title: Camarasaurus

abstract: Camarasaurus was a genus of quadrupedal, herbivorous dinosaurs and is the most common North American sauropod fossil. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation, dating to the Late Jurassic epoch, between 155 and 145 million years ago. Camarasaurus presented a distinctive cranial profile of a blunt snout and an arched skull that was remarkably square, typical of basal Macronarians. The name means "chambered lizard", referring to the hollow chambers, known as pleurocoels, in its cervical vertebrae. Camarasaurus contains four species that are commonly recognized as valid: Camarasaurus grandis, Camarasaurus lentus, Camarasaurus lewisi, and Camarasaurus supremus. C. supremus, the type species, is the largest and geologically youngest of the four. Camarasaurus is the type genus of Camarasauridae, which also includes its European close relative Lourinhasaurus. Camarasaurus was named in 1877 by Edward Drinker Cope, during the period of scientific rivalry between him and Othniel Charles Marsh known as the Bone Wars. Soon after, Marsh named a genus Morosaurus, but it was subsequently shown to be synonymous with Camarasaurus.

text:
# Camarasaurus

***Camarasaurus*** (/ˌkæmərəˈsɔːrəs/ *KAM-ər-ə-SOR-əs*) was a genus of quadrupedal, herbivorous dinosaurs and is the most common North American sauropod fossil. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation, dating to the Late Jurassic epoch (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian stages), between 155 and 145 million years ago.

*Camarasaurus* presented a distinctive cranial profile of a blunt snout and an arched skull that was remarkably square, typical of basal Macronarians.

The name means "chambered lizard", referring to the hollow chambers, known as pleurocoels, in its cervical vertebrae (Greek καμαρα (**kamara**) meaning "vaulted chamber", or anything with an arched cover, and σαυρος (**sauros**) meaning "lizard").

*Camarasaurus* contains four species that are commonly recognized as valid: *Camarasaurus grandis*, *Camarasaurus lentus*, *Camarasaurus lewisi*, and *Camarasaurus supremus*. *C. supremus*, the type species, is the largest and geologically youngest of the four. *Camarasaurus* is the type genus of Camarasauridae, which also includes its European close relative *Lourinhasaurus*.

*Camarasaurus* was named in 1877 by Edward Drinker Cope, during the period of scientific rivalry between him and Othniel Charles Marsh known as the Bone Wars. Soon after, Marsh named a genus *Morosaurus*, but it was subsequently shown to be synonymous with *Camarasaurus*.

## History

### Initial discovery

The first record of *Camarasaurus* comes from the spring of 1877 when Mr. Oramel William Lucas of Cañon City, Colorado discovered some large vertebrae at Garden Park, which he sent to Edward Drinker Cope who was based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The original material sent consisted of a partial cervical vertebra, which would become the taxon's namesake, three dorsal vertebrae, and four caudal vertebrae. This specimen is now thought to have been composed of several individuals. From these initial fragmentary remains, Cope made his original description of *Camarasaurus supremus* (“supreme chambered lizard”) and founded the genus; these remains are now in the American Museum of Natural History under the catalogue number AMNH 560. After receiving the original bones, Cope employed collectors who gathered more of the material which was described in 1921 by Henry Osborn and Charles Mook.

The amount of material was great, it composed of several jumbled partial skeletons. It was not all prepared at once, but a considerable amount of it was cleaned up by Jacob Geismar under Cope's direction throughout the 1870s to 1890s. In 1877 a reconstruction of the skeleton of *Camarasaurus* was painted by Dr. John Ryder on several canvasses, under the direction of Professor Cope who would use them in lectures to impress his audience. This reconstruction would be the first ever made of a sauropod dinosaur, was natural size and represented the remains of a number of individuals. The reconstruction was over fifty feet in length. Cope's collectors sent in more material from 1877 to 1878, and as Cope would get more material, he would name taxa based on these newly sent remains. Most of these additional taxa are now considered dubious or synonymous with *Camarasaurus*. By the end of collecting in Garden Park, at least four individuals and several hundred bones had been found from nearly every part of the skeleton.

### Como Bluff finds and *Morosaurus*

The next *Camarasaurus* discovery came later in 1877, when a fragmentary posterior skull and a partial postcranial skeleton was discovered and collected in Quarry 1, Como Bluff, Wyoming by crews working for Othniel Charles Marsh. This skeleton would be the best preserved single individual of *Camarasaurus* at the time, and it was named as a new species of *Apatosaurus* in 1877. The specimen was not fully collected until 1879 and the specimen contains the majority of a juvenile's skeleton (holotype YPM 1901) Meanwhile, crews working for Edward Cope in Garden Park, collected a fragmentary specimen consisting of a femur and 2 caudal vertebrae was made a new species of *Amphicoelias* by Cope which he named *Amphicoelias latus* in 1877. This species was tentatively synonymized with *C. supremus* in 1921. In 1998, Kenneth Carpenter argued that the stratigraphic position of the find suggested it was more likely to be synonymous with *C. grandis*, but in a 2005 study of the biostratigraphic distribution of *Camarasaurus*, Takehito Ikejiri retained it in synonymy with *C. supremus*. In 1878, a sauropod sacrum was discovered with several other jumbled sauropod postcranial elements, again at Como Bluff. The remains were also sent to Marsh and in 1878 the sacrum was assigned to a new genus and species, *Morosaurus impar* ("unpaired stupid lizard"). *Morosaurus* would receive several new species throughout the late 19th century, even becoming part of a new family in 1892, the Morosauridae. A majority of *Morosaurus* species are now considered dubious, including the type species, or reclassified. In 1889, a new species of *Morosaurus* was named based on a partial skull and skeleton from Como Bluff. *Morosaurus lentus* was the name given to the skeleton (holotype YPM 1910) and the skeleton was mounted in the Yale Peabody Museum fossil hall in 1930.

### Second Dinosaur Rush finds

In the late 1890s, the American Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum found additional *Morosaurus* material at Como Bluff and Fruita respectively. Mostly consisting of limb material, the new *Morosaurus* material led to new reconstructions of sauropod manus and pes structure. The AMNH made an important discovery in 1899 at their Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming with the discovery of the first complete *Camarasaurus* skull and mandible with associated cervical vertebrae. Major reassessment of *Morosaurus* and *Camarasaurus* came in 1901, a reassessment by Elmer Riggs concluded that of the five *Morosaurus* species named by Marsh, only three were valid. *Morosaurus grandis*, *Morosaurus lentus*, and *Morosaurus agilis* (now known as *Smitanosaurus*) were accepted as valid, with *Morosaurus impar* synonymous with *M. grandis*. Possible synonymy between *Morosaurus* and *Camarasaurus* was also suggested by Riggs. In 1905, the first mounted skeleton of a sauropod was mounted at the AMNH of a *Brontosaurus*, the skull of the mount was notoriously based on material that was likely from a *Camarasaurus* from Como Bluff.

The Carnegie Museum had an important *Camarasaurus* discovery in 1909 of a nearly complete skeleton of a juvenile, now under specimen number CM 11338. The specimen was notably found articulated in a death pose and is prominently displayed at the Carnegie Museum hall. Earl Douglass discovered the specimen and it was collected from 1909 to 1910 by Carnegie Museum crew working at Dinosaur National Monument. This skeleton was not described until 1925 by Charles W. Gilmore This specimen was referred to *Camarasaurus lentus*. The skeleton is one of the best sauropod specimens known, with almost every element preserved in articulation including the fragile cervical vertebrae.

Another *Camarasaurus* skeleton was found in 1918, again at Dinosaur National Monument by Carnegie crews, this specimen can be viewed at the National Museum of Natural History. The specimen, known as USNM V 13786, was traded to the USNM in 1935 and prep work started on the specimen in 1936 at the Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas where it could be viewed by visitors of the event. Preparation work would continue until 1947 when the skeleton was mounted in a death pose in the fossil hall. The USNM's *Camarasaurus* was also referred to *C. lentus*.

In 1919, W. J. Holland would name *Uintasaurus douglassi* based another sauropod specimen from DNM that was discovered by the Carnegie Museum in 1909. The type specimen was incomplete, consisting of 5 anterior cervical vertebrae, and is a synonym of *Camarasaurus lentus*. Additional *Camarasaurus* material was found at near Black Mesa in western Oklahoma during the 1940s and has been referred to *Camarasaurus supremus**,* the material consists of many large vertebrae and some skull elements.

### Resurgent discoveries

No major discoveries would come for *Camarasaurus* until in 1967, James Jensen collected a well preserved and articulated partial postcranial skeleton, including majority of the vertebral column, at Uncompahgre Hill in western Colorado and was deposited at Brigham Young University under specimen number BYU 9740. The skeleton wasn't full prepared until years later, and was described in 1988 as a new genus and species of Camarasaurid, *Cathetosaurus lewisi*. *C. lewisi*'s original description was brief, but later in 1996 the skeleton was given a full osteology and placed as a species of *Camarasaurus* by John McIntosh and colleagues. In their paper, they determined that *C. supremus, C. grandis, C. lentus,* and *C. lewisi* were valid. In 2013, Octavio Mateus and Emanuel Tschopp argued that *C. lewisi* was actually its own genus based on a specimen found at Howe Quarry in 1992 that they referred to the species. Further research by Tschopp concluded that the Howe Quarry specimen was most likely to represent *Camarasaurus* after all. As of 2019, most researchers considered *C. lewisi* to be a species of *Camarasaurus*.

In 1992, another substantial and articulated skeleton of *Camarasaurus* was collected, this skeleton by Jeffrie Parker and colleagues near the AMNH's Bone Cabin Quarry at Como Bluff. This skeleton was referred to *Camarasaurus grandis* and is one of the most complete specimens assigned to the species, it now resides at the Gunma Museum of Natural History in Tokyo under specimen number GMNH-PV 101. 1992 saw yet another *Camarasaurus* skeleton discovery further north at Howe Quarry, Wyoming by crews working for the Sauriermuseum Aathal in Switzerland. The skeleton is one of the best known, with nearly every element articulated and skin impressions from the skull and hindlimb. The specimen, SMA 002, has not yet gotten a full identification, but has been suggested to be a specimen of *C. lewisi*. In 1996, several fragmentary remains of *Camarasaurus* were described from western South Dakota and New Mexico, extending the northeastern and southern range of the genus, with the New Mexican remains from the Summerville Formation. The northernmost specimen of *Camarasaurus* was discovered in 2005 in the Snowy Mountains region of central Montana and consists of a nearly complete skull and several postcranial elements.

## Fossil record

*Camarasaurus* fossils are very common. Over 500 specimens are known, including many isolated bones and about 50 partial skeletons. It is found in a wide area over the western United States, from as far north as Montana to as far south as New Mexico, in rocks of the Morrison Formation. Due to this abundance, *Camarasaurus* is a very well-known sauropod. A juvenile specimen of *Camarasaurus*, CM 11338, is the most complete sauropod skeleton ever discovered. Numerous skulls are known. Even though complete necks are rarely found in sauropods, five specimens of *Camarasaurus* preserve all or nearly all of the cervical vertebrae. Most identifiable specimens of *Camarasaurus* belong to one of two species, *C. grandis* and *C. lentus*; *C. lewisi* and *C. supremus* are rarer.

## Description

*Camarasaurus* is among the most common and frequently well-preserved sauropod dinosaurs uncovered and has been well described in numerous publications. Similar to other Macronarians, it had the typical large naris, long forelimbs, and short tail compared to the contemporary Diplodocids. *Camarasaurus* was a medium-sized sauropod compared to contemporary species in the same formation, but in the Tithonian reached large sizes with *C. supremus*. The maximum size of the most common species, *C. lentus*, was about 15 m (49 ft) in length. The largest species, *C. supremus*, reached a maximum length of 18 meters (59 ft) - 23 m (75 ft) and, a maximum estimated weight of 47 metric tons (51.8 tons). In 2016, Gregory S. Paul estimated its weight at 23 metric tons (25.4 tons), whereas in 2020, John Foster estimated its weight at 42.3 metric tons (46.6 tons).

The arched skull of *Camarasaurus* was remarkably square and the blunt snout had many fenestrae. The robust skull of *Camarasaurus* preserves much better than many other sauropods, unlike the gracile skulls that Diplodocids that are also found in the Morrison Formation. The 19-cm-long (7.5-in) teeth were shaped like chisels (spatulate) and arranged evenly along the jaw. The strength of the teeth indicates that *Camarasaurus* probably ate coarser plant material than the slender-toothed diplodocids.

A specimen of *Camarasaurus* called SMA 0002 (which has also been assigned to *Cathetosaurus*) from Wyoming's Howe-Stephens Quarry, referred to as "E.T.", shows evidence of soft tissue. Along the jaw line, ossified remains of what appear to have been the animal's gums have been recovered, indicating that it had deep-set teeth covered by gums, with only the tips of the crowns protruding. The teeth were, upon death, pushed further out from their sockets as the gums retracted, dried, and tightened through decay. The examinations of the specimen also indicate that the teeth were covered by tough outer scales and possibly a beak of some variety, though this is not known for certain.

The neck of *Camarasaurus* was of only moderate length by sauropod standards. It was composed of 12 vertebrae. Most of the cervical neural spines were bifurcated, with more vertebrae developing bifurcated neural spines as the animal grew. As in other sauropods, the vertebrae of the neck and torso contained chambers that in life were filled by air sacs connected to the respiratory system. The air sacs could take up more than half of the space inside the vertebrae, making them as highly pneumatic as the bones of birds. It is these chambers that give *Camarasaurus* its name, "chambered lizard".

The tail of *Camarasaurus* was composed of 53 vertebrae.

## Classification and species

*Camarasaurus* is the type genus of the family Camarasauridae, members of which are medium-sized Macronarian sauropods that mostly date to the Late Jurassic. Camarasaurids had shorter forelimbs than hindlimbs, large scapulocoracoids, and longer tails than necks. When Edward Cope described *Camarasaurus* in 1877, he believed it was a dinosaur closely related to *Cetiosaurus, Bothriospondylus, Ornithopsis, Anchisaurus* (*Megadactylus*), and *Pneumatosteus*, but didn’t name a group for these taxa until the description of *Amphicoelias* when he erected Camarasauridae. *Camarasaurus* is the only taxon uncontroversially regarded as a valid genus of camarasaurid. It contains four species: *C. grandis*, *C. lentus*, *C. lewisi*, and *C. supremus*. *C. lewisi* may represent a distinct genus, *Cathetosaurus*. *Lourinhasaurus*, the type species of which was formerly assigned to *Camarasaurus*, is regarded as a camarasaurid by most studies, though it has also been considered to be a basal eusauropod.

A simplified cladogram of basal Macronaria after Tan et al (2020) is shown below:

*Camarasaurus* is considered to be a basal macronarian, more closely related to the common ancestor of all macronarians than to more derived forms like *Brachiosaurus*.

### Species

*Camarasaurus* is regarded as containing four valid species by most researchers: *C. grandis*, *C. lentus*, *C. lewisi*, and *C. supremus*. *C. supremus*, the species named by Cope in 1877, is the type species. *C. grandis* was named in 1877 and *C. lentus* in 1889. The fourth species, *C. lewisi*, is of uncertain affinities. It was originally described as a distinct genus, *Cathetosaurus*, in 1988, but reclassified as a species of *Camarasaurus* in 1996. Some researchers have suggested that *Cathetosaurus* should be reinstated as a distinct genus, whereas others have suggested that *C. lewisi* may be synonymous with another *Camarasaurus* species.

*C. supremus*, as its name suggests, is the largest known species of *Camarasaurus* and one of the most massive sauropods known from the late Jurassic Morrison Formation. Except for its huge size, it was nearly indistinguishable from *C. lentus*. *C. supremus* was not typical of the genus as a whole, and is known only from the latest, uppermost parts of the formation and is extremely uncommon. Both *C. grandis,* *C. lentus,* and *C. lewisi* were smaller, as well as occurring in the earlier stages of the Morrison.

Stratigraphic evidence suggests that chronological sequence aligned with the physical differences between the three species, and it describes an evolutionary progression within the Morrison Formation. *C. grandis* is the oldest species and occurred in the lowest rock layers of the Morrison. *C. lewisi* only briefly coexisted with *C. grandis* in the lowest strata of the upper Morrison until going extinct, but it is possible this is because of a lack of specimens from *C. lewisi*. *C. lentus* appeared later, co-existing with *C. grandis* for several million years, possibly due to different ecological niches as suggested by differences in the spinal anatomy of the two species. At a later stage, *C. grandis* disappeared from the rock record, leaving only *C. lentus*. Then *C. lentus*, too, disappeared; at the same time, *C. supremus* appeared in the uppermost layers. This immediate succession of species, as well as the very close similarity between the two, suggests that *C. supremus* may have evolved directly from *C. lentus*, representing a larger, later-surviving population of animals.

#### Synonyms and dubious species

* *Amphicoelias latus* was named by Edward Cope in 1877 based on a right femur and 4 caudal vertebrae found at Garden Park and is synonymous with either *C. supremus* or *C. grandis*.
* *Caulodon diversidens* was also named by Cope in 1877 on, now dubious, teeth that can only be placed as a Macronarian or as synonymous with *Camarasaurus supremus*.
* *Caulodon leptoganus* was named in 1878 by Cope on 2 partial teeth and is also considered to be unclassifiable beyond Macronaria or as synonymous with *Camarasaurus supremus*.
* *Morosaurus impar* was named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of *Morosaurus*, and the material consisted only of a sacrum and possibly additional postcranial material found at Como Bluff. It is now considered a synonym of *C. grandis.*
* *Morosaurus robustus* was named on the basis of an ilium by Marsh in 1878 collected at Como Bluff. It is now considered a synonym of *C. grandis*.
* *Camarasaurus leptodirus* was another one of Cope's Garden Park sauropods and was named in 1879 on 3 partial cervical vertebrae, it has been suggested to be a synonym of *C. supremus*.
* *Diplodocus lacustris* was named by Othniel Marsh in 1884 on the basis of several teeth, a premaxilla, and a maxilla from Morrison, Colorado that were collected by Arthur Lakes and Benjamin Mudge in 1877. Although the teeth and dentary of *D. lacustris* are Flagellicaudatan, the skull material is likely that of a *Camarasaurus*.
* *Pleurocoelus montanus* was also named by Marsh in 1896 as a new species of *Pleurocoelus*, the material consisting of several vertebral centra and assorted postcrania of a juvenile individual from Como Bluff. It is generally regarded as a synonym of *C. grandis.*
* *Uintasaurus douglassi* was named in 1919 by W. J. Holland for 5 anterior cervical vertebrae from Dinosaur National Monument, the species was later regarded as a synonym of *Camarasaurus lentus*.
* *Camarasaurus annae* was named by Tage Ellinger based on an anterior dorsal vertebra in 1950. This species is generally considered a synonym of *C.lentus.*

#### Reassigned species

* *Morosaurus agilis* was named in 1889 by Marsh based on a partial skull and 3 vertebrae from Garden Park, Colorado. The species remained in taxonomic uncertainty until in 2020, it was placed in a new genus, *Smitanosaurus*, and reclassified as a dicraeosaurid.
* *Camarasaurus becklesiii* was described as *Pelorosaurus becklesii* in 1842 by Gideon Mantell based on a partial forelimb from Sussex, United Kingdom. It was placed in *Morosaurus* by Marsh in 1889 and *Camarasaurus* by von Huene in 1932 until in 2015, it was placed in its own genus, *Haestasaurus*.
* *Morosaurus marchei* was named by Sauvage in 1898 based on an incomplete distal caudal vertebra and tooth from the Upper Jurassic strata of the Alcobaca Formation of Portugal. Lapparent & Zbyszewski referred the holotype vertebra to *Megalosaurus insignis* and Madsen *et al*., 1995 referred it to Megalosauria. The referred tooth was identified as belonging to Turiasauria in 2017.
* *Camarasaurus alenquerensis* was named as a species of *Apatosaurus* in 1957 by Albert-Félix de Lapparent and Georges Zbyweski on a partial postcranial skeleton from Lourinha, Portugal. It was placed in *Camarasaurus* by John McIntosh in 1990, but was granted a new genus in 1998, *Lourinhasaurus*.

## Paleobiology

### Feeding

Previously, scientists have suggested that *Camarasaurus* and other sauropods may have swallowed gastroliths (stones) to help grind the food in the stomach, regurgitating or passing them when they became too smooth. More recent analysis, however, of the evidence for stomach stones suggests this was not the case. The strong, robust teeth of *Camarasaurus* were more developed than those of most sauropods and were replaced on average every 62 days (M. D'Emic et al.), indicating that *Camarasaurus* may have masticated food in its mouth to some degree before swallowing. Other findings indicate that *Camarasaurus* spp. preferred vegetation different from other sauropods, allowing them to share the same environment without competing.

### Growth

Long-bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached. A study by Griebeler *et al.* (2013) examined long-bone histological data and concluded that the *Camarasaurus* sp. **CM 36664** weighed 14,247 kilograms (15.7 short tons), reached sexual maturity at 20 years and died at age 26.

### Metabolism

Eagle *et al.* performed clumped isotope thermometry on the enamel covering the teeth of various Jurassic sauropods, including *Camarasaurus*. Temperatures of 32.4–36.9 °C (90.3–98.4 °F) were obtained, which is comparable to that of modern mammals. *Camarasaurus* grew in size quickly to limit the time it would be vulnerable to predation. This would imply it had a relatively high metabolic rate as a juvenile.

### Paleopathology

A *Camarasaurus* pelvis recovered from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah shows gouging attributed to *Allosaurus* and on the ilium of the *C. lewisi* holotype there are large Theropod bite marks.

In 1992, a partial *C. grandis* skeleton was discovered at the Bryan Small Stegosaurus Quarry of the Morrison Formation near Canon City, Colorado. This specimen preserved a partial right humerus cataloged as DMNH 2908 and associated vertebrae from the back and tail. In 2001, Lorie McWhinney, Kenneth Carpenter, and Bruce Rothschild published a description of a pathology observed on the humerus. They noted a juxtacortical lesion 25 by 18 cm wide made of bone that resembled woven fibers. Although woven bone forms in accessory dental bone, in other locations, it is a sign of injury or illness. The woven bone's "undulating fibrous bundles" were observed oriented in the direction of the *m. brachialis*. The lesion's fusion and lack of porosity at its near and far ends indicate the periostitis was inactive or healed. McWhinney and the other researchers argued that this injury would have been a continuous source of hardship for the animal. It would have exerted pressure on the muscles. This pressure would have compressed the muscles' blood vessels and nerves, reducing the range of motion of both the limb's flexor and extensor muscles. This effect would have hindered the *M. brachialis*, *m. brachoradialis*, and to a lesser degree the *m. biceps brachii* to the lesion's position on the humerus. The researchers inferred that the inflammation of the muscles and periosteum would have caused additional complications in the lower region of the fore limb, as well. The lesion would also have caused long-term fasciitis and myosistis. The cumulative effect of these pathological processes would have moderate to severe effects on the ability of the limb to move and "made everyday activities such as foraging for food and escaping predators harder to accomplish." To help determine the cause of the pathology, McWhinney and the other researchers performed a CT scan in 3-mm increments. The CT scan found that the mass had a consistent radiodensity and was separated from the cortex of the bone by a radiolucent line. No evidence was found of stress fracture or infectious processes like osteomyelitis or infectious periostitis. They also ruled out osteochondroma because the axis of the spur is 25° relative to the vertical axis of the humerus, whereas an osteochondroma would have formed at 90° to the axis of the humerus. Other candidates identified by the scientists for the origin of the spur-bearing lesion included:

1. Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy – although this was ruled out by the presence of the spur-like process
2. Osteoid osteoma – but this would not explain the spur or osteoblastic reaction
3. Shin splints or tibial stress syndrome – a possible origin, as many symptoms would be held in common, but shin splints would not explain the spur.
4. Myositis ossificans traumatica (circumscripta) – Possible, but unlikely source.
5. Avulsion injury – McWhinney and the other researchers considered an avulsion injury caused by "repetitive overexertion of the muscles" to be the most likely source for the lesion on the humerus. The researchers believed the lesion to have originated with the avulsion of the *m. brachialis* causing the formation of "a downward-sloping elliptical mass". The bone spur was caused by an osteoblastic response following a tear at the base of the *m. brachioradialis* caused by its flexor motion.

## Paleoecology

### Habitat

The Morrison Formation, situated along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, is home to a fossil-rich stretch of Late Jurassic rock. A large number of dinosaur species can be found here, including relatives of *Camarasaurus* such as *Diplodocus*, *Apatosaurus*, and *Brachiosaurus*, but camarasaurs are the most abundant of the dinosaurs in the formation. *Camarasaurus* fossils have been found in almost every major locality and have one of the greatest known distributions of Morrison dinosaurs, with fossils found in localities from New Mexico to Montana and Utah to Oklahoma. According to radiometric dating, the Morrison sedimentary layers range between 156.3 million years ago (Mya) at the base, to 146.8 Mya at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. Its environment is interpreted as semiarid with distinct wet and dry seasons.

Dinosaur and trace fossils are found particularly in the Morrison Basin, which stretches from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. Eroded material from their east-facing drainage basins was carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. The formation is similar in age to the Lourinha Formation in Portugal and the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation in Argentina, Camarasaurid fossils have been found at the 2 formations. In 1877, it became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope, with *Camarasaurus* itself being discovered and named by the latter Paleontologist during the conflict.

### Paleofauna

The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as *Maraapunisaurus*, *Amphicoelias, Barosaurus,* *Diplodocus*, *Apatosaurus*, *Brontosaurus*, and *Brachiosaurus*. Dinosaurs living alongside *Camarasaurus* included the herbivorous ornithischians *Camptosaurus*, *Gargoyleosaurus*, *Dryosaurus*, *Stegosaurus*, and *Nanosaurus*. Predators in this paleoenvironment included the theropods *Saurophaganax*, *Torvosaurus*, *Ceratosaurus*, *Marshosaurus*, *Stokesosaurus*, *Ornitholestes*, and *Allosaurus*, which accounted for up to 75% of theropod specimens, and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. *Camarasaurus* is commonly found at the same sites as *Allosaurus*, *Apatosaurus*, *Stegosaurus*, and *Diplodocus*.

Other organisms in this region included bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphs, and several species of pterosaurs such as *Harpactognathus* and *Mesadactylus*. Early mammals present were docodonts (such as *Docodon*), multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the *Araucaria*-like conifer *Brachyphyllum*.

### Works cited

## InfoBox

| *Camarasaurus*<br>Temporal range: Late Jurassic, | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Mounted skeletal cast at the Jurassic Museum of Asturias | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| *Clade*: | Dinosauria |
| *Clade*: | Saurischia |
| *Clade*: | Sauropodomorpha |
| *Clade*: | Sauropoda |
| *Clade*: | Macronaria |
| Family: | Camarasauridae |
| Subfamily: | Camarasaurinae<br>Cope, 1878 |
| Genus: | *Camarasaurus*<br>Cope, 1877a |
|
| Type species | |
| ***Camarasaurus supremus***<br>Cope, 1877a | |
| Other species | |
|  | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Caulodon* <br>Cope, 1877 * *Morosaurus* <br>Marsh, 1878 * *Uintasaurus* <br>Holland, 1924 * *Cathetosaurus*? <br>Jensen, 1988 | |


title: Camaralet

abstract: Camaralet is a white French wine grape variety that is grown primarily in Southwest France. While historically known for its strong aromatics and flavor profile, the grape has been declining in importance and planting and is now nearly extinct.

text:
# Camaralet

**Camaralet** is a white French wine grape variety that is grown primarily in Southwest France. While historically known for its strong aromatics and flavor profile, the grape has been declining in importance and planting and is now nearly extinct.

## Relationship to other grapes

The Camaralet may have some relation to another grape grown in Jurançon and Béarn AOCs, Camaraou noir which is also known under the synonym *Camaralet noir*, but DNA analysis has shown that the two varieties are distinct and not color mutations of one or the other. However, the two varieties share several synonyms.

## Synonyms

Various synonyms have been used to describe Camaralet and its wines, including Camaralet blanc, Camaralet à Fleurs Femelles, Camaralet de Lasseube, Camarau, Camaraou blanc, Gentil aromatique, Moustardet and Petit Camarau.


title: Schizocosa rovneri

abstract: Schizocosa rovneri is a species of wolf spider found in the United States. Its habitat is primarily leaf litter along floodplains.

text:
# Schizocosa rovneri

***Schizocosa rovneri*** is a species of wolf spider found in the United States. Its habitat is primarily leaf litter along floodplains.

## Courtship

During courtship, males will bounce and audibly stridulate. Females are more likely to cannibalize males at high temperatures.

## Ecology

This species is a host for multiple species of *Ogcodes* parasitoid larvae, including *Ogcodes borealis* and *Ogcodes pallidipennis*.

## InfoBox

| *Schizocosa rovneri* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Araneae |
| Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
| Family: | Lycosidae |
| Genus: | *Schizocosa* |
| Species: | ***S. rovneri*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Schizocosa rovneri***<br>Uetz & Dondale, 1979 | |
|


title: Camp Randall

abstract: Camp Randall was a United States Army base in Madison, Wisconsin, the largest staging point for Wisconsin troops entering the American Civil War. At this camp fresh volunteers received quick training before heading off to join the Union Army. Also located on the grounds were a hospital and briefly a prisoner-of-war camp for captured Confederate soldiers. Today the camp's land is split between UW athletic buildings including Camp Randall Stadium, the College of Engineering, and Camp Randall Memorial Park with its historic and memorial displays. In 1971 the Memorial Park section was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, considered "the single most important site in Wisconsin relating to the state's participation in the Civil War."

text:
# Camp Randall

**Camp Randall** was a United States Army base in Madison, Wisconsin, the largest staging point for Wisconsin troops entering the American Civil War. At this camp fresh volunteers received quick training before heading off to join the Union Army. Also located on the grounds were a hospital and briefly a prisoner-of-war camp for captured Confederate soldiers.

Today the camp's land is split between UW athletic buildings including Camp Randall Stadium, the College of Engineering, and Camp Randall Memorial Park with its historic and memorial displays. In 1971 the Memorial Park section was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, considered "the single most important site in Wisconsin relating to the state's participation in the Civil War."

## Training/Mustering camp

When the Civil War broke out after the fall of Fort Sumter in April 1861, President Lincoln called for troops from the state militias to put down the rebellion. He initially asked Wisconsin for one regiment of 780 men for three months. Wisconsin Governor Alexander Randall, a strong abolitionist, promptly pledged that first regiment to the Union cause, and more to come. The first regiment of volunteers organized at Camp Scott in Milwaukee. The second regiment organized in Madison, and Camp Randall was rapidly established for them, with recruits already there by May 1. Subsequent regiments assembled at Fond du Lac, Racine, and other places, but the majority ended up mustering at Camp Randall - 70,000 of the 91,000 who served from Wisconsin over the course of the war.

Just a few years before the war, in 1858 and 1860, the camp's flat open area on what was then the west side of Madison had hosted the Wisconsin State Fair. With the outbreak of war, the Wisconsin Agricultural Society provided its fairground to be used as a training camp. Some of the new recruits bunked in what had been the State Fair's cattle sheds, while others lived in tents. The fair's machinery exhibit building was converted to a mess hall that could feed 3,000 men at a time. And the fair's Floral Hall held the hospital and officers' quarters. Some fair sheds housed cavalry animals, and other buildings were constructed. 45 barracks buildings were each 80 by 20 feet, with bunks three high, each housing up to 100 men. An eight foot fence surrounded the 10-acre camp, with two manned gates. One of those gates was where the Memorial Arch stands now.

The typical recruits' day at Camp Randall began at 5am with a cannon shot that woke thousands. The men had volunteered from around the state, arriving in companies of 100. Each company typically came from one region - students and young businessmen from Madison, farm-boys from Delton, lumberjacks from Eau Claire, etc. Ten companies formed each regiment of a thousand recruits. The camp could handle several regiments at once. The recruits' mornings and afternoons were largely spent drilling - learning marching, muskets, cooking in the field, and discipline. Most of the recruits were young unmarried fellows, seventeen to twenty-one years old, with no military experience. In some cases older veterans of the Mexican War or European wars ran the drills for the green recruits. Once the recruits had uniforms, a dress parade was common in the evening, sometimes admired by visitors from town. Later in the candle-lit barracks men played cards, told stories, sang, read newspapers, and read letters from home.

A company from Eau Claire bought a young bald eagle on their way to Camp Randall, and he became Old Abe, the famous mascot of the 8th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment. Less well-known, a pet black bear named Bruin came along to Camp Randall with Harlan Squires, a 16-year-old recruit from Delton. Bruin became a mascot and pet of the 12th Regiment. They built him a shelter at Camp Randall and a 12-foot post to climb while they trained.

But not all was noble, orderly, and whimsical. Soldiers wrote home complaining of fleas in their straw bedding, of cold guard duty in January, and of getting sick from being fed spoiled beef. Some caused a ruckus in town while out on pass. Some spent their idle time drinking and gambling. Some even spent time locked in the guardhouse.

Training for a regiment lasted "from a few weeks to two months or more." When training finished and the early regiments left for duty, they were celebrated with speeches from notables, brass bands, church bells, and large crowds. As the war dragged on, the send-off celebrations for later regiments continued, but became less elaborate.

The units that mustered at Camp Randall fought in important battles of the war, including the First Battle of Bull Run, Antietam, Gettysburg, and the Wilderness campaign, and many gave their lives. Fresh replacement troops to fill in for soldiers lost or discharged were also trained at Camp Randall. As surviving Wisconsin soldiers completed their tours, which were now three years, most of the troops that trained at Camp Randall returned there for mustering out.

## Prison camp

In April 1862, Union forces captured thousands of Confederate soldiers at Island No. 10 on the Mississippi River in southern Missouri. About 1200 of them were sent to Camp Randall - mostly from the 1st Alabama Infantry Regiment, along with some from Tennessee, Arkansas, and other places. Some had been injured or sick to begin with, and all suffered an eight-day ride on an overcrowded boat up the Mississippi. A rough barracks was set up for the prisoners and the 19th Regiment was sent over from Racine to guard them.

Conditions in camp were generally decent for a Civil War POW stockade, but not good. The army scrimped on rations, prisoners fought each other, there was antagonism between prisoners and guards, the hospital was overloaded so that sick prisoners lay on the floor, and prisoners died at an alarming rate. The camp didn't have a good fence, so some healthy prisoners just walked out. Because of the poor infrastructure and spotty discipline, it took half of the 19th Regiment to guard the thousand prisoners - Union soldiers who were needed elsewhere. So on May 30, all the healthy-enough POWs were shipped by train to Camp Douglas in Chicago. Some sick POWs remained, gradually transferring out or dying over the next few months. By the end, 138 of 1200 prisoners had died over the course of a few months. The prisoners who died at Camp Randall were buried in a mass grave at Forest Hill Cemetery, commemorated at Confederate Rest.

## Since the war

After the war the army camp was deactivated and its open area was used intermittently for the Barnum circus and the Dane County Fair, until that fair moved to a different site. There was talk of splitting the parcel into city lots to sell, but the Civil War veterans who had trained there objected. The site was purchased by the state of Wisconsin in 1893 and deeded to the University of Wisconsin. Football play began there in 1895.

Of the original 53½ acres, a segment was set aside as Camp Randall Park in 1911. The Memorial Arch was added in 1912, fifty years after the war, located where one of the camp's gates stood, where soldiers would have entered and left. It was designed by Lew F. Porter, with a statue on the left of a young Civil War recruit, and a statue on the right of an aging Civil War veteran in 1912. The arch is topped with a statue of the mascot eagle Old Abe.

Another portion was used for Camp Randall Stadium, begun in 1916 as an outdoor football stadium for the university and expanded many times since. The UW Field House was added on the original property in 1930.

In 1971 Camp Randall Memorial Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as "the site most significantly associated with Wisconsin's participation in the Civil War." The plaque under Memorial Arch reads:

Erected by
the
STATE OF WISCONSIN
to mark the entrance
through which passed
seventy thousand of
her soldier sons and
five hundred thousand
relatives and friends
during the war from
1861 to 1865
"Lest we forget"
MDCCCCXII

## Further reading

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Camp Randall | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
| Camp Randall arch designed by Lew F. Porter | |
|  | |
| Location | Camp Randall Memorial Park, Madison, Wisconsin |
| Coordinates | 43°4′11″N 89°24′34″W / 43.06972°N 89.40944°W / 43.06972; -89.40944 |
| Area | 5 acres (2.0 ha) |
| Built | 1861 |
| NRHP reference No. | 71000036 |
| Added to NRHP | June 7, 1971 |


title: Camille's Sidewalk Cafe

abstract: Camille's Sidewalk Cafe is an American former international restaurant franchise headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, specializing in healthful, "fast casual" cuisine. In 2003 Camille's had more than 100 locations, and as of May 2013 had 36 locations in the United States. Camille's was ranked #37 in Entrepreneur magazine's top 50 new franchises. Camille's Sidewalk Cafe was founded in 1996 by David Rutkauskas, his wife Camille and father Otto, with the first location opening in the Woodland Hills Mall in Tulsa in October of that year. In January 2008, the company reached an agreement with Wal-Mart to include Camille's restaurants in new Wal-Mart supercenters, with as many as 200 such locations opening 2018. Stand-alone Camille's locations in Puerto Rico were scheduled to open in 2008, with 21 under development in Puerto Rico.. In 2008, the company launched 3 cafes in Bahrain and 2 in Dubai. The Rutkauskas' company, Beautiful Brands, also owns other franchise concepts including FreshBerry, a frozen yogurt chain. According to a May 14, 2013 article in the Tulsa World, the chain peaked at 107 restaurants in 2009. In the years that followed, two-thirds of the chain's locations have been closed, leaving 36 locations in the United States, and the chain has faced vocal criticisms from some franchisees as well as a lawsuit over the Middle Eastern franchise rights. The original company-owned store in Woodland Hills Mall closed at the end of 2012.

text:
# Camille's Sidewalk Cafe

**Camille's Sidewalk Cafe** is an American former international restaurant franchise headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, specializing in healthful, "fast casual" cuisine. In 2003 Camille's had more than 100 locations, and as of May 2013 had 36 locations in the United States. Camille's was ranked #37 in Entrepreneur magazine's top 50 new franchises.

Camille's Sidewalk Cafe was founded in 1996 by David Rutkauskas, his wife Camille and father Otto, with the first location (a 250-square-foot (23 m2) kiosk) opening in the Woodland Hills Mall in Tulsa in October of that year. In January 2008, the company reached an agreement with Wal-Mart to include Camille's restaurants in new Wal-Mart supercenters, with as many as 200 such locations opening 2018. Stand-alone Camille's locations in Puerto Rico were scheduled to open in 2008, with 21 under development in Puerto Rico.. In 2008, the company launched 3 cafes in Bahrain and 2 in Dubai.

The Rutkauskas' company, Beautiful Brands, also owns other franchise concepts including FreshBerry, a frozen yogurt chain.

According to a May 14, 2013 article in the *Tulsa World*, the chain peaked at 107 restaurants in 2009. In the years that followed, two-thirds of the chain's locations have been closed, leaving 36 locations in the United States, and the chain has faced vocal criticisms from some franchisees as well as a lawsuit over the Middle Eastern franchise rights. The original company-owned store in Woodland Hills Mall closed at the end of 2012.

## InfoBox

Camille's Sidewalk Cafe
|
|  |
| Company type | Private |
| Industry | casual dining restaurant |
| Genre | Restaurant |
| Founded | 1996 |
| Founder | David and Camille Rutkauskas |
| Headquarters | Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA |
| Number of locations | 107 restaurants (2008) 29 restaurants in the USA (March 22, 2013) |
| Area served | United States |
| Key people | David Rutkauskas, Chairman and CEO
Camille Rutkauskas, President |


title: Schizocyathus

abstract: Schizocyathus is a monotypic genus of stony corals in the family Schizocyathidae, the only species being Schizocyathus fissilis. It is a deep water, azooxanthellate coral.

text:
# Schizocyathus

***Schizocyathus*** is a monotypic genus of stony corals in the family Schizocyathidae, the only species being ***Schizocyathus fissilis***. It is a deep water, azooxanthellate coral.

## Description

*Schizocyathus fissilis* is a solitary species of stony coral. The single corallite can grow to a height of 25 millimetres (1 in) and a diameter of 3.5 millimetres (0.1 in). It is often horn-shaped. The septa are arranged in groups of six in three cycles. There are sometimes palliform lobes on the inner margins of the septa but the columella is weakly developed.

## Distribution

*Schizocyathus fissilis* is found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Its range includes the coast of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda, Antilles and Brazil, and in the eastern Atlantic, the Azores, Portugal and Morocco. Its depth range is 88 to 3,438 metres (300 to 11,300 ft).

## Biology

*Schizocyathus fissilis* is an azooxanthellate coral which does not harbour symbiotic zooxanthellae in its tissues. It feeds by extending its tentacles to catch plankton and by absorbing organic matter from the water.

Sexual reproduction takes place with the liberation of sperm and eggs into the water column. The planula larvae drift with the currents, and when fully developed, settle on the seabed and undergo metamorphosis into polyps which secrete their own calcium carbonate skeletons. Additionally, *Schizocyathus fissilis* has an unusual method of asexual reproduction known as parricidal budding. This is a process in which a new polyp develops on the inner surface of a fragment of a parent corallite that has split apart longitudinally.

## InfoBox

| *Schizocyathus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| D = calyx from above
E = lateral view | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Cnidaria |
| Class: | Hexacorallia |
| Order: | Scleractinia |
| Family: | Schizocyathidae |
| Genus: | *Schizocyathus*
Pourtalès, 1874 |
| Species: | ***S. fissilis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Schizocyathus fissilis***
Pourtalès, 1874 | |
|


title: Schizocystidae

abstract: The Schizocystidae are a family of parasitic alveolates in the phylum Apicomplexa. Species in this family infect insects.

text:
# Schizocystidae

The **Schizocystidae** are a family of parasitic alveolates in the phylum Apicomplexa. Species in this family infect insects (Diptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera).

## History

This family was created by Léger and Duboscq in 1908.

## Taxonomy

Three genera are currently recognised in this family.

The type genus is *Schizocystis*.

## Lifecycle

The parasites develop in extracellular locations. The trophozoites are large, band like and wide. They have longitudinal striae and are aseptate. A mucron of small pseudopods or sucker is present. The nuclei are large.

Merogony occurs once in the lifecycle. Nuclear division proceeds with binary fission during growth. Cytokinesis occurs to form uninucleate merozoites arranged in clusters in the shape of the trophozoite. The merozoites become free by dropping off the parent trophozoite.

Gamonts, gametocysts and oocysts are of the actinocephalid type with syzygy occurring just before gametocyst formation.

The young gamonts are vermiform (wormlike). The gametocysts are mostly spherical. The oocysts are spindle-shaped with eight sporozoites.

## InfoBox

| Schizocystidae | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| (unranked): | Sar |
| (unranked): | Alveolata |
| Phylum: | Apicomplexa |
| Class: | Conoidasida |
| Subclass: | Gregarinasina |
| Order: | Neogregarinorida |
| Family: | **Schizocystidae** |
|
| Genera | |
| *Lymphotropha*
*Machadoella*
*Schizocystis* | |


title: Calvertville, Indiana

abstract: Calvertville is an unincorporated community in Highland Township, Greene County, Indiana, United States.

text:
# Calvertville, Indiana

**Calvertville** is an unincorporated community in Highland Township, Greene County, Indiana, United States.

## History

A post office was established at Calvertville in 1888, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1910. John O. Calvert served as the first postmaster.

1. U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Calvertville, Indiana
2. "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
3. "Greene County". Jim Forte Postal History. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
4. Baker, Ronald L. (October 1995). *From Needmore to Prosperity: Hoosier Place Names in Folklore and History*. Indiana University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-253-32866-3. ...with John O. Calvert as postmaster...

## InfoBox

| Calvertville, Indiana | |
| --- | --- |
| Unincorporated community | |
| CalvertvilleCalvertville | |
| Coordinates: 39°06′59″N 86°54′14″W / 39.11639°N 86.90389°W / 39.11639; -86.90389 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Indiana |
| County | Greene |
| Township | Highland |
| Elevation | 587 ft (179 m) |
| ZIP code | 47471 |
| FIPS code | 18-09838 |
| GNIS feature ID | 431992 |


title: Calverton Park, Missouri

abstract: Calverton Park is a city in St. Louis County, Missouri, United States. The population was 1,293 at the 2010 census. The Village of Calverton Park incorporated as the City of Calverton Park in 2014.

text:
# Calverton Park, Missouri

**Calverton Park** is a city in St. Louis County, Missouri, United States. The population was 1,293 at the 2010 census. The Village of Calverton Park incorporated as the City of Calverton Park in 2014.

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.41 square miles (1.06 km2), all land.

Calverton Park is surrounded by three other St. Louis County municipalities: Ferguson, Florissant and Hazelwood.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1940 | 139 |  |  |
| 1950 | 514 |  | 269.8% |
| 1960 | 1,714 |  | 233.5% |
| 1970 | 2,025 |  | 18.1% |
| 1980 | 1,717 |  | −15.2% |
| 1990 | 1,404 |  | −18.2% |
| 2000 | 1,322 |  | −5.8% |
| 2010 | 1,293 |  | −2.2% |
| 2020 | 1,143 |  | −11.6% |
| U.S. Decennial Census | | | |

### 2020 census

**Calverton Park city, Missouri – Racial and ethnic composition**
*Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.*
| Race / Ethnicity (*NH = Non-Hispanic*) | Pop 2000 | Pop 2010 | Pop 2020 | % 2000 | % 2010 | % 2020 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| White alone (NH) | 984 | 682 | 434 | 74.43% | 52.75% | 37.97% |
| Black or African American alone (NH) | 294 | 536 | 605 | 22.24% | 41.45% | 52.93% |
| Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0.23% | 0.15% | 0.00% |
| Asian alone (NH) | 4 | 12 | 16 | 0.30% | 0.93% | 1.40% |
| Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
| Other Race alone (NH) | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0.08% | 0.00% | 0.35% |
| Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) | 25 | 24 | 58 | 1.89% | 1.86% | 5.07% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 11 | 37 | 26 | 0.83% | 2.86% | 2.27% |
| **Total** | **1,322** | **1,293** | **1,143** | **100.00%** | **100.00%** | **100.00%** |

### 2010 census

At the 2010 census there were 1,293 people, 496 households, and 347 families living in the village. The population density was 3,153.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,217.7/km2). There were 540 housing units at an average density of 1,317.1 per square mile (508.5/km2). The racial makup of the village was 53.4% White, 42.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9%.

Of the 496 households 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.9% were married couples living together, 24.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.0% were non-families. 24.4% of households were one person and 9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.08.

The median age in the village was 36.4 years. 25.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.4% were from 25 to 44; 26.2% were from 45 to 64; and 12.1% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47.2% male and 52.8% female.

### 2000 census

At the 2000 census there were 1,322 people, 494 households, and 345 families living in the village. The population density was 3,154.5 inhabitants per square mile (1,218.0/km2). There were 521 housing units at an average density of 1,243.2 per square mile (480.0/km2). The racial makup of the village was 74.96% White, 22.24% African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.30% Asian, 0.30% from other races, and 1.97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.83%.

Of the 494 households 34.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 19.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.0% were non-families. 24.3% of households were one person and 9.5% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.22.

The age distribution was 28.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.4% 65 or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males.

The median household income was $44,632 and the median income for a family was $49,375. Males had a median income of $34,500 versus $26,875 for females. The per capita income for the village was $25,723. About 8.1% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.

## Education

Walnut Grove Elementary School of the Ferguson-Florissant School District is located in Calverton Park.

## Police

Calverton Park was served by the Calverton Park Police Department. The CPPD was dispatched by the neighboring city of Ferguson.

Calverton Park draws 66 percent of its revenue from fines and fees on the local population, which represents the highest percentage of any municipality in St. Louis County.

CPPD was a small police force that currently has a command staff of a Chief, and a Sergeant. They had several officers and reserve officers working around 20 hours a month.

On August 1, 2024 the Calverton Park Police Department was dissolved and policing was taken over by the Florissant Police Department

## InfoBox

| Calverton Park, Missouri | |
| --- | --- |
| City | |
| Location of Calverton Park, Missouri | |
| Coordinates: 38°45′56″N 90°18′37″W / 38.76556°N 90.31028°W / 38.76556; -90.31028 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Missouri |
| County | St. Louis |
| Government | |
| Type | Board of Trustees |
| Mayor | James A. Paunovich |
| Clerk | Jeanne King Blanton |
| Area | |
| Total | 0.41 sq mi (1.08 km2) |
| Land | 0.41 sq mi (1.07 km2) |
| Water | 0.00 sq mi (0.01 km2) |
| Elevation | 597 ft (182 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 1,143 |
| Density | 2,781.02/sq mi (1,072.79/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-5 (CDT) |
| ZIP code | 63135 |
| Area code | 314 |
| FIPS code | 29-10612 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2397535 |
| Website | http://www.calvertonparkmo.com / Village of Calverton Park |


title: Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society

abstract: The Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society (SPPS) is a professional society working to promote all aspects of experimental plant biology, from molecular cell biology and biochemistry to ecophysiology. SPPS is a forum for contact and communication among plant biologist. SPPS is an international society based in the Scandinavian countries and headed by an elected board with representatives from Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway. Presently the SPPS office is placed in Helsinki. SPPS is open to anybody with interest in plant biology. Presently the society counts around 250 members of which about half come from the USA, Japan, Germany, and other non-Scandinavian countries. SPPS is affiliated to the Federation of European Societies for Plant Biology (FESPB) and the European Plant Science Organisation (EPSO). From 2008 to 2010, the former president of SPPS, Jan K. Schjørring, also served as president for FESPB.

text:
# Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society

The **Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society** (SPPS) is a professional society working to promote all aspects of experimental plant biology, from molecular cell biology and biochemistry to ecophysiology. SPPS is a forum for contact and communication among plant biologist.

SPPS is an international society based in the Scandinavian countries and headed by an elected board with representatives from Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway. Presently the SPPS office is placed in Helsinki.

SPPS is open to anybody with interest in plant biology. Presently the society counts around 250 members of which about half come from the USA, Japan, Germany, and other non-Scandinavian countries.

SPPS is affiliated to the Federation of European Societies for Plant Biology (FESPB) and the European Plant Science Organisation (EPSO). From 2008 to 2010, the former president of SPPS, Jan K. Schjørring, also served as president for FESPB.

## Publications

SPPS publishes a monthly peer-reviewed journal:

Physiologia Plantarum has an impact factor of 2.708 and ranks #28 among the 172 most cited international plant science journals. The journal is published on behalf of SPPS by Wiley-Blackwell.

The society also publishes the quarterly SPPS Newsletter, which is distributed to all SPPS members.

## Conferences

SPPS organises two biannual meetings: the SPPS Congress and the SPPS PhD Student Conference. The most recent meetings are listed below.

* 2014: 8th SPPS PhD Student Conference, Uppsala, Sweden
* 2011: XXIV SPPS Congress, Stavanger, Norway
* 2010: 6th SPPS PhD Student Conference, Espoo, Finland
* 2008: XVI FESPB Congress (hosted and arranged by SPPS as XXIII SPPS Congress), Tampere, Finland
* 2008: 5th SPPS PhD Student Conference, Haslev, Denmark
* 2006: 4th SPPS PhD Student Conference, Lycksele, Sweden
* 2005: XXII SPPS Congress, Umeå, Sweden
* 2004: XXII SPPS Congress, Asker, Norway

Since SPPS was holding presidency of FESPB from 2008 to 2010, the planned SPPS Congresses in 2007 and 2009 were substituted for the 2008 FESPB Congress that SPPS was obliged to host and arrange.

## Grants

SPPS provides financial support for a range of meetings and other initiatives. The Society supports international symposia and workshops in plant physiology and related topics, organised by SPPS members in the Nordic countries. Travel grants can be granted to students and PhD students participating in conferences arranged by SPPS or others, and to Scandinavian scientists visiting another Scandinavian laboratory.

## Other activities

SPPS assists Scandinavian universities in arranging summer schools and participates in the international initiative Global Plant Council.

## History

SPPS shares its history with Physiologia Plantarum. During the end of the 1940s Nordic plant physiologists faced difficulties in getting their work published in international journals. Professor M. G. Stålfelt from Stockholms Högskola realized that the plant science community in Scandinavia needed their own organization and journal, so he arranged a meeting in Copenhagen 27–28 October 1947 with representatives from Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.

It was decided to establish the organization *Societas Physiologia Plantarum Scandinavica* and that it should arrange regular scientific conferences and publish the journal Physiologia Plantarum from 1948. Professor Hans G. Burström from Lund was appointed editor-in-chief of the journal, a position that he administered for 22 years.

## InfoBox

Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society
|
|  |
| Founded | 1947 (1947) |
| Location |  |
| Origins | Founded as
Societas Physiologia Plantarum Scandinavica |
| Key people | President: Jaakko Kangasjärvi
Vice-President: Tom Hamborg Nielsen
Treasurer: Kurt Fagerstedt
Secretary General: Anna Kärkönen
Secretary: Niina Idänheimo |
| Website | www.spps.fi |


title: Scarisbrick Hall

abstract: Scarisbrick Hall is a country house situated just to the south-east of the village of Scarisbrick in Lancashire, England. It is currently home to Scarisbrick Hall School. Parts of the present building, which is considered to be one of the finest examples of Victorian Gothic architecture in England, were designed by the architect Augustus Pugin. The most notable feature of Scarisbrick Hall is the 100-foot tower, which is visible from many miles around.

text:
# Scarisbrick Hall

**Scarisbrick Hall** is a country house situated just to the south-east of the village of Scarisbrick in Lancashire, England. It is currently home to Scarisbrick Hall School.

Parts of the present building, which is considered to be one of the finest examples of Victorian Gothic architecture in England, were designed by the architect Augustus Pugin. The most notable feature of Scarisbrick Hall is the 100-foot tower, which is visible from many miles around.

## History

Scarisbrick Hall was the ancestral home of the Scarisbrick family and dates back to the time of King Stephen (1135–1154). The moated site of the original Scarisbrick Hall lies 140 metres (460 ft) north-west of the present building. A tree-covered island measuring c.100 by 50 metres (330 by 160 ft) is flanked on two sides by a still waterlogged moat, with the north-eastern arm formed by Eas Brook. This half-timbered, manor house is recorded in an early 13th-century deed. The area is protected by scheduled monument status.

The Scarisbrick family lived on the site from 1238 until the house was sold in 1946 to become a training college. Parts of the present building, which is considered to be one of the finest examples of Victorian Gothic architecture in England, were designed by the architect Augustus Pugin. The most notable feature of Scarisbrick Hall is the 100-foot tower, which is visible from many miles around.

Ann Scarisbrick Eccleston (Lady Hunloke) inherited the Scarisbrick estate – previously owned by Sir Talbot Scarisbrick, 1st Baronet – from her brother Charles in 1860 at the age of 72. At about this time she assumed by Royal Licence the surname Scarisbrick, and was thereafter known as Lady Scarisbrick. She had earlier fought a long legal battle with Charles, after the death of their elder brother Thomas Scarisbrick in 1835, over the inheritance claim to the Scarisbrick estate. She lost the case to Charles after five long years of litigation. Ann was known to be a woman of great character and resolve and is credited for the extensive enhancement and restoration of the Scarisbrick Hall in the lavish Gothic style, employing E. W. Pugin as the architect.

Ann Scarisbrick, born in 1788, was a great beauty in her youth. In 1807 she married Sir Thomas Windsor Hunloke (17731816), of Wingerworth Hall Derbyshire, who was 15 years her senior. Her husband died nine years after their marriage. They had four children, two sons and two daughters. After the birth of these children, the family went to live in Paris. It is there that Sir Thomas Windsor Hunloke died in 1816. Their daughter Eliza married the Marquis de Casteja afterwards, also in Paris. It was only in June 1861 that she returned to Scarisbrick and made Scarisbrick Hall her home for the rest of her life.

When she returned to Scarisbrick Hall in 1861, she did so with great pomp and style. She threw a lavish meal of roasted sheep and oxen, beer and bread to more than 1000 Scarisbrick tenants. Upon her arrival, most of Ormskirk turned out ringing bells and waving flags. Her carriage was accompanied with a band on her way to Scarisbrick Hall.

Ann, unlike her brother, lived in much splendour at Scarisbrick Hall. During her occupation, the hall was gas-lit for the first time. The central heating system seems to have been installed and used during her period of occupation. Ann was popular as a society hostess and held many gala events at her residence and estate. Even though Ann, under the terms of her brother's will, had only inherited Scarisbrick Hall and not its furnishings she set out to redecorate and redesign the house on a much grander scale than had prevailed in the time of her predecessor.

The renovations were carried out by Edward W. Pugin, the son of the architect Augustus Pugin who had created the designs of the hall during the time of Charles Scarisbrick. Ann allowed the younger Pugin greater scope than had been afforded to his father. It was during this time that the older clock tower, dating from the time of Charles Scarisbrick, was replaced with a grander and taller example built in the French Gothic style. A new East Wing was added, which Ann dedicated to the memory of her father. This wing was joined to the older building by an octagonal tower which was decorated with eight doves signifying the Scarisbrick family connection.

Ann had a good relationship with E. W. Pugin, to whom she gave much artistic freedom and who created a lavish living environment for her, down to the smallest details like her inkstand and notepaper.

Ann lived to the age of 84, dying in 1872 at Scarisbrick. The estate was inherited by her daughter Eliza, the sole surviving child, after her death and then to her French progeny, Emmanuel de Biaudos, Marquis de Castéja. Scarisbrick Hall was incorporated into the Castéja family properties and the Hall was subject to very few changes. In memory of his wife who died in 1878, the marquis built the church of St. Elizabeth on the site of the former Catholic chapel.

Scarisbrick Hall remained in Castéja's family until 1923 when André de Biaudos de Castéja and his wife Pauline d'Espeuilles decided to sell it to Charles Scarisbrick's grandson, Sir Tom Talbot Leyland Scarisbrick.

In 1964 26 acres of Scarisbrick's land was put up for sale. It was purchased by the South West Lancashire Girl Guides for £10,000 and in May 1967 it opened as the *South West Lancashire Girl Guide County Camp Site*.

Founded in 1964 by Charles Oxley, the building is now occupied by a co-educational, independent school called Scarisbrick Hall School and there is no public access apart from infrequent guided tours. Following Oxley's death, the school was sold and subsequent owners include the educational group Nord Anglia and GeMs. After GeMs sold the school unexpectedly, the parents rallied together to get the school up and running again but a lot of students trying to do their GCSEs had to move schools. The school is now being rented by the ownership group Friends of Kingswood made up of parents, teachers, and former pupils.

Scarisbrick Hall is a Grade I listed building and is on the Buildings at Risk Register. The cost of repairs to the building has been estimated at £2.46 million.

## Filming location

Scenes from the Channel 4 series *Utopia* were filmed in late 2012 at Scarisbrick Hall. The Great Hall and Oak Room were featured in the series. An outdoor soccer match in the movie *There's only one Jimmy Grimble* (2000) was filmed in the grounds of Scarisbrick Hall.

53°36′23″N 2°55′16″W / 53.6065°N 2.9210°W / 53.6065; -2.9210

## InfoBox

| Scarisbrick Hall | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Location in West Lancashire | |
| General information | |
| Architectural style | Gothic Revival |
| Location | Southport Road,
Scarisbrick,
Lancashire
England |
| Design and construction | |
| Architect(s) | A. W. N. Pugin, E. W. Pugin |
|  | |
| Listed Building – Grade I | |
| Official name | Scarisbrick Hall at 392 127 |
| Designated | 26 April 1963 |
| Reference no. | 1038565 (Hall) |
|  | |
| Scheduled monument | |
| Official name | Moated site of Scarisbrick Hall. |
| Designated | 12 November 1991 |
| Reference no. | 1011997 |
|  | |
| Listed Building – Grade II | |
| Official name | Scarisbrick Hall |
| Designated | 1 April 1986 |
| Reference no. | 1000951 (Park and Gardens) |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Scaphiophryne marmorata

abstract: Scaphiophryne marmorata is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is commonly known as the green burrowing frog and the marbled rain frog. It is endemic to Madagascar. It is classified as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN as it is threatened by habitat loss.

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# Scaphiophryne marmorata

***Scaphiophryne marmorata*** is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is commonly known as the **green burrowing frog** and the **marbled rain frog**. It is endemic to Madagascar. It is classified as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN as it is threatened by habitat loss.

## Taxonomy

A revision of the *Scaphiophryne marmorata* complex was undertaken in 2003 and as a result, *Scaphiophryne spinosa* was removed from synonymy with *Scaphiophryne marmorata* and a new species, *Scaphiophryne boribory*, was described.

## Description

The female green burrowing frog grows to a length of about 40 millimetres (1.6 in) but the male is smaller at 30 millimetres (1.2 in). It is nearly globular in shape with a small, flattened head, short snout, prominent eyes and well muscled limbs. The skin of the back is mostly smooth but there are two symmetrical pairs of thorny tubercles on the upper back. The digits on both fore and hind limbs are elongated which helps the frog to clamber around in trees and bushes. There are expanded discs at the end of the fingers which is a distinctive feature of this species. The hind limbs are short with bony flanges on the heels to help with digging. The colour is a bright green liberally spotted with darker green and black patches. In the western part of its range the colour is more olive. The underside is often marbled with white.

## Distribution and habitat

The green burrowing frog is found in the rainforests of eastern Madagascar and in the drier western half of the island. It occurs up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above sea level.

## Biology

The green burrowing frog spends much of its time buried in dead leaves on the forest floor but when it emerges it often climbs into the branches of bushes and small trees to catch the insects on which it feeds.

Little is known of the breeding habits of this frog but it is believed to be an "explosive" breeder, with all the frogs in an area coming together at one time to mate and spawn in temporary pools at the beginning of the rainy season. The tadpoles are likely to grow quickly so as to be mature enough to live independently when the pools dry up.

## Status

The green burrowing frog is listed as "Vulnerable" in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This is because, though it is locally abundant, its range in Madagascar is small and fragmented, it is threatened by habitat loss and populations seem to be in decline. A small number of individuals are gathered for the pet trade but the possibility of captive breeding is being investigated which would ease this pressure. This frog has a secure environment in the several national parks in which it is found.

## InfoBox

| *Scaphiophryne marmorata* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Vulnerable  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| CITES Appendix II (CITES) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Microhylidae |
| Subfamily: | Scaphiophryninae |
| Genus: | *Scaphiophryne* |
| Species: | ***S. marmorata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Scaphiophryne marmorata***
Boulenger, 1882 | |
|


title: Scaphirhynchus

abstract: Scaphirhynchus is a genus of sturgeons native to North America. All species in this genus are considered to be threatened with extinction or worse. As of 2023, the pallid sturgeon and the Alabama sturgeon are critically endangered according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The etymology of the word Scaphirhynchus is derived from two Greek words, scaphir translating to “boat”, while rhynchus being “snout”. The word rhynchus is used in the scientific name, be it genus or species for many animals, including the duck-billed platypus, ornithorhynchus as its genus, meaning “bird-snout”.

text:
# Scaphirhynchus

***Scaphirhynchus*** is a genus of sturgeons native to North America. All species in this genus are considered to be threatened with extinction or worse. As of 2023, the pallid sturgeon (*S. albus*) and the Alabama sturgeon (*S. suttkusi*) are critically endangered according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

The etymology of the word ***Scaphirhynchus*** is derived from two Greek words, *scaphir* translating to “boat”, while *rhynchus* being “snout”. The word *rhynchus* is used in the scientific name, be it genus or species for many animals, including the duck-billed platypus, *ornithorhynchus* as its genus, meaning “bird-snout”.

## Distribution

Member species are found in the Mississippi, Missouri, and Alabama Rivers.

## Species

Currently, three species in this genus are recognized:

## InfoBox

| *Scaphirhynchus* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Scaphirhynchus albus* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Acipenseriformes |
| Family: | Acipenseridae |
| Subfamily: | Scaphirhynchinae |
| Genus: | *Scaphirhynchus*<br>Heckel, 1835 |
|
| Species | |
| See text | |
| Synonyms | |
| * *Scaphirhynchops* Gill 1863 * *Parascaphirhynchus* Forbes & Richardson 1905 | |


title: Campaspe (play)

abstract: Campaspe is an Elizabethan era stage play, a prose comedy by John Lyly based on the story of the love triangle between Campaspe, a Theban captive, the artist Apelles, and Alexander the Great, who commissioned him to paint her portrait. Widely considered Lyly's earliest drama, Campaspe was an influence and a precedent for much that followed in English Renaissance drama, and was, according to F. S. Boas, "the first of the comedies with which John Lyly inaugurated the golden period of the Elizabethan theatre".

text:
# Campaspe (play)

***Campaspe*** is an Elizabethan era stage play, a prose comedy by John Lyly based on the story of the love triangle between Campaspe, a Theban captive, the artist Apelles, and Alexander the Great, who commissioned him to paint her portrait. Widely considered Lyly's earliest drama, *Campaspe* was an influence and a precedent for much that followed in English Renaissance drama, and was, according to F. S. Boas, "the first of the comedies with which John Lyly inaugurated the golden period of the Elizabethan theatre".

## Performance and publication

*Campaspe* was initially acted in the autumn of 1583 at the first Blackfriars Theatre, before being performed at Court at Whitehall Palace before Queen Elizabeth I, most likely on 1 January 1584 (new style). The play was performed, as the first quarto states on its title page, by the Children of the Chapel ("her Maiesties Children") and the Children of Paul's, a combined company also known as Oxford's Boys after its patron the Earl of Oxford, and the name used in Court records. Lyly was in Oxford's service at the time, and was paid £20 for this and for the subsequent Shrove Tuesday Court performance of his *Sapho and Phao* by a warrant issued on 12 March, although he would have to wait until 25 November to actually receive his money.

*Campaspe* was first published in quarto in 1584 in three separate editions, printed by Thomas Dawson for the bookseller Thomas Cadman, without any previous entry appearing in the Stationers' Register. Their publication made Lyly the first English writer to see his plays reprinted in a single year. A fourth quarto edition appeared in 1591, printed by Thomas Orwin for William Brome. (Rather than using the terms Q1, Q2, Q3, & Q4 to describe these four quarto editions, some scholars have preferred Q1a, Q1b, Q1c, and Q2.) None of the four name Lyly on their title page. Q1 titles the play *A moste excellent Comedie of Alexander, Campaspe, and Diogenes*. The three subsequent quartos shorten the title to *Campaspe*, although in all four the running title (printed along the tops of the text's pages) is given as *A tragicall Comedie of Alexander and Campaspe*. Editors and scholars of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries generally referred to the play as *Alexander and Campaspe* while their modern counterparts tend to prefer the shorter title. Q1 erroneously states on its title page that it was performed on "twelfe day at night", which Q2 corrects to "newyeares day at night" (a fact confirmed by Court records) and Q3 follows. However Q4, using Q1 as its copy text, reverts to the mistaken day.

So too does the next edition of the play, printed with its own individual title page in Edward Blount's 1632 collection of Lyly's plays *Six Court Comedies*, which uses Q4 as its copy text. Blount had entered it into the Stationers' Register on 9 January 1628, naming each play individually under a group entry. This edition not only modernised some of the spelling, but also printed the lyrics of three of the play's four songs for the first time (the last, in Act 5 scene 3, remains missing). Amongst them is the often reprinted *Cupid and my Campaspe*, sung by the love-struck Apelles at the end of Act 3, in which he describes Cupid gambling away parts of himself:

> Cupid and my Campaspe played
> At cards for kisses. Cupid paid:
> He stakes his quiver, bow and arrows,
> His mother's doves and team of sparrows,
> Loses them too; then down he throws
> The coral of his lips, the rose
> Growing on's cheek (but none knows how),
> With these the crystal of his brow,
> And then the dimple of his chin;
> All these did my Campaspe win.
> At last he set her both his eyes;
> She won, and Cupid blind did rise.
> O Love, has she done this to thee?
> What shall (alas) become of me?

Some scholars have questioned whether these songs are authentically Lylian in authorship, although according to the play's most recent editor, G. K.Hunter, this "is a hypothesis impossible to disprove; but the evidence that has been adduced to support it is equally without force."

## Sources

For his narrative source, Lyly depended on the *Natural History* of Pliny the Elder for the tale of Alexander the Great and Campaspe. He also drew upon the work of Diogenes Laërtius (the historical biographer) and upon Thomas North's 1580 translation of the *Parallel Lives* of Plutarch for information about the philosophers of ancient Greece. (The play must therefore have been written between 1580 and 1583.) Lyly derived most of his material for his portrayal of the character of Diogenes (the Cynic philosopher) from the translation of Plutarch's *Apopththegamata* by Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Other individual verbal sources include Plato's *Republic*, Terence's *Eunuchus*, Cicero's *De natura deorum* and *In Catilinam*, Publilius Syrus's Sententiae, Horace's *Ars poetica*, Ovid's *Ars amatoria*, Seneca's *De brevitate*, Tertullian's *Apology*, Aelian's *Varia historia*, and *A Short Introduction of Grammar* by Lyly's own grandfather, William Lily.

## Synopsis

While in Athens, Alexander falls in love with the beautiful Theban captive, Campaspe. He grants the young woman her freedom, and has her portrait painted by the artist Apelles. Apelles quickly falls in love with her too; when the portrait is finished, he deliberately mars it to have more time with his sitter. Campaspe in turn falls in love with Apelles. When Apelles eventually presents the completed portrait to Alexander, the painter's behaviour reveals that he is in love with Campaspe. Alexander magnanimously resigns his interest in Campaspe so that the true love between her and Apelles can flower; he turns his attention to the invasion of Persia and further conquests.

Alexander also spends his time in Athens with his close friend and advisor Hephestion (who disapproves of his infatuation with Campaspe), and in conversing and consorting with the philosophers of the era – most notably with Diogenes the Cynic, whose famous tub is prominently featured onstage. Diogenes is little impressed with the conqueror, although Alexander is with him (*"Hephestion, were I not Alexander I would wish to be Diogenes"*). Plato and Aristotle share a conversation, and four other philosophers from various classical Greek schools, Cleanthes, Crates, Chrysippus, and Anaxarchus (anachronistically drawn from several different centuries) appear as well, all invited into Alexander's presence by his messenger Melippus for debate. An eighth philosopher, Chrysus, another Cynic, begs Alexander for money, but is given short shrift.

The play also features the witty pages that are a hallmark of Lyly's drama, here called Psyllus, Manes, and Granichus, servants to Apelles, Diogenes, and Plato respectively. Additionally, one scene brings on Sylvius and his three performing sons, Perim, Milo, and Trico, who take turns to tumble, dance, and sing. Two Macedonian officers, Clitus and Permenio, both begin the play in bringing on Campaspe and her fellow captive Timoclea, and also appear later to express their concern as Alexander's distracted state leads to a breakdown in military discipline, personified in a further scene where the courtesan Laïs sings (the lyrics remain missing) to entertain two unruly soldiers, Milectus and Phyrgius, as they forget their martial calling (*"Down with arms, and up with legs!"*).

## Style

*Campaspe's* prose style is heavily "euphuistic," sharing significant commonalities with Lyly's famous novel *Euphues* (1578) in using antitheses, alliterations, repetitions, balanced clauses, and matching parts of speech. Like his *Anatomy of Wit*, the play is presented mainly as a series of dialogues, soliloquies, and alternating orations. Notably, Apelles is a crucial figure in both works. Lyly expanded his use of dialogue for the play, using short, sharp exchanges for innovative comic and dramatic effect, as shown by this extract from Act 3 Scene 1, where Alexander the Great visits Apelles' studio to check on his progress in painting Campaspe's portrait, and begins to question him about the art of painting:

**Alexander**: Where do you first begin, when you draw any picture?
**Apelles**: The proportion of the face, in just compass as I can.
**Alexander**: I would begin with the eye as a light to all the rest.
**Apelles**: If you will paint as you are, a king, your Majesty may begin where you please; but as you would be a painter, you must begin with the face.
**Alexander**: Aurelius would in one hour colour four faces.
**Apelles**: I marvel in half an hour he did not four.
**Alexander**: Why, is it so easy?
**Apelles**: No, but he doth it so homely.
**Alexander**: When will you finish Campaspe?
**Apelles**: Never finish; for always in absolute beauty there is somewhat above art.

Later on, Alexander borrows Apelles charcoal to try his own hand at drawing:

**Alexander**: Lend me thy pencil, Apelles; I will paint and thou shalt judge.
**Apelles**: Here.
**Alexander**: The coal breaks.
**Apelles**: You lean too hard.
**Alexander**: Now it blacks not.
**Apelles**: You lean too soft.
**Alexander**: This is awry.
**Apelles**: Your eye goeth not with your hand.
**Alexander**: Now it is worse.
**Apelles**: Your hand goeth not with your mind. **Alexander**: Nay, if all be too hard or soft, so many rules and regards that one’s hand, one’s eye, one’s mind must all draw together, I had rather be setting of a battle than blotting of a board. But how have I done here?
**Apelles**: Like a king.
**Alexander**: I think so; but nothing more unlike a painter.

## Influence

*Campaspe* marked a significant turning point in English drama. According to Frederick Kiefer, Lyly's prose style "created a form of dramatic speech unprecedented in the theater", and, as J. F MacDonald observed, is the moment when the "real movement towards prose in the drama begins." With *Campaspe*, according to Jonas Barish, "Lyly invented, virtually single-handed, a viable comic prose for the English stage"

Lyly provides no moral or ethical lesson in his *Campaspe* – thereby breaking away from the morality play tradition of earlier drama. And unlike most of his subsequent plays, *Campaspe* eschews allegory as well. Instead, Campaspe delivers a romantic historical tale purely for its entertainment value. His departure from the Medieval mindset provided a model for later writers to follow. The play has been called "the first romantic drama" of its era.

Thomas Nashe quotes from *Campaspe* in his play *Summer's Last Will and Testament* (1592).

## Modern publication and performance history

The play was printed in R. W. Bond's *The Complete Works of John Lyly* (Oxford, 1902; vol ii, pp. 302–60; reprinted 1967), still the only complete collected works of Lyly ever published. Joseph Quincy Adams printed the play as part of his *Chief Pre-Shakespearean Dramas* in 1924 (London; pp. 609–35.) The Malone Society published their reprint of the play, overseen by W.W. Greg (No. 75; Oxford, 1934 for 1933). Daniel A. Carter published the play as part of his collected *Plays of John Lyly* in 1988 (Lewisburg, London, and Toronto). The most recent modern edition remains the 1991 Revels Plays edition (Manchester University Press), edited by G. K. Hunter (published in a single volume along with Sapho and Phao, edited by David Bevington).

The play seems to have been revived in an adapted and cut down version retitled *The Cynic or the Force of Virtue*, performed twice, 22–3 February 1732, at Odell's Theatre in Aycliffe Street in Goodman's Fields. Henry Giffard, the theatre's manager, played Apelles, his wife played Campaspe, and his brother played Alexander, with the veteran actor Philip Huddy taking on the role of Diogenes.

In 1908, students from Lady Margaret Hall in Oxford performed in an all-female, Elizabethan dress production in the city's New Masonic Hall, on 7, 8, and 9 December, directed by Miss Hadow, in aid of the college library.

The first modern performance by professional actors of the uncut play took place on 27 October 2000 at The Bear Gardens theatre, London, for Shakespeare's Globe's Read Not Dead project, with Eve Best and Will Keen as Campaspe and Apelles, Tom Espiner as Alexander, and Dominic Rowan as Diogenes. Angus Wright played Clitus and Nicholas Rowe played Parmenio. Duncan Wisbey composed original music for the four songs, and also played Psyllus, alongside Roddy McDevitt as Granichus and Alan Cox as Manes. The performance was directed by James Wallace, and was recorded on digital audio for the Globe's archives.


title: Campaspe River (Queensland)

abstract: The Campaspe River is a 376-kilometre (234 mi) long tributary of Cape River in Queensland, Australia near Charters Towers. It rises at Homestead and flows southeasterly through Pentland to Campaspe where it joins the Cape River. Tributaries includes Homestead Creek, Balfe Creek and Policeman Creek. There are no major settlements along its course. The river is crossed by the Flinders Highway. Its catchment area remains undeveloped.

text:
# Campaspe River (Queensland)

The **Campaspe River** is a 376-kilometre (234 mi) long tributary of Cape River in Queensland, Australia near Charters Towers. It rises at Homestead and flows southeasterly through Pentland to Campaspe where it joins the Cape River.

Tributaries includes Homestead Creek, Balfe Creek and Policeman Creek. There are no major settlements along its course. The river is crossed by the Flinders Highway. Its catchment area remains undeveloped.

## InfoBox

| Campaspe River | |
| --- | --- |
| Location | |
| Country | Australia |
| Location | North Queensland |
| Physical characteristics | |
|  | |
| Source |  |
| location | Mount Stewart |
| coordinates | 20°18′40″S 145°25′55″E / 20.311°S 145.432°E / -20.311; 145.432 |
|  | |
| Mouth |  |
| location | confluence with the Cape River |
| coordinates | 20°59′35″S 146°22′23″E / 20.993°S 146.373°E / -20.993; 146.373 |


title: Schloss Schlemmin

abstract: Schloss Schlemmin is a Gothic Revival Schloss in Schlemmin, Germany. It is a hotel and restaurant.

text:
# Schloss Schlemmin

**Schloss Schlemmin** is a Gothic Revival *Schloss* in Schlemmin, Germany. It is a hotel and restaurant.

## History

The presently visible building was built in 1846-50 to designs by architect Eduard Knoblauch; the foundations are however those of a medieval fortress, dating from the 14th century. The current building was constructed for Wilhelm Ulrich von Thun. During World War II, the castle was used as a hospital an refugee camp. After the war, it became part of East Germany and served a variety of purposes. In 1999 it was bought by an entrepreneur from Bremen who began restoration works of the neglected house. A hotel has been using the building since 2002.

## InfoBox

| Schloss Schlemmin | |
| --- | --- |
| Schlemmin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | |
| Schloss Schlemmin | |
| Schloss SchlemminSchloss Schlemmin | |
| Coordinates | 54°13′21″N 12°40′45″E / 54.2225°N 12.679167°E / 54.2225; 12.679167 |
| Type | Schloss |


title: Caminando (Amaia Montero song)

abstract: "Caminando" is a song written and produced by Amaia Montero for her 2011 album 2. It was released the first single to be released from her 2011 album. It was premiered on September 17, 2011, on the Spanish radio station Los 40 Principales and was released on September 20, 2011, on iTunes.

text:
# Caminando (Amaia Montero song)

**"Caminando"** is a song written and produced by Amaia Montero for her 2011 album *2*. It was released the first single to be released from her 2011 album. It was premiered on September 17, 2011, on the Spanish radio station Los 40 Principales and was released on September 20, 2011, on iTunes.

## InfoBox

| "Caminando" | |
| --- | --- |
| Single by Amaia Montero | |
| from the album | |
| Released | September 17, 2011 |
| Recorded | 2011 |
| Genre | Pop rock |
| Length | 3:11 |
| Label | Sony BMG |
| Songwriter(s) | Amaia Montero |
| Amaia Montero singles chronology | |
| "Chiquitita"
(2010) "**Caminando**"
(2011) | |


title: Caminade

abstract:
Caminade is an historical and current manufacturer of bicycle frames and bicycle components based in France.
Caminade frames were and are manufactured in France.
Historical Caminade frames were made of steel and then Dural aluminium. Modern Caminade frames are made of steel.
Much like there were four popular historical Caminade models, there are also four modern models:
  - One4All: This is a full suspended bike
  - Simpletrack: This is a hard-tail mountain bike
  - Gravel: This is a gravel/trail bike
  - Route66: This is a road bike

text:
# Caminade

**Caminade** is an historical and current manufacturer of bicycle frames and bicycle components based in France. Caminade frames were and are manufactured in France. Historical Caminade frames were made of steel and then Dural aluminium. Modern Caminade frames are made of steel. Much like there were four popular historical Caminade models, there are also four modern models:

* One4All: This is a full suspended bike
* Simpletrack: This is a hard-tail mountain bike
* Gravel: This is a gravel/trail bike
* Route66: This is a road bike

## History

Caminade was founded in 1910 by Pierre Caminade and maintained operations until about 1950. After 1936, their frames were made exclusively in Dural aluminium. They were known for having octagonal tubes joined by lugs that clamped together with bolts. Aluminium Caminade frames (also known as Caminargent models) could be completely disassembled with basic tools.

In spring 2012 Brice Epailly, after making a concept model at the origin of the One4All, talked to Sylvain Renouf.

The new Caminade company was created in the course of 2013 and is independently owned. They have set up the new brand with backing from the Languedoc-Roussillon regional government and funds from a local business development.

As many manufacturers have chosen to move their production to China with the intent to reduce cost, Caminade was founded with the following idea: "Why can't a bicycle be made in France?".

The headquarters are located near Perpignan in France.

## Current manufacturing process

The frames are manufactured by Cyfac located in the Tour area. Cyfac is specialized in the building of frames for 30 years. Another company Berieau is also involved in the manufacturing of mobile parts. The tubes are provided by Reynolds (853DZB) and Columbus (29er or Spirit). Other tubes are manufactured in France with a class 2 aeronautics's certification. The rear part of the All4One is provided by Aircraft.

The bicycles are painted by Caminade with automotive quality paint where the colors and design can be customized.

## A different approach

On the mountain bike, the aim is to propose bicycles that are easy to maintain which is why they will promote the 1x11 gear configuration: It allows for a more simple and durable gearing system (by removing the front derailleur) and allows to avoid the extra gain of weight that a front derailleur would cause. The offset of the gain of weight helps towards reducing the overall weight which has been increased by a steel frame.

The choice of steel for the frame is twofold: comfort, ease of repair and robustness which is why they have a lifetime warranty.

This choice of steel is reported to give great comfort going downhill and as can be expected, it does affect the transfer of power going uphill but the reviews are non the less positive.

## Custom painting

Caminade also offers the possibility to have custom pain jobs on their bicycles

## Partnership

Caminade is in partnership with another new French company Motion-France which developed a springless suspension. At the end of Spring 2016, the beta version of the fork will be tested by a select number of users. It is scheduled to be sold in 2017. The front suspension is anti-diving and uses carbon springs.


title: Schacontia atropos

abstract: Schacontia atropos is a moth of the family Crambidae described by Maria Alma Solis and Paul Z. Goldstein. It is found in northern Venezuela. The length of the forewings is 5.4–5.5 mm. The ground colour of the forewings is straw yellow, with a brown-grey medial area, heavily suffused with white scales. The hindwings are pale, nearly translucent.

text:
# Schacontia atropos

***Schacontia atropos*** is a moth of the family Crambidae described by Maria Alma Solis and Paul Z. Goldstein. It is found in northern Venezuela.

The length of the forewings is 5.4–5.5 mm. The ground colour of the forewings is straw yellow, with a brown-grey medial area, heavily suffused with white scales. The hindwings are pale, nearly translucent.

## Etymology

The specific epithet refers to Atropos, the third of the three Fates.

## InfoBox

| *Schacontia atropos* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Male holotype | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Crambidae |
| Genus: | *Schacontia* |
| Species: | ***S. atropos*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Schacontia atropos***<br>Solis & Goldstein, 2013 | |
|


title: Schacontia lachesis

abstract:
Schacontia lachesis is a moth of the family Crambidae described by Maria Alma Solis and Paul Z. Goldstein in 2013. It is found in central Brazil and Bolivia. The length of the forewings is 5–7.5 mm. The prothoracic scaling on the forewings is tan grey, straw
or yellowish. The medial area is polymorphic ranging from light to dark brown in both sexes, dusted with white. Adults have been recorded on wing in January, April, November and December in Brazil and from October to December in Bolivia.

text:
# Schacontia lachesis

***Schacontia lachesis*** is a moth of the family Crambidae described by Maria Alma Solis and Paul Z. Goldstein in 2013. It is found in central Brazil (Rondonia east to Bahia, Ceara and Rio de Janeiro) and Bolivia (Santa Cruz).

The length of the forewings is 5–7.5 mm. The prothoracic scaling on the forewings is tan grey, straw or yellowish. The medial area is polymorphic ranging from light to dark brown in both sexes, dusted with white. Adults have been recorded on wing in January, April, November and December in Brazil and from October to December in Bolivia.

## Etymology

The specific epithet refers to Lachesis, the middle sister of the three Fates in Greek mythology. She was thought to be the personification of destiny responsible for measuring the duration of human life.

## InfoBox

| *Schacontia lachesis* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Male | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Crambidae |
| Genus: | *Schacontia* |
| Species: | ***S. lachesis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Schacontia lachesis***<br>Solis & Goldstein, 2013 | |
|