title: Tim Lake

abstract: Timothy W. Lake is a television news anchor and historical narrative nonfiction author, currently at WTEN in Albany, New York. He was formerly the solo anchor of WCAU's NBC 10 News at 6 p.m. and co-anchor of NBC 10 News at 4 with Dawn Timmeney and NBC 10 News at 11 p.m. with Renee Chenault-Fattah. Lake was the primary co-anchor at NBC 10 from March 2003 until December 7, 2012. Previously he was the co-anchor of NBC 10 News at Five and the noontime news with Chenault when WCAU-TV was owned by CBS. He joined WCAU in 1992. Prior to that he was the weekend anchor at KPRC-TV in Houston, Texas and the 11 pm weeknight anchor at South Carolina's highest rated TV station, CBS affiliate WCSC-TV in Charleston. After leaving WCAU, Lake published three books, Henderson Harbor (2012), Association Island (2013), and Hang on and Fly, A Post-War Story of Plane Crash Tragedies, Heroism, and Survival (2015). Hang on and Fly is about the early low-cost airlines of America and how one of many crashes among these upstart airlines led to the largest group of crash survivors stranded for a long time without rescue in North America. The story features a Syrian-American who becomes a national hero, a stewardess who gets limited credit for her role among the survivors because of her gender, and a simple farmer's wife who helps rescue the survivors while keeping a deadly secret of her own. It also features America's top plane crash investigator who makes the first visit to a commercial airlines crash. The story reveals that some of the survivors stole money from the dead. Lake began working for daily and weekly newspapers while attending State University of New York at Fredonia. He concurrently worked for commercial radio stations in Buffalo and Dunkirk, New York, in addition to the campus station, WCVF-FM. He has also worked for several newspapers: The Walton Reporter, 1978–1981; The Jamestown Post-Journal, 1981–1982; The North Myrtle Beach Times, 1982-1983. He has also worked at a number of other radio and television stations, including: WCVF, Fredonia, NY; WZIR, Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY; WDOE, Dunkirk, NY; WNMB, North Myrtle Beach, SC; KPRC-TV, Houston, TX. Lake has covered news events throughout New York State, North and South Carolina, Texas and Mexico, Washington, DC, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. He has won numerous awards for newspaper writing and radio and television reporting and is the tenth child in a family of thirteen. Lake has published for Arcadia Books and what appears to be his own company, Lake Publishing. He's also written long-form historical articles for The Buffalo News, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jamestown Post-Journal, and for Thousand Islands Life magazine. The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia inducted Lake into its Hall of Fame in 2011.

text:
# Tim Lake

**Timothy W. Lake** (born December 27, 1959) is a television news anchor and historical narrative nonfiction author, currently at WTEN in Albany, New York. He was formerly the solo anchor of WCAU's NBC 10 News at 6 p.m. and co-anchor of NBC 10 News at 4 with Dawn Timmeney and NBC 10 News at 11 p.m. with Renee Chenault-Fattah.

Lake was the primary co-anchor at NBC 10 from March 2003 until December 7, 2012. Previously he was the co-anchor of NBC 10 News at Five and the noontime news with Chenault when WCAU-TV was owned by CBS. He joined WCAU in 1992. Prior to that he was the weekend anchor at KPRC-TV in Houston, Texas and the 11 pm weeknight anchor at South Carolina's highest rated TV station, CBS affiliate WCSC-TV in Charleston.

After leaving WCAU, Lake published three books, *Henderson Harbor* (2012), *Association Island* (2013), and *Hang on and Fly, A Post-War Story of Plane Crash Tragedies, Heroism, and Survival* (2015).  *Hang on and Fly* is about the early low-cost airlines of America and how one of many crashes among these upstart airlines led to the largest group of crash survivors stranded for a long time without rescue in North America. The story features a Syrian-American who becomes a national hero, a stewardess who gets limited credit for her role among the survivors because of her gender, and a simple farmer's wife who helps rescue the survivors while keeping a deadly secret of her own. It also features America's top plane crash investigator who makes the first visit to a commercial airlines crash. The story reveals that some of the survivors stole money from the dead.

Lake began working for daily and weekly newspapers while attending State University of New York at Fredonia. He concurrently worked for commercial radio stations in Buffalo and Dunkirk, New York, in addition to the campus station, WCVF-FM.

He has also worked for several newspapers: The Walton (New York) Reporter, 1978–1981; The Jamestown (New York) Post-Journal, 1981–1982; The North Myrtle Beach Times (South Carolina), 1982-1983. He has also worked at a number of other radio and television stations, including: WCVF, Fredonia, NY; WZIR, Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY; WDOE, Dunkirk, NY; WNMB, North Myrtle Beach, SC; KPRC-TV, Houston, TX. Lake has covered news events throughout New York State, North and South Carolina, Texas and Mexico, Washington, DC, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. He has won numerous awards for newspaper writing and radio and television reporting and is the tenth child in a family of thirteen.

Lake has published for Arcadia Books and what appears to be his own company, Lake Publishing. He's also written long-form historical articles for *The Buffalo News, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jamestown Post-Journal*, and for *Thousand Islands Life* magazine.

The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia inducted Lake into its Hall of Fame in 2011.

## InfoBox

| Timothy W. Lake | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1959-12-27) December 27, 1959<br>Ellisburg, New York |
| Education | Fredonia State University |
| Title | News Anchor (WTEN News 10 ABC) |
| Children | 3 |
| Website | www.timlakebooks.com |


title: Tim Lamb

abstract: Timothy Michael Lamb is an English sports administrator and former cricketer who played for a decade in County cricket for Middlesex and Northamptonshire as a bowler. After retiring from playing, he became an administrator, serving the Middlesex County Cricket Club, the Test and County Cricket Board (TCCB) and the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB). His most notable cricket administrative roles were as chief executive of the TCCB and its successor ECB from 1996 to 2004. He later became the chief executive of the Sport and Recreation Alliance from 2005 until 2014. He left the Sport and Recreation Alliance and set up TML Sports Connections, a sports consultancy. He is also a member of the Cabinet Office Sport Honours Committee.

text:
# Tim Lamb

**Timothy Michael Lamb** (born 24 March 1953) is an English sports administrator and former cricketer who played for a decade in County cricket for Middlesex and Northamptonshire as a bowler. After retiring from playing, he became an administrator, serving the Middlesex County Cricket Club, the Test and County Cricket Board (TCCB) and the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB). His most notable cricket administrative roles were as chief executive of the TCCB and its successor ECB from 1996 to 2004. He later became the chief executive of the Sport and Recreation Alliance (formerly the CCPR) from 2005 until 2014. He left the Sport and Recreation Alliance and set up TML Sports Connections, a sports consultancy. He is also a member of the Cabinet Office Sport Honours Committee.

## Early life and education

Lamb was born in Hartford, Cheshire in 1953, the second son of Foster Lamb, later to be the second Baron Rochester. His older brother, David Lamb, became the third Baron Rochester in 2017.

Lamb was educated at Shrewsbury School, a boarding and day independent school for boys (now coeducational), in the market town of Shrewsbury in Shropshire, followed by The Queen's College at the University of Oxford (at which he got blues in 1973 and 1974).

## Cricket career

Lamb played professional cricket for Middlesex (1974–1977) and Northamptonshire (1978–1983). A right-arm fast-medium bowler, he played 160 First Class matches between 1973 and 1983, taking 361 wickets (average 28.97) and scoring 1274 runs (average 12.49), with a top score of 77 against Nottinghamshire at Lord's. But he was perhaps better known for his record in the limited overs form of the game, where in all competitions he took a total of 190 wickets at an average of 25.70 at a highly respectable economy rate of 3.86. He also played in four Lord's Cup Finals.

## Sports administration

He entered sports administration as secretary and general manager of Middlesex County Cricket Club in 1984, and became cricket secretary of the Test and County Cricket Board in 1988 and chief executive (prior to the establishment of the ECB) in 1996. Under his leadership the sport of cricket witnessed a period of unprecedented reform and modernisation, which saw the introduction of Twenty20 Cricket, a two-division County Championship with promotion and relegation, central contracts for England players, the establishment of a National Academy and a resurgence of interest and participation in cricket among children (boys and girls), as well as a significant growth in the women's game. The ECB's annual commercial income more than doubled during his period of office. He was subsequently elected an Honorary Life Member of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), Middlesex County Cricket Club and also Durham County Cricket Club in recognition of his services to cricket.

Lamb left the ECB in 2004 and the following year became chief executive of the CCPR (renamed the Sport and Recreation Alliance in December 2010), the independent umbrella body and trade association for the national governing and representative bodies of sport and recreation in the UK. Lamb retired from this position in February 2014.

## Personal life

He is married to Denise and has two children. His son Nick, played nine First-class matches for the Durham University Centre of Cricketing Excellence and the British Universities cricket team.

## InfoBox

The Honourable
Tim Lamb
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Timothy Michael Lamb |
| Born | 24 March 1953<br>Hartford, Cheshire, England |
| Nickname | Tiger |
| Height | 6 ft (183 cm) |
| Batting | Right-handed |
| Bowling | Right arm medium |
| Role | Bowler |
| Relations | Nick Lamb (son) |
| Domestic team information | |
| Years | Team |
| 1973–1974 | Oxford University |
| 1974–1977 | Middlesex |
| 1978–1983 | Northamptonshire |
|  | |
| Career statistics | |
| Competition FC LA  Matches 160 166  Runs scored 1,274 432  Batting average 12.49 10.53  100s/50s 0/1 0/0  Top score 77 27  Balls bowled 23,208 7587  Wickets 361 190  Bowling average 28.97 25.70  5 wickets in innings 10 3  10 wickets in match 0 0  Best bowling 7/56 5/13  Catches/stumpings 40/0 34/0 | |
|  | |
| Source: CricketArchive (subscription required), 28 April 2021 | |


title: Thottiyam

abstract: Thottiyam is a Town and Taluk in Tiruchirappalli district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thamilselvi Thirugnanam is the current President of Thottiyam. It is situated 60 km north-west of Tiruchirapalli on Tiruchy-Namakkal State Highway (SH-25) and further it connects Namakkal-Salem-Bangalore National Highway. It is located near the Kaveri River, about 12 km north-west of Musiri. Koranganatha Temple located in the outskirts of the town is a historic temple built during the Chola period in the 10th century. There is a village near by this town called Thirunarayana puram which has the famous Vedanarayana perumal temple, Thirunarayanapuram.

text:
# Thottiyam

**Thottiyam** is a Town and Taluk in Tiruchirappalli district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thamilselvi Thirugnanam is the current President of Thottiyam. It is situated 60 km north-west of Tiruchirapalli on Tiruchy-Namakkal State Highway (SH-25) and further it connects Namakkal-Salem-Bangalore National Highway (NH 7). It is located near the Kaveri River, about 12 km north-west of Musiri. Koranganatha Temple located in the outskirts of the town is a historic temple built during the Chola period in the 10th century. There is a village near by this town called Thirunarayana puram which has the famous Vedanarayana perumal temple, Thirunarayanapuram.

## Demographics

As of 2001 India census, Thottiyam had a population of 23,357. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Thottiyam has an average literacy rate of 73%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; male literacy is 81%, and female literacy is 66%. In Thottiyam, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age.

## Politics

Thottiyam current town panchayat president is Thamilselvi Thirugnanam. Thottiyam assembly constituency was a part of Karur (Lok Sabha constituency) and recently merged with the Perambalur (Lok Sabha constituency). The election commission has decided to merge the state assembly constituency of Thottiam with the Musiri constituency; political observers fear that it may affect the identity of this constituency.

## InfoBox

| Thottiyam | |
| --- | --- |
| Town | |
| ThottiyamLocation in Tamil Nadu, India | |
| Coordinates: 10°59′00″N 78°20′00″E / 10.9833°N 78.3333°E / 10.9833; 78.3333 | |
| Country | India |
| State | Tamil Nadu |
| District | Tiruchirappalli |
| Region | Central Tamil Nadu |
| Population (2001) | |
| Total | 13,757 |
| Languages | |
| Official | Tamil |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (IST) |
| Vehicle registration | TN-48 |


title: Through the Eyes of Heathens

abstract: Through The Eyes Of Heathens is Dozer's fourth album. It was recorded at the Seawolf Studios in Helsinki. The album was released on Small Stone Records with whom they had signed on to earlier that year. The album includes the track Until Man Exists No More which features guest vocals by Troy Sanders of Mastodon.

text:
# Through the Eyes of Heathens

Professional ratings
| Review scores | |
| --- | --- |
| Source | Rating |
| Allmusic |  |

***Through The Eyes Of Heathens*** is Dozer's fourth album. It was recorded at the Seawolf Studios in Helsinki. The album was released on Small Stone Records with whom they had signed on to earlier that year. The album includes the track *Until Man Exists No More* which features guest vocals by Troy Sanders of Mastodon.

## Track listing

1. "Drawing Dead" \- 4:38
2. "Born a Legend" \- 3:24
3. "From Fire Fell" \- 2:39
4. "Until Man Exists No More" \- 5:08
5. "Days of Future Past" \- 3:45
6. "Omega Glory" \- 5:00
7. "Blood Undone" \- 4:44
8. "The Roof, The River, The Revolver" \- 3:07
9. "Man of Fire" \- 3:16
10. "Big Sky Theory" \- 8:28

## InfoBox

| Through the Eyes of Heathens | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Dozer | |
| Released | January 24, 2006 |
| Genre | Stoner metal |
| Length | 44:23 |
| Label | Small Stone Records |
| Dozer chronology | |
| *Call It Conspiracy*
(2003) ***Through the Eyes of Heathens***
(2006) *Beyond Colossal*
(2008) | |


title: Tim Battersby

abstract: Tim Battersby is a British composer and performer of children's music.

text:
# Tim Battersby

**Tim Battersby** (born 16 March 1949) is a British composer and performer of children's music.

## Biography

Tim Battersby was born in Fleet, Hampshire, on 16 March 1949 and was educated at Lancing College. His father was British diplomat E.W. Battersby, OBE (1916–1997). In 1977, he composed the music for a Smithsonian Institution film entitled *The Last Chance*, which debuted at The National Zoo in Washington D.C. in May 1978.

As one half of The Battersby Duo, he has received three Parents' Choice Awards and an American Cable Emmy. The Battersby Duo has performed at The White House six times, as well as The Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, The Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center, The Filene Center at Wolf Trap, The Savannah Music Festival, and Charleston's Piccolo Spoleto Festival. The Battersby Duo has also appeared on *The Today Show* on NBC. On 1 December 2010, The Battersby Duo was nominated for a Grammy Award for their latest children's CD, *Sunny Days*.

## Discography

* *A Tail of Too Sillies* (1993)
* *Too Sillies Two* (1999)
* *By the Book* (2003)
* *Color Magic* (2008)
* "Painting Box" (2008)
* " Sunny Days" (2010)

1. "Timmothy Battersby (artist page)". *Grammy Awards*. Recording Academy. Retrieved 4 January 2024.


abstract: The Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands region extends along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River to Lake Champlain, and south down the Hudson River. It is primarily within the state of New York, with smaller portions in Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. In the north it meets the Mixedwood Plains Ecozone of Canada in eastern Ontario and southern Quebec. It is mostly temperate deciduous forest and agricultural land. It is one of the 104 Level III ecoregions that occur within the United States, and one of the 35 that comprise the Eastern Temperate Forest Level 1 Ecoregion. This classification system was developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

text:
# Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands (ecoregion)

The **Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands** region extends along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River to Lake Champlain, and south down the Hudson River. It is primarily within the state of New York, with smaller portions in Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. In the north it meets the Mixedwood Plains Ecozone of Canada in eastern Ontario and southern Quebec. It is mostly temperate deciduous forest and agricultural land.

It is one of the 104 Level III ecoregions that occur within the United States, and one of the 35 that comprise the Eastern Temperate Forest Level 1 Ecoregion. This classification system was developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

## Description

This region was glaciated during the last ice age, and contains prominent glacial features including till and drumlins, as well as the valleys containing the Finger Lakes. Part of the area was covered by Glacial Lake Iroquois, while regions further to the east were flooded under the Champlain Sea. At one point during the melting of the glaciers, the Great Lakes drained down the Hudson River to the Atlantic Ocean.

## Natural history

This area is mostly temperate deciduous forest, dominated by trees including maple, beech and oak. Unlike forests further to the north, southern tree species such as hickory also occur (see Bitternut hickory and Shagbark hickory). Many other plant and animal species reach their northern limits in this ecoregion. A few more examples follow. The wetland plant, arrow arum (*Peltandra virginica*) reaches the St. Lawrence River and the Richelieu River. The bog turtle (*Clemmys muhlenbergii*) reaches the southern shores of Lake Ontario, while the eastern box turtle reaches the southern shores of Lake Erie. Along the shores of the lakes and rivers, there are significant areas of wetland, principally marshes and swamps. Some of the many significant natural areas include El Dorado Beach Preserve on Lake Ontario, the Chaumont Barrens alvar grassland, and the Rome Sand Plains.

Large areas of this forest have been cleared for agriculture, particularly dairy farms and row crops. The presence of the Great Lakes moderates the climate, but increases snowfall. Major cities in this region include Cleveland, Erie, Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse and Albany.

## Ecoregion classification

There can be some problems with understanding the naming of this ecological region, since the Canadian government has its own classification system of ecozones, which can have different names. In this case, the Mixedwood Plains occur on the Canadian side of the border while the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands occur on the American side.

Hence, the Commission for Environmental Cooperation has worked toward giving each ecological region of North America a consistent name. In the CEC system, this ecoregion is named the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands, and is identified as region 8.1.1. In the west it meets ecoregion 8.1.2, the Lake Erie Lowland. In the east it meets 5.3.1, the North Appalachian and Atlantic Maritime Highlands.

In northern New York, there are two high altitude areas, one being the Adirondacks, that are colder and so fall within ecoregion 5.3.1. In addition the World Wildlife Fund developed its own classification system, in which much of this region is called the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests.

## Images


title: Eastern Goleta Valley, California

abstract: Eastern Goleta Valley is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Santa Barbara County, California, United States. It is located between Goleta to the west, Santa Barbara to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the south, and the Santa Ynez Mountains to the north and includes the communities of Noleta and Hope Ranch. For statistical purposes, the United States Census Bureau designated the area as a census-designated place (CDP) prior to the 2020 census. Prior to the incorporation of Goleta in 2002 within a narrower set of boundaries, the area was included in the Goleta CDP.

text:
# Eastern Goleta Valley, California

**Eastern Goleta Valley** is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Santa Barbara County, California, United States. It is located between Goleta to the west, Santa Barbara to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the south, and the Santa Ynez Mountains to the north and includes the communities of Noleta and Hope Ranch. For statistical purposes, the United States Census Bureau designated the area as a census-designated place (CDP) prior to the 2020 census. Prior to the incorporation of Goleta in 2002 within a narrower set of boundaries, the area was included in the Goleta CDP.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2020 | 28,656 |  |  |
| U.S. Decennial Census
1850–1870 1880-1890
1900 1910 1920
1930 1940 1950
1960 1970 1980
1990 2000 2010
2020 | | | |

Eastern Goleta Valley first appeared as a census designated place in the 2020 U.S. Census.

### 2020 Census

**Eastern Goleta Valley CDP, California – Racial and ethnic composition**
*Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.*
| Race / Ethnicity (*NH = Non-Hispanic*) | Pop 2020 | % 2020 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| White alone (NH) | 17,661 | 61.63% |
| Black or African American alone (NH) | 204 | 0.71% |
| Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 82 | 0.29% |
| Asian alone (NH) | 1,714 | 5.98% |
| Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 52 | 0.18% |
| Other race alone (NH) | 173 | 0.60% |
| Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) | 1,312 | 4.58% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 7,458 | 26.03% |
| **Total** | **28,656** | **100.00%** |

## InfoBox

| Eastern Goleta Valley | |
| --- | --- |
| Unincorporated community
Census-designated place | |
| Eastern Goleta ValleyEastern Goleta Valley | |
| Coordinates: 34°26′40″N 119°47′21″W / 34.44444°N 119.78917°W / 34.44444; -119.78917 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | California |
| County | Santa Barbara |
| Area | |
| Total | 16.89 sq mi (43.74 km2) |
| Land | 16.59 sq mi (42.98 km2) |
| Water | 0.29 sq mi (0.76 km2) |
| Elevation | 120 ft (40 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 28,656 |
| Density | 1,726.79/sq mi (666.71/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-8 (Pacific (PST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-7 (PDT) |
| ZIP Codes | 93105, 93110, 93111, 93117 (Santa Barbara) |
| Area code | 805 |
| FIPS code | 06-20574 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2813349 |


title: EStat.cz

abstract: eStat.cz is a think tank based in the Czech Republic. Its focus is an efficient government and public services. It was founded in 2004.

text:
# EStat.cz

**eStat.cz** is a think tank based in the Czech Republic. Its focus is an efficient government and public services. It was founded in 2004.

## History

eStat.cz was founded in 2004 by Edvard Kožušník and Michal Tošovský. Leader of the Civic Democratic Party Mirek Topolánek also initiated foundation of the think tank.

eStat.cz started its Internet television in 2008. Some media called it a television of the Civic Democratic Party. eStat.cz television was used by Mirek Topolánek and Pavel Bém. Ivo Brokeš from eStat.cz stated that politicians from other parties can use it too.

eStat.cz also fought against ratification of Lisbon Treaty. They argued that the treaty gives too much power to the European Commission and leads to European superstate.

## InfoBox

eStat.cz
|
|  |
| Founded | 2004 |
| Founder | Edvard Kožušník |
| Type | association |
| Focus | Austerity politics |
| Location |  |
| Website | www.estat.cz (in Czech) |


title: ESolar

abstract: eSolar is a privately held company that develops concentrating solar power (CSP) plant technology. The company was founded by the Pasadena-based business incubator Idealab in 2007 as a developer of CSP plant technology. The company aims to develop a low cost alternative to fossil fuels through a combination of small heliostats, modular architecture, and a high-precision sun-tracking system. In October 2017, an article in GreenTech Media suggested that eSolar ceased business in late 2016.

text:
# ESolar

**eSolar** is a privately held company that develops concentrating solar power (CSP) plant technology. The company was founded by the Pasadena-based business incubator Idealab in 2007 as a developer of CSP plant technology. The company aims to develop a low cost alternative to fossil fuels through a combination of small heliostats, modular architecture, and a high-precision sun-tracking system. In October 2017, an article in GreenTech Media suggested that eSolar ceased business in late 2016.

## Technology

### Heliostat design

eSolar has designed heliostats that are smaller than the industry norm, allowing for pre-fabrication, mass-manufacturing, and easy installation, thereby reducing production and installation costs. eSolar announced a new heliostat design, referred to as SCS5, during the 2013 SolarPACES Conference in Las Vegas, Nevada. SCS5 offers a more simplified design and enhanced reliability to reduce total installed solar collector system cost by more than a third.

### Sun-tracking software

eSolar has developed a sun-tracking control system that is able to calibrate heliostats and monitor the performance of each heliostat within the field. Tests have shown an unprecedented pointing accuracy and high thermal concentration ratios. \[citation\]

### Power tower and electricity generation

An array of heliostats reflect solar radiation to a tower-mounted thermal receiver. In the direct-steam configuration, the concentrated solar energy boils water in the receiver to produce steam. The steam is piped to a steam turbine generator, which converts the energy to electricity. The steam out of the turbine is condensed and pressurized back into the receiver. In the molten salt configuration, the concentrated solar energy heats molten salt to store thermal energy for future use.

### Module

eSolar's field layout design is built around the concept of scalable modules. In the direct-steam configuration, each module comprises over 20,000 square meters of heliostats arranged in two subfields – north and south – which track the sun and concentrate solar energy to the tower mounted receiver. The field layout is a simple, regular design that eliminates precision surveying and ground penetration. In the molten salt configuration a hexagonal solar field consists of over 100,000 square meters of reflector area.

A 46 MW eSolar power unit consists of sixteen heliostat fields and towers, a single steam turbine generator set, and a steam condenser, with a typical footprint of approximately 100 hectares (250 acres). These basic 46 MW units are designed to be scaled up to fit specific power requirements. In the molten salt configuration, 10 modules may be aggregated to build a 100MW, 50% capacity factor solar power plant. Plants of various electric output and capacity factor may be assembled through use or varying numbers of molten salt modules.

## Sierra SunTower

In the summer of 2009, eSolar unveiled the 5 MW Sierra SunTower plant, a commercial facility in Lancaster, California that demonstrated the company's technology. Sierra SunTower is interconnected to the Southern California Edison (SCE) grid and, in spring 2010, it was the only commercial CSP tower facility in North America. As of mid-August, 2018, the two towers that were the center of the facility are no longer standing. The plant, however, is still present.

Sierra SunTower included two eSolar modules. 24,000 heliostats, divided between four sub-fields, tracked the sun and focussed its energy onto two tower-mounted receivers. The focused heat converted feedwater piped to the receivers into superheated steam that drove a reconditioned 1947 GE turbine generator to produce electricity. The steam passed through a steam condenser, reverted to water through cooling, and the process repeated.

During the 12 months of construction, Sierra SunTower created over 300 temporary jobs. In operation, the site employed 21 permanent employees.

Sierra Suntower was certified by the California Energy Commission as a renewable energy facility. Power from the facility is sold under a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with SCE, providing renewable energy for up to 4,000 homes.

The 5 MW output from Sierra SunTower reduced CO2 emissions by 7,000 tons per year, an amount equivalent to planting 5,265 acres (21.31 km2) of trees, removing 1,368 automobiles from the road, or saving 650,000 gallons of gasoline.

However, in 2015, the Sierra SunTower was shut down for commercial operation, as it was deemed to be too costly to operate except on the sunniest of days. Thus, it served to show the real-world problems, and unpredictable nature, of concentrated solar power.

## Performance Data from US Treasury Dept.- Performance Report and Certification Form

The eSolar Sierra SunTower generated 539 MWh (MegaWatt-hour) of electricity from August 1, 2010, to July 31, 2011. A total of 539 MWh of gross electrical energy has been generated at Sierra during the period Aug 1, 2010 and July 31, 2011. This is approximately 12.6% of the expected power generation of the initial estimate of 4270 MWh, a dismal result.

## Production

Generation (MW·h) of Sierra SunTower Solar Gen Station
| Year | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Total |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2010 | 1 | 13 | 31 | 47 | 66 | 75 | 73 | 65 | 53 | 24 | 20 | 8 | 476 |
| 2011 | 0 | 12 | 17 | 27 | 34 | 43 | 37 | 38 | 26 | 21 | 7 | 7 | 270 |
| 2012 | 2 | 23 | 57 | 82 | 113 | 122 | 105 | 83 | 78 | 61 | 31 | 23 | 780 |
| 2013 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 94 | 94 |
| 2014 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1,620 |

## Molten salt-based solar plant

eSolar, with its partner, Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group, has been working on the design of a modular molten salt-based concentrating solar power plant since 2010. With the support from the U. S. Department of Energy, the companies try to come up with a design for plants with flexibility of the sizes from 50 to 200 MW by replicating the basic module without a redesign. Each module uses hexagonal heliostat field to reflect sunlight to the salt-in-tube external thermal receiver on top of the tower at the center. With many modules working together, the receivers heat the 285 °C cold salt input and return 565 °C hot salt to centrally located storage. The hot salt will then be used in the generator system to generate electricity. The new system incorporates the experience from the Sierra SunTower which uses a Babcock & Wilcox's water-based receiver, and the finding from the Solar Two project.

## Partnerships

### NRG

NRG Energy, Inc. partnered with eSolar in February 2009 to develop solar power plants with a total generation capacity of up to 500 MW at sites within California and across the Southwestern United States. Additionally, NRG invested approximately $10 million for equity and associated development rights for three projects and a portfolio of PPAs to develop, build, own, and operate up to 11 eSolar modular solar generating units at these sites. The development assets will use eSolar's concentrating solar power (CSP) technology to sell renewable electricity under contracted PPAs with local utilities seeking competitively priced, zero-carbon solar power.

### Penglai Electric

In January 2010, eSolar announced a partnership with Penglai Electric, a privately owned Chinese electrical power equipment manufacturer, to build 2,000 MW of solar thermal power plants in China by 2021.

The deal represents China's largest CSP project to date (Spring 2010) and has a total potential capital investment of more than $5 billion. Under the master licensing agreement, Penglai Electric will use eSolar's solar thermal technology. The first plant of 92 MW will break ground in 2010. The plants will be co-located with biomass electricity generation facilities, together eliminating 15 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.

It appears that this partnership is no longer progressing.

### Ferrostaal

In February 2010, Ferrostaal, a global power and industrial plant developer, partnered with eSolar to deploy turnkey solar power plants in countries including Spain, the United Arab Emirates, and South Africa. Under the partnership, eSolar will provide solar field and receiver technology, while Ferrostaal will supply the power block, act as general contractor, and manage financing activities.

### General Electric

In August 2011 General Electric (GE) made a strategic investment of up to $40 million in eSolar.

### Aalborg CSP A/S

In December 2014, eSolar was awarded a commercial contract by Aalborg CSP to provide a solar collector system (SCS) solution for the Sundrop Farms Port Augusta expansion project. This expansion will increase the greenhouses by 20 hectares in support of a 10-year tomato supply contract with Coles.

## Recognition and awards

When eSolar's Sierra SunTower was unveiled in August 2009, California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger praised the company for, "...proving that California's energy and environmental leadership are advancing carbon-free, cost-effective energy that can be used around the world."

In December 2009, eSolar was honored by the World Economic Forum as a 2010 Technology Pioneer. The award recognizes eSolar's technological innovation and global commitment to delivering a clean, low-cost energy alternative to fossil fuels. An interview with Bill Gross is featured on YouTube where he responds to four questions posed to each of the World Economic Forum's Technology Pioneer 2010 winners.

In December 2009, editors of *Power Engineering* magazine selected Sierra SunTower as the winner of the "Best Renewable Project", recognizing the facility as an exceptional power generation project toward meeting growing global demand.

In February 2010, Sierra SunTower won Renewable Energy World's "Renewable Project of the Year" award. The award recognized eSolar's achievements in the clean energy industry by naming Sierra SunTower an exceptional breakthrough in the commercialization of solar thermal technology.

In February 2010, eSolar was named one of The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)'s *Technology Review'*s 2010 TR50. The TR50 is a list of the 50 most innovative companies in the world, those that have demonstrated superiority at creating technology that transforms how we live. The 2010 TR50 Archived 2010-05-28 at the Wayback Machine celebrates the development of emerging technologies and the progress made in those already established. eSolar is honored alongside such companies as Google, Apple, Twitter, and IBM.

In March 2010, *The Wall Street Journal'*s first survey of venture-backed clean technology companies featured eSolar as a Top 10 Cleantech Company with the capital, executive experience, and investor know-how to succeed in an increasingly crowded field.

## Investors

eSolar has secured over $182 million in investment funds. Investors include Google.org, Oak Investment Partners, NRG Energy, ACME Group, Idealab, and Quercus Trust.

## Management

* President & CEO – John Van Scoter
* Founder – Bill Gross

## InfoBox

eSolar
|
|  |
| Company type | Venture backed private |
| Industry | Concentrating Solar Power Technology and Engineering |
| Founded | 2007 |
| Headquarters | Burbank, California, United States |
| Key people | John Van Scoter (President & CEO)
Bill Gross (Founder) |
| Website | www.eSolar.com |


# Timeline of Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2019)

This is a timeline of events during the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present) in 2019.

## Chronology

### January–July

* **14 January 2019 -** An IS attack on a checkpoint northwest of Kirkuk resulted in the death of 1 PMU fighter.
* **9 February 2019 -** 2 Iraqi bomb disposal soldiers were killed while defusing a bomb in the city of Hīt, West of Ramadi.
* **2 February 2019 -** Popular Mobilization Forces killed 2 IS fighters trying to sneak into Diyala Governorate from the Hamreen mountains area.
* **17 March 2019 -** Clashes between the Iraqi Army and PKK in Sinjar left 2 Iraqi soldiers dead and 5 militants wounded according to the Iraqi Military. The fighting started after PKK militia fighters were denied passage through an army checkpoint.
* **7 July 2019 -** The Iraqi army launched an Operation, dubbed "Will of Victory" to clear the Salahaddin, Nineveh and Anbar provinces of IS sleeper cells. It had concluded by **11 July 2019**.

### August

* **10 August 2019 -** A US marine was killed in the Nineveh Governorate by IS while advising Iraqi security forces.

### September

* **10 September 2019 -** A massive bombing of Qanus Island, on the Tigris River south of Mosul, leveled an IS transit and operations hub.
* **20 September 2019 – 2019 Karbala bombing:** An unidentified man boarded a minibus in the southern Iraqi city of Karbala, disembarking a little later after having left a bag behind. It exploded shortly afterwards, killing 12 and wounding five others. The suspect was later arrested and the Islamic State claimed responsibility. The bombing was one of the worst attack against civilians since the end of the War in Iraq.

### October

* **21 October 2019 -** IS attacked an Iraqi security checkpoint in the Allas oilfields area in northern Salahuddin province, killing 2 and wounding 3 security members.
* **30 October 2019 -** Rockets were fired into the Green Zone in Baghdad near the US embassy amid mass protests against the Iraqi government, an Iraqi soldier was reportedly killed by the rocket fire.

### December

* **3 December 2019 -** Iraqi security forces announce the capture of Baghdadi's "deputy" who operated under the name of "Abu Khaldoun". According to security officials, a police unit in Hawija, Kirkuk Governorate, tracked down Khaldoun to an apartment in the March 1 area where he was hiding; he possessed a fake I.D. under the name of Shaalan Obeid when apprehended. Khaldoun was previously IS's "military prince" of Iraq's Saladin Governorate.
* **17 December 2019 -** A coalition airstrike targeted IS locations in Makhmur District.


title: Eagle Bend, Mississippi

abstract: Eagle Bend is a census-designated place and unincorporated community in Warren County, Mississippi. It is approximately 31 miles northwest of downtown Vicksburg, and is part of the Vicksburg Micropolitan Statistical Area. Eagle Bend began as a postal hamlet located directly on the Mississippi River. In 1866, the river changed its course and created a natural cutoff called "Terrapin Neck". The former bend in the river soon silted up at either end, creating Eagle Lake, an oxbow lake. The population of Eagle Bend was 50 in 1900. It was first named as a CDP in the 2020 Census which listed a population of 296. Eagle Bend is situated on the east shore of Eagle Lake, and is popular for fishing and water sports.

text:
# Eagle Bend, Mississippi

**Eagle Bend** is a census-designated place and unincorporated community in Warren County, Mississippi. It is approximately 31 miles northwest of downtown Vicksburg, and is part of the Vicksburg Micropolitan Statistical Area.

Eagle Bend began as a postal hamlet located directly on the Mississippi River. In 1866, the river changed its course and created a natural cutoff called "Terrapin Neck". The former bend in the river soon silted up at either end, creating Eagle Lake, an oxbow lake.

The population of Eagle Bend was 50 in 1900. It was first named as a CDP in the 2020 Census which listed a population of 296.

Eagle Bend is situated on the east shore of Eagle Lake, and is popular for fishing and water sports.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2020 | 296 |  |  |
| U.S. Decennial Census
2020 | | | |

### 2020 census

**Eagle Bend CDP, Mississippi – Racial and ethnic composition**
*Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.*
| Race / Ethnicity (*NH = Non-Hispanic*) | Pop 2020 | % 2020 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| White alone (NH) | 272 | 91.89% |
| Black or African American alone (NH) | 20 | 6.76% |
| Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 0 | 0.00% |
| Asian alone (NH) | 0 | 0.00% |
| Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 0 | 0.00% |
| Some Other Race alone (NH) | 0 | 0.00% |
| Mixed Race or Multi-Racial (NH) | 2 | 0.68% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 2 | 0.68% |
| **Total** | **296** | **100.00%** |

## InfoBox

| Eagle Bend, Mississippi | |
| --- | --- |
| Census-designated place | |
| Eagle Bend, MississippiEagle Bend, Mississippi | |
| Coordinates: 32°31′14″N 91°00′24″W / 32.52056°N 91.00667°W / 32.52056; -91.00667 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Mississippi |
| County | Warren |
| Area | |
| Total | 2.77 sq mi (7.18 km2) |
| Land | 1.67 sq mi (4.33 km2) |
| Water | 1.10 sq mi (2.85 km2) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 296 |
| Density | 177.25/sq mi (68.42/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-5 (CDT) |
| GNIS feature ID | 669540 |


title: Eagle Bill

abstract: Frank William Wood, better known as Eagle Bill Amato, was a Cherokee marijuana medicine man known for popularizing the vaporizer, mostly used for vaporizing cannabis and promoting the use of medical marijuana. Eagle Bill is also the inventor of the first popular portable vaporizer, the Eagle Bill Shake & Vape. He was born in Cleveland, Ohio.

text:
# Eagle Bill

**Frank William Wood** (April 10, 1942 – May 22, 2005), better known as **Eagle Bill Amato**, was a Cherokee marijuana medicine man known for popularizing the vaporizer, mostly used for vaporizing cannabis and promoting the use of medical marijuana. Eagle Bill is also the inventor of the first popular portable vaporizer, the Eagle Bill Shake & Vape. He was born in Cleveland, Ohio.

### Notes

### Sources


title: Eagle Bluff Fire

abstract: The Eagle Bluff Fire was an active wildfire that burned in the United States and Canada near Oroville, Washington, United States and Osoyoos, British Columbia, Canada. The fire began near Oroville, Washington, at about 2:00 pm PT on July 29, 2023. As of August 8, 2023 the fire burned a total of 34,049 acres (13,779 ha) between Canadian and US soil. The cause of the fire is still unknown and under an active investigation.

text:
# Eagle Bluff Fire

The **Eagle Bluff Fire** was an active wildfire that burned in the United States and Canada near Oroville, Washington, United States and Osoyoos, British Columbia, Canada. The fire began near Oroville, Washington, at about 2:00 pm PT on July 29, 2023. As of August 8, 2023 the fire burned a total of 34,049 acres (13,779 ha) between Canadian and US soil. The cause of the fire is still unknown and under an active investigation.

## History

### July

The fire began near Oroville, Washington at around 2:00 pm PT on July 29, 2023.

### August

On August 1, 2023, the fire had burned 16,428 acres (6,648 ha) and was 62% contained.

## Cause

The cause of the fire is still unknown and under investigation.

## Impact

3 structures have been lost to the fire. 300 single residences are threatened by the fire.

### Closures and evacuations

On July 29, 2023, Level 3 evacuations were issued for anyone living on both the East and West sides of State Route 97 from Shirley Road near the US-Canada border to Oroville. The next day at 6:00 pm PT, all Level 3 evacuations were lowered to Level 2. Residents were allowed to return to their homes but were told to be prepared to evacuate if necessary. An evacuation center has been set up by the Red Cross at Oroville High School in Oroville, Washington. Roads bordering U.S. Highway 97 that link Oroville and Osoyoos, British Columbia, were closed. On July 30, those roads were reopened. Routes through the area affected by the fire between the communities of Oroville, Nighthawk, and Loomis are still closed.

### Political

On July 30, 2023, at 8:55 am PT, the state of Washington's request to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for a Fire Management Assistance Grant (FMAG) was granted. The grant will help with various firefighting costs associated with the fire. Additional funds are also being made available to Washington through the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) for wildfire mitigation and related hazards, such as floods after the fire and erosion.

## InfoBox

| Eagle Bluff Fire | |
| --- | --- |
| Date(s) | July 29, 2023 (2023-07-29) – August 8, 2023 (2023-08-08) |
| Statistics | |
| Burned area | 34,049 acres (13,779 ha) |
| Ignition | |
| Cause | Unknown |


title: Eagle Beach

abstract: Eagle Beach is a beach and neighbourhood of Oranjestad, Aruba. The neighbourhood is famous for its many low-rise resorts and wide public beach. It is the widest beach of Aruba, and has soft white sand. It has been rated one of the best beaches in the world. This is not a nude beach. Public nudity is illegal on Aruba. Topless sunbathing is tolerated on beaches in resort areas, however this is not allowed on resort grounds. Topless beaches include The Renaissance Island and De Palm Island. These islands have adult beach areas where topless sunbathing and swimming are allowed.

text:
# Eagle Beach

**Eagle Beach** (or Arend Beach) is a beach and neighbourhood of Oranjestad, Aruba. The neighbourhood is famous for its many low-rise resorts and wide public beach. It is the widest beach of Aruba, and has soft white sand. It has been rated one of the best beaches in the world.

This is not a nude beach. Public nudity is illegal on Aruba. Topless sunbathing is tolerated on beaches in resort areas, however this is not allowed on resort grounds. Topless beaches include The Renaissance Island and De Palm Island. These islands have adult beach areas where topless sunbathing and swimming are allowed.

1. Aruba Central Bureau of Statistics (29 September 2010). Fifth Population and Housing Census, 2010: Selected Tables (PDF) (Report). p. 75. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
2. "Aruba: Best Island Vacation and Getaway Destination". *www.aruba.com*.
3. "Eagle Beach". *Aruba.com*. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
4. "Beaches of Aruba". *USA Today*. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
5. "Aruba Beaches - Photos & Descriptions". *www.aruba-travelguide.com*.

Media related to Eagle Beach, Aruba at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Eagle Beach Arend Beach | |
| --- | --- |
| Beach and village | |
|  | |
| Eagle BeachLocation in Aruba | |
| Coordinates: 12°32′57″N 70°03′28″W / 12.5492°N 70.0579°W / 12.5492; -70.0579 | |
| \- Country | Aruba |
| Region | Oranjestad West |
| Population (2010) | |
| Total | 431 |


title: Timeline of the Republic of Turkey

abstract: This is a timeline of the Republic of Turkey. To read about the background to these events, see History of the Republic of Turkey. See also the List of presidents of Turkey. See also Timeline of the Ottoman Empire, a chronology of the predecessor state to the Republic of Turkey. This timeline is incomplete; some important events may be missing. Please help add to it.

text:
# Timeline of the Republic of Turkey

This is a **timeline of the Republic of Turkey**. To read about the background to these events, see History of the Republic of Turkey. See also the List of presidents of Turkey.

See also Timeline of the Ottoman Empire, a chronology of the predecessor state to the Republic of Turkey.

*This timeline is **incomplete**; some important events may be missing. Please help add to it.*

## Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)

## One-party period (1923–1945)

| Year | Date | Event |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1923 | October 29 | The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed. |
| | | Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) was unanimously elected the first President of the Republic of Turkey by secret vote. |
| | October 30 | The first cabinet of the Republic of Turkey was formed by İsmet İnönü. |
| 1924 |  | A new policy was instituted that imams be appointed by the government. |
| | March 3 | The Ottoman caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. |
| | The Union of Education (*Tevhid-i Tedrisat*) Law was passed. |
| | The Ministry of Religious Affairs and all religious schools were abolished. |
| | March 6 | Second cabinet, again by İsmet İnönü |
| | April 8 | Religious courts were abolished and replaced with civil courts. |
| | April 20 | A new Turkish constitution was accepted. |
| | August 26 | Türkiye Is Bankasi was established. |
| | October 30 | The generals who were also in parliament were asked to choose either military profession or politics but not both. (This event is known as the *crisis of generals*.) |
| | November 17 | The second political party in Turkey, the Progressive Republican Party, was formed. |
| | November 22 | Third cabinet by Ali Fethi Okyar. |
| 1925 | February 11 | The Sheikh Said rebellion started in the eastern provinces. |
| | February 25 | A law separating religion from politics was accepted and passed in the TBMM. |
| | March 4 | Fourth cabinet by İsmet İnönü |
| | May 5 | An Armenian named Manok Manukyan was executed in Ankara for planning an assassination attempt on Mustafa Kemal. |
| | June 3 | The Progressive Republican Party was closed and abolished for exploiting religion for political purposes. |
| | June 29 | Sheikh Said and his 46 followers were sentenced to death in Diyarbakır. |
| | August 27 | Mustafa Kemal came to Kastamonu to initiate the Hat Revolution. |
| | September 1 | The first Turkish Medical Congress was assembled. |
| | September 4 | Turkish women entered a beauty contest for the first time. |
| | October 1 | Atatürk opened the Bursa textile factory. |
| | November 5 | Ankara Law School (then the Ankara University Faculty of Law) was opened. |
| | November 25 | "Hat Law" was issued, abolishing religious dress. |
| | December 26 | A law was passed which abolished the lunar calendar in favor of the international calendar. |
| 1926 | February 17 | A Turkish civil code based on the Swiss Civil Code was accepted. The code granted expanded civil rights to women and prohibited polygamy. |
| | March 1 | A Turkish criminal code was established based on the Italian Criminal Code. |
| | March 17 | A law was passed to nationalise the iron industry. |
| | March 24 | A law was passed to nationalise the petroleum industry. |
| 1927 | March 7 | The extraordinary Independence Tribunals were abolished. |
| | October 15 | Mustafa Kemal Atatürk started his "Nutuk" speech. |
| | The second nationwide congress of the Republican People's Party took place. |
| | October 20 | The "Nutuk" speech ended. |
| | October 28 | The first population census counted the population at approximately thirteen and a half million. |
| | November 27 | Fifth cabinet by İsmet İnönü |
| | December 25 | The first female Turkish lawyer, Sureyya Agaoglu, began her duty. |
| 1928 | April 10 | The article "The official religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution. |
| | May 19 | A law establishing an engineering school was accepted. |
| | November 1 | A new Turkish alphabet based on the Latin alphabet was accepted. |
| 1929 | April 3 | A new municipal law enabled women to enter municipal elections both as voters and as candidates. |
| | April 29 | The first female Turkish judges were appointed. |
| | May 13 | A trade law was accepted by the TBMM. |
| | September 1 | Arabic and Persian courses were abolished replaced by Turkish-only language courses. |
| 1930 | June 11 | A law was accepted which established the Turkish Republic Central Bank. |
| | August 12 | The Free Republican Party, the third party in the republic, was established. |
| | September 27 | Sixth cabinet by İsmet İnönü |
| | October 27 | Greek prime minister Venizelos visited Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Ankara. |
| | November 17 | After the Free Republican Party's cooption by radical religious groups, its leader Fethi Okyar decided to close. |
| | December 30 | Kubilay was killed in an anti-republican rebellion. |
| 1931 | March 16 | The first female Turkish surgeon, Dr. Suat, received her specialty. |
| | March 26 | The Measurements Law was accepted, abolishing the former Arabic length and weight measurement units and replacing them with the metric system (kilogram instead of okka, meter instead of endaze, etc.) |
| | April 20 | Mustafa Kemal Atatürk historically declared the slogan "Peace at home, peace in the world!" |
| | May 4 | Seventh cabinet by İsmet İnönü |
| | July 25 | A new press law was accepted. |
| 1932 | July 18 | Turkey became a member of the League of Nations. |
| | July 31 | Turkish woman Keriman Halis Ece was declared the World Beauty Queen at a contest in Belgium. |
| | November 13 | Dr. Müfide Kazim became the first female Turkish government physician. |
| | December 12 | Adile Ayda became the first female Turkish civil servant in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. |
| 1933 | February 7 | The first Turkish-language mosque prayers began in Istanbul. |
| | May 31 | The 480-year-old Darülfünun was abolished, to be converted into Istanbul University. |
| | June | Sümerbank and Halkbank were established. |
| | October 26 | Turkish women were granted the right to vote and be elected to Village Councils. |
| | November 18 | Istanbul University was opened. |
| | December 1 | The first five-year development plan was accepted. |
| 1934 | June 21 | The Surname Law was accepted, abolishing the former titles of Bey, Efendi, Pasha, Sultan, and Hanım as of November 26. |
| | November 24 | Mustafa Kemal Pasha took the surname Atatürk. |
| | The Hagia Sophia mosque was converted to the Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia) Museum. |
| | December 5 | Turkish women were granted the right to vote and be elected in Turkish parliamentary elections. (Afterwards, in the first elections, 18 women were elected to the Turkish Grand National Assembly). |
| 1935 | March 1 | Eight cabinet by İsmet İnönü. |
| 1936 | May 29 | A law determining the size and ratios of the star and crescent in the Turkish flag was accepted. |
| | June 8 | A labor law was accepted which represented the first step towards the Turkish Social Security System. |
| 1937 | January 27 | Hatay's independence was accepted by the League of Nations in its Geneva meeting. |
| | June 9 | A law establishing a medical faculty in Ankara was accepted. |
| | September 20 | Atatürk opened the first art gallery in his residence, the Dolmabahce Palace. |
| | October 9 | Atatürk opened the Nazilli Printed Cloth Fabric Factory. |
| | October 25 | Ninth cabinet by Celal Bayar, former minister of Economy |
| 1938 | November 10 | The founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk died. He was succeeded by İsmet İnönü, former prime minister and general. |
| 1939 |  | *World War II*: World War II began. Turkey was to remain neutral for most of the war, until a declaration of war against Germany at its end. |
| | July 7 | The Province of Hatay joined Turkey following a rigged referendum included by the Turkish government. |

## Multi-party period (1945–)

| Year | Date | Event |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1950 | June 25 | *Korean War*: The Korean War began. Turkey was a part of the joint UN operation. |
| 1950 |  | Müfide İlhan mayor of Mersin. First ever woman mayor in Turkey. |
| 1952 |  | Turkey became a NATO country strategically important in countering Soviet influence. |
| 1953 | July 27 | *Korean War*: The war ended. |
| 1954 |  | Turkey began to host the USAF at the Incirlik Air Base as a deterrent to the Soviet Union. |
| 1955 | September 6 | *Istanbul Pogrom*: The Istanbul Pogrom started the process of driving many Greeks and Christians from Turkey. |
| | September 7 | *Istanbul Pogrom*: The pogrom drew to a close. |
| 1960 | May 27 | The 1960 *coup d'état* took place due to the level of influence the Islamists had gained in the nation. After this clash over the "separation of religion and state/government" between İnönü's Republican People's Party and his opponents, president Celal Bayar and prime minister Adnan Menderes, both former Republican People's Party members, prime minister Adnan Menderes was held responsible and was executed with two of his ministers. |
| 1965 | October | Military rule bowed out to civilian rule, the political system was reestablished, and a new constitution was drafted that reaffirmed the "separation of religion and state/government". |
| 1971 | March 12 | Military officials forced an advisory committee on the government due to the increasing anarchical situation caused by the Right (fascist/capitalist) – Left (communist) clash and ineffective policies in maintaining order. Although the military were not in charge they had significant influence. |
| 1974 |  | Turkey invaded Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed coup on the island. |
| 1980 | September 12 | The 1980 *coup d'état* took place. Martial law was almost immediately established and a quarter of the military (about 475,000) were mobilised to settle the resistance to the coup. |
| 1983 | November 6 | After the establishment of a new 1982 Constitution, the military regime dissolved itself. |
| 1991 |  | After the ending of the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the Incirlik Air Base enforced the northern no-fly zones in Iraq. |
| 1999 | March 24 | *Kosovo War*: NATO interceded in the Balkans to end a civil war in the region. Turkey was part of the mission. |
| | June 10 | *Kosovo War*: The war ended. |

### 21st century

| Year | Date | Event |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2002 | June | Turkey assumed command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. |
| 2003 | February | Turkey relinquished command of the ISAF. |
| 2004 | December 17 | The European Union (EU) agreed to begin negotiations on the eventual accession of Turkey. |
| 2005 | February 14 | Turkey assumed command of the ISAF in Afghanistan for a second time. |
| | October 3 | The European Union (EU) started accession talks with Turkey. The talks did not start at the desired time due to arguments about Turkey's |


title: Times College, Hong Kong

abstract: Times College is a private full-time secondary school in Hong Kong.

text:
# Times College, Hong Kong

**Times College** is a private full-time secondary school in Hong Kong.

## InfoBox

| Times College
當代書院 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Address | |
|  | |
| Unit B, 7/F, Shui Shing Building, 202-204 Cheung Sha Wan Road, Sham Shui Po
Sham Shui Po
Hong Kong
Hong Kong | |
| Coordinates | 22°19′37″N 114°10′54″E / 22.326986°N 114.181708°E / 22.326986; 114.181708 |
| Information | |
| School type | private, secondary school |
| Motto | Strengthen self without stopping, and hold world with virtue |
| Website | https://timescollegessp.edu.hk/?navbar=0&course=0&lang=2 |


title: Tillia massacres

text:
# Tillia massacres

On 21 March 2021, armed jihadists from the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara attacked the villages of Intazayane, Bakorat, Wirsnat, and several other hamlets and camps around Tillia, Tahoua Region, Niger. The attacks killed 141 people, mostly civilians, and injured several others.

## Background

In 2020, the French army launched a large offensive on the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara, which came at the same time as a large offensive by Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM) in the tri-border area between Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. The offensives inflicted heavy losses on ISGS, and the group seemed weakened. At the start of 2021 with the Tchoma Bangou and Zaroumdareye massacres, ISGS began killing civilians en masse in western Niger in several attacks, and also began attacking Mali and Burkina Faso.

On 15 March, a week before the massacres in Tillia, ISGS fighters killed 66 people in Darey-Daye and Chinagodrar, in the neighboring Tillabéri Region.

## Attacks

The attacks began at around 12:00 p.m. GMT, when armed ISGS fighters rode up in the towns on motorcycles and shot indiscriminately at "anything that moved", according to an anonymous local elected official. The jihadists also torched camps in Akofafof that housed refugees, including women and children. The main victims of the massacres were Tuaregs.

While the attack was not claimed, the perpetrators are suspected to be the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara. France 24 journalist Wassim Nasr reiterated that ISGS conducted the attack, and stated that the massacres were reprisals for the civilians in those villages not paying zakat to ISGS. Nasr also stated that the villagers were more sympathetic to JNIM, and that there had been a spate of assassinations against pro-JNIM civilians in the area prior to the attack.

## Aftermath

The Nigerien government stated that 137 civilians were killed, making it the deadliest jihadist attack in Niger's history. This death toll rose to 141 by June 2022. At least 22 of the dead were children aged 5 to 17. Nigerien president Mohamed Bazoum announced three days of national mourning for the victims of the attack, and also vowed that the government would reinforce security in the region.

The attacks were condemned by the United States, African Union, the UN Secretary General António Guterres, Turkey, India, and Algeria. They were also condemned by the International Rescue Committee.

## InfoBox

| Tillia massacres | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of the jihadist insurgency in Niger | |
| Location | Intazayane, Bakorat, Wirsnat, Akofafof, Tillia, Tahoua Region, Niger |
| Date | 21 March 2021 |
| Deaths | 141 |
| Injured | Unknown |
| Perpetrator | Islamic State in the Greater Sahara |


title: Tillicum Beach

abstract: Tillicum Beach is a hamlet in central Alberta, Canada within Camrose County. It is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) west Highway 56, approximately 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) southeast of Camrose. It is located along Dried Meat Lake.

text:
# Tillicum Beach

**Tillicum Beach** is a hamlet in central Alberta, Canada within Camrose County. It is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) west Highway 56, approximately 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) southeast of Camrose. It is located along Dried Meat Lake.

## Demographics

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Tillicum Beach had a population of 130 living in 58 of its 70 total private dwellings, a change of -32.6% from its 2016 population of 193. With a land area of 0.4 km2 (0.15 sq mi), it had a population density of 325.0/km2 (841.7/sq mi) in 2021.

As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Tillicum Beach had a population of 179 living in 69 of its 85 total private dwellings, a change of 70.5% from its 2011 population of 105. With a land area of 0.48 km2 (0.19 sq mi), it had a population density of 372.9/km2 (965.8/sq mi) in 2016.

## InfoBox

| Tillicum Beach | |
| --- | --- |
| Hamlet | |
| Tillicum BeachLocation of Tillicum BeachTillicum BeachTillicum Beach (Canada) | |
| Coordinates: 52°52′38″N 112°45′16″W / 52.87722°N 112.75444°W / 52.87722; -112.75444 | |
| Country | Canada |
| Province | Alberta |
| Region | Central Alberta |
| Census division | 10 |
| Municipal district | Camrose County |
| Government | |
| Type | Unincorporated |
| Governing body | Camrose County Council |
| Area (2021) | |
| Land | 0.4 km2 (0.2 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | |
| Total | 130 |
| Density | 324.8/km2 (841/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC−07:00 (MST) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC−06:00 (MDT) |
| Area code(s) | 780, 587, 825 |


title: Early Buddhist texts

abstract: Early Buddhist texts (EBTs), early Buddhist literature or early Buddhist discourses are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. However, some scholars have also pointed out that some Vinaya material, like the Patimokkhas of the different Buddhist schools, as well as some material from the earliest Abhidharma texts could also be quite early. Besides the large collections in Pali and Chinese, there are also fragmentary collections of EBT materials in Sanskrit, Khotanese, Tibetan and Gāndhārī. The modern study of early pre-sectarian Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources. Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne and A. K. Warder hold that Early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. According to the Japanese scholar Akira Hirakawa, "any attempt to ascertain the original teachings of the historical Buddha must be based on this literature." In Mahayana Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "Hinayana" or "Śrāvakayāna" texts and are not considered Mahayana works.

text:
# Early Buddhist texts

**Early Buddhist texts** (**EBTs**), **early Buddhist literature** or **early Buddhist discourses** are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. However, some scholars have also pointed out that some Vinaya material, like the Patimokkhas of the different Buddhist schools, as well as some material from the earliest Abhidharma texts could also be quite early.

Besides the large collections in Pali and Chinese, there are also fragmentary collections of EBT materials in Sanskrit, Khotanese, Tibetan and Gāndhārī. The modern study of early pre-sectarian Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources.

Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne and A. K. Warder hold that Early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. According to the Japanese scholar Akira Hirakawa, "any attempt to ascertain the original teachings of the historical Buddha must be based on this literature."

In Mahayana Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "Hinayana" or "Śrāvakayāna" texts and are not considered Mahayana works.

## Overview

Different genres comprise the Early Buddhist texts, including prose "suttas" (Skt: *sūtra*, discourses), monastic rules (*Vinaya*), various forms of verse compositions (such as gāthā and udāna), mixed prose and verse works (*geya*), and also lists (*matika*) of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre, these are usually placed in different collections (called Nikayas or Agamas) and constitute the "Sutta Pitaka" (Skt: Sūtra Pitaka, "Basket of sutras") section of the various early Buddhist Canonical collections called Tripitakas ("Three Baskets"). The suttas generally contain doctrinal, spiritual and philosophical content.

There are EBTs from various Buddhist schools, especially from the Theravada and Sarvāstivāda schools, but also from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and other texts of uncertain prominence.

According to Oskar von Hinüber the main purpose for the composition of the EBTs was to "preserve and to defend an orthodox tradition." He adds that this literary effort was influenced by the Vedic prose of the Brāhmaṇas. As noted by von Hinüber, these collections also contain the first ever Indian texts to commemorate historical events, such as the *Mahāparinibbānasuttanta,* which recounts the death of the Buddha. The early suttas also almost always open by introducing the geographical location of the event they depict, including ancient place names, always preceded by the phrase "thus have I heard" (*evaṃ me sutaṃ*).

The textual evidence from various traditions shows that by the 1st century BCE to the fourth century CE, slight differences developed among these parallel documents and that these differences reflected "school affiliation, local traditions, linguistic environment, nonstandardized scripts, or any combination of these factors."

### Orality

These texts were initially transmitted through oral methods. According to Marcus Bingenheimer,

> After the death of the founder, Buddhist texts were transmitted orally in Middle Indo-Aryan dialects (Prakrits). While the southern tradition eventually settled on one of these dialects, Pāli, as its canonical language, in India and Central Asia Buddhist texts were successively Sanskritized and/or translated into other languages such as Chinese, Tokharian, Khotanese, Sogdian, and Tibetan. Also, new Buddhist texts in India, from at least the third century onward, were directly composed in standard Sanskrit. Manuscripts from the northern tradition, especially those of Central Asian provenance, are therefore often in Prakrit (especially Gāndhārī) or some nonstandard form of Sanskrit, sometimes called Buddhist Sanskrit, an intermediate stage between some Prakrit and standard Sanskrit.

As noted by Mark Allon there are various reasons why these texts are held to have been transmitted orally by modern scholars. These include internal evidence from the texts themselves which indicates that they were to be memorized and recited, the lack of any evidence (whether archeological or internal to the texts) that writing was being used to preserve these texts and the stylistic features of the texts themselves.

An important feature that marks the Early Buddhist texts are formal characteristics which reflect their origin as orally transmitted literature such as the use of repetition and rhetorical formulas. Other stylistic features which betray orality include: the use of multiple synonyms, standardized phrases and passages, verse summaries similies, numbered lists and standard framing narratives.

These stylistic features are in contrast to later works such as Mahayana sutras, which contain more elaborate and complex narratives, that would be more difficult to memorize. Also, the EBTs are always historically situated in ancient Indian locales, unlike many later Mahayana works, which depict themselves as being taught by the Buddha in heavenly realms or other supernatural circumstances.

Early Buddhist texts are believed to have been transmitted by lineages of bhāṇaka, monks who specialized in memorization and recitation of particular collections of texts, until they were eventually recorded in writing after the 1st Century BCE. As noted by Alexander Wynne:

> Although there is no evidence for writing before Aśoka, the accuracy of oral transmission should not be underestimated. The Buddhist community was full of Brahmins who knew that the Vedic educational system had transmitted a mass of difficult texts, verbatim, in an increasingly archaic language, for more than a thousand years. Since the early Buddhists required a different means of oral transmission, for quite different texts, other mnemonic techniques were developed, based on communal chanting (saṅgīti). The texts explicitly state that this method was to be employed, and their actual form shows that it was, on a grand scale.

Some scholars such as Wynne and Analayo generally hold that these texts were memorized in fixed form, to be recited verbatim (in contrast to other forms of oral literature, such as epic poetry) and that this was affirmed during communal recitations (where there is little room for improvisation), while others argue that they could have been performed in more poetic and improvisational ways (L.S. Cousins, Rupert Gethin) through the use of basic lists or formulas.

The EBTs also show the influence of Vedic texts, including the adoption of certain Vedic poetic metres, as well as forms of organization (using topic and number). EBTs share similar terminology and ideas with Vedic texts. They also share certain metaphors and imagery with texts like the *Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad*, such as the single salty taste of the ocean (AN 8.157 vs. *Bṛhadāraṇyaka* 2.4.11).

### Setting and date

Regarding the setting, the EBTs generally depict the world of the second urbanisation period, which features small scale towns and villages, and small competing states (the mahajanapadas) with a lower level of urbanisation compared to that of the Mauryan era. As such, the EBTs depict the Gangetic Plain before the rise of the Nanda empire, who unified all these small competing states during the 4th century.

They also depict Pataliputra as the small village of *Pataligama*, while it would later become the capital of the Mauryan empire and the largest city in India. They do not mention Ashoka but they mention the Jain leader Mahavira (a.k.a. *Nātaputta*) as a contemporary of the Buddha.

The EBTs also depict a small scale local economy, during a time before the establishment of the long-distance trading networks, as noted by Brahmali and Sujato:

> King Pasenadi of Kosala is said to have used kāsi sandalwood (MN 87.28), indicating that even the highest social strata used locally produced luxuries. This situation is perhaps to be expected given the political divisions in North India at the time, which may have complicated long-distance trade.

As noted by von Hinüber, the omission of any mention of the Mauryas in EBTs such as the *Mahāparinibbānasuttanta*, in contrast to other later Buddhist texts which do mention them, is also evidence of its pre-Mauryan date:

> Given the importance of the rise of the Maurya empire even under Candragupta, who is better known for his inclination towards Jainism, one might conjecture that the latest date for the composition of the *Mahāparinibbānasuttanta*, at least for this part of it, is around 350 to 320 BC.

According to Alexander Wynne,

> The corresponding pieces of textual material found in the canons of the different sects... probably go back to pre-sectarian times. It is unlikely that these correspondences could have been produced by the joint endeavour of different Buddhist sects, for such an undertaking would have required organisation on a scale which was simply inconceivable in the ancient world.

### Archeology

The Edicts of Ashoka are some of the earliest Indian historical documents and they agree with the EBTs in some respects.

According to Sujato, the MPE 2 (Sārnāth) edict makes use of various EBT specific terms such as: "bhikhusaṁgha, bhikhuni-saṁgha, sāsana, upāsaka, anuposatha, saṁgha bheta, saṁgha samaga (Sāñcī version), cila-thitīka (Sāñcī)."

Sujato also notes that the RE 5 (Kālsī) edict states: “Good deeds are difficult to perform,” “bad acts are easy to commit”, which could be a quote from the Udana (5:8). Likewise, the RE 9 (Girnār) edict states “there is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma”, which could be a quote from the EBTs (see AN 9:5 or Dhp 354).

A. Wynne notes that Minor Rock Edict #3 mentions some Buddhist texts which have been identified and which might show that at the time of Ashoka (304–232 BCE) these were already fixed. These citations include the "*Rāhulāvada*", which could refer to the *Ambalaṭṭhikā Rāhulovāda Sutta* (MN 61)*.*

Some early archeological sites like the Bharhut stupa (most visible material dates from the 1st or 2nd century BCE) contain many details from the EBTs such as: the mention of Buddha Gotama and all five past Buddhas of the EBTs, as well as kings Ajātasatru and Pasenadi. Major events from the Buddha's life from the EBTs are mentioned such as his awakening, the first teaching and his death. According to Lüders “… the visit of Ajātasattu \[to the Buddha\] is depicted even in details exactly according to the *Sāmaññaphala Sutta*,” and “… the representation of the visit of Sakka follows the text of the *Sakkapañha Sutta*.”

Other Indian inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE include terms such as *dhamma-kathika*, *peṭakin*, and *suttantika*, indicating the existence of a Buddhist literature during this time.

## Extant material

Most modern scholarship has generally focused on the Pāli Nikāyas (which have been fully translated into Western languages) and the Chinese Āgamas (only partially translated). As early as the late 19th century, it was known that the Nikāyas and the Āgamas contain a great number of parallel texts. In 1882, Samuel Beal published his *Buddhist Literature in China*, where he wrote:

> The Parinibbāna, the Brahmajāla, the Sigalovada, the Dhammacakka, the Kasi-Bhāradvadja, the Mahāmangala; all these I have found and compared with translations from the Pali, and find that in the main they are identical. I do not say literally the same; they differ in minor points, but are identical in plot and all important details. And when the Vinaya and Āgama collections are thoroughly examined, I can have little doubt we shall find most if not all the Pali suttas in a Chinese form.

During the 20th century various scholars including Anesaki Masaharu and Akanuma Chizen began critical studies of these correspondences. Probably the most important early works in the comparative study of these two collections are Anesaki's *The Four Buddhist Āgamas in Chinese – A Concordance of their Parts and of the Corresponding Counterparts in the Pāli Nikāyas* and Akanuma's *The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas*.

Over time this comparative study of these parallel Buddhist texts became incorporated into modern scholarship on Buddhism, such as in the work of Etienne Lamotte (1988), who commented on their close relationship:

> However, with the exception of the Mahāyanist interpolations in the Ekottara, which are easily discernable, the variations in question \[between the Nikāyas and Āgamas\] affect hardly anything save the method of expression or the arrangement of the subjects. The doctrinal basis common to the Nikāyas and Āgamas is remarkably uniform. Preserved and transmitted by the schools, the sūtras do not, however, constitute scholastic documents, but are the common heritage of all the sects.

Bhiksu Thich Minh Chau (1918– 2012) conducted a comparative study (1991) of the contents in the Theravada *Majjhima Nikaya* and Sarvastivada *Madhyama Agama* and concluded that despite some differences in technical and practical issues, there was a striking agreement in doctrinal matters. A more recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo also agrees with this position. Analayo argues the Majjhima Nikaya and Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines.

Recent work has also been done on other more fragmentary materials surviving in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Gandhāran collections. Andrew Glass has compared a small number of Gandhāran sutras with their Tibetan, Pali, Sanskrit and Chinese parallels and concludes that there is a unity in their doctrines, despite some technical differences.

According to some Asian scholars like Yin Shun, Mizuno Kogen and Mun-Keat Choong, the common ancestor of the Samyutta Nikaya and the Samyukta Agama is the basis for the other EBTs.

### Pāli EBTs

The Pāli Canon of the Theravada school contains the most complete fully extant collection of EBTs in an Indic language which has survived until today. According to the Theravada tradition, after having been passed down orally, it was first written down in the first century BCE in Sri Lanka.

While some scholars such as Gregory Schopen are skeptical of the antiquity of the Pali texts, Alexander Wynne notes that:

> Canonical fragments are included in the Golden Pāli Text, found in a reliquary from Śrī kṣetra dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD; they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that the Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years. There is no reason why such an accurate transmission should not be projected back a number of centuries, at the least to the period when it was written down in the first century BC, and probably further.

The Early Buddhist material in the Pāli Canon mainly consists of the first four Pāli Nikāyas, the Patimokkha (basic list of monastic rules) and other Vinaya material as well as some parts of the Khuddaka Nikāya (mainly Sutta Nipata, Itivuttaka, Dhammapada, Therigatha, Theragatha, and the Udana).

These texts have been widely translated into Western languages.

### Chinese EBTs

The EBTs preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon include the Āgamas, collections of sutras which parallel the Pali Nikāyas in content as well as structure. There are also some differences between the discourses and collections as modern comparative studies has shown, such as omissions of material, additions and shifts in the location of phrases. These various Agamas possibly come down to us from the Sarvastivada (the Samyukta and Madhyama Agamas), Dharmaguptaka and Kasyayipa schools. The Mahasamghika Vinaya Pitaka also survives in Chinese translation. Some of the Agamas have been translated into English by the Āgama Research Group (ARG) at the Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts.

The language of these texts is a form of Ancient Chinese termed Buddhist Chinese (*fójiào Hànyǔ* 佛教漢語) or Buddhist Hybrid Chinese (*fójiào hùnhé Hànyǔ* 佛教混合漢語) which shows considerable vernacularity. Buddhist Chinese also shows a significant number of elements which derive from the source language, including calques and phonological transcriptions. Scholarly analysis of these texts have shown that they were translated from Middle Indic Prakrit source languages, with varying degrees of sanskritisation.

While the other Chinese Agamas are mostly doctrinally consistent with the Pali Nikayas, the Ekottara Agama (EA) has been seen by various scholars such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Etienne Lamotte as being influenced by later Mahayana concepts. According to Lamotte, these 'interpolations' are easily discernible. According to Analayo, the most often proposed hypothesis is that the EA derives from the Mahasamgika school.

### Gandhari and Bactrian EBTs

Modern discoveries of various fragmentary manuscript collections (the Gandhāran Buddhist texts) from Pakistan and Afghanistan has contributed significantly to the study of Early Buddhist texts.

Most of these texts are written in the Gandhari Language and the Kharoṣṭhī script, but some have also been discovered in Bactrian. According to Mark Allon, the Gandhāran Buddhist texts contain several EBTs which parallel those found in other collections "such as the *Ekottarikāgama* and *Vana-saṃyutta* of the *Saṃyutta-nikāya*/*Saṃyuktāgama."*

These texts include a parallel to the Anattalakkhana Sutta, possibly belonging to the Dharmaguptaka school. A few publications have translated some of these texts.

According to Mark Allon, the most recent major finds include the following collections:

* "The British Library Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts", Birch bark scrolls in the Gandhari Language and the Kharoṣṭhī script, possibly belonging to the Dharmaguptaka school. They include prose sutras and verse works like parts of the Dharmapada dating to the 1st century CE, making them the earliest EBT manuscripts discovered.
* "The Senior Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts", Birch bark scrolls in the Gandhari Language and the Kharoṣṭhī script, possibly belonging to the Dharmaguptaka school. Most of these preserve "canonical" prose sutras, as well as some biographical material on the Buddha's life associated with the Vinaya.
* "The Schøyen Manuscripts", discovered in the Bamiyan caves, a collection which preserves Early Buddhist, Abhidharma and Mahayana texts in either Sanskrit or Gandhari.

### Sanskrit EBTs

According to Mark Allon, an important recent find is "a substantial portion of a large Sanskrit birch bark manuscript of the *Dirghagama*, the division of the canon containing long discourses, belonging to the (Mula)-Sarvastivada school, which dates to the seventh or eighth centuries AD".

This Gilgit Dīrgha Āgama contains forty-seven discourses. This includes some sutras not found in Pali at all, like the *Māyājāla sutra*, the *Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra* and the *Arthavistara-sūtra*.

The *Arthaviniścaya Sūtra* is a composite text which is mainly made up of early Buddhist material organized into an Abhidharma type list.

Sanskrit fragments of different early Buddhist Agamas also survive from various sources, including from the archaeological finds in the Tarim Basin and the city of Turfan. These finds include versions of a Sanskrit *Udanavarga*.

Other Sanskrit Agama texts include the (non-Mahayana) *Mahāparinirvāṇasutra,* and the *Pratītyasamutpādādivibhaṅganirdeśa*.

Various Vinaya texts also survive in Sanskrit, including Vinaya texts from the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.

The *Lalitavistara Sūtra,* though including much later additions, also includes some EBT parallel passages, including passages on the first sermon at Varanasi.

### Mahāsāṃghika sources

The first schism among the Buddhist community was between the so-called Sthaviras ("Elders") and the Mahāsāṃghika ("Great Community"). Some scholars such as Edward Conze have thus emphasized the importance of EBTs that have parallels in both Sthavira and Mahāsāṅghika sources. However, fewer Mahāsāṃghika texts have survived in comparison to Sthavira material.

One important source for Mahāsāṃghika EBTs is the *Mahāvastu* ("Great Event"). This is a mythic life of the Buddha which includes many legendary tales but also includes various EBTs parallels.

There are also fragments of the Mahāparinirvāṇa and Caṁgi (Pali: Caṅki) sutras of the Mahāsāṃghika dating to the 3rd–4th century.

The *Śālistamba Sūtra (rice stalk sūtra)* is an early Buddhist text which has been tied to the Mahāsāṃghika school, it contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the Sthavira EBTs such as dependent origination, the "middle way" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "five aggregates", the "three unwholesome roots", the four noble truths and the noble eightfold path.

There are also various Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya texts which contain early material, including their *Prātimokṣa* monastic code, which is almost identical with Sthavira pātimokkhas.

The Chinese *Ekottara Āgama* (增壹阿含經; pinyin: *zēngyī-ahánjīng*) has been attributed to the Mahāsāṃghikas by various scholars, though this attribution remains uncertain.

### Abhidharma

The various Abhidharma texts and collections (*Pitakas*) are considered by scholars to be (mostly) later material (3rd century BCE onwards) and thus are not EBTs. In spite of the relative lateness of the Abhidharma works, according to scholars like Erich Frauwallner, there are kernels of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest layer of the Abhidharma literature, such as in the Theravada *Vibhanga*, the *Dharmaskandha* of the Sarvastivada, and the *Śāriputrābhidharma* of the Dharmaguptaka school. According to Frauwallner's comparative study, these texts were possibly developed and "constructed from the same material", mainly early Buddhist doctrinal lists (Pali: *mātikā*, Sanskrit: *mātṛkā*) which forms the "ancient core" of early Abhidharma.

### Narrative genres

Some narrative texts which discuss the past lives of the Buddha and other figures, mainly the Jatakas and Avadanas, could also be considered early Buddhist texts. According to Peter Skilling, the Jataka genre is "one of the oldest classes of Buddhist literature." Sarah Shaw writes that the earliest part of the Pali Jātakas, the verse portions, are "considered amongst the very earliest part of the Pali tradition and date from the fifth century BCE." "Jataka" appears as part of an ancient schema of Buddhist literature called the nine genres of the Buddha's teaching (*navaṅga-buddhasāsana*), and depictions of them appear in early Indian art and inscriptions (as early as the second century B.C.E.) seen in sites such as Sanchi and Bharhut. According to Martin Straube, while these narratives cannot be dated in a precise manner, "the fact that many narratives are passed on in almost identical form within the canons of the different schools shows that they date back to the time before the schisms between the schools took place." According to A. K. Warder, jātakas are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates.

### Other sources

There are various EBTs collected in the Tibetan Kangyur. Peter Skilling has published English translations of these texts in his two volume "*Mahasutras*" (Pāli Text Society, 1994). According to 84000.co, a site of Tibetan Canon translations, the Degé Kangyur catalogue states that sutras Toh 287-359 of the General Sutra section are "Śrāvakayāna" works "probably extracted from the Āgamas of the Mūlasarvāstivāda".

Another important source of early Buddhist material in the Tibetan canon are numerous quotations by Śamathadeva in his *Abhidharmakośopāyikā-ṭīkā* (Derge no. 4094 / Peking no. 5595), a commentary to the *Abhidharmakosha*. Some of this material is available in English translation by Bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā.

Mahayana treatises also sometimes quote EBTs. According to Etienne Lamotte, the *Dà zhìdù lùn* cites "about a hundred sūtras of the Lesser Vehicle; the majority are borrowed from the Āgama collections." The massive *Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra* contains a section titled *Vastusaṃgrahaṇī* (Compendium of Themes) which includes summaries of key topics found in each sutra of the *Samyukta-āgama,* as well as the topics of the *Vinaya* and doctrinal lists (Mātṛka).

Numerous sutra quotations by authors of Sautrantika treatises are also a source of EBT fragments. The Sautrantika school was known for focusing on using examples from and references to EBT sutras. These works include Kumaralata's *Drstantapankti*, the *Abhidharmamrtara-sasastra* attributed to Ghosaka, the *Abhidharmavatara-sastra* attributed to Skandhila and the *Tattvasiddhi* of Harivarman.

The Tibetan canon also includes a large Mūlasarvāstivāda text called *The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma (Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna,* Toh 287). This text contains some EBT passages, including a section on mindfulness of the body (ch. 5), a section on the ten paths of wholesome action (ch. 1) and a passage (in ch. 2) which is similar to the Discourse on Distinguishing the Six Elements (*Saddhatuvibhangasutra*, MA 162) according to Daniel Malinowski Stuart. There are also further passages in chapter two describing the contemplation of impurity, loving-kindness and pratityasamutpada.


title: Early Canadian banking system

abstract: The early Canadian banking system was regulated entirely by the colonial government. Primitive forms of banking emerged early in the colonial period to solve the drain of wealth caused by the application of mercantilist theory. The drain of wealth translated into a complete lack of gold or silver bullion in the colonies, and thus, a complete lack of forms of economic exchange and payment.

text:
# Early Canadian banking system

The **early Canadian banking system** (British North America and New France until 1763; then renamed Upper and Lower Canada) was regulated entirely by the colonial government. Primitive forms of banking emerged early in the colonial period to solve the *drain of wealth* caused by the application of mercantilist theory. The drain of wealth translated into a complete lack of gold or silver bullion in the colonies, and thus, a complete lack of forms of economic exchange and payment.

## History

In New France, playing cards were issued as a method of payment in the 1680s by the Intendant of New France, in addition to the coins introduced in the 1660s. However, the massive drain of wealth from New France to Europe resulting from mercantilist trade policies made it impossible to back card money with gold bullion. Card money was thus essentially worthless. The card system collapsed in the 1690s, causing long-term suspicion of paper money on the part of the French settlers.

Card money was replaced in the 18th century by a type of promissory note called *bons*, derived from the French phrase, *bon pour*, meaning *good for the indicated amount*. These were issued to a limited extent by French merchants, who, lacking in any other form of currency, were forced to create their own, and who consequently became the first Canadian bankers. The issue of *bons* spread rapidly into British North America after 1763, when New France became a British possession.

*Bons* persisted as the most common type of currency until 1812, along with the English pound, American and Spanish coinage, and the *Halifax standard*.

The British administration under Isaac Brock introduced what became known as *army bills* in 1812, in order to finance the War of 1812. The total value of these bills was 250,000 pounds. These were promissory notes issued directly by the government. They came into wide usage during the war (1812–1815) to make up for the lack of bullion in Upper and Lower Canada. Unlike the card money used in the late 17th century, army bills could be and were in fact exchanged for gold coin once the war had ended. The army bills had thus proven themselves reliable, eradicating any real stigma against paper currency.

In 1817, Montreal bankers were granted a charter by the British government to open the first formal bank in Canada. This was the Bank of Montreal. Under its charter, the Bank of Montreal was given a monopoly on the right to issue promissory notes on the model of the army bills. Because of its monopoly rights, the Bank of Montreal essentially acted as a central bank for both Upper and Lower Canada.

In the years after 1817, Britain granted several new bank charters, including a charter to the now-defunct Bank of Kingston, which was to act as a competitor to the Bank of Montreal in Upper Canada. The new chartered banks were required under the terms of their charters to recognise one another's currency, a practice that allowed for the development of long-distance trade within British North America. However, banking remained in private hands, which meant that the issue of currency was at the discretion of private bankers. This frequently led to high inflation when the infant Canadian economy was in recession<sup>(source?)</sup>.

The *Provincial Note Act* was passed in 1866 to link note issue to the needs of the British administration. This marked the beginning of an enduring policy of government intervention in the Canadian economy. The British North America Act of 1867 formally codified this policy, allowing for government control over coinage, currency, bills of exchange, promissory notes, banking, and incorporation of banks. This in turn allowed for the creation of a uniform currency across Canada. Official Canadian currency took the form of the Canadian dollar in 1871, overriding the currency of individual banks.

After Confederation, Canada developed a banking system very different from that of the United States. Whereas the United States was served a large number of small banks serving just one town or, at most state, Canada's banking sector came to be dominated by a few banks with transcontinental branch networks. The Canadian system promoted stability and produced far fewer bank failures than either the contemporary United States or Australian banking systems. The downside of the Canadian banking system was that it was much less competitive that the United States and Australian systems, which meant that consumers paid more for banking services. The legal foundation of the Canadian banking system consisted of a series of laws passed in 1870 and 1871.

Banking remained relatively decentralized until 1935, when the Bank of Canada was founded in response to the economic instability experienced during the Great Depression in Canada. First opened on December 5, 1980, Canada's Currency Museum is located on the ground floor of the Bank of Canada in Ottawa, Ontario.

* Breckenridge, Roeliff Morton. *The History of Banking in Canada*. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910.
* Easterbrook, W. T. and Hugh G. J. Aitken. Money and Banking in Canadian Development. In *Canadian Economic History*, pp. 445-475. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
* Hammond, Bray. Banking in Canada before Confederation, 1792-1867. In W. T. Easterbrook and M. H. Watkins (Eds.), *Approaches to Canadian Economic History*. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003.
* McIvor, R. Craig. *Canadian Monetary, Banking and Fiscal Development*. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada Limited, 1958.
* Adam Shortt (1898) The early history of Canadian banking : Canadian currency and exchange under French rule, *Journal of the Canadian Bankers' Association* via Internet Archive