican critic Elena Poniatowska points out, "the only real vision of the Mexican revolution written by a woman."

## Title

"Cartucho" means "cartridge" in Spanish, and refers to the characteristic belts of ammunition worn by Mexican revolutionary soldiers. It also, however, is the nickname of a character introduced in the book's opening vignette. As for the reasons for keeping the Spanish term in the English translation, Campobello's translator explains that "the English equivalent \[. . .\] has none of the Spanish rhythm and feeling."

## Plot and style

The critic Teresa Hurley says of *Cartucho* that "there is no plot" and points to the book's "unconventional narrative technique and construction." It is non-linear and fragmentary, comprising a series of fifty-six vivid but brief vignettes, "rapid sketches that have the quality of cinematic vision." These episodes are not necessarily in chronological order, and are organized in three sections: "Men of the North"; "The Executed"; and "Under Fire." Collectively, however, they provide a sense of everyday life during the revolution and tell the stories of various "Villistas" (followers of revolutionary leader Pancho Villa) from the perspective of a young girl.

The book brings together not only Campobello's own recollections and personal experience, but also stories she heard from others, above all her mother. As she puts it at one point, these were "stories saved for me, and I never forgot." Moreover, this sense of the book's enshrining a collective memory is accentuated by the inclusion of a number of *corridos* or popular ballads, of one of which she says: "This song belonged to all of them. They would sing it together, in a circle, with their arms around each other's shoulders." For both individuals and groups, Campobello underlines the importance of memory. As the critic Max Parra puts it, "*Cartucho* is a book about memory and identity, about memory and survival—individual and collective survival."

Although set in Chihuahua (more specifically, in and around Campobello's childhood hometown of Hidalgo del Parral) in 1916–1920, which was one of the bloodiest places and periods of a revolution that by this stage had degenerated into factionalized struggles between revolutionary groups, the descriptions of the atrocities committed during this time are often very poetic. Of one dead combatant, for instance, Campobello writes of "his body turning cold, the tissue of his porous flesh clutching the bullets that killed him." Max Parra notes that this poetic style incorporates many elements of Mexican oral culture and "an acute sense of rhythm and an appreciation for the materiality of language." He further argues that "at the core of Campobello's narrative poetics lies her penchant for the grotesque." Poniatowska observes that the cumulative effect is that the book's narrator describes the violence "with the delicious freshness of someone watching a great show with neither nostalgia for the past nor plans for the future."

## Publication history

The book was first published in 1931, and then republished in a revised and expanded edition with significant changes in 1940, and again (as part of a collected works, *Mis libros*) in 1960. The first edition was also the first book published by Ediciones Integrales, a publishing house founded in Xalapa, Veracruz, and "dedicated to the publication of antibourgeois, proletarian literature." This first edition came with a preface by List Arzubide, in which he "declares that with *Cartucho* 'we have learned to read with the eyes of the dead,' that is, from the point of view of the vanquished."

The first edition had thirty-three vignettes; the final version has almost twice that number (one is dropped, twenty-four new ones are added). Among the differences between the various versions are that one of the few women to feature as a central figure in any of the vignettes, one Nacha Ceniceros, ends up executed in the first edition, but in later versions survives to return home, disillusioned by the Revolution's outcome. Feminist critic Tabea Linhard argues that changes such as this one might be explained by the notion that Campobello "revised her novel in order to present a more acceptable, more feminine, and also more domesticated novel." Linhard further suggests that "the differences between these two versions reveal the ways in which fearless women like Nacha Ceniceros are assimilated into the Mexican literary landscape."

## Critical reception

On its initial publication, the book was somewhat overlooked, in part because Campobello was marginalized as a Villista at a time when most of the literature and films of the Revolution were openly against Pancho Villa. Still, Max Parra argues that critical reception was favourable among "the small world of Mexico City's intellectual community" and quotes the 1935 assessment of Berta Gamboa de Camino, who described the book as "alive and real, breathing, full of human feeling and deep pathos."

Moreover, due to its distinctive style and testimonial impact, as well as the fact that it is the only major portrayal of the Revolution written by a woman, *Cartucho* has increasingly been recognized as a major literary work from this era.

Many critics have noted that (as Vicky Unruh puts it), the book is "the only novel of the Mexican revolution of its generation written by a woman," one of the very few contributions by a woman to the otherwise male-dominated subgenre of the "novel of the revolution." Campobello is the only woman author discussed in Antonio Castro Leal's *La novela de la Revolución mexicana* (1958–1960), and the only woman author included in Gamboa de Camino's canonical *Antología de la Novela de la Revolución Mexicana* (for which Castro Leal also provided a foreword). As Maricruz Castro Ricalde points out, this "helped establish the idea that women either were not interested in a topic that was alien to their sensibilities or were unable to produce any texts worthy of being remembered. Aiming to counteract this impression, feminist critics have therefore been drawn to Campobello's text.

As for the book's legacy, and stressing its "testimonial features," Jane Elizabeth Lavery contends that "Nellie Campobello can be seen as the outstanding precursor of testimonial writers such as Elena Garro, Elena Poniatowska, and Ángeles Mastretta." The critic Jorge Aguilar Mora, on the other hand, argues that Juan Rulfo's renowned *Pedro Páramo* "would not have been possible without Nellie Campobello's *Cartucho*."

## Bibliography

## InfoBox

Cartucho
| Cover of first Spanish edition (1931); design attributed to Leopoldo Méndez | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Nellie Campobello |
| Original title | *Cartucho: Relatos de la lucha en el Norte de México* |
| Translator | Doris Meyer |
| Language | Spanish |
| Published | 1931 (Spanish first edition) by Ediciones Integrales
1940 (Spanish revised edition)
1988 (English translation) by the University of Texas Press |
| Publication place | Mexico |
| ISBN | 9780292711112 (English translation) |
| OCLC | 4896987 |
| OCLC:(Spanish first edition) | |