# Science and technology in Pacific Island countries

## Socio-economic context

Pacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports.

Papua New Guinea experienced the strongest economic growth between 2005 and 2013 (60%), during the commodities boom. Even during the global financial and economic crisis of 2008-2009, its economy grew by 13%. Vanuatu saw the next strongest growth (35%) over this period, including 10% growth in 2008-2009. Growth was more pedestrian in the Marshall Islands (a cumulative 19%), Tuvalu (16%), Samoa (15%), Kiribati (13%), Fiji (12%) and Tonga (8%). The economies of the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau actually shrank over this nine-year period. Samoa, the Marshall Islands and Fiji all experienced recession in 2008 and 2009.

The trade balance is more skewed towards imports than exports, with the exception of Papua New Guinea, which has a mining industry. There is growing evidence that Fiji is becoming a re-export hub in the Pacific; between 2009 and 2013, its re-exports grew threefold, accounting for more than half of all exports by Pacific Island states. Samoa can also expect to become more integrated in global markets from now on, having joined the World Trade Organization in 2012. Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are also members of the World Trade Organization.

Pacific Island states make up a very small share of the South Pacific's high-tech exports. These exports receded between 2008 and 2013 by 46% for Fiji and by 41% for Samoa, according to the United Nations' Comtrade database. Fiji's high-tech exports were down from US$5.0 million to US$2.7 million and Samoa's from US$0.3 to US$0.2 million.

In 2013, the majority of Fijian high-tech exports were pharmaceutical products (84%), whereas Samoa exports mainly scientific instruments (86%) and Kiribati non-electrical machinery (79%). Armaments make up 92% of high-exports from the Solomon Islands.

### Internet access

By 2013, one in three inhabitants of Fiji, Tonga and Tuvalu had Internet access. Growth in Internet access since 2010 has levelled out the disparity between countries to some extent, although connectivity remained extremely low in Vanuatu (11%), the Solomon Islands (8%) and Papua New Guinea (7%) in 2013.

Advances in mobile phone technology have clearly been a factor in the provision of Internet access to remote areas. The flow of knowledge and information through internet is likely to play an important role in the more effective dissemination and application of knowledge across the vast Pacific Island nations.

Mobile Internet penetration was the lowest (18%) of any region in the world in 2018 but this figure is expected to double by 2023. In this remote region, high-speed Internet access comes from laying an expensive undersea cable. Recent links have been created for Papua New Guinea (2020), the Solomon Islands (2020) and Tonga (2018).

Pacific countries are reshaping their social and economic environments to meet digital demands. To benefit from modern digital and other technological tools, regulatory bodies have adopted social media platforms and messaging systems in official protocols to disseminate disaster warnings in Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Niue, as well as weather forecasts and information on climate change.

In 2015, the Pacific Islands Forum Leaders established an ICT Working Group made up of CROP agencies that is co-ordinated by the University of the South Pacific. However, no regional mechanism has since emerged in this area.

In the *Boe Declaration on Regional Security*, produced during the 2018 Pacific Islands Forum, Pacific leaders expanded the concept of security to include cybersecurity. Efforts are under way to assess cybersecurity capacity in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia, in tandem with the United Nations International Telecommunication Union and other partners. Samoa has been the first to develop a *National Cyber Security Strategy 2016–2021*.

## Regional initiatives

### Regional bodies addressing technological issues

Both the largest and smallest Pacific nations acknowledge that taking a regional approach to science and technology offers them greater opportunities for institutional development. This approach is encapsulated in the *Framework for Pacific Regionalism* (2014). All 14 nations have mandated the agencies attached to the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific (CROP) to conduct technical backstopping. CROP agencies partially fulfill the role that a science council might play in other regions. However, none of these agencies has a specific mandate or policy for science and technology.

Pacific Island states have established a number of regional bodies to address technological issues for sectorial development. Examples are the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific, such as the Pacific Community (SPC); Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; and Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme.

The Ministers of Education from Pacific Island countries signed a *Ministerial communiqué on Pacific Science, Technology and Innovation* in 2017, in which they committed to developing regional and national STI policies and roadmaps. However, no policy or roadmap has since been published for want of resources.

The 2014 *Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway* (SAMOA Pathway) identified science and technology as being critical to SIDS’ sustainable development.

The need for research is being recognized at the regional level. The Pacific Community Centre for Ocean Science was established in New Caledonia in 2015, hosted by SPC. Construction of the Pacific Climate Change Centre was completed in Apia, Samoa in 2019 (see below).

### Pacific–Europe Network for Science, Technology and Innovation

The establishment of the Pacific–Europe Network for Science, Technology and Innovation (PACE-Net Plus) goes some way towards filling the void in science policy, at least temporarily. Funded by the European Commission within its Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), this project has spanned the period 2013–2016 and thus overlaps with the European Union’s Horizon 2020 programme.

The objectives of PACE–Net Plus are to reinforce the dialogue between the Pacific region and Europe in science, technology and innovation; to support biregional research and innovation through calls for research proposals; and to promote scientific excellence and industrial and economic competition. Ten of its 16 members come from the Pacific region and the remainder from Europe.

The Pacific partners are the Australian National University, Montroix Pty Ltd (Australia), University of the South Pacific, Institut Malardé in French Caledonia, National Centre for Technological Research into Nickel and its Environment in New Caledonia, South Pacific Community, Landcare Research Ltd in New Zealand, University of Papua New Guinea, Samoa National University and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre.

The other six partners are: the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the Institut de recherche pour le développement in France, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and the European Union, the Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação, United Nations Industrial Development Organization and Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology in Germany.

PACE-Net Plus focuses on three societal challenges:

* Health, demographic change and well-being;
* Food security, sustainable agriculture, marine and maritime research and the bio-economy; and
* Climate action, resource efficiency and raw materials.

PACE–Net Plus has organized a series of high-level policy dialogue platforms alternately in the Pacific region and in Brussels, the headquarters of the European Commission. These platforms bring together key government and institutional stakeholders in both regions, around STI issues.

A conference held in Suva (Fiji) in 2012 under the umbrella of PACE–Net Plus produced recommendations for a strategic plan for research, innovation and development in the Pacific. The conference report published in 2013 identified R&D needs in the Pacific in seven areas:

* health;
* agriculture and forestry;
* fisheries and aquaculture;
* biodiversity and ecosystem management;
* freshwater;
* natural hazards; and
* energy.

### Pacific Islands University Research Network

Noting the general absence of regional and national policies and plans for science, technology and innovation in the Pacific, the PACE–Net Plus conference established the Pacific Islands University Research Network to support intra- and inter- regional knowledge creation and sharing and to prepare succinct recommendations for the development of a regional policy framework for science, technology and innovation.

This formal research network will complement the Fiji-based University of the South Pacific, which has campuses in other Pacific Island countries.

### Importance of data to inform policy

It was intended for the policy role of the Pacific Islands University Research Network to be informed by evidence gleaned from measuring capability in science, technology and innovation but the absence of data presents a formidable barrier. As of 2015, only Fiji had recent data on expenditure on research and development (R&D) and there were no recent data on researchers and technicians for any of the developing Pacific island countries.

Without relevant data, it will be difficult for developing Pacific Island states to monitor their progress towards Sustainable Development target 9.5, namely: *Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending*. The two indicators chosen by the United Nations to measure progress are research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP (9.5.1) and Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants (9.5.2).

Efforts to collate and co-ordinate regional and national data are growing. Such efforts include the PRISM database from the SPC Statistics for Development Division and the national and regional environmental data portals created by countries with the support of the Inform Project.

## National policy issues

### Fiji

#### Higher education

Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa all consider education to be one of the key policy tools for driving science, technology and innovation, as well as modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger portion of its national budget to education than any other Pacific Island country (4.2% of GDP in 2011), although this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of the education budget allocated to higher education (0.5% of GDP) amounts to 13% of the public education budget. Scholarship schemes like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the availability of student loans have made higher education attractive and rewarding in Fiji.

According to an internal investigation into the choice of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13), Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment figures at all three Fijian universities.

Many Pacific Island countries take Fiji as a benchmark for education. The country draws education leaders from other Pacific Island countries for training and, according to the Ministry of Education, teachers from Fiji are in great demand in these countries.

One important initiative has been the creation of the Higher Education Commission (FHEC) in 2010, the regulatory body in charge of tertiary education in Fiji. FHEC has embarked on registration and accreditation processes for tertiary-level education providers to improve the quality of higher education in Fiji. In 2014, FHEC allocated research grants to universities with a view to enhancing the research culture among faculty.

#### Research and development

Fiji is the only developing Pacific Island country with recent data for gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). The national Bureau of Statistics cites a GERD/GDP ratio of 0.15% in 2012. Private-sector research and development (R&D) is negligible. Between 2007 and 2012, government investment in R&D tended to favour agriculture. Scientists publish much more in geosciences and medical sciences than in agricultural sciences, however.

##### Agriculture

Food security has been given high priority in the *Fiji 2020 Agriculture Sector Policy*, as part of a shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture and agro-processing. Strategies outlined in Fiji 2020 include:

* modernizing agriculture in Fiji;
* developing integrated systems for agriculture;
* improving delivery of agricultural support systems;
* enhancing innovative agricultural business models; and
* strengthening the capacity for policy formulation.

Fiji has taken the initiative of shifting away from subsistence agriculture towards commercial agriculture and agro-processing of root crops, tropical fruits, vegetables, spices, horticulture and livestock. In 2013, the Ministry of Agriculture revived Fiji’s *Agricultural Journal* in 2013, which had been dormant for 17 years.

In 2007, agriculture and primary production accounted for just under half of government expenditure on R&D, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. By 2012, this had risen to almost 60%. Scientists publish much more in the field of geosciences than in agriculture, though. Between 2008 and 2014, agriculture accounted for only 11 out of Fiji's 460 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded), compared to 85 articles in geosciences.

The rise in government spending on agricultural research has come to the detriment of research in education, which dropped to 35% of total research spending between 2007 and 2012. Government expenditure on health has remained fairly constant, at about 5% of the total for research, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.

##### Health

Over the six years to 2012, government expenditure on health remained fairly constant but low in Fiji, at about 5% of the total for research, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. This may explain why medical sciences accounted for only 72 out of Fiji's 460 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) between 2008 and 2014.

The Fijian Ministry of Health is seeking to develop endogenous research capacity through the *Fiji Journal of Public Health*, which it launched in 2012. A new set of guidelines are now in place to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology. The new policy guidelines require that all research projects initiated in Fiji with external bodies demonstrate how the project will contribute to local capacity-building in health research.

##### Fisheries

The desire to ensure that fisheries remain sustainable is fuelling the drive to use science and technology to make the transition to value-added production. The fisheries sector in Fiji is currently dominated by the catch of tuna for the Japanese market. The Fijian government plans to diversify this sector through aquaculture, inshore fisheries and offshore fish products such as sunfish and deep-water snapper. Accordingly, many incentives and concessions are being offered to encourage the private sector to invest in these areas.

##### ICT sector

Fiji has shown substantial growth in access to Internet and mobile phone services. This trend has been supported by its geographical location, service culture, pro-business policies, English-speaking population and well-connected e-society. Relative to many other South Pacific Islands, Fiji has a fairly reliable and efficient telecommunications system with access to the Southern Cross submarine cable linking New Zealand, Australia and North America. A recent move to establish the University of the South Pacific Stathan ICT Park, the Kalabo ICT economic zone and the ATH technology park in Fiji should boost the ICT support service sector in the Pacific region.

### Papua New Guinea

#### Higher education

In its *Higher Education Plan III 2014–2023*, Papua New Guinea sets out a strategy for transforming tertiary education and R&D through the introduction of a quality assurance system and a programme to overcome its limited R&D capacity.

#### Research and development

The *National Vision 2050* was adopted in 2009. It has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasized the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology.

*Vision 2050*’s medium-term priorities are:

* emerging industrial technology for downstream processing;
* infrastructure technology for the economic corridors;
* knowledge-based technology;
* Science and engineering education; and
* to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by 2050.

By 2016, the share of GDP invested in research and development measured just 0.03%.

Between 2008 and 2014, 82% of scientific articles from Papua New Guinea concerned the biological and medical sciences. Less than 10% of the country's 517 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) focused on geosciences.

In 2016, women represented 33.2% of the scientists in Papua New Guinea, on par with the global share.

Professor Teatulohi Matainaho serves as Chief Science Advisor to Papua New Guinea, appointed in 2013.

## Sustainable development

### Disaster resilience

Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their national knowledge base to regional and global advances in science. One motivation for this greater interconnectedness is the region’s vulnerability to geohazards such as earthquakes and tsunamis – the Pacific Rim is not known as the Ring of Fire for nothing. In 2009, Samoa suffered a submarine earthquake of a magnitude of 8.1 on the Richter Scale, the strongest earthquake recorded that year. The subsequent tsunami caused substantial damage and loss of life in Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga.

The need for greater disaster resilience is inciting countries to develop collaboration in the geosciences.

### Climate change

Climate change is a parallel concern, as the Pacific Rim is also one of the most vulnerable regions to rising sea levels and increasingly capricious weather patterns. In March 2015, for instance, much of Vanuatu was flattened by Cyclone Pam.

Climate change seems to be the most pressing environmental issue for Pacific Island countries, as it is already affecting almost all socio-economic sectors. The consequences of climate change can be seen in agriculture, food security, forestry and even in the spread of communicable diseases. Climate change mostly concerns marine issues, such as the growing frequency and severity of storms, rising sea levels and the increased salinity of soils and groundwater.

The Secretariat of the Pacific Community has initiated several activities to tackle problems associated with climate change. These cover a great variety of areas, including fisheries, freshwater, agriculture, coastal zone management, disaster management, energy, traditional knowledge, education, forestry, communication, tourism, culture, health, weather, gender implications and biodiversity. Almost all Pacific Island countries are involved in one or more of these activities.

The Seventh Pacific Islands Leaders Meeting with Japan in 2015 pledged to establish a Pacific Climate Change Centre. Construction of the centre was completed in Apia, Samoa, in 2019. A shared regional asset, the centre has four mutually reinforcing functions: knowledge brokerage; applied research; capacity-building; and innovation to promote climate change adaptation and mitigation. The government of Samoa, the Pacific Regional Environment Programme and the Japan International Cooperation Agency are all collaborating to deliver 12 courses for trainees from all Pacific Island countries and territories by 2022. The centre also houses a research node of Australia’s University of Newcastle in partnership with the Pacific Regional Environment Programme; it has offered PhD scholarships since 2018 and hosts an ‘innovation incubator’. Research undertaken at the centre aligns with the four priority areas defined by the Pacific leaders, namely: climate change resilience; ecosystems and biodiversity protection; waste management; and environmental governance.

#### Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change

The first major scheme focusing on adaptation to climate change and climate variability dates back to 2009. Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change involves 13 Pacific Island nations, with international funding from the Global Environment Facility, as well as from the US and Australian governments.

#### Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environment Programme

Several projects related to climate change are also being co-ordinated by the United Nations Environment Programme, within the Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme (SPREP). The aim of SPREP is to help all members improve their ‘capacity to respond to climate change through policy improvement, implementation of practical adaptation measures, enhancing ecosystem resilience to the impacts of climate change and implementing initiatives aimed at achieving low-carbon development’.

### Samoa Pathway

The blueprint for the subregion’s sustainable development over the coming decade is the *Samoa Pathway*, the action plan adopted by countries at the third United Nations Conference on Small Island Developing States in Apia (Samoa) in September 2014. The *Samoa Pathway* focuses on, inter alia, sustainable consumption and production; sustainable energy, tourism and transportation; climate change; disaster risk reduction; forests; water and sanitation, food security and nutrition; chemical and waste management; oceans and seas; biodiversity; desertification, land degradation and drought; and health and non-communicable diseases.\[1\]

### Forestry

Forestry is an important economic resource for Fiji and Papua New Guinea. However, forestry in both countries uses low and semi-intensive technological inputs. As a result, product ranges are limited to sawed timber, veneer, plywood, block board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few limited finished products are exported. Lack of automated machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing automated machinery and design. Policy-makers need to turn their attention to eliminating these barriers, in order for forestry to make a more efficient and sustainable contribution to national economic development.

### Energy

On average, 10% of the GDP of Pacific Island countries funds imports of petroleum products but in some cases this figure can exceed 30%. In addition to high fuel transport costs, this reliance on fossil fuels leaves Pacific economies vulnerable to volatile global fuel prices and potential spills by oil tankers.

Consequently, many Pacific Island countries are convinced that renewable energy will play a role in their socio-economic development. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, renewable energy sources already represent significant shares of the total electricity supply: 60%, 66%, 37% and 15% respectively. Tokelau has even become the first country in the world to generate 100% of its electricity using renewable sources.

According to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, renewable energy still represented less than 10% of total energy use in the 22 Pacific Island countries and territories in 2015. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'.

International development partners are participating in several projects to develop renewable energy in the Pacific island states.

#### Cook Islands Renewable Energy Chart Implementation Plan

In the Cook Islands, for instance, the Asian Development Bank plans to supply electricity from renewable energy to all inhabited islands by 2020, within the *Cook Islands Renewable Energy Chart Implementation Plan for 2012–2020*. New solar photovoltaic power plants with lithium-ion batteries were being built on up to six islands of the Southern Group in 2014.

### Fiji's Rural Electrification Fund

The Fiji Rural Electrification Fund will bring affordable solar power and battery storage to 300 rural communities that rely on diesel generators or are without electricity access. Initiated in 2018 and lasting ten years, this fund is a public–private partnership.

### Vanuatu's National Green Energy Fund

To equip its *National Energy Road Map 2016–2030*, Vanuatu approved the National Green Energy Fund in 2016 with the goal of mobilising US$ 20 million to provide all households with access to electricity (primarily through individual solar systems) and to improve energy efficiency by 2030. In off-grid areas, households’ access to electricity increased from 9% in 2015 to 64.4% in 2017. The increase was attributed to investments in imported, plug-in solar home systems, supported by the Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project in 2016. However, the share of renewable energy in electricity generation declined from 29% to 18% over the same period, owing in part to a reduction in the use of biofuels in Vanuatu’s largest electricity concession in Port Vila.

#### Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency

In April 2014, Pacific Ministers for Energy and Transport agreed to establish the Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, 'a first for the Pacific'. The centre will become part of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization's network of regional Sustainable Energy for All Centres of Excellence, along with centres for the Caribbean Community, Economic Community of West African States, the Southern African Development Community and the East African Community.

The Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency was established in Tonga in 2016 to advise the private sector on related policy matters, provide capacity-building and promote business investment. The centre facilitates a financial mechanism offering competitive grants for start-ups to spur the adoption of renewable energy by the business sector. The centre is part of the Global Network of Regional Sustainable Energy Centres and SIDS DOCK framework designed to attract international investment in the renewable energy sector.

#### Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme

Efforts are under way to improve countries’ capacity to produce, conserve and use renewable energy. For example, the European Union has funded the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC). Since its inception in 2013, EPIC has developed two master’s programmes in renewable energy management and helped to establish two Centres of Renewable Energy, one at the University of Papua New Guinea and the other at the University of Fiji. Both centres became operational in 2014 and aim to create a regional knowledge hub for the development of renewable energy.

#### Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy programme

In February 2014, the European Union and the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat signed an agreement for a programme on Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy worth €37.26 million which will benefit 15 Pacific Island states. These are the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

### Inclusion of traditional knowledge

Limited freedom of expression and, in some cases, religious conservatism discourage research in certain areas but the experience of Pacific Island countries shows that sustainable development and a green economy can benefit from the inclusion of traditional knowledge in formal science and technology, as underlined by the *Sustainable* *Development Brief* prepared by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community in 2013.

### Renewable energy targets

As part of their Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement, the Pacific Island countries are building national renewable energy systems. All 14 countries now have energy strategies, although some extend only to 2020. Nearly all place a strong emphasis on electricity generation using renewable resources.

Progress towards targets for renewable electricity generation in Pacific Island countries, 2018
|  | Share of electricity generated from renewable sources, 2018 (%) | Target for share of renewables in electricity generation (%) | Timeline for target | Policy framework |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Papua New Guinea | 62.0 | 100 | 2030 | *National Energy Policy 2016–2020* |
| Fiji | 60.0 | 100 | 2036 | in preparation; see *National Energy Policy 2013–2020* |
| Samoa | 42.0 | 100 | 2017 | *Energy Sector Plan 2017–2022* |
| Cook Islands | 26.0 | 100 | 2020 | *Renewable Electricity Chart 2011–2020* |
| Tuvalu | 23.0 | 100 | 2020 | *Master Plan for Renewable Electricity and Energy Efficiency, 2012–2020* |
| Vanuatu | 22.0 | 100 | 2030 | *National Energy Road Map 2016–2030* |
| Niue | 14.0 | 80 | 2025 | *Strategic Energy Road Map 2015–2025* |
| Tonga | 10.0 | 50 | 2020 | *Energy Road Map 2010–2020* |
| Nauru | 2.0 | 50 | 2020 | *Energy Road Map 2018–2020* |
| Palau | 2.0 | 45 | 2025 | *National Energy Policy 2010–2020* |
| Kiribati | 17.0 | 40 | 2025 | *Integrated Energy Roadmap 2017–2025* |
| Micronesia | 5.0 | 30 | 2020 | *Energy Master Plans* (2018) |
| Solomon Islands | 6.0 | 20 | 2020 | *National Energy Policy* (2014) |
| Marshall Islands | 2.0 | 20 | 2020 | *Electricity Roadmap* (2018) |

## Scientific output in the region

According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Fijian research was concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as medical sciences, geosciences and biology. Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology.

This pattern contrasts with the trend observed in the French territories of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, where there was a strong emphasis on geosciences: six to eight times the world average for this field.

More than three-quarters of articles published by scientists from Pacific Island nations between 2008 and 2014 were signed by international collaborators, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded. International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively).

All countries counted North American partners among their top five partners. Fijian research collaboration with North American partners even exceeded that with India, even though a large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin.

Research partnerships also involved Australia and countries in Europe. Surprisingly, there was little co-authorship with authors based in France, with the notable exception of Vanuatu. Some Pacific Island states counted their neighbours among their closest scientific collaborators, as in the case of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.

Many of the smaller Pacific Island states have a near-100% rate of co-authorship This extremely high rate can be a double-edged sword. According to the Fijian Ministry of Health, research collaboration often results in an article being published in a reputed journal but gives very little back in terms of strengthening health in Fiji. A new set of guidelines are now in place in Fiji to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology. The new policy guidelines require that all research projects initiated in Fiji with external bodies demonstrate how the project will contribute to local capacity-building in health research.

**Top five foreign collaborators for South Pacific scientists, 2008-2014**

Source: *UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030* (2015), Figure 27.8. Data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by Science Metrix

### A need to focus on local goals

Countries are struggling to steer their scientific efforts toward sustainable development, at a time when the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals have taken over from the Millennium Development Goals in 2016. It has been suggested that countries could begin by encouraging their scientists to focus more on attaining local goals for sustainable development, rather than on publishing in high-profile international journals on topics that may be of lesser local relevance. The difficulty with this course of action is that the key metrics for recognizing scientific quality are publications and citation data. The answer to this dilemma most likely lies in the need to recognize the global nature of many local development problems. 'We are dealing with problems without boundaries and we underestimate the scale and nature of their consequences at our collective peril. As global citizens, the research and policy communities have an obligation to collaborate and deliver, so arguing for national priorities seems irrelevant'.

### New scientific journals

In 2012, the Fijian Ministry of Health launched the *Fiji Journal of Public Health*, in an attempt to develop endogenous research capacity. In parallel, the Ministry of Agriculture revived Fiji’s *Agricultural Journal* in 2013, which had been dormant for 17 years.

In addition, two regional journals were launched in 2009 as a focus for Pacific scientific research, the *Samoan Medical Journal* and the *Papua New Guinea Journal of Research, Science and Technology*.

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2. *The Mobile Economy: Pacific Islands 2019*. London: GSM Association. 2019.
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4. Scott-Kemmis; Intarakumnerd; Rasiah; Amaradasa (11 June 2021). Schneegans, S.; Straza, T.; Lewis, J. (eds.). *Southeast Asia and Oceania. In UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development*. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 674–715. ISBN 978-92-3-100450-6.
5. *Pacific Islands Meteorological Services in Action – A Compendium of Climate Services Case Studies* (PDF). Apia: World Meteorological Organization and theSecretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. 2016. ISBN 978-982-04-0634-6.
6. "Statistics for Development Division".
7. "Pacific Environment Portal". *Pacific Environment Portal*.
8. "Pacific-first centre of excellence for renewable energy and energy efficiency takes shape". *Secretariat of Pacific Community press release*. 18 June 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
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10. Perkins, Nick Ishmael (2012). "Global priorities: local context: a governance challenge". *SciDev.net*. Retrieved 17 March 2017.

## Sources

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from *UNESCO Science Report; towards 2030*, UNESCO.


title: Facilina

abstract: Facilina is a genus of flies in the family Pyrgotidae.

text:
# Facilina

***Facilina*** is a genus of flies in the family Pyrgotidae.

## Species

## InfoBox

| *Facilina* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Suborder: | Brachycera |
| Subsection: | Acalyptratae |
| Superfamily: | Tephritoidea |
| Family: | Pyrgotidae |
| Genus: | ***Facilina***
Paramonov, 1958 |
|
| Type species | |
| *Facilina campbelli*
Paramonov, 1958 | |


title: Republic of the Congo passport

abstract: Republic of the Congo passports are issued to Congolese citizens to travel outside the Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Brazzaville. As of 1 January 2017, Republic of the Congo citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 43 countries and territories, ranking the Republic of the Congo passport 92nd in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index.

text:
# Republic of the Congo passport

**Republic of the Congo passports** are issued to Congolese citizens to travel outside the Republic of the Congo, also known as *Congo-Brazzaville*.

As of 1 January 2017, Republic of the Congo citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 43 countries and territories, ranking the Republic of the Congo passport 92nd in terms of travel freedom (tied with Jordanian and Liberian passports) according to the Henley visa restrictions index.

1. "Global Ranking - Visa Restriction Index 2017" (PDF). Henley & Partners. Retrieved 14 March 2017.

## InfoBox

| Republic of the Congo passport | |
| --- | --- |
| Republic of the Congo passport front cover | |
| Type | Passport |
| Issued by | Republic of the Congo |
| Purpose | Identification |
| Eligibility | Republic of the Congo citizenship |


title: Ozolles

abstract: Ozolles is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne-France-Comté in eastern France.

text:
# Ozolles

**Ozolles** (French pronunciation: \[ozɔl\]) is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne-France-Comté in eastern France.

## InfoBox

| Ozolles | |
| --- | --- |
| Commune | |
| A general view of Ozolles | |
| Location of Ozolles | |
| OzollesOzolles | |
| Coordinates: 46°22′59″N 4°21′04″E / 46.3831°N 4.3511°E / 46.3831; 4.3511 | |
| Country | France |
| Region | Bourgogne-Franche-Comté |
| Department | Saône-et-Loire |
| Arrondissement | Charolles |
| Canton | Charolles |
| Government | |
| Mayor (20202026) | Gérard Lallement |
| Area**1** | 27.2 km2 (10.5 sq mi) |
| Population (2021) | 377 |
| Density | 14/km2 (36/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| INSEE/Postal code | 71339 /71120 |
| Elevation | 309–515 m (1,014–1,690 ft)
(avg. 405 m or 1,329 ft) |
| **1** French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers \> 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |


title: Exoneration

abstract: Exoneration occurs when the conviction for a crime is reversed, either through demonstration of innocence, a flaw in the conviction, or otherwise. Attempts to exonerate individuals are particularly controversial in death penalty cases, especially where new evidence is put forth after the execution has taken place. The transitive verb, "to exonerate" can also mean to informally absolve one from blame. The term "exoneration" also is used in criminal law to indicate a surety, i.e. bail bond has been satisfied, completed, and exonerated. The judge orders the bond exonerated; the clerk of court time stamps the original bail bond power and indicates exonerated as the judicial order.

text:
# Exoneration

**Exoneration** occurs when the conviction for a crime is reversed, either through demonstration of innocence, a flaw in the conviction, or otherwise. Attempts to exonerate individuals are particularly controversial in death penalty cases, especially where new evidence is put forth after the execution has taken place. The transitive verb, "to exonerate" can also mean to informally absolve one from blame.

The term "exoneration" also is used in criminal law to indicate a surety, i.e. bail bond has been satisfied, completed, and exonerated. The judge orders the bond exonerated; the clerk of court time stamps the original bail bond power and indicates exonerated as the judicial order.

## Based on DNA evidence

DNA evidence is a relatively new instrument of exoneration. The first convicted defendant from a United States prison to be released on account of DNA testing was David Vasquez, who had been convicted of homicide, in 1989. Subsequently, DNA evidence was used to exonerate a number of persons either on death row or serving lengthy prison sentences. As of October 2003, the number of states authorizing individuals to request DNA testing on their behalf had increased from two to thirty. Access to DNA testing then and now can vary greatly by degree; post-conviction tests can be difficult to acquire. Organizations such as the Innocence Project and Centurion are particularly concerned with the exoneration of those who have been convicted based on weak or faulty evidence, regardless of DNA evidence. In October 2003, prosecutors of criminal cases must approve the defendant's request for DNA testing in certain cases.

Monday, April 23, 2007, Jerry Miller became the 200th person in the United States exonerated through the use of DNA evidence. There is a national campaign in support of the formation of state Innocence Commissions, statewide entities that identify causes of wrongful convictions and develop state reforms that can improve the criminal justice system.

As of 2020, 375 people in the U.S. have been exonerated based on DNA tests. In nearly half of these cases, faulty forensics contributed to the original conviction.

Per February 4, 2014 NPR article, Laura Sullivan cited Samuel Gross, a University of Michigan law professor stating that exonerations were on the rise, and not just because of DNA evidence. Only one-fifth of the exonerations in 2013 relied on newly tested DNA, a little less than a third of exonerations occurred due to further investigating by law enforcement agencies.

According to a 2020 study, DNA exonerations in rape cases "strongly suggest that the wrongful-conviction rate is significantly higher among black individuals than white individuals."

## Exonerees after exoneration

Wrongful conviction has many social, economic, and psychological consequences for people later exonerated, especially for death row exonerees.

After exoneration, some exonerees publicly have joined or formed organizations like Witness to Innocence and the Innocence Project to tell their stories as a form of advocacy against the death penalty, prison conditions, or other criminal justice issues.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1986 film)

abstract: The Hunchback of Notre Dame is a 1986 Australian/American fantasy animated film and an adaptation of the 1831 novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame by Victor Hugo.

text:
# The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1986 film)

***The Hunchback of Notre Dame*** is a 1986 Australian/American fantasy animated film and an adaptation of the 1831 novel *The Hunchback of Notre-Dame* by Victor Hugo.

## Summary

Claude Frollo is attempting alchemy, but his thoughts of Esmeralda, a Roma dancer, hinder his concentration. He informs Quasimodo, his hunchbacked and deaf servant, that he needs him to assist in kidnapping Esmeralda. In the Paris streets is the poet Gringoire, who also pines for Esmeralda, and laments his dilemma through poetry. Esmeralda herself passes by, and Quasimodo tries to kidnap her under Frollo's orders. Gringoire tries to save her, but is knocked to the ground instead. Esmeralda is successfully rescued by Captain Phoebus, who has the hunchback arrested, while Frollo escapes. Esmeralda takes a liking to Phoebus, and remarks on the beauty of his name when he leaves.

Gringoire is chased by faux cripples into the Court of Miracles, the den of beggars and thieves. Clopin, the king of the Gypsies, decides to hang Gringoire. Gringoire, to avoid death, has to perform a test, which he quickly fails. He is then offered to women to avoid hanging. Esmeralda marries him, but only out of pity. The next day, the archbishop visits Frollo in his laboratory and informs him that Quasimodo has been arrested. Frollo refuses to testify at the trial, using the false excuse of not wanting to disgrace the church. At the Palis de Justice, the deaf judge assumes he is being mocked, as Quasimodo is unable to properly answer the judge's questions, and sentences him to a flogging. Quasimodo is whipped, and mocked by the people around him. He begs for water, and Esmeralda gives him some. She performs tricks with her goat Djali, but stops in order to pursue Phoebus. Later, at the inn, Esmeralda is reunited with Phoebus, but only a short while after this, he is stabbed by Frollo. Esmeralda is blamed and arrested. At her trial, she is accused of sorcery. Charmalou manages to have Djali perform a trick, which is used as damning evidence against her.

She is sentenced to burn at the stake. Frollo offers her to come with him into the cathedral so he can have the responsibility of cleansing her soul. Esmeralda sees through this lie and says that she "would prefer to die" than be with him; plus, she sees an alive Phoebus who is passing near the crowd but does not react, therefore she is persuaded that Phoebus does not love her, and prefers to die. Before the execution can proceed, Quasimodo swoops down, snatches Esmeralda, and saves her, crying "sanctuary" over and over. Frollo curses both Esmeralda and "the deformed monster (he) adopted and raised all of these years".

Quasimodo pours his heart out to Esmeralda, and she begins to pity him, apologizing for "judging (him) ugly because of (his) face". The next day, Frollo visits Esmeralda when she is alone. He offers himself to her once more, but Esmeralda rejects his advances. Frollo pulls out a dagger, with the intent of killing Esmeralda. Quasimodo stops him, and Frollo leaves, saying that if he can't have Esmeralda then no other man will.

Enraged townspeople then attack the cathedral, wanting to hang Esmeralda, but Quasimodo defends her and the church. Frollo grabs Esmeralda, trying to push her off the roof: Quasimodo runs to her aid, and throws Frollo off the roof to his death. Down below, Phoebus makes his way through the crowd: the people are amazed to see that he is alive, he proves Esmeralda's innocence, saying that it was Frollo who had stabbed him and the gypsy "has commuted no sin in her entire life, except to be born beautiful". Esmeralda says that Quasimodo is "the most beautiful and innocent man who was ever born", so that a touched Quasimodo walks off to a gargoyle, looking into the sunset.

## Voice cast

## InfoBox

| The Hunchback of Notre Dame | |
| --- | --- |
| VHS cover art | |
| Directed by | Geoff Collins |
| Screenplay by | Eddy Graham |
| Based on | *The Hunchback of Notre-Dame*
by Victor Hugo |
| Produced by | Tim Brooke-Hunt |
| Starring | Tom Burlinson
Angela Punch McGregor
Ron Haddrick |
| Edited by | Eddy Graham
Caroline Neave |
| Music by | Wilfred Lehmann |
| Distributed by | Image Entertainment
(United States)
The Rank Organisation
(United Kingdom) |
| Release dates | * 27 August 1986 (1986-08-27) (United States and Australia) |
| Running time | 52 minutes |
| Countries | Australia
United States |
| Languages | English
French
Spanish |


abstract: Falkirk East is a constituency of the Scottish Parliament (Holyrood) covering part of the council area of Falkirk. It elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the plurality method of election. Also, however, it is one of nine constituencies in the Central Scotland electoral region, which elects seven additional members, in addition to nine constituency MSPs, to produce a form of proportional representation for the region as a whole. The constituency was created at the same time as the Scottish Parliament, for the 1999 Scottish Parliament election. Ahead of the 2011 Scottish Parliament election the boundaries of the seat were reformed and reshaped. The seat has been held by Michelle Thomson of the Scottish National Party since the 2021 Scottish Parliament election.

text:
# Falkirk East (Scottish Parliament constituency)

**Falkirk East** (Gaelic: *An Eaglais Bhreac an Ear*) is a constituency of the Scottish Parliament (Holyrood) covering part of the council area of Falkirk. It elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the plurality (first past the post) method of election. Also, however, it is one of nine constituencies in the Central Scotland electoral region, which elects seven additional members, in addition to nine constituency MSPs, to produce a form of proportional representation for the region as a whole.

The constituency was created at the same time as the Scottish Parliament, for the 1999 Scottish Parliament election. Ahead of the 2011 Scottish Parliament election the boundaries of the seat were reformed and reshaped.

The seat has been held by Michelle Thomson of the Scottish National Party since the 2021 Scottish Parliament election.

## Electoral region

The other eight constituencies of the Central Scotland region are: Airdrie and Shotts, Coatbridge and Chryston, Cumbernauld and Kilsyth, East Kilbride, Falkirk West, Hamilton, Larkhall and Stonehouse, Motherwell and Wishaw and Uddingston and Bellshill.

The region covers all of the Falkirk council area, all of the North Lanarkshire council area and part of the South Lanarkshire council area.

## Constituency boundaries and council area

Map of boundaries from 2011

The constituency was created at the same time as the Scottish Parliament, in 1999, with the name and boundaries of an existing Westminster constituency. In 2005, however, Scottish Westminster (House of Commons) constituencies were mostly replaced with new constituencies. The Holyrood constituency was subsequently itself redrawn for the 2011 Scottish Parliament election, with the newly shaped Falkirk East being formed from the following electoral wards:

## Member of the Scottish Parliament

| Election | | Member | Party |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 1999 | Cathy Peattie | Labour |
|  | 2011 | Angus MacDonald | SNP |
| | 2021 | Michelle Thomson | |

## Election results

### 2020s

2021 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Constituency | | | Regional | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Votes | | % | ±% | Votes | % | ±% |
|  | **SNP** | **Michelle Thomson** | **18,417** | **47.4** | **4.0** | **16,432** | **42.1** | **4.7** |
|  | Labour Co-op | Allyson Black | 10,832 | 27.9 | 2.0 | 8,516 | 21.8 | 0.5 |
|  | Conservative | Neil Benny | 7,618 | 19.6 | 0.1 | 8,800 | 22.5 | 2.7 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | Paul Rolfe | 1,007 | 2.6 | 0.6 | 912 | 2.3 | 0.1 |
|  | Independent | Peter Krykant | 971 | 2.5 | *New* |  | | |
|  | Scottish Green | | | | | 2,333 | 6.0 | 1.3 |
|  | Alba | | | | | 629 | 1.6 | *New* |
|  | All for Unity | | | | | 325 | 0.8 | *New* |
|  | Freedom Alliance (UK) | | | | | 220 | 0.6 | *New* |
|  | Scottish Family | | | | | 220 | 0.6 | *New* |
|  | Independent Green Voice | | | | | 205 | 0.5 | *New* |
|  | Abolish the Scottish Parliament | | | | | 127 | 0.3 | *New* |
|  | Reform UK | | | | | 97 | 0.2 | *New* |
|  | Independent | Paddy Hogg | | | | 84 | 0.2 | *New* |
|  | UKIP | | | | | 83 | 0.2 | 2.3 |
|  | Scottish Libertarian | | | | | 76 | 0.2 | *New* |
| Majority | | | 7,585 | 19.5 | 6.0 |  | | |
| Valid Votes | | | 38,845 |  | | 39,059 |  | |
| Invalid Votes | | | 115 |  | |  |  | |
| Turnout | | | 38,960 | 62.9 | 8.8 |  |  |  |
|  | SNP **hold** | | Swing | | 6.0 |  | | |
| Notes | | | | | | | | |

### 2010s

2016 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Constituency | | | Regional | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Votes | | % | ±% | Votes | % | ±% |
|  | **SNP** | **Angus MacDonald** | **16,720** | **51.4** | **0.6** | **15,199** | **46.4** | **3.9** |
|  | Labour | Craig Martin | 8,408 | 25.9 | 12.3 | 7,281 | 22.3 | 7.5 |
|  | Conservative | Callum Laidlaw | 6,342 | 19.5 | 11.1 | 6,450 | 19.8 | 12.0 |
|  | Scottish Green | | | | | 1,537 | 4.7 | 2.2 |
|  | UKIP | | | | | 812 | 2.5 | 1.8 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | James Munro | 1,054 | 3.2 | 0.6 | 716 | 2.2 | 0.4 |
|  | Scottish Christian | | | | | 279 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
|  | Solidarity | | | | | 154 | 0.5 | 0.3 |
|  | RISE | | | | | 96 | 0.3 | *New* |
|  | Independent | Deryck Beaumont | | | | 63 | 0.2 | *New* |
| Majority | | | 8,312 | 25.5 | 12.9 |  | | |
| Valid Votes | | | 32,524 |  | | 32,587 |  | |
| Invalid Votes | | | 105 |  | | 45 |  | |
| Turnout | | | 32,629 | 54.1 | 4.0 | 32,632 | 54.1 | 4.0 |
|  | SNP **hold** | | Swing | | 6.5 |  | | |
| Notes | | | | | | | | |

2011 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Constituency | | | Regional | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Votes | | % | ±% | Votes | % | ±% |
|  | **SNP** | **Angus MacDonald** | **14,302** | **50.8** | ***N/A*** | **14,221** | **50.5** | ***N/A*** |
|  | Labour | Cathy Peattie | 10,767 | 38.2 | *N/A* | 8,401 | 29.8 | *N/A* |
|  | Conservative | Lynn Munro | 2,372 | 8.4 | *N/A* | 2,212 | 7.8 | *N/A* |
|  | Scottish Green | | | | | 706 | 2.5 | *N/A* |
|  | All-Scotland Pensioners Party | | | | | 649 | 2.3 | *N/A* |
|  | Liberal Democrats | Ross Laird | 727 | 2.6 | *N/A* | 534 | 1.9 | *N/A* |
|  | BNP | | | | | 310 | 1.1 | *N/A* |
|  | Scottish Christian | | | | | 282 | 1.0 | *N/A* |
|  | Socialist Labour | | | | | 280 | 1.0 | *N/A* |
|  | UKIP | | | | | 208 | 0.7 | *N/A* |
|  | Independent | Hugh O'Donnell | | | | 81 | 0.3 | *N/A* |
|  | Scottish Socialist | | | | | 60 | 0.2 | *N/A* |
|  | Solidarity | | | | | 35 | 0.1 | *N/A* |
|  | *Others* | | | | | 206 | 0.7 | *N/A* |
| Majority | | | 3,535 | 12.6 | *N/A* |  | | |
| Valid Votes | | | 28,168 |  | | 28,185 |  | |
| Invalid Votes | | | 80 |  | | 64 |  | |
| Turnout | | | 28,248 | 50.1 | *N/A* | 28,249 | 50.1 | *N/A* |
|  | SNP **win** (new boundaries) | | | | | | | |
| Notes  1. Incumbent member for this constituency | | | | | | | | |

### 2000s

2007 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Labour** | **Cathy Peattie** | **13,184** | **43.5** | **−8.1** |
|  | SNP | Annabelle Ewing | 11,312 | 37.3 | +9.8 |
|  | Conservative | Scott Campbell | 3,701 | 12.2 | +2.3 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | Natalie Maver | 2,136 | 7.0 | +1.0 |
| Majority | | | 1,872 | 6.2 | −18.0 |
| Turnout | | | 30,333 | 53.1 | +4.0 |
|  | Labour **hold** | | Swing | -9.0 |  |

2003 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Labour** | **Cathy Peattie** | **14,235** | **51.65** | **+5.53** |
|  | SNP | Keith Brown | 7,576 | 27.49 | −5.75 |
|  | Conservative | Tom Calvert | 2,720 | 9.87 | +0.12 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | Karen Utting | 1,651 | 5.99 | −1.21 |
|  | Scottish Socialist | Mhairi McAlpine | 1,377 | 5.00 | New |
| Majority | | | 6,659 | 24.16 | +12.28 |
| Turnout | | | 27,559 | 49.06 | −12.35 |
|  | Labour **hold** | | Swing |  |  |

### 1990s

1999 Scottish Parliament election: Falkirk East
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Labour** | **Cathy Peattie** | **15,721** | **45.12** | ***N/A*** |
|  | SNP | Keith Brown | 11,582 | 33.24 | *N/A* |
|  | Conservative | Alastair Orr | 3,399 | 9.75 | *N/A* |
|  | Liberal Democrats | Gordon Macdonald | 2,509 | 7.20 | *N/A* |
|  | Socialist Labour | Raymond Stead | 1,643 | 4.67 | *N/A* |
| Majority | | | 4,139 | 11.88 | *N/A* |
| Turnout | | | 34,845 | 61.41 | *N/A* |
|  | Labour **win** (new seat) | | | | |

## Footnotes

1. Scottish Parliamentary Constituency (SPC) Population Estimates (2011 Data Zone based), National Records of Scotland; retrieved 6 May 2021 (accompanying summary notes)
2. First Periodic Review of Scottish Parliament Boundaries Archived 17 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine Boundary Commission for Scotland
3. Scottish Parliament Constituencies Order OPSI
4. See *The 5th Periodical Report of the Boundary Commission for Scotland* Archived 21 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
5. Falkirk East: Scottish Parliamentary Constituency (map, 2015), Falkirk Council
6. Constituencies A-Z | Falkirk East, BBC News; retrieved 7 May 2021
7. "Scottish Parliamentary election results". Falkirk Council. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
8. "Results and turnout at the 2016 Scottish Parliament election". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
9. "Results and turnout at the 2011 Scottish Parliament election". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 2 June 2021.

## InfoBox

| Falkirk East | |
| --- | --- |
| County constituency<br>for the Scottish Parliament | |
|  | |
| Falkirk East shown within the Central Scotland electoral region and the region shown within Scotland | |
| Population | 80,482 (2019) |
| Current constituency | |
| Created | 1999 |
| Party | Scottish National Party |
| MSP | Michelle Thomson |
| Council area | Falkirk |


title: Eric Fingerhut

abstract: Eric David Fingerhut is an American politician, attorney, and academic administrator, serving as the President and CEO of The Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA). Prior to his appointment at JFNA, he served as president and CEO of Hillel International from 2013 to 2019. Earlier, he served as the corporate Vice President of Education and STEM Learning business at Battelle Memorial Institute, Chancellor of the Ohio Board of Regents, Ohio state senator and member of the United States House of Representatives for one term. Fingerhut was appointed Chancellor of the Ohio Board of Regents on March 14, 2007 by Governor Ted Strickland. This position is a member of the Ohio Governor's Cabinet. On February 22, 2011, he submitted his resignation to Gov. John Kasich, effective March 14, 2011, after serving four years of his five-year term. Chancellor Fingerhut earned a reputation as an innovative leader and ardent advocate of the value of higher education.

text:
# Eric Fingerhut

**Eric David Fingerhut** (born May 6, 1959) is an American politician, attorney, and academic administrator, serving as the President and CEO of The Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA). Prior to his appointment at JFNA, he served as president and CEO of Hillel International from 2013 to 2019. Earlier, he served as the corporate Vice President of Education and STEM Learning business at Battelle Memorial Institute, Chancellor of the Ohio Board of Regents, Ohio state senator and member of the United States House of Representatives for one term.

Fingerhut was appointed Chancellor of the Ohio Board of Regents on March 14, 2007 by Governor Ted Strickland. This position is a member of the Ohio Governor's Cabinet. On February 22, 2011, he submitted his resignation to Gov. John Kasich, effective March 14, 2011, after serving four years of his five-year term. Chancellor Fingerhut earned a reputation as an innovative leader and ardent advocate of the value of higher education.

## Career

### Support for Israel

While representing Ohio's 19th congressional district in the 103rd Congress, Fingerhut was the co-sponsor of four bills in support of Israel. Including:

H.R. 1407 confronted a boycott of the State of Israel by aiming "To prohibit government-to-government and commercial arms sales to any country that is participating in or cooperating with the boycott of Israel by Arab countries."
H.R. 3656 unequivocally voiced its support for Israel seeking to "restrict sales and leases of defense articles and defense services to any country or international organization which as a matter of policy or practice is known to have sent letters to United States firms requesting compliance with, or soliciting information regarding compliance with, the secondary or tertiary Arab boycott."

### Tenure at Hillel International

Very quickly after beginning his tenure as CEO of Hillel International, the organization experienced a major controversy. The Hillel chapter at Swarthmore College declared itself an "Open Hillel," choosing to welcome all guest speakers and student organizations, whether or not they support Zionism. Fingerhut responded, stating "Let me be very clear – "anti-Zionists" will not be permitted to speak using the Hillel name or under the Hillel roof, under any circumstances." This controversy is widely seen as a key part of a broad conversation in the American Jewish community regarding whether or not Zionism is, or should be, a consensus issue.

Beginning in March 2015, Fingerhut was involved in a controversy with J Street U, the student arm of J Street. Fingerhut initially accepted an invitation to speak at the national student group meeting, but subsequently withdrew. Fingerhut then issued a statement saying he had withdrawn out of "concerns regarding my participation amongst other speakers who have made highly inflammatory statements against the Jewish state." Several people involved in US Jewish student life noted that in an era when the number of Jewish students engaging with Jewish and Israel-related campus groups is shrinking, it might be unproductive to alienate the 3,000 participants in the J Street conference, a population that included 40 Hillel professionals, and that Hillel donor pressure was the likely cause of Fingerhut's withdrawal. On March 23, 250 J Street students marched to Hillel headquarters, leaving letters for Fingerhut demanding a meeting with him and sharing their view that he caved to the demands of "more conservative donors instead of engaging with the full range of student voices — including those on the more liberal end." Fingerhut then wrote to Benjy Cannon, the board president of J Street U and a senior at the University of Maryland, to arrange a meeting between the students and members of Hillel International’s board of directors. In his letter, Fingerhut said that there was "work to do in the Jewish community at large to be one people that respects, honors and celebrates its diversity rather than fearing it. This incident taught me just how deep the divide is. I don’t yet have all the answers to how we will bridge this divide, but as Hillel’s president, I am committed to working with you to find them and I have no doubt we will be successful."

## Select essays

## InfoBox

| Eric Fingerhut | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Chancellor of the Ohio Board of Regents | |
| **In office**
March 14, 2007  March 14, 2011 | |
| Governor | Ted Strickland
John Kasich |
| Preceded by | Roderick G. W. Chu |
| Succeeded by | James M. Petro |
| Member of the Ohio Senate
from the 25th district | |
| **In office**
January 5, 1999 – December 31, 2006 | |
| Preceded by | Judy Sheerer |
| Succeeded by | Lance Mason |
| **In office**
January 3, 1991 – December 12, 1992 | |
| Preceded by | Lee Fisher |
| Succeeded by | Judy Sheerer |
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Ohio's 19th district | |
| **In office**
January 3, 1993  January 3, 1995 | |
| Preceded by | Ed Feighan |
| Succeeded by | Steve LaTourette |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Eric David Fingerhut
(1959-05-06) May 6, 1959
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | Amy Fingerhut |
| Education | Northwestern University (BS)
Stanford University (JD) |
|  | |


title: Streptomyces parvulus

abstract: Streptomyces parvulus is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil. Streptomyces parvulus produces the peptide antibiotic Actinomycin D and the angiogenesis inhibitor borrelidin and manumycin A, himalomycin A, himalomycin B and kynurenine.

text:
# Streptomyces parvulus

***Streptomyces parvulus*** is a bacterium species from the genus of *Streptomyces* which has been isolated from soil. *Streptomyces parvulus* produces the peptide antibiotic Actinomycin D and the angiogenesis inhibitor borrelidin and manumycin A, himalomycin A, himalomycin B and kynurenine.

## Further reading

* Queiroz Sousa, Maria de Fátima Vieira de; Lopes, Carlos Edison; Pereira Júnior, Nei (September 2001). "A chemically defined medium for production of actinomycin D by Streptomyces parvulus". *Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology*. **44** (3): 227–231. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132001000300002.
* Shetty, Prakasham Reddy; Buddana, Sudheer Kumar; Tatipamula, Vinay Bharadwaj; Naga, Yaswanth Varanasi Venkata; Ahmad, Jamal (2014). "Production of polypeptide antibiotic from Streptomyces parvulus and its antibacterial activity". *Brazilian Journal of Microbiology*. **45** (1): 303–312. doi:10.1590/S1517-83822014005000022. PMC 4059315. PMID 24948949.
* Mazy-Servais, C (15 June 1997). "Electroporation of intact cells of Streptomyces parvulus and Streptomyces vinaceus". *FEMS Microbiology Letters*. **151** (2): 135–138. doi:10.1016/S0378-1097(97)00147-X. PMID 9228745.
* Olano, C; Wilkinson, B; Sánchez, C; Moss, SJ; Sheridan, R; Math, V; Weston, AJ; Braña, AF; Martin, CJ; Oliynyk, M; Méndez, C; Leadlay, PF; Salas, JA (January 2004). "Biosynthesis of the angiogenesis inhibitor borrelidin by Streptomyces parvulus Tü4055: cluster analysis and assignment of functions". *Chemistry & Biology*. **11** (1): 87–97. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2003.12.018. PMID 15112998.
* Baumberg, Simon; Krügel, Hans; Noack, Dieter, eds. (1991). *Genetics and Product Formation in Streptomyces*. Boston, MA: Springer US. ISBN 1-4684-5922-8.
* Roberts (1988). Bycroft, B.W. (ed.). *Dictionary of antibiotics and related substances*. A.A. Higton; A.D. Roberts (contributors). London: Chapman and Hall. ISBN 0-412-25450-6.
* Buckingham, J., ed. (1994). *Dictionary of natural products*. Ya Cai (principal contributor) (1. ed.). London \[u.a.\]: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0-412-46620-1.
* Zhang, Lixin; Demain, Arnold L., eds. (2005). *Natural products drug discovery and therapeutic medicine*. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press. ISBN 1-59259-976-1.
* Laskin, Allen I., ed. (1981). *Advances in Applied Microbiology, 27*. Burlington: Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-056441-0.
* ur-Rahman, Atta, ed. (1997). *Studies in Natural Products Chemistry Indices Part A*. Burlington: Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-048120-5.

1. LPSN bacterio.net
2. Straininfo of Streptomyces parvulus
3. Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen
4. Queiroz Sousa, Maria de Fátima Vieira de; Lopes, Carlos Edison; Pereira Júnior, Nei (September 2001). "A chemically defined medium for production of actinomycin D by Streptomyces parvulus". *Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology*. **44** (3): 227–231. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132001000300002.
5. Inbar, L; Lapidot, A (September 1988). "Metabolic regulation in Streptomyces parvulus during actinomycin D synthesis, studied with 13C- and 15N-labeled precursors by 13C and 15N nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry". *Journal of Bacteriology*. **170** (9): 4055–64. doi:10.1128/jb.170.9.4055-4064.1988. PMC 211409. PMID 3410824.
6. Olano, C; Wilkinson, B; Sánchez, C; Moss, SJ; Sheridan, R; Math, V; Weston, AJ; Braña, AF; Martin, CJ; Oliynyk, M; Méndez, C; Leadlay, PF; Salas, JA (January 2004). "Biosynthesis of the angiogenesis inhibitor borrelidin by Streptomyces parvulus Tü4055: cluster analysis and assignment of functions". *Chemistry & Biology*. **11** (1): 87–97. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2003.12.018. PMID 15112998.
7. Brown, Dale; Hitchcock, Michael J. M.; Katz, Edward (June 1986). "Purification and characterization of kynurenine formamidase activities from". *Canadian Journal of Microbiology*. **32** (6): 465–472. doi:10.1139/m86-086. PMID 2425918.
8. Diana, Patrizia; Girolamo, Cirrincione (2015). *Biosynthesis of Heterocycles: From Isolation to Gene Cluste*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-96042-4.
9. Blunt, John; Munro, Murray H.G., eds. (2008). *Dictionary of marine natural products with CD-ROM*. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8493-8217-8.
10. UniProt

## InfoBox

| *Streptomyces parvulus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Actinomycetota |
| Class: | Actinomycetia |
| Order: | Streptomycetales |
| Family: | Streptomycetaceae |
| Genus: | *Streptomyces* |
| Species: | ***S. parvulus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Streptomyces parvulus***<br>corrig. Waksman and Gregory 1954 (Approved Lists 1980) | |
|
| Type strain | |
| AS 4.0611, ATCC 12434, ATCC 19796, BCRC 12046, BootsFD1327, CBS 418.59, CBS 548.68, CCRC 12046, CGMCC 4.0611, CGMCC 4.1094, CUB 510, DSM 40048, ETH 12648, ETH 14318, ETH 31592, G-376, HUT-6081 , ICMP 12845, ICMP 156, IFO 13193, IMET 41380, IMRU 3677, ISP 5048, JCM 4068, JCM 4601, KCC S-0068, KCC S-0601, KCCS-0068, KCCS-0601, Lanoot R-8673, LMG 19312, NBRC 13193, NCIB 11240, NCIMB 11240, NRRL B-1628, NRRL-ISP 5048, PSA 146, R-8673, RIA 1075, RIA 307, RIA 507, UNIQEM 182, VKM Ac-1063, VTT E-991419, Waksman3677, WC 3677 | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Streptomyces parvullus* Waksman and Gregory 1954 (Approved Lists 1980) | |


title: Streptomyces pentaticus

abstract: Streptomyces pentaticus is a bacterium species in the genus Streptomyces.

text:
# Streptomyces pentaticus

***Streptomyces pentaticus*** is a bacterium species in the genus *Streptomyces*.

## Uses

*Streptomyces pentaticus* is used to produce pentamycin.

## InfoBox

| *Streptomyces pentaticus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Actinomycetota |
| Class: | Actinomycetia |
| Order: | Streptomycetales |
| Family: | Streptomycetaceae |
| Genus: | *Streptomyces* |
| Species: | ***S. pentaticus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Streptomyces pentaticus***<br>Umezawa et al. 1958 | |
|
| Subspecies | |
| *Streptomyces pentaticus subsp. jenensis* Fugner and Bradler | |


title: Strigatella holkosa

abstract: Strigatella holkosa is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters or miter snails.

text:
# Strigatella holkosa

***Strigatella holkosa*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters or miter snails.

## Description

## Distribution

## InfoBox

| *Strigatella holkosa* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Mitridae |
| Genus: | *Strigatella* |
| Species: | ***S. holkosa*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Strigatella holkosa***<br>(B.Q. Li, 2005) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Mitra holkosa* B.Q. Li, 2005 | |


title: Strigatella luctuosa

abstract: Strigatella luctuosa is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters or miter snails.

text:
# Strigatella luctuosa

***Strigatella luctuosa*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters or miter snails.

## Description

The shell size varies between 16 mm and 35 mm.

## Distribution

This species is distributed in the Indian Ocean along Aldabra, the Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Transkei (RFA) and in the Pacific Ocean along the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Australia.

* Cernohorsky W. O. (1976). *The Mitrinae of the World*. Indo-Pacific Mollusca 3(17) page(s): 443
* Drivas, J. & M. Jay (1988). *Coquillages de La Réunion et de l'île Maurice*

## InfoBox

| *Strigatella luctuosa* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Mitridae |
| Genus: | *Strigatella* |
| Species: | ***S. luctuosa*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Strigatella luctuosa***<br>(A. Adams, 1813) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Mitra (Nebularia) luctuosa* Adams, A., 1853 * *Mitra rutila* Adams, A., 1853 * *Mitra nigricans* Pease, W.H., 1865 * *Mitra lamberti* Souverbie, S.M., 1875 * *Mitra astyridiformis* Melvill, J.C., 1888 * *Mitra townsendi* Melvill, J.C., 1904 * *Mitra albocoronata* Schepman, M.M., 1911 * *Mitra alcida* Cate, J.M., 1963 * *Mitra diamantina* Cate, J.M., 1963 | |


title: Coralee Elliott Testar

abstract: Coralee Elliott Testar UE was a Vancouver based producer and screenwriter. She was a graduate of the National Theatre School of Canada. Her many credits include the award-winning The Little Kidnappers (Disney), "City Boy" (Bonneville/PBS) based on the novel Freckles, and the television adaptation of Girl of the Limberlost (PBS). Testar was a past president of the British Columbia Motion Picture Industry Association and a lifetime member of the Writers Guild of Canada.

text:
# Coralee Elliott Testar

**Coralee Elliott Testar UE** (born February 1942

```
in Prince Edward Island) (died September 2023 in Vancouver British Columbia) was a Vancouver based producer and screenwriter. She was a graduate of the National Theatre School of Canada.  Her many credits include the award-winning *The Little Kidnappers* (Disney), "City Boy" (Bonneville/PBS) based on the novel *Freckles*, and the television adaptation of *Girl of the Limberlost* (PBS).
```

Testar was a past president of the British Columbia Motion Picture Industry Association and a lifetime member of the Writers Guild of Canada.


title: Cornutrypeta

abstract: Cornutrypeta is a genus of tephritid or fruit flies in the family Tephritidae.

text:
# Cornutrypeta

***Cornutrypeta*** is a genus of tephritid or fruit flies in the family Tephritidae.

## InfoBox

| *Cornutrypeta* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Section: | Schizophora |
| Subsection: | Acalyptratae |
| Superfamily: | Tephritoidea |
| Family: | Tephritidae |
| Genus: | ***Cornutrypeta*** |
|


title: Stovall v. Denno

abstract: Stovall v. Denno, 388 U.S. 293 (1967), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that a pretrial identification not covered by the Sixth Amendment right to counsel should be excluded if it was so unnecessarily suggestive as to violate due process.

text:
# Stovall v. Denno

***Stovall v. Denno***, 388 U.S. 293 (1967), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that a pretrial identification not covered by the Sixth Amendment right to counsel should be excluded if it was so unnecessarily suggestive as to violate due process.

## Factual background

Dr. Paul Behrendt was stabbed to death on August 23, 1961. Dr. Behrendt's wife was injured in the attack. A shirt and keys left at the scene led to Theodore Stovall's arrest on August 24, 1961. After Mrs. Behrendt underwent surgery, Stovall was brought to her hospital room on the afternoon of August 25, 1961. Stovall had not yet been appointed counsel. Mrs. Behrendt identified Stovall as her attacker. Stovall was convicted and sentenced to death. The New York Court of Appeals affirmed Stovall's conviction.

Stovall filed a petition of habeas corpus, alleging that his Fifth, Sixth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated. The Southern District of New York dismissed his petition, and Stovall appealed to the Second Circuit. A three judge panel reversed Stovall's conviction on the basis that Mrs. Behrendt's identification was made in violation of Stovall's Sixth Amendment right to counsel. The Second Circuit reheard the case en banc and affirmed the district court's dismissal of Stovall's petition. The Supreme Court granted certiorari.

## Decision

### Majority opinion

*Stovall* was decided on the same day as *United States v. Wade* and *Gilbert v. California*, two cases dealing with the Sixth Amendment right to counsel in pretrial stages. The Court observed that the rule of *Wade*, where the absence of counsel at a post-indictment lineup was held to be a violation of the Sixth Amendment, would dictate the finding of a Sixth Amendment violation in the present case. The Court, however, held that the rule of *Wade* should not be applied retroactively. The Court noted that police departments had relied on Sixth Amendment jurisprudence as it was before *Wade*, and that the absence of counsel at the identification did not jeopardize Stovall's right to a fair trial seriously enough to justify retroactive application.

Even without application of the *Wade* rule, Stovall could prevail if he could show that his due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment were violated. The due process test as described by the Court was that Stovall could prevail if the identification procedure was "so unnecessarily suggestive and conducive to irreparable mistaken identification that he was denied due process of law." The Court held that the identification procedure, though suggestive, was necessary because of Mrs. Behrendt's injured state and affirmed Stovall's conviction.

### Douglas' dissent in part

Justice Douglas dissented from the Court's refusal to retroactively apply the rule of *Wade* to find a Sixth Amendment violation.

### Fortas' dissent

Justice Fortas asserted that the identification of Stovall was a violation of due process rights and that the case should be reversed and remanded. Fortas would not have reached the issue of the retroactive application of *Wade*.

### White's concurrence in part

Justice White, joined by Justices Harlan and Stewart, wrote separately to emphasize that there was no Sixth Amendment violation.

### Black's dissent

Justice Black dissented from the Court's refusal to retroactively apply *Wade*. Black also dissented from the Court's holding that a defendant can mount a due process challenge to their conviction in the absence of a violation of a specific Amendment. Black would reverse and remand to determine if the admission of the lineup without counsel was harmless error.

## Subsequent history

The holding of *Stovall* that refused to apply the rule of *Wade* retroactively was overruled in *Griffith v. Kentucky*.

## Impact

Until its overruling in *Griffith*, *Stovall*, along with the case *Linkletter v. Walker*, established a three factor test for determining if a law should be applied retroactively that examined purpose, reliance, and effect. Lawyers, judges, and academics fashioned rules based on the *Linkletter/Stovall* test to encourage predictability and fairness in the retroactive application of new precedents.

## InfoBox

| Stovall v. Denno | |
| --- | --- |
| Supreme Court of the United States | |
| Argued February 16, 1967
Decided June 12, 1967 | |
| Full case name | *Theodore Stovall v. Wilfred Denno, Warden* |
| Citations | 388 U.S. 293 (*more*)87 S. Ct. 1967; 18 L. Ed. 2d 1199 |
| Case history | |
| Prior | Defendant convicted; affirmed, New York Court of Appeals, 13 N.Y.2d 1094 (1963); habeas corpus petition denied, 355 F.2d 731 (2d Cir. 1966); cert granted, 384 U.S. 1000 (1966). |
| Holding | |
| A pre-trial identification made in the absence of counsel but not violating the Sixth Amendment should be excluded if it is so unnecessarily suggestive as to violate due process. | |
| Court membership | |
| Chief Justice Earl Warren  Associate Justices Hugo Black **·**  William O. Douglas
Tom C. Clark **·**  John M. Harlan II
William J. Brennan Jr. **·**  Potter Stewart
Byron White **·**  Abe Fortas | |
| Case opinions | |
| Majority | Brennan, joined by Warren, Clark, Harlan, Stewart, White |
| Concurrence | White, joined by Harlan, Stewart |
| Dissent | Douglas |
| Dissent | Fortas |
| Dissent | Black |
| Laws applied | |
| U.S. Const. amend. VI, U.S. Const. amend. XIV | |


title: Cornelis Geelvinck

abstract: Cornelis Geelvinck was important in the city administration of Amsterdam that arose after stadholder William III came to power in 1672, both as administrator, and as mayor in the years 1673, 1675, 1684, 1688 and 1689.

text:
# Cornelis Geelvinck

**Cornelis Geelvinck** (15 November 1621, Amsterdam – 16 December 1689, Amsterdam) was important in the city administration of Amsterdam that arose after stadholder William III came to power in 1672, both as administrator, and as mayor in the years 1673, 1675, 1684, 1688 and 1689.

## Biography

Cornelis Geelvinck was the grandson of a peas and beans merchant who supplied the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Dutch West India Company (WIC). Cornelis Geelvinck was the son of Jan Cornelisz. Geelvinck and Aechje (Agatha) de Vlaming of Oudshoorn. He married a granddaughter of mayor Albert Burgh, Elisabeth Velecker (1622–1658) in 1643, with whom he had six children: Joan (1644), Albert (1647), Cornelis (1649), Brechje or Brigitta (1651), Coenraad and Dirck (1656). In 1662, he married Margaretha Bicker van Swieten (1619–1697), the heiress of the country house "Akerendam", daughter of former burgomaster Cornelis Bicker van Swieten. Through his marriage he became a brother-in-law to Andries de Graeff and Lambert Reynst, burgomasters of Amsterdam and also to Gerard Bicker (I) van Swieten.

In 1664, Cornelis Geelvinck bought the fiefdoms of Castricum and Croonenburg for 33,000 and 25,000 guilder respectively, which brought him earnings and the right to make appointments. In August 1666 the Amsterdam government sent him as "vigilant gentleman" to Den Helder, where an English raid was feared. In November 1672 the States of Holland ordered him to carry away the hay and peat from Uithoorn and the surrounding towns, so that they would not fall into the hands of the French army that had occupied Utrecht.

In 1684 Geelvinck had to receive stadholder William III of Orange in the townhall, but the prince refused to stop his horse and passed the town hall at a gallop. Geelvinck did not support the prince, when he was planning an invasion in 1688 of England. Nicolaes Witsen and Johannes Hudde switched. In 1690 the recommendations for new burgomasters were not sent directly to the prince, but to the States-General. Geelvinck finally lost credit among his colleagues.

After his death Geelvinck was followed into the vroedschap by his sons Albert (see Museum Geelvinck-Hinlopen) and Joan.

* Broersen, E. (1992) Akerendam, een buitenplaats in Beverwijk.
* Molhuysen, P.C., P.J. Blok en K.H. Kossman (Red.) (1974) Nieuw Nederlandsch Biografisch woordenboek, page 546.


title: Corlu, Azerbaijan

abstract: Corlu is a village in the Qabala Rayon of Azerbaijan. The village forms part of the municipality of Mirzəbəyli.

text:
# Corlu, Azerbaijan

40°56′N 47°42′E / 40.933°N 47.700°E / 40.933; 47.700

**Corlu** (also, **Dzhorlu** and **Dzhorly**) is a village in the Qabala Rayon of Azerbaijan. The village forms part of the municipality of Mirzəbəyli.

## InfoBox

| Corlu | |
| --- | --- |
| CorluCorlu | |
| Coordinates: 40°56′N 47°42′E / 40.933°N 47.700°E / 40.933; 47.700 | |
| Country | Azerbaijan |
| Rayon | Qabala |
| Municipality | Mirzəbəyli |
| Time zone | UTC+4 (AZT) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+5 (AZT) |


title: Corliss steam engine

abstract: A Corliss steam engine is a steam engine, fitted with rotary valves and with variable valve timing patented in 1849, invented by and named after the US engineer George Henry Corliss of Providence, Rhode Island. Corliss assumed the original invention from Frederick Ellsworth Sickels, who held the patent (1829) in the US patent office. Engines fitted with Corliss valve gear offered the best thermal efficiency of any type of stationary steam engine until the refinement of the uniflow steam engine and steam turbine in the 20th century. Corliss engines were generally about 30 percent more fuel efficient than conventional steam engines with fixed cutoff. This increased efficiency made steam power more economical than water power, allowing industrial development away from millponds. Corliss engines were typically used as stationary engines to provide mechanical power to line shafting in factories and mills and to drive dynamos to generate electricity. Many were quite large, standing many metres tall and developing several hundred horsepower, albeit at low speed, turning massive flywheels weighing several tons at about 100 revolutions per minute. Some of these engines have unusual roles as mechanical legacy systems and because of their relatively high efficiency and low maintenance requirements, some remain in service into the early 21st century. See, for example, the engines at the Hook Norton Brewery and the Distillerie Dillon in the list of operational engines.

text:
# Corliss steam engine

A **Corliss steam engine** (or **Corliss engine**) is a steam engine, fitted with rotary valves and with variable valve timing patented in 1849, invented by and named after the US engineer George Henry Corliss of Providence, Rhode Island. Corliss assumed the original invention from Frederick Ellsworth Sickels (1819- 1895), who held the patent (1829) in the US patent office.

Engines fitted with Corliss valve gear offered the best thermal efficiency of any type of stationary steam engine until the refinement of the uniflow steam engine and steam turbine in the 20th century. Corliss engines were generally about 30 percent more fuel efficient than conventional steam engines with fixed cutoff. This increased efficiency made steam power more economical than water power, allowing industrial development away from millponds.

Corliss engines were typically used as stationary engines to provide mechanical power to line shafting in factories and mills and to drive dynamos to generate electricity. Many were quite large, standing many metres tall and developing several hundred horsepower, albeit at low speed, turning massive flywheels weighing several tons at about 100 revolutions per minute. Some of these engines have unusual roles as mechanical legacy systems and because of their relatively high efficiency and low maintenance requirements, some remain in service into the early 21st century. See, for example, the engines at the Hook Norton Brewery and the *Distillerie Dillon* in the list of operational engines.

## Corliss engine mechanisms

Corliss engines have four valves for each cylinder, with steam and exhaust valves located at each end. Corliss engines incorporate distinct refinements in both the valves themselves and in the valve gear, that is, the system of linkages that operate the valves.

The use of separate valves for steam admission and exhaust means that neither the valves nor the steam passages between cylinders and valves need to change temperature during the power and exhaust cycle, and it means that the timing of the admission and exhaust valves can be independently controlled. In contrast, conventional steam engines have a slide valve or piston valve that alternately feeds and exhausts through passages to each end of the cylinder. These passages are exposed to wide temperature swings during engine operation, and there are high temperature gradients within the valve mechanism.

Clark (1891) commented that the Corliss gear "is essentially a combination of elements previously known and used separately, affecting the cylinder and the valve-gear". The origins of the Corliss gear with regard to previous steam valve gear was traced by Inglis (1868).

### Corliss valve gear

George Corliss received U.S. patent 6,162 for his valve gear on March 10, 1849. This patent covered the use of a *wrist-plate* to convey the valve motion from a single eccentric to the four valves of the engine, and it covered the use of trip valves with variable cutoff under governor control that characterize Corliss Engines. Unlike later engines, most of which were horizontal, this patent describes a vertical cylinder beam engine, and it used individual slide valves for admission and exhaust at each end of the cylinder.

The inlet valves are pulled open with an eccentric-driven pawl; when the pawl trips, the rapid closure is damped using a dashpot. In many engines, the same dashpot acts as a vacuum spring to pull the valves closed, but Corliss's early engines were slow enough that it was the weight of the dashpot piston and rod that closed the valve.

The speed of a Corliss engine is controlled by varying the cutoff of steam during each power stroke, while leaving the throttle wide open at all times. To accomplish this, the centrifugal governor is linked to a pair of cams, one for each admission valve. These cams determine the point during the piston stroke that the pawl will release, allowing that valve to close.

As with all steam engines where the cutoff can be regulated, the virtue of doing so lies in the fact that most of the power stroke is powered by the expansion of steam in the cylinder after the admission valve has closed. This comes far closer to the ideal Carnot cycle than is possible with an engine where the admission valve is open for the length of the power stroke and speed is regulated by a throttle valve.

The Corliss valve gearing allowed more uniform speed and better response to load changes, making it suitable for applications like rolling mills and spinning, and greatly expanding its use in manufacturing.

### Corliss valves

Corliss valves open directly into the cylinder. The valves connect the cylinder to separate steam and exhaust plenums. Initially, Corliss used slide valves with linear actuators, but by 1851, Corliss had shifted to semi-rotary valve actuators, as documented in U.S. Patent 8253. In this engine, the wrist plate was moved to the center of the cylinder side, as on later Corliss engines. This was still a beam engine, however, and the semi-rotary valve actuators operated linear slide valves inside the four valve chests of the engine.

Corliss valves are in the form of a minor circular segment, rotating inside a cylindrical valve-face. Their actuating mechanism is off along the axis of the valve, thus they have little "dead space" such as the stem of a poppet valve and the entire port area can be used efficiently for gas flow.

As the area of a Corliss valve is small compared to the port area, the effects of gas flow generate relatively little torque on the valve axle compared to some other sorts of valve. These advantages have led to the Corliss form of valve being used in other roles, apart from steam engines with Corliss gear.

The Rolls-Royce Merlin aero-engine used a rectangular butterfly valve as a throttle. Gas-flow forces acting asymmetrically on this butterfly could lead to poor control of the power in some circumstances. Late models, from the 134, used a Corliss throttle valve instead to avoid this problem.

### Barring and barring engines

A common feature of large Corliss engines is one or two sets of narrow gear teeth in the rim of the flywheel. These teeth allow the flywheel to be *barred*, that is, turned with the aid of a crowbar. This may be needed during engine maintenance, for example, to set the cutoff and admission valve timing, and it may be needed during engine starting.

The need for barring the engine during starting is most obvious on single-cylinder engines, where a careless engine operator might stop the engine with the piston in or near dead center. Once stopped in this state, the engine cannot be started under its own power, so it must be barred to a more favorable position for starting.

Large Corliss engines cannot be safely started cold, so it is common to admit low-pressure steam to both sides of the cylinder to warm up the metalwork. Turning the engine slowly during this process ensures that the entire engine is uniformly warmed, and it ensures that oil is uniformly distributed through the mechanism before applying power. Again, barring may be used to do this, although operators sometimes do this by careful manual manipulation of the valves.

For large engines, muscle powered barring is sufficiently difficult that *barring engines* are frequently installed. These are small engines with gear teeth cut to mate with the teeth on the flywheel. Generally, the drive gears of the barring engine are designed to automatically disengage if the engine begins running under its own power while the barring gears are engaged.

## Company history

The Corliss Steam Engine Company was originally known as Fairbanks, Clark & Co. in the 1830s. In 1843 it was renamed Fairbanks, Bancroft & Co. when Edward Bancroft joined the company. In 1846 it was renamed Bancroft, Nightingale & Co. when George H. Corliss joined the company, and in 1847 it was renamed Corliss, Nightingale and Co. In 1848 the company moved to the Charles Street Railroad Crossing in Providence, Rhode Island.

In 1857 the company was renamed for the last time to Corliss Steam Engine Company. By 1864 Corliss bought out his partners and was the sole owner of the company.

By 1859, all of the key features of what we now know as the Corliss engine were in place. Patents granted to Corliss and others incorporated rotary valves and crank shafts in-line with the cylinders. See, for example, Corliss' U.S. Patent 24,618, granted July 5, 1859. Competing inventors worked hard to invent alternatives to Corliss' mechanisms; they generally avoided Corlis's use of a wrist plate and adopted alternative releasing mechanisms for the steam valves, as in Jamieson's U.S. Patent 19,640, granted March 16, 1858.

Corliss' 1849 patent expired in 1870; the term of this patent had been extended by U.S. Patent reissue 200 on May 13, 1851, and U.S. Patent reissues 758 and 763 on July 12, 1859. B. Hick and Son were first to introduce the Corliss engine into the United Kingdom about 1864. After 1870, numerous other companies began to manufacture Corliss engines. Among them, the William A. Harris Steam Engine Company, the Worthington Pump and Machinery Company, and Allis-Chalmers. In general, these machines were referred to as Corliss engines regardless of who made them.

In 1895 the company was shut down under the burden of $800,000 debt, and in 1900 it was sold to International Power Company controlled by industrialist Joseph H. Hoadley. In 1905 it was transferred to another Hoadley's firm, the American & British Manufacturing Corporation.

In 1925 the company merged into Franklin Machine Company. By then Franklin Machine Company was already owned by the William A. Harris Steam Engine Company.

## Centennial Engine

The Corliss Centennial Engine was an all-inclusive, specially built rotative beam engine that powered virtually all of the exhibits at the United States Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 through shafts totaling over a mile in length. Switched on by President Ulysses S. Grant and Emperor Pedro II of Brazil, the engine was in public view for the duration of the fair.

The engine was configured as two cylinders side by side. Each cylinder was bored to 44 inches (112 cm) with a stroke of 10 feet (3.0 m). The Centennial Engine was 45 feet (14 m) tall, had a flywheel 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter, and produced 1,400 horsepower (1,000 kW). After the fair it was disassembled and shipped back to Corliss's plant in Providence. Seven years later it was sold and powered a Chicago factory owned by George Pullman until 1910, when it was sold as scrap.

This engine became a cultural icon, so much so that to many modern historians the term **Corliss Engine** (or **Corliss Steam Engine**) refers to this specific engine and not to the broad class of engines fitted with Corliss valve gear.

## List of operational engines

| Location | Date of manufacture | Date of installation | Horsepower | RPM | Citation |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Albert City Threshermen & Collector Show | ca. 1920 | *Unknown* | 125 | 120 |  |
| Amador Sawmill | 1904 | 2007 | 60 | 100 |  |
| Antique Gas and Steam Engine Museum | 1911 | 1978 | *Unknown* | 80 |  |
| Antique Gas and Steam Engine Museum | 1900 | 1986 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Arts et Metiers school of engineering of Lille | 1900 | 1900 | 75 | 60 |  |
| Bancroft Shed | 1920 | 1920 | 600 | 68 |  |
| Bolton Steam Museum | 1902 | 1992 | 180 | 75 |  |
| Bolton Steam Museum | 1914 | 1995 | 250 | *Unknown* |  |
| Bratch Pumping Station | 1894 or 1895 | 1895 or 1896 | *Unknown* | 24 |  |
| Coldharbour Mill | 1910 | *Unknown* | 300 | *Unknown* |  |
| Connecticut Antique Machinery Association | 1910 | 2008 | 100 | *Unknown* |  |
| Denton Farm Park | 1905 | *Unknown* | 350 | *Unknown* |  |
| Distillerie Dillon | 1922 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Ellenroad Ring Mill | 1892 | *Unknown* | 2650 | 59 |  |
| Gladstone Pottery Museum | *Unknown* | 1925 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Glenn Beedy Museum of Agriculture & Industry | 1923 | 1992 | 100 | 100 |  |
| Grand Rapids Public Museum | 1905 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Glenwood Resource Center | 1907 | Dec 19, 1907 | *Unknown* | 120 |  |
| Hesston Steam Museum | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Hook Norton Brewery | *Unknown* | 1899 | 25 | *Unknown* |  |
| Markham Grange Steam Museum | 1909 | 1998 | 700 | 80 |  |
| Mill Meece Pumping Station | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Mississippi Industrial Heritage Museum | 1905 | 2008 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Museo de la Caña de Azucar - Hacienda Piedechinche | *Unknown* | 1950 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| National Museum of Industrial History | 1913 | 2015 | 400 | 42 | \[53\] |
| New England Wireless and Steam Museum | 1892 | 1978 | 150 | 80 |  |
| New England Wireless and Steam Museum | 1892 | 1977 | 150 | 80 |  |
| New England Wireless and Steam Museum | 1911 | 1969 | 150 | 80 |  |
| Nittany Antique Machinery Association |  |  | 150 |  |  |
| Old Thresher's Reunion Heritage Museum | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | 750 | 36 |  |
| Old Thresher's Reunion Heritage Museum | 1920 | *Unknown* | 600 | 150 |  |
| Old Thresher's Reunion Heritage Museum | 1903 | *Unknown* | 125 | 110 |  |
| Old Thresher's Reunion Heritage Museum | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Old Thresher's Reunion Heritage Museum | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Owls Head Transportation Museum | ca. 1895 | *Unknown* | 600 | *Unknown* |  |
| Pawnee County Fairgrounds | 1912 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* | 150 |  |
| Queen Street Mill | 1895 | 1895 | 500 | 68 |  |
| Saraya Sugar Factory | *Unknown* | 1925 | *Unknown* | *Unknown* |  |
| Science Museum, London: Burnley Ironworks Engine | 1903 | 1903 | *700* | 76 |  |
| Stephenson County Antique Engine Club of Freeport, Illinois | 1914 | 1989 | 1500 | 45 |  |
| The Henry Ford | 1859 | *Unknown* | 500 | 70 |  |
| The Steam Museum | 1900 | 1986 | 100 | 90 |  |
| Tokomaru Steam Museum | 1916 | 1976 | 335 | 60 |  |
| Trencherfield Mill | 1907 | 1907 | 2500 | 68 |  |
| Western Museum of Mining & Industry | 1895 | *Unknown* | 500 | 100 |  |

## Notable people

* *Popular Mechanics Monthly Magazine* of April 1907, commented on page 416, near the bottom right of the page, the Corliss Engine can be made to do more work by raising the boiler pressure, increasing the speed or giving less laps to the steam valves.