abstract: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylinders of one or more layers of graphene (lattice). Diameters of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) are typically 0.8 to 2 nm and 5 to 20 nm, respectively, although MWNT diameters can exceed 100 nm. CNT lengths range from less than 100 nm to 0.5 m. Individual CNT walls can be metallic or semiconducting depending on the orientation of the lattice with respect to the tube axis, which is called chirality. MWNT's cross-sectional area offers an elastic modulus approaching 1 TPa and a tensile strength of 100 GPa, over 10-fold higher than any industrial fiber. MWNTs are typically metallic and can carry currents of up to 10⁹ A cm−2. SWNTs can display thermal conductivity of 3500 W m−1 K−1, exceeding that of diamond. As of 2013, carbon nanotube production exceeded several thousand tons per year, used for applications in energy storage, device modelling, automotive parts, boat hulls, sporting goods, water filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators and electromagnetic shields. CNT-related publications more than tripled in the prior decade, while rates of patent issuance also increased. Most output was of unorganized architecture. Organized CNT architectures such as "forests", yarns and regular sheets were produced in much smaller volumes. CNTs have even been proposed as the tether for a purported space elevator. Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricated macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and implants.

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# Potential applications of carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylinders of one or more layers of graphene (lattice). Diameters of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) are typically 0.8 to 2 nm and 5 to 20 nm, respectively, although MWNT diameters can exceed 100 nm. CNT lengths range from less than 100 nm to 0.5 m.

Individual CNT walls can be metallic or semiconducting depending on the orientation of the lattice with respect to the tube axis, which is called chirality. MWNT's cross-sectional area offers an elastic modulus approaching 1 TPa and a tensile strength of 100 GPa, over 10-fold higher than any industrial fiber. MWNTs are typically metallic and can carry currents of up to 109 A cm−2. SWNTs can display thermal conductivity of 3500 W m−1 K−1, exceeding that of diamond.

As of 2013, carbon nanotube production exceeded several thousand tons per year, used for applications in energy storage, device modelling, automotive parts, boat hulls, sporting goods, water filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators and electromagnetic shields. CNT-related publications more than tripled in the prior decade, while rates of patent issuance also increased. Most output was of unorganized architecture. Organized CNT architectures such as "forests", yarns and regular sheets were produced in much smaller volumes. CNTs have even been proposed as the tether for a purported space elevator.

Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (\>1 mm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricated macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and implants.

## Biological and biomedical research

Researchers from Rice University and State University of New York – Stony Brook have shown that the addition of low weight % of carbon nanotubes can lead to significant improvements in the mechanical properties of biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for applications in tissue engineering including bone, cartilage, muscle and nerve tissue. Dispersion of low weight % of graphene (~0.02 wt.%) results in significant increases in compressive and flexural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites. Researchers at Rice University, Stony Brook University, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre and University of California, Riverside have shown that carbon nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites are suitable scaffold materials for bone tissue engineering and bone formation.

Compared to the commonly used polyurethane in prosthetic feet, CNT natural rubber composites with just 1% carbon nanotubes show a 25% boost in tensile strength. Additionally, this small CNT addition improves dimensional stability by 20% and heat resistance by 15% over natural rubber.

CNTs exhibit dimensional and chemical compatibility with biomolecules, such as DNA and proteins. CNTs enable fluorescent and photoacoustic imaging, as well as localized heating using near-infrared radiation.

SWNT biosensors exhibit large changes in electrical impedance and optical properties, which is typically modulated by adsorption of a target on the CNT surface. Low detection limits and high selectivity require engineering the CNT surface and field effects, capacitance, Raman spectral shifts and photoluminescence for sensor design. Products under development include printed test strips for estrogen and progesterone detection, microarrays for DNA and protein detection and sensors for NO
2 and cardiac troponin. Similar CNT sensors support food industry, military and environmental applications.

CNTs can be internalized by cells, first by binding their tips to cell membrane receptors. This enables transfection of molecular cargo attached to the CNT walls or encapsulated by CNTs. For example, the cancer drug doxorubicin was loaded at up to 60 wt % on CNTs compared with a maximum of 8 to 10 wt % on liposomes. Cargo release can be triggered by near-infrared radiation. However, limiting the retention of CNTs within the body is critical to prevent undesirable accumulation.

CNT toxicity remains a concern, although CNT biocompatibility may be engineerable. The degree of lung inflammation caused by injection of well-dispersed SWNTs was insignificant compared with asbestos and with particulate matter in air. Medical acceptance of CNTs requires understanding of immune response and appropriate exposure standards for inhalation, injection, ingestion and skin contact. CNT forests immobilized in a polymer did not show elevated inflammatory response in rats relative to controls. CNTs are under consideration as low-impedance neural interface electrodes and for coating of catheters to reduce thrombosis.

CNT enabled x-ray sources for medical imaging are also in development. Relying on the unique properties of the CNTs, researchers have developed field emission cathodes that allow precise x-ray control and close placement of multiple sources. CNT enabled x-ray sources have been demonstrated for pre-clinical, small animal imaging applications, and are currently in clinical trials.

In November 2012 researchers at the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) proved that single-wall carbon nanotubes may help protect DNA molecules from damage by oxidation.

A highly effective method of delivering carbon nanotubes into cells is Cell squeezing, a high-throughput vector-free microfluidic platform for intracellular delivery developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the labs of Robert S. Langer.

Carbon nanotubes have furthermore been grown inside microfluidic channels for chemical analysis, based on electrochromatography. Here, the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and high hydrophobicity of CNTs are used in order to greatly decrease the analysis time of small neutral molecules that typically require large bulky equipment for analysis.

## Composite materials

Because of the carbon nanotube's superior mechanical properties, many structures have been proposed ranging from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to combat jackets and space elevators. However, the space elevator will require further efforts in refining carbon nanotube technology, as the practical tensile strength of carbon nanotubes must be greatly improved.

Applications of CNTs/polymer composites in the automotive sector highlight technological advancements across various systems, particularly in body components, electrical systems, and engine parts. Incorporating CNTs with fiberglass reinforcement in epoxy composites can boost strength by 60% and impact energy resistance by 30%. These improvements could significantly reduce fuel consumption by 16% and greenhouse gas emissions by 26%. Additionally, CNT fillers, effective even at low concentrations (0.2 wt.%), enhance dimensional and thermal stability while reducing overall weight. A 25% reduction in vehicle weight could save up to 250 milion barrels of crude oil annually.

For perspective, outstanding breakthroughs have already been made. Pioneering work led by Ray H. Baughman at the NanoTech Institute has shown that single and multi-walled nanotubes can produce materials with toughness unmatched in the man-made and natural worlds.

Carbon nanotubes are also a promising material as building blocks in hierarchical composite materials given their exceptional mechanical properties (~1 TPa in modulus, and ~100 GPa in strength). Initial attempts to incorporate CNTs into hierarchical structures (such as yarns, fibres or films) has led to mechanical properties that were significantly lower than these potential limits. The hierarchical integration of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and metal/metal oxides within a single nanostructure can leverage the potentiality of carbon nanotubes composite for water splitting and electrocatalysis. Windle *et al.* have used an *in situ* chemical vapor deposition (CVD) spinning method to produce continuous CNT yarns from CVD-grown CNT aerogels. CNT yarns can also be manufactured by drawing out CNT bundles from a CNT forest and subsequently twisting to form the fibre (draw-twist method, see picture on right). The Windle group have fabricated CNT yarns with strengths as high as ~9 GPa at small gage lengths of ~1 mm, however, strengths of only about ~1 GPa were reported at the longer gage length of 20 mm. The reason why fibre strengths have been low compared to the strength of individual CNTs is due to a failure to effectively transfer load to the constituent (discontinuous) CNTs within the fibre. One potential route for alleviating this problem is via irradiation (or deposition) induced covalent inter-bundle and inter-CNT cross-linking to effectively 'join up' the CNTs, with higher dosage levels leading to the possibility of amorphous carbon/carbon nanotube composite fibres. Espinosa *et al.* developed high performance DWNT-polymer composite yarns by twisting and stretching ribbons of randomly oriented bundles of DWNTs thinly coated with polymeric organic compounds. These DWNT-polymer yarns exhibited an unusually high energy to failure of ~100 J·g−1 (comparable to one of the toughest natural materials – spider silk), and strength as high as ~1.4 GPa. Effort is ongoing to produce CNT composites that incorporate tougher matrix materials, such as Kevlar, to further improve on the mechanical properties toward those of individual CNTs.

Because of the high mechanical strength of carbon nanotubes, research is being made into weaving them into clothes to create stab-proof and bulletproof clothing. The nanotubes would effectively stop the bullet from penetrating the body, although the bullet's kinetic energy would likely cause broken bones and internal bleeding.

Carbon nanotubes can also enable shorter processing times and higher energy efficiencies during composite curing with the use of carbon nanotube structured heaters. Autoclaving is the ‘gold standard’ for composite curing however, it comes at a high price and introduces part size limitations. Researchers estimate that curing a small section of the Boeing 787 carbon fiber/epoxy fuselage requires 350 GJ of energy and produces 80 tons of carbon dioxide. This is about the same amount of energy that nine households would consume in one year. In addition, eliminating part size limitations eliminates the need to join small composite components to create large scale structures. This saves manufacturing time and results in higher strength structures.

Carbon nanotube structured heaters show promise in replacing autoclaves and conventional ovens for composite curing because of their ability to reach high temperatures at fast ramping rates with high electrical efficiency and mechanical flexibility. These nanostructured heaters can take the form of a film and be applied directly to the composite. This results in conductive heat transfer as opposed to convective heat transfer used by autoclaves and conventional ovens. Lee et al. reported that only 50% of the thermal energy introduced in an autoclave is transferred to the composite being cured regardless of part size, while about 90% of the thermal energy is transferred in a nanostructured film heater depending on the process.

Lee et al. were able to successfully cure aerospace-grade composites using a CNT heater made by “domino-pushing” a CNT forest onto a Teflon film. This film was then laid on top of an 8-ply OOA prepreg layup. Thermal insulation was incorporated around the assembly. The entire setup was subsequently vacuum bagged and heated using a 30 V DC power supply. Degree-of-cure and mechanical tests were conducted to compare conventionally cured composites against their OOA set-up. Results showed that there was no difference in the quality of the composite created. However, the amount of energy required to cure the composite OOA was reduced by two orders of magnitude from 13.7 MJ to 118.8 kJ.

Before carbon nanotubes can be used to cure Boeing 787 fuselages however, further development needs to occur. The largest challenge associated with creating reliable carbon nanotube structured heaters is being able to create a uniform carbon nanotube dispersion in a polymer matrix to ensure heat is applied evenly. CNTs high surface area results in strong Van Der Waals forces between individual CNTs, causing them to agglomerate together and yielding non-uniform heating properties. In addition, the polymer matrix chosen needs to be carefully chosen such that it can withstand the high temperatures generated and the repetitive thermal cycling required to cure multiple composite components.

### Mixtures

MWNTs were first used as electrically conductive fillers in metals, at concentrations as high as 83.78 percent by weight (wt%). MWNT-polymer composites reach conductivities as high as 10,000 S m−1 at 10 wt % loading. In the automotive industry, CNT plastics are used in electrostatic-assisted painting of mirror housings, as well as fuel lines and filters that dissipate electrostatic charge. Other products include electromagnetic interference (EMI)–shielding packages and silicon wafer carriers.

For load-bearing applications, CNT powders are mixed with polymers or precursor resins to increase stiffness, strength and toughness. These enhancements depend on CNT diameter, aspect ratio, alignment, dispersion and interfacial interaction. Premixed resins and master batches employ CNT loadings from 0.1 to 20 wt%. Nanoscale stick-slip among CNTs and CNT-polymer contacts can increase material damping, enhancing sporting goods, including tennis racquets, baseball bats and bicycle frames.

CNT resins enhance fiber composites, including wind turbine blades and hulls for maritime security boats that are made by enhancing carbon fiber composites with CNT-enhanced resin. CNTs are deployed as additives in the organic precursors of stronger 1 μm-diameter carbon fibers. CNTs influence the arrangement of carbon in pyrolyzed fiber.

Toward the challenge of organizing CNTs at larger scales, hierarchical fiber composites are created by growing aligned forests onto glass, silicon carbide (SiC), alumina and carbon fibers, creating so-called "fuzzy" fibers. Fuzzy epoxy CNT-SiC and CNT-alumina fabric showed 69% improved crack-opening (mode I) and/or in-plane shear interlaminar (mode II) toughness. Applications under investigation include lightning-strike protection, deicing, and structural health monitoring for aircraft.

MWNTs can be used as a flame-retardant additive to plastics due to changes in rheology by nanotube loading. Such additives can replace halogenated flame retardants, which face environmental restrictions.

CNT/Concrete blends offer increased tensile strength and reduced crack propagation.

Buckypaper (nanotube aggregate) can significantly improve fire resistance due to efficient heat reflection.

### Textiles

The previous studies on the use of CNTs for textile functionalization were focused on fiber spinning for improving physical and mechanical properties. Recently a great deal of attention has been focused on coating CNTs on textile fabrics. Various methods have been employed for modifying fabrics using CNTs. produced intelligent e-textiles for Human Biomonitoring using a polyelectrolyte-based coating with CNTs. Additionally, Panhuis et al. dyed textile material by immersion in either a poly (2-methoxy aniline-5-sulfonic acid) PMAS polymer solution or PMAS-SWNT dispersion with enhanced conductivity and capacitance with a durable behavior. In another study, Hu and coworkers coated single-walled carbon nanotubes with a simple “dipping and drying” process for wearable electronics and energy storage applications. In the recent study, Li and coworkers using elastomeric separator and almost achieved a fully stretchable supercapacitor based on buckled single-walled carbon nanotube macrofilms. The electrospun polyurethane was used and provided sound mechanical stretchability and the whole cell achieve excellent charge-discharge cycling stability. CNTs have an aligned nanotube structure and a negative surface charge. Therefore, they have similar structures to direct dyes, so the exhaustion method is applied for coating and absorbing CNTs on the fiber surface for preparing multifunctional fabric including antibacterial, electric conductive, flame retardant and electromagnetic absorbance properties.

Later, CNT yarns and laminated sheets made by direct chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or forest spinning or drawing methods may compete with carbon fiber for high-end uses, especially in weight-sensitive applications requiring combined electrical and mechanical functionality. Research yarns made from few-walled CNTs have reached a stiffness of 357 GPa and a strength of 8.8 GPa for a gauge length comparable to the millimeter-long CNTs within the yarn. Centimeter-scale gauge lengths offer only 2-GPa gravimetric strengths, matching that of Kevlar.

Because the probability of a critical flaw increases with volume, yarns may never achieve the strength of individual CNTs. However, CNT's high surface area may provide interfacial coupling that mitigates these deficiencies. CNT yarns can be knotted without loss of strength. Coating forest-drawn CNT sheets with functional powder before inserting twist yields weavable, braidable and sewable yarns containing up to 95 wt % powder. Uses include superconducting wires, battery and fuel cell electrodes and self-cleaning textiles.

As yet impractical fibers of aligned SWNTs can be made by coagulation-based spinning of CNT suspensions. Cheaper SWNTs or spun MWNTs are necessary for commercialization. Carbon nanotubes can be dissolved in superacids such as fluorosulfuric acid and drawn into fibers in dry jet-wet spinning.

DWNT-polymer composite yarns have been made by twisting and stretching ribbons of randomly oriented bundles of DWNTs thinly coated with polymeric organic compounds.

Body armor—combat jackets Cambridge University developed the fibres and licensed a company to make them. In comparison, the bullet-resistant fiber Kevlar fails at 27–33 J/g.

Synthetic muscles offer high contraction/extension ratio given an electric current.

SWNT are in use as an experimental material for removable, structural bridge panels.

In 2015, researchers incorporated CNTs and graphene into spider silk, increasing its strength and toughness to a new record. They sprayed 15 Pholcidae spiders with water containing the nanotubes or flakes. The resulting silk had a fracture strength up to 5.4 GPa, a Young's modulus up to 47.8 GPa and a toughness modulus up to 2.1 GPa, surpassing both synthetic polymeric high performance fibres (e.g. Kevlar49) and knotted fibers.

SWNTs can enable water-repellent properties in textiles. Treating cotton fabrics with SWNTs creates an artificial lotus leaf structure, resulting in a rough surface. Modified conductive e-textiles exhibit excellent repeatability, washability, durability, and super-hydrophobic performance. These textiles are used in protective workwear, technical textiles, medical fabrics, technical garments for extreme outdoor sports, automotive and aeronautical textiles, wearable sensors, smart textiles, etc.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) demonstrate excellent UV-blocking properties and can be incorporated into textiles by coating them with a polymer solution. The UV transmission of fabrics coated with CNTs is nearly zero, indicating that these polymer-coated fabrics can effectively protect the wearer from both UVA and UVB rays.

### Carbon nanotube springs

"Forests" of stretched, aligned MWNT springs can achieve an energy density 10 times greater than that of steel springs, offering cycling durability, temperature insensitivity, no spontaneous discharge and arbitrary discharge rate. SWNT forests are expected to be able to store far more than MWNTs.

### Alloys

Adding small amounts of CNTs to metals increases tensile strength and modulus with potential in aerospace and automotive structures. Commercial aluminum-MWNT composites have strengths comparable to stainless steel (0.7 to 1 GPa) at one-third the density (2.6 g cm−3), comparable to more expensive aluminium-lithium alloys.

### Coatings and films

CNTs can serve as a multifunctional coating material. For example, paint/MWNT mixtures can reduce biofouling of ship hulls by discouraging attachment of algae and barnacles. They are a possible alternative to environmentally hazardous biocide-containing paints. Mixing CNTs into anticorrosion coatings for metals can enhance coating stiffness and strength and provide a path for cathodic protection.

CNTs provide a less expensive alternative to ITO for a range of consumer devices. Besides cost, CNT's flexible, transparent conductors offer an advantage over brittle ITO coatings for flexible displays. CNT conductors can be deposited from solution and patterned by methods such as screen printing. SWNT films offer 90% transparency and a sheet resistivity of 100 ohm per square. Such films are under development for thin-film heaters, such as for defrosting windows or sidewalks.

Carbon nanotubes forests and foams can also be coated with a variety of different materials to change their functionality and performance. Examples include silicon coated CNTs to create flexible energy-dense batteries, graphene coatings to create highly elastic aerogels and silicon carbide coatings to create a strong structural material for robust high-aspect-ratio 3D-micro architectures.

There is a wide range of methods how CNTs can be formed into coatings and films.

#### Optical power detectors

A spray-on mixture of carbon nanotubes and ceramic demonstrates unprecedented ability to resist damage while absorbing laser light. Such coatings that absorb the energy of high-powered lasers without breaking down are essential for optical power detectors that measure the output of such lasers. These are used, for example, in military equipment for defusing unexploded mines. The composite consists of multiwall carbon nanotubes and a ceramic made of silicon, carbon and nitrogen. Including boron boosts the breakdown temperature. The nanotubes and graphene-like carbon transmit heat well, while the oxidation-resistant ceramic boosts damage resistance. Creating the coating involves dispersing the nanotubes in toluene, to which a clear liquid polymer containing boron was added. The mixture was heated to 1,100 °C (2,010 °F). The result is crushed into a fine powder, dispersed again in toluene and sprayed in a thin coat on a copper surface. The coating absorbed 97.5 percent of the light from a far-infrared laser and tolerated 15 kilowatts per square centimeter for 10 seconds. Damage tolerance is about 50 percent higher than for similar coatings, e.g., nanotubes alone and carbon paint.

#### Radar absorption

Radars work in the microwave frequency range, which can be absorbed by MWNTs. Applying the MWNTs to the aircraft would cause the radar to be absorbed and therefore seem to have a smaller radar cross-section. One such application could be to paint the nanotubes onto the plane. Recently there has been some work done at the University of Michigan regarding carbon nanotubes' usefulness as stealth technology on aircraft. It has been found that in addition to the radar absorbing properties, the nanotubes neither reflect nor scatter visible light, making it essentially invisible at night, much like painting current stealth aircraft black except much more effective. Current limitations in manufacturing, however, mean that the current production of nanotube-coated aircraft is not possible. One theory to overcome these current limitations is to cover small particles with the nanotubes and suspend the nanotube-covered particles in a medium such as paint, which can then be applied to a surface, like a stealth aircraft.

In 2010, Lockheed Martin Corporation applied for a patent for just such a CNT based radar-absorbent material, which was reassigned and granted to Applied NanoStructure Solutions, LLC in 2012. Some believe that this material is incorporated in the F-35 Lightning II.

## Microelectronics

Nanotube-based transistors, also known as carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs), have been made that operate at room temperature and that are capable of digital switching using a single electron. However, one major obstacle to realization of nanotubes has been the lack of technology for mass production. In 2001, IBM researchers demonstrated how metallic nanotubes can be destroyed, leaving semiconducting ones behind for use as transistors. Their process is called "constructive destruction," which includes the automatic destruction of defective nanotubes on the wafer. This process, however, only gives control over the electrical properties on a statistical scale.

SWNTs are attractive for transistors because of their low electron scattering and their bandgap. SWNTs are compatible with field-effect transistor (FET) architectures and high-k dielectrics. Despite progress following the CNT transistor's appearance in 1998, including a tunneling FET with a subthreshold swing of \<60 mV per decade (2004), a radio (2007) and an FET with sub-10-nm channel length and a normalized current density of 2.41 mA μm−1 at 0.5 V, greater than those obtained for silicon devices.

However, control of diameter, chirality, density and placement remains insufficient for commercial production. Less demanding devices of tens to thousands of SWNTs are more immediately practical. The use of CNT arrays/transistor increases output current and compensates for defects and chirality differences, improving device uniformity and reproducibility. For example, transistors using horizontally aligned CNT arrays achieved mobilities of 80 cm2 V−1 s−1, subthreshold slopes of 140 mV per decade and on/off ratios as high as 105. CNT film deposition methods enable conventional semiconductor fabrication of more than 10,000 CNT devices per chip.

Printed CNT thin-film transistors (TFTs) are attractive for driving organic light-emitting diode displays, showing higher mobility than amorphous silicon (~1 cm2 V−1 s−1) and can be deposited by low-temperature, nonvacuum methods. Flexible CNT TFTs with a mobility of 35 cm2 V−1 s−1 and an on/off ratio of 6×106 were demonstrated. A vertical CNT FET showed sufficient current output to drive OLEDs at low voltage, enabling red-green-blue emission through a transparent CNT network. CNTs are under consideration for radio-frequency identification tags. Selective retention of semiconducting SWNTs during spin-coating and reduced sensitivity to adsorbates were demonstrated.

The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors suggests that CNTs could replace Cu interconnects in integrated circuits, owing to their low scattering, high current-carrying capacity, and resistance to electromigration. For this, vias comprising tightly packed (\>1013 cm−2) metallic CNTs with low defect density and low contact resistance are needed. Recently, complementarymetaloxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible 150-nm-diameter interconnects with a single CNT–contact hole resistance of 2.8 kOhm were demonstrated on full 200 mm-diameter wafers. Also, as a replacement for solder bumps, CNTs can function both as electrical leads and heat dissipaters for use in high-power amplifiers.

Last, a concept for a nonvolatile memory based on individual CNT crossbar electromechanical switches has been adapted for commercialization by patterning tangled CNT thin films as the functional elements. This required development of ultrapure CNT suspensions that can be spin-coated and processed in industrial clean room environments and are therefore compatible with CMOS processing standards.

### Transistors

Carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs) can operate at room temperature and are capable of digital switching using a single electron. In 2013, a CNT logic circuit was demonstrated that could perform useful work. Major obstacles to nanotube-based microelectronics include the absence of technology for mass production, circuit density, positioning of individual electrical contacts, sample purity, control over length, chirality and desired alignment, thermal budget and contact resistance.

One of the main challenges was regulating conductivity. Depending on subtle surface features, a nanotube may act as a conductor or as a semiconductor.

Another way to make carbon nanotube transistors has been to use random networks of them. By doing so one averages all of their electrical differences and one can produce devices in large scale at the wafer level. This approach was first patented by Nanomix Inc. (date of original application June 2002). It was first published in the academic literature by the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 2003 through independent research work. This approach also enabled Nanomix to make the first transistor on a flexible and transparent substrate.

Since the electron mean free path in SWCNTs can exceed 1 micrometer, long channel CNTFETs exhibit near-ballistic transport characteristics, resulting in high speeds. CNT devices are projected to operate in the frequency range of hundreds of gigahertz.

Nanotubes can be grown on nanoparticles of magnetic metal (Fe, Co) that facilitates production of electronic (spintronic) devices. In particular control of current through a field-effect transistor by magnetic field has been demonstrated in such a single-tube nanostructure.

#### History

In 2001, IBM researchers demonstrated how metallic nanotubes can be destroyed, leaving semiconducting nanotubes for use as components. Using "constructive destruction", they destroyed defective nanotubes on the wafer. This process, however, only gives control over the electrical properties on a statistical scale. In 2003, room-temperature ballistic transistors with ohmic metal contacts and high-k gate dielectric were reported, showing 20–30x more current than state-of-the-art siliconMOSFETs. Palladium is a high-work function metal that was shown to exhibit Schottky barrier-free contacts to semiconducting nanotubes with diameters \>1.7 nm.

The potential of carbon nanotubes was demonstrated in 2003 when room-temperature ballistic transistors with ohmic metal contacts and high-k gate dielectric were reported, showing 20–30x higher ON current than state-of-the-art Si MOSFETs. This presented an important advance in the field as CNT was shown to potentially outperform Si. At the time, a major challenge was ohmic metal contact formation. In this regard, palladium, which is a high-work function metal was shown to exhibit Schottky barrier-free contacts to semiconducting nanotubes with diameters \>1.7 nm.

The first nanotube integrated memory circuit was made in 2004. One of the main challenges has been regulating the conductivity of nanotubes. Depending on subtle surface features a nanotube may act as a plain conductor or as a semiconductor. A fully automated method has however been developed to remove non-semiconductor tubes.

In 2013, researchers demonstrated a Turing-complete prototype micrometer-scale computer. Carbon nanotube transistors as logic-gate circuits with densities comparable to modern CMOS technology has not yet been demonstrated.

In 2014, networks of purified semiconducting carbon nanotubes were used as the active material in p-type thin film transistors. They were created using 3-D printers using inkjet or gravure methods on flexible substrates, including polyimide and polyethylene (PET) and transparent substrates such as glass. These transistors reliably exhibit high-mobilities (\> 10 cm2 V−1 s−1) and ON/OFF ratios (\> 1000) as well as threshold voltages below 5 V. They offer current density and low power consumption as well as environmental stability and mechanical flexibility. Hysterisis in the current-voltage curses as well as variability in the threshold voltage remain to be solved.

In 2015, researchers announced a new way to connect wires to SWNTs that make it possible to continue shrinking the width of the wires without increasing electrical resistance. The advance was expected to shrink the contact point between the two materials to just 40 atoms in width and later less. They tubes align in regularly spaced rows on silicon wafers. Simulations indicated that designs could be optimized either for high performance or for low power consumption. Commercial devices were not expected until the 2020s.

### Thermal management

Large structures of carbon nanotubes can be used for thermal management of electronic circuits. An approximately 1 mm–thick carbon nanotube layer was used as a special material to fabricate coolers, this material has very low density, ~20 times lower weight than a similar copper structure, while the cooling properties are similar for the two materials.

Buckypaper has characteristics appropriate for use as a heat sink for chipboards, a backlight for LCD screens or as a faraday cage.

## Solar cells

One of the promising applications of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) is their use in solar panels, due to their strong UV/Vis-NIR absorption characteristics. Research has shown that they can provide a sizable increase in efficiency, even at their current unoptimized state. Solar cells developed at the New Jersey Institute of Technology use a carbon nanotube complex, formed by a mixture of carbon nanotubes and carbon buckyballs (known as fullerenes) to form snake-like structures. Buckyballs trap electrons, but they can't make electrons flow. Add sunlight to excite the polymers, and the buckyballs will grab the electrons. Nanotubes, behaving like copper wires, will then be able to make the electrons or current flow.

Additional research has been conducted on creating SWNT hybrid solar panels to increase the efficiency further. These hybrids are created by combining SWNT's with photo-excitable electron donors to increase the number of electrons generated. It has been found that the interaction between the photo-excited porphyrin and SWNT generates electro-hole pairs at the SWNT surfaces. This phenomenon has been observed experimentally, and contributes practically to an increase in efficiency up to 8.5%.

Nanotubes can potentially replace indium tin oxide in solar cells as a transparent conductive film in solar cells to allow light to pass to the active layers and generate photocurrent.

CNTs in organic solar cells help reduce energy loss (carrier recombination) and enhance resistance to photooxidation. Photovoltaic technologies may someday incorporate CNT-Silicon heterojunctions to leverage efficient multiple-exciton generation at p-n junctions formed within individual CNTs. In the nearer term, commercial photovoltaics may incorporate transparent SWNT electrodes.

## Hydrogen storage

In addition to being able to store electrical energy, there has been some research in using carbon nanotubes to store hydrogen to be used as a fuel source. By taking advantage of the capillary effects of the small carbon nanotubes, it is possible to condense gases in high density inside single-walled nanotubes. This allows for gases, most notably hydrogen (H2), to be stored at high densities without being condensed into a liquid. Potentially, this storage method could be used on vehicles in place of gas fuel tanks for a hydrogen-powered car. A current issue regarding hydrogen-powered vehicles is the on-board storage of the fuel. Current storage methods involve cooling and condensing the H2 gas to a liquid state for storage which causes a loss of potential energy (25–45%) when compared to the energy associated with the gaseous state. Storage using SWNTs would allow one to keep the H2 in its gaseous state, thereby increasing the storage efficiency. This method allows for a volume to energy ratio slightly smaller to that of current gas powered vehicles, allowing for a slightly lower but comparable range.

An area of controversy and frequent experimentation regarding the storage of hydrogen by adsorption in carbon nanotubes is the efficiency by which this process occurs. The effectiveness of hydrogen storage is integral to its use as a primary fuel source since hydrogen only contains about one fourth the energy per unit volume as gasoline. Studies however show that what is the most important is the surface area of the materials used. Hence activated carbon with surface area of 2600 m2/g can store up to 5,8% w/w. In all these carbonaceous materials, hydrogen is stored by physisorption at 70-90K.

### Experimental capacity

One experiment sought to determine the amount of hydrogen stored in CNTs by utilizing elastic recoil detection analysis (ERDA). CNTs (primarily SWNTs) were synthesized via chemical vapor disposition (CVD) and subjected to a two-stage purification process including air oxidation and acid treatment, then formed into flat, uniform discs and exposed to pure, pressurized hydrogen at various temperatures. When the data was analyzed, it was found that the ability of CNTs to store hydrogen decreased as temperature increased. Moreover, the highest hydrogen concentration measured was ~0.18%; significantly lower than commercially viable hydrogen storage needs to be. A separate experimental work performed by using a gravimetric method also revealed the maximum hydrogen uptake capacity of CNTs to be as low as 0.2%.

In another experiment, CNTs were synthesized via CVD and their structure was characterized using Raman spectroscopy. Utilizing microwave digestion, the samples were exposed to different acid concentrations and different temperatures for various amounts of time in an attempt to find the optimum purification method for SWNTs of the diameter determined earlier. The purified samples were then exposed to hydrogen gas at various high pressures, and their adsorption by weight percent was plotted. The data showed that hydrogen adsorption levels of up to 3.7% are possible with a very pure sample and under the proper conditions. It is thought that microwave digestion helps improve the hydrogen adsorption capacity of the CNTs by opening up the ends, allowing access to the inner cavities of the nanotubes.

### Limitations on efficient hydrogen adsorption

The biggest obstacle to efficient hydrogen storage using CNTs is the purity of the nanotubes. To achieve maximum hydrogen adsorption, there must be minimum graphene, amorphous carbon, and metallic deposits in the nanotube sample. Current methods of CNT synthesis require a purification step. However, even with pure nanotubes, the adsorption capacity is only maximized under high pressures, which are undesirable in commercial fuel tanks.

## Electronic components

Various companies are developing transparent, electrically conductive CNT films and nanobuds to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) in LCDs, touch screens and photovoltaic devices. Nanotube films show promise for use in displays for computers, cell phones, Personal digital assistants, and automated teller machines. CNT diodes display a photovoltaic effect.

Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT coated with magnetite) can generate strong magnetic fields. Recent advances show that MWNT decorated with maghemite nanoparticles can be oriented in a magnetic field and enhance the electrical properties of the composite material in the direction of the field for use in electric motor brushes.

A layer of 29% iron enriched single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) placed on top of a layer of explosive material such as PETN can be ignited with a regular camera flash.

CNTs can be used as electron guns in miniature cathode ray tubes (CRT) in high-brightness, low-energy, low-weight displays. A display would consist of a group of tiny CRTs, each providing the electrons to illuminate the phosphor of one pixel, instead of having one CRT whose electrons are aimed using electric and magnetic fields. These displays are known as field emission displays (FEDs).

CNTs can act as antennas for radios and other electromagnetic devices.

Conductive CNTs are used in brushes for commercial electric motors. They replace traditional carbon black. The nanotubes improve electrical and thermal conductivity because they stretch through the plastic matrix of the brush. This permits the carbon filler to be reduced from 30% down to 3.6%, so that more matrix is present in the brush. Nanotube composite motor brushes are better-lubricated (from the matrix), cooler-running (both from better lubrication and superior thermal conductivity), less brittle (more matrix, and fiber reinforcement), stronger and more accurately moldable (more matrix). Since brushes are a critical failure point in electric motors, and also don't need much material, they became economical before almost any other application.

Wires for carrying electric current may be fabricated from nanotubes and nanotube-polymer composites. Small wires have been fabricated with specific conductivity exceeding copper and aluminum; the highest conductivity non-metallic cables. For example, carbon nanotubes guarantee electrical conductivity of 100 MS/m, greater than aluminum or copper, which have conductivities of 35 and 59.6 MS/m, respectively.

CNT are under investigation as an alternative to tungsten filaments in incandescent light bulbs.

### Interconnects

Metallic carbon nanotubes have aroused research interest for their applicability as very-large-scale integration (VLSI) interconnects because of their high thermal stability, high thermal conductivity and large current carrying capacity. An isolated CNT can carry current densities in excess of 1000 MA/cm2 without damage even at an elevated temperature of 250 °C (482 °F), eliminating electromigration reliability concerns that plague Cu interconnects. Recent modeling work comparing the two has shown that CNT bundle interconnects can potentially offer advantages over copper. Recent experiments demonstrated resistances as low as 20 Ohms using different architectures, detailed conductance measurements over a wide temperature range were shown to agree with theory for a strongly disordered quasi-one-dimensional conductor.

Hybrid interconnects that employ CNT vias in tandem with copper interconnects may offer advantages from a reliability/thermal-management perspective. In 2016, the European Union has funded a four million euro project over three years to evaluate manufacturability and performance of composite interconnects employing both CNT and copper interconnects. The project named **CONNECT** (CarbON Nanotube compositE InterconneCTs) involves the joint efforts of seven European research and industry partners on fabrication techniques and processes to enable reliable Carbon NanoTubes for on-chip interconnects in ULSI microchip production.

### Electrical cables and wires

Wires for carrying electric current may be fabricated from pure nanotubes and nanotube-polymer composites. It has already been demonstrated that carbon nanotube wires can successfully be used for power or data transmission. Recently small wires have been fabricated with specific conductivity exceeding copper and aluminum; these cables are the highest conductivity carbon nanotube and also highest conductivity non-metal cables. Recently, composite of carbon nanotube and copper have been shown to exhibit nearly one hundred times higher current-carrying-capacity than pure copper or gold. Significantly, the electrical conductivity of such a composite is similar to pure Cu. Thus, this Carbon nanotube-copper (CNT-Cu) composite possesses the highest observed current-carrying capacity among electrical conductors. Thus for a given cross-section of electrical conductor, the CNT-Cu composite can withstand and transport one hundred times higher current compared to metals such as copper and gold.

## Energy storages behind CNT

The use of CNTs as a catalyst support in fuel cells can potentially reduce platinum usage by 60% compared with carbon black. Doped CNTs may enable the complete elimination of Pt.

### Supercapacitor

MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics uses nanotubes to improve supercapacitors. The activated charcoal used in conventional ultracapacitors has many small hollow spaces of various size, which create together a large surface to store electric charge. But as charge is quantized into elementary charges, i.e. electrons, and each such elementary charge needs a minimum space, a significant fraction of the electrode surface is not available for storage because the hollow spaces are not compatible with the charge's requirements. With a nanotube electrode the spaces may be tailored to size—few too large or too small—and consequently the capacity should be increased considerably.

A 40-F supercapacitor with a maximum voltage of 3.5 V that employed forest-grown SWNTs that are binder- and additive-free achieved an energy density of 15.6 Wh kg−1 and a power density of 37 kW kg−1. CNTs can be bound to the charge plates of capacitors to dramatically increase the surface area and therefore energy density.

### Batteries

Carbon nanotubes' (CNTs) exciting electronic properties have shown promise in the field of batteries, where typically they are being experimented as a new electrode material, particularly the anode for lithium-ion batteries. This is due to the fact that the anode requires a relatively high reversible capacity at a potential close to metallic lithium, and a moderate irreversible capacity, observed thus far only by graphite-based composites, such as CNTs. They have shown to greatly improve capacity and cyclability of lithium-ion batteries, as well as the capability to be very effective buffering components, alleviating the degradation of the batteries that is typically due to repeated charging and discharging. Further, electronic transport in the anode can be greatly improved using highly metallic CNTs.

More specifically, CNTs have shown reversible capacities from 300 to 600 mAhg−1, with some treatments to them showing these numbers rise to up to 1000 mAhg−1. Meanwhile, graphite, which is most widely used as an anode material for these lithium batteries, has shown capacities of only 320 mAhg−1. By creating composites out of the CNTs, scientists see much potential in taking advantage of these exceptional capacities, as well as their excellent mechanical strength, conductivities, and low densities.

MWNTs are used in lithium ion batteries cathodes. In these batteries, small amounts of MWNT powder are blended with active materials and a polymer binder, such as 1 wt % CNT loading in LiCoO
2 cathodes and graphite anodes. CNTs provide increased electrical connectivity and mechanical integrity, which enhances rate capability and cycle life.

#### Paper batteries

A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper-thin sheet of cellulose (which is the major constituent of regular paper, among other things) infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. The potential for these devices is great, as they may be manufactured via a roll-to-roll process, which would make it very low-cost, and they would be lightweight, flexible, and thin. In order to productively use paper electronics (or any thin electronic devices), the power source must be equally thin, thus indicating the need for paper batteries. Recently, it has been shown that surfaces coated with CNTs can be used to replace heavy metals in batteries. More recently, functional paper batteries have been demonstrated, where a lithium-ion battery is integrated on a single sheet of paper through a lamination process as a composite with Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) or LiCoO2 (LCO). The paper substrate would function well as the separator for the battery, where the CNT films function as the current collectors for both the anode *and* the cathode. These rechargeable energy devices show potential in RFID tags, functional packaging, or new disposable electronic applications.

Improvements have also been shown in lead-acid batteries, based on research performed by Bar-Ilan University using high quality SWCNT manufactured by OCSiAl. The study demonstrated an increase in the lifetime of lead acid batteries by 4.5 times and a capacity increase of 30% on average and up to 200% at high discharge rates.

## Chemical

CNT can be used for water transport and desalination. Water molecules can be separated from salt by forcing them through electrochemically robust nanotube networks with controlled nanoscale porosity. This process requires far lower pressures than conventional reverse osmosis methods. Compared to a plain membrane, it operates at a 20 °C lower temperature, and at a 6x greater flow rate. Membranes using aligned, encapsulated CNTs with open ends permit flow through the CNTs' interiors. Very-small-diameter SWNTs are needed to reject salt at seawater concentrations. Portable filters containing CNT meshes can purify contaminated drinking water. Such networks can electrochemically oxidize organic contaminants, bacteria and viruses.

CNT membranes can filter carbon dioxide from power plant emissions.

CNT can be filled with biological molecules, aiding biotechnology.

CNT have the potential to store between 4.2 and 65% hydrogen by weight. If they can be mass-produced economically, 13.2 litres (2.9 imp gal; 3.5 US gal) of CNT could contain the same amount of energy as a 50 litres (11 imp gal; 13 US gal) gasoline tank.

CNTs can be used to produce nanowires of other elements/molecules, such as gold or zinc oxide. Nanowires in turn can be used to cast nanotubes of other materials, such as gallium nitride. These can have very different properties from CNTs—for example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs are hydrophobic, giving them possible uses in organic chemistry.

## Mechanical

Oscillators based on CNT have achieved speeds of \> 50 GHz.

CNT electrical and mechanical properties suggest them as alternatives to traditional electrical actuators.

### Actuators

The exceptional electrical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes have made them alternatives to the traditional electrical actuators for both microscopic and macroscopic applications. Carbon nanotubes are very good conductors of both electricity and heat, and they are also very strong and elastic molecules in certain directions.

### Loudspeaker

Carbon nanotubes have also been applied in the acoustics (such as loudspeaker and earphone). In 2008, it was shown that a sheet of nanotubes can operate as a loudspeaker if an alternating current is applied. The sound is not produced through vibration but thermoacoustically. In 2013, a carbon nanotube (CNT) thin yarn thermoacoustic earphone together with CNT thin yarn thermoacoustic chip was demonstrated by a research group of Tsinghua-Foxconn Nanotechnology Research Center in Tsinghua University, using a Si-based semi-conducting technology compatible fabrication process.

Near-term commercial uses include replacing piezoelectric speakers in greeting cards.

## Optical

*See additional applications in: Optical properties of carbon nanotubes* * Carbon nanotube photoluminescence (fluorescence) can be used to observe semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube species. Photoluminescence maps, made by acquiring the emission and scanning the excitation energy, can facilitate sample characterization.

* Nanotube fluorescence is under investigation for biomedical imaging and sensors.

## Environmental

### Environmental remediation

A CNT nano-structured sponge (nanosponge) containing sulfur and iron is more effective at soaking up water contaminants such as oil, fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Their magnetic properties make them easier to retrieve once the clean-up job is done. The sulfur and iron increases sponge size to around 2 centimetres (0.79 in). It also increases porosity due to beneficial defects, creating buoyancy and reusability. Iron, in the form of ferrocene makes the structure easier to control and enables recovery using magnets. Such nanosponges increase the absorption of the toxic organic solvent dichlorobenzene from water by 3.5 times. The sponges can absorb vegetable oil up to 150 times their initial weight and can absorb engine oil as well.

Earlier, a magnetic boron-doped MWNT nanosponge that could absorb oil from water. The sponge was grown as a forest on a substrate via chemical vapor disposition. Boron puts kinks and elbows into the tubes as they grow and promotes the formation of covalent bonds. The nanosponges retain their elastic property after 10,000 compressions in the lab. The sponges are both superhydrophobic, forcing them to remain at the water's surface and oleophilic, drawing oil to them.

### Water treatment

It has been shown that carbon nanotubes exhibit strong adsorption affinities to a wide range of aromatic and aliphatic contaminants in water, due to their large and hydrophobic surface areas. They also showed similar adsorption capacities as activated carbons in the presence of natural organic matter. As a result, they have been suggested as promising adsorbents for removal of contaminant in water and wastewater treatment systems.

Moreover, membranes made out of carbon nanotube arrays have been suggested as switchable molecular sieves, with sieving and permeation features that can be dynamically activated/deactivated by either pore size distribution (passive control) or external electrostatic fields (active control).

## Other applications

Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in nanoelectromechanical systems, including mechanical memory elements (NRAM being developed by Nantero Inc.) and nanoscale electric motors (see Nanomotor or Nanotube nanomotor).

Carboxyl-modified single-walled carbon nanotubes (so called zig-zag, armchair type) can act as sensors of atoms and ions of alkali metals Na, Li, K. In May 2005, Nanomix Inc. placed on the market a hydrogen sensor that integrated carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform.

Eikos Inc of Franklin, Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. of Silicon Valley, California are developing transparent, electrically conductive films of carbon nanotubes to replace indium tin oxide (ITO). Carbon nanotube films are substantially more mechanically robust than ITO films, making them ideal for high-reliability touchscreens and flexible displays. Printable water-based inks of carbon nanotubes are desired to enable the production of these films to replace ITO. Nanotube films show promise for use in displays for computers, cell phones, PDAs, and ATMs.

A nanoradio, a radio receiver consisting of a single nanotube, was demonstrated in 2007.

The use in tensile stress or toxic gas sensors was proposed by Tsagarakis.

A flywheel made of carbon nanotubes could be spun at extremely high velocity on a floating magnetic axis in a vacuum, and potentially store energy at a density approaching that of conventional fossil fuels. Since energy can be added to and removed from flywheels very efficiently in the form of electricity, this might offer a way of storing electricity, making the electrical grid more efficient and variable power suppliers (like wind turbines) more useful in meeting energy needs. The practicality of this depends heavily upon the cost of making massive, unbroken nanotube structures, and their failure rate under stress.

Carbon nanotube springs have the potential to indefinitely store elastic potential energy at ten times the density of lithium-ion batteries with flexible charge and discharge rates and extremely high cycling durability.

Ultra-short SWNTs (US-tubes) have been used as nanoscaled capsules for delivering MRI contrast agents in vivo.

Carbon nanotubes provide a certain potential for metal-free catalysis of inorganic and organic reactions. For instance, oxygen groups attached to the surface of carbon nanotubes have the potential to catalyze oxidative dehydrogenations or selective oxidations. Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes may replace platinum catalysts used to reduce oxygen in fuel cells. A forest of vertically aligned nanotubes can reduce oxygen in alkaline solution more effectively than platinum, which has been used in such applications since the 1960s. Here, the nanotubes have the added benefit of not being subject to carbon monoxide poisoning.

Wake Forest University engineers are using multiwalled carbon nanotubes to enhance the brightness of field-induced polymer electroluminescent technology, potentially offering a step forward in the search for safe, pleasing, high-efficiency lighting. In this technology, moldable polymer matrix emits light when exposed to an electric current. It could eventually yield high-efficiency lights without the mercury vapor of compact fluorescent lamps or the bluish tint of some fluorescents and LEDs, which has been linked with circadian rhythm disruption.

Candida albicans has been used in combination with carbon nanotubes (CNT) to produce stable electrically conductive bio-nano-composite tissue materials that have been used as temperature sensing elements.

The SWNT production company OCSiAl developed a series of masterbatches for industrial use of single-wall CNTs in multiple types of rubber blends and tires, with initial trials showing increases in hardness, viscosity, tensile strain resistance and resistance to abrasion while reducing elongation and compression In tires the three primary characteristics of durability, fuel efficiency and traction were improved using SWNTs. The development of rubber masterbatches built on earlier work by the Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology showing rubber to be a viable candidate for improvement with SWNTs.

Introducing MWNTs to polymers can improve flame retardancy and retard thermal degradation of polymer. The results confirmed that combination of MWNTs and ammonium polyphosphates show a synergistic effect for improving flame retardancy.


title: Poul de Haan

abstract: Poulus Johannes "Poul" de Haan is a retired Dutch coxswain. Together with Hadriaan van Nes and Jan van de Graaff he won the world title in 1966 in the coxed pair event and placed fourth in 1967. Since 1965 de Haan lives in Delft, where he received a degree in civil engineering. He worked in the areas of soil remediation and water management for Rijkswaterstaat and Rotterdam city authorities until retiring in 2012. He remains involved with rowing as a coach for the Laga club, and is also active as a local politician.

text:
# Poul de Haan

**Poulus Johannes "Poul" de Haan** (born 5 October 1947) is a retired Dutch coxswain. Together with Hadriaan van Nes and Jan van de Graaff he won the world title in 1966 in the coxed pair event and placed fourth in 1967.

Since 1965 de Haan lives in Delft, where he received a degree in civil engineering (specialization environmental engineering). He worked in the areas of soil remediation and water management for Rijkswaterstaat and Rotterdam city authorities until retiring in 2012. He remains involved with rowing as a coach for the Laga club, and is also active as a local politician.

## InfoBox

Poul de Haan
| Poul de Haan in 1966 | |
| --- | --- |
| Personal information | |
| Born | (1947-10-05) 5 October 1947 |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Rowing |
| Club | Laga, Delft |
| Medal record      Representing the  Netherlands  World Rowing Championships  1966 Bled  Coxed pair | |


title: Povilas Jakubėnas

abstract: Povilas Jakubėnas was a Lithuanian Calvinist clergyman, general superintendent of the Lithuanian branch of the Reformed Church during the interbellum, professor of theology, Lithuanian book smuggler (knygnešys) during his student times. In 1928 he was awarded with the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas of II degree. In 1941, upon the Soviet occupation of the Baltic States Jakubeans fled to the West, first to Germany, and eventually settled in Switzerland.

text:
# Povilas Jakubėnas

**Povilas Jakubėnas** (April 11, 1871  May 30, 1953) was a Lithuanian Calvinist clergyman, general superintendent of the Lithuanian branch of the Reformed Church during the interbellum, professor of theology, Lithuanian book smuggler (*knygnešys*) during his student times.

In 1928 he was awarded with the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas of II degree.

In 1941, upon the Soviet occupation of the Baltic States Jakubeans fled to the West, first to Germany, and eventually settled in Switzerland.


title: Pre-embryo

abstract: In human embryonic development, a pre-embryo is a conceptus before implantation in the uterus.

text:
# Pre-embryo

In human embryonic development, a **pre-embryo** is a conceptus before implantation in the uterus.

## Pre-embryo in human embryonic development

The word pre-embryo is sometimes used in ethical contexts to refer to a human conceptus at least between fertilization and implantation, though this term has not been adopted by the scientific community. A conceptus between fertilization and implantation is also frequently classified as a *pre-implantation embryo*.

Even after implantation begins, a pre-embryo may exist up until the formation of the primitive streak. Implantation begins about six days after fertilization, and lasts for about a week, during which time formation of the primitive streak occurs.

Use of the term pre-embryo, in the context of human development, has drawn criticism from opponents of embryo research. From scientists who have considered this categorization invalid or unnecessary. One rationale that has been advanced for distinguishing an early fertilized human conceptus from an embryo is that there is a potential for the conceptus to split into identical twins prior to implantation, and so (the argument goes) the conceptus cannot be regarded before implantation as a single human being. However, the conceptus before implantation exhibits self-actuated activity, which has led to the assertion that it is an embryo. Further, identical twinning is an instance of asexual reproduction whereby a conceptus, without ceasing to be what it is (a new human being), provides a cell or cells as a new conceptus, entirely separated or partially separated (a 'siamese' twin) from the original conceptus, but in any event self-actuated in its development from the moment that the act of asexual reproduction (twinning) is complete. By this asexual reproduction, the parents of the original conceptus in effect become grandparents to the identical twin so conceived.

In the United States, a report by the National Institutes of Health stated that a conceptus could be both a pre-implantation embryo and a pre-embryo at the same time. However, Ann Kiessling (a leader in stem cell research) has written that those categories are inaccurate.

## Ontological status

The illustration shows the ontological status of the preembryo, embryo, and fetus:

* (o) indicates the (natural &) standard reproductive and embryogenic pathway
* (mz) indicates all the possible pathways for a monozygotic twin (see Scott, 2002, Hall, 2003, for a review on monozygotic twinning)
* (/c) indicates a clone created by either SCNT or ANT (See Hurlbut, 2005, and section III. Pluripotent Stem Cells Derived from Biological Artifacts in the PCBE's Report on alternative sources of stem cells for a review of ANT))
* (ch) indicates all the possible pathways for a chimeric individual (see Charles E. Boklage, 2006, for a review on chimerism and twinning)
* (dz) indicates the pathway of a dizygotic twin
* (en) indicates an enucleated oocyte
* (m) indicates a hydatidiform mole
* (cm) indicates a complete hydatidiform mole
* (pm) indicates a partial hydatidiform mole, and
* (p) indicates parthenogenesis.

* (O) indicates an oocyte,
* (Z) indicates a zygote,
* (M) indicates a morula,
* (B) indicates a blastocyst,
* (E) indicates an embryo,
* (F) indicates a fetus,
* (I) indicates a live born individual person.
* (PM) indicates a partial hydatidiform mole,
* (CM) indicates a complete hydatidiform mole,
* (T) indicates a teratoma.

The colors represent the maternal and paternal genetic contributions.

## Footnotes


abstract: The Prairie Band Potawatomi Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation for the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation in Jackson County, Kansas, United States. The Potawatomi used to be located in the Great Lakes area, but were forced to move west due to Europeans settling their land. The reservation encompasses all of Lincoln Township, plus parts of Banner Township, Franklin Township, and Grant Township.

text:
# Prairie Band Potawatomi Indian Reservation

The **Prairie Band Potawatomi Indian Reservation** is an Indian reservation for the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation in Jackson County, Kansas, United States. The Potawatomi used to be located in the Great Lakes area, but were forced to move west due to Europeans settling their land. The reservation encompasses all of Lincoln Township, plus parts of Banner Township, Franklin Township, and Grant Township.

## InfoBox

| Prairie Band Potawatomi Indian Reservation | |
| --- | --- |
| Reservation | |
| Location of Reservation within Kansas | |
| KDOT map of Jackson County (legend) | |
| Coordinates: 39°20′27″N 95°50′24″W / 39.34083°N 95.84000°W / 39.34083; -95.84000 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Kansas |
| County | Jackson |
| Settled | 1837-1846 |
| Government | |
| Governing body | Tribal Council |
| Area | |
| Total | 121.527 sq mi (314.754 km2) |
| Land | 121.429 sq mi (314.501 km2) |
| Water | 0.098 sq mi (0.253 km2)  0.08% |
| Population (2000) | |
| Total | 1,238 |
| Density | 10/sq mi (3.9/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC−6 (CST) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC−5 (CDT) |
| Area code | 785 |
| Website | pbpindiantribe.com |


title: Praephostria sylleptalis

abstract: Praephostria sylleptalis is a moth in the family Crambidae found in Venezuela. It was described by Hans Georg Amsel in 1956.

text:
# Praephostria sylleptalis

***Praephostria sylleptalis*** is a moth in the family Crambidae found in Venezuela. It was described by Hans Georg Amsel in 1956.

## InfoBox

| *Praephostria sylleptalis* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Crambidae |
| Genus: | *Praephostria* |
| Species: | ***P. sylleptalis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Praephostria sylleptalis***<br>Amsel, 1956 | |
|


title: Pousha Purnima

abstract: Pousha Purnima, also known as Puspuni, is an annual festival observed in Odisha, India. This is observed on the Puni day of the month of Pus. It derives its origin from the age-old agrarian culture of the land. Basically, it is an annual occasion wherein the farmer families celebrate their annual harvest of paddy. It has given rise to a great tradition of celebration by other communities, too. People of Western Odisha, irrespective of their economic occupation feast, song and dance, and rejoice in giving away on this day.

text:
# Pousha Purnima

**Pousha Purnima**, also known as **Puspuni**, is an annual festival observed in Odisha, India. This is observed on the Puni (English *Full Moon*) day of the month of Pus (Sanskrit *Pausha*). It derives its origin from the age-old agrarian culture of the land. Basically, it is an annual occasion wherein the farmer families celebrate their annual harvest of paddy. It has given rise to a great tradition of celebration by other communities, too. People of Western Odisha, irrespective of their economic occupation feast, song and dance, and rejoice in giving away on this day.

## Observance

### Year Wise Date and Day of Puspuni

2018 - 02 Jan 2018, Tuesday

### Special deviation

Bargarh town, in Western Odisha deviates from the normal observation by delaying 1 day, as the mythical King of Dhanuyatra, death of Maharaj Kansa, on the same day as per Indian Lunar Calendar. The day is delayed due to death of the King Kansa on the largest open air theatre.

### Feasting and merrymaking

The farmers of Western Odisha grow paddy on their agricultural land during monsoon and harvest in autumn. After they bring home all the yield, they find relaxed of all the toils and experience a great sense of satisfaction. This inspires them to rejoice with family and friends. On the full moon day of the month of Pausha they cook rice, tasty dishes (*Chha' Tun Na' Bhajaa*), especially goat meat, along with rice pudding and cakes. The family dines together and makes marry. They share their dishes and cakes with other families and friends. Some communities celebrate with *Kusna* (rice-liquor) and *Mahuli*This feasting is associated with community playing, singing and dancing. In past, the male youth played *Chhur, Gudu, and Gourbaadi*. Some engage themselves in pastimes like *Kukraamaar* (cock-fight), *Garraamaar* (ram-fight) and the like. Likewise, the girls played *Saatgaati* or *Kansaadi*indoors and *Humo-bauli* outdoors.

### Chher-Chheraa

Apart from the great feasting and merrymaking, there is also one more great event that is observed on this Puspuni. This is known as *Chher-Chheraa*. The word is derived from two Sambalpuri words, Chere and Charaa. Chere-Charaa means "grains for the birds" – a small part of your produce for the unattended lives upon this earth! On this day the little boys and girls move round the village from door to door and collect Chher-Chheraa, a handful of grains from every household. With this they prepare food and feast away from home. Dance and music is an integral part of children's Chher-Chheraa. Chher Chheraa is also given away to the poor families who do not own agricultural land and or depend upon the farmers. Thus, Chher-Chheraa symbolises a concern for the non-producing members of the society.

### Bhuti and Nistaar

On this day of Puspuni, the farmer gives away the remuneration to all labourers of all the agricultural operations. This remuneration is called *Bhuti*. So also, the farmer gives away some annual bonus to them. This bonus is called *Nistaar*. With this Nistaar the annual contract of labour ends for the previous agricultural year. As lexical meaning of the word *nistaar* is "freedom", for an agricultural labourer, Puspuni means the independence day and hence, celebration.

## InfoBox

| Pousha Purnima | |
| --- | --- |
| Also called | Puspuni |
| Observed by | Odisha |
| Begins | Pausha Shukla Purnima |
| Ends | Pausha Purnima |
| Related to | Paush Purnima |


# Powerlifting at the 1997 World Games – Women's middleweight

The women's middleweight competition in powerlifting at the 1997 World Games took place on 8 August 1997 in Lahti, Finland.

## Competition format

A total of 8 athletes entered the competition. Each athlete had 3 attempts in each of 3 events: squat, bench press and deadlift. Athlete, who came with the biggest score in Wilks points is the winner.

## Results

| Rank | Athlete | Nation | Weight | Squat | Bench
press | Deadlift | Total weight | Total points |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Carrie Boudreau | United States | 55.3 | 187.5 | 117.5 | 210.0 | 515.0 | 611.96 |
|  | Ingeborg Marx | Belgium | 59.7 | 200.0 | 105.0 | 195.0 | 500.0 | 559.61 |
|  | Irene Frangi | Argentina | 67.2 | 195.0 | 100.0 | 207.5 | 502.5 | 514.51 |
| 4 | Eva Nikander | Finland | 55.7 | 160.0 | 110.0 | 160.0 | 430.0 | 508.08 |
| 5 | Ayako Ikeya | Japan | 65.8 | 200.0 | 102.5 | 185.0 | 487.5 | 506.85 |
| 6 | Eriko Himeno | Japan | 60.5 | 157.5 | 102.5 | 190.0 | 450.0 | 498.49 |
|  | Antonietta Orsini | Italy | 66.6 | 210.0 | 120.0 | NM | DSQ | DSQ |
|  | Päivi Haapoja | Finland | 67.4 | NM | NM | NM | DSQ | DSQ |

## InfoBox

| Powerlifting women's middleweight
at the 1997 World Games | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Venue | Lahti, Finland |
| Date | 8 August 1997 |
| Competitors | 8 from 6 nations |
| Medalists | |
|  | |
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title: Possible world

abstract: A possible world is a complete and consistent way the world is or could have been. Possible worlds are widely used as a formal device in logic, philosophy, and linguistics in order to provide a semantics for intensional and modal logic. Their metaphysical status has been a subject of controversy in philosophy, with modal realists such as David Lewis arguing that they are literally existing alternate realities, and others such as Robert Stalnaker arguing that they are not.

text:
# Possible world

A **possible world** is a complete and consistent way the world is or could have been. Possible worlds are widely used as a formal device in logic, philosophy, and linguistics in order to provide a semantics for intensional and modal logic. Their metaphysical status has been a subject of controversy in philosophy, with modal realists such as David Lewis arguing that they are literally existing alternate realities, and others such as Robert Stalnaker arguing that they are not.

## Logic

Possible worlds are one of the foundational concepts in modal and intensional logics. Formulas in these logics are used to represent statements about what *might* be true, what *should* be true, what one *believes* to be true and so forth. To give these statements a formal interpretation, logicians use structures containing possible worlds. For instance, in the relational semantics for classical propositional modal logic, the formula $\Diamond P$ (read as "possibly P") is actually true if and only if $P$ is true in some world which is *accessible* from the actual world.

Possible worlds play a central role in the work of both linguists and/or philosophers working in formal semantics. Contemporary formal semantics is couched in formal systems rooted in Montague grammar, which is itself built on Richard Montague's intensional logic. Contemporary research in semantics typically uses possible worlds as formal tools without committing to a particular theory of their metaphysical status. The term *possible world* is retained even by those who attach no metaphysical significance to them.

In the field of database theory, possible worlds are also a notion used in the setting of uncertain databases and probabilistic databases, which serve as a succinct representation of a large number of possible worlds.

## Argument from ways

Possible worlds are often regarded with suspicion, which is why their proponents have struggled to find arguments in their favor. An often-cited argument is called the *argument from ways*. It defines possible worlds as "ways things could have been" and relies for its premises and inferences on assumptions from natural language, for example:

1. The Black Death could have killed 99% of the European population, rather than the estimated 25 to 60%.
2. So there are other ways things could have been.
3. Possible worlds are ways things could have been.
4. So there are other possible worlds.

The central step of this argument happens at *(2)* where the plausible *(1)* is interpreted in a way that involves quantification over "ways". Many philosophers, following Willard Van Orman Quine, hold that quantification entails ontological commitments, in this case, a commitment to the existence of possible worlds. Quine himself restricted his method to scientific theories, but others have applied it also to natural language, for example, Amie L. Thomasson in her paper entitled *Ontology Made Easy*. The strength of the *argument from ways* depends on these assumptions and may be challenged by casting doubt on the quantifier-method of ontology or on the reliability of natural language as a guide to ontology.

## Philosophical issues and applications

### Metaphysics

The ontological status of possible worlds has provoked intense debate. David Lewis famously advocated for a position known as modal realism, which holds that possible worlds are real, concrete places which exist in the exact same sense that the actual world exists. On Lewis's account, the actual world is special only in that we live there. This doctrine is called *the indexicality of actuality* since it can be understood as claiming that the term "actual" is an indexical, like "now" and "here". Lewis gave a variety of arguments for this position. He argued that just as the reality of atoms is demonstrated by their explanatory power in physics, so too are possible worlds justified by their explanatory power in philosophy. He also argued that possible worlds must be real because they are simply "ways things could have been" and nobody doubts that such things exist. Finally, he argued that they could not be reduced to more "ontologically respectable" entities such as maximally consistent sets of propositions without rendering theories of modality circular. (He referred to these theories as "ersatz modal realism" which try to get the benefits of possible worlds semantics "on the cheap".)

Modal realism is controversial. W.V. Quine rejected it as "metaphysically extravagant". Stalnaker responded to Lewis's arguments by pointing out that a way things could have been is not itself a world, but rather a property that such a world can have. Since properties can exist without them applying to any existing objects, there's no reason to conclude that other worlds like ours exist. Another of Stalnaker's arguments attacks Lewis's *indexicality theory of actuality*. Stalnaker argues that even if the English word "actual" is an indexical, that doesn't mean that other worlds exist. For comparison, one can use the indexical "I" without believing that other people actually exist. Some philosophers instead endorse the view of possible worlds as maximally consistent sets of propositions or descriptions, while others such as Saul Kripke treat them as purely *formal* (i.e. mathematical) devices.

### Explicating necessity and possibility

At least since Aristotle, philosophers have been greatly concerned with the logical statuses of propositions, e.g. necessity, contingency, and impossibility. In the twentieth century, possible worlds have been used to explicate these notions. In modal logic, a proposition is understood in terms of the *worlds in which it is true* and *worlds in which it is false*. Thus, equivalences like the following have been proposed:

* *True propositions* are those that are *true in the actual world* (for example: "Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914").
* *False propositions* are those that are *false in the actual world* (for example: "Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 2014").
* *Possible propositions* are those that are *true in at least one possible world* (for example: "Archduke Franz Ferdinand survived the assassination attempt against him in 1914"). This includes propositions which are necessarily true, in the sense below.
* *Impossible propositions* (or *necessarily false propositions*) are those that are *true in no possible world* (for example: "Melissa and Toby are taller than each other at the same time").
* *Necessarily true propositions* (often simply called *necessary propositions*) are those that are *true in all possible worlds* (for example: "2 + 2 = 4"; "all bachelors are unmarried").
* *Contingent propositions* are those that are *true in some possible worlds and false in others* (for example: "Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914" is *contingently true* and "Archduke Franz Ferdinand survived the assassination attempt against him in 1914" is *contingently false*).

### Other uses

Possible worlds play a central role in many other debates in philosophy. These include debates about the Zombie Argument, and physicalism and supervenience in the philosophy of mind. Many debates in the philosophy of religion have been reawakened by the use of possible worlds.

## History of the concept

The idea of possible worlds is most commonly attributed to Gottfried Leibniz, who spoke of possible worlds as ideas in the mind of God and used the notion to argue that our actually created world must be "the best of all possible worlds". Arthur Schopenhauer argued that on the contrary our world must be the worst of all possible worlds, because if it were only a little worse it could not continue to exist. Scholars have found implicit earlier traces of the idea of possible worlds in the works of René Descartes, a major influence on Leibniz, Al-Ghazali (*The Incoherence of the Philosophers*), Averroes (*The Incoherence of the Incoherence*), Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (*Matalib al-'Aliya*), John Duns Scotus and Antonio Rubio (*Commentarii in libros Aristotelis Stagiritae de Coelo*).

The modern philosophical use of the notion was pioneered by David Lewis and Saul Kripke.

## Further reading

* D.M. Armstrong, *A World of States of Affairs* (1997. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-58948-7
* John Divers, *Possible Worlds* (2002. London: Routledge) ISBN 0-415-15556-8
* Paul Herrick, *The Many Worlds of Logic* (1999. Oxford: Oxford University Press) Chapters 23 and 24. ISBN 978-0-19-515503-7
* David Lewis, *On the Plurality of Worlds* (1986. Oxford & New York: Basil Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-13994-X
* Michael J. Loux \[ed.\] *The Possible and the Actual* (1979. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press) ISBN 0-8014-9178-9
* G.W. Leibniz, *Theodicy* (2001. Wipf & Stock Publishers) ISBN 978-0-87548-437-2
* Brian Skyrms, "Possible Worlds, Physics and Metaphysics" (1976. Philosophical Studies 30)


title: Poston Butte High School

abstract: Poston Butte High School is a high school in San Tan Valley, Arizona in the Florence Unified School District. It opened July 20, 2009.

text:
# Poston Butte High School

**Poston Butte High School** is a high school in San Tan Valley, Arizona in the Florence Unified School District. It opened July 20, 2009.

## One-to-one computing

Poston Butte High School does not employ textbooks. Instead, the school's one-to-one computing policy provides a laptop to each student in lieu of textbooks.

The first school to use one-to-one computing in Arizona was Empire High School, which started doing so in 2005. Florence district officials worked with Empire to implement a similar program at Poston Butte in 2009. After successful implementation at Poston Butte, it was expanded to Florence High School in 2010.

## First graduating class

The first class graduated from Poston Butte on May 30, 2012. It had 253 students.

## InfoBox

| Poston Butte High School | |
| --- | --- |
| Address | |
|  | |
| 32375 North Gantzel Road
San Tan Valley, Arizona 85143
United States | |
| Coordinates | 33°10′24″N 111°32′40″W / 33.173222°N 111.544350°W / 33.173222; -111.544350 |
| Information | |
| Type | Public High School |
| School district | Florence Unified School District |
| CEEB code | 030690 |
| Principal | Eddie Lopez |
| Staff | 81.67 (FTE) |
| Grades | 9–12 |
| Enrollment | 1,365 (2017–18) |
| Student to teacher ratio | 16.71 |
| Color(s) | Orange and blue
 |
| Mascot | TUFF The Bronco |
| Website | www.fusdaz.com/pbhs |


title: Pratiyogita Darpan

abstract: Pratiyogita Darpan is an Indian bi-lingual magazine. It focuses on current affairs and general knowledge, and is specially useful for civil service exams and similar competitive exams.

text:
# Pratiyogita Darpan

***Pratiyogita Darpan*** (Hindi: प्रतियोगिता दर्पण) is an Indian bi-lingual magazine. It focuses on current affairs and general knowledge, and is specially useful for civil service exams and similar competitive exams.

## History and profile

*Pratiyogita Darpan* was established by Shri Mahendra Jain, in 1978. Published by Upkar Prakashan based in Agra, it is a widely read and popular magazine for exams and covers wide areas from current affairs, economy, geography, history, politics and constitution of India. The magazine also has an online version, and is published in English and Hindi languages.

According to Indian Readership Survey (IRS), with an average issue readership (AIR) of 2.154 million, in 2011 Q2, it topped the list of career/ education magazines in India it also had a total readership of 5 million, and was the 3rd largest magazine in India.

## InfoBox

Pratiyogita Darpan
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Founder(s) | Shri Mahendra Jain |
| Founded | 1978 |
| Headquarters | Agra, India |


abstract: The President of the Chamber of Republic and Provinces was the presiding officer of one of the chambers of that legislature. Below is an incomplete list of office-holders from 1974:

text:
# President of the Chamber of Republics and Provinces of the Assembly of Yugoslavia

**The President of the Chamber of Republic and Provinces** was the presiding officer of one of the chambers of that legislature.

Below is an incomplete list of office-holders from 1974:

| Name | Period | Republic/Province |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Zoran Polič | 1974–1982 | Slovenia |
| Nikola Kmezić | 1982–1983 | Vojvodina |
| Anton Bubić | 1983–1984 | Croatia |
| Milivoje Stijović | 1984–1985 | Montenegro |
| Metodi Antov | 1985–1986 | Macedonia |
| Milenko Bojanić | 1986–1987 | Serbia |
| Draško Popović | 1987–1988 | Bosnia and Herzegovina |
| Abaz Kazazi | 1988–1989 | Kosovo |
| Miran Mejak |  | Slovenia |

## Sources

* Various editions of *The Europa World Year Book*


title: Prepare the Preparations

abstract: Prepare the Preparations is the third full-length studio album by St. Louis band Ludo. It is the band's second release on Island Records. The album was originally scheduled for an August 17 release date but was pushed back to September 7, 2010.

text:
# Prepare the Preparations

***Prepare the Preparations*** is the third full-length studio album by St. Louis band Ludo. It is the band's second release on Island Records. The album was originally scheduled for an August 17 release date but was pushed back to September 7, 2010.

## Album information

The album was produced by Matt Wallace. The lead single off the album is "Whipped Cream." Topics on the new album include, "skeletons, pirates, cyborgs, robots, leprechauns, witches, curses, Bonnie and Clyde and 1950s R&B." Volpe said of the new album, "I like to write from my imagination, so there are songs about skeletons, grave robbing lovers, a cyclops and of course love and all that stuff."

## Track listing

All tracks are written by Andrew Volpe (except "Safe in the Dark", which was written by Tim Ferrell)

Prepare the Preparations
| No. | Title | Length |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | "Too Tired to Wink" | 3:30 |
| 2. | "Cyborgs vs. Robots" | 3:26 |
| 3. | "Whipped Cream" | 2:56 |
| 4. | "Anything for You" | 3:23 |
| 5. | "Manta Rays" | 3:54 |
| 6. | "Skeletons on Parade" | 5:49 |
| 7. | "I'll Never Be Lonely Again" | 3:39 |
| 8. | "All the Stars in Texas" | 3:13 |
| 9. | "Rotten Town" | 3:24 |
| 10. | "Overdone" | 4:39 |
| 11. | "Battle Cry" | 3:53 |
| 12. | "Safe in the Dark" | 3:47 |
| 13. | "Skeletons Lullaby (Hidden Track)" | 0:44 |

## Members

**Band**

* Andrew Volpe - Vocals, Guitar
* Tim Ferrell - Guitar, Backing Vocals
* Tim Convy - Moog, Backing Vocals
* Matt Palermo - Drums, Backing Vocals

**Additional Musicians**

* Tommy Cantillon - Bass Guitar
* Matt Bowen - Violin, programming
* Tim Christensen - Upright Bass
* Marc McClusky - Programming, loops

## InfoBox

| Prepare the Preparations | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Ludo | |
| Released | September 7, 2010 |
| Genre | Pop rock, power pop |
| Label | Island/Redbird Records |
| Producer | Matt Wallace |
| Ludo chronology | |
| *You're Awful, I Love You*
(2008) ***Prepare the Preparations***
(2010) | |
|  | |
| Singles from  *Prepare the Preparations* | |
| 1. "Whipped Cream"
Released: July 13, 2010 | |
|  | |


title: Daniel H. Hastings

abstract: Daniel Hartman Hastings was the 21st governor of Pennsylvania, serving from 1895 to 1899.

text:
# Daniel H. Hastings

**Daniel Hartman Hastings** (February 26, 1849  January 9, 1903) was the 21st governor of Pennsylvania, serving from 1895 to 1899.

## Biography

Daniel H. Hastings was born in Salona, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, on February 26, 1849. He was educated locally, and worked on his father's farm. He tried several times to run away to join the Union Army for the American Civil War, following the example of his three older brothers, but his father stopped him each time.

## Early career

At age 14, Hastings became a school teacher in Clinton County, Pennsylvania, a job he held for four years. Named principal of Bellefonte High School at age 18, Hastings carried out the responsibilities of this position while furthering his own education, attending Bellefonte Academy and studying law.

Hastings was admitted to the bar in 1875 and established a successful practice. He also became involved in several businesses, including coal mines and banking. In addition, he was editor of the *Bellefonte Republican* newspaper.

Involved in local government and civic institutions, Hastings served on the Bellefonte school board, as a town Burgess, a trustee of Bellefonte's Methodist Episcopal Church, and a trustee of Pennsylvania State College and Dickinson College. Daniel Hastings was initiated into Bellefonte Lodge # 268 of Free and Accepted Masons in September 1874. He became their Worshipful Master of in 1878. He was a member of the Bellefonte Chapter # 241 of Royal Arch masons. He became the Eminent Commander of Constans Commandery #33 Knights Templar of Bellefonte in 1886.

## Start of political career

Active in politics as a Republican, in 1878 he managed the successful Congressional campaign of his law partner, Seth Hartman Yocum, a Republican running as a Greenbacker.

In 1882 he was active in the unsuccessful campaign of James A. Beaver for governor. In 1886, he was a delegate to the state Republican convention, and gave the nominating speech for Beaver, who ran successfully for governor. In 1887 he was chairman of the state Republican convention.

Hastings was a delegate to the 1888 Republican National Convention, and gave the nominating speech for John Sherman. He also gave a seconding speech for Levi P. Morton after Morton was nominated for Vice President.

## Military career

In July 1877 Hastings joined the Pennsylvania State Militia as paymaster of the 5th Regiment with the rank of Captain. Within a year he had been appointed Lieutenant Colonel and second-in-command of his regiment, and soon afterwards he was appointed assistant adjutant of the Pennsylvania Militia's 2nd Brigade. By 1880 he had been promoted to commander of the 5th Regiment with the rank of colonel.

In 1887, governor and fellow Bellefonte resident James A. Beaver named Hastings as Adjutant General of the state Militia with the rank of major general.

In his role as adjutant general, Hastings led relief efforts following the 1889 Johnstown Flood, for which he gained statewide attention and praise.

## Governor of Pennsylvania

Hastings was a candidate for governor in 1890, but Matthew S. Quay, leader of the state Republican Party, succeeded in obtaining the nomination for George W. Delamater, defeating Hastings by only 11 votes.

As a wealthy banker affiliated with Standard Oil, Delamater proved unpopular with many Republicans, who gave him lukewarm support or supported the Democratic nominee, former governor Robert E. Pattison. Pattison had been elected in 1882, and served from 1883 to 1887. Pattison was barred by law to an additional consecutive term and so could not run for reelection. James Beaver defeated Chauncey Forward Black in the 1886, and served from 1887 to 1891. Pattison running again then defeated Delamater in 1890, and served from 1891 to 1895.

Hastings sought the Republican gubernatorial again in 1894. He obtained it, and defeated the Democratic nominee, William M. Singerly. Hastings served one term, 1895 to 1899.

As governor, in 1895 Hastings appointed the first seven judges to the newly created Pennsylvania Superior Court, including former governor Beaver. In addition, his administration included the creation of the Pennsylvania State Game Commission, State Forestry Commission, and Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. He also signed into a law a measure to replace state property taxes with a tax on corporate profits.

Also in 1895, Hastings enacted the Pennsylvania Capitol Police, the first Pennsylvania police agency under Commonwealth jurisdiction and the second oldest state police organization in the United States, after the Texas Rangers.

In 1897, the State Capitol Building in Harrisburg was destroyed in a fire, and the Hastings administration started efforts to erect a replacement, which was completed in 1906.

Hastings directed the state's response during the Spanish–American War, working with the state legislature to raise troops, supplies and equipment and transport them to mobilization sites, and then taking steps to return soldiers to Pennsylvania and demobilize them at the end of the war.

## Death and burial

Following his term, Hastings returned to his law practice and business interests. He died from pneumonia in Bellefonte on January 9, 1903, and was buried at Union Cemetery in Bellefonte.

## Legacy

Hastings Hall on the University Park campus of Penn State is named for him.

In 1889 Hastings founded the town of Hastings, Pennsylvania, as part of his coal mining interests, and it was named for him. He also founded the mining towns of Spangler and Bakerton.

In 1895 Hastings received an honorary LL.D. from Dickinson College.

1. "The Governors of Pennsylvania." Mount Union, Pennsylvania: *The Mount Union Times*, January 27, 1911, p. 1 (subscription required).
2. "Hastings and Lyon." Carbondale, Pennsylvania: *The Carbondale Daily News*, May 24, 1894, p. 1 (subscription required).
3. "City Notes." Scranton, Pennsylvania: *The Scranton Tribune*, October 22, 1894, p. 5 (subscription required).
4. "Inaugural Arrangements." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: *Harrisburg Telegraph*, January 11, 1895, p. 1 (subscription required).
5. "Inauguration." Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: *Harrisburg Independent*, January 14, 1895, p. 1 (subscription required).
6. "PA Capitol Police".

## InfoBox

| Daniel Hartman Hastings | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| 21st Governor of Pennsylvania | |
| **In office**
January 15, 1895  January 17, 1899 | |
| Lieutenant | Walter Lyon |
| Preceded by | Robert E. Pattison |
| Succeeded by | William A. Stone |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1849-02-26)February 26, 1849
Salona, Clinton County, Pennsylvania |
| Died | January 9, 1903(1903-01-09) (aged 53)
Bellefonte, Pennsylvania |
| Nationality | American |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | Jane Armstrong Rankin (married 1877) |
| Profession | Teacher
Principal
Attorney
Military officer |
|  | |


abstract: Richmond Avenue Methodist-Episcopal Church, also known as Richmond Avenue United Methodist Church, is a historic Methodist Episcopal Church located at Buffalo in Erie County, New York. It consists of two structures: a rectilinear Chapel structure, which dates to 1885–1891, and a larger Temple structure dating to 1887–1898. Both structures are two and a half stories set on a raised basement story, with two three-story towers. They are built of ashlar Medina sandstone. It is now home to the Upper West Side Arts Center. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. It is located in the Elmwood Historic District–West.

text:
# Richmond Avenue Methodist-Episcopal Church

**Richmond Avenue Methodist-Episcopal Church**, also known as Richmond Avenue United Methodist Church, is a historic Methodist Episcopal Church located at Buffalo in Erie County, New York. It consists of two structures: a rectilinear Chapel structure, which dates to 1885–1891, and a larger Temple structure dating to 1887–1898. Both structures are two and a half stories set on a raised basement story, with two three-story towers. They are built of ashlar Medina sandstone. It is now home to the Upper West Side Arts Center.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. It is located in the Elmwood Historic District–West.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Richmond Avenue Methodist-Episcopal Church | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. Historic district<br>Contributing property | |
|  | |
| Richmond Avenue Methodist-Episcopal Church, December 2009 | |
|  | |
| Location | 525 W. Ferry St., Buffalo, New York |
| Coordinates | 42°54′54″N 78°52′53″W / 42.91500°N 78.88139°W / 42.91500; -78.88139 |
| Area | 1 acre (0.40 ha) |
| Built | 1885 |
| Architect | Metzger and Greenfield; et al. |
| Architectural style | Late 19th And 20th Century Revivals, Norman Revival |
| NRHP reference No. | 08001143 |
| Added to NRHP | December 05, 2008 |