abstract: The foreign policy of the Evo Morales administration concerns the policy initiatives made towards other states by the former President of Bolivia, in difference to past, or future, Bolivian foreign policy. Morales' foreign policy can be roughly divided between that of the Americas and the rest of the world.

text:
# Foreign policy of the Evo Morales administration

The **foreign policy of the Evo Morales administration** concerns the policy initiatives made towards other states by the former President of Bolivia, in difference to past, or future, Bolivian foreign policy. Morales' foreign policy can be roughly divided between that of the Americas (led by the United States and Canada) and the rest of the world.

## World tour

From December 29, 2005, Evo Morales undertook an international tour described by Latin American media as exceptional. For two weeks, Morales visited several countries in search of political and economic support for his agenda for the transformation of Bolivia. This tour is said to have constituted a break with decades of tradition in which the first international destination visited by a president-elect in Bolivia was the United States. His itinerary also reinforced the view that his election was part of a strengthening of "anti-imperialist" governments and movements in Latin America.

In September 2006, he spoke at the United Nations General Assembly, holding a coca leaf, saying:

> ‘I should like to take this opportunity to speak of another historical injustice: the criminalization of the coca leaf. This coca leaf is green, not white, like cocaine. The coca leaf is symbolic of Andean culture, of the Andean environment and of the hopes of peoples. It is not acceptable that the coca leaf be legal for Coca-Cola and illegal for medicinal consumption not only in our country but throughout the world.
>
> ‘The United Nations should be aware that scientific studies have been carried out in American and European universities that have shown that the coca leaf has no negative effects on human health. I am very sorry that because some have a drug habit, the coca leaf has become illegal. We are aware of that. That is why, as coca leaf producers, we have stated that there will not be unfettered coca leaf production, but neither will there be zero production. Conditionality-based policies implemented in the past focused on zero coca-leaf production. But zero coca-leaf production is equivalent to zero Quechuas, zero Aymarás, zero Mojeños, zero Chiquitanos. All of that ended with another Government. We are an underdeveloped country with economic problems resulting from the pillage of our natural resources. We are here today to begin to regain our dignity and the dignity of our country.
>
> ‘In that context, I wish to say that the best contribution to combating drug trafficking has been through an agreed, voluntary reduction, with no deaths or injuries. I was pleased to hear that the United Nations report recognizes the honest and responsible effort that has been made to combat drug trafficking. Drug seizures have increased 300 per cent. However, yesterday I heard the United States Government state that it would not accept coca cultivation and that it was imposing conditions on us so that we would change our system.
>
> Evo Morales, at the UN General Assembly, September 19, 2006

In September 2007, Morales appeared on "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart". There he discussed various political issues. Morales was only the second sitting head of state to appear on the show and the first to be interviewed on the show using a translator.

On April 28, 2008, again he addressed the United Nations at the inauguration of the UN's VII Indigenous Forum UNPFII - United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, with his proposed 10 Commandments to save the Planet, summarized as:

1. In order to save the planet, the capitalist model must be eradicated and the North pay its ecological debt, rather than the countries of the South and throughout the world continuing to pay their external debts.
2. Denounce and PUT AN END to war, which only brings profits for empires, transnationals, and a few families, but not for peoples. The million and millions of dollars destined to warfare should be invested in the Earth, which has been hurt as a result of misuse and overexploitation.
3. Develop relations of coexistence, rather than domination, among countries in a world without imperialism or colonialism. Bilateral and multilateral relations are important because we belong to a culture of dialogue and social coexistence, but those relationships should not be of submission of one country to another.
4. Water is a human right and a right for all living things on the planet. It is not possible that there be policies that permit the privatization of water.
5. Develop clean energies that are nature friendly; put an end to energy wastefulness. In 100 years we are doing away with the fossil fuels that have been created over millions of years. Avoid the promotion of agrofuels. It is incomprehensible that some governments and economic development models can set aside land to make luxury cars run, rather than using it to provide food for human beings. Promote debates with governments and create awareness that the earth must be used for the benefit of all human beings and not to produce agrofuels.
6. Respect for the mother Earth. Learn from the historic teachings of native and indigenous peoples with regard to the respect for the mother Earth. A collective social consciousness must be developed among all sectors of society, recognizing that the Earth is our mother.
7. Basic services, such as water, electricity, education, healthcare, communications, and collective transportation should all be considered human rights; they cannot be privatized but must rather be public services.
8. Consume what is necessary, give priority and consume what is produced locally, put an end to consumerism, waste, and luxury. It is incomprehensible that some families dedicate themselves to the search for luxury, when millions and millions of persons do not have the possibility to live well.
9. Promote cultural and economic diversity. We are very diverse and this is our nature. A plurinational state, in which everyone is included within that state – whites, browns, blacks, everyone.
10. We want everyone to be able to live well, which does not mean to live better at the expense of others. We must build a communitarian socialism that is in harmony with the Mother Earth.

### Timeline of Morales World tour

* December 30, 2005: Evo Morales visits Cuba after celebrating his democratic victory in his base town of Orinoca. In Havana Morales is extended the red carpet and receives full honors from Cuban president Fidel Castro. Morales signs a cooperation agreement between Bolivia and Cuba whereby Castro promises assistance to Bolivia in issues such as health and education. During his speech Morales describes Castro and Chávez as "*the commanders of the forces for the liberation of the Americas and the world*".
* January 3, 2006: He meets Hugo Chávez in Caracas. Chávez offers Bolivia 150 000 barrels of diesel per month to substitute the current imports made from other countries. In exchange Bolivia will pay Venezuela with agriculture products from Bolivia.
* January 4, 2006: Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero receives Morales in the palace of La Moncloa. Zapatero announces the writing-off of Bolivia's debt with Spain, a sum of 120 million euros.
* January 5, 2006: Juan Carlos of Spain receives Morales in his palace at La Zarzuela. Conservative Spanish media criticizes Morales for dressing informally, wearing a sweater made of alpaca wool with Amerindian motifs and colors during his encounter with the king. At the same time José María Aznar shows through his private fund-raising organization his criticism against Castro, Morales and Chávez.
* January 6, 2006: Morales meets French President Jacques Chirac in Paris. Chirac promises economic and political support as long as French investments in Bolivia are protected. The same day he meets Dutch Foreign Minister Ben Bot who promises aid of €15 million a year.
* January 7, 2006: Morales meets Javier Solana in Brussels, who also promises economic support for Bolivia in return for protection of European investments in Bolivia.
* January 9, 2006: Morales meets Hu Jintao and the Chinese Minister of Commerce Bo Xilai. Morales invites entrepreneurs and the government of China to invest in projects of exploration and exploitation of gas, and to participate in the construction of gas refineries in Bolivia.
* January 10, 2006: Morales is received in Pretoria by South African President Thabo Mbeki. Morales compares the struggle of black Africans during Apartheid with the struggle of the Amerindians in the Americas.
* January 11, 2006: Morales meets with Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who describes him as a man of 'remarkable humility and warmth', as well as former president F.W. de Klerk.
* January 13, 2006: Morales visits Brazil and meets with President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, describing him as "comrade and brother". Morales and Lula agree to work together on a program of cooperation to end poverty.

## Relations with other Latin American governments

A further boost with grassroots cross-South American support came when social organizations meeting in Lima supported Bolivia's negative by Colombia and Peru to bypass collective bargaining with the European Union. La Prensa, El Diario and La Razon reported that the leaders of 15 groups from Bolivia, Peru and Colombia summoned mobilizations demanding that agreements with the EU be negotiated as a bloc and that the association of the Community of Andean Nations be respected. They demanded a popular referendum be conducted in each of the four countries. The first such action of protest would be carried out in Lima, with other measures being coordinated for December. The said organizations also gave support to Bolivia for not having given up to transnationals the negotiation on strategic topics such as the national control over foreign investments and other issues.

### UNASUR

Following the September 11, 2008, massacre in the northern department of Pando, an emergency meeting of the regional grouping UNASUR was called in Santiago, Chile. On September 15, 2008, the 12 countries that make up UNASUR declared their unanimous support for the government of Evo Morales and condemned attempts by the opposition to destabilise the country and attempt a "civil coup" by occupying public buildings.

### OAS

As the date for the referendum on a new constitution approached, Morales asked members of the OAS to send election observers and to help with the repercussions to the vote for a new constitution. He said that he was "not too worried about the approval, but I'm concerned about the implementation."

### Brazil

Brazil and Bolivia have been working on expanding and diversifying trade between the two countries in the last quarter of 2008. The 6th Meeting of the Commission for Monitoring Brazil-Bolivia trade was used to this end. As it stood, at the time Brazil was the main destination for exports from Bolivia, having bought, in 2007, 35.7% of the products that Bolivian companies sell to other countries. They were also the main exporter to Bolivia, sending 24.7% of products imported into Bolivia. As industrialized products represented 94.6% of Brazilian sales up to September of the year, Bolivian sales in the same period were limited largely to natural gas, which accounted for up to 92.7% of the total purchased from the country, or US$1.89 billion. The products with the greatest scope for an increase in trade from Brazil to Bolivia were crude oil, insecticides, aircraft, vehicle engines, soy in grain, vegetable oils and ironworks products, amongst others. From Bolivia to Brazil, products such as animal feed, vegetable oil, crude oil, tin, ores of precious metals, precious gems, dried and fresh fruit, plants, leather and garments were also capable of seeing sales grow.

### Venezuela

Venezuelan relations with Bolivia were largely centered around personal relations with the Leftist leaders of the region. Hugo Chávez strongly supported Morales when he came under attack from the elite in the east of his country and the United States.

Following the rift with the United States, Venezuela came to Bolivia's rescue to double the country's textile exports from what it was selling to the U.S. under an agreement for lax duties that Washington suspended for the cessation of support in the War on Drugs by Bolivia. Bolivian Vice Minister, Huáscar Ajta said at the first round of the Bolivia-Venezuela Business Fair in La Paz that the nearly $47 million in sales was agreed to "double what is being exported in textiles and manufacturing to United States via ATPDEA." Ajta also noted that total trade—the agreement would be signed within the framework of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA) and the Trade Treaty of Peoples (TCP) – "is three times what Bolivia \[had previously\] exported to Venezuela in textiles and manufacturing." In like measure, the Venezuelan Minister of Production, Susana Rivero said that Venezuela "is not a substitute" for the United States, but "a new market with new conditions, with many facilities. This is an agreement that will allow the export sector – even if there is a financial crisis – to not be affected." The previous year U.S. imports from Bolivia totaled $362.6 million, including $73 million worth of jewelry and about $20 million of clothing and household textile goods, as well as $64 million of tin and $46 million of crude oil. It was estimated that more than 30,000 jobs in Bolivia depended on duty-free exports to the United States.

### Argentina

The Bolivian government announced the formation of a bilateral technical commission to assess the viability of supplying gas to Argentina. The Hydrocarbon Minister, Saul Avalos, said deliberations would begin upon his return from Buenos Aires on December 1 to agree on the terms, including the volume and payment commitments. As it stood at the time Bolivia exported nearly 1.7 million cubic meters of gas a day to Argentina, but was trying to redefine the terms of the contract in force, which established that 7.7 million cubic meters should have been supplied in the year, and with projected supplies of 16.6 million cubic meters in 2009 and 27.7 million cubic meters in 2010. Due to the limited extraction capacity the country was bound to promise only what it could accomplish with Brazilian internal markets priority.

## Relations with Europe

In summer 2013, Morales was returning from a summit in Moscow where he made comments that he would consider giving political asylum to U.S. citizen Edward Snowden. On his trip to Europe, his plane was forced to land for 14 hours in Austria after Italy, France, Spain and Portugal denied him access to their airspace on fears that Snowden was aboard the airplane. It turned out that Snowden was not on board. However, the Spanish ambassador to Austria came to the airport with two staff members to search his plane. The following week, at a summit in Cochabamba, five Latin American leaders, Argentina's Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Uruguay's José Mujica, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Suriname's Dési Bouterse and Venezuela's Nicolás Maduro, denounced Morales' "virtual kidnapping" and the United States pressure they believed resulted in the action. A statement at the end of the summit demanded answers from France, Portugal, Italy and Spain, but did not mention the U.S. Morales also later said "We don't need a United States embassy in Bolivia. My hand would not shake to close the US embassy. We have dignity, sovereignty. Without the US, we are better politically, democratically." Maduro said "Europe broke all the rules of the game. We're here to tell President Evo Morales that he can count on us. Whoever picks a fight with Bolivia, picks a fight with Venezuela." Correa said that all the leaders present were offering "all of our support" to Morales and called the move an aggression against the Americas. Russia also criticised France, Spain and Portugal said that "the actions of the authorities of France, Spain and Portugal could hardly be considered friendly actions towards Bolivia \[...\] Russia calls on the international community to comply strictly with international legal principles." Though France apologised in a statement to the Bolivian government with French President François Hollande saying that there was "conflicting information" over the passenger manifest, Morales said "apologies are not enough because the stance is that international treaties must be respected." Bolivia said that it would summon the French and Italian ambassadors and the Portuguese consul to demand explanations. Peru's Ollanta Humala was also at the summit that he had arranged. In the end, Venezuela said that it had offered Snowden asylum. Bolivia also offered him asylum.

## Relations with India

India's largest investment project in Latin America was the Jindal Steel and Power iron ore project worth US$2.1 billion and said to be the largest single module of any commercial direct reduction technology project in the world. However, there were hurdles when Bolivian Mines Minister Jose Pimentel said that an addendum may have been required for the Mutun iron ore reserves, amidst Morales' protective provisions in the new constitution to ensure foreign entrepreneurs do not gain an unfair advantage over underdeveloped resources. However, Jindal, later said that the project was back on track.

## Relations with Iran

Iran's top diplomat in Bolivia said his country would open two low-cost public health clinics in the country, which is South America's poorest. Iranian business attache Hojjatollah Soltani said his country planned to use Bolivia as a base for future Red Crescent medical programmes across the continent.

On a visit to Iran, Morales also secured Iranian assistance in promotion of hydrocarbon development. Bolivia described the trip as an attempt to reach out to other states "rejected by the international community." Morales added that the two are as "two friendly and revolutionary countries" that are strengthening ties; adding that Iran's efforts to provide economic and political backing would "support the peasant struggle in Latin America." Iran's investments would boost bilateral economic and agricultural ties, from milk processing plants, to television and radio stations, including an agreement to provide Bolivian state television with Spanish-language programming, to funding hydroelectric exploration. Reports also indicated an interest in Bolivia's reserves of uranium and lithium for use in the Iranian nuclear program. Morales previously joked that he too is a part of the "axis of evil."

## Relations with Libya

Following Libya's establishment of diplomatic relations on August 13 and Libyan ambassador to Bolivia, Ali Farfar's, announcement of US$80 million in investments, Morales attended the thirty-ninth anniversary of the Libyan Revolution, where he met the Libyan leader Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi at Benghazi. In Libya he secured support for his government and for democratic change in Bolivia, more active trade, energy cooperation and improved diplomatic relations. The secretary of the Popular Congress, Muftah Queepe, said Libya ratified its support for the revolutionary and democratic process Morales was applying in Bolivia. Queepe praised Gaddafi's philosophy of Islamic socialism. Along with Iran, he also secured Libyan investment in Bolivia's hydrocarbons industry which, despite substantial energy reserves, was struggling to meet a commitment to pump natural gas to Argentina and Brazil.

## Relations with Russia

Russia has an embassy in La Paz, and Bolivia has an embassy in Moscow.

With Bolivia the focus on relations with Russia is mainly economic, as opposed to political and strategic, as an agreement to invest in Bolivia's natural gas fields shows. It is seen to "help Latin America...\[as it\] expands Latin America's economic opportunities, diversifies its relationships...that's healthy."

2008 saw, as a first step to re-establish ties with Russia, the Bolivian government had plans to purchase a small batch of helicopters. Ambassador Leonid Golubev told The Associated Press that he would like to see Russia's ties to Bolivia one day "approach the level" of its growing partnership with Venezuela.

In 2009, amid improving relations between the two countries, Bolivia and Russia signed various agreements pertaining to energy and military ties, mining activities and illegal drug eradication.

## Relations with the United States

Prior to becoming president a rift with the U.S. was foreshadowed after Morales called President George W. Bush a terrorist: "Bush is the only terrorist, because he is the only one who intervenes militarily in the affairs of other countries. This is state terrorism, but those who demand their rights, those people are not terrorists."

On September 10, 2008, Evo Morales declared the US Ambassador to Bolivia, Philip Goldberg, persona non grata—the eighth U.S. ambassador to be declared so, which was quickly followed by the ninth. Goldberg said of the decision that "I regret that the Bolivian government took this decision. I think this has set back U.S.-Bolivian relations." Morales had accused him of conspiring with the opposition after Goldberg was caught on film leaving the office of opposition prefect Rubén Costas following a secret meeting in the early hours of the morning. The U.S. reciprocated by expelling the Bolivian ambassador in Washington. Tensions grew further when Bolivia refused permission for planes from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration to fly over Bolivian territory. Morales said: "It's important that the international community knows that here, we don't need control of the United States on coca cultivation... We can control ourselves internally. We don't need any spying from anybody."

Morales said his country should not fear U.S. suspension of trade preferences with Bolivia. In Vallegrande, near where Che Guevara died, he said: "We don't have to be afraid of an economic blockade by the United States against the Bolivian people." Still, his government announced it would send a delegation to Washington to lobby for the country's continued participation in the ATPDEA, a regional trade pact with Andean states offering lowered import tariffs for cooperating with U.S. anti-narcotics efforts.

Relations took a further bite when Morales ordered DEA agents to leave the country within three months from November 1, 2008. In expelling the U.S. agents, he accused them of supporting the opposition separatists, conspiring to overthrow him, spying and having killed farmers. Morales said his country can fight cocaine trafficking on its own. Morales told police officers in the administrative capital of La Paz that, "Some politicians say that with the withdrawal of the DEA, drug trafficking will increase ... I trust that our national police is prepared to fight drug traffickers. We're capable of funding the operations of the national police against drug trafficking." This followed moves earlier in the year where the presidents anti-drug czar Felipe Caceres said Bolivia should "nationalize" the fight against the drug trade, and that the government was ready to invest about $16 million to achieve this.

A 2008 annual report to the U.S. Congress cited three states, including Bolivia, for failing to fight illegal drugs, the first time Bolivia made it onto the most severe category on the list with other political opponents like Venezuela and Myanmar. Morales upped the ante and condemned the United States in saying that it has no such authority to certify whether other countries are successfully fighting drug trafficking. He added that the counter-narcotics "certification process of the U.S. government has to end. It's just political vengeance. It would have to be the OAS or the United Nations that would lead an effort like that."

### Rapprochement

In November 2008, Morales said that he wanted to improve ties with the incoming U.S. administration of Barack Obama. After addressing the U.N. General Assembly, he told the press that "My interest is how to improve relations with the new president. I think we could have a lot of things in common. If we talk about change I have some experience now. I think it would be good to share experiences with the new president-elect." However, ominous signs were also apparent when he repeated allegations against the DEA, saying "The DEA will not return while I am still president. The DEA ... had an intelligence structure, but it wasn't so much to fight drugs, it had more to do with the political aggression against my government...In recent times, we've seen some officials of the DEA involved in political conspiracy." He added that his government would set up a new intelligence operation involving the military and police to fight drug trafficking in place of the DEA. Later Morales met with four U.S. lawmakers to discuss the expulsion of the U.S. Ambassador. After the meeting Richard Lugar (R-In) said that the United States rejected any suggestion that it did not respect Bolivia's sovereignty or the legitimacy of its government. Morales responded that he was confident relations with the United States would improve when Obama becomes president.

## Vietnam and China

In the light of the declining U.S. economy following the economic crisis of 2008, Bolivian trade officials looked for alternative markets to close an export gap with trade reduction between the U.S. and Bolivia. The country chose Vietnam and China in this regard. Deputy Foreign Minister Pablo Guzman said he would be looking into the possibility of signing bilateral trade agreements with the two countries. The move was said to not only cover the gap, but also expand exports in general.

## Criticism and controversy

### Dispute with the Europe Union (EU) over immigration

A new European Union (EU) immigration law detaining illegal immigrants for up to 18 months before deportation triggered outrage across Latin America, with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez threatening to cut off oil exports to Europe.

Evo Morales wrote an open letter to the EU criticizing the new restrictions, published in the British Guardian newspaper as an opinion-editorial on June 16, 2008. On June 18, Morales said that the European law was "racist."

On EU immigration law, Morales said:

> "We, too, could say that we are going to expel those who have looted and stolen from us, those who imposed policies of hunger and misery, those who exported illness, exploitation, discrimination."

### 2008 G20 summit

Together with Former Cuban President Fidel Castro, Morales said the summit of Group of 20 states was dominated by U.S. President George W. Bush and didn't focus on the problems that plague poorer countries. While Castro said a statement published at the end of the summit didn't address any of the "abuses" caused by the U.S. economic system, Morales said developed countries have provided more money to help distressed banks than they have committed to poor countries to improve health, education and development. "The so-called consensus of the G-20 continues to emphasize market principles and free trade. To get out of this crisis we have to break with the neo-liberal economic model and the capitalist system."


title: Rallycross

abstract: Rallycross is a form of sprint style motorsport, held on a closed mixed-surface racing circuit, with modified production or specially built touring cars. It is mainly popular in the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Great Britain. An inexpensive, entry level type of rallycross is the Swedish folkrace or its Norwegian counterpart, the so-called bilcross. The folkrace is most popular in Finland where it was founded back in the late 1960s. In Europe, rallycross can also refer to racing 1:8 scale off-road radio-controlled buggies.

text:
# Rallycross

**Rallycross** is a form of sprint style motorsport, held on a closed mixed-surface racing circuit, with modified production or specially built touring cars. It is mainly popular in the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Great Britain. An inexpensive, entry level type of rallycross is the Swedish *folkrace* or its Norwegian counterpart, the so-called *bilcross*. The *folkrace* is most popular in Finland where it was founded back in the late 1960s. In Europe, rallycross can also refer to racing 1:8 scale off-road radio-controlled buggies.

## History

### Origins of rallycross

The sport started as a TV show (with especially invited rally drivers), produced by Robert Reed of ABC Weekend TV for ITV's *World of Sport* programme, at Lydden Circuit (between Dover and Canterbury) in Great Britain on Saturday, 4 February 1967. The first true rallycross was organised by Bud Smith (d. 1994) and the *Tunbridge Wells Centre of the 750 MC*, with the aid of Lydden Circuit owner Bill Chesson (d. 1999), and was won by later Formula One driver as well as 1968 Rally Monte Carlo winner Vic Elford in a showroom Porsche 911 of the British importer AFN, ahead of Brian Melia in his Ford Lotus Cortina and Tony Fall in a BMC Mini Cooper S.

After that inaugural event there were another two test rallycrosses at Lydden, on 11 March and 29 July, before the new *World of Sport Rallycross Championship* for the ABC TV viewers started with round one on 23 September, to be followed by round two on 7 October. The series was run over a total of six rounds (three at Lydden and three at Croft) and was eventually won by Englishman Tony Chappell (Ford Escort Twin Cam), who became the first British Rallycross champion after winning the final round of the new series on 6 April 1968 at Lydden.

However, the true birth of rallycross is often wrongly connected with the cancellation of the 1967 RAC Rally, due to foot-and-mouth disease, in November 1967, about ten months after the maiden event. Some foreign entrants for the RAC had also planned to take part in the 1st international rallycross at Lydden Circuit, on Saturday, 25 November 1967, but went home immediately after the rally had been cancelled on the evening of 17 November, and was replaced by a single special stage (won by Swede Erik Carlsson in a Saab 96 V4) for the sake of the disappointed television companies. RAC Rally stage number one by then, Camberley, was on Ministry of Defence land and not affected by movement restrictions caused by the disease in rural areas. Subsequently, only British drivers competed in the maiden international rallycross event one week later, which was eventually won by Andrew Cowan and his Hillman Imp. *Thames Estuary Automobile Club's (TEAC)* premier event, the original Clubman's rallycross, was held the day after. It opened up the new rally drivers' fun-sport to many amateur competitors, proved very successful and thereby paved the way for the first generation of real rallycross specialists, many of them coming from the ranges of autocross and autograss racing.

After one and a half years and several rallycross events at Lydden as well as Croft Circuit (near Darlington) the BBC adopted the young sport for its *Grandstand* programme while ITV dropped it after the British Rallycross Winter Series 1968/69. In 1969 Lydden Circuit and Croft Circuit were joined by another RX venue, Cadwell Park in Lincolnshire. However, while both Lydden and Croft nowadays are still in use for rallycross Cadwell Park later dropped this type of car racing from its schedule.

### Expansion to the Netherlands

Rob Herzet (AVRO), a Dutch counterpart to Robert Reed, discovered rallycross during a visit to Great Britain in 1968 and immediately understood its potential for the television viewers. By that time there were nearly ten million Britons watching some of the events on television. Back home in the Netherlands, Herzet contacted the race and rally driver as well as motoring journalist Gerard van Lennep (a cousin to Formula One driver Gijs van Lennep) to discuss his find. Both agreed that this form of sprint racing could be also appropriate for the Netherlands. Van Lennep soon started his investigations and found a military testing ground near the town of Venlo, close to the Dutch-German border. Actually there had been two venues available, the one at Venlo in Limburg and one at Elst in Gelderland, but the aid offered by the army turned the decision into the favour of Venlo.

On Saturday 17 May 1969 a group of invited rally and racing drivers went to the spot for a test day. Everybody was really satisfied and enthusiastic and only three weeks later, on Saturday 7 June the first rallycross event on the European continent was held. The track consisted of a section of concrete runway, loose sections through heathland and a hollow, about 40 metres long and 10 metres deep, usually used for tank testing. Although the soft heath soil and the muddy hollow hampered most of the two dozen or so competitors, or at least their mostly rather aged cars, the event produced much fun for all concerned as well as the TV audience. Overall victory went eventually to Hans Kok and his valuable NSU 1200 TT. Davy Van Den Branden 9 Times Belgian Champion. And 5 times Netherlands Champion.

The Dutch television company AVRO gave green light to Rob Herzet as well as another three rounds counting towards the so-called AVRO-Trophy and on 16 August of the same year NSU campaigner Hans Kok claimed the first national Dutch rallycross title. On October 4 1969 Holland saw its last Rallycross event of the first season, a stand-alone one-off race organised on a temporary track that was quickly set up on pastureland near the ‘Europahal’ at the town of Elst, halfway between Arnhem and Nijmegen. Here it was young Briton ‘Jumping’ Jeff Wiliamson who drove his Riley 1300 to overall victory. On 1 November the Dutch Rallycross Association was founded and, during 1970, organised another five events at Venlo. For 1971 the Nederlandse Rallycross Vereniging (NRV) moved the sport to its new continental home at Valkenswaard near Eindhoven. The Eurocircuit opened on Saturday 17 April with a race that was won by Jan de Rooy and his famous DAF 555 Coupé 4WD and became the first track in the World that was especially designed and built purely for rallycross purposes.

### Expansion to Australia

Rallycross came to Australia in 1969 with a one off meeting at Leppington in New South Wales. Events were held at Calder Park Raceway in Melbourne until the mid 1970s and at the Catalina Park circuit in Katoomba in New South Wales from 1972 until the early 1980s. Circuits at Towac near Orange in New South Wales as well as Tailem Bend and Whyalla in South Australia were also used, but after a dozen or so years the sport faded in Australia. Peter Brock was especially successful driving for the Holden Dealer Team in a supercharged Holden Torana GTR.

The inaugural Australian Rallycross Championship was held at the Tailem Bend circuit on 24 June 1979 and was won by Larry Perkins, driving a 2.0-litre Volkswagen Beetle for Kruger Motors. This was the only Australian Rallycross Championship to be contested.

A national rallycross championship was set to return to Australia in 2015 in the form of the Extreme Rallycross Championship, originally scheduled to consist of seven events held across 2015 and 2016. However, the series was cancelled after just one event had been held due to a lack of entries. A proposed Victorian championship, titled Rallycross Australia, was also cancelled before a single event had been run.

### Soviet Union

In Soviet Union history of rallycross (under name of autocross) dates back to 1949 when first competitions were held for light trucks, as well as passenger cars. First competitions resembled more light offroad race over 20-40km course, but over time races shortened and purpose built tracks were established. In 1970s and 1980s autocross was among most popular autosport disciplines in Soviet Union with hundreds of racing tracks and various classes of trucks, light cars and purpose built buggies competing. Most classes were effectively one-make classes, with few performance upgrades available, which together with wide state support made autocross popular and easily accessible to enthusiasts. Since late 1970s local regulations for autocross were harmonized with FIA regulations for rallycross. Until that time most tracks were unpaved, since then more partially paved rallycross tracks were built.

## In the United States

In October 2009 Rally America (for two years operating under the tag RallyCar) announced it would begin sanctioning European style rallycross events in the United States. The inaugural season of the RallyCar Rallycross Championship, held in 2010, featured four events and several rally, rallycross and drifting competitors have shown an interest in contesting these races. All four events (August 29, October 3, November 6, November 7) were organised at New Jersey Motorsports Park.

A closed-format circuit race called Rallycross was a regular event at the X Games for some years. It was first added to the X Games XVI in 2010 under the name **SuperRally**. This event involved heavily modified production cars with turbocharged engines running at 600 hp, all-wheel drive, sequential gearboxes, and offroad style suspension tuned for long jumps.

The Global RallyCross Championship was a Red Bull-sponsored championship that began in 2011 with five rounds in Irwindale, California (The Revolution), Snoqualmie, WA (Twin Peaks), Fountain, CO (Last Chance) and X Games 17 in the streets of Downtown Los Angeles. The series had several popular drivers such as Tanner Foust, Ken Block, Travis Pastrana, Finn Marcus Grönholm, Kiwi Rhys Millen, Dave Mirra, Frenchman Stéphane Verdier, Swede Michael Jernberg and Briton Liam Doran. The events were televised on ESPN. In 2012, the series grew to seven events run in conjunction with NASCAR Sprint Cup and IndyCar weekends as well as X Games 18 in Los Angeles. Several marques fielded factory- or importer-supported efforts including Ford, Hyundai, Subaru and Dodge. In 2013 the series went to Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, and Munich, Germany, and a rained-out event in Barcelona, Spain.

In 2013, GRC Lites made their debut in Loudon, New Hampshire, with the series most exciting race held at Atlanta Motor Speedway pitting professional European rallycross drivers against newcomer, American Mitchell DeJong. Global Rallycross was also featured in X Games this year, held at the Irwindale Raceway. American newcomer, Mitchell deJong joined the series and made history as the youngest to win the Silver Medal in X-Games in his first attempt at age 16.

In 2014 the Global Rallycross Championship Series traveled to tracks across the U.S. and Canada. The series traveled to Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas where American driver, Mitchell deJong made history again when he became the youngest to be invited and to win the Gold Medal in X-Games.

In 2018, the Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas, hosted the World Rallycross race event again on September 29–30 at the purpose-built track.

The Americas Rallycross Championship began competition in 2018. However, it was cancelled after the 2019 season due to a lack of sponsors.

Pastrana launched his own rallycross championship Nitro Rallycross in 2021.

## In the United Kingdom

The Motorsport UK British Rallycross Championship presented by Cooper Tires is the current national series in the United Kingdom. The calendar features iconic rallycross circuits including Lydden Hill Race Circuit. Recognised as an official championship by the MSUK, the governing body of motorsport in Great Britain.

## FIA European Rallycross Championship and FIA World Rallycross Championship

The first FIA World Rallycross Championship (World RX) took place from 4–5 May 2014, alongside the FIA European Rallycross Championship (Euro RX), the latter formerly known as FIA European Championships for Rallycross Drivers. Former World Rally Championship champion Petter Solberg took first place to become the first FIA World Rallycross Championship winner.

The 2014 FIA World Rallycross Championship consists of 12 events globally for the Supercar category.

FIA World and European Rallycross Championship cars are built based on production car body shells of vehicles homologated for Group A and Group N, or permitted by a special FIA list for non-homologated cars to be used in rallycross but are extensively modified.

## Race format

Different rallycross championships and events use different formats and scoring systems.

## Electric rallycross

The FIA made changes to rallycross categories before the beginning of 2021 season. The Supercar category was renamed to RX1, and a new electric rallycross supercar category RX1e was introduced. The Junior RX2 series were dropped, and Junior electric series RX2e were introduced. RX1e championship is expected to debut in 2022 season, consisting of the RX1 supercars retrofitted with two 250kW electric motors (equivalent of 680 horsepower), and equipped with 52kWh performance battery.

## Similar types of racing

In Australia and in the United States, there is dirt track racing, close to rallycross, but with two big differences, the vehicles are sprint cars, late models, modifieds and midgets instead, and they usually run in oval dirt tracks.

In Great Britain, autocross was where some of the pioneers of rallycross started. In other Europeans countries, autocross is similar to in Britain, but with the cars starting at the same time like in rallycross. Also there is crosskart racing.

The motocross, which is similar to rallycross, but with motorcycles, ATVs and Pit bikes is very popular worldwide. It also have the bike motocross and the side car motocross.

In France, they have camion cross, (truck cross in English) similar to rallycross, but with trucks instead. The most known championship is the Coupe de France de camion cross.

Media related to Rallycross at Wikimedia Commons


title: Centerville Pioneer Cemetery

abstract: The Centerville Pioneer Cemetery, also known as the Centerville Presbyterian Cemetery or Alameda Presbyterian Cemetery, is located at the corner of Post Street and Bonde Way in Fremont, California. It was officially designated as a state cemetery in 1858 or 1859, depending upon the source, and was listed in the California Register of Historic Resources in 1976.

text:
# Centerville Pioneer Cemetery

The **Centerville Pioneer Cemetery**, also known as the **Centerville Presbyterian Cemetery** or **Alameda Presbyterian Cemetery**, is located at the corner of Post Street and Bonde Way in Fremont, California. It was officially designated as a state cemetery in 1858 or 1859, depending upon the source, and was listed in the California Register of Historic Resources in 1976.

## History

At the time the cemetery was established, the location of the cemetery was known as Washington Township, Alameda County, California, which was then made up of the villages of Mission San Jose, Irvington, Warm Springs, Centerville, Niles, Newark, Alvarado and Decoto. In time all eight villages became towns of the same names, and both the church and cemetery were renamed to reflect their location in the town of Centerville.

A century later in 1956, the five towns of Centerville, Niles, Irvington, Mission San Jose, and Warm Springs came together to form the incorporated City of Fremont, which is the current designation of the location of the Cemetery.

The first burials occurred sometime after 1855 when the Alameda Presbyterian Church, first organized in 1853, acquired the property in the summer of 1855 under the direction of the Rev. William Wallace Brier and nine other founding members.

## Notable graves

Several of Fremont’s notable founding pioneers are buried in the cemetery, many of whom have streets named after them. Among these are the Decoto family; Captain Caleb Cook Scott, a native of Nova Scotia, who sailed his way around the Horn of Magellan in South America in order to eventually settle in what later became Centerville; and Herman Eggers and sheep-raiser Robert Blacow, who were the early settlers with large farms in the current Glenmoor area of Fremont. Near the front of the cemetery lie the Brier family, including the Rev. William Wallace Brier, the Presbyterian minister who founded the cemetery and was Alameda County's first superintendent of schools. He also founded more than 27 churches, many of them in the Bay Area, including Centerville Presbyterian in Fremont, which manages the cemetery. Records indicate that a total of 368 persons are buried in this historic cemetery.

1. City of Fremont official website
2. The Tombstone Transcription Project web site
3. Sandoval, John S (1985). *The history of Washington Township* (limited ed.). Castro Valley, California: Fremont Argus and Hayward Daily Review. ISBN 0-936193-00-X.
4. Tri City Voice
5. Geha, Joseph (October 14, 2016). "Fremont: Even the nameless found final resting place in historic cemetery". Bay Area News Group. eastbaytimes. Retrieved 10 June 2020.

37°33′35″N 122°00′30″W / 37.55972°N 122.00833°W / 37.55972; -122.00833


title: Rhodocyclales

abstract:
The Rhodocyclales are an order of the class Betaproteobacteria in the phylum Pseudomonadota ("Proteobacteria"). Following a major reclassification of the class in 2017, the previously monofamilial order was split into three families:
  - Rhodocyclaceae contains the genera Rhodocyclus, Azospira and Propionivibrio. Cells are curved rods, rings or spirillae. Dominant respiratory quinones are menaquinone-8, ubiquinone-8 and rhodoquinone-8. G+C fractions are 61.6 - 65.3 mol%.
  - Azonexaceae contains the genera Azonexus, Dechloromonas, Ferribacterium and Quatrionicoccus. Cells are curved rods or cocci. Dominant respiratory quinone is ubiquinone-8. G+C fractions are 63.5 - 67.0 mol%.
  - Zoogloeaceae contains the genera Zoogloea, Thauera, Uliginosibacterium and Azoarcus. Cells are rod shaped. Dominant respiratory quinones are ubiquinone-8 and rhodoquinone-8. G+C fractions are 59.3 - 69.0 mol%. The genus Azovibrio also falls within the order but is incertae sedis, falling between the Zoogloeaeceae and the Azonexaceae.

text:
# Rhodocyclales

The ***Rhodocyclales*** are an order of the class *Betaproteobacteria* in the phylum *Pseudomonadota* ("Proteobacteria"). Following a major reclassification of the class in 2017, the previously monofamilial order was split into three families:

The genus *Azovibrio* also falls within the order but is *incertae sedis*, falling between the *Zoogloeaeceae* and the *Azonexaceae*.

## InfoBox

| Rhodocyclales | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Two strains of *Zoogloea resiniphila*. Wild type is on the left. The right is a strain unable to form floc. | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Pseudomonadota |
| Class: | Betaproteobacteria |
| Order: | Rhodocyclales<br>Boden et al. 2017 (Garrity, et al 2006) |
|
| Families | |
|  | |


title: Pentti Lammio

abstract: Pentti Johannes Lammio was a Finnish speed skater who competed in the 1948 Winter Olympics and in the 1952 Winter Olympics. He was born in Tampere and died in Kulju, Lempäälä. In 1948 he won the bronze medal in the 10000 metres event. He also finished eighth in the 5000 metres competition and 21st in the 1500 metres event.

text:
# Pentti Lammio

**Pentti Johannes Lammio** (24 October 1919  25 July 1999) was a Finnish speed skater who competed in the 1948 Winter Olympics and in the 1952 Winter Olympics.

He was born in Tampere and died in Kulju, Lempäälä.

In 1948 he won the bronze medal in the 10000 metres event. He also finished eighth in the 5000 metres competition and 21st in the 1500 metres event.

## InfoBox

Pentti Lammio
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Birth name | Pentti Johannes Lammio |
| Nationality | Finnish |
| Born | 24 October 1919
Tampere, Finland |
| Died | 25 July 1999(1999-07-25) (aged 79)
Lempäälä, Finland |
| Sport | |
| Country | Finland |
| Sport | Speed skating |
| Achievements and titles | |
| Personal best(s) | 500 m: 46.7 (1939)
1500 m: 2:23.9 (1948)
3000 m: 5:07.6 (1952)
5000 m: 8:17.3 (1952)
10 000 m: 17:01.1 (1952) |
| Medal record      Men's Speed skating  1948 St. Moritz  10000 m | |


title: Qendër Piskovë

abstract: Qendër Piskovë is a former municipality in the Gjirokastër County, southern Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Përmet. The population at the 2011 census was 1,742. The municipal unit consists of the villages Piskovë, Bual, Kosinë, Rapckë, Mokricë-Zleushë, Kutal, Kosovë, Hotovë, Odriçan, Raban, Alipostivan, Borockë, Gosnisht, Pagri, Pacomit, Grabovë and Argovë.

text:
# Qendër Piskovë

**Qendër Piskovë** is a former municipality in the Gjirokastër County, southern Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Përmet. The population at the 2011 census was 1,742. The municipal unit consists of the villages Piskovë, Bual, Kosinë, Rapckë, Mokricë-Zleushë, Kutal, Kosovë, Hotovë, Odriçan, Raban, Alipostivan, Borockë, Gosnisht, Pagri, Pacomit, Grabovë and Argovë.

1. "Law nr. 115/2014" (PDF) (in Albanian). p. 6371. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
2. 2011 census results Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
3. Greece – Albania Neighbourhood Programme Archived March 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine

## InfoBox

| Qendër Piskovë | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipal unit | |
| Qendër Piskovë | |
| Coordinates: 40°17′N 20°16′E / 40.283°N 20.267°E / 40.283; 20.267 | |
| Country | Albania |
| County | Gjirokastër |
| Municipality | Përmet |
| Population (2011) | |
| Municipal unit | 1,742 |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |


title: Ramesh Dube

abstract: Ramesh Dube is an Indian politician with the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). He stood for the 2007 by-elections on the BSP ticket and was a Member of Parliament from Mirzapur. He is a former Member of the Legislative Assembly during 1985-1995 from Indian National Congress and state minister from Andheri Earlier he was member of Mumbai Municipal Corporation during 1968–1984. He was also founder member of Nationalist Congress Party

text:
# Ramesh Dube

**Ramesh Dube** (born 16 October 1942) is an Indian politician with the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). He stood for the 2007 by-elections on the BSP ticket and was a Member of Parliament from Mirzapur.

He is a former Member of the Legislative Assembly during 1985-1995 from Indian National Congress and state minister from Andheri

Earlier he was member of Mumbai Municipal Corporation during 1968–1984. He was also founder member of Nationalist Congress Party

1. "Official biography". Parliament of India records. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
2. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2010.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
3. "Netas change turf for parliament ticket-Mumbai-Cities". *The Times of India*. 19 May 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2009.

## InfoBox

| Ramesh Dube | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Constituency | Mirzapur |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1942-10-16) 16 October 1942<br>Manikpur, Bhadohi, Uttar Pradesh |
| Political party | BSPIndian National Congress |
| Spouse | Late KUSUM DUBE |
| Children | 2 sons |
| Residence | Sant Ravidas Nagar district |
| As of 22 September, 2006Source: \["Official biography". Parliament of India records. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006.\] | |


title: Rathouisia tigrina

abstract: Rathouisia tigrina is a species of carnivorous air-breathing land slug, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Rathouisiidae. The specific name tigrina is from Latin word "tigrinus", that means "tiger-like", referring to the predatory nature of the slug.

text:
# Rathouisia tigrina

***Rathouisia tigrina*** is a species of carnivorous air-breathing land slug, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Rathouisiidae.

The specific name *tigrina* is from Latin word "*tigrinus*", that means "tiger-like", referring to the predatory nature of the slug.

## Distribution

This species occurs in China.

## Description

*Rathouisia tigrina* is smaller than *Rathouisia leonina*.

## Ecology

*Rathouisia tigrina* is a predatory carnivorous slug.

## InfoBox

| *Rathouisia tigrina* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| (unranked): | clade Heterobranchia
clade Euthyneura
clade Panpulmonata
clade Eupulmonata

clade Systellommatophora |
| Superfamily: | Veronicelloidea |
| Family: | Rathouisiidae |
| Genus: | *Rathouisia* |
| Species: | ***R. tigrina*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Rathouisia tigrina***
Heude, 1882 | |
|


title: Rapid PHP Editor

abstract:
rapid PHP Editor is a PHP Editor that incorporates many functions such as AutoComplete, Syntax checker, debugger and many other tools for fast PHP development. Rapid PHP Editor also contain other development tools for helping on HTML, CSS, Javascript and many other languages. Is part of a family of products covering most aspects of modern web development integrating as well many other capabilities used by developers. Some features:
  - (X)HTML to HTML5
  - CSS to CSS3
  - Code intelligence
  - Powerful search and replace
  - Support for several frameworks
  - Code beautifier
  - FTP Explorer (FTP/SFTP/FTPS)
  - File explorer
  - Database explorer
  - Code snippets
  - Validators and Debuggers
  - FAST, real fast
  - Many other tools available

text:
# Rapid PHP Editor

**rapid PHP Editor** is a PHP Editor that incorporates many functions such as AutoComplete, Syntax checker, debugger and many other tools for fast PHP development.

Rapid PHP Editor also contain other development tools for helping on HTML, CSS, Javascript and many other languages.

Is part of a family of products covering most aspects of modern web development integrating as well many other capabilities used by developers.

Some features:

* (X)HTML to HTML5
* CSS to CSS3
* Code intelligence
* Powerful search and replace
* Support for several frameworks
* Code beautifier
* FTP Explorer (FTP/SFTP/FTPS)
* File explorer
* Database explorer
* Code snippets
* Validators and Debuggers
* FAST, real fast
* Many other tools available (many more to describe all here)

## InfoBox

rapid PHP Editor
| Developer(s) | Blumentals Solutions SIA |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Stable release | 12 |
|  | |
| Operating system | Microsoft Windows |
| Type | IDE |
| License | Proprietary |
| Website | Official Website |


title: Ravnica, Radovljica

abstract: Ravnica is a settlement in the Municipality of Radovljica in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia.

text:
# Ravnica, Radovljica

**Ravnica** (pronounced \[ɾau̯ˈniːtsa\]) is a settlement in the Municipality of Radovljica in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia.

## Name

The name of the settlement was changed from *Mošnja* to *Ravnica* in 1955.

## InfoBox

| Ravnica Mošnja (until 1955) | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| RavnicaLocation in Slovenia | |
| Coordinates: 46°19′32.18″N 14°11′6.69″E / 46.3256056°N 14.1851917°E / 46.3256056; 14.1851917 | |
| Country | Slovenia |
| Region | Upper Carniola |
| Statistical region | Upper Carniola |
| Municipality | Radovljica |
| Elevation | 461.4 m (1,513.8 ft) |
| Population (2002) | |
| Total | 23 |
|  | |


title: Raymond John Maunsell

abstract: Raymund John Maunsell CBE (1903-1976) was a British Army Intelligence Officer. Maunsell was born on 25 November 1903 in London, England and his birth was registered in Lewisham Borough. He was commissioned into the Royal Tank Corps on 30 August 1923. He was recorded as the head of Security Intelligence Middle East (SIME) based in Cairo in 1939. On 6 January 1944 he was awarded Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his work in the Middle East. On 16 January 1947 he was awarded the US Legion of Merit. Maunsell died on Jersey in the Channel Islands on 4 November 1976.

text:
# Raymond John Maunsell

**Raymund John Maunsell**  CBE (1903-1976) was a British Army Intelligence Officer.

Maunsell was born on 25 November 1903 in London, England and his birth was registered in Lewisham Borough.

He was commissioned into the Royal Tank Corps on 30 August 1923.

He was recorded as the head of Security Intelligence Middle East (SIME) based in Cairo in 1939.

On 6 January 1944 he was awarded Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his work in the Middle East.

On 16 January 1947 he was awarded the US Legion of Merit.

Maunsell died on Jersey in the Channel Islands on 4 November 1976.

## InfoBox

| Raymund John Maunsell | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 25 November 1903
London, England |
| Died | 4 November 1976 (72)
Jersey, Channel Islands |
| Allegiance | United Kingdom |
| Service/branch | British Army/Royal Tank Regiment/Transjordan Frontier Force |
| Rank | Brigadier |
| Service number | 27241 |
| Unit | SIME |
| Battles/wars | Egypt |
| Awards | CBE, US Legion of Merit |


title: Raymond Castellani

abstract:
Raymond Jay Castellani was an American character actor. As a former alcoholic, he founded the Frontline Foundation, which serves meals to the homeless on the Los Angeles' Skid Row. Castellani was born in Albany, New York on February 13, 1933. In 1995, Castellani received the Presidential Citizens Medal from President Bill Clinton at a White House ceremony. During the early 1990s, President George H. W. Bush included Castellani among his "thousand points of light." He attended The Albany Academy, class of 1952. Upon graduation, he spent a semester at Springfield College. During this time he received a draft notice, and then served as a Marine during the Korean War. During the 1950s and 1960s, Castellani acted in numerous plays, television shows, and films, including
Bonanza, Lawman, and Dragnet. In New York, he appeared in plays such as The Curious Savage, Hat Full of Rain, The Rain Maker, What Makes Sammy Run, and Light Up the Sky. In 2008, Castellani released an autobiography titled, The End Was But A Beginning: A True Story. He served over one million meals on the streets of Skid Row in downtown Los Angeles. He died on October 18, 2021, at the age of 88.

text:
# Raymond Castellani

**Raymond Jay Castellani** (February 13, 1933 – October 18, 2021) was an American character actor. As a former alcoholic, he founded the Frontline Foundation, which serves meals to the homeless on the Los Angeles' Skid Row.

Castellani was born in Albany, New York on February 13, 1933. In 1995, Castellani received the Presidential Citizens Medal from President Bill Clinton at a White House ceremony. During the early 1990s, President George H. W. Bush included Castellani among his "thousand points of light." He attended The Albany Academy, class of 1952. Upon graduation, he spent a semester at Springfield College. During this time he received a draft notice, and then served as a Marine during the Korean War.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Castellani acted in numerous plays, television shows, and films, including *Bonanza*, *Lawman*, and *Dragnet*.

In New York, he appeared in plays such as *The Curious Savage*, *Hat Full of Rain*, *The Rain Maker*, *What Makes Sammy Run*, and *Light Up the Sky*.

In 2008, Castellani released an autobiography titled, *The End Was But A Beginning: A True Story*.

He served over one million meals on the streets of Skid Row in downtown Los Angeles. He died on October 18, 2021, at the age of 88.


title: Raymond Lefebvre

abstract: Raymond-Louis Lefebvre was a French writer and political activist. He attended the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern from 19 July to 7 August 1920, but along with two other French delegates disappeared in the Barents Sea whilst returning. Lefebvre served as a soldier during the First World War and in 1917 described his experiences in Le sacrifice d'Abraham. He had been wounded and was revolted by the whole experience. This work placed him alongside Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, Marcel Martinet – amongst others – as one of the writers who developed a revolutionary perspective during the war. He was involved in setting up a radical veterans' association, the Association Républicaine des Anciens Combattants. After attending the 2nd Congress of the Comintern, he was appointed to the Provisional International Bureau of the Kultintern, an organisation set up to promote proletarian culture.

text:
# Raymond Lefebvre

**Raymond-Louis** **Lefebvre** (24 April 1891, Vire  presumed date of death 1 October 1920) was a French writer and political activist. He attended the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern from 19 July to 7 August 1920, but along with two other French delegates disappeared in the Barents Sea whilst returning.

Lefebvre served as a soldier during the First World War and in 1917 described his experiences in *Le sacrifice d'Abraham* ("The Sacrifice of Abraham"). He had been wounded and was revolted by the whole experience. This work placed him alongside Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, Marcel Martinet – amongst others – as one of the writers who developed a revolutionary perspective during the war. He was involved in setting up a radical veterans' association, the Association Républicaine des Anciens Combattants.

After attending the 2nd Congress of the Comintern, he was appointed to the Provisional International Bureau of the Kultintern, an organisation set up to promote proletarian culture.


title: Raúl Viver

abstract: Raúl Antonio Viver is a former professional tennis player from Ecuador.

text:
# Raúl Viver

**Raúl Antonio Viver** (born 17 March 1961) is a former professional tennis player from Ecuador.

## Career

Viver was the world number one ranked junior player in 1979, the year that he won the Orange Bowl (18s & Under). He also reached his only semi-final on the Grand Prix tennis circuit in 1979, at Bogota.

In the 1982 French Open, Viver and partner Luca Bottazzi had a win over fifth seeds Anders Järryd and Hans Simonsson, but lost in the second round. Three years later he won his only Grand Slam singles match, over world number 42 John Fitzgerald. He was a mixed doubles quarter-finalist in the 1986 French Open, with Mariana Perez-Roldan.

The Ecuadorian reached the quarter-finals at Kitzbuhel in 1984 and Buenos Aires the following year.

He appeared in 18 Davis Cup ties for Ecuador during his career, from 1978 to 1990. In the mid-1980s he was part of the team which competed in the World Group and faced players like Jimmy Arias, Boris Becker and Miloslav Mečíř. Viver finished with a 15/13 overall record, winning 14 of his 25 singles rubbers.

## Challenger titles

### Singles: (3)

| No. | Year | Tournament | Surface | Opponent | Score |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | 1988 | Neu-Ulm, West Germany | Clay | Stefan Eriksson | 7–5, 6–2 |
| 2. | 1991 | Pembroke Pines, United States | Clay | Jimmy Brown | 6–3, 1–6, 7–6 |
| 3. | 1991 | São Paulo, Brazil | Clay | Gabriel Markus | 7–6, 3–6, 6–3 |

### Doubles: (3)

| No. | Year | Tournament | Surface | Partner | Opponents | Score |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1. | 1982 | Brussels, Belgium | Clay | Alberto Tous | David Graham
Laurie Warder | 3–6, 6–3, 7–5 |
| 2. | 1983 | Brescia, Italy |  | Iván Camus | Dacio Campos
Eduardo Oncins | 6–2, 5–7, 6–4 |
| 3. | 1988 | Nyon, Switzerland | Clay | Hugo Núñez | Jan Apell
Veli Paloheimo | 2–6, 6–4, 6–1 |

## InfoBox

Raúl Viver
| Country (sports) | Ecuador |
| --- | --- |
| Born | (1961-03-17) 17 March 1961
Guayaquil, Ecuador |
| Height | 1.91 m (6 ft 3 in) |
| Turned pro | 1980 |
| Plays | Left-handed |
| Prize money | $189,118 |
| Singles | |
| Career record | 27-58 |
| Career titles | 0 |
| Highest ranking | No. 94 (3 Oct 1988) |
| Grand Slam singles results | |
| French Open | 2R (1985) |
| Wimbledon | 1R (1985) |
| US Open | 1R (1985) |
| Doubles | |
| Career record | 15-45 |
| Career titles | 0 |
| Highest ranking | No. 184 (2 Jan 1984) |
| Grand Slam doubles results | |
| French Open | 2R (1982) |
| Mixed doubles | |
| Career titles | 0 |
| Grand Slam mixed doubles results | |
| French Open | QF (1986) |


title: Ravenswood Bridge

abstract: The William S. Ritchie Jr. Bridge, more commonly known as the Ravenswood Bridge, is a two-lane cantilever bridge in the United States, connecting Ravenswood, West Virginia and rural Meigs County, Ohio, across the Ohio River. It has a total length of 2,710 ft (830 m) with a main span of 900 ft (270 m). The bridge was completed in 1981. The bridge replaced a ferry that had crossed the river between Ravenswood at Walnut Street and rural Lebanon Township since at least 1908. When the bridge opened in 1981, on the Ohio side of the river, the bridge and its approach route carried the 0.57-mile-long (0.92 km) Ohio State Route 824. The crossing originally led to a winding two-lane SR 338. On the West Virginia side, the bridge carried West Virginia Route 338. In 2003, the SR 824 and WV 338 designations were removed when the US 33 relocation in Meigs County was completed and the US 33 designation was moved onto the bridge.

text:
# Ravenswood Bridge

| State Route 824 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location | Meigs County |
| Existed | 1981–2003 |

|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location | Ravenswood |
| Existed | 1981–2003 |

The **William S. Ritchie Jr. Bridge**, more commonly known as the **Ravenswood Bridge**, is a two-lane cantilever bridge in the United States, connecting Ravenswood, West Virginia and rural Meigs County, Ohio, across the Ohio River. It has a total length of 2,710 ft (830 m) with a main span of 900 ft (270 m). The bridge was completed in 1981.

The bridge replaced a ferry that had crossed the river between Ravenswood at Walnut Street and rural Lebanon Township since at least 1908. When the bridge opened in 1981, on the Ohio side of the river, the bridge and its approach route carried the 0.57-mile-long (0.92 km) **Ohio State Route 824** (**SR 824**). The crossing originally led to a winding two-lane SR 338. On the West Virginia side, the bridge carried **West Virginia Route 338**. In 2003, the SR 824 and WV 338 designations were removed when the US 33 relocation in Meigs County was completed and the US 33 designation was moved onto the bridge.

| Browse numbered routes | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
| SR 823 | **OH** | SR 833 |
| WV 331 | **WV** | US 340 |

38°56′11″N 81°45′26″W / 38.9365°N 81.7572°W / 38.9365; -81.7572

## InfoBox

| Ravenswood Bridge | |
| --- | --- |
| View of the bridge from Ravenswood | |
| Coordinates | 38°56′N 81°46′W / 38.94°N 81.76°W / 38.94; -81.76 |
| Carries | US 33 |
| Crosses | Ohio River |
| Official name | William S. Ritchie, Jr. Bridge |
| Maintained by | West Virginia Department of Transportation |
| Characteristics | |
| Design | Cantilever bridge |
| Total length | 2,710 feet (830 m) |
| Longest span | 900 feet (270 m) |
| History | |
| Opened | 1981 |
| Location | |
|  | |


title: Ravenswood Ambulance Station

abstract: Ravenswood Ambulance Station is a heritage-listed ambulance station at Deighton Street, Ravenswood, Charters Towers Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built in 1904. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.

text:
# Ravenswood Ambulance Station

**Ravenswood Ambulance Station** is a heritage-listed ambulance station at Deighton Street, Ravenswood, Charters Towers Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built in 1904. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.

## History

The Ravenswood Ambulance Building, constructed in 1904 by Ravenswood builder Hans Thomsen, has played an important role in the Ravenswood community providing assistance for the sick and injured. This role expanded when the hospital closed and it has continued its community service as a venue for regular clinics held by the Royal Flying Doctor Service for over thirty years.

Ravenswood was one of several important goldfields in which formed a major component in the development of North Queensland. The need to access and exploit gold finds determined the path of railways, the establishment of related industries and commerce and the location of settlements. Some of these were short lived "rushes", where tent and shanty townships disappeared almost as quickly as they rose. Other settlements based on goldfields became established towns with government and civic buildings, shops and family homes and survived as such. A few became important centres, only to fade away as gold yields fell. Ravenswood was one of these.

The area was first settled by Europeans following the establishment of Bowen in 1861. Pastoral runs were soon set up in the hinterland, including the area on which the Ravenswood field was to develop. The first gold in north Queensland had been found at Star River in 1865 and triggered further exploration. Gold was found at Merri Merriwa, the run on which the town of Ravenswood stands, in 1867, although it was reported as being on the adjoining property of Ravenswood, the name by which the field was always known.

Much of the gold initially found was in a triangle in and around three dry creeks which soon formed the focus for a tent and shanty settlement. Ravenswood gold was in reefs and a small battery was first set up in 1869, followed by the Lady Marian Mill in 1870. The settlement was also surveyed at this time, but by then the goldfield itself, and the buildings and streets already established had shaped the town and the survey merely formalised what was already in place. This can still be seen clearly in the irregularity of the major streets. Ravenswood was gazetted as a town in 1871, but problems were soon encountered as the gold at deeper levels proved to be finely distributed in ore containing other minerals and was difficult to separate either by mechanical or chemical means. This required greater capital to fund various technologies for extraction. Many miners left for other fields, such as Charters Towers, discovered in 1871 and which quickly overtook Ravenswood as a gold producer and as the most important inland North Queensland town.

Despite this, Ravenswood continued to prosper due to a steady, though reduced, production of gold, the discovery of silver at nearby Totley in 1878 and as a commercial centre. By 1874, the town had a courthouse and police station, a post and telegraph office, and a school. The first hospital was established by subscription in 1871. The stability of the town was also assisted by the arrival of the railway in 1884 and the use of improved means to extract gold from ore. A new generation of public buildings began to replace those from the early days of the field, including a new hospital built in 1887.

In 1899, the New Ravenswood Company was formed by Archibald Laurence Wilson who raised overseas capital, reopened old mines and used modern methods to rework tailings more efficiently. The shareholders recouped their investment in the first two years and this drew world-wide interest. It was the beginning of Ravenswood's most prosperous period.

In the 1890s, the perceived need to provide trained assistance and transport to hospital for the sick and injured resulted in the formation in Brisbane of the Queensland Ambulance Transport Brigade. Charters Towers set up the second branch of the QATB in 1900, needing it not only as a major city, but also as a mining town. Mining had always been a dangerous occupation and rapid growth tended to overtake the provision of safety measures, making serious accidents not uncommon. This was also the case in Ravenswood where between 1879 and 1917, 22 miners were killed and 116 injured in the course of their work. The water supply was also unsafe and there were periodic outbreaks of serious illnesses caused by this. The ambulance centre was established in Macrossan Street, a date commemorated on the parapet of the current ambulance building. Ambulances were equipped with harnesses which were used to pull up injured men from mine shafts. In 1904, the current building was constructed to serve 4700 people, the highest population level that Ravenswood would ever have.

After 1908, the town began to decline and the hospital closed. As time went by the cost of extraction grew as returns lessened and Wilson lost money searching for "mother" lodes at deep levels and began to lay off miners. A strike in 1912 dragged out for eight months causing hardship and although judgement eventually favoured the miners, Wilson could no longer afford to employ many of them. The decline of the Ravenswood mines continued with the outbreak of war in 1914 increasing costs and disruptions to the labour supply. Buildings began to be sold for removal and in 1916 rail services were cut. In 1917, the New Ravenswood Company closed.

In the 1920s, most of the timber buildings in Ravenswood were moved away, although brick buildings, such as the ambulance station, could not be moved. Ravenswood Shire was absorbed into Dalrymple Shire in 1929 and in 1930 Ravenswood became the first Queensland town to lose its railway connection and therefore the use of the railway ambulance which had served Ravenswood from Charters Towers since 1919. Mining had a modest revival in the 1930s, but this had little effect on the life of the town. By the 1960s, Ravenswood had reached its lowest ebb with a population of about 70. At this point, tourists began to take a growing interest in the town, studies were made of the buildings and work began to conserve them. In the 1980s the whole town was listed by the Australian Heritage Commission and the National Trust of Queensland. In 1987, Carpentaria Gold Ltd opened a new open cut mine using modern heap leaching processes.

Following the closure of the hospital, the ambulance service had often provided medical advice. The centre was staffed until the 1950s although the buildings was also used intermittently for storage. In the 1960s, the Royal Flying Doctor Service began to hold a monthly surgery in the building. Clinics held by the Flying Doctor have continued to the present day.

The building underwent considerable repair and refurbishment in the 1990s and continues to provide medical services for the community through clinics. It also houses a part-time children's play group and the State Emergency Service has storage facilities built in a shed to the rear in 1997.

## Description

The Ravenswood Ambulance station is located in Deighton St close to the bank of Elphinstone Creek. It is a single storey building of rendered brick, rectangular in plan, with its long axis at right angles to the street. The roof is clad in corrugated iron and hipped at the rear. It has a decorative metal ventilator on the ridge. The facade has a gabled parapet and is asymmetrical, with the central doorway flanked by a large arched gateway for the ambulance vehicle to the left and a sash window on the right. It has rendered ornamentation including fluted pilasters, two Maltese crosses and the words "Ambulance" and "1902" in raised letters. There is a lamp over the doorway.

Inside there is provision for the ambulance and a series of rooms on one side of the building with timber framed tongue and groove partitions, concrete and timber floors, and flat galvanised iron ceilings.

## Heritage listing

Ravenswood Ambulance Station was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

**The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.**

Mining has been important in the development of North Queensland and the Ambulance Station is one of the few buildings remaining from the boom period of the once important goldfield town of Ravenswood. Many accidents occurred in early mines and the erratic water supply of many mining towns caused frequent outbreaks of serious illness. The Ambulance Station therefore provided an essential service. Its early establishment and subsequent expanded medical use when the population reduced and the hospital closed illustrates a pattern of expansion and decline common to many mining towns.

**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.**

It is important as an example of an early ambulance station providing accommodation for ambulance, staff and office in a small, centrally placed building.

**The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.**

The Ambulance station is an attractive building and, as one of the few brick buildings from the boom years of Ravenswood, is an important feature of its townscape.

**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**

The Ambulance station has a long association with the Ravenswood community and the Royal Flying Doctor Service.

### Attribution

This Wikipedia article was originally based on *"The Queensland heritage register"* published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 7 July 2014, archived on 8 October 2014). The geo-coordinates were originally computed from the *"Queensland heritage register boundaries"* published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 5 September 2014, archived on 15 October 2014).

Media related to Ravenswood Ambulance Station at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Ravenswood Ambulance Station | |
| --- | --- |
| Ravenswood Ambulance Station, 1997 | |
| Location | Deighton Street, Ravenswood, Charters Towers Region, Queensland, Australia |
| Coordinates | 20°06′02″S 146°53′19″E / 20.1006°S 146.8885°E / -20.1006; 146.8885 |
| Design period | 1900–1914 (early 20th century) |
| Built | 1904 |
|  | |
| Queensland Heritage Register | |
| Official name | Ravenswood Ambulance Station, Ambulance Building |
| Type | state heritage (built) |
| Designated | 21 October 1992 |
| Reference no. | 600445 |
| Significant period | 1904 (fabric)<br>1904–ongoing (historical) |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Ravenswood Ambulance Station in QueenslandRavenswood Ambulance Station (Australia) | |


title: Ravenswood City School District

abstract:
The Ravenswood City School District is a public school district headquartered in East Palo Alto, California, US. The district, in the San Francisco Bay Area, serves the communities of East Palo Alto and eastern Menlo Park. Students from this school district who continue on with public schooling matriculate to the Sequoia Union High School District. In 2008-09 it served over 4,500 students.
In 2019-20 student enrollment declined to approximately 3,200 with further enrollment declines projected. In the 2021-22 school year, student enrollment is reported as approximately 2,800. Notable teachers within the history of the district include Shirley A. R. Lewis.

text:
# Ravenswood City School District

The **Ravenswood City School District** is a public school district headquartered in East Palo Alto, California, US. The district, in the San Francisco Bay Area, serves the communities of East Palo Alto and eastern Menlo Park. Students from this school district who continue on with public schooling matriculate to the Sequoia Union High School District.

In 2008-09 it served over 4,500 students. In 2019-20 student enrollment declined to approximately 3,200 with further enrollment declines projected. In the 2021-22 school year, student enrollment is reported as approximately 2,800.

Notable teachers within the history of the district include Shirley A. R. Lewis.

## Schools

### Elementary schools

* Belle Haven Elementary (TK, Kindergarten - 5th)
* Costaño School of the Arts (TK, Kindergarten - 5th)
* Los Robles-Ronald McNair Academy (TK, Kindergarten - 5th)

### Middle school

* Cesar Chavez Ravenswood Middle School (6th - 8th)

## InfoBox

| Ravenswood City School District | |
| --- | --- |
| District headquarters | |
| Address | |
| 2120 Euclid Avenue East Palo Alto, California, 94303<br>United States | |
| District information | |
| Type | Public |
| Grades | K–8 |
| NCES District ID | 0631860 |
| Students and staff | |
| Students | 1,731 (2020–2021) |
| Teachers | 96.52 (FTE) |
| Staff | 153.25 (FTE) |
| Student–teacher ratio | 17.93:1 |
| Other information | |
| Website | www.ravenswoodschools.org |


title: Ray Price (speechwriter)

abstract: Raymond Kissam Price Jr. was an American writer who was the chief speechwriter for U.S. President Richard Nixon, working on both inaugural addresses, his resignation speech, and Gerald Ford's pardon speech. During Nixon's presidential campaign of 1968, the candidate made use of the contrasting style of two speechwriters with Price becoming known to colleagues as Mr Outside because his work was aimed at broadening Nixon's appeal. A native of New York City, Price graduated from Yale University in 1951. There, he was a member of the Conservative Party of the Yale Political Union and also belonged to Skull and Bones. Price wrote a retrospective on the presidency titled With Nixon and assisted Nixon in the writing of several books. John Dean mentioned Price as one person suspected (falsely) of having been Deep Throat. For 19 years, Price was a member of the Economic Club of New York.

text:
# Ray Price (speechwriter)

**Raymond Kissam Price Jr.** (May 6, 1930 – February 13, 2019) was an American writer who was the chief speechwriter for U.S. President Richard Nixon, working on both inaugural addresses, his resignation speech, and Gerald Ford's pardon speech. During Nixon's presidential campaign of 1968, the candidate made use of the contrasting style of two speechwriters (the other being Pat Buchanan) with Price becoming known to colleagues as Mr Outside because his work was aimed at broadening Nixon's appeal.

A native of New York City, Price graduated from Yale University in 1951. There, he was a member of the Conservative Party of the Yale Political Union and also belonged to Skull and Bones.

Price wrote a retrospective on the presidency titled *With Nixon* and assisted Nixon in the writing of several books. John Dean mentioned Price as one person suspected (falsely) of having been Deep Throat. For 19 years, Price was a member of the Economic Club of New York.

## Career

## Other memberships

## Further reading

* *The New York Times Book Review*, November 20, 1977;
* *Newsweek*, November 28, 1977;
* *New York Review of Books*, April 6, 1978.

## InfoBox

| Ray Price | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| White House Director of Speechwriting | |
| **In office**
December 31, 1970  February 6, 1973 | |
| President | Richard Nixon |
| Preceded by | Jim Keogh |
| Succeeded by | David Gergen |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Raymond Kissam Price Jr.
(1930-05-06)May 6, 1930
New York City, New York, U.S. |
| Died | February 13, 2019(2019-02-13) (aged 88)
New York City, New York, U.S. |
| Political party | Republican |
| Education | Yale University (BA) |
|  | |


title: Ray Preston (rugby league)

abstract: Ray Preston was an Australian rugby league footballer who played in the 1940s and 1950s. He was one of the game's most prolific try-scorers.

text:
# Ray Preston (rugby league)

**Ray Preston** (10 November 1929 − 15 November 2019) was an Australian rugby league footballer who played in the 1940s and 1950s. He was one of the game's most prolific try-scorers.

## Playing career

He played eight seasons in the New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership for the Newtown club from 1949 to 1956. He played on the wing for the Newtown teams which won the 1954 and 1955 minor premierships, but lost both seasons' grand finals to Souths. During his eight seasons at Newtown, he played in over 100 games and he scored a record 107 tries.

Preston started his career in the Newtown Juniors Lewisham Club. At the end of the 1954 NSWRFL season Preston played for Newtown on the wing in their grand final loss to South Sydney. The 34 tries he scored in the 1954 season made him the competition's leading try scorer, and is also the Newtown club's record for most tries ever in a season. This record has never been bettered. His other winger in 1954, Kevin Considine, scored 22 tries in the same season, and their combined try total of 56 tries from a pair of club wingers is also a record.

Preston was also a professional runner, winning the Hanlon Gift (which was Queensland's largest 'prize money' footrace of the era) in Brisbane in 1957. He played a season at Macksville in 1957 before Sydney's Parramatta signed him for the 1958 NSWRFL season. Preston played two seasons at Parramatta before retiring at the end of 1959.

## Death

Preston died at Penrith on 15 November 2019.

## InfoBox

Ray Preston
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Raymond Preston |
| Born | (1929-11-10)10 November 1929
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia |
| Died | 15 November 2019(2019-11-15) (aged 90)
Penrith, New South Wales |
| Playing information | |
| Position | Wing |
| Club  Years Team Pld T G FG P  1949–56 Newtown 115 107 0 0 321  1958–59 Parramatta 18 8 0 0 24  Total 133 115 0 0 345  Representative  Years Team Pld T G FG P  1949 NSW City 1 0 0 0 0 | |
| Source: | |


title: Reading Rowing Club

abstract: Reading Rowing Club is a rowing club, on the River Thames in England, on the Berkshire bank at Reading close to the town centre just above Caversham Bridge, the westerly bridge in the town on the reach above Caversham Lock. The club was founded in 1867 at Reading where there had been an interest in rowing for several years. After its foundation the club revived the Reading Amateur Regatta and has been the driving force behind it ever since. The club was particularly successful at Henley Royal Regatta in the 1930s.

text:
# Reading Rowing Club

**Reading Rowing Club** is a rowing club, on the River Thames in England, on the Berkshire bank at Reading close to the town centre just above Caversham Bridge, the westerly bridge in the town on the reach above Caversham Lock.

The club was founded in 1867 at Reading where there had been an interest in rowing for several years. After its foundation the club revived the Reading Amateur Regatta and has been the driving force behind it ever since. The club was particularly successful at Henley Royal Regatta in the 1930s.

## Membership and activities

The only non-academic rowing club in Reading, Goring Gap Rowing Club is the nearest such club and is a semi-rival, in the west of Mapledurham, as that club take part in events for the non-racing, recreational side of the sport. Reading RC organises adult beginner coaching and provides events for the competitive and recreational sides of the sport.

The present boathouse was built in 1989 replacing a succession of earlier sites.

## Honours

### Henley Royal Regatta

| Year | Races won |
| --- | --- |
| 1871 | Town Challenge Cup |
| 1880 | Town Challenge Cup |
| 1881 | Town Challenge Cup |
| 1882 | Town Challenge Cup |
| 1934 | Wyfold Challenge Cup |
| 1935 | Wyfold Challenge Cup |
| 2016 | Princess Grace Challenge Cup |

### British champions

| Year | Winning crew/s |
| --- | --- |
| 1974 | Men 2- |
| 1983 | Women 4x |
| 1984 | Women 1x |
| 2001 | Women J16 2x |
| 2002 | Women J15 1x |
| 2003 | Women J15 1x |
| 2004 | Women J18 4- |
| 2005 | Women J18 2- |
| 2008 | Open J14 2x |
| 2010 | Women 4+ |

1. "Railton, Jim. "Marriage of two quads promises something special for Lucerne." Times, 22 July 1974, p. 8". *Times Digital Archives*.
2. "Railton, Jim. "Problems for British selectors." Times, 18 July 1983, p. 19". *Times Digital Archives*.
3. "Railton, Jim. "Rowing." Times, 16 July 1984, p. 21". *Times Digital Archives*.
4. ""The Daily results service." Times, 23 July 2001, p. 10". *Times Digital Archives*.
5. ""The results service." Times, 22 July 2002, p. 26". *Times Digital Archives*.
6. ""Today's fixtures." Times, 21 July 2003, p. 32". *Times Digital Archives*.
7. ""The Results Service." Times, 19 July 2004, p. 28". *Times Digital Archives*.
8. ""Nautilus cruise." Times, 18 July 2005, p. 53". *Times Digital Archives*.
9. "2008 archive of results". *Web Archive*. Archived from the original on 6 December 2016.
10. "2010 Championships - Results of Sunday Racing". *British Rowing Championships*. Archived from the original on 6 December 2016.

51°27′58.71″N 0°58′44.69″W / 51.4663083°N 0.9790806°W / 51.4663083; -0.9790806

## InfoBox

Reading Rowing Club
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location | Reading, Berkshire, England |
| Home water | Caversham Lock, River Thames |
| Founded | 1867 (1867) |
| Affiliations | British Rowing<br>boat code - RDG |
| Website | www.readingrc.com |
| Events | |
| Reading Amateur Regatta, Reading Small Boats Head | |


title: Reading Scientific Services

abstract: Reading Scientific Services Ltd. (RSSL) is a British company providing scientific analysis, consultancy, product development and training to the global food, drink, healthcare, pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical and consumer goods sectors. It has been inspected by regulatory authorities including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency and the United Kingdom Accreditation Service. RSSL was formed in 1987 out of Cadbury Schweppes Research and Development. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Mondelēz International. RSSL is based at two sites on the Whiteknights Campus of the University of Reading. The headquarters and main laboratories are based at the Reading Science Centre. RSSL offer a range of testing services including Pharmaceutical, Biopharmaceutical and Food & Consumer Goods testing. BioPharmaceutical testing services include Biopharma Forced Degradation Studies, Biopharma GMP Release Testing, Biosimilar Characterisation, Biopharma Stability Studies, Extractables & Leachables, Glycosylation Analysis, Mycoplasma Testing, Process & Product Related Impurities, Protein, Peptide & Glycoprotein Analysis and Subvisible Particle Analysis GMP Quality Control Analysis services include Finished Product & Release Testing, Herbals & Natural Products, ICH Stability Studies, Medical Devices, Method Transfer, Microbiological Analysis, Pharmacopoeial Analysis, Sub-visible Particle Analysis Problem Solving & Contaminant Identification services include Contamination Chemical, Contamination Physical, Counterfeit Investigation, Impurity Isolation & Sample Purification, Process & Product Related Impurities, Pharmaceutical Consultancy, Physical & Structural Characterisation, Sub-visible Particle Analysis and a 24/7 Emergency Response Service. R&D Support Services include Biopharma Forced Degradation Studies, Extractables & Leachables, Formulation & Support, ICH Stability Studies, Impurity Isolation & Sample Purification, Method Development & Validation, Pharmaceutical Cleaning Validation, Physical & Structural Characterisation, Protein, Peptide & Glycoprotein Analysis Food & FMCG Testing Services include Allergen Management and Ingredient and Product Analysis Allergen Analysis services consist of Allergen Consultancy, Allergen Training, Food Consultancy & Training Ingredient & Product Analysis services include Authenticity, Claim Substantiation, Fats & Oils Analysis, Flavour & Aroma Profiling, Genetically Modified Food, Meat & Fish Species Identification, Natural Product & Supplement Analysis, Olive Oil & Speciality Oil Authenticity, Physical & Structural Properties, Vitamin Analysis

text:
# Reading Scientific Services

**Reading Scientific Services Ltd.** (**RSSL**) is a British company providing scientific analysis, consultancy, product development and training to the global food, drink, healthcare, pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical and consumer goods sectors. It has been inspected by regulatory authorities including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency and the United Kingdom Accreditation Service.

RSSL was formed in 1987 out of Cadbury Schweppes Research and Development. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Mondelēz International. RSSL is based at two sites on the Whiteknights Campus of the University of Reading. The headquarters and main laboratories are based at the Reading Science Centre.

RSSL offer a range of testing services including Pharmaceutical, Biopharmaceutical and Food & Consumer Goods testing.

**BioPharmaceutical testing** services include Biopharma Forced Degradation Studies, Biopharma GMP Release Testing, Biosimilar Characterisation, Biopharma Stability Studies, Extractables & Leachables, Glycosylation Analysis, Mycoplasma Testing, Process & Product Related Impurities, Protein, Peptide & Glycoprotein Analysis and Subvisible Particle Analysis

**GMP Quality Control Analysis** services include Finished Product & Release Testing, Herbals & Natural Products, ICH Stability Studies, Medical Devices, Method Transfer, Microbiological Analysis, Pharmacopoeial Analysis, Sub-visible Particle Analysis

**Problem Solving & Contaminant Identification** services include Contamination Chemical, Contamination Physical, Counterfeit Investigation, Impurity Isolation & Sample Purification, Process & Product Related Impurities, Pharmaceutical Consultancy, Physical & Structural Characterisation, Sub-visible Particle Analysis and a 24/7 Emergency Response Service.

**R&D Support Services** include Biopharma Forced Degradation Studies, Extractables & Leachables, Formulation & Support, ICH Stability Studies, Impurity Isolation & Sample Purification, Method Development & Validation, Pharmaceutical Cleaning Validation, Physical & Structural Characterisation, Protein, Peptide & Glycoprotein Analysis

**Food & FMCG Testing Services** include Allergen Management and Ingredient and Product Analysis

**Allergen Analysis services** consist of Allergen Consultancy, Allergen Training, Food Consultancy & Training

**Ingredient & Product Analysis services** include Authenticity, Claim Substantiation, Fats & Oils Analysis, Flavour & Aroma Profiling, Genetically Modified Food, Meat & Fish Species Identification, Natural Product & Supplement Analysis, Olive Oil & Speciality Oil Authenticity, Physical & Structural Properties, Vitamin Analysis