title: Eta Kappa Nu

abstract: Eta Kappa Nu (ΗΚΝ) or IEEE-HKN is the international honor society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Joining HKN is by invitation only. Membership is a lifelong designation for individuals who have distinguished themselves as students or as professionals in electrical engineering, computer engineering, computer science, and other fields of IEEE interest. Eta Kappa Nu was founded in 1904 as an independent honor society for electrical engineering. It has expanded its scope through the years and it became an organizational unit within IEEE in 2010. Over 260 collegiate chapters have been chartered worldwide and more than 200,000 members have been elected to membership.

text:
# Eta Kappa Nu

**Eta Kappa Nu** (**ΗΚΝ**) or **IEEE-HKN** is the international honor society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Joining HKN is by invitation only. Membership is a lifelong designation for individuals who have distinguished themselves as students or as professionals in electrical engineering, computer engineering, computer science, and other fields of IEEE interest.

Eta Kappa Nu was founded in 1904 as an independent honor society for electrical engineering. It has expanded its scope through the years and it became an organizational unit within IEEE in 2010. Over 260 collegiate chapters have been chartered worldwide and more than 200,000 members have been elected to membership.

## History

Eta Kappa Nu was founded on October 28, 1904 as the national honor society for electrical engineering students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Maurice L. Carr and nine other undergraduates formed the first chapter and developed a national structure. Their vision for the honor association combined collegiate engagement with a professional community to aid student and alumni members and to support the general profession. *Character* and *attitude* were designated along with *scholarship* as the three ideals to be recognized and promoted through membership and activity. Hence, HKN is concerned with more than simply scholarship and the collegiate experience.

The first century of Eta Kappa Nu began with two of the founders, Maurice L. Carr and Edmund B. Wheeler, serving as the first and second national presidents, respectively. The next chapters were organized at Purdue University, Ohio State University, and Illinois Institute of Technology. By the centennial in 2004, more than 200 student chapters as well as several alumni chapters had been chartered. These chapters have sustained records of local service and engagement activities. The national organization developed prominent awards for outstanding chapters, students, teachers, young professionals, and service in electrical engineering. The scope expanded to both electrical and computer engineering in 2000. HKN also created a membership path for professionals and an Eminent Member recognition for career accomplishments.

The second century of Eta Kappa Nu has a continued emphasis on the original vision, but the program and structure have been modified. Its signature activities have been revised to include special attention to service and student conferences. It has formalized a relationship within IEEE as an organizational unit in which HKN is now IEEE-HKN and it is governed by a Board of Governors that are elected by the chapters. This merger became effective on 1 September 2010. As a result of the merger, chapters are being chartered internationally and membership eligibility is expanded to all IEEE fields of interest. The first chapters outside the U.S. were chartered in 2012 at the University of Hong Kong and Dalhousie University (Canada). The headquarters was moved to IEEE in Piscataway, NJ where the office is administered by the IEEE-HKN Director and staff. IEEE-HKN has close ties with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Heads Association (ECEDHA).

An important repository of HKN/IEEE-HKN history is the Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ETHW).

## Symbols

Eta Kappa Nu's name is based on the Greek word for amber "elektron" from which the English words "electron", "electricity", and "electronic" are derived. (Amber is a material that exhibits electrostatic properties when rubbed.) In Greek, the word is ΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΝ or ήλεκτρον. The first, fourth, and last letters form the society name of Eta Kappa Nu, which abbreviates to HKN. The emblem is a stylized representation of a Wheatstone bridge. This circuit is used to determine an unknown resistance from three known resistances. A membership analogy is made in which career *success* is determined when a balance of *scholarship*, *character*, and *attitude* is achieved. These three ideals are the basis for member eligibility.

The shield of HKN dates from 1927 and symbolizes several aspects of HKN history. The three ideals are represented prominently by the three cubes of magnetite in the diagonal band and are also represented in the emblem atop the shield. (Early forms of the Greek letters are used in the center of this version.) The caduceus in the honor point of the shield is a memorial to founder Maurice L. Carr who favored this symbol. The hand of Jupiter stands for the first chapter Alpha and the ten lightning bolts refer to the original ten founding members. The shield incorporates the colors for HKN - navy blue to represent loyalty and scarlet to represent zeal. Student members will often wear honor cords in these colors at their graduation. Members are also encouraged to wear pins of either the emblem or the shield.

A ceremony is the last step in members' entry into HKN. An induction ritual reviews the history, the three ideals, and the symbols as described here. In addition, the induction officials will speak as avatars, or in the voice, of selected historical individuals. This HKN review and the use of avatars reflect an intention to honor and remember the contributions of the past.

## Activities

The corporate IEEE-HKN supports the chapters and the profession with a variety of signature activities. An annual Founders Day promotion during October encourages chapters to celebrate HKN and to engage in service in their local community in recognition of HKN's founding. An annual student conference addresses networking, leadership, and professional development objectives. A prominent awards program includes six award categories to promote educational and career excellence. An online magazine, *The Bridge*, is an archival publication for students, alumni members, and others in the profession and industry.

Collegiate chapter activities, including the member election process, are organized around the recognition of academic accomplishment, the promotion of ethical behavior and volunteer service, and the development of leadership and collaborative skills. These chapters recognize high scholarship through membership and foster a culture of service and volunteerism within their host departments. They are noted for student-led engagement with peers, faculty, and industry through tutoring, maker-space management, networking events, etc.

## Recognitions and awards

IEEE-Eta Kappa Nu membership is an honor society recognition and is earned through qualification, election, and induction. Any student chapter may conduct the membership process for undergraduates, graduate students, and professional members. Minimum scholastic or professional qualifications are defined. However, a chapter may set higher scholastic or career qualifications and will evaluate the character and attitude qualifications locally. An alumni chapter or the Board of Governors may conduct a membership process for professional members. During the induction ceremony, new members commit themselves to the ideals of HKN.

An Eminent Member category was approved as the highest membership grade in 1941 and the first recognitions were in 1950. This grade is reserved for "those individuals, who by their technical attainments and contributions to society, have shown themselves to be outstanding leaders in an IEEE-designed field of interest, and great benefactors to society." Individuals must be recognized during their lifetimes for the Eminent Member category; deceased individuals may be recognized as Honorary Eminent Members. Only 144 Eminent Members and 10 Honorary Eminent Members have been so recognized by the HKN.

IEEE-HKN has an annual awards program to honor accomplishments related to the Eta Kappa Nu vision. The initial award category was created in 1932 for outstanding chapter activities. Several awards are named for important HKN volunteers. There are six award categories:

* Outstanding Chapter Award
* Alton B. Zerby and Carl T. Koerner Outstanding Student Award
* C. Holmes MacDonald Outstanding Teaching Award
* Outstanding Young Professional Award
* Distinguished Service Award
* Asad M. Madni Outstanding Technical Achievement and Excellence Award.

## Publications

*The Bridge* magazine is an open-access publication of IEEE and is the archival, flagship publication of IEEE-Eta Kappa Nu. Features relate to the technical, historical, and professional interests of the membership, and other content deals with the activities of the organization. Chapters, student members, and alumni are welcome to submit potential content. Alton B. Zerby, Executive Secretary 1934-1958, wrote that the magazine started “as a vehicle of communication between students and alumni.” It continues to connect students and alumni, as well as to promote the activities and recognition programs of IEEE-HKN and to highlight the development of technology and the profession. The magazine is managed by volunteers, an Editor-in-Chief, and an Editorial Board (a standing committee of IEEE-HKN), with assistance from the IEEE-HKN Director and other staff.

The history of the magazine dates back to the first publication of Eta Kappa Nu which was a short booklet entitled *The Electric Field*. This name continued until 1908. The name of *The Eta Kappa Nu Yearbook* was used briefly. The first use of *The Bridge* as the publication name occurred in 1910. The volume label was added later and the volume count dates to the publication year of 1905. The number of issues per year has varied from one to four. Originally a print publication, the magazine became electronic-only after the HKN merger with IEEE in 2010. Recent issues have won numerous international awards for excellence.

## Membership

Most members are inducted as students, but distinguished professionals may be inducted as well. The guiding ideals for membership eligibility of *scholarship*, *character*, and *attitude* have remained unchanged since the early years. Student members join their collegiate chapter of IEEE-HKN for reasons including:

* Formal recognition of academic accomplishment
* Interaction with faculty and successful students
* Opportunities for leadership experience
* Organized service projects and service learning
* Opportunities for professional development
* Lifelong professional community within IEEE

## Chapters

IEEE-Eta Kappa Nu collegiate chapters are present at educational institutions of higher learning across the world. These chapters are designated by a Greek letter or letters starting with the first chapter *Alpha* at the University of Illinois. The second chapter, *Beta* at Purdue University, was organized and began inducting members in 1906; however, the chapter was not officially approved by the Purdue University administration until 1913. The chapter with the *Eta* designation is administered by the IEEE-HKN Board of Governors for at-large inductions.

## Notable members

## InfoBox

| Eta Kappa Nu | |
| --- | --- |
| ΗΚΝ | |
|  | |
| Founded | October 28, 1904 (1904-10-28)
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |
| Type | Honor society |
| Affiliation | Independent |
| Former Affiliation | ACHS |
| Status | Active |
| Emphasis | Electrical engineering, computer engineering and computer science |
| Scope | International |
| Colors | Navy blue,   Scarlet |
| Symbol | Wheatstone bridge |
| Publication | *The Bridge* |
| Chapters | Over 260 |
| Members | 200,000+ lifetime |
| Headquarters | 445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, New Jersey 08554
United States |
| Website | hkn.ieee.org |


title: Eta Normae

abstract: Eta Normae, Latinized from η Normae, is a single star in the southern constellation of Norma. It is visible to the naked eye as a faint, yellow-hued star with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.65. The distance to this star is about 219 light years, based on parallax. The Gamma Normids radiate from a position near this star. This is an aging giant star with a stellar classification of G8III, having exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core then swollen and cooled off the main sequence. At present it has a diameter of 11 times that of the Sun. It is a red clump giant, meaning it is on the horizontal branch and is generating energy through core helium fusion. The star has 2.78 times the mass of the Sun and is radiating 72 times the Sun's luminosity from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of 5,052 K. It is a source for X-ray emission.

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# Eta Normae

**Eta Normae**, Latinized from **η Normae**, is a single star in the southern constellation of Norma. It is visible to the naked eye as a faint, yellow-hued star with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.65. The distance to this star is about 219 light years, based on parallax. The Gamma Normids radiate from a position near this star.

This is an aging giant star with a stellar classification of G8III, having exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core then swollen and cooled off the main sequence. At present it has a diameter of 11 times that of the Sun. It is a red clump giant, meaning it is on the horizontal branch and is generating energy through core helium fusion. The star has 2.78 times the mass of the Sun and is radiating 72 times the Sun's luminosity from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of 5,052 K. It is a source for X-ray emission.

## InfoBox

Eta Normae
| Observation data
Epoch J2000.0      Equinox J2000.0 (ICRS) | |
| --- | --- |
| Constellation | Norma |
|
| Right ascension | 16h 03m 12.89783s |
| Declination | 49° 13 46.9151 |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 4.65 |
| Characteristics | |
| Evolutionary stage | horizontal branch |
| Spectral type | G8III |
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| U−B color index | +0.64 |
| B−V color index | +0.92 |
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| Astrometry | |
|  | |
| **Radial velocity (Rv)** | −0.3±2.8 km/s |
| **Proper motion (μ)** | RA: 42.05 mas/yr
Dec.: 9.14 mas/yr |
| **Parallax (π)** | 14.86 ± 0.25 mas |
| **Distance** | 219 ± 4 ly
(67 ± 1 pc) |
| **Absolute magnitude (MV)** | 0.524 |
|  | |
| Details | |
|  | |
| **Mass** | 2.78 |
| **Radius** | 11.07+0.23
−0.09 |
| **Luminosity** | 71.9±3.1 |
| **Surface gravity (log *g*)** | 2.84 cgs |
| **Temperature** | 5052+16
−51 |
| **Metallicity** \[Fe/H\] | −0.05 dex |
|  | |
| Other designations | |
| η Nor, CD−48° 10512, HD 143546, HIP 78639, HR 5962, SAO 226466 | |
| Database references | |
| **SIMBAD** | data |


title: Eucalyptus forrestiana

abstract: Eucalyptus forrestiana, commonly known as fuchsia gum or fuchsia mallee, is a species of small tree or mallet and is endemic to an area near Esperance, Western Australia. It has smooth grey bark, narrow oblong to lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds that are square in cross-section, red at maturity and arranged singly in leaf axils, yellow flowers and four-angled, winged fruit.

text:
# Eucalyptus forrestiana

***Eucalyptus forrestiana***, commonly known as **fuchsia gum** or **fuchsia mallee**, is a species of small tree or mallet and is endemic to an area near Esperance, Western Australia. It has smooth grey bark, narrow oblong to lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds that are square in cross-section, red at maturity and arranged singly in leaf axils, yellow flowers and four-angled, winged fruit.

## Description

*Eucalyptus forrestiana* is a small tree or mallet that typically grows to a height of 1.5–6 m (4 ft 11 in – 19 ft 8 in) and does not form a lignotuber. It has smooth grey over pale brown bark and a dense dark green canopy. Young plants and coppice regrowth have dull greyish green, petiolate leaves that are arranged alternately, egg-shaped to lance-shaped, 30–100 mm (1.2–3.9 in) long and 20–60 mm (0.79–2.36 in) wide. Adult leaves are also arranged alternately, lance-shaped, the same glossy green on both sides when mature, 55–95 mm (2.2–3.7 in) long and 15–25 mm (0.59–0.98 in) wide. The flowers buds are arranged singly in leaf axils on a flattened peduncle 22–55 mm (0.87–2.17 in) long, the pedicel 13–20 mm (0.51–0.79 in) long. Mature buds are red, oblong in side view, square in cross-section, 35–43 mm (1.4–1.7 in) long and 11–20 mm (0.43–0.79 in) wide with a narrow wing on each corner and a flat, disc-like operculum. Flowering occurs from January to March or from April to June and the flowers are yellow. The fruit is a similar shape to the flower buds, 35–50 mm (1.4–2.0 in) long and 17–33 mm (0.67–1.30 in) wide with the valves enclosed below the level of the rim.

## Taxonomy

*Eucalyptus forrestiana* was first formally described in 1904 by the botanist Ludwig Diels in the journal *Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie*, in an article jointly authored with Georg August Pritzel. The specific epithet (*forrestiana*) honours "Sir John Forrest", explorer, botanical collector and later the first Premier of Western Australia and member of the first Federal Parliament.

## Distribution

Fuchsia gum is found around salt lakes and on sand plains in a small area in near-coastal between Ravensthorpe and Cape Arid National Park, extending inland as far as Mt. Nye and Mt. Beaumont in Western Australia, where it grows in clay-sandy soils.

## Conservation status

This eucalypt is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.

## Use in horticulture

*Eucalyptus forrestiana* is commonly used as a small street tree in semi-arid areas due to its highly decorative appearance.

## InfoBox

| Fuchsia gum | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Myrtales |
| Family: | Myrtaceae |
| Genus: | *Eucalyptus* |
| Species: | ***E. forrestiana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eucalyptus forrestiana***<br>Diels | |
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| Synonyms | |
| *Eucalyptus forrestiana*  Diels *forrestiana* | |


title: Eugnosta uganoa

abstract: Eugnosta uganoa is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Tanzania.

text:
# Eugnosta uganoa

***Eugnosta uganoa*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Tanzania.

## InfoBox

| *Eugnosta uganoa* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Eugnosta* |
| Species: | ***E. uganoa*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eugnosta uganoa***<br>Razowski, 1993 | |
|


title: Eugnosta ussuriana

abstract: Eugnosta ussuriana is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in the Russian Far East (Amur) and Japan. It has also been recorded from China. The wingspan is about 20 mm.

text:
# Eugnosta ussuriana

***Eugnosta ussuriana*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in the Russian Far East (Amur) and Japan (Hokkaido and Honshu). It has also been recorded from China.

The wingspan is about 20 mm.

## InfoBox

| *Eugnosta ussuriana* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Eugnosta* |
| Species: | ***E. ussuriana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eugnosta ussuriana***<br>(Caradja, 1926) | |
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| Synonyms | |
| * *Phtheochroa ussuriana* Caradja, 1926 * *Euxanthis cosmolitha* Meyrick, 1931 | |


title: Eugnosta synaetera

abstract: Eugnosta synaetera is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Brazil.

text:
# Eugnosta synaetera

***Eugnosta synaetera*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Brazil (Santa Catarina, Goias).

## InfoBox

| *Eugnosta synaetera* | |
| --- | --- |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Eugnosta* |
| Species: | ***E. synaetera*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eugnosta synaetera***<br>Razowski & Becker, 1994 | |
|


title: Eugnosta umtamvuna

abstract: Eugnosta umtamvuna is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in South Africa. The wingspan is about 10 mm.

text:
# Eugnosta umtamvuna

***Eugnosta umtamvuna*** is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in South Africa.

The wingspan is about 10 mm.

## Etymology

The specific name refers to Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, the type locality.

## InfoBox

| *Eugnosta umtamvuna* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Tortricidae |
| Genus: | *Eugnosta* |
| Species: | ***E. umtamvuna*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eugnosta umtamvuna***<br>Razowski, 2015 | |
|


title: Euchrysops crawshayi

abstract: Euchrysops crawshayi, Crawshay's blue, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The habitat consists of moist savanna. The larvae feed on Anchusa species, Cynoglossum coeruleum and Cynoglossum lanceolatum. They are attended by many species of ants, including Monomorium minutum var. pallipes.

text:
# Euchrysops crawshayi

***Euchrysops crawshayi***, **Crawshay's blue**, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The habitat consists of moist savanna.

The larvae feed on *Anchusa* species, *Cynoglossum coeruleum* and *Cynoglossum lanceolatum*. They are attended by many species of ants, including *Monomorium* *minutum* var. *pallipes*.

## Subspecies

* *Euchrysops crawshayi crawshayi* (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, southern Sudan)
* *Euchrysops crawshayi fontainei* Stempffer, 1967 (Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo: east to South Kivu, north-western Tanzania)

## InfoBox

| *Euchrysops crawshayi* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Figure 2 | |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | *Euchrysops* |
| Species: | ***E. crawshayi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Euchrysops crawshayi***<br>(Butler, 1899) | |
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| Synonyms | |
| * *Scolitantides crawshayi* Butler, 1899 * *Scolitantides subdita* Grose-Smith, 1901 * *Cupido crawshayanus* Aurivillius, 1924 | |


title: Euchrysops malathana

abstract: Euchrysops malathana, the common smoky blue or smoky bean Cupid, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in south-western Arabia and Africa, south of the Sahara including Madagascar. The wingspan is 22–30 mm for males and 23–31 mm for females. Adults are on wing year-round, with a peak from December to May in South Africa. The larvae feed on Sphenostylis angustifolius, Medicago, Psidium, Canavalia and Vigna species.

text:
# Euchrysops malathana

***Euchrysops malathana***, the **common smoky blue** or **smoky bean Cupid**, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in south-western Arabia and Africa, south of the Sahara including Madagascar.

The wingspan is 22–30 mm for males and 23–31 mm for females. Adults are on wing year-round, with a peak from December to May in South Africa.

The larvae feed on *Sphenostylis angustifolius*, *Medicago*, *Psidium*, *Canavalia* and *Vigna* species (including *V. triloba* and *V. unguiculata*).

## InfoBox

| Common smoky blue | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| male, Senegal | |
|  | |
| Benin | |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | *Euchrysops* |
| Species: | ***E. malathana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Euchrysops malathana***<br>(Boisduval, 1833) | |
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| Synonyms | |
| * *Lycaena malathana* Boisduval, 1833 * *Lycaena asopus* Hopffer, 1855 * *Lycaena asopus* Hopffer, 1855 * *Lycaena kama* Trimen, 1862 | |


title: Eunice Hale Cobb

abstract: Eunice Hale Cobb was an American writer, public speaker, and activist. She was born in Kennebunk, Maine, in 1803 and she married Rev. Sylvanus Cobb in Hallowell, Maine, in 1822. She was a devoted and efficient assistant to his religious work as a Universalist preacher. Her eldest son, Sylvanus, Jr., derived much of his noted faculty for story-telling from her practice of telling him stories – often continued from evening to evening, as he sat at her feet when a child. She wrote hymns, and occasional poems, and obituary lines. Her faith in God was expressed in all her poetry. As a public speaker, she was very persuasive and convincing. She was the first female president of the Ladies Physiological Institute, of Boston, and served it in that capacity for some 15 years. She died in 1880.

text:
# Eunice Hale Cobb

**Eunice Hale Cobb** (née **Waite**; January 27, 1803 – May 2, 1880) was an American writer, public speaker, and activist. She was born in Kennebunk, Maine, in 1803 and she married Rev. Sylvanus Cobb in Hallowell, Maine, in 1822. She was a devoted and efficient assistant to his religious work as a Universalist preacher. Her eldest son, Sylvanus, Jr., derived much of his noted faculty for story-telling from her practice of telling him stories – often continued from evening to evening, as he sat at her feet when a child. She wrote hymns, and occasional poems, and obituary lines. Her faith in God was expressed in all her poetry. As a public speaker, she was very persuasive and convincing. She was the first female president of the Ladies Physiological Institute, of Boston, and served it in that capacity for some 15 years. She died in 1880.

## Early life and education

Eunice Hale Waite was born in Kennebunk, January 27, 1803, the second child of Elizabeth Stanwood and Captain Hale Waite. Her father had removed to Kennebunk from Ipswich, Massachusetts, a short time before Cobb was born, and he returned there soon after her birth, so that Ipswich was associated with her earliest childhood. Captain Waite died when Cobb was five years old, leaving a widowed mother and four children, two of whom died at a very early age.

After her father's death, Cobb was cared for by her maternal grandparents, who were Calvinists. At the age of ten, her mother married Samuel Locke (1784-1873), of Hallowell, a man of liberal education who was a school preceptor by profession. He was known to have exerted an influence on his stepdaughter. Thoroughly imbued with the Calvinistic doctrine by her grandparents, Cobb, at an early age, became a prominent member of the Baptist church of Hallowell. Asking her stepfather for spiritual guidance, he responded: "I will not try to shake your faith, but I would have you study candidly, patiently, intelligently, fearlessly, the Bible."

### Family

Of her genealogy, the following was contained in a son's memoir: —

Thomas Waite of Ipswich is first mentioned in 1658. He was appointed sergeant in 1664. His wife was complained of before the court for wearing a silk dress, but it was decided that she was entitled to do so. From various circumstances, it is supposed that Thomas Waite was of the same family with the Maiden Waites, and with'them descended from Samuel Waite of Wethersfield, Essex County, England; but the evidence of such descent seems unattainable. Of his five children, the second son, John, was born in 1658, died May 21, 1736. He married for his first wife, Kathren Carroll, August 14, 1685; for second wife, Hannah Dorr, November 16, 1712. Their children numbered eight. Jonadab, the third son, was born February 20, 1690, married Hannah Adams, September 11, 1725, and died July 6, 1761. They had one child, John, baptized August 17, 1729. He was married to Sarah Kimball, November 30, 1749; died in February 1752, leaving his widow, Sarah Waite (who in 1773 married John Hodgkins), and two children, of whom John, the youngest, was born April 24, 1752. In the year 1773 he married Eunice Hale of Newbury. March 1782, she died; and December 29, 1785, he took for his second wife, Judith Hale. John Waite died August 6, 1789. Of the three children by his first marriage, Hale was the second, born April 30, 1779; died 1807. He married Elizabeth Stanwood, and had two daughters, the youngest of whom was Eunice Hale, who married Sylvanus Cobb. In March 1684, Sergeant Thomas Waite was granted land on which to build a house for his son John; and it was in that house that Hale Waite, the father of Mrs. Cobb, was born.

Philip and Jane Stanwood were living in Gloucester in 1653, and from them Elizabeth was directly descended. Isaac Stanwood, born May 2, 1755, married Eunice Hodgkins of Ipswich, February 26, 1778. Their second child, and first daughter, was Elizabeth, born September 29, 1781; baptized October 14, 1781.

## Career

### Writer

Cobb followed her stepfather's advice, and the result was an article written by her, "The First Article", for the *Universalist Magazine* of April 21, 1821, a paper published by Henry Bowen, in Boston, and edited by Rev. Hosea Ballou. The article occupied one-fourth of the paper. Ballou decided to have this first article printed in sheets and distributed for the purpose of strengthening others who stood doubtful between the old and the new theologies. Two copies were printed on white satin and sent to the author.

In May 1821, at the age of 18, Cobb commenced a diary, which she kept until she died. In that same month, she heard a sermon by Rev. Sylvanus Cobb, a Universalist preacher. They were married in Hallowell, at her stepfather's house, on September 10, 1822. As a minister's wife, Cobb was first settled in Waterville, Maine. Her second settlement was in Malden, Massachusetts. Her next change was to their home of 22 years, in East Boston, with which church she was connected for 40 years. This home was so pleasant, they named it the "Castle of Peace".

Cobb was a frequent contributor to the religious press. She wrote a good deal for Universalist papers, writing in prose and verse. The most and best of her writings were of personal and local interest. Cobb's name as a writer appears in the work devoted to the poets of Maine, published at the end of the nineteenth-century, her poetry devoted to the good of humanity. Immediately after the death of her youngest son, James Arthur, at nine years of age, Cobb wrote his memoir.

### Activist

Cobb's life was spent in work for the public welfare, including Sunday schools. She had interests in all the great reforms of her day. In the cause of temperance, she was an effective worker and speaker. She was a champion for the rights of woman in the broadest sense. While she was not identified with the public advocates of woman's rights, she counted among her warmest and most devoted friends eminent leaders of this reform, and sympathetically interchanged views on this topic. She attended, by invitation, the first Woman's Rights Convention held in Massachusetts – at Worcester.

Cobb and her husband joined with Professor Charles P. Bronson in founding the Ladies' Physiological Institute of Boston, the leader of all similar institutions in this country, Rev. Cobb obtaining the charter for it. Professor Bronson acted as president, by courtesy, the first year. Cobb then became the first elected president, and served until old age compelled her to resign the leadership. She continued her official connection with the organization by serving as corresponding secretary until a short time before her death.

## Personal life

Cobb and her husband had nine children, including:

* Sylvanus, Jr. (1823–1887)
* Samuel Tucker (1825-1897)
* Eunice Hale (1827–1871)
* Ebenezer (1829–1898)
* George Winslow (1831-1909)
* Sarah Waite (1832–1853)
* Cyrus (1834–1903)
* Darius (1834–1919)
* James Arthur (1842–1852)

Five of her family served in the American Civil War: four sons, Sylvanus, Jr., George, Cyrus and Darius, as well as Lafayette Culver, husband of her daughter, Eunice Hale. Sylvanus, Jr., commanded at Fort Kittery, Maine, and the others served in Virginia and North Carolina.

Stanwood Cobb was a grandson.

Rev. Cobb died October 81, 1866, age 68, of hypertrophy of the heart. He was the author of a "Commentary on the New Testament," a "Compend of Divinity," and several other works. He founded, and for many years edited, the "Christian Freeman". He had been a Freemason.

Cobb was told that her name was inscribed on the Masonic record in such a manner as virtually to make her an honorary member of the order. She was also a prominent and active member of the Independent Order of Rechabites, a temperance association organized by women.

The first sign of her failing health was a paralytic shock. She had always desired to die in the old rocking chair in which her mother and grandmother died, while the Sunday morning bells were ringing; her wish was met. Cobb died at the residence of her son, George, on May 2, 1880, in East Boston, and was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery, Everett, Massachusetts.

Her papers, including diaries and biographical material, are held by Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University.

### Attribution

* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Cobb, Ella Waite (1891). *A Memoir of Sylvanus Cobb, Jr* (Public domain ed.). C. L. Peters & son, printers. p. 13.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Griffith, George Bancroft (1888). "Eunice Hale Waite Cobb". *The Poets of Maine: A Collection of Specimen Poems from Over Four Hundred Verse-makers of the Pine-tree State* (Public domain ed.). Portland, Maine: Elwell, Pickard & Co.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Hanson, E. R. (1884). "Eunice Hale Waite Cobb". *Our Woman Workers: Biographical Sketches of Women Eminent in the Universalist Church for Literary, Philanthropic and Christian Work* (Public domain ed.). Star and Covenant Office.
* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Howe, Julia Ward; Graves, Mary Hannah (1904). "Eunice Hale Waite Cobb". *Representative Women of New England* (Public domain ed.). New England Historical Publishing Company. p. 136.

## InfoBox

| Eunice Hale Cobb | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Eunice Hale Waite
January 27, 1803
Kennebunk, Maine, U.S. |
| Died | May 2, 1880(1880-05-02) (aged 77)
East Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. |
| Resting place | Woodlawn Cemetery, Everett, Massachusetts |
| Occupation | * Writer * public speaker * activist |
| Language | English |
| Notable works | "The First Article" |
| Spouse | Rev. Sylvanus Cobb (m. 1822) |
| Children | 9, including Sylvanus, Jr.; Cyrus; and Darius (twins) |
| Relatives | Stanwood Cobb (grandson) |


title: Eulalia Guzmán

abstract: Eulalia Guzmán Barrón (1890–1985) was a pioneering feminist and educator and nationalist thinker in post-revolutionary Mexico. She was one of the first women to work in the field of Mexican archeology. She was the lead investigator of the remains found in Ixcateopan, Guerrero, which she alleged to be those of the last Aztec Emperor, Cuauhtémoc. Three boards of inquiry on the archeological work done at the site refuted Guzmán's findings, calling her field methods into question. Her lasting legacy was the collection of Mexico's history from archives throughout the world and creation of the National Library of Anthropology and History.

text:
# Eulalia Guzmán

**Eulalia Guzmán Barrón** (1890–1985) was a pioneering feminist and educator and nationalist thinker in post-revolutionary Mexico. She was one of the first women to work in the field of Mexican archeology. She was the lead investigator of the remains found in Ixcateopan, Guerrero, which she alleged to be those of the last Aztec Emperor, Cuauhtémoc. Three boards of inquiry on the archeological work done at the site refuted Guzmán's findings, calling her field methods into question. Her lasting legacy was the collection of Mexico's history from archives throughout the world and creation of the National Library of Anthropology and History.

## Biography

Eulalia Guzmán Barrón was born 12 February 1890 in San Pedro Piedra Gorda, in the Cuauhtémoc Municipality, Zacatecas, Mexico. When she was eight years old, her family moved to Mexico City. From an early age, Guzmán rejected the idea that women were destined for domesticity and was determined to become a teacher. She was awarded a grant to study at the Normal School for Teachers and graduated in 1910. Socialist schooling methods introduced in Mexico at this time from Spain radicalized many teachers of the era. From 1909 to 1914, Guzmán served as Assistant for the Normal School.

In 1906, she co-founded *Admiradoras de Juárez* (Fans of Juárez) with Hermila Galindo, Laura N. Torres, and Luz Vera to agitate for women's suffrage. Guzmán, working with Herminia Álvarez Herrera, María Arias Bernal, and Dolores Sotomayor founded the Corregidor de Querétaro Vocational School to help women improve their economic circumstances. When President Francisco I. Madero was captured, Guzmán and Arias attempted a meeting with coup leader, Victoriano Huerta, to plea for the life of the president and his vice president. The school closed upon the assassination of Madero and the women agitated for the Constitutionalists through the *Club Feminil Lealtad* (Women's Loyalty Club). Political involvement resulted in Guzman's firing from Miguel Lerdo de Tejada School but she quickly got work teaching classes at Fournier High School.

Her educational background spurred the Constitutionalists to send Guzmán to the United States in 1921 to investigate schools there. While in the US, Guzmán, along with Elena Torres and Julia Nava de Ruisánchez represented the Mexican Feminist Council at the 1922 League of Women Voters convention in Baltimore, and the Pan-American Conference of Women. Returning to Mexico, she taught in a rural primary school in Bácum designed for Yaqui education and also ran a night school for adults. Between 1923 and 1924, she returned to Mexico City and served as the director of the national illiteracy campaign. From 1926-1929, Guzmán studied school organizational techniques in Europe, traveling to Switzerland and Germany. Back in Mexico, she obtained a master's degree in philosophy in 1933, from the School of Advanced Studies at UNAM.

She participated in the excavation of Tomb 7 of Monte Albán in 1933 with Alfonso Caso and in 1934 was one of the first to study the pre-Columbian site of Chalcatzingo. She was appointed to serve as the Director of the Department of Archaeology of the National Museum in 1934 and two years later was commissioned to visit museums and libraries in Europe and the US in search of documentation on Mexican history. She studied and traveled until 1940 creating a cataloged record of more than 3 thousand documents which were placed in the custody of Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) (National Institute of Anthropology and History). Guzman created the historical archive of the Biblioteca Nacional de Antropología e Historia (BNAH) (National Library of Anthropology and History). In 1942 she explored the archaeological sites of Izapa and Comitán in Chiapas and her own birthplace, San Pedro Piedra Gorda. Guzmán was appointed to head the historical archives of INAH in 1944 and held that position until her retirement in 1968. During this time she was studying and graduated in 1945 with a degree in archeology, working on a film project on Latin America with Walt Disney Studios, and excavating sites in Chachoapam, Nochistlán, Tamazulapan, Teposcolula and Yanhuitlán. In 1949, Guzmán was sent to investigate reports that the remains of the Aztec Emperor, Cuauhtémoc had been found in the village of Ixcateopan, Guerrero.

She died on 1 January 1985 in Mexico City.

Guzmán examined the documents purporting to have been from a Franciscan priest and believing them to be authentic began an excavation of the main church at Ixcateopan. She discovered bones which she declared to belong to Cuauhtémoc. Initially scholars congratulated Guzmán, but after an examination was conducted by INAH to confirm the findings, Guzmán's authentication was rejected. Public outcry brought prominent citizens of the indigenismo movement, including Diego Rivera and others, to support Guzman's conclusions that the bones in the ossuary were authentic. The Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) empaneled a "Grand Commission" composed of some of Mexico's most prominent scholars including Arturo Arnáiz y Freg, Alfonso Caso, Manuel Gamio, José Gómez Robleda and Manuel Toussaint for a second review. Their findings concluded the documents were forged, the bones were recent, and they reprimanded Guzmán for her methods.

Guzmán and others published numerous articles to refute the findings of the commission. The intellectual and scholarly community divided into the camp that supported Guzman and the camp that did not. In an effort to finally put the controversy to an end, a fourth commission was established in 1976 by president Luis Echeverría. Guillermo Bonfil Batalla, general director of INAH, assembled archeologists, architects, anthropologists, forensic examiners, and historians, who evaluated the archeological materials, re-excavated the site and re-examined the documentation. Their conclusions mirrored previous findings that the bones and claims were a hoax. Guzmán's loss of impartiality, though condemned by academia, did not dampen her popularity with native populations, who have honored her with festivals and renamed the town square in her honor.

## Selected publications

* *La escuela nueva o de la accion* (1923). (In Spanish)
* *Caracteres esenciales del arte antiguo mexicano: su sentido fundamental* (1932) (In Spanish)
* *Los relieves de las rocas del cerro de la Cantera, Jonacatepec, Morelos* (1934) (In Spanish)
* *Exploracion arqueologica en la Mixteca Alta* (1934) (In Spanish)
* *"Un "yugo" totonaco de Medellín, Ver"* *Boletín del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología*, Epoca 6a, T. 1 (1934) (In Spanish)
* *Un manuscrito de la colección Boturini que trata de los antiguos Señores de Teotihuacán* (1938) (In Spanish)
* "*The Art of Map-Making among the Ancient Mexicans*" *Imago Mundi* Vol. 3 (1939): 1-6. (In English)
* *Lo que vi y oí* (1941) (In Spanish)
* *Letter to Jaime Torres Bodet, 1950, and short papers on the tomb of Cuauhtémoc* (1950) (In English)
* with Alfonso Caso. *La genealogía y biografía de Cuauhtemoc: refutación a las afirmaciones del grupo oponente de la llamada Gran Comisión* (1954) (In Spanish)
* *Cuauhtémoc; datos biograficos y cronologicos segun la historia y la tradicion de Ixcateopan* (1955) (In Spanish)
* *Relaciones de Hernán Cortés a Carlos V sobre la invasión de Anáhuac* (1958) (In Spanish)
* *Pruebas y dictámenes sobre la autenticidad de los restos de Cuauhtémoc* (1962) (In Spanish)
* *Mexico, sus antiguos pobladores* (1963) (In Spanish)
* *Manuscritos sobre México en archivos de Italia* {1964) (In Spanish)
* *Moctezuma Xocoyotzin* (1966) (In Spanish)
* *Ichcateopan, la tumba de Cuauhtemoc : héroe supremo de la historia de México. \[Tradición oral, documentos, los dictamenes negativos, los concluyentes estudios químicos, antropológicos, históricos, matemáticos, anatómicos, paleográficos* (1973) (In Spanish)

## InfoBox

| Eulalia Guzmán | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Born | Eulalia Guzmán Barrón
12 February 1890
San Pedro Piedra Gorda, Zacatecas, Mexico |
| Died | January 1, 1985(1985-01-01) (aged 94)
Mexico City, Mexico |
| Nationality | Mexican |
| Occupation(s) | educator, anthropologist, archeologist |
| Years active | 1909 - 1968 |
| Known for | investigation of the remains of Cuauhtémoc and creation of the National Library of Anthropology and History (BNAH) |


title: Eunice Muñoz

abstract: Eunice Muñoz, OSE, GCIH was a Portuguese actress, considered one of the best Portuguese actresses of all time.

text:
# Eunice Muñoz

**Eunice Muñoz**, OSE, GCIH (30 July 1928 – 15 April 2022) was a Portuguese actress, considered one of the best Portuguese actresses of all time.

## Early life and career

She was born in Amareleja, Portugal. She studied at the Portuguese National Conservatory, nowadays the Lisbon Theatre and Film School (Escola Superior de Teatro e Cinema).

Muñoz was awarded the title of honoris causa by the University of Évora in 2009.

## Death

She died in Carnaxide on 15 April 2022, at the age of 93.

## Selected filmography

## InfoBox

| Eunice Muñoz | |
| --- | --- |
| Muñoz in 2012 | |
| Born | (1928-07-30)30 July 1928
Amareleja, Portugal |
| Died | 15 April 2022(2022-04-15) (aged 93)
Lisbon, Portugal |
| Occupation | Actress |
| Years active | 1943–2022 |
| Signature | |
|  | |


title: Eumicrotremus spinosus

abstract: Eumicrotremus spinosus, commonly known as the Atlantic spiny lumpsucker, is a species of lumpfish native to the Arctic and North Atlantic.

text:
# Eumicrotremus spinosus

***Eumicrotremus spinosus***, commonly known as the **Atlantic spiny lumpsucker,** is a species of lumpfish native to the Arctic and North Atlantic.

## Taxonomy

*Eumicrotremus spinosus* was first formally described as *Cyclopterus spinosus* in 1776 by the Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius, with its type locality given as Greenland.

In 1862 the American biologist Theodore Gill proposed a new genus *Eumicrotremus* with Fabricius's *Cyclopterus spinosus* designated as its type species.

## Description

The Atlantic spiny lumpsucker is a small fish that reaches a maximum length of 13.2 cm (5.2 in). The species appears to be variable in color but typically ranges from brown to dull orange or red. It is a benthic fish that feeds on crustaceans, smaller fishes, and *Oikopleura*.

## Distribution and habitat

Atlantic spiny lumpsuckers are found in the Arctic and coastal parts of the North Atlantic. They are known from the Barents Sea, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, the Hudson Bay, and the Canadian Arctic, as well as ranging south to Massachusetts.

Within Canada, they have been reported from Quebec, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. They occur at depths of 30 to 400 m (98 to 1312 ft), where they are most frequently seen over and on stony bottoms.

## InfoBox

| *Eumicrotremus spinosus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| At the Vancouver Aquarium | |
|  | |
| 1896 illustration | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Data Deficient  (IUCN 3.1) | |
|
Secure  (NatureServe) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Scorpaeniformes |
| Family: | Cyclopteridae |
| Genus: | *Eumicrotremus* |
| Species: | ***E. spinosus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eumicrotremus spinosus***
(J. C. Fabricius, 1776) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Cyclopterus spinosus*  J. C. Fabricius, 1776 * *Lethotremus armouri*  Fowler, 1914 * *Eumicrotremus spinosus eggvinii*  Koefoed, 1956 * *Eumicrotremus eggvinii*  Koefoed, 1956 | |


title: Eupithecia fuscicostata

abstract: Eupithecia fuscicostata is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found in Romania, North Macedonia and Greece, as well as the Near East and Iran.

text:
# Eupithecia fuscicostata

***Eupithecia fuscicostata*** is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found in Romania, North Macedonia and Greece, as well as the Near East and Iran.

## InfoBox

| *Eupithecia fuscicostata* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Geometridae |
| Genus: | *Eupithecia* |
| Species: | ***E. fuscicostata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Eupithecia fuscicostata***<br>Christoph, 1887 | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Eupithecia domogledana* Vojnits & Szabo, 1988 * *Eupithecia salami* Brandt, 1938 | |


title: Euphiuche

abstract: Euphiuche is a genus of moths of the family Erebidae. The genus was erected by Jeremy Daniel Holloway in 2008.

text:
# Euphiuche

***Euphiuche*** is a genus of moths of the family Erebidae. The genus was erected by Jeremy Daniel Holloway in 2008.

## Species

## InfoBox

| *Euphiuche* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Euphiuche picta* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Superfamily: | Noctuoidea |
| Family: | Erebidae |
| Subfamily: | Hypeninae |
| Genus: | *Euphiuche*<br>Holloway, 2008 |
|


title: Euphilotes pallescens

abstract: Euphilotes pallescens, the pale blue, pallid blue or pallid dotted blue, is a species of butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in the United States in southeastern California, Nevada, southern Utah and northern Arizona. The wingspan is 16–21 mm. Adults are on wing from July to September in one generation per year. They feed on the flower nectar of Eriogonum species. The larvae feed on the flowers and fruits of Eriogonum species, including E. kearneyi, E. microthecum and E. plumatella. The larvae are tended by ants.

text:
# Euphilotes pallescens

***Euphilotes pallescens***, the **pale blue**, **pallid blue** or **pallid dotted blue**, is a species of butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in the United States in southeastern California, Nevada, southern Utah and northern Arizona.

The wingspan is 16–21 mm. Adults are on wing from July to September in one generation per year. They feed on the flower nectar of *Eriogonum* species.

The larvae feed on the flowers and fruits of *Eriogonum* species, including *E. kearneyi*, *E. microthecum* and *E. plumatella*. The larvae are tended by ants.

## Subspecies

## InfoBox

| *Euphilotes pallescens* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Euphilotes pallescens arenamontana* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | *Euphilotes* |
| Species: | ***E. pallescens*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Euphilotes pallescens***<br>(Tilden & Downey, 1955) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Philotes pallescens* Tilden & Downey, 1955 * *Euphilotes rita pallescens* | |


title: Euphilotes rita

abstract: Euphilotes rita, the rita blue or desert buckwheat blue, is a species of butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico. The species was first described by William Barnes and James Halliday McDunnough in 1916. The wingspan is 17–22 mm. Adults are on wing from July to late September in one generation per year. They feed on the flower nectar of Eriogonum species. Its habitats include juniper-pinyon woodlands, sand dunes, oak woodland, and prairie grasslands. The larvae feed on the flowers and fruits of wild Eriogonum species, including Eriogonum effusum, Eriogonum flavum, Eriogonum leptocladon, Eriogonum racemosum and Eriogonum wrightii. The larvae are tended by ants. Adults feed on nectar from host plants and seep-willow.

text:
# Euphilotes rita

***Euphilotes rita***, the **rita blue** or **desert buckwheat blue**, is a species of butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico. The species was first described by William Barnes and James Halliday McDunnough in 1916.

The wingspan is 17–22 mm. Adults are on wing from July to late September in one generation per year. They feed on the flower nectar of *Eriogonum* species. Its habitats include juniper-pinyon woodlands, sand dunes, oak woodland, and prairie grasslands.

The larvae feed on the flowers and fruits of wild *Eriogonum* species, including *Eriogonum effusum*, *Eriogonum flavum*, *Eriogonum leptocladon*, *Eriogonum racemosum* and *Eriogonum wrightii*. The larvae are tended by ants. Adults feed on nectar from host plants and seep-willow.

## Subspecies

* *Euphilotes rita rita*
* *Euphilotes rita coloradensis* (Mattoni, 1966)
* *Euphilotes rita mattoni* (Shields, 1975)
* *Euphilotes rita emmeli* (Shields, 1975)

## InfoBox

| *Euphilotes rita* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Vulnerable  (NatureServe) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | *Euphilotes* |
| Species: | ***E. rita*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Euphilotes rita***
(Barnes & McDunnough, 1916) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Lycaena rita* Barnes & McDunnough, 1916 | |


title: Eurasian whimbrel

abstract: The Eurasian or common whimbrel, also known as the white-rumped whimbrel in North America, is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is one of the most widespread of the curlews, breeding across much of subarctic Asia and Europe as far south as Scotland. This species and the Hudsonian whimbrel have recently been split, although some taxonomic authorities still consider them to be conspecific.

text:
# Eurasian whimbrel

The **Eurasian** or **common whimbrel** (***Numenius phaeopus***), also known as the **white-rumped whimbrel** in North America, is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is one of the most widespread of the curlews, breeding across much of subarctic Asia and Europe as far south as Scotland. This species and the Hudsonian whimbrel have recently been split, although some taxonomic authorities still consider them to be conspecific.

## Taxonomy

The Eurasian whimbrel was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his *Systema Naturae* under the binomial name *Scolopax phaeopus*. It is now placed with the curlews in the genus *Numenius* that was introduced by the French ornithologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The genus name *Numenius* is from Ancient Greek *noumenios*, a bird mentioned by Hesychius. It is associated with the curlews because it appears to be derived from *neos*, "new" and *mene* "moon", referring to the crescent-shaped bill. The specific epithet *phaeopus* is the Medieval Latin name for the bird, from Ancient Greek *phaios*, "dusky" and *pous*, "foot". The English name "whimbrel" is imitative of the bird's call.

Five subspecies are recognised:

* *N. p. islandicus* Brehm, C.L., 1831 – breeds mainly in Iceland, but also in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland; winters mainly in West Africa, but ranges from southwestern Europe to Benin and Togo
* *N. p. phaeopus* (European whimbrel) (Linnaeus, 1758) – nominate, breeds from Norway to north central Siberia; winters in Africa and south and southeast Asia
* *N. p. alboaxillaris* Lowe, 1921 – breeds from western Kazakhstan to southwestern Siberia (rare, endangered); winters in south and east Asia
* *N. p. rogachevae* Tomkovich, 2008 – breeds in north central Siberia; winters in east Africa and west India
* *N. p. variegatus* (Scopoli, 1786) – breeds in northeastern Siberia; winters in India to Australia

The Hudsonian curlew (*Numenius hudsonicus*) was formerly considered to be conspecific. The two species were split based on genetic and plumage differences.

## Differences in species

The common whimbrel was traditionally considered a sub-cosmopolitan bird, breeding in Russia and Canada, then migrating to coasts all around the world to spend the winter. However the North American population of whimbrels was considered distinct enough to be considered a separate species from the common whimbrel. In 2020, the New World population was recognised as a separate species, with the whimbrel in North America being assigned to the binomial name *Numenius hudsonicus*.

Whilst very similar at an initial glance, there are several features that distinguish whimbrel species in the Old and New World. In appearance, the New World species has a more “faded” appearance, with differences in the supercilium and crown. By far the most significant difference may be seen in the lower half of the bird. Whimbrels in Europe and Asia have a primarily white rump that can be seen in flight, while whimbrel in the New World have a rump similar in colour to the rest of the bird - drab brown with dark streaking. As a result, whimbrel on vagrancy trips to North America may be known as the “white-rumped whimbrel”, while whimbrel vagrants from North America to Europe may be known as “Hudsonian whimbrel”.

When the context of their location is known, both species may be simply known as the whimbrel.

## Description

The Eurasian whimbrel is a fairly large wader, though mid-sized as a member of the curlew genus. It is 37–47 cm (15–19 in) in length, 75–90 cm (30–35 in) in wingspan, and 270–493 g (9.5–17.4 oz; 0.595–1.087 lb) in weight. It is mainly greyish brown, with a white back and rump (subspecies *N. p. phaeopus* and *N. p. alboaxillaris* only), and a long curved beak with a kink rather than a smooth curve. The usual call is a rippling whistle, prolonged into a trill for the song. The only similar common species over most of this bird's range are larger curlews. The whimbrel is smaller, has a shorter, decurved bill and has a central crown stripe and strong supercilia.

## Distribution and migration

The whimbrel is a migratory bird wintering on coasts in Africa, and South Asia into Australasia. It is also a coastal bird during migration. It is fairly gregarious outside the breeding season. It is found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, and it breeds in Scotland, particularly around Shetland, Orkney, the Outer Hebrides as well as the mainland at Sutherland and Caithness.

## Behaviour and ecology

### Breeding

The nest is a bare scrape on tundra or Arctic moorland. Three to five eggs are laid. Adults are very defensive of nesting area and will even attack humans who come too close.

### Food and feeding

This species feeds by probing soft mud for small invertebrates and by picking small crabs and similar prey off the surface. Before migration, berries become an important part of their diet. It has also been observed taking insects, specifically blue tiger butterflies

## Conservation

The whimbrel is listed in the *Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds*. Near the end of the 19th century, hunting on the Eurasian whimbrel's migration routes took a heavy toll on its population, which has since recovered. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and has been negatively impacted by climate change, habitat destruction and outbreaks of Avian flu to which it is susceptible.

The whimbrel and the Hudsonian curlew are considered to be conspecific.

## InfoBox

| Eurasian whimbrel | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *N. p. phaeopus* | |
|  | |
| *N. p. variegatus* | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Charadriiformes |
| Family: | Scolopacidae |
| Genus: | *Numenius* |
| Species: | ***N. phaeopus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Numenius phaeopus***
(Linnaeus, 1758) | |
|
|  | |
| Eurasian whimbrel range   Breeding  Migration  Non-breeding | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Scolopax phæopus* Linnaeus, 1758 | |


title: Eurasian wren

abstract: The Eurasian wren or northern wren is a very small insectivorous bird, and the only member of the wren family Troglodytidae found in Eurasia and Africa (Maghreb). In Anglophone Europe, it is commonly known simply as the wren. It has a very short tail which is often held erect, a short neck and a relatively long thin bill. It is russet brown above, paler buff-brown below and has a cream buff supercilium. The sexes are alike. The species was once lumped with Troglodytes hiemalis of eastern North America and Troglodytes pacificus of western North America as the winter wren. The Eurasian wren occurs in Europe and across the Palearctic – including a belt of Asia from northern Iran and Afghanistan across to Japan. It is migratory in only the northern parts of its range. It is also highly polygynous, an unusual mating system for passerines. The scientific name is taken from the Greek word "troglodytes", meaning "hole-dweller", and refers to its habit of disappearing into cavities or crevices whilst hunting arthropods or to roost. The taxonomy of the genus Troglodytes is currently unresolved, as recent molecular studies have suggested that Cistothorus spp. and Thryorchilus spp. are within the clade currently defined by Troglodytes.

text:
# Eurasian wren

The **Eurasian wren** (***Troglodytes troglodytes***) or **northern wren** is a very small insectivorous bird, and the only member of the wren family Troglodytidae found in Eurasia and Africa (Maghreb). In Anglophone Europe, it is commonly known simply as the **wren**. It has a very short tail which is often held erect, a short neck and a relatively long thin bill. It is russet brown above, paler buff-brown below and has a cream buff supercilium. The sexes are alike.

The species was once lumped with *Troglodytes hiemalis* of eastern North America and *Troglodytes pacificus* of western North America as the winter wren. The Eurasian wren occurs in Europe and across the Palearctic – including a belt of Asia from northern Iran and Afghanistan across to Japan. It is migratory in only the northern parts of its range. It is also highly polygynous, an unusual mating system for passerines.

The scientific name is taken from the Greek word "troglodytes" (from τρώγλη *troglē* "hole", and δῠ́ειν *dyein*, "creep"), meaning "hole-dweller", and refers to its habit of disappearing into cavities or crevices whilst hunting arthropods or to roost. The taxonomy of the genus *Troglodytes* is currently unresolved, as recent molecular studies have suggested that *Cistothorus* spp. and *Thryorchilus* spp. are within the clade currently defined by *Troglodytes*.

## Taxonomy

The Eurasian wren was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his *Systema Naturae* under the binomial name *Motacilla troglodytes*. The specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek **trōglodutēs** meaning "cave-dweller". In 1555 the German naturalist Conrad Gessner had used the Latin name *Passer troglodyte* for the Eurasian wren in his *Historiae animalium*. The species is now placed in the genus *Troglodytes* that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot in 1809.

The Eurasian wren was formerly considered conspecific with two North American species: the winter wren (*Troglodytes hiemalis*) and the Pacific wren (*Troglodytes pacificus*). Some ornithologists place the Eurasian wren, the winter wren and the Pacific wren in a separate genus *Nannus* that was introduced by the Swedish naturalist Gustaf Johan Billberg in 1828 with the Eurasian wren as the type species.

It was estimated that *Troglodytes pacificus* and *Troglodytes troglodytes* last shared a common ancestor approximately 4.3 million years ago, long before the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene, thought to have promoted speciation in many avian lineages inhabiting the boreal forest of North America.

There are 28 recognised subspecies of this taxonomically complex bird. The disputed subspecies *T. t. *orii**, the Daito wren, became extinct around 1940 – if it was indeed a valid taxon and not merely based on an anomaly. Thus in Scotland, in addition to the typical bird *T. t. indigenus*, there are three distinct insular subspecies: one, *T. t. hirtensis*, is confined to the island of St Kilda; another, *T. t. zetlandicus*, to the Shetland Islands; and the third, *T. t. fridariensis*, to Fair Isle. The St Kilda wren is greyer above, whiter beneath, with more abundant bars on the back; the Shetland wren and Fair Isle wren are darker.

## Description

The Eurasian wren is a plump, sturdy bird with rounded wings and a short tail, which is usually held cocked up. The adult bird is 9 to 10 cm (3.5 to 3.9 in) in length and has a wingspan of 13–17 cm (5.1–6.7 in). It weighs around 10 g (0.35 oz). It is rufous brown above, greyer beneath, and indistinctly barred with darker brown and grey, even on the wings and tail. The bill is dark brown and the legs are pale brown, the feet having strong claws and a large hind toe. Young birds are less distinctly barred and have mottled underparts. The plumage is subject to considerable variation, and where populations have been isolated, the variation has become fixed in one minor form or another.

### Vocalizations

The most common call is a sharp, repeated "tic-tic-tic", similar but faster and with less isolated notes compared to that of a robin. When the bird is annoyed or excited, its call runs into an emphatic *churr*, not unlike clockwork running down. The song is a gushing burst of sweet music, clear, shrill and emphatic. The male has remarkably long and complex vocalizations, with a series of tinkling trills one after the other for seconds on end. The bird has an enormous voice for its size, ten times louder, weight for weight, than a cockerel. The song begins with a few preliminary notes, then runs into a trill, slightly ascending, and ends in full clear notes or another trill. At any season the song may be heard, though it is most noticeable during spring. Despite its generally mouse-like behaviour, the male may sing from an exposed low perch as its whole body quivers from the effort. Its song may sometimes be confused with that of the dunnock, which has a warble that is shorter and weaker. The wren's song also incorporates repeated trill sounds while the dunnock's does not.

## Distribution and habitat

The Eurasian wren is a Palearctic species. The nominate race breeds in Europe as far north as 67°N in Norway and 64°N in Sweden, Finland and Russia. The bird's southern limit is northern Spain, southern France, Italy, Sicily and southern Russia. It also breeds in Western Asia as far east as Syria. It is replaced by other races in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland, the Hebrides, and St Kilda, and further south in northwestern Africa, Spain and Portugal, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete and Cyprus. Other races also occur in southern Russia and Japan.

It occupies a great variety of habitats, typically any kind of cultivated or uncultivated area with bushes and low ground cover; gardens, hedgerows, thickets, plantations, woodland and reed beds. It inhabits more open locations with clumps of brambles or gorse, rough pasture, moorland, boulder-strewn slopes, rocky coasts and sea cliffs.

## Behaviour and ecology

The wren is an ever-active bird, constantly on the move foraging for insects, in the open or among thick vegetation. It moves with quick jerks, probing into crevices, examining old masonry, hopping onto fallen logs and delving down among them. It sometimes moves higher in the canopy, but for the most part stays near the ground, often being flushed from under overhangs on banks. Sometimes it hops up the lower part of tree trunks, behaving like a miniature nuthatch. Occasionally it flits away, its short flights swift and direct but not sustained, its tiny round wings whirring as it flies.

This small, stump-tailed wren is almost as familiar in Europe as the robin. It is mouse-like, easily lost sight of when it is hunting for food, but is found everywhere from the tops of the highest moors to the sea coast.

It is a bird of the uplands even in winter, vanishing into the heather when snow lies thick above, a troglodyte indeed. It frequents gardens and farms, but it is quite as abundant in thick woods and in reed-beds.

At night, usually in winter, it often roosts, true to its scientific name, in dark retreats, snug holes and even old nests. In hard weather, it may do so in parties, consisting of either the family or of many individuals gathered together for warmth.

### Breeding

In most of northern Europe and Asia, it nests mostly in coniferous forests, where it is often identified by its long and exuberant song. Although it is an insectivore, it can remain in moderately cold and even snowy climates by foraging for insects on substrates such as bark and fallen logs. The male wren builds several nests in his territory; these are called "cock nests" but are never lined until the female chooses one to use. The number of nests on a territory influences the female's choice of mate; she preferentially mates with a male that had constructed numerous nests. Courtship includes display and posturing by the male. He sings with wings and tail half open, or with them drooping, sometimes with one wing extended, or the wings may be raised and lowered several times in quick succession.

The neatly-domed nest has a side entrance and is built of grass, moss, lichen and dead leaves, whatever is available locally. It is often tucked into a hole in a wall or tree trunk or a crack in a rock, but it is often built in brambles, a bush or a hedge, among ivy on a bank, in thatch, or in abandoned bird's nests such as those of the house sparrow, swallow, house martin and dipper. On making her selection, the female wren lines the nest generously with feathers.

A clutch of five or six (range three to eleven) eggs are laid from April onwards. These average 16.6 by 12.7 mm (0.65 by 0.50 in) and are white with variable amounts of reddish-brown speckles, mostly on the broad end. The female alone incubates these, and they hatch after 14 to 15 days. The young are fed on insects, spiders and other small invertebrates; there is no record of the male feeding the young in the nest, but he does do so after they have fledged, which happens after about 16 days. There are usually two broods.

Wrens are highly polygamous, that is to say a male can have, at any one time, more than one female with an active nest on his territory. An active nest is one in which there are eggs or nestlings. A male has been recorded with four females breeding on his territory. Bigamy and trigamy are the most common forms of polygamy.

### Food and feeding

Insects form the bulk of the diet; these are chiefly the larvae of butterflies and moths, such as geometer moths and owlet moths, as well as beetle larvae, fly larvae, caddisfly larvae and aphids. Other dietary items include spiders, and some seeds are also taken. The young are largely fed on moth larvae, with caterpillars of the cabbage moth and crane fly larvae having been identified.

## Relationship with humans

In European folklore, the wren is the king of the birds, according to a fable attributed to Aesop by Plutarch, when the eagle and the wren strove to fly the highest, the wren rested on the eagle's back, and when the eagle tired, the wren flew out above him. Thus, Plutarch implied, the wren proved that cleverness is better than strength. The wren's majesty is recognized in such stories as the Grimm Brothers' *The Willow-Wren and the Bear*. Aristotle and Plutarch called the wren *basileus* (king) and *basiliskos* (little king). In German, the wren is called *Zaunkönig* (king of the fence). An old German name was "Schneekönig" (snow king), and in Dutch, it is "winterkoning" (winter king), which all refer to *king*. In Japan, the wren is labelled king of the winds, and the myth of *The Wren Among the Hawks* sees the wren successfully hunt a boar that the hawks could not, by flying into its ear and driving it mad.

It was a sacred bird to the Druids, who considered it "king of all birds", and used its musical notes for divination. The shape-shifting Fairy Queen took the form of a wren, known as "Jenny Wren" in nursery rhymes. A wren's feather was thought to be a charm against disaster or drowning.

The wren also features in the legend of Saint Stephen, the first Christian martyr, who supposedly was betrayed by the noisy bird as he attempted to hide from his enemies. Traditionally, St. Stephen's Day (26 December) has been commemorated by *Hunting the Wren*, wherein young wrenboys would catch the bird and then ritually parade it around town, as described in the traditional "Wren Song". *The Wren, the Wren, the king of all birds, St. Stephen's day was caught in the furze. Although he is little, his family's great, I pray you, good landlady, give us a treat*. The tradition, and the significance of the wren as a symbol and sacrifice of the old year, is discussed in Sir James Frazer's *The Golden Bough*.

According to Suetonius, the assassination of Julius Caesar was foretold by an unfortunate wren. On the day before the Ides of March, a wren was seen being pursued in a frenzy by various other birds. With a conspicuous sprig of laurel clamped in its beak, the wren flew desperately into the Roman Senate, but there its pursuers overtook it and tore it to pieces.

### Cultural depictions

* In *The Jungle Book* by Rudyard Kipling, Limmershin, the winter wren (actually the Pacific wren), who was once thought of as the same species as the Eurasian wren, is the narrator of "The White Seal" story.
* Wrens have been featured on postage stamps from Albania, Alderney, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Faroe Islands, France, Germany, Britain, Guernsey, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jersey, the Netherlands, San Marino, the United States, and Vatican City.
* The wren is one of the animals of the Celtic zodiac.
* The old British farthing coin featured a wren on the reverse side from 1937 to 1960. The wren was chosen because it was thought of as Britain's smallest bird.

1. BirdLife International. (2018). "*Troglodytes troglodytes*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species*. **2018**: e.T103883277A132200296. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T103883277A132200296.en. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
2. Mayr, Ernst; Greenway, James C. Jr, eds. (1960). *Check-list of Birds of the World*. Vol. 9. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 421.
3. Brewer, David; Mackay, Barry Kent (2001). *Wrens, Dippers and Thrashers*. Christopher Helm. ISBN 1-873403-95-X.
4. Rice, Nathan H.; Peterson, A. Townsend; Escalona-Segura, Griselda (1999). "Phylogenetic patterns in montane *Troglodytes* wrens" (PDF). *The Condor*. **101** (2): 446–451. doi:10.2307/1370013. hdl:1808/16635. JSTOR 1370013.
5. Martínez Gómez, Juan E.; Barber, Bruian R.; Peterson, A. Townsend (2005). "Phylogenetic position and generic placement of the Socorro Wren (*Thryomanes sissonii*)". *Auk*. **12** (1): 50–56. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122\[0050:PPAGPO\]2.0.CO;2. hdl:1808/16612.
6. Linnaeus, Carl (1758). *Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1* (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii. p. 188.
7. Jobling, James A. (2010). *The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names*. London: Christopher Helm. p. 391. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
8. Gesner, Conrad (1555). *Historiae animalium liber III qui est de auium natura. Adiecti sunt ab initio indices alphabetici decem super nominibus auium in totidem linguis diuersis: & ante illos enumeratio auium eo ordiné quo in hoc volumine continentur* (in Latin). Zurich: Froschauer. pp. 625–627.
9. Vieillot, Louis Pierre (1809). *Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amérique Septentrionale : contenant un grand nombre d'espèces décrites ou figurées pour la première fois* (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Desray. p. 52. Dated 1807 on title page but not published until 1809.
10. Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2022). "Dapple-throats, sugarbirds, fairy-bluebirds, kinglets, hyliotas, wrens & gnatcatchers". *IOC World Bird List Version 12.1*. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
11. Chesser, R Terry; Banks, Richard C; Barker, F Keith; Cicero, Carla; Dunn, Jon L; Kratter, Andrew W; Lovette, Irby J; Rasmussen, Pamela C; Remsen, JV Jr; Rising, James D; Stotz, Douglas F; Winker, Kevin (2010). "Fifty-First Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-List of North American Birds". *The Auk*. **127** (3): 726–744 \[734–735\]. doi:10.1525/auk.2010.127.4.966.
12. Billberg, Gustav Johan (1828). *Synopsis faunae Scandinaviae* (in Latin). Vol. 1, Pars 2 Aves. Holmiae \[Stockholm\]: Caroli Deleen. p. 57.
13. Albrecht, F.; Hering, J.; Fuchs, E.; Illera, J.C.; Ihlow, F.; Shannon, T.J.; Collinson, J.M.; Wink, M.; Martens, J.; Päckert, M. (2020). "Phylogeny of the Eurasian Wren *Nannus troglodytes* (Aves: Passeriformes: Troglodytidae) reveals deep and complex diversification patterns of Ibero-Maghrebian and Cyrenaican populations". *PLOS ONE*. **15** (3): e0230151. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530151A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230151. PMC 7082076. PMID 32191719.
14. Barker, Frederick Keith (2017). *Molecular phylogenetics of the wrens and allies (Passeriformes, Certhioidea), with comments on the relationships of* Ferminia. American Museum novitates, no. 3887. New York: American Museum of Natural History. hdl:2246/6816.
15. Weir, J. T.; Schluter, D. (2004). "Ice sheets promote speciation in boreal birds". *Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences*. **271** (1551): 1881–1887. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2803. PMC 1691815. PMID 15347509.
16. Yamashina, Yoshimaro (1938): A new subspecies of *Troglodytes troglodytes* from the Borodino Islands. *Tori* **10**: 227–228.
17. Witherby, H.F., ed. (1943). *Handbook of British Birds*. Vol. 2: Warblers to Owls. H.F. and G. Witherby. pp. 213–219.
18. Cramp 1988, p. 525.
19. Cramp 1988, p. 541.
20. del Hoyo, J. Elliott, A. & Christie, D. (2005) *Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 10: Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes*. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-72-5.
21. Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, John C. (2012). *Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide*. Vol. 2: Attributes and Status (2nd ed.). Washington D.C. and Barcelona: Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History and Lynx Edicions. p. 353. ISBN 978-84-96553-87-3.
22. Peterson, R.; Mountfort, G.; Hollom, P.A.D. 1965. *A Field Guild to the Birds of Britain and Europe.* Collins
23. BBC.co.uk
24. Evans, Matthew R.; Burn, Joe L. (1966). "An experimental analysis of mate choice in the wren: a monomorphic, polygynous passerine". *Behavioral Ecology*. **7** (1): 101–108. doi:10.1093/beheco/7.1.101.
25. Burn J. L., 1996, Polygyny and the Wren, D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford
26. Plutarch, *Political Precepts* xii.806e; Laura Gibb, tr. *Aesop's Fable* #238; Plutarch's brief account is referenced by Erasmus, *Adages* iii.7.1, accounting for the hostility of the eagle ("a creature at war with everyone") towards the wren
27. Aristotle, *The History of Animals*, IX.11.
28. Yanagita, Kunio (1942). *Japanese Folk Tales*. Translated by Hagin Meyer, Fanny. pp. 5–6.
29. Lawrence, Elizabeth (1997). *Hunting the Wren*. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. p. 26. ISBN 0870499602.
30. Hymns and Carols of Christmas on-line Text retrieved 20 November 2007
31. Frazer, James George (1890). *The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion* (two vols). Macmillan, 1890. Full text (HTML) retrieved 20 November 2007
32. Suetonius (1890). *The Lives of the Twelve Caesars*. p. 50. Retrieved 13 November 2010.
33. The Jungle Book
34. 33c Pacific Coast Rain Forest pane of ten at the Smithsonian National Postal Museum website. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
35. "Winter wren *Troglodytes troglodytes*". bird-stamps.org. Archived from the original on 29 October 2000. Retrieved 22 August 2020.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
36. "Explore Your Celtic Zodiac Sign". 4 October 2020.
37. Cavendish, Richard (12 December 2010). "The Farthing's Last Day". History Today. Retrieved 22 August 2020.

## Sources

* Cramp, Stanley; et al., eds. (1988). "*Troglodytes troglodytes* Wren". *Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic*. Vol. V: Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 525–542. ISBN 978-0-19-857508-5.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| Eurasian wren | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nominate subspecies in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Troglodytidae |
| Genus: | *Troglodytes* |
| Species: | ***T. troglodytes*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Troglodytes troglodytes***
(Linnaeus, 1758) | |
|
|  | |
| Breeding summer visitor   Breeding resident   Non-breeding winter visitor | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Motacilla troglodytes* Linnaeus, 1758 * *Nannus troglodytes* (Linnaeus, 1758) * *Troglodytes parvulus*
K.L. Koch | |


title: Eurasian three-toed woodpecker

abstract: The Eurasian three-toed woodpecker is a medium-sized woodpecker that is found from northern Europe across northern Asia to Japan.

text:
# Eurasian three-toed woodpecker

The **Eurasian three-toed woodpecker** (***Picoides tridactylus***) is a medium-sized woodpecker that is found from northern Europe across northern Asia to Japan.

## Taxonomy

The Eurasian three-toed woodpecker was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his *Systema Naturae*. He coined the binomial name *Picus tridactylus*. The type locality is Sweden. The specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek *tridaktulos* meaning "three-toed" (*tri-* is "three-" and *daktulos* is toe). The species is now placed in the genus *Picoides* that was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. The Eurasian three-toed woodpecker was formerly considered conspecific with the American three-toed woodpecker (*Picoides dorsalis*).

Eight subspecies are recognised:

* *P. t. tridactylus* (Linnaeus, 1758) – northern Europe to the southern Ural Mountains and to south-eastern Siberia and north-eastern China
* *P. t. alpinus* Brehm, CL, 1831 – central and south-eastern Europe to western Ukraine and Romania
* *P. t. crissoleucus* (Reichenbach, 1854) – northern Ural Mountains to eastern Siberia
* *P. t. albidior* Stejneger, 1885 – eastern Siberia and Kamchatka Peninsula
* *P. t. tianschanicus* Buturlin, 1907 – eastern Kazakhstan and western China
* *P. t. kurodai* Yamashina, 1930 – north-eastern China and North Korea
* *P. t. inouyei* Yamashina, 1943 – Japan (Hokkaido)
* *P. t. funebris* Verreaux, J, 1871 – central China

The subspecies *P. t. funebris* is sometimes treated as a separate species, the dark-bodied woodpecker.

## Description

The Eurasian three-toed woodpecker is 21–22 cm (8.3–8.7 in) in length, just a little smaller than the great spotted woodpecker. The adult has black and white plumage except for the yellow crown of the male. Neither sex has any red feathers. It has black wings and rump, and white from the throat to the belly; the flanks are white with black bars. The back is white with black bars, and the tail is black with the white outer feathers barred with black. Juveniles of both sexes have a yellow crown.

The voice call of the Eurasian three-toed woodpecker is a *kik* or *chik*

The breeding habitat is coniferous forests across the Palearctic from Norway to Korea. There are also populations in the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains.

Three-toed woodpeckers nest in a cavity in a dead conifer or sometimes a live tree or pole. The pair excavates a new nest each year.

This bird is normally a permanent resident, but northern birds may move south and birds at high elevations may move to lower levels in winter.

Three-toed woodpeckers forage on conifers in search of wood-boring beetle larvae or other insects. They may also eat fruit and tree sap.

These birds often move into areas with large numbers of insect-infested trees, often following a forest fire or flooding.

1. BirdLife International (2016). "*Picoides tridactylus*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species*. **2016**: e.T22727137A87304270. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22727137A87304270.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
2. BirdLife International and NatureServe (2014) Bird Species Distribution Maps of the World. 2014. Picoides tridactylus. In: IUCN 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". Archived from the original on 2014-06-27. Retrieved 2014-04-23.. Downloaded on 26 May 2015.
3. Linnaeus, Carl (1758). *Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis* (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 114.
4. Peters, James Lee, ed. (1948). *Check-List of Birds of the World*. Vol. 6. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 215.
5. Jobling, James A. (2010). *The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names*. London: Christopher Helm. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
6. Lacépède, Bernard Germain de (1799). "Tableau des sous-classes, divisions, sous-division, ordres et genres des oiseux". *Discours d'ouverture et de clôture du cours d'histoire naturelle* (in French). Paris: Plassan. p. 7. Page numbering starts at one for each of the three sections.
7. Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (2020). "Woodpeckers". *IOC World Bird List Version 10.1*. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
8. Zink, Robert M.; Rohwer, Sievert; Andreev, Alexander V.; Dittman, Donna (July 1995). "Trans-Beringia comparisons of mitochondrial DNA differentiation in birds" (PDF). *Condor*. **97** (3): 639–649. doi:10.2307/1369173. JSTOR 1369173.
9. BirdLife International (2016). "*Picoides funebris*". *IUCN Red List of Threatened Species*. **2016**: e.T22727144A94942125. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22727144A94942125.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
10. Cramp 1985, pp. 913–914.

## Sources

* Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1985). "*Picoides tridactylus* Three-toed woodpecker". *Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic*. Vol. IV: Terns to Woodpeckers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 913–923. ISBN 978-0-19-857507-8.

## Further reading

* Gorman, Gerard (2004): Woodpeckers of Europe: A Study of the European Picidae. Bruce Coleman, UK. ISBN 1-872842-05-4.
* Fayt, Philippe; Machmer, Marlene M.; Steeger, Christoph (2005). "Regulation of spruce bark beetles by woodpeckers — a literature review". *Forest Ecology and Management*. **206** (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.10.054.

## InfoBox

| Eurasian three-toed woodpecker | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Piciformes |
| Family: | Picidae |
| Genus: | *Picoides* |
| Species: | ***P. tridactylus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Picoides tridactylus***
(Linnaeus, 1758) | |
|
|  | |
| Eurasian three-toed woodpecker range. | |
|  | |
| The range in Europe. | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Picus tridactylus* Linnaeus, 1758 | |


title: The Contact Show

abstract: The Contact Show was an Australian daytime television variety series which aired on TCN-9 during 1960. Featuring Bob Geraghty and George Wallace Jnr, it featured a mix of comedy and music. The series proved short-lived. Aired at 2:00PM in a 60-minute time-slot, the series competed in its time-slot against Your Home and Menus for Moderns on ATN-7 and For Schools on ABN-2.

text:
# The Contact Show

***The Contact Show*** was an Australian daytime television variety series which aired on TCN-9 during 1960. Featuring Bob Geraghty and George Wallace Jnr, it featured a mix of comedy and music.

The series proved short-lived.

Aired at 2:00PM in a 60-minute time-slot, the series competed in its time-slot against *Your Home* and *Menus for Moderns* on ATN-7 and *For Schools* on ABN-2.

## InfoBox

| *The Contact Show* | |
| --- | --- |
| Genre | Variety |
| Starring |  |
| Country of origin | Australia |
| Original language | English |
| No. of seasons | 1 |
| Production | |
| Running time | 60 minutes |
| Original release | |
| Network | TCN-9 |
| Release | 1960 (1960) <br>1960 (1960) |


abstract: The Women's moguls competition at the FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2019 was held on February 8, 2019.

text:
# FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2019 – Women's moguls

The **Women's moguls** competition at the FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2019 was held on February 8, 2019.

## Qualification

The qualification was started at 12:45. The best 18 skiers qualified for the final.

| Rank | Bib | Start
order | Name | Country | Q1 | Q2 | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 2 | 5 | Jakara Anthony | Australia | 75.80 |  | Q |
| 2 | 1 | 2 | Perrine Laffont | France | 75.11 |  | Q |
| 3 | 9 | 11 | Justine Dufour-Lapointe | Canada | 69.81 |  | Q |
| 4 | 3 | 19 | Jaelin Kauf | United States | 68.83 |  | Q |
| 5 | 4 | 16 | Yuliya Galysheva | Kazakhstan | 68.08 |  | Q |
| 6 | 8 | 23 | Hinako Tomitaka | Japan | 65.10 |  | Q |
| 7 | 19 | 6 | Seo Jung-hwa | South Korea | 64.90 |  | Q |
| 8 | 21 | 17 | Maia Schwinghammer | Canada | 64.47 |  | Q |
| 9 | 13 | 12 | Sofiane Gagnon | Canada | 64.08 |  | Q |
| 10 | 12 | 25 | Nessa Dziemian | United States | 60.85 | **64.92** | Q |
| 11 | 14 | 18 | Anastasia Smirnova | Russia | 61.77 | **62.15** | Q |
| 12 | 6 | 24 | Chloé Dufour-Lapointe | Canada | 58.90 | **62.07** | Q |
| 13 | 5 | 3 | Tess Johnson | United States | DNF | **60.86** | Q |
| 14 | 26 | 4 | Thea Wallberg | Sweden | **56.59** | 48.87 | Q |
| 15 | 20 | 29 | Makayla Gerken Schofield | Great Britain | **55.36** | 52.38 | Q |
| 16 | 28 | 30 | Sophie Ash | Australia | 49.18 | **53.44** | Q |
| 17 | 11 | 15 | Junko Hoshino | Japan | 39.06 | **53.20** | Q |
| 18 | 24 | 9 | Taylah O'Neill | Australia | 47.45 | **52.95** | Q |
| 19 | 27 | 28 | Claudia Gueli | Australia | **51.57** | DNF |  |
| 20 | 10 | 21 | Britteny Cox | Australia | **50.01** | 47.14 |  |
| 21 | 18 | 22 | Kisara Sumiyoshi | Japan | **48.18** | DNF |  |
| 22 | 32 | 27 | Ayaulum Amrenova | Kazakhstan | **47.03** | 44.53 |  |
| 23 | 33 | 10 | Park Sung-youn | South Korea | 36.26 | **39.61** |  |
| 24 | 34 | 8 | Seo Jee-won | South Korea | **30.79** | 15.90 |  |
| 25 | 15 | 20 | Olivia Giaccio | United States | 21.71 | **30.25** |  |
| 26 | 7 | 1 | Laura Grasemann | Germany | 24.33 | **27.95** |  |
| 27 | 30 | 26 | Guan Ziyan | China | 6.36 | **21.32** |  |
| 28 | 35 | 7 | Aurora Amundsen | Norway | **16.89** | DNF |  |
| 29 | 39 | 32 | Viktoriia Pryimak | Ukraine | 6.13 | **7.37** |  |
| 30 | 36 | 33 | Josefina Wersén | Sweden | **5.65** | DNF |  |
| 31 | 37 | 34 | Ma Zhuoni | China | 4.63 | **4.83** |  |
| 32 | 29 | 14 | Wang Jin | China | **4.74** | DNS |  |
| 33 | 38 | 31 | Ning Qin | China | DNF | **1.27** |  |
|  | 31 | 13 | Kristine Gullachsen | Norway | Did not started | | |

## Final

The final was started at 19:00.

| Rank | Bib | Name | Country | Final 1 | Final 2 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 4 | Yuliya Galysheva | Kazakhstan | 74.48 | 79.14 |
|  | 2 | Jakara Anthony | Australia | 79.58 | 78.99 |
|  | 1 | Perrine Laffont | France | 78.31 | 78.70 |
| 4 | 14 | Anastasia Smirnova | Russia | 70.63 | 72.67 |
| 5 | 9 | Justine Dufour-Lapointe | Canada | 72.67 | 71.25 |
| 6 | 3 | Jaelin Kauf | United States | 76.71 | 66.41 |
| 7 | 6 | Chloé Dufour-Lapointe | Canada | 70.13 |  |
| 8 | 8 | Hinako Tomitaka | Japan | 68.68 |  |
| 9 | 11 | Junko Hoshino | Japan | 68.47 |  |
| 10 | 13 | Sofiane Gagnon | Canada | 67.73 |  |
| 11 | 20 | Makayla Gerken Schofield | Great Britain | 66.32 |  |
| 12 | 5 | Tess Johnson | United States | 66.11 |  |
| 13 | 24 | Taylah O'Neill | Australia | 64.68 |  |
| 14 | 12 | Nessa Dziemian | United States | 59.22 |  |
| 15 | 28 | Sophie Ash | Australia | 59.18 |  |
| 16 | 26 | Thea Wallberg | Sweden | 56.30 |  |
| 17 | 19 | Seo Jung-hwa | South Korea | 34.46 |  |
| 18 | 21 | Maia Schwinghammer | Canada | DNS |  |

## InfoBox

| Women's moguls
at the FIS Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships 2019 | |
| --- | --- |
| Venue | Deer Valley |
| Location | Utah, United States |
| Dates | February 8 |
| Competitors | 33 from 14 nations |
| Winning points | 79.14 |
| Medalists | |
| Kazakhstan  Australia  France | |
|


abstract: Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Taylor & Francis. It was founded in 2004 by the QIRT committee, with a strong connection to the QIRT conference. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2016 impact factor of 1.062.

text:
# Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal

***Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal*** is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Taylor & Francis. It was founded in 2004 by the QIRT committee, with a strong connection to the QIRT conference. According to the *Journal Citation Reports*, the journal has a 2016 impact factor of 1.062.

## Topics covered

*Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Journal* covers all aspects of Thermography, with topics ranging from instrumentation, theoretical and experimental practices, data reduction and image processing related to infrared thermography.

## Article categories

The journal publishes articles in the following categories:

* Original research articles
* Research reviews

## Abstracting and indexing

The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

## InfoBox

*Quantitative InfraRed Thermography*
| Discipline | Electrical and Electronical Engineering |
| --- | --- |
| Language | English |
| Edited by | Christiane Maierhofer |
| Publication details | |
| History | 2004-present |
| Publisher | Taylor & Francis |
| Frequency | Biannual |
| Impact factor | 1.062 (2016) |
| Standard abbreviations
 | |
| ISO 4 | *Quant. InfraRed Thermogr. J.* |
| Indexing
 | |
| ISSN | 1768-6733 (print)
2116-7176 (web)
 |
| Links | |
|  | |


title: CFOR-FM

abstract: CFOR-FM is a Canadian radio station that broadcasts an active rock format at 99.3 FM in Maniwaki, Quebec. The station originally signed on in 1975 at 1340 AM as CKMG, until it moved to its current frequency in 1993. The CFOR callsign was adopted in 1999. The station is currently owned by Radio CFOR Inc. On October 27, 2009, the station applied to add an FM transmitter at Mont-Laurier, Quebec and was denied by the CRTC on April 16, 2010. If approved, the new transmitter would have broadcast on 98.3 MHz. On July 31, 2020 in decision 2020-238 the CRTC chose to not renew this station's license which expires August 31, 2020.

text:
# CFOR-FM

**CFOR-FM** is a Canadian radio station that broadcasts an active rock format at 99.3 FM in Maniwaki, Quebec.

The station originally signed on in 1975 at 1340 AM as CKMG, until it moved to its current frequency in 1993. The CFOR callsign was adopted in 1999. (The CFOR callsign was formerly used at a radio station in Orillia, Ontario.)

The station is currently owned by Radio CFOR Inc.

On October 27, 2009, the station applied to add an FM transmitter at Mont-Laurier, Quebec and was denied by the CRTC on April 16, 2010. If approved, the new transmitter would have broadcast on 98.3 MHz.

On July 31, 2020 in decision 2020-238 the CRTC chose to not renew this station's license which expires August 31, 2020.

46°24′08″N 75°56′45″W / 46.40222°N 75.94583°W / 46.40222; -75.94583

## InfoBox

CFOR-FM
|  | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Frequency | 99.3 FM |
| Branding | Pur Rock 99,3 |
| Programming | |
| Format | active rock |
| Ownership | |
| Owner | Radio CFOR Inc. |
| History | |
| First air date | 1975 (AM)
1993 (FM) |
| Technical information | |
| Class | A |
| ERP | horizontal polarization only:
2.4 kWs |
| HAAT | 99 meters (325 ft) |