title: Scandinavian Scotland

abstract: Scandinavian Scotland was the period from the 8th to the 15th centuries during which Vikings and Norse settlers, mainly Norwegians and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, and their descendants colonised parts of what is now the periphery of modern Scotland. Viking influence in the area commenced in the late 8th century, and hostility between the Scandinavian earls of Orkney and the emerging thalassocracy of the Kingdom of the Isles, the rulers of Ireland, Dál Riata and Alba, and intervention by the crown of Norway were recurring themes. Scandinavian-held territories included the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland, the Hebrides, the islands of the Firth of Clyde and associated mainland territories including Caithness and Sutherland. The historical record from Scottish sources is weak, with the Irish annals and the later Norse sagas, of which the Orkneyinga saga is the principal source of information, sometimes contradictory although modern archaeology is beginning to provide a broader picture of life during this period. There are various competing theories that have addressed the early colonisation process, although it is clear that the Northern Isles were the first to be conquered by Vikings and the last to be relinquished by the Norwegian crown. Thorfinn Sigurdsson's rule in the 11th century included expansion well into north mainland Scotland and this may have been the zenith of Scandinavian influence. The obliteration of pre-Norse names in the Hebrides and Northern Isles, and their replacement with Norse ones was almost total although the emergence of alliances with the native Gaelic speakers produced a powerful Norse–Gael culture that had wide influence in Argyll, Galloway and beyond. Scottish influence increased from the 13th century on. In 1231, an unbroken line of Norse earls of Orkney ended and the title was since held by Scottish nobles. An ill-fated expedition by Haakon Haakonarson later in that century led to the relinquishing of the islands of the west to the Scottish Crown and in the mid-15th century Orkney and Shetland were also transferred to Scottish rule. The negative view of Viking activities held in popular imagination notwithstanding, Norse expansion may have been a factor in the emergence of the Gaelic kingdom of Alba, the forerunner of modern Scotland, and the trading, political, cultural and religious achievements of the later periods of Norse rule were significant.

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# Scandinavian Scotland

**Scandinavian Scotland** was the period from the 8th to the 15th centuries during which Vikings and Norse settlers, mainly Norwegians and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, and their descendants colonised parts of what is now the periphery of modern Scotland. Viking influence in the area commenced in the late 8th century, and hostility between the Scandinavian earls of Orkney and the emerging thalassocracy of the Kingdom of the Isles, the rulers of Ireland, Dál Riata and Alba, and intervention by the crown of Norway were recurring themes.

Scandinavian-held territories included the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland, the Hebrides, the islands of the Firth of Clyde and associated mainland territories including Caithness and Sutherland. The historical record from Scottish sources is weak, with the Irish annals and the later Norse sagas, of which the *Orkneyinga saga* is the principal source of information, sometimes contradictory although modern archaeology is beginning to provide a broader picture of life during this period.

There are various competing theories that have addressed the early colonisation process, although it is clear that the Northern Isles were the first to be conquered by Vikings and the last to be relinquished by the Norwegian crown. Thorfinn Sigurdsson's rule in the 11th century included expansion well into north mainland Scotland and this may have been the zenith of Scandinavian influence. The obliteration of pre-Norse names in the Hebrides and Northern Isles, and their replacement with Norse ones was almost total although the emergence of alliances with the native Gaelic speakers produced a powerful Norse–Gael culture that had wide influence in Argyll, Galloway and beyond.

Scottish influence increased from the 13th century on. In 1231, an unbroken line of Norse earls of Orkney ended and the title was since held by Scottish nobles. An ill-fated expedition by Haakon Haakonarson later in that century led to the relinquishing of the islands of the west to the Scottish Crown and in the mid-15th century Orkney and Shetland were also transferred to Scottish rule. The negative view of Viking activities held in popular imagination notwithstanding, Norse expansion may have been a factor in the emergence of the Gaelic kingdom of Alba, the forerunner of modern Scotland, and the trading, political, cultural and religious achievements of the later periods of Norse rule were significant.

## Geography

The Northern Isles, known to the Norse as the *Norðreyjar*, are the closest parts of Scotland to Norway and these islands experienced the first and most long-lasting Norse influence of any part of Scotland. Shetland is some 300 kilometres (190 mi) due west of Norway and in favourable conditions could be reached in 24 hours from Hordaland in a Viking longship. Orkney is 80 kilometres (50 mi) further to the south-west.

Some 16 kilometres (10 mi) due south of Orkney is the Scottish mainland. The two most northerly provinces of mainland Scotland, Caithness and Sutherland, fell under Norse control at an early date. South of there the entire western seaboard of mainland Scotland from Wester Ross to Kintyre was also subject to significant Scandinavian influence.

The *Suðreyjar*, or "Southern Isles" include:

The total distance from the southern tip of the Isle of Man to the Butt of Lewis, the northern extremity of the Outer Hebrides, is approximately 515 kilometres (320 mi). This entire region became dominated by Norse culture for much of the period under consideration. For example, it is likely that the Norse language became as dominant throughout the Inner Hebrides as it did on Lewis during the 10th and 11th centuries.

There was also significant direct Norse influence exerted in Galloway in south-west Scotland and for much of the period, up until the 1266 Treaty of Perth, Norwegian and Danish foreign policy and the activities of independent or semi-independent Norse rulers of the above parts of Scandinavian-dominated Scotland had a powerful influence on the affairs of Scotland as a whole.

## History

Contemporary documentation of the Viking period of Scottish history is very weak. The presence of the monastery on Iona led to this part of Scotland being relatively well recorded from the mid-6th to the mid-9th century. But from 849 on, when Columba's relics were removed in the face of Viking incursions, written evidence from local sources all but vanishes for three hundred years. The sources for information about the Hebrides and much of northern Scotland from the 8th to the 11th century are thus almost exclusively Irish, English or Norse. The main Norse text is the *Orkneyinga Saga*, which was written in the early 13th century by an unknown Icelander. The English and Irish sources are more contemporary, but may have "led to a southern bias in the story", especially as much of the Hebridean archipelago became Norse-speaking during this period. Dates should therefore be regarded as approximate throughout.

The archaeological record for this period is relatively scant, although improving. Toponymy provides significant information about the Scandinavian presence and examples of Norse runes provide further useful evidence. There is a significant corpus of material from the Gaelic oral tradition that relates to this period, but its value is questionable.

Language and personal names provide some difficulties. The former is an important indicator of culture but there is very little direct evidence for its use in specific circumstances during the period under consideration. Pictish, Middle Irish and Old Norse would certainly have been spoken and Woolf (2007) suggests that a significant degree of linguistic balkanisation took place. As a result, single individuals often appear in sources under a variety of different names.

### Colonisation process

Given what is known about the frequency of sea transport around the Hebrides and Orkney in the 7th century it is highly likely that Gaelic and Pictish sailors were aware of Scandinavia before the commencement of the Viking Age. It has also been suggested that an assault by forces from Fortriu in 681 in which Orkney was "annihilated" may have led to a weakening of the local power base and helped the Norse come to prominence. Scholarly interpretations of the period "have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland" especially in the early period and Barrett (2008) has identified four competing theories, none of which he regards as proven.

The traditional explanation is the earldom hypothesis. This assumes a period of Norse expansion into the Northern Isles and the creation of an aristocratic dynasty that lasted well into the Medieval period, which exerted considerable influence in western Scotland and Mann into the 11th century. This version of events is essentially as told by the Norse sagas and is supported by some archaeological evidence although it has been criticised for exaggerating Orcadian influence in the *Suðreyar*.

The second of these theories is the genocide hypothesis, which asserts that the aboriginal populations of the Northern and Western Isles were eradicated and replaced wholesale with settlers of Scandinavian stock. The strength of this argument is the almost total replacement of pre-existing place names by those of Norse origin throughout much of the region. Its weakness is that the place name evidence is from a relatively late date and the nature of this transition remains controversial. Genetic studies show that Shetlanders have almost identical proportions of Scandinavian matrilineal and patrilineal ancestry, suggesting that the islands were settled by both men and women in equal measure.

The pagan reaction hypothesis proposed by Bjørn Myhre suggests a long tradition of mobility amongst the various populations of the North Atlantic seaboard and that the expansion of Christian missions resulted in ethnic tensions that led to or exacerbated Viking expansion. There is some evidence of such mobility, such as Irish missionary activities in Iceland and Faroe Islands in the 8th century, but little that is conclusive.

The fourth suggestion is the *Laithlind* or Lochlann hypothesis. This word appears in various forms in the early Irish literature and is usually assumed to refer to Norway itself, although some have preferred to locate it in the Norse-dominated parts of Scotland. Donnchadh Ó Corráin is a proponent of this view and claims that a substantial part of Scotland—the Northern and Western Isles and large areas of the coastal mainland—were conquered by the Vikings in the first quarter of the 9th century and that a Viking kingdom was set up there earlier than the middle of the century. Essentially a variant of the earldom hypothesis, there is little archaeological evidence in its favour, although it is clear that extensive Viking incursions on the Irish coasts were supported by a presence of some kind in the Hebrides, even if the date the latter became prominent is far from certain. As Ó Corráin himself admits "when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown, perhaps unknowable".

### Early Viking incursions

Norse contacts with Scotland certainly predate the first written records in the 8th century, although their nature and frequency are unknown. Excavations at Norwick on the island of Unst in Shetland indicate that Scandinavian settlers had reached there, perhaps as early as the mid-7th century, consistent with dates produced for Viking levels at Old Scatness.

From 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded. "All the islands of Britain" were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806. (These attacks on Christian settlements in the islands of the west were not new. In the 6th century Tiree was raided by Pictish forces, Tory Island was attacked in the early 7th century by a "marine fleet" and Donnán of Eigg and 52 companions were murdered by Picts on Eigg in 617.) Various named Viking leaders, who were probably based in Scotland, appear in the Irish annals: Soxulfr in 837, Turges in 845 and Hákon in 847. The king of Fortriu Eógan mac Óengusa and the king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta were among the dead in a major defeat to the Vikings in 839. Another early reference to the Norse presence in the Irish records is that there was a king of "Viking Scotland" whose heir, Thórir, brought an army to Ireland in 848. Caittil Find was a reported leader of the *Gallgáedil* fighting in Ireland in 857.

The Frankish *Annales Bertiniani* may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847. Amlaíb Conung, who died in 874, is described as the "son of the king of Lochlainn" in the *Fragmentary Annals of Ireland* also suggesting an early date for an organised kingdom of Viking Scotland. In the same source Amlaíb is also recorded as having gone to the aid of his father Gofraidh who was under assault from Vikings in Lochlainn, c.872. Gofraidh died in 873 and may have been succeeded by his son Ímar who also died that year. A lament for Áed mac Cináeda, a Pictish king who died in 878, suggests Kintyre may have been lost to his kingdom at that time. The Isle of Man may also have been taken by the Norse in 877 and was certainly held by them by 900.

## Subdivisions

### *Norðreyjar*

The Northern Isles were "Pictish in culture and speech" prior to the Norse incursions, and although it is recorded that Orkney was "destroyed" by King Bridei in 682 it is not likely that the Pictish kings exerted a significant degree of ongoing control over island affairs. According to the *Orkneyinga Saga*, about 872 Harald Fairhair became King of a united Norway and many of his opponents fled to the islands of Scotland. Harald pursued his enemies and incorporated the Northern Isles into his kingdom in 875 and then, perhaps a little over a decade later, the Hebrides as well. The following year the local Viking chieftains of the Hebrides rebelled. Harald then sent Ketill Flatnose to subdue them. Ketill achieved this quickly but then declared himself an independent "King of the Isles", a title he retained for the rest of his life. Hunter (2000) states that Ketill was "in charge of an extensive island realm and, as a result, sufficiently prestigious to contemplate the making of agreements and alliances with other princelings". According to the *Landnámabók* Kettil became ruler of a region already settled by Scandinavians. Some scholars believe that this entire story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs. For example, Woolf (2007) suggests that his appearance in the sagas "looks very much like a story created in later days to legitimise Norwegian claims to sovereignty in the region" and suggests an early-11th-century creation of the earldom of Orkney, prior to which local warlords competed for influence with one another and local populations of farmers.

Nonetheless, the Norse tradition states that Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland, and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty. Sigurd's line barely survived him and it was Torf-Einarr, Rognvald's son by a slave, who founded a dynasty that controlled the Northern Isles for centuries after his death. He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Turf-Einarsson and during this time the deposed Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954. Thorfinn's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa, on South Ronaldsay, then led to a long period of dynastic strife. Whatever the historical details, it seems likely that Orkney and Shetland were being rapidly absorbed into Norse culture by this time.

The evidence of toponymy and language is unequivocal. Placenames in Orkney with a Celtic derivation are few in number and it is clear that Norn, a local version of Old Norse, was widely spoken by the inhabitants into historic times. Norn was also spoken in Shetland and evidence for Pictish elements in placenames is virtually non-existent, the three island names of Fetlar, Unst and Yell excepted.

Jarlshof in Shetland contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain and it is believed that the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the 9th to the 14th centuries. Amongst the many important finds are drawings scratched on slate of dragon-prowed ships and a bronze-gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries. Brough of Birsay in Orkney is another important archaeological site, which like Jarlshof has a continuity of settlement spanning the Pictish and Norse periods. There is a remarkable collection of 12th-century runic inscriptions inside Maeshowe.

### Caithness and Sutherland

In early Irish literature Shetland is referred to as *Inse Catt*—"the Isles of Cats", which may have been the pre-Norse inhabitants' name for these islands. The Cat tribe certainly occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland and their name can be found in Caithness, and in the Gaelic name for Sutherland (*Cataibh*, meaning "among the Cats"). There is limited evidence that Caithness may have had an intermediate phase of Gaelic-speaking control between the Pictish era and the Norse takeover, but if it existed it is likely to have been short-lived.

Sigurd Eysteinsson and Thorstein the Red moved on northern Scotland, conquering large areas variously described in the sagas as constituting all of Caithness and Sutherland and possibly including territory in Ross and even Moray during the last decade of the 9th century. The *Orkneyinga Saga* relates how the former defeated the Pict Máel Brigte Tusk but died from an unusual post-battle injury.

Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson married into the native aristocracy and his son, Skuli Thorfinnsson, is recorded as having sought the support of the King of Scots in the 10th century in pursuing his claim as mormaer of Caithness. Njáls saga relates that Sigurd the Stout was the ruler of "Ross and Moray, Sutherland and the Dales" of Caithness and it is possible that in the late 10th century the Scots kings were in alliance with the Earl of Orkney against the Mormaer of Moray.

Thorfinn Sigurdsson expanded his father's realm south beyond Sutherland and by the 11th century the Norwegian crown had come to accept that Caithness was held by the earls of Orkney as a fiefdom from the Kings of Scotland although its Norse character was retained throughout the 13th century. Raghnall mac Gofraidh was granted Caithness after assisting the Scots king in a conflict with Harald Maddadson, an earl of Orkney in the early 13th century. This joint earldom ceased after 1375 and the Pentland Firth became the border between Scotland and Norway.

No Norse place names have been found on the northern Scottish mainland south of Beauly and so far no archaeological evidence of Norse activity has been found in the north-west mainland.

### *Suðreyjar*

Like the Northern Isles, the Outer Hebrides and the northern Inner Hebrides were predominantly Pictish in the early 9th century. By contrast, the southern Inner Hebrides formed part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata.

The obliteration of pre-Norse names in the Outer Hebrides and in Coll, Tiree and Islay in the Inner Hebrides is almost total and there is little continuity of style between Pictish pottery in the north and that of the Viking period. The similarities that do exist suggests the later pots may have been made by Norse who had settled in Ireland, or Irish slaves. There are frequent references in early Icelandic history to slaves from Ireland and the Hebrides, but none from Orkney. Gaelic certainly continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the settlement period, but place name evidence suggests it had a lowly status and Norse may have survived as a spoken language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides.

There is no evidence of any direct Norwegian rule in the area other than a few brief occupations although the written record is weak and no contemporary records of the Norse period from the Outer Hebrides exist. It is, however, known that Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland system and evidence from Bornais suggests that settlers there may have been more prosperous than families of a similar status in the Northern Isles, possibly due to a more relaxed political regime. Latterly, the Hebrides sent eight representatives from Lewis and Harris and Skye and another eight from the southern Hebrides to the Tynwald parliament on Man.

Colonsay and Oronsay have produced important pagan Norse burial grounds. An 11th-century cross slab decorated with Irish and Ringerike Viking art on Islay was found in 1838. Rubha an Dùnain, today an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin hills on Skye, contains the small Loch na h-Airde, which is connected to the sea by a short artificial canal. This loch was an important site for maritime activity for many centuries, spanning the Viking and later periods of Scottish clan rule. There is a stone-built quay and a system to maintain constant water levels. Boat timbers discovered there have been dated to the 12th century. Only three rune stones are known from the west coast of Scotland, on Christian memorials found on Barra, Inchmarnock and Iona.

In the Firth of Clyde, Norse burials have been found on Arran, although not Bute and place name evidence suggests a settlement pattern that was much less well-developed than in the Hebrides. On the mainland coast there is cluster of Norse place names around Largs and an ornate silver brooch was found on a hillside near Hunterston that is of likely 7th-century Irish origin but with a 10th-century runic inscription. Five Hogback monuments found in Govan hint at Scandinavian enclaves inland.

The Isle of Man (which was absorbed into Scotland from 1266 until the 14th century) was dominated by the Norse–Gaels from an early date and from 1079 onwards by the Crovan dynasty as attested by the *Chronicles of Mann* and evidenced by the numerous Manx runestones and Norse place names. The modern-day Diocese of Sodor and Man retains the centuries-old name.

### Western coast

South of Sutherland there is considerable place name evidence of Norse settlement along the entire western coast, although unlike on the islands the settlement in the south seems to have been less prolonged and undertaken in tandem with pre-existing settlement rather than replacing it entirely. The distinction between the *Innse Gall* (islands of the foreigners) and the *Airer Goidel* (coastland of the Gael) is further suggestive of a distinction between island and mainland at an early date. In Wester Ross most of the Gaelic names that exist on the coastline today are of likely Medieval rather than pre-Norse origin and a now-lost charter refers to the mainland village of Glenelg opposite Skye as having been in the possession of the king of Man. As in Orkney and Shetland, Pictish seems to have been entirely replaced wherever the Norse encountered it.

In the 9th century the first references to the *Gallgáedil* (i.e. "foreign Gaels") appear. This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian-Celtic descent and/or culture who became dominant in west and south-west Scotland, parts of northern England and the isles. This alliance between the two cultures, which also took place in Ireland, may have been instrumental in saving the Gaels of Dál Riata from the fate of the Picts in the north and west. Evidence for Norse settlement in mainland Argyll is limited although the Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial in Ardnamurchan is the first boat-burial site to be discovered on the mainland of Britain.

### South-West Scotland

By the mid-10th century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled the Rhinns and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall-Gaidel. Magnus Barelegs is said to have "subdued the people of Galloway" in the 11th century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno-Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium. However, the place name, written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse (as opposed to Norse–Gael) settlement in the area is not convincing.

The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll and this is just as true of most of the south-west apart from land adjacent to the inner Solway Firth. In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic, Norse and Danish influence, the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England. One feature of the area is the number of names with a "kirk" prefix followed by a saint's name such as Kirkoswald. Interpretation of this is not certain but it is also indicative of a mixed Gaelic/Norse population.

### Eastern Scotland

There is no evidence of permanent Viking settlement on the east coast south of the Moray Firth, or of Norse burials, although raids and even invasions certainly occurred. Dunnottar was taken during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín and the *Orkneyinga saga* records an attack on the Isle of May, by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson:

> They sailed south off Scotland until they came to Máeyar. There was a monastery, the head of which was an abbot, by name, Baldwin. Swein and his men were detained there seven nights by stress of bad weather. They said they had been sent by Earl Rögnvald to the King of Scots. The monks suspected their tale, and thinking they were pirates, sent to the mainland for men. When Swein and his comrades became aware of this, they went hastily aboard their ship, after having plundered much treasure from the monastery.

Place name evidence of Scandinavian settlement is very limited on the east coast and in the south-east Anglian was the predominant influence during this period of history.

## Politics and governance

### Internal politics

The first phase of Norse expansion was that of war bands seeking plunder and the creation of new settlements. The second phase involved the integration of these settlers into organised political structures of which the most prominent in the early part were the earls of Orkney in the north and the Uí Ímair in the south.

Even if the commencement of a formal earldom of Orkney is a matter of discussion (see above) there is little doubt that the institution experienced continuity thereafter. Until the mid- to late 11th century the earls of Orkney and kings of the Western Isles were probably independent rulers. The imposition of direct Norwegian rule at the end of this century brought this to a close in the north and unusually, from c. 1100 onwards the Norse *jarls* of the Northern Isles owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as earls of Caithness. In 1231 the line of Norse earls, unbroken since Rognvald Eysteinsson, ended with Jon Haraldsson's murder in Thurso. The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus, second son of the Earl of Angus, whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236. In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family, who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh although Orkney and Shetland remained part of Norway for a century more.

The situation in the Suðreyar was more complex. Different kings may have ruled over very different areas and few of them can be seen as exerting any kind of close control over this "far-flung sea kingdom". The Uí Ímair were certainly a powerful force from the late 9th to the early 11th centuries with dynasts such as Amlaíb Cuarán and Gofraid mac Arailt claiming kingship of the Isles. Norse sources also list various rulers such as *jarls* Gilli, Sigurd the Stout, Håkon Eiriksson and Thorfinn the Mighty as rulers over the Hebrides who were vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark. The dates from the Irish and Norse sources do not significantly overlap, but it is not clear if these are records of competing empires, or reflect Uí Ímar influence in the south and direct Norse rule in the north, or both. Furthermore, two records in the *Annals of Innisfallen* may suggest that the Western Isles were not "organised into a kingdom or earldom" at this time but rather that they were "ruled by assemblies of freeholders who regularly elected lawmen to preside over their public affairs". The *Annals of the Four Masters* entries for 962 and 974 hint at a similar arrangement. Crawford (1987) suggests that influence from the south rather than the north was "usually predominant" whilst admitting that the islands probably formed "groups of more or less independent communities".

Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079 and from the early years of the 12th century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as "Kings of Mann and the Isles" for the next half century. The kingdom was than sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides whilst the Manx rulers held on to the "north isles" for another century. The origins of both Godred Crovan and Somerled are obscure—the former may have been an Uí Ímair dynast from Islay, the latter married a Crovan heiress.

Thus it is clear that although there were competing factions in play, the Hebrides and islands of the Clyde were essentially under the control of rulers of Scandinavian origin from "at least the late tenth century" until the emergence of the kingdom of Scotland and its 13th-century expansion into the west.

### Relations with Pictland, Strathclyde and Alba

The early Viking threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns, although historians continue to debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or the other way around. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín in the 840s, who brought to power the House of Alpin who were leaders of a combined Gaelic–Pictish kingdom for almost two centuries.

In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar, "the two kings of the Northmen", who "returned to Dublin from Britain" the following year with numerous captives. Dumbarton was the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde and this was clearly a major assault which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Ui Imair control. Three years earlier Vikings had seized Northumbria, forming the Kingdom of York and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex, leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled. Amlaíb and his brother Auisle "ravaged the whole of Pictland and took their hostages" and later occupied this territory for a protracted period. The 875 Battle of Dollar was another major setback for the Picts/Scots.

In 902 the Norse suffered a serious reverse in Ireland losing control of Dublin and this seems to have intensified attacks on the emerging kingdom of Alba. A year later Dunkeld was attacked and Ímar, the "grandson of Ímar" was killed in battle with the forces of Constantine II in mainland Scotland. In the late tenth century the battle of "Innisibsolian" was won by Alban forces over Vikings. Yet these events were setbacks for the Norse rather than a definitive moment. Of more significance were their defeats at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and at the Battle of Tara in 980.

In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín, King of Scots, was killed (according to the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*) fighting the Norse near Cullen, at the Battle of Bauds but the line of the House of Alpin held firm and the threat posed by the Scandinavian presence to the emergent Kingdom of Scotland lessened. Perhaps to counter growing Irish influence in the Western Isles Magnus Barelegs re-established direct Norwegian overlordship there by 1098. He first took Orkney, the northern Scottish mainland and the Hebrides, where he "dyed his sword red in blood" in the Uists. In that year, Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus which settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in the islands. Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides and Kintyre.

Following the intervention of Somerled and his death at the Battle of Renfrew the Kings of the Isles were weakened relative to the Scottish state, but more than 150 years later Norway intervened again, this time unsuccessfully. Following Haakon Haakonarson's ill-fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown "had of old therein" were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth.

In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as king of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual.

## Religion, culture and economy

Although there is evidence of varying burial rites practised by Norse settlers in Scotland, such as grave goods found on Colonsay and Westray, there is little that enables a confirmation that the Norse gods were venerated prior to the reintroduction of Christianity. The Odin Stone has been used as evidence of Odinic beliefs and practices but the derivation may well be from "oathing stone". A few Scandinavian poetic references suggest that Orcadian audiences understood elements of the Norse pantheon, although this is hardly conclusive proof of active beliefs. Nonetheless, it is likely that pagan practices existed in early Scandinavian Scotland.

According to the sagas, the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the *jarl* Sigurd the Stout and said "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke, receiving their own bishop, Henry of Lund (also known as "the Fat"), who was appointed sometime prior to 1035. The greatest source of Scottish influence after the appointment of the Scottish earls in the 13th century was probably through the church, although it is clear that Scots influence on the culture of Orkney and Shetland was fairly limited until the close of the 14th century or later. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves *Communitas Orchadensis* and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords, be they Norwegian or Scots. This independence of mind may have been fostered by the influence of Norwegian government which was essentially communal and federal by contrast with Scotland. It was not until the mid-16th century that the Norse institutions were replaced by Scottish systems following large-scale immigration from the south and the islanders were probably bi-lingual until the 17th century.

Once again, the situation in the Hebrides is much less clear. There was a Bishop of Iona until the late 10th century and there is then a gap of more than a century, possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney, before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079. The conversion of Scandinavian Scotland and the resultant end to slavery and integration of Viking society into mainstream European culture was a significant event. It took place at an early date, although the popular image of marauding berserkers and of the Norse as "enemies of social progress" remains despite considerable evidence that in their latter phase the Norse-speaking populations were rather "enlightened practitioners of maritime commercial principles". Þings were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the *jarl* and the meetings were open to virtually all free men. At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints adjudicated. Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland, Dingwall in Easter Ross, and Tynwald on the Isle of Man.

Women enjoyed a relatively high status during the Viking Age, possibly due to the high degree of mobility in society. There is little knowledge of their role in the Scandinavian colonies of Scotland although the indirect evidence of graves during the pagan and Christian periods suggests roles similar to those held elsewhere. Amongst the best known figures are Gormflaith ingen Murchada, Gunnhild Gormsdóttir, Aud the Deep-Minded and Ingibjörg, the daughter of Earl Hakon Paulsson and wife of King Olaf Godredsson.

The Norse legacy of art and architecture is limited. The Christchurch at Brough of Birsay, now reduced, was the early seat of the Bishops of Orkney. St. Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall is peerless as an example of Norse-era construction in Scotland and St. Magnus Church, on Egilsay retains its round tower. The iconic Lewis chessmen are the best-known treasure trove and numerous finds of grave goods, including brooches and weaponry such as the Scar boat burial, are well documented.

There is growing evidence of the importance of trade and commerce. Data from the Outer Hebrides suggests that pigs were a more important aspect of Viking farming than prior to that time, that red deer numbers may have been controlled rather than the species simply being subject to hunting, that herring fishing became an important commercial consideration and that trade with centres to the south such as Dublin and Bristol may have been important. Coins found at Bornais and Cille Pheadair were produced in Norway, Westphalia, and England, although there were none from Scotland. Ivory from Greenland was also found there.

## Present day influence

Norse and Viking colonisations and settlements have made an impression on peripheral Scotland, the evidence for which can be found in place names, language, genetics and other aspects of cultural heritage.

The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid-11th century during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson, who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man. The *Suðreyjar* have a total land area of approximately 8,374 square kilometres (3,233 sq mi). Caithness and Sutherland have a combined area of 7,051 square kilometres (2,722 sq mi) and the permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at minimum between a fifth and a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland.

The Viking invasions may have inadvertently played a role in the creation of modern Scotland. Their destructive raids initially weakened Pictland, Strathclyde and Dál Riata, but these "harassed remnants" eventually became a united front and Norse aggression thus played a significant role in the creation of the kingdom of Alba, the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom expanded as the Viking influence waned, just as in the south Wessex expanded to become the kingdom of England.

Some Scots take pride in their Scandinavian ancestry. For example, Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod, who according to tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black. Clan MacNeacail of Skye also claim Norse ancestry, and occasional references are made to the idea of Scotland joining "the Nordic circle of nations" in modern political debate. Yet, unlike the Danelaw in England, the Scandinavian occupation of Scotland has no single common name. This may be a reflection of the less well documented nature of the various invasions involved, but it also hints at a relative lack of popular understanding of the history. By comparison to the Roman occupations of Scotland the Norse kingdoms were much longer lived, more recent and had a significantly more dramatic influence on spoken language and by extension culture and lifestyles generally. They were however confined to areas that are relatively remote from the main centres of modern population. Furthermore, regardless of the actual impact of Scandinavian culture, the hereditary leaders of the Scots nation are generally descended from Pictish and Gaelic stock. The Vikings are thus often seen in a negative light and as a foreign invasion rather than as a key part of a multi-cultural polity.

Nonetheless, in the Northern Isles the Scandinavian connection is still celebrated, one of the best-known such events being the Lerwick fire-festival Up Helly Aa. In particular, Shetland's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring. When Norway became independent again in 1905 the Shetland authorities sent a letter to King Haakon VII in which they stated: "Today no 'foreign' flag is more familiar or more welcome in our voes and havens than that of Norway, and Shetlanders continue to look upon Norway as their mother-land, and recall with pride and affection the time when their forefathers were under the rule of the Kings of Norway." At the 2013 Viking Congress held in Shetland the Scottish Government announced plans to strengthen Scotland’s historic links with Scandinavia.

Canadian scholar Michael Stachura explores Scottish literature’s engagement with “northness” in his Ph.D. dissertation for Simon Fraser University, “A Polar Projection: The Northern Dimension in Modern Scottish Literature” (2015). He includes a chapter on Orkney writer George Mackay Brown and his imaginative use of Orkney’s Norse past.

Notes Footnotes  1. Crawford (1987) p. 200
2. *Philip's World Atlas* (1999) p. 6
3. *Philip's World Atlas* (1999) p. 14
4. Crawford (1987) pp. 12–13
5. *Philip's World Atlas* (1999) p. 12
6. Murray (1973) p. 32
7. *Philip's World Atlas* (1999) p. 10
8. Woolf (2007) p. 297
9. Woolf (2007) pp. 328–29
10. Barrett (2008) p. 411
11. Graham-Campbell and Batey (1998) p. 203
12. Ó Corráin (2008) p. 431
13. Oram (2004), p. 48.
14. Burns (2009) p. 48.
15. Woolf (2006) p. 94
16. Woolf (2007) p. 275
17. Barrett (2008) p. 420
18. Graham-Campbell and Batey (1998) pp. 37–46
19. Woolf (2007) p. 295
20. Sellar (2000) p. 187
21. Fraser (2009) p. 344
22. Fraser (2009) p. 345
23. Barrett (2008) p. 412
24. Barrett (2008) pp. 419, 422
25. Haswell-Smith (2004) p. 51
26. Murray (1966) pp. 71–72
27. Thomson (2008) pp. 43–50.
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30. Ó Corráin (2008) p. 428
31. Woolf (2007) pp. 107–108, 286–89
32. Ó Corráin (1998) various pages.
33. Ó Corráin (1998) p. 25
34. Graham-Campbell and Batey (1998) pp. 2, 23
35. Ballin Smith (2007) pp. 289, 294
36. Thomson (2008) pp. 24–27
37. Woolf (2007) p. 57
38. Watson (1994) pp. 62–63
39. Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 306–07
40. Ó Corráin (1998) p. 5
41. Woolf (2007) p. 66
42. Ó Corráin (1998) p. 24
43. Woolf (2007) pp. 295–96
44. Woolf (2007) pp. 99–100, 286–89
45. Anderson (1922) p. 277
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57. Woolf (2007) pp. 296–97
58. Woolf (2007) p. 296
59. Woolf (2007) pp. 307–08
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61. Thomson (2008) p. 29
62. Thomson (2008) p. 30 quoting chapter 5.
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77. Crawford (1987) p. 57
78. Crawford (1987) p. 64
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82. Imsen (2007) pp. 11–12
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149. Ó Corráin (1998) p. 123
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170. Imsen (2007) p. 23
171. Imsen (2007) p. 21
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173. Crawford (1987) p. 82
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* Armit, Ian (2006) *Scotland's Hidden History*. Stroud. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-3764-X
* Ballin Smith, Beverley "Norwick: Shetland's First Viking Settlement?" in Ballin Smith, Beverley, Taylor, Simon and Williams, Gareth (eds) (2007) *West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300*. Brill. ISBN 90-04-15893-6
* Barrett, James H. "The Norse in Scotland" in Brink, Stefan (ed) (2008) *The Viking World*. Abingdon. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33315-6
* Brink, Stefan (ed.) (2008) *The Viking World*. London. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33315-6
* Burns, W. E. (2009) *A Brief History of Great Britain*. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 0-8160-7728-2
* Crawford, Barbara E. (1987) *Scandinavian Scotland*. Leicester University Press. ISBN 0-7185-1197-2
* Downham, Clare (2007) *Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014*. Edinburgh. Dunedin Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-903765-89-0
* Duffy, Seán (1992). "Irishmen and Islesmen in the Kingdom of Dublin and Man 1052–1171". *Ériu*. **43** (43): 93–133. JSTOR 30007421.
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* Gammeltoft, Peder (2010) "Shetland and Orkney Island-Names – A Dynamic Group". *Northern Lights, Northern Words*. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar.
* Graham-Campbell, James and Batey, Colleen E. (1998) *Vikings in Scotland: An Archaeological Survey*. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0641-2
* Gregory, Donald (1881) *The History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625*. Edinburgh. Birlinn. 2008 reprint – originally published by Thomas D. Morrison. ISBN 1-904607-57-8
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* Hearn, J. (2000) *Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture*. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 1-902930-16-9
* Hunter, James (2000) *Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland*. Edinburgh. Mainstream. ISBN 1-84018-376-4
* Imsen, Steinar "The Scottish-Norwegian Border in the Middle Ages" in Woolf, Alex (ed.) (2009)
* Irvine, James M. (ed.) (2006) *The Orkneys and Schetland in Blaeu's Atlas Novus of 1654*. Ashtead. James M. Irvine. ISBN 0-9544571-2-9
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## Further reading

* Downham, Clare "England and the Irish-Sea Zone in the Eleventh Century" in Gillingham, John (ed) (2004) *Anglo-Norman Studies XXVI: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 2003*. Woodbridge. Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-072-8
* Etchingham, Colman (2001) "North Wales, Ireland and the Isles: the Insular Viking Zone". *Peritia*. **15** pp. 145–87
* Horne, Tom; Pierce, Elezabeth; Barrowman, Rachel, eds. (2023). *The Viking Age in Scotland*. Edinburgh, Uk: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474485821.
* Howorth, Henry H. (January 1911). "Ragnall Ivarson and Jarl Otir". *The English Historical Review*. **26** (101): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ehr/XXVI.CI.1.
* Maldonado, Adrian (2021). *Crucible of Nations: Scotland from Viking Age to Medieval Kingdom*. Edinburgh, UK: National Museums Scotland. ISBN 9781910682432.
* Ó Corráin, Donnchadh (Mar 1979) "High-Kings, Vikings and Other Kings". *Irish Historical Studies* **22** No. 83 pp. 283–323. Irish Historical Studies Publications.


title: Regium Donum

abstract: The Regium Donum in British history was an annual grant to augment the income of poor Nonconformist clergy. There were separate grants for English Dissenters and for Irish Presbyterian clergy. The money originally came from the monarch's privy purse as an ex gratia donation, but it later became an annual grant voted by Parliament. The Irish Regium Donum originated in a grant of £1,200 pa to Presbyterian clergy in the north of Ireland made by William III in 1690 as a reward for the loyalty of Presbyterians during the war in Ireland following the Glorious Revolution. Queen Anne, when instituting "Queen Anne's Bounty" to augment poor Anglican livings, also added another £800 pa to assist Presbyterian clergy in the rest of Ireland. The Irish Church Act 1869, whose main purpose was to disestablish the Anglican Church of Ireland, also discontinued the Irish Regium Donum from 1871; existing ministers continued to receive equivalent payment from the Church Temporalities Commission. The English Regium Donum was instituted in 1723, originally £500 pa to allow the payment of pensions of widows of Dissenting Ministers, but later increased to £1,000 pa to also cover augmentation of income of living ministers. From Charles II onwards, there had been earlier royal donations to Dissenting clergymen, but political motives were suspected, and a proposed grant of £1,000 pa by Queen Anne was declined. The Regium Donum was originally not publicised, and one eighteenth-century critic saw it as a secret bribe to Dissenters to support Sir Robert Walpole and to buy off any agitation against the civil disabilities of Dissenters. Reform of royal finances by Pitt the Younger resulted in the Regium Donum becoming a grant voted by Parliament, rather than a charge upon the Civil List. In principle, this changed it from an ex gratia payment to a forced donation by taxpayers: the Regium Donum was therefore henceforth opposed by some advocates of the disestablishment of the Church of England. There was growing opposition by organised Dissent; because of this, the government announced in 1851 that the Regium Donum would not be voted in subsequent years.

text:
# Regium Donum

The **Regium Donum** (Latin: "Royal Bounty") in British history was an annual grant to augment the income of poor Nonconformist clergy. There were separate grants for English Dissenters and for Irish Presbyterian clergy. The money originally came from the monarch's privy purse as an *ex gratia* donation, but it later became an annual grant voted by Parliament.

The Irish Regium Donum originated in a grant of £1,200 pa to Presbyterian clergy in the north of Ireland made by William III in 1690 as a reward for the loyalty of Presbyterians during the war in Ireland following the Glorious Revolution. Queen Anne, when instituting "Queen Anne's Bounty" to augment poor Anglican livings, also added another £800 pa to assist Presbyterian clergy in the rest of Ireland (an offer of similar assistance to English Dissenting Ministers was declined). The Irish Church Act 1869, whose main purpose was to disestablish the Anglican Church of Ireland, also discontinued the Irish Regium Donum (and the grant to the Roman Catholic St Patrick's College, Maynooth) from 1871; existing ministers continued to receive equivalent payment from the Church Temporalities Commission.

The English Regium Donum was instituted in 1723, originally £500 pa to allow the payment of pensions of widows of Dissenting Ministers, but later increased to £1,000 pa to also cover augmentation of income of living ministers. From Charles II onwards, there had been earlier royal donations to Dissenting clergymen, but political motives were suspected, and a proposed grant of £1,000 pa by Queen Anne was declined. The Regium Donum was originally not publicised, and one eighteenth-century critic saw it as a secret bribe to Dissenters to support Sir Robert Walpole and to buy off any agitation against the civil disabilities of Dissenters (e.g. the Test and Corporation Acts).

Reform of royal finances by Pitt the Younger resulted in the Regium Donum becoming a grant voted by Parliament, rather than a charge upon the Civil List. In principle, this changed it from an ex gratia payment to a forced donation by taxpayers (including those opposed to the religious views of those supported): the Regium Donum was therefore henceforth opposed (on the grounds of consistency) by some advocates of the disestablishment of the Church of England. There was growing opposition by organised Dissent; because of this, the government announced in 1851 that the Regium Donum would not be voted in subsequent years.


title: Slate Covered Bridge

abstract: The Slate Covered Bridge is a wooden covered bridge which carries the Westport Village Road over the Ashuelot River in Westport, a village of Swanzey, New Hampshire. The bridge was built in 2001, as a replacement for an 1862 bridge that was destroyed by arson fire in 1993. The 1862 bridge, one of New Hampshire's small number of surviving 19th-century covered bridges, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

text:
# Slate Covered Bridge

The **Slate Covered Bridge** is a wooden covered bridge which carries the Westport Village Road over the Ashuelot River in Westport, a village of Swanzey, New Hampshire. The bridge was built in 2001, as a replacement for an 1862 bridge that was destroyed by arson fire in 1993. The 1862 bridge, one of New Hampshire's small number of surviving 19th-century covered bridges, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

## Description and history

The Slate Covered Bridge is located in southwestern Swanzey, carrying Westport Village Road (formerly an alignment of New Hampshire Route 10) over the Ashuelot River in a roughly north-south orientation. The bridge is a reproduction of the 1862 bridge. The 1862 bridge was a single span Town lattice truss, with a span of 122 feet (37 m) and a roadway width of 17 feet (5.2 m). Its name derives from a family that lived nearby at the time of its construction. It rested on abutments of split granite, and was covered with a tin roof. Its sides were fully sheathed, and it had numerous repairs and parts replaced.

Following a devastating fire in 1993, the Slate Bridge was rebuilt in 2001. Through fundraising efforts from the Slate Covered Bridge Committee, a new $950,000 covered bridge was designed by Hoyle Tanner and built by Wright Construction, Inc. The project received several merit awards, including the 2002 National Timber Bridge Award, the 2003 National Council of Structural Engineers Associations Award, and the Plan New Hampshire Award in 2004.

Media related to Slate Covered Bridge at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Slate Covered Bridge | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
| The 1862 bridge, in 1970 | |
|  | |
| Location | Westport Village Road over the Ashuelot River, Westport, New Hampshire |
| Coordinates | 42°50′50″N 72°20′25″W / 42.84722°N 72.34028°W / 42.84722; -72.34028 |
| Area | less than one acre |
| Built | 1862 (1862) |
| Architectural style | Town lattice truss |
| NRHP reference No. | 78000212 |
| Added to NRHP | November 14, 1978 |


title: Cator Roundtop

abstract: Cator Roundtop is a mountain located in the Catskill Mountains of New York south-southwest of Grand Gorge. Hack Flats is located northeast, Red Kill Ridge is located southeast, and Red Mountain is located northeast of Cator Roundtop.

text:
# Cator Roundtop

**Cator Roundtop** is a mountain located in the Catskill Mountains of New York south-southwest of Grand Gorge. Hack Flats is located northeast, Red Kill Ridge is located southeast, and Red Mountain is located northeast of Cator Roundtop.

## InfoBox

| Cator Roundtop | |
| --- | --- |
| Cator RoundtopLocation of Cator Roundtop within New YorkCator RoundtopCator Roundtop (the United States) | |
| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 2,867 feet (874 m) |
| Coordinates | 42°15′13″N 74°34′19″W / 42.25361°N 74.57194°W / 42.25361; -74.57194 |
| Geography | |
| Location | Grand Gorge, New York, U.S. |
| Topo map | USGS *Roxbury* |


# Results of the 2007 New South Wales state election (Legislative Council)

This is a list of results for the Legislative Council at the 2007 New South Wales state election.

## Results

2007 New South Wales state election: Legislative Council
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 173,239 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. John Della Bosca **(elected 1)**
2. Ian Macdonald **(elected 4)**
3. John Hatzistergos **(elected 6)**
4. Lynda Voltz **(elected 8)**
5. Eddie Obeid **(elected 10)**
6. Helen Westwood **(elected 12)**
7. Amanda Fazio **(elected 14)**
8. Henry Tsang **(elected 16)**
9. Mick Veitch **(elected 19)**
10. Tony Keating
11. Pauline James
12. Sandra Woods
13. Barry Calvert
14. Robert Doherty
15. Glenda Gartrell
16. Tegan Alchin
17. Brendan Cavanagh
18. Rob Allen | 1,491,719 | 39.14 | -4.40 |
|  | Liberal/National Coalition | 1. Charlie Lynn **(elected 2)**
2. Jenny Gardiner **(elected 5)**
3. Don Harwin **(elected 7)**
4. Matthew Mason-Cox **(elected 9)**
5. Melinda Pavey **(elected 11)**
6. John Ajaka **(elected 13)**
7. Marie Ficarra **(elected 15)**
8. Trevor Khan **(elected 21)**
9. Scot MacDonald
10. John Caputo
11. Peter Burnheim
12. Sarah Lawrance
13. Stephen Choularton
14. Lynette Webster
15. Warwick Moppett | 1,304,166 | 34.22 | +0.92 |
|  | Greens | 1. Lee Rhiannon **(elected 3)**
2. John Kaye **(elected 17)**
3. Ben Oquist
4. Lesa de Leau
5. Marika Kontellis
6. Saeed Khan
7. Michael Sergent
8. Patricia Tsang
9. Dominic Kanak
10. Eleanor Gibbs
11. Wendy White
12. Vanessa Grindon-Ekins
13. Peter Stahel
14. Sandra Heilpern
15. Jennifer Hanson
16. Keith Hughes
17. Jan Green
18. Stephen Allen
19. Andrew Martin
20. James Diack
21. Jodie Coleman | 347,548 | 9.12 | +0.52 |
|  | Christian Democrats | 1. Fred Nile **(elected 18)**
2. Gary Raymond
3. Brian Watters
4. June Dally-Watkins
5. Peter Barnes
6. Kevin Hume
7. Peter Walker
8. Peter Rahme
9. Len Kingston
10. Arthur Moore
11. Gamil Helmy-Kostandy
12. Elwyn Sheppard
13. Barry Small
14. Brendan Johnston
15. Elaine Nile
16. Kylie Laurence
17. Margaret Ratcliffe
18. Gilbert Van Der Jadgt
19. Malcolm Smith
20. Ian Smith
21. Donald Jamieson | 168,545 | 4.42 | +1.39 |
|  | Shooters | 1. Roy Smith **(elected 20)**
2. Robert Borsak
3. Joan Maraldo
4. Robyn Bourke
5. David Cook
6. James Muirhead
7. Alison Newbery
8. Robert Shaw
9. John Howden
10. Stephen Mainstone
11. Teresa Alexeeff
12. Barry Shade
13. Jeffrey Bond
14. Andrew Mallen
15. Rodney Franich
16. James Thomley
17. Alois Ambs
18. Ashley Coombs
19. Mitchell Newbery | 106,513 | 2.79 | +0.74 |
|  | Democrats | 1. Arthur Chesterfield-Evans
2. Lyn Shumack
3. Carolyn Hastie
4. Brett Paterson
5. David King
6. Michelle Bleicher
7. Christopher Owens
8. Stephen Bingle
9. Pamela Clifford
10. Josephine Nicotra
11. Felicity Boyd
12. Brian Day
13. Harry Boyle
14. John Haydon
15. Audrey Pratt
16. Surb Bhatti | 67,994 | 1.78 | -0.21 |
|  | Against Further Immigration | 1. Janey Woodger
2. Al Heinrichs
3. Kenneth O'Leary
4. Robert Girvan
5. Kenneth Sptragg
6. James Bateman
7. Patricia Bateman
8. Eddington Sherwood
9. John Campbell
10. James Clarke
11. Roy Butler
12. Jane Heinrichs
13. John Woodger
14. Paul Higgins
15. Peter James | 62,386 | 1.64 | +0.74 |
|  | Fishing Party | 1. Robert Smith
2. Elizabeth Stocker
3. Mark Stocker
4. Deanne Shepherd
5. Gary Hyland
6. Stewart Paterson
7. Marcus Soane
8. David Hitchcock
9. Craig Oaten
10. Darren McCook
11. Jason Downie
12. Craig McCartney
13. David McCartney
14. Les Proctor
15. Bill Lee
16. Elvis Besirevic
17. Rex Buckley
18. Ken Martin
19. Bruce Wall
20. Roe Martin | 58,340 | 1.53 | +1.53 |
|  | Unity | 1. Le Lam
2. Bob Reid
3. Therese Le-dang
4. Muhammet Eris
5. Willis Phong
6. Bernadette Waters
7. Shan Su
8. Addy Cheong
9. Jennifer Jacovou
10. Emine Aslan
11. Khanh Mach
12. Bayram Ceylan
13. Bulent Kadayifci
14. Marta Aquino
15. Zhi Wang
16. Nai Wong
17. Si Wu
18. Jian Zeng | 46,053 | 1.21 | -0.21 |
|  | Restore Workers Rights | 1. Barry Gissell
2. Charles Winter
3. Anthony Adams
4. James Forbes
5. Jody Gissell
6. Clifford Walford
7. Denis Nash
8. Frederick Walford
9. Caroline Johnson
10. Robyn Walford
11. Janelle Smith
12. Donna Adams
13. Gai Taylor
14. Julie Parsons
15. Todd Marr
16. Gloria Walker
17. Yvonne King
18. David McCabe | 35,218 | 0.92 | +0.92 |
|  | Group A | 1. Nell Brown
2. Marylou Carter
3. Luisa Mockler
4. Mary Mockler
5. Lina Aggett
6. Joyce Bellchambers
7. Wendy Stepkovitch
8. Robyn Chapman
9. Lyn Allen
10. Estelle Shields
11. Mel Pesa
12. David Carter
13. Maree Buckwalter
14. Nick Stepkovitch
15. Betty Stepkovitch
16. Ella Ricketson | 25,942 | 0.68 | +0.68 |
|  | Horse Riders / Outdoor Recreation | 1. Graham Crossley
2. Frank Sanzari
3. Wendy Smallwood
4. Robert Kelly
5. Debra Avis
6. Alex Stitt
7. Babette Gomme
8. Garth Coulter
9. Raymond Hamilton
10. Bruce Close
11. Gary Weingartner
12. Jennifer Harris
13. Grant Stone
14. David Harris
15. John Gibbins | 21,569 | 0.57 | +0.57 |
|  | Group F | 1. Patrice Newell
2. Genia McCaffery
3. Matt Noffs
4. John McInerney
5. Louise Upton
6. Caroline Pidcock
7. Alicia Campbell
8. Vicki Younger
9. David Jeffery
10. Joe Herbertson
11. Luke Williams
12. Lindsay Johnston
13. John Polglase
14. Bruce Ward
15. Christopher Sanderson
16. Stan Glaser
17. Michael Heffernan
18. Ben Grace
19. Basia Rendall
20. Alexandra Morphett | 18,999 | 0.50 | +0.50 |
|  | Human Rights Party | 1. Peter Breen
2. Claudette Palmer
3. Miralem Nikolovski
4. Bosko Velevski
5. Dzevdet Alic
6. Suzana Panovska
7. Ljupco Poposki
8. Valery Murphy
9. Angela Mammone
10. Janette Warby
11. Erin Peak
12. Maree Breen
13. Catherine Byrne
14. Michael Davis
15. Diane Thomas | 16,772 | 0.44 | +0.44 |
|  | Socialist Alliance | 1. Jakalene X
2. Susan Price
3. Raul Bassi
4. Rachel Evans
5. Marie McKern
6. Margaret Perrot
7. Maureen Frances
8. Geoff Payne
9. Simon Cunich
10. Lisa Macdonald
11. Aaron Benedek
12. Nick Fredman
13. Amber Pike
14. Adam Leeman
15. Tamara Pearson
16. Kamala Emanuel | 15,142 | 0.40 | +0.25 |
|  | Save Our Suburbs | 1. Tony Recsei
2. Colin Freeman
3. Janine Kitson
4. Jean Lennane
5. Pat Garnet
6. Bernie Laughlan
7. John Ward
8. Anthony Meaney
9. Ted Webber
10. Barry Hadaway
11. Antony Howe
12. Jean Posen
13. Rosemary Hadaway
14. Marga Van Gennip
15. Allan Butt
16. Ross Collins
17. Leanne Gavagna | 11,951 | 0.31 | -0.17 |
|  | Independent | Dawn Fraser | 4,460 | 0.12 | +0.12 |
|  | Group M | 1. Jack Tait
2. Noeline Franklin
3. Joe Chidiac
4. Ian Franklin
5. Geoff Davis
6. Harry Segal
7. Arthur Dyason
8. Edward Hayman
9. Chris Ripoll
10. Mark Wyman
11. Dave Pratt
12. Ernest Braden
13. Ben Innes
14. Liz Innes
15. James Anderson | 3,464 | 0.09 | +0.09 |
|  | Group H | 1. Kerry McNally
2. Stephanie Badger
3. Greg Hamilton
4. Ralph Karpin
5. Jean McCartney
6. Clinton Portors
7. Geoff Coulin
8. Tracey Padwick
9. Dennis Deegan
10. Michael Braham
11. Samone Mason
12. Tom Thompson
13. Andrew Katelaris
14. Tricia Clayton
15. Darren Erskine | 3,143 | 0.08 | +0.08 |
|  | Group D | 1. Nick Beams
2. Terry Cook
3. Carol Divjak
4. Barry Jobson
5. Peter Symonds
6. Mike Head
7. Gabriela Zabala
8. Karen Hopperdietzel
9. Clay Robinson
10. Beryl Hood
11. Mile Klindo
12. John Plater
13. Regina Lohr
14. John Christian
15. Ismet Redzovic | 456 | 0.01 | +0.01 |
|  | Independent | David Rofe | 416 | 0.01 | +0.01 |
|  | Independent | Jordie Bodlay | 144 |  |  |
|  | Independent | Richard Carbury | 111 |  |  |
|  | Independent | Ryan Lovett | 85 |  |  |
|  | Independent | Alasdair Macdonald | 69 |  |  |
|  | Independent | Jose Nunez | 40 |  |  |
| Total formal votes | | | 3,811,245 | 93.89 | −0.77 |
| Informal votes | | | 247,921 | 6.11 | +0.77 |
| Turnout | | | 4,059,166 | 92.80 | +0.78 |

## Continuing members

The following MLCs were not up for re-election this year.

| Member | | Party | Term |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Tony Catanzariti | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Michael Costa | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Greg Donnelly | Labor | 2005–2011 |
|  | Kayee Griffin | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Tony Kelly | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Peter Primrose | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Christine Robertson | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | Eric Roozendaal | Labor | 2004–2011 |
|  | Penny Sharpe | Labor | 2005–2011 |
|  | Ian West | Labor | 2003–2011 |
|  | David Clarke | Liberal | 2003–2011 |
|  | Catherine Cusack | Liberal | 2003–2011 |
|  | Mike Gallacher | Liberal | 2003–2011 |
|  | Robyn Parker | Liberal | 2003–2011 |
|  | Greg Pearce | Liberal | 2003–2011 |
|  | Rick Colless | National | 2003–2011 |
|  | Duncan Gay | National | 2003–2011 |
|  | Ian Cohen | Greens | 2003–2011 |
|  | Sylvia Hale | Greens | 2003–2011 |
|  | Gordon Moyes | Christian Democrats | 2003–2011 |
|  | Robert Brown | Shooters Party | 2006–2011 |
|

## InfoBox

2007 New South Wales state election
(Legislative Council)
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| ---  21 of the 42 seats in the Legislative Council
21 seats needed for a majority | |
| First party Second party Third party  **L/NP**   Leader John Della Bosca Mike Gallacher *None*  Party Labor Coalition Greens  Seats before 18 13 3  Seats won **9** 8 2  Seats after **19** 15 4  Seat change  1  2  1  Popular vote **1,491,719** 1,304,166 347,548  Percentage **39.14%** 34.22% 9.12%  Swing  4.40pp  0.92pp  0.52pp   ---  Fourth party Fifth party  **SFF**  Leader Fred Nile Roy Smith  Party Christian Democrats SFF  Seats before 2 2  Seats won 1 1  Seats after 2 2  Seat change    Popular vote 168,545 106,513  Percentage 4.42% 2.79%  Swing  1.39pp  0.74pp | |


title: Shivaji College

abstract: Shivaji College is a constituent college of the University of Delhi. It offers degrees in various subjects at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels..

text:
# Shivaji College

**Shivaji College** is a constituent college of the University of Delhi. It offers degrees in various subjects at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels..

## History

Shivaji College was established in 1961 in New Delhi by the Hon'ble Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh, The college was established to provide education in what was a largely rural area.

This college infrastructure includes a library, over 78,000 books, and e-journals and e-books through the Delhi University Library System (DULS).

## Academics

### Academic programmes

Within the constraints of prescribed syllabi, this college attempts to offer an eclectic selection, a range of options for students.

### Rankings

The college is ranked 49th among colleges in India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2024.

| University rankings | |
| --- | --- |
| General – India | |
| NIRF (Colleges) (2024) | 49 |

## Notable alumni

* Mr O.P. Wadhwa, a leading lawyer

* Mr Harbhajan Singh, a leading exporter
* Major Y.S. Gehlot, Army Officer
* Mr Sachin Bhamba, General Secretary of an NGO named SPACE
* Dr Naresh Sood, a cancer surgeon
* Dr Navdeep Chhabra, a renowned urologist
* Mr Vivek Chaudhary, IES
* Tanya Maniktala, Actress

## InfoBox

Shivaji College
| Shivaji College | |
| --- | --- |
| Motto in English | *Knowledge is an eternal and never ending process.* |
| Type | College |
| Established | 1961 (1961) |
| Founder | Panjabrao Deshmukh |
| Principal | Prof. Virender Bhardwaj |
| Location | New Delhi, Delhi, 110027, India |
| Campus | Off Campus (University of delhi), 10 acres (4.0 ha) |
| Affiliations | University of Delhi |
| Website | www.shivajicollege.ac.in |
|  | |


title: 1344 Yellow River flood

abstract: The 1344 Yellow River flood was a major natural disaster during the Yuan dynasty of Imperial China. The impact was devastating both for the peasants of the area as well as the leaders of the empire. The Yuan dynasty was waning, and the emperor conscripted enormous teams to build new embankments for the river. The harsh working conditions helped fuel rebellions that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty. The Yellow River had shifted south of the Shandong Peninsula during the 1194 flood near the end of the Jin but this flood shifted it from the course of one previous river to another's. The river remained on various courses south of Shandong for the next five hundred years until floods in the 1850s returned it to its more northerly course.

text:
# 1344 Yellow River flood

The **1344 Yellow River flood** was a major natural disaster during the Yuan dynasty of Imperial China. The impact was devastating both for the peasants of the area as well as the leaders of the empire. The Yuan dynasty was waning, and the emperor conscripted enormous teams to build new embankments for the river. The harsh working conditions helped fuel rebellions that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty.

The Yellow River had shifted south of the Shandong Peninsula during the 1194 flood near the end of the Jin but this flood shifted it from the course of one previous river to another's. The river remained on various courses south of Shandong for the next five hundred years until floods in the 1850s returned it to its more northerly course.


title: Disappearance of April Fabb

abstract: April Fabb was an English schoolgirl who disappeared on 8 April 1969, when aged 13, between the villages of Metton and Roughton in Norfolk. In 2018, a play called Into Thin Air was inspired by Fabb's disappearance.

text:
# Disappearance of April Fabb

**April Fabb** (22 April 1955 – disappeared 8 April 1969) was an English schoolgirl who disappeared on 8 April 1969, when aged 13, between the villages of Metton and Roughton in Norfolk. In 2018, a play called *Into Thin Air* was inspired by Fabb's disappearance.

## Background

At around 1:40 p.m. on Tuesday 8 April 1969, Fabb left her home at 3 Council Houses, Metton, to visit her sister's house in Roughton. Travelling by bicycle, she had a packet of ten cigarettes, 5½ and a handkerchief in the saddlebag and was planning to deliver the cigarettes as a birthday present to her brother-in-law. Just after 2:00 p.m., she was seen cycling along the country road towards Roughton.

class=notpageimage|Map of East Anglia, depicting the location of Fabb's disappearance

At around 2:15 pm, her blue and white bicycle was seen lying in a field near Metton by two Ordnance Survey workers; a passing motorist later took it to a Cromer police station.

Despite an extensive police investigation and search of the surrounding area, no trace of Fabb was found, and the reason for her disappearance remains unknown. Her disappearance led to the biggest police search operation the UK had seen, with the authorities having searched 400 houses, conducted hundreds of interviews and recorded close to 2,000 statements since 1969.

Further searches for Fabb, including the use of thermal imaging cameras in 1997 and the excavation of a well in 2010, failed to produce any fresh leads. At the time of the disappearance of Genette Tate in August 1978, Norfolk Constabulary pointed out to Devon and Cornwall Police that there were strong similarities with the Fabb case. Both cases are unsolved and no link between the two has ever been proven. Child murderer Robert Black was questioned over the two disappearances.

52°53′18″N 1°16′03″E / 52.888295°N 1.267494°E / 52.888295; 1.267494

## Further reading

* Greene, Dr. Karen Shalev; Alys, Llian (2016). *Missing Persons: A Handbook of Research*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-409-46802-8.
* Morson, Maurice (1995, rev: 2007, further rev: September 2012). *The Lost Years: The Story of April Fabb*. Redbridge Books. ISBN 978-0-9520192-7-5.

## InfoBox

| April Fabb | |
| --- | --- |
| Photograph of Fabb used during the Norfolk Constabulary investigation | |
| Born | April Fabb
22 April 1955 |
| Disappeared | 8 April 1969 (aged 13)
Between the villages of Metton and Roughton, Norfolk, England |
| Status | Missing for 55 years, 6 months and 1 day |
| Nationality | British |
| Parents | * Ernest Fabb (father) * Olive Fabb (mother) |


title: Tennis at the South American Games

abstract: Tennis has been an event at the South American Games since the first edition in 1978. Until 1986 it was known as the Southern Cross Games.

text:
# Tennis at the South American Games

**Tennis** has been an event at the **South American Games** since the first edition in 1978. Until 1986 it was known as the Southern Cross Games.

## Medalists

### Men's singles

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Andrés Gómez
Ecuador | Diego Pérez
Uruguay | Raúl Viver
Ecuador |
| 1982 | Christian Miniussi
Argentina | Roberto Azar
Argentina | Claudio Santibáñez
Chile |
| 1986 | Juan Pablo Queirolo
Chile | Sergio Cortés
Chile | Marcelo Filippini
Uruguay |
| 1990 | Américo Venero
Peru | Gonzalo Fernández
Chile | Gastón Etlis
Argentina |
| 1994 | Jimy Szymanski
Venezuela | Pablo Campana
Ecuador | Gustavo Kuerten
Brazil
Márcio Carlsson
Brazil |
| 1998 | Sebastián Decoud
Argentina | Claudio Alvarado
Chile | Rodolfo Darvich
Argentina
Américo Venero
Peru |
| 2002 | Martín Vilarrubí
Uruguay | Alexandre Bonatto
Brazil | Franco Ferreiro
Brazil |
| 2006 | Nicolas Santos
Brazil | Mauricio Doria
Bolivia | Rasid Winklaar
Netherlands Antilles |
| 2010
 | Facundo Argüello
Argentina | Agustín Velotti
Argentina | Guilherme Clézar
Brazil |
| 2014
 | Facundo Bagnis
Argentina | Guido Andreozzi
Argentina | Paul Capdeville
Chile |
| 2018
 | Tomás Barrios
Chile | Francisco Cerúndolo
Argentina | Juan Pablo Varillas
Peru |

### Men's doubles

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Andrés Gómez
Raúl Viver
Ecuador | Diego Pérez
Pablo Graf
Uruguay | Juan Carlos Yunis
Ricardo Rivera
Argentina |
| 1982 | Christian Miniussi
Roberto Azar
Argentina | Claudio Santibáñez
Ricardo Hormann
Chile | Alan Chacon
Ricardo Segovia
Venezuela |
| 1986 | Marcelo Filippini
Nicolas Zurmendi
Uruguay | Sergio Cortés
Rubén Gajardo
Chile | Martin Stringari
Gustavo Carbonari
Argentina |
| 1990 | Marcos Colignon
Gonzalo Fernández
Chile | Gastón Etlis
Carlos Tarantino
Argentina | Alejandro Aramburu
Américo Venero
Peru |
| 1994 | Jimy Szymanski
Juan Bianchi
Venezuela | Luis Morejón
Pablo Campana
Ecuador | Gustavo Kuerten
Márcio Carlsson
Brazil
Antonio Eterovic
Pablo Ugarte
Bolivia |
| 1998 | Giovanni Lapentti
Pablo Campana
Ecuador | Rodolfo Darvich
Juan Ferrer
Argentina | Carlos González
Luis Hormazábal
Chile
Américo Venero
Iván Miranda
Peru |
| 2002 | Marcel Felder
Martín Vilarrubí
Uruguay | Jorge Aguilar
Nicolas Riquelme
Chile | Horacio Zeballos
Martín Alund
Argentina |
| 2006 | Facundo Bagnis
Guido Pella
Argentina | Ricardo Urzúa
Hans Podlipnik
Chile | Sergio Galdós
Juan Pedro Torres
Peru |
| 2010
 | Diego Hidalgo
Roberto Quiroz
Ecuador | Facundo Argüello
Agustín Velotti
Argentina | Alejandro Arias Justiniano
Bruno del Granado Barrancos
Bolivia |
| 2014
 | Guido Andreozzi
and Facundo Bagnis
Argentina | Nicolás Barrientos
and Carlos Salamanca
Colombia | Jorge Aguilar
and Paul Capdeville
Chile |
| 2018
 | Diego Hidalgo
Emilio Gómez
Ecuador | Jorge Panta
Juan Pablo Varillas
Peru | Cristian Rodríguez
Eduardo Struvay
Colombia |

### Men's team

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Ecuador | Argentina | Uruguay |
| 1990 | Peru | Argentina | Chile |
| 1994 | Venezuela | Ecuador | Brazil
Bolivia |
| 1998 | Ecuador | Chile | Peru
Argentina |

### Women's singles

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Adriana Alvarez
Argentina | Norah Moreno
Argentina | Carlota Velazco
Bolivia |
| 1982 | Mariana Pérez Roldán
Argentina | Mercedes Paz
Argentina | Manola Murillo
Chile |
| 1986 | Patricia Miller
Uruguay | Paulina Sepúlveda
Chile | Macarena Miranda
Chile |
| 1990 | Paula Cabezas
Chile | Debora Garat
Argentina | Karim Strohmeier
Peru |
| 1994 | Paula Cabezas
Chile | Claudia Brause
Uruguay | María-Alejandra Quezada
Chile
Déborah Gaviria
Peru |
| 1998 | Clarisa Fernández
Argentina | Eugenia Chialvo
Argentina | Paula Cabezas
Chile
Bárbara Castro
Chile |
| 2002 | Larissa Carvalho
Brazil | Marina Tavares
Brazil | Soledad Esperón
Argentina |
| 2006 | Teliana Pereira
Brazil | Mariana Duque
Colombia | Malena Gordo
Argentina |
| 2010
 | Cecilia Costa Melgar
Chile | Verónica Cepede Royg
Paraguay | Fernanda Brito
Chile |
| 2014
 | Paula Cristina Gonçalves
Brazil | Verónica Cepede Royg
Paraguay | Bianca Botto
Peru |
| 2018
 | Montserrat González
Paraguay | Daniela Seguel
Chile | Fernanda Brito
Chile |

### Women's doubles

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Mariana Mettola
Adriana Alvarez
Argentina | Patricia Hermeda
Shirley Echaiz
Chile | Carlota Velasco
Cinthya Teran
Bolivia |
| 1982 | Mariana Pérez Roldán
Mercedes Paz
Argentina | Manola Murillo
Paulina Sepúlveda
Chile | Fiorita Gomesz
Nives Missana
Venezuela |
| 1990 | Paula Cabezas
Melisa Castro
Chile | Debora Garat
María Luz Rodriguez
Argentina | Carla Rodriguez
Paola Monteferri
Peru |
| 1994 | Maria Fernanda Quezada
Bárbara Castro
Chile | María Francesa
Maria Marra
Venezuela | Alexandra Guzman
Nuria Niemes
Ecuador
Fernanda Tsucamoto
Marcia Komlos
Brazil |
| 1998 | Paula Cabezas
Bárbara Castro
Chile | Maria Cristina Campana
Paola Guerrero
Ecuador | Jorgelina Cravero
Clarisa Fernández
Argentina
Cecilia Guillenea
Daniela Peyrot
Uruguay |
| 2002 | Larissa Carvalho
Marina Tavares
Brazil | Patricia Coimbra
Jenifer Widjaja
Brazil | Soledad Esperón
Micaela Moran
Argentina |
| 2006 | Teliana Pereira
Roxane Vaisemberg
Brazil | Mariana Muci
Marina Giral
Venezuela | Tatiana Búa
Malena Gordo
Argentina |
| 2010
 | Fernanda Brito
Cecilia Costa Melgar
Chile | Andrea Gámiz
Adriana Pérez
Venezuela | Agustina Eskenazi
Catalina Pella
Argentina |
| 2014
 | Andrea Gámiz
and Adriana Pérez
Venezuela | Verónica Cepede Royg
and Montserrat González
Paraguay | Paula Cristina Gonçalves
and Laura Pigossi
Brazil |
| 2018
 | Alexa Guarachi
Daniela Seguel
Chile | Camila Giangreco
Montserrat González
Paraguay | Camila Romero
Charlotte Römer
Ecuador |

### Women's team

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Argentina | Chile | Bolivia |
| 1990 | Chile | Argentina | Peru |
| 1994 | Chile | Venezuela | Ecuador
Brazil |
| 1998 | Argentina | Chile | Ecuador
Uruguay |

### Mixed doubles

| Event | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1978 | Adriana Alvarez
Juan Carlos Yunis
Argentina | Mariana Mattola
Ricardo Rivera
Argentina | Carlota Velasco
Marcelo Valenzuela
Bolivia |
| 1982 | Verónica Platz
Alejandro Rudi
Argentina | Manola Murillo
Claudio Santibáñez
Chile | Nives Missana
Alan Chacon
Venezuela |
| 1990 | Paula Cabezas
Marcos Colignion
Chile | Karim Strohmeier
Américo Venero
Peru | Melisa Castro
Gonzalo Fernández
Chile |
| 1994 | María Francesa
Jimy Szymanski
Venezuela | Nuria Niemes
Pablo Campana
Ecuador | Marcia Komlos
Gustavo Kuerten
Brazil
Carla Jimenez
Pablo Ugarte
Bolivia |
| 2010 | Adriana Pérez
Ricardo Rodríguez
Venezuela | Verónica Cepede
Diego Galeano
Paraguay | Paula Ormaechea
Diego Schwartzman
Argentina |
| 2014
 | David Souto
and Adriana Pérez
Venezuela | Nicolás Jarry
and Camila Silva
Chile | Jorge Aguilar
and Andrea Koch Benvenuto
Chile |
| 2018
 | Roberto Maytín
Aymet Uzcátegui
Venezuela | Tomás Farjat
Melany Krywoj
Argentina | Gonzalo Lama
Alexa Guarachi
Chile |


title: Scarisbrick baronets

abstract: The Scarisbrick Baronetcy, of Greaves Hall in the Parish of North Meols in the County Palatine of Lancaster, was a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 17 July 1909 for the Liberal politician Thomas Scarisbrick. He was the son of Sir Charles Scarisbrick, Mayor of Southport. The title became extinct on the death of the second Baronet in 1955. The family seat was Scarisbrick Hall, Scarisbrick, Lancashire.

text:
# Scarisbrick baronets

The **Scarisbrick Baronetcy**, of Greaves Hall in the Parish of North Meols in the County Palatine of Lancaster, was a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 17 July 1909 for the Liberal politician Thomas Scarisbrick. He was the son of Sir Charles Scarisbrick, Mayor of Southport. The title became extinct on the death of the second Baronet in 1955.

The family seat was Scarisbrick Hall, Scarisbrick, Lancashire.

## Scarisbrick baronets, of Greaves Hall (1909)

## Arms

Coat of arms of Scarisbrick baronets
| CrestBetween two trefoils slipped Vert a falcon close Proper belled and jessed and charged on the breast with a mullet of six points Or. EscutcheonArgent a saltire engrailed parted and fretty between two mullets of six points in pale all Sable. MottoPatentia Vincit Omnia |
| --- |


title: 2019 Aichi gubernatorial election

abstract: The 2019 Aichi gubernatorial election was held on 3 February 2019 to elect the Governor of Aichi. Incumbent Governor Hideaki Omura was re-elected for a third term, defeating Saichi Kurematsu with 83.32% of the vote.

text:
# 2019 Aichi gubernatorial election

The **2019 Aichi gubernatorial election** was held on 3 February 2019 to elect the Governor of Aichi. Incumbent Governor Hideaki Omura was re-elected for a third term, defeating Saichi Kurematsu with 83.32% of the vote.

## Candidates

## Results

Aichi gubernatorial 2019
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Liberal Democratic** | **Hideaki Omura** | **1,774,763** | **83,32** | **+2.72** |
|  | Communist | Saichi Kurematsu | 355,311 | 16,68 |  |
| Turnout | | | 2.175.000 | 35.51 | +0.58 |
| Registered electors | | | 6.124.636 |  |  |
|  | Liberal Democratic **hold** | | Swing |  |  |

### Official websites

## InfoBox

2019 Aichi gubernatorial election
| --- | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Turnout | **35.51**  0.58 |
| Candidate Hideaki Omura Saichi Kurematsu  Party Independent JCP  Popular vote **1,774,763** 355,311  Percentage **83.32%** 16.68% | |
| ---  **Governor before election**
Hideaki Omura
Independent **Elected Governor**
Hideaki Omura
Independent | |


title: Jonathan Monk

abstract: Jonathan Monk is an artist living and working in Berlin.

text:
# Jonathan Monk

**Jonathan Monk** (born 1969, in Leicester, UK) is an artist living and working in Berlin.

## Life and career

### Art practice

Monk questions the meaning of art using conceptualism in a way that Ken Johnson in *The New York Times* called "sweet, wry and poetic". Monk's work frequently questions (if not outright undermines) the art world's conventional means of controlling contemporary art's distribution and value. One example was when he gave an artist's talk for the Dia Art Foundation in 2014 and arranged for every attendee to receive a free Jonathan Monk collage, each of which had been placed on the venue's seating beforehand. Another example is the series *Receipt Drawings* in which he goes out to dinner and makes an original drawing on the receipt, which he then sells to the first bidder on his Instagram account for the price of the meal.

In an interview with David Shrigley, Monk says: "Is it or is it not or can it or can it not be? This is something that has been dealt with within the art world for some time and I guess the unanswerable question keeps us all going..."

## Art works

### 2010

"Diecimila" - Facsimile produced and published by mfc-michèle didier, Brussels

### 2007

"Deadman", selected for the Renaissance Society's 2007 group show, "Meanwhile, In Baghdad..."

## External sources

Lisson Gallery
Dvir Gallery
Frieze Magazine
New York Times Review Casey Kaplan Gallery


title: Skete of Saint Andrew

abstract: The Skete of Saint Andrew, also the Skete of Apostle Andrew and Great Anthony or Skiti Agiou Andrea in Karyes is a monastic institution (skete) on Mount Athos. It is a dependency of Vatopedi Monastery and is the site of the Athonias Ecclesiastical Academy.

text:
# Skete of Saint Andrew

The **Skete of Saint Andrew**, also the **Skete of Apostle Andrew and Great Anthony** or **Skiti Agiou Andrea** in Karyes is a monastic institution (skete) on Mount Athos. It is a dependency of Vatopedi Monastery and is the site of the Athonias Ecclesiastical Academy.

## History

The skete (a smaller, dependent monastic house) had its origins when Patriarch Athanasius II of Constantinople retired to Mount Athos in the mid fifteenth century after the Fall of Constantinople and settled in a Monastic House on the site of the old Monastery of Xistrou that was dedicated to St. Anthony the Great. This house later became the foundation of the skete. In 1761, Patriarch Seraphim II of Constantinople also retired to Mount Athos and replaced the old house with a new building that he dedicated to the Apostle Andrew as well as St. Anthony.

In 1841, Seraphim's house was given by the Monastery of Vatopaidion to two Russian monks, Bessarion and Barsanouphios. Initially known as the Cell of St. Anthony, in 1842, the monastics, under the sponsorship of Tsar Nicolas I of Russia, began expanding their residence. With its expansion, Patriarch Anthimus IV of Constantinople recognized the St. Anthony Cell as a skete in 1849. The skete was called that way because the customs and statute of Mount Athos precludes the establishment of new monasteries besides those of the Byzantine era.

With the continued growth of the skete in monastic numbers, a central church, dedicated to Saint Andrew, was built in 1867 and consecrated in 1900 by Patriarch Joachim III of Constantinople. The church is the largest on Mount Athos and is amongst the largest in the Balkans.

### Twentieth century

As the twentieth century began, the skete had grown greatly. Prior to World War I the population of the skete included 700 to 800 Russian monks.

One of these monks, Hieromonk Anthony Bulatovich, was regarded as the main proponent of the Imiaslavie doctrine, a dogmatic doctrine which asserts that the Name of God is God Himself. The doctrine was condemned by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1913, Bulatovich published a few books on the subject. In January 1913 a monk called David, a supporter of *imiaslavie*, was elected as the hegumen of the skete, taking the place of the monk Hieronim who was an opponent of it. Hieronim did not recognize the results of the elections and complained to the Russian Embassy in Greece. The Imperial Government insisted on changing the hegumen back to Hieronim.

In June 1913 a small Russian fleet, consisting of the gunboat *Donets* and the transport ships *Tsar* and *Kherson*, delivered the archbishop of Vologda, Nikon (Rozhdestvensky), and a number of troops to Mount Athos. The archbishop visited both St. Panteleimon Monastery and the skete of Saint Andrew, where he tried to convince supporters of *imiaslavie* to change their beliefs voluntarily, but was unsuccessful. On July 31 the troops stormed the St. Panteleimon Monastery. Although the monks were not armed and did not actively resist, the troops showed very heavy-handed tactics. They set up two machine guns and a number of water cannons, and the soldiers were ordered to beat the monks with their bayonets and rifle butts. Allegedly, four monks were killed and at least forty-eight were wounded. After the storming of St. Panteleimon Monastery the monks from the skete of Saint Andrew surrendered voluntarily.

The military transport *Kherson* was converted into a prison ship. It took 628 monks to Russia and on July 9 set sail to Odessa. Forty monks were left in the Mount Athos hospital, judged unable to survive the transportation. On July 14 the steamship *Chikhachev* delivered another 212 monks from Mount Athos. The rest of the monks signed papers that they rejected the imiaslavie.

After interrogation in Odessa, 8 imprisoned monks were returned to Athos, 40 were put into jail, and the rest were defrocked and exiled to different areas of the Russian Empire according to their *propiska*. Bulatovich was sent to his family estate in the village Lebedinka of Kharkov gubernia, to where many imiaslavtsy moved. This, and the further events of World War I and its aftermath, brought disastrous results as the potential for monks from Russia disappeared.

In 1958, the western wing of the skete and library were destroyed by fire and, in 1971, the last monk of the old community died. The community became deserted. In 1992 a new, Greek-speaking brotherhood brought new life to the skete. In 2001, young monks joined in community and deal with the preservation of the icons and the maintenance of the premises.

1. The Skete of Saint Andrew in Karyes, Mount Athos
2. A brief history of Saint Andrew’s skete
3. The skete of Saint Andrew
4. The Genuine Orthodox Church of Greece. *Genuine Orthodox Church of the 20th and 21st Centuries - A Timeline.* Retrieved 2013-02-02.

## Attribution

*

*This article incorporates text from *Skete of St. Andrew (Athos)* at OrthodoxWiki which is licensed under the CC-BY-SA and GFDL.*

Media related to Skete of Saint Andrew at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

Skete of Saint Andrew
| Skete of St. Andrew | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location within Mount Athos | |
| Monastery information | |
| Order | Greek Orthodox |
| Site | |
| Location | Mount Athos<br>Greece |
| Coordinates | 40°15′44″N 24°14′40″E / 40.2621°N 24.2444°E / 40.2621; 24.2444 |
| Public access | Men only |