title: Extraterrestrial sample curation

abstract: The curation of extraterrestrial samples (astromaterials) obtained by sample-return missions takes place at facilities specially designed to preserve both the sample integrity and protect the Earth. Astromaterials are classified as either non-restricted or restricted, depending on the nature of the Solar System body. Non-restricted samples include the Moon, asteroids, comets, solar particles and space dust. Restricted bodies include planets or moons suspected to have either past or present habitable environments to microscopic life, and therefore must be treated as extremely biohazardous.

text:
# Extraterrestrial sample curation

The **curation of extraterrestrial samples** (astromaterials) obtained by sample-return missions takes place at facilities specially designed to preserve both the sample integrity and protect the Earth. Astromaterials are classified as either *non-restricted* or *restricted*, depending on the nature of the Solar System body. Non-restricted samples include the Moon, asteroids, comets, solar particles and space dust. Restricted bodies include planets or moons suspected to have either past or present habitable environments to microscopic life, and therefore must be treated as extremely biohazardous.

## Overview

Spacecraft instruments are subject to mass and power constraints, in addition to the limitations imposed by the extreme environment of outer space on the sensitive science instruments, so bringing extraterrestrial material to Earth is desired for extensive scientific analyses. For the purpose of planetary protection, astromaterial samples brought to Earth by sample-return missions must be received and curated in a specially-designed and equipped biocontainment facility that must also double as a cleanroom to preserve the science value of the samples.

Samples brought from non-restricted bodies such as the Moon, asteroids, comets, solar particles and space dust, are processed at specialized facilities rated Biosafety level-3 (**BSL-3**). Samples brought to Earth from a planet or moon suspected to have either past or present habitable environments to microscopic life would make it a Category V body, and must be curated at facilities rated Biosafety level-4 (**BSL-4**), as agreed in the Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty. However, the existing BSL-4 facilities in the world do not have the complex requirements to ensure the preservation and protection of Earth and the sample simultaneously. While existing BSL-4 facilities deal primarily with fairly well-known organisms, a BSL-4 facility focused on extraterrestrial samples must pre-plan the systems carefully while being mindful that there will be unforeseen issues during sample evaluation and curation that will require independent thinking and solutions. A challenge is that, while it is relatively easy to simply contain the samples once returned to Earth, researchers will want to take a portion and perform analyses. During all these handling procedures, the samples would need to be protected from Earthly contamination and from contact with the atmosphere.

## Non-restricted materials

As of 2019, only the Japanese space agency JAXA and the United States space agency NASA operate BSL-3 laboratories in the world exclusively dedicated to the curation of samples from non-restricted bodies. The key feature of JAXA's curation facility, the Extraterrestrial Sample Curation Center, is the ability to observe, take out a portion and preserve a precious return-sample without being exposed to the atmosphere and other contaminants.

The Luna Soviet missions samples are studied and stored at the Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry at the Russian Academy of Sciences.

## Restricted materials

Return-samples obtained from a Category V body, must be curated at facilities rated Biosafety level-4 (BSL-4). Because the existing BSL-4 facilities in the world do not have the complex requirements to ensure the preservation and protection of Earth and the sample simultaneously, there are currently at least two proposals to build a BSL-4 facility dedicated to curation of restricted (potentially biohazard) extraterrestrial materials.

The first is the European Sample Curation Facility (ESCF), proposed to be built in Vienna, would curate non-restricted samples as well as BSL-4 biocontainment of restricted material obtained from Category V bodies such as Mars, Europa, Enceladus, etc.
The other proposal is by NASA and is tentatively known as the Mars Sample-Return Receiving Facility (MSRRF). At least three different designs were submitted in 2009. If funded, this American facility would be expected to take 7 to 10 years from design to completion, and an additional two years is recommended for the staff to become proficient and accustomed to the facilities. NASA is also assessing a 2017 proposal to build a mobile and modular BSL-4 facility to secure a sample return capsule at the landing site to conduct preliminary biohazard analyses. After completion of biohazard testing, decisions could be made to sterilize the sample or transport all or portions to a permanent quarantine storage facility anywhere in the world.

The systems of such facilities must be able to contain unknown biohazards, as the sizes of any putative alien microorganisms or infectious agents are unknown. Ideally it should filter particles of 0.01 μm or larger, and release of a particle 0.05 μm or larger is unacceptable under any circumstance. The reason for this extremely small size limit of 0.01 μm is for consideration of gene transfer agents (GTAs) which are virus-like particles that are produced by some microorganisms that package random segments of DNA capable of horizontal gene transfer. These randomly incorporate segments of the host genome and can transfer them to other evolutionarily distant hosts, and do that without killing the new host. In this way many archaea and bacteria can swap DNA with each other. This raises the possibility that Martian life, if it has a common origin with Earth life in the distant past, could swap DNA with Earth microorganisms in the same way. Another reason for the 0.01 μm limit is because of the discovery of ultramicrobacteria as small as 0.2 μm across.

Robotic advocates consider that humans represent a significant source of contamination for the samples, and that a BSL-4 facility with robotic systems is the best way forward.

* Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe
* Biocontainment – Physical containment of pathogenic organisms or agents in microbiology laboratories
* Biological hazard – Biological material that poses serious risks to the health of living organisms
* Mars sample-return mission – Mars mission to collect rock and dust samples
* Planetary geology – Geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects
* Safety engineering – Engineering discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety
* Select agent – Controlled biological agents in the United States


title: FAST (stroke)

abstract:
FAST is an acronym used as a mnemonic to help early recognition and detection of the signs and symptoms of a stroke. The acronym stands for Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulties and Time to call emergency services.
  - F - Facial drooping - A section of the face, usually only on one side, that is drooping and hard to move. This can be recognized by a crooked smile, or difficulty preventing saliva from leaking at a corner of the mouth.
  - A - Arm weakness - Inability to raise one's arm fully, or the inability to hold or squeeze something, or a new reduction in strength of an arm or leg when raising/supporting an extra weight.
  - S - Speech difficulties - An inability or difficulty to understand or produce speech, slurred speech, or having difficulty repeating even a basic sentence such as "The sky is blue".
  - T - Time - If any of the symptoms above are showing, time is of the essence; emergency medical services should be called and/or the person taken to a hospital immediately if possible. It is also important to note the time the symptoms first started appearing and pass on this information.

text:
# FAST (stroke)

**FAST** is an acronym used as a mnemonic to help early recognition and detection of the signs and symptoms of a stroke. The acronym stands for **F**acial drooping, **A**rm (or leg) weakness, **S**peech difficulties and **T**ime to call emergency services.

* **F** \- Facial drooping - A section of the face, usually only on one side, that is drooping and hard to move. This can be recognized by a crooked smile, or difficulty preventing saliva from leaking at a corner of the mouth.
* **A** \- Arm (or leg) weakness - Inability to raise one's arm fully, or the inability to hold or squeeze something (such as someone's hand), or a new reduction in strength of an arm or leg when raising/supporting an extra weight (such as new difficulty of carrying/lifting a typical object, or raising one's body from squatting/sitting position).
* **S** \- Speech difficulties - An inability or difficulty to understand or produce speech, slurred speech, or having difficulty repeating even a basic sentence such as "The sky is blue".
* **T** \- Time - If any of the symptoms above are showing, time is of the essence; emergency medical services should be called and/or the person taken to a hospital immediately if possible. It is also important to note the time the symptoms first started appearing and pass on this information ("Time is brain").

## History

The FAST acronym was developed in the UK in 1998 by a group of stroke physicians, ambulance personnel, and an emergency department physician and was designed to be an integral part of a training package for ambulance staff. The acronym was created to expedite administration of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator to patients within 3 hours of acute stroke symptom onset. The instruments at this time with most evidence of validity were the Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale (CPSS) and the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS).

Studies using FAST have demonstrated variable diagnostic accuracy of strokes by paramedics and emergency medical technicians with positive predictive values between 64% and 77%.

The alternative acronym BE-FAST has shown promise by capturing \>95% of ischemic strokes; however, adding coordination and diplopia assessment did not improve stroke detection in the prehospital setting.

## Alternative versions

**BE-FAST** has shown promise and is currently being studied as an alternative method to the FAST acronym.

* **B** \- balance degradation - increase in difficulty of maintaining balance while walking (especially when using stairs or changing direction), or standing (especially when standing on one foot); now needing assistance using a hand on something such as a hand-rail or cane.
* **E** \- eyesight degradation within a continuous period of consciousness (less than 12 hours), such as greater difficulty focusing on detail of an object or discerning low-contrast detail.

The other components are as for the classic FAST mnemonic.

* **F** \- Face
* **A** \- Arm
* **S** \- Speech
* **T** \- Time

**NEWFAST** (c) is an additional stroke identification tool available for use. Copyrighted by Deborah Stabell Tran in 2017, (and created in 2016) as part of a DNP project, it was created to identify all types of strokes - anterior or posterior ischemic, and hemorrhagic strokes. It gives more definition to testing dizziness and balance, hallmark signs of posterior strokes. NEWFAST also addresses the sudden onset of a severe headache and vomiting that often accompany bleeds in the head.

* **NEW** \- means a NEW onset of symptoms (generally within the past 24 hours, but a sudden onset in general).
* **N** \- Nausea/Vomiting - sudden onset
* **E** \- Eyes - Double vision, field cut, neglect (can't see or notice what is going on, on one side of the body), and/or nystagmus (eyes involuntarily shifting back and forth)
* **W** \- Walking - If you suddenly can not walk due to dizziness, or your try to walk and you shift to one side.
* **F** \- Facial droop - one side of the face is droopy
* **A** \- Arm Weakness - especially one side being weak
* **S** \- Speech - slurred, confused, and/or absent speech
* **T** \- Terrible Headache/Dizziness (often described as thunderclap headache or dizziness regardless of position of body - sitting, standing, or laying down)

**FASTER** is used by Beaumont Health.

* **F** \- Face - Facial drooping or numbness on one side of the face
* **A** \- Arms - Arm weakness on one side of the body
* **S** \- Stability - Inability to maintain balance and stay steady on one's feet; dizziness
* **T** \- Talking - Slurred speech, inability to respond coherently, or other speech difficulty
* **E** \- Eyes - Changes in vision, including seeing double, or partial or complete blindness in one or both eyes
* **R** \- React - Call emergency services immediately if you see any of these symptoms, even if symptoms go away


title: FC Transmash Mogilev

abstract: FC Transmash Mogilev was a Belarusian football club based in Mogilev.

text:
# FC Transmash Mogilev

**FC Transmash Mogilev** was a Belarusian football club based in Mogilev.

## History

* 1988: founded as Selmash Mogilev
* 1994: renamed to Transmash Mogilev
* 1998: merged with FC Dnepr Mogilev to form Dnepr-Transmash Mogilev

Transmash (Selmash at the time) was playing in Belarusian SSR top league from 1988 to 1991, in Belarusian First League from 1992 till 1996 and in Belarusian Premier League in 1997. In early 1998 Transmash merged with another Mogilev team (FC Dnepr Mogilev) and FC Dnepr-Transmash was formed.

## League and Cup history

| Season | Level | Pos | Pld | W | D | L | Goals | Points | Domestic Cup | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1992 | 2nd | **4** | 15 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 25–14 | **15** | Round of 16 |  |
| 1992–93 | 2nd | **3** | 30 | 12 | 13 | 5 | 48–20 | **37** | Round of 32 |  |
| 1993–94 | 2nd | **4** | 28 | 17 | 5 | 6 | 47–26 | **39** |  |  |
| 1994–95 | 2nd | **11** | 30 | 9 | 8 | 13 | 30–31 | **26** | Round of 64 |  |
| 1995 | 2nd | **7** | 14 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 20–16 | **22** | Round of 32 |  |
| 1996 | 2nd | **1** | 24 | 14 | 7 | 3 | 47–13 | **49** | | Promoted |
| 1997 | 1st | **14** | 30 | 8 | 4 | 18 | 30–52 | **28** | Round of 32 | Merged with Dnepr Mogilev |
| 1998 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | Round of 32 |  |

## InfoBox

FC Transmash Mogilev
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Football Club Transmash Mogilev |
| Founded | 1988 |
| Dissolved | 1998 |
| Ground | Transmash Stadium, Mogilev |
| Capacity | 500 |


title: FC Trapani 1905

abstract: Football Club Trapani 1905, commonly referred to as Trapani, is an Italian football club based in Trapani, Sicily. They are nicknamed the Granata, after their kit colour.

text:
# FC Trapani 1905

**Football Club Trapani 1905**, commonly referred to as **Trapani**, is an Italian football club based in Trapani, Sicily.

They are nicknamed the *Granata* (the Maroons), after their kit colour.

## History

### Foundation

The club's roots can be traced back to 1905; on 2 April of that year, local newspaper the Gazzetta di Trapani ran an advert requesting young people to form a football association for Trapani. The club founded, by professor Ugolino Montagna and young native Abele Mazzarese to represent the West-Sicilian town was named **Unione Sportiva Trapanese**. It is one of the oldest teams on the island, after Palermo and Messina.

U.S. Trapanese's first president was Giuseppe Platamone, and the club played its games at Via Spalti. The club's first official game came against Palermo in October 1908; the more experienced Palermitan team won emphatically, scoring 12 goals. The Trapanese bounced back, however, playing local derbies against teams from Marsala and Erice.

### Post-war times

After World War I, in 1921, three local teams rose: Vigor, Bencivegna and Drepanum. During the 1921–22 season, Vigor finished 6th in the Sicilian section of the national championship of the C.C.I. (Confederazione Calcistica Italiana). On 22 January 1923, a merger occurred between Vigor and Drepanum; the club decided to revive the previous name **U.S. Trapanese**.

In June 1926, the club's name was changed to **A.S. Trapani**. In the 1930–31 season, under the name **Juventus Trapani**, the club won promotion from III Divisione to II Divisione. The following season, they achieved promotion again, this time into the early 1930s equivalent of Serie C. They finished 8th in Serie C in the 1942–43 season, but then football in Italy was put on hold for World War II.

### 1940s, 50s and 60s

Just after World War II, the club used the name A.S. Trapani for one season before changing its name to **A.S. Drepanum**. They were entered into Serie C, which, at the time, was divided into many regional groups. For the 1947–48 season, they qualified for the new, smaller Serie C, even finishing above Messina. Unfortunately for the club, they were relegated to Serie D in the 1949–50 season after finishing second from bottom.

### 1990s: peak and decline

With former Serie A player Ignazio Arcoleo as head coach, Trapani experienced two consecutive promotions from Serie D to Serie C1 in the early 1990s.

In 1995, a strong and qualified team composed mostly of young promising players such as Marco Materazzi and more experienced local footballers such as Francesco Galeoto qualified to the promotion play-off, but ultimately lost to Walter Novellino's Gualdo in the semi-finals with a late goal scored on injury time. After that, Trapani experienced a slow but continuous decline despite attempts to repeat past successes: Arcoleo left Trapani to coach Palermo along with some of the best players, including Galeoto. The club then relegated to Serie C2 in 1997, Serie D in 2000 and even Eccellenza in the 2005–06 season, despite a late attempt by Arcoleo and former star Gaetano Vasari to save the team from relegation. In addition, the club also received a 12-point deduction for the 2006–07 season following a match-fixing attempt recognized by the Football Federation. In its 2006–07 Eccellenza campaign, Trapani, coached by former Parma midfielder Tarcisio Catanese, ended the regular season phase to eleventh place and escaped relegation after having won relegation play-offs to Terrasini in a 5–0 single-legged win. From 2007 onwards, Trapani competed in the Serie D with little success.

### From Serie D to Serie B and league exclusion

In 2009, chairman Vittorio Morace appointed Roberto Boscaglia as new head coach, intending to bring the club's return into professionalism; in his first season in charge, Trapani ended as runner-up behind Milazzo. However, later in August, due to the high number of resignations of clubs in the higher tiers, Trapani was admitted into the 2010–11 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione (formerly Serie C2), thus ending the club's 13-year absence from the professional tiers.

In 2010–11, Trapani finished as runner-up in the Lega Pro Seconda Divisione Group C and successively won the promotion play-offs to Lega Pro Prima Divisione. In the first campaign in the third tier, Trapani surprised everyone by topping the league against all odds; an end-of-season crisis, however, led to the Sicilians being overtaken by Spezia in the penultimate week of the season and losing a direct promotion. In the subsequent promotion play-offs, after defeating Cremonese in the semi-finals, Trapani lost a two-legged final to fourth-placed outsiders Lanciano. In the following season, however, Trapani were crowned champions (this time in group A) and finally promoted to Serie B for the first time ever.

In 2015–16, with Serse Cosmi as their coach, they finished in 3rd place, losing to Pescara in the playoff final. However, they started off badly the following season, sacking Cosmi on 30 November with the club in last place. The appointment of Alessandro Calori saw an improvement in form, and they ended the season in 19th place, sitting in the relegation play-off spots. Unfortunately, 18th placed Ternana finished five points above the Granata, meaning the club were relegated to Serie C for the 2017–18 season.

Trapani's first season return to the third tier, with Calori still in charge, saw the *Granata* ending in third place (behind US Lecce and Catania) and then being eliminated at the playoff stage by eventual winners Cosenza.

During the summer of 2018, Trapani's ownership announced their intention to sell the club and reduce the budget due to financial and legal issues surrounding the parent company, Ustica Lines. Vincenzo Italiano was hired as the new head coach in place of Calori, with Raffaele Rubino as sporting director for the new season. The season also saw the club being sold from the Morace family to the FM Service company, owned by Maurizio De Simone. The club ended the season in second place, and had a successful campaign in the subsequent promotion playoffs, making it to the finals against Piacenza after defeating Catania in the semi-finals.

On 5 June 2019, just a few days after the first leg of the playoff finals, the Trapani playing squad announced their intention to send their notice of default after the new ownership had repeatedly failed to pay their salaries. On 15 June 2019, Trapani defeated Piacenza 2–0 to win their second promotion to Serie B in the club's history. The very next day, Rome-based property developer Giorgio Heller (who was already linked to the club in the past) announced his acquisition of a majority 80% share of the club. The takeover was formally finalized on 21 June 2019, in time to allow the club to successfully register for the 2019–20 Serie B season.

However, after an unfavourable season that ended with immediate relegation to Serie C, Trapani were excluded altogether on 5 October 2020 due to outstanding financial issues.

### Restart from Serie D and Serie C return

In the summer of 2021, Paceco-based Serie D club Dattilo acquired the footballing rights of Trapani, including the logo, and renamed themselves as **Football Club Trapani 1905**. In their debut season under the new denomination, Trapani ended in a mid-table finish. In April 2023, the club was bought for €1,240,000 by Valerio Antonini. Under his tenure, Trapani dominated the 2023–24 Serie D Group I, without losing a single match in the league, winning promotion to Serie C immediately.

On 29 May 2024, Trapani also won the Coppa Italia Serie D title, defeating Follonica Gavorrano in a two-legged final.

## Rivalries

Trapani's main rivals are Marsala 1912 and Mazara, from the neighbouring cities of Marsala and Mazara del Vallo. A rivalry with Palermo also exists but has rarely been contested: Palermo and Trapani briefly played together in Serie C1 and renewed their rivalry in the 2013–14 Serie B campaign.

## Honours

### Domestic

#### League

#### Cup

## Notable former managers

## Former players

## InfoBox

Trapani
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Football Club Trapani 1905 srl |
| Nickname(s) | *I Granata* (The Maroons) |
| Founded | 1905 (1905) |
| Ground | Stadio Polisportivo Provinciale,<br>Erice, Italy |
| Capacity | 7,000 |
| Chairman | Valerio Antonini |
| Manager | Salvatore Aronica |
| League | Serie C Group C |
| 2023–24 | Serie D Group I, 1st of 18 (promoted) |
| Website | Club website |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Ełdyty Wielkie

abstract: Ełdyty Wielkie is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lubomino, within Lidzbark County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 31 kilometres (19 mi) south-west of Lidzbark Warmiński and 33 km (21 mi) north-west of the regional capital Olsztyn on Route 593. Before 1772 the area was part of Kingdom of Poland, and in 1772–1945 it belonged to Prussia and Germany.

text:
# Ełdyty Wielkie

**Ełdyty Wielkie** \[ɛu̯ˈdɨtɨ ˈvjɛlkʲɛ\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lubomino, within Lidzbark County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 31 kilometres (19 mi) south-west of Lidzbark Warmiński and 33 km (21 mi) north-west of the regional capital Olsztyn on Route 593.

Before 1772 the area was part of Kingdom of Poland, and in 1772–1945 it belonged to Prussia and Germany (East Prussia).

## InfoBox

| Ełdyty Wielkie | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Ełdyty Wielkie | |
| Coordinates: 54°0′2″N 20°9′58″E / 54.00056°N 20.16611°E / 54.00056; 20.16611 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Warmian-Masurian |
| County | Lidzbark |
| Gmina | Lubomino |
| Population | 160 |


title: FC Sportul Studențesc București

abstract: FC Sportul Studențesc, commonly referred to as Sportul, was a Romanian professional football club based in Bucharest, that last played at senior level in the Liga IV. Founded in 1916, Sportul Studențesc was one of the oldest Romanian clubs still active. The club's best European performance came in the 1979–80 Balkans Cup, when it won the trophy, defeating Yugoslav side NK Rijeka in the final. The club made it to the Balkans Cup final on one other occasion, in 1976, when it lost to another Yugoslav side, Dinamo Zagreb. In the UEFA Cup, Sportul Studențesc's most notable performance came in the 1987–88 season, when the club reached the Third Round. Domestically, Sportul Studențesc's best league performance was a second-place finish in the 1985–86 season, just behind European Champions, Steaua București. In the Romanian Cup, Sportul Studenţesc made it to the final on three occasions, in 1938–1939, 1942–1943, and 1978–1979 losing all three matches to Rapid București, CFR Turnu Severin, and Steaua București, respectively. Currently, the team is active only at youth level.

text:
# FC Sportul Studențesc București

**FC Sportul Studențesc**, commonly referred to as **Sportul**, was a Romanian professional football club based in Bucharest, that last played at senior level in the Liga IV. Founded in 1916, Sportul Studențesc was one of the oldest Romanian clubs still active.

The club's best European performance came in the 1979–80 Balkans Cup, when it won the trophy, defeating Yugoslav side NK Rijeka in the final. The club made it to the Balkans Cup final on one other occasion, in 1976, when it lost to another Yugoslav side, Dinamo Zagreb. In the UEFA Cup, Sportul Studențesc's most notable performance came in the 1987–88 season, when the club reached the Third Round.

Domestically, Sportul Studențesc's best league performance was a second-place finish in the 1985–86 season, just behind (back then) European Champions, Steaua București. In the Romanian Cup, Sportul Studenţesc made it to the final on three occasions, in 1938–1939, 1942–1943, and 1978–1979 losing all three matches to Rapid București, CFR Turnu Severin, and Steaua București, respectively.

Currently, the team is active only at youth level.

## Chronology of names

| Period | Name |
| --- | --- |
| 1916–1919 | *Sporting Club Universitar București* |
| 1919–1946 | **Sportul Studențesc București** |
| 1946–1948 | *Sparta București* |
| 1948–1954 | *Clubul Sportiv Universitar București* |
| 1954–1966 | *Știința București* |
| 1966–1969 | *Politehnica București* |
| 1969–2017 | **Sportul Studențesc București** |

## History

On 11 February 1916 "**Sporting Club Universitar Studențesc**" was born, as an initiative of a group of professors and students. At the beginning, football, athletics and tennis were the club's only three departments. The president was professor Traian Lalescu, the world famous mathematician.

"Sporting" had no stadium of its own, and the team used to play here and there. Even after acceding in the first national league, the stadium was still in its project phase. It was only when "Stiința" was established in 1954 that the club was allowed to use "Belvedere" stadium in the Regie borough of Bucharest.

The history of the club can be divided into several distinct periods. The first period lasted until World War II and culminated with the accession in the first national league. Afterwards the club disappeared in the dawn of communism and was reborn and grown again to accede to the first division. The mid to late 1970s, and the 1980s "**Hagi period**" saw the club's best performances. Led by then-president Barbu Emil "Mac" Popescu, the club reached the Balkans Cup final on two occasion, winning it once; it qualified to the UEFA Cup on six occasions, it reached the Romanian Cup final once, and it had the highest league finish in club history in the 1985–86 season. Stars like Marcel Coraș, Mircea Sandu, Gino Iorgulescu, and Gheorghe Hagi played for Sportul Studențesc during that time period.

After the fall of communism in late 1989, the club struggled to keep afloat. Financial struggles and a constant loss of talented players lead to an unavoidable outcome. At the end of the 1997–98 season the club relegated to the second division, after more than 25 years at the top flight. One year later, the club came very close to a demotion to the third division, however, with the help of a young investor, Vasile Șiman corroborated with massive rejuvenation of the squad, Sportul Studențesc turned things around and the team remained in the second league.

Two years later, at the end of the 2000–01 season Sportul Studențesc saw its third accession to the first league. After a fierce battle with Farul Constanța for the top spot in the standings, "the students" finished first, with 81 points and a 71–17 goal differential. The promotion to the top flight was short-lived. At the end of the 2001–02 season, the club relegated back to the second league.

At the end of the 2003–2004 season, the club, once again, promoted to the first league, despite having sold half of their squad from the previous season. They had a praiseworthy evolution in the 2004–2005 seasons, ending the championship in sixth place with Gigel Bucur the league's top scorer (21 goals). Throughout the 2005–06 season the team, coached by former international player Dan Petrescu in the first half of the season, and by Gheorghe Mulțescu in the second half, had a very good run, finishing the season in fourth place, the highest since 1987. During the off-season, the club was relegated due to financial reasons.

After spending four seasons in Liga II, at the end of the 2009–10 season, the club promoted back to Liga I. Sportul finished the 2010–11 season in last place, and therefore, should have been relegated. However, due to licensing controversies by other Liga I clubs, Sportul Studențesc was allowed to continue playing in the first league for the 2011–2012 season. At the end of the 2011–12 season, the club finished 17th and relegated from the top tier.

## Colours and badge

The team's colours are black and white, the traditional students' team colours.

The logo consists of a stylized "S" on a black and white background, alongside the club's official name and year of establishment.

## European record

| Competition | S | P | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| UEFA Europa League / UEFA Cup | 6 | 20 | 6 | 4 | 10 | 20 | 31 | –11 |
|
| Total | 6 | 20 | 6 | 4 | 10 | 20 | 31 | –11 |

## Shirt sponsors and manufacturers

| Period | Kit manufacturer | Period | Shirt partner |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1993–1994 |  | 1993–1994 | Saniplast |
| 1995–1996 |  | 1995–1996 | Fofo |
| 2002–2003 |  | 2002–2003 | Omniasig |
| 2004–2010 | Lotto |
| 2010–2017 | Puma | 2010–2011 | Omniasig |
|  |  | 2011–2014 | City Insurance |

## Honours

### Domestic

### Leagues

### Cups

### European

## Notable former players

## Famous Managers

## Romanian League goalscorer of the year

## InfoBox

Sportul Studențesc
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Fotbal Club Sportul Studențesc București |
| Nickname(s) | *Gașca nebună* (The Crazy Gang)
*Studenții* (The Students)
*Trupa din Regie* (The Regie Squad) |
| Short name | Sportul |
| Founded | 11 February 1916 (1916-02-11)
as *Sporting Club Universitar Studențesc* |
| Dissolved | 2017 |
| Ground | Regie Stadium |
| Capacity | 10,020 |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: FEA-M

abstract: In cryptography, FEA-M is a block cipher developed in 2001 by X. Yi, C. H. Tan, C. K. Siew, and M. R. Syed. With the unusually large block size of 4096 bits, all of FEA-M's calculations operate on 64×64 binary matrices. Unlike most block ciphers, FEA-M does not use multiple rounds of encryption. Each block is encrypted using just two multiplications and two additions. The data is encrypted using a pair of session keys chosen for just that message. The key is an invertible matrix used to encrypt the session keys, and the encrypted session keys must be sent along with the ciphertext. Since only invertible matrices can be used for the key, the effective key size is about 4094.2 bits. FEA-M is insecure; an attack found by Youssef and Tavares (2003) recovers the secret key using only 1 known plaintext and 2 chosen plaintexts.

text:
# FEA-M

In cryptography, **FEA-M (Fast Encryption Algorithm for Multimedia)** is a block cipher developed in 2001 by X. Yi, C. H. Tan, C. K. Siew, and M. R. Syed.

With the unusually large block size of 4096 bits, all of FEA-M's calculations operate on 64×64 binary matrices. Unlike most block ciphers, FEA-M does not use multiple rounds of encryption. Each block is encrypted using just two multiplications and two additions. The data is encrypted using a pair of session keys chosen for just that message. The key is an invertible matrix used to encrypt the session keys, and the encrypted session keys must be sent along with the ciphertext. Since only invertible matrices can be used for the key, the effective key size is about 4094.2 bits.

FEA-M is insecure; an attack found by Youssef and Tavares (2003) recovers the secret key using only 1 known plaintext and 2 chosen plaintexts.

* Hongjun Wu; Feng Bao; Robert H. Deng (October 2003). *An Efficient Known Plaintext Attack on FEA-M* (PDF). 5th International Conference on Information and Communication Security (ICICS 2003). Huhehaote: Springer-Verlag. pp. 34–46. Retrieved 31 December 2006.

## Further reading

* Mihaljevic, M.J. (November 2003). "On vulnerabilities and improvements of fast encryption algorithm for multimedia FEA-M". *IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics*. **49** (4): 1199–1207. doi:10.1109/TCE.2003.1261217.

## InfoBox

FEA-M
| General | |
| --- | --- |
| Designers | X. Yi, C.H. Tan, C.K. Siew, and M.R. Syed |
| First published | 2001 |
| Cipher detail | |
| Key sizes | about 4094.2 bits |
| Block sizes | 4096 bits |
| Rounds | 1 |
| Best public cryptanalysis | |
| Youssef and Tavares break it with 1 known plaintext and 2 chosen plaintexts | |


title: F-1 World Grand Prix

abstract: F-1 World Grand Prix, developed by Paradigm Entertainment, is a Formula One racing game/sim first released in 1998 for the Nintendo 64 game console and to later platforms including the Sega Dreamcast, Microsoft Windows, Sony PlayStation, and Game Boy Color. The Nintendo 64 version is based on the 1997 Formula One season, featuring each of the 17 circuits from the season and all 22 drivers, with the exceptions of Jacques Villeneuve and the MasterCard Lola team. The Dreamcast and Game Boy Color versions are based on the 1998 Formula One season and the PlayStation and Windows versions are based on the 1999 Formula One season. The Windows version is a sequel to the 1999 video game Official Formula One Racing.

text:
# F-1 World Grand Prix

***F-1 World Grand Prix***, developed by Paradigm Entertainment, is a Formula One racing game/sim first released in 1998 for the Nintendo 64 game console and to later platforms including the Sega Dreamcast, Microsoft Windows, Sony PlayStation, and Game Boy Color. The Nintendo 64 version is based on the 1997 Formula One season, featuring each of the 17 circuits from the season and all 22 drivers (as well as two unlockable bonus racers), with the exceptions of Jacques Villeneuve (licensing reason) and the MasterCard Lola team (not recognised, as they did not take part in any races during the season).

The Dreamcast and Game Boy Color versions are based on the 1998 Formula One season and the PlayStation (released as ***F1 World Grand Prix: 1999 Season***) and Windows versions are based on the 1999 Formula One season. The Windows version is a sequel to the 1999 video game *Official Formula One Racing*.

## Gameplay

The game has five gameplay modes: Grand Prix, a course-by-course simulation of the 1997 season; Exhibition, a single race; Time Trial, a race against the clock; Challenge, which comprises real scenarios from the 1997 season, including trying to win the 1997 Hungarian Grand Prix as Damon Hill or beating Jean Alesi as David Coulthard in the 1997 Italian Grand Prix; and 2 Player, which allows two players to compete in a single, split-screen race.

Prior to races, players can tune their car, including tyre tread, amount of fuel and wing angle. As was standard for racing games of the time, weather (and its effects) are also simulated.

Williams F1 driver Jacques Villeneuve is not featured in the game. In his place is a silhouette of his body. A fictional helmet design is used and his name is simply Driver Williams, but his career statistics are correct. This character's name can be customized by the player, either to personalise their driver or to unlock extras.

## Development

*F-1 World Grand Prix* was first developed as an exclusive for the Nintendo 64 console. In order to fit the game's voice clips into the small storage capacity of Nintendo 64 cartridges, the developers employed speech compression technology developed by Factor 5.

## Reception

### Video System version (1998)

The Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast versions received favorable reviews according to the Review aggregation website GameRankings. *N64 Magazine*'s James Ashton said that the N64 version was "the finest driving simulation the world has ever seen". Peter Jankulovski of *Hyper* game the same console version 86%, calling it "a great addition to any racing fan's game library". *Game Informer* gave the Dreamcast version a positive review, a few months before its U.S. release date. Greg Orlando of *NextGen* said of the same console version in his early review as a finest title on Dreamcast, but considered as demanding for the casual gamer. In Japan, *Famitsu* gave it a score of 30 out of 40 for the latter console version, and 29 out of 40 for the former. Other magazines gave the Dreamcast version universal acclaim to average reviews while it was still in development.

*Edge* gave it eight out of ten for the N64 original, and later seven out of ten for the Dreamcast version. *GamePro* said of the Nintendo 64 version, "All told, you'll love *WGP* if you're one of the very, very few N64 gamers looking for an extremely challenging F1 sim—or if you have the enormous patience required to master it. Everyone else should give *WGP* a wide berth."

At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, the N64 version took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €20 million in the European Union during the previous year. The same N64 version was nominated for "Best Racing Game" at *The Electric Playground*'s 1998 Blister Awards, which went to *Gran Turismo*.

### Eidos Interactive version (1999)

The Eidos Interactive version received mixed or average reviews according to GameRankings. *AllGame* gave the PlayStation version four stars out of five, praising the game's extras such as a fully customizable instant replay. *GamePro* said of the PlayStation version, "Even if you're not a huge fan, *F1 World Grand Prix* offers enough options and fun gameplay to make it worth a couple of laps."

## Sequel

Its Video System sequel, *F-1 World Grand Prix II*, was released in 1999 for the Nintendo 64 and in 2000 for the Dreamcast and Game Boy Color.

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## InfoBox

| F-1 World Grand Prix | |
| --- | --- |
| North American Nintendo 64 cover art | |
| Developer(s) | Paradigm Entertainment (N64)
Video System (DC, GBC)
Lankhor (PS1, Win) |
| Publisher(s) | **Nintendo 64**, **Game Boy Color**
Video System
**Dreamcast****PlayStation****Windows** |
| Director(s) | Wes Hoffman |
| Composer(s) | Dan Hess |
| Series | F-1 Grand Prix |
| Platform(s) | Nintendo 64, Dreamcast, PlayStation, Game Boy Color, Windows |
| Release | **Nintendo 64*** NA: 27 July 1998 * EU: 14 September 1998 * JP: 18 December 1998 **Dreamcast*** EU: 19 November 1999 * JP: 25 November 1999 * NA: 25 April 2000 **PlayStation*** NA: 30 November 1999 * EU: 17 December 1999 **Game Boy Color****Windows** |
| Genre(s) | Sim racing |
| Mode(s) | Single-player, multiplayer |


title: F-22 Lightning 3

abstract: F-22 Lightning 3 is a combat flight simulation game developed and published by Novalogic in 1999.

text:
# F-22 Lightning 3

***F-22 Lightning 3*** is a combat flight simulation game developed and published by Novalogic in 1999.

## Development

The game was announced in March 1999.

## Reception

The game received above-average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings.

1. "F-22 Lightning Hits the Stores!". *Novalogic*. May 20, 1999. Archived from the original on March 2, 2000. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
2. GameSpot staff (May 21, 1999). "New Releases \[date mislabeled as "April 27, 2000"\]". *GameSpot*. Red Ventures. Archived from the original on April 7, 2000. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
3. Fountain, Steve (July 31, 1999). "Game Zone". *South Wales Evening Post*. p. 10. Retrieved January 23, 2024. Flight simulation fans can enjoy first-class travel with *F22 Lightning 3* (Novalogic, around £34.99).
4. "NovaLogic Announces F-22 Lightning 3". March 24, 1999. Archived from the original on May 8, 1999. Retrieved August 3, 2023.
5. "F-22 Lightning 3 for PC". *GameRankings*. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on February 13, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
6. Sutyak, Jonathan. "F-22 Lightning 3 - Review". *AllGame*. All Media Network. Archived from the original on November 16, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
7. Dultz, Marc (July 6, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3". *Gamecenter*. CNET. Archived from the original on August 16, 2000. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
8. Battles, Hosea (July 9, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3". *Computer Games Strategy Plus*. Strategy Plus, Inc. Archived from the original on July 9, 2003. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
9. Lackey, Jeff (September 1999). "Nukes for Newbies (*F-22 Lightning 3* Review)" (PDF). *Computer Gaming World*. No. 182. Ziff Davis. p. 139. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
10. Chick, Tom (July 17, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3 Review for PC on GamePro.com". *GamePro*. IDG Entertainment. Archived from the original on July 4, 2004. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
11. Dunkin, Alan (July 6, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3 Review \[date mislabeled as "May 1, 2000"\]". *GameSpot*. Red Ventures. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
12. Dickinson, Jon (July 15, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3". *GameZone*. Archived from the original on January 25, 2001. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
13. Blevins, Tal (July 8, 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3". *IGN*. Ziff Davis. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
14. "F-22 Lightning 3". *PC Gamer*. Vol. 6, no. 8. Imagine Media. August 1999. Archived from the original on March 9, 2000. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
15. Presley, Paul (September 1999). "F-22 Lightning 3". *PC Zone*. No. 80. Dennis Publishing. p. 81. Retrieved August 14, 2021.

## InfoBox

| F-22 Lightning 3 | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Developer(s) | Novalogic |
| Publisher(s) | Novalogic |
| Producer(s) | Wes Eckhart |
| Designer(s) | Mat Jennings |
| Programmer(s) | Patrick Griffith |
| Artist(s) | Keith Rust |
| Composer(s) | Alan Koshiyama |
| Series | *F-22* |
| Platform(s) | Microsoft Windows |
| Release |  |
| Genre(s) | Air combat simulation |
| Mode(s) | Single-player, multiplayer |


title: FENOX Venture Capital

abstract: Fenox Venture Capital was an American venture capital firm, headquartered in San Jose, California. The company worked with emerging technology companies worldwide and served a bridge for global startups seeking entry into American, Asian, European and Middle Eastern markets.

text:
# FENOX Venture Capital

**Fenox Venture Capital** was an American venture capital firm, headquartered in San Jose, California. The company worked with emerging technology companies worldwide and served a bridge for global startups seeking entry into American, Asian, European and Middle Eastern markets.

## History

Fenox Venture Capital was founded by Belarusian businessman Vitaliy Arbuzov and Anis Uzzaman in 2009.

In December 2015, Fenox led a $16 million investment in Jibo. This investment was seen as a push from Jibo to start expanding globally. In February 2016, the firm led an investment in agriculture IoT company Edyn. The investment in Edyn was another event in Fenox establishing itself as a key investor and supporter of American technology startups aspiring to grow globally.

In May 2016, the firm led a $14 million investment in Affectiva. Other portfolio companies include Tech in Asia, BlockCypher, MindMeld, and Sensely.

## Controversies

In February 2016, it was reported that Fenox was ordered by the US Department of Labor to pay back wages totaling over $330,000 to 56 unpaid interns it had hired.

In June 2017, Uzzaman and Fenox sued an anonymous blogger saying he falsely accused him of sexual harassment. The lawsuit was later dismissed.

During the course of the proceeding, a court order discovered the IP address tracing to the article was linked to the home address of Brandon Katayama Hill, founder and CEO of a San Francisco based company Btrax. The case was finally settled with a multimillion dollar payment by the defense.

## InfoBox

Fenox Venture Capital
| Company type | Private |
| --- | --- |
| Industry | Venture capital |
| Founded | 2009 (2009) |
| Founder | Vitaliy Arbuzov and Anis Uzzaman |
| Defunct | 2019 (2019) |
| Fate | Unknown |
| Headquarters | San Jose, California, USA |
| Area served | American, Asian, European and Middle Eastern markets |
| Website | www.fenoxvc.com |


title: FIBT World Championships 1992

abstract: The FIBT World Championships 1992 took place in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. This was Calgary's first time hosting a championship event. It was also an extraordinary event since men's skeleton was not included in the program of the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France.

text:
# FIBT World Championships 1992

The **FIBT World Championships 1992** took place in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. This was Calgary's first time hosting a championship event. It was also an extraordinary event since men's skeleton was not included in the program of the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France.

## Men's skeleton

| Pos | Athlete | Time |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Gold | Bruce Sandford (NZL) |  |
| Silver | Gregor Stähli (SUI) |  |
| Bronze | Christian Auer (AUT) |  |

As of 2009, Sandford is the only person from the Southern Hemisphere to medal in bobsleigh, luge, or skeleton in a World Championship or Winter Olympic level.

## Medal table

| Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | New Zealand (NZL) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 2 | Switzerland (SUI) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 3 | Austria (AUT) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| Totals (3 entries) | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |

## InfoBox

| 1992 World Championships | |
| --- | --- |
| Location | Calgary, Alberta, Canada |
|


title: Caloian

abstract: Caloian was a rainmaking and fertility rite in Romania, similar in some ways to Dodola. Its namesake is a clay effigy, whose sculpting, funeral, exhumation, and eventual destruction are centerpieces of the display. The source of this ritual, as is the case with those of many other local popular beliefs and practices, precedes the introduction of Christianity, although it came in time to be associated with Orthodox Easter or with the Feast of the Ascension. In some variants it was performed on a precisely calculated day two to three weeks after Easter, though local communities could also revive it at other times of the year, specifically during drought. The figurine was generally made from clay and most often by girls, though sometimes also by boys or married women; the ceremony itself would draw in the whole village community as spectators, and, in isolated cases, also had active participation from the Romanian Orthodox clergy. The mimicry of Christian funerals was widespread, but absent from the more established forms of the ritual. Before dying out in the 1990s, the Caloian tradition had possibly survived for millennia, and may have originated with Dacian strands of Paleo-Balkan mythology. It evoked memories of human sacrifice for the appeasement of rain deities, with parallel near-sacrifices of girls being still attested in rural Romania during the first half of the 20th century. The Caloian litany, which exists in various arrangements as a sample of primitive Romanian literature, usually refers to the figure being sent off to the skies to unlock rain, and buried so that it may be reborn. The figurine's mother is hinted at in such poems, and in some cases played by one of the girls attending the funeral procession. Caloian events were largely confined to Muntenia, Oltenia and Northern Dobruja, though they have been well attested in specific parts of Western Moldavia. Similar practices, assigning usually female characteristics and names to the clay figurine, are spread throughout other parts of the Romanian-speaking areal. They form a continuum of traditions with both Dodola and Germenchuk, which are staples of Bulgarian folklore. Intermingling with the latter is attested in Caloian's primary spread along the Danube, but also in its supposed etymology, which reveals either a Slavonic term for "dirt" or a folkloric nod to Ioannitsa (Ioniță) Kaloyan. The ritual has also been adopted and adapted by ethno-cultural minorities, including the Gagauz and the Csángós.

text:
# Caloian

***Caloian*** (also ***Calian(i)***, ***Caloiță***, ***Scaloian***, ***Gherman***, or ***Iene***) was a rainmaking and fertility rite in Romania, similar in some ways to *Dodola*. Its namesake is a clay effigy, whose sculpting, funeral, exhumation, and eventual destruction are centerpieces of the display. The source of this ritual, as is the case with those of many other local popular beliefs and practices, precedes the introduction of Christianity, although it came in time to be associated with Orthodox Easter or with the Feast of the Ascension. In some variants it was performed on a precisely calculated day two to three weeks after Easter, though local communities could also revive it at other times of the year, specifically during drought. The figurine was generally made from clay and most often by girls, though sometimes also by boys or married women; the ceremony itself would draw in the whole village community as spectators, and, in isolated cases, also had active participation from the Romanian Orthodox clergy. The mimicry of Christian funerals was widespread, but absent from the more established forms of the ritual.

Before dying out in the 1990s, the *Caloian* tradition had possibly survived for millennia, and may have originated with Dacian strands of Paleo-Balkan mythology. It evoked memories of human sacrifice for the appeasement of rain deities, with parallel near-sacrifices of girls being still attested in rural Romania during the first half of the 20th century. The *Caloian* litany, which exists in various arrangements as a sample of primitive Romanian literature, usually refers to the figure being sent off to the skies to unlock rain, and buried so that it may be reborn. The figurine's mother is hinted at in such poems, and in some cases played by one of the girls attending the funeral procession.

*Caloian* events were largely confined to Muntenia, Oltenia and Northern Dobruja (the southern part of Romania), though they have been well attested in specific parts of Western Moldavia. Similar practices, assigning usually female characteristics and names to the clay figurine, are spread throughout other parts of the Romanian-speaking areal. They form a continuum of traditions with both *Dodola* and *Germenchuk*, which are staples of Bulgarian folklore. Intermingling with the latter is attested in *Caloian*'s primary spread along the Danube, but also in its supposed etymology, which reveals either a Slavonic term for "dirt" or a folkloric nod to Ioannitsa (Ioniță) Kaloyan. The ritual has also been adopted and adapted by ethno-cultural minorities, including the Gagauz and the Csángós.

## Ritual

### Spring variant

*Caloian* had a spring version, which often occurred on the "third Tuesday after Easter", and concluded on the following Thursday. Folklorists Ion H. Ciubotaru an Silvia Ciubotaru write that having fixed days for *Caloian* during Easter was "wholly exceptional" in a Moldavian context; they also indicate one other variant in which *Caloian* coincided with the first Thursday after Easter. As noted by ethnologist Anca Ceaușescu, this variant was specifically a fertility rite, which was mostly tied to spring and renewal, rather than to the celebration of Easter itself. She records instances where *Caloian* was performed on the sixth week after Easter, on Thomas Sunday, or "always around May 8". Children up to the age of 12 were preferred for performing the ritual, owing to their "ritual purity", and in some cases only selected to fit into an odd number. Performers are most often described as young girls, and sometimes boys, though folklorist Teodor Burada, who speaks from a Western Moldavian perspective, also records the occasional involvement of married women. According to Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru, a situation idealized in the more traditional forms of the *Caloian* was that in which the people involved were girls around the age of nine, or adolescent virgins, who were either sisters or first cousins. Men remained strictly prohibited for most of *Caloian*'s history.

Depending on the communities involved, the *Caloian* was regarded as an infant, a grown child, or an adult. His effigy was put together from fresh yellow clay, and sometimes also mud, old rags, or wax. The latter two variants are described by the Ciubotarius as modern improvisations. In most versions, the end result would reach 50 cm (20 in) in length, though some stood as tall as "a seven-year-old child." As Burada notes, the *Caloian* makers made sure to present it in a mortuary pose, with hands crossed on the chest; sometimes, a secondary figure, the "female" *Caloiță*, would be added. Also according to Burada, the clay would be adorned with basil and the red-colored shells of Easter eggs, then placed inside a small coffin. The Easter egg variant remained well attested in the local culture of Niculițel, though other accounts refer to the *Caloian* being dressed in flowers and made to hold up a candle; a cross was placed near its head. Moldavian variants make ample and "homeopathic" use of plants which grow on or near bodies of water—reeds, but also burdock, dwarf elder, butterbur, and fleaworts. Folklorist Ion I. Drăgoescu reported a form of the ritual as seen in Potlogi, where the *Caloian* (known here exclusively as *Caloiță*) is made from dough, and its coffin carved out of a pumpkin shell.

The group would then proceed to bury the *Caloian* "outside the village, either out in the shrubland, or in some secluded area of the woods, or alongside a body of water, if such are located within proximity of the village." In some documented cases, the burial spot was specifically chosen as the line separating two villages or at crossroads, which were also "mythical places, spaces allowing for the communication between two worlds". The choice of such locations "enhances the magic in the act of burial". In the oldest variants, Christian symbolism is scarcely present in the funeral ceremony, and the procession is limited to girls wearing leaves of dwarf elder for clothes. During the ceremony as witnessed by Burada, a girl would act and dress as the officiating priest, while another one would hold up the ceremonial flag (*prapur*), comprising a tall stick and a white handkerchief. The cortege would include mourners, who perform a mock-litany. The Romanian Academy's treatise on Romanian literature (*Istoria literaturii romîne*, 1964) describes this as sung to "its own tune, a syllabic one, almost recitative in its rhythm." The spring variant, as recorded in Burada, reads:

Some informants and some variants of the rhyme are specific about the burial being done to ensure regeneration. They address the *Caloian* with reassurances such as "we put you into the ground so that you'll turn green". Other forms include more classical litanies, mourning the *Caloian*'s "little girly body" (*trupușor de cuconiță*). In such variants, girl mourners rubbed onion slices over their eyes, to produce genuine tears.

In Burada's account, the *Caloian* was left buried for the following Wednesday, with the group returning on Thursday for the exhumation. The recovered figurine was either broken up into small pieces that were taken back to the village and thrown into wells, or left intact in its coffin and set down on a river to be carried downstream. In one of the fixed-date Moldavian variants, the figurine was always dug out on the Feast of the Ascension. Another variant of the ritual, attested in Fântâna Doamnei, had it buried in a field of green wheat and exhumed at Saint George's Festival (April 23), which, according to folklorist Mihai Pop, underscores *Caloian*'s function as an agrarian fertility rite. The *Caloian*'s departure or destruction was followed by a large and joyous feast, attended by all the villagers and known as *pomana Caloianului* ("alms of the *Caloian*"). As noted by Burada, this final part of the ceremony lasted into Friday morning, and specifically involved *Lăutari* performers; in some parts of the country, working the field on *Caloian* Tuesday afternoon was virtually a taboo. A folk dance, the *Caloian* hora, was sometimes performed by those attending the feast.

### Drought ritual

The *Caloian* was also revived in rainmaking rituals that could take place later in the year, specifically "on days that follow several dry weeks, when it's sultry and the earth gets scorched by drought"; ethnologist Mihaela Bucin argues that, even as a spring ritual, the *Caloian* was implicitly associated with rainmaking. Progressively, the celebration was reduced in scope to a rain ritual, by confusion with other festivals, and sometimes to stop heavy rainfall as well. Ethnographer Ion Ghinoiu also proposes that the exhumation and destruction portion of some rituals may have originated with people angered by the continuation of drought: "Perhaps at an earlier stage the *Caloian* was only exhumed on the third day only if no rain had followed its burial \[...\]. These two rites were then contracted as one, and the latter became a mere sequence of the former." Contrarily, the Ciubotarus propose that breaking up the effigy was done to prevent excessive rain, and also that it represented an attenuated human sacrifice. They refer to first-hand accounts from the early 20th century which described adolescent girls, dressed up in funeral attire, being hurled into Moldavian rivers by other youth, and barely surviving the experience. A transition between the human version and the *Caloian* is attested in Lișna, where young villagers created human-sized dolls, or *zâne*, which they pretended were real girls that have to be kidnapped and buried in order to end droughts.

One informant suggested in 1949 that *Caloian* (known to her as *Iene*) was only ever performed in times of drought, usually on weekends, and with no day of rest in-between (though "sometimes, preparation are made throughout the week ahead"). In this version, the body was either directly buried near a well or allowed to float downstream on a river, with the coffin as a raft that also held up lit candles. If the latter, any other children encountered along the route were sprayed with water. This feature was reversed in other villages, where the procession itself could expect to be sprayed with water by onlookers. A variant attested in Călmățui had the figurine buried in grains of wheat or barley, whereas in Tudor Vladimirescu the ceremony closely followed regular church burials, including funeral services provided by a Romanian Orthodox priest, and a dedicated grave in the village cemetery. The custom in mixed Csángó–Romanian communities such as Oituz, which was under Catholic influence, is that the figurine be buried near a wayside cross.

With or without the burial, the rainmaking ritual closely mimicked attested practices for Easter-time (including alms which attracted the village in its entirety), with the song performed being a notable exception. It has several "relatively unitary" variants, including one cited by Burada:

Other such variants of the litany begin with a mother's search for her *Caloian*. Sometimes, one of the girls involved in the procession performs this role in front of the public, with the others pointing to her as they chant. As noted by Pop, they resemble in this the folk ballad *Miorița*, as well as Christmastime *colinde*—pointing to a recurring theme in "ancient Romanian poetry". As described by Ceaușescu, these are also the oldest rhymes connected to the burial ritual, and are specific in describing the figurine as a "mediator between the people and the sky above". The drought *Caloian* as performed around Bucharest used one such specific variant, in the southern Muntenian dialect:

The exhortation is sometimes addressed not just to *Caloian*, but also to the community's dead, most often ones who died recently and at a young age. In some cases, the song is extended by lamentations which depict in detail the sufferings of drought-afflicted villagers. One version from Broscăuți, in a divergent Moldavian subdialect, reads:

## Cultural significance

### Religious and historical connections

The *Caloian* is one of several burial ceremonies present in Romanian folklore—Pop draws parallels with the chasing out of the *Brezaia* doll at Christmas and New Years', or with the symbolic burial of a ceremonial leader at *Junii Brașoveni* feasts. As "one of the most archaic elements covered by the folk Calendar", *Caloian* itself may be deeply connected to the mythological lore of ancient cultures. *Istoria literaturii romîne* described *Caloian* as one of several songs or chants which serve to "mirror forms of \[social\] life that lead us back to the patriarchal village as it was at the dawn of the feudal era", and more particularly "descriptions of ceremonials or rites." Further: "the *Caloian* was, at least up to a point, the reification of an old concept regarding the Oriental god of nature, who dies and is resurrected."

As early as 1883, pioneer ethnologist Gheorghe Săulescu discussed similarities between *Caloian* and *Dodola*, whom he respectively knew as *Calian* and *Papaluga*. In Săulescu's reading, both were originally "national gods" of the Romanians. This approach linked *Calioan* with interest in Paleo-Balkan mythology. More specifically, Burada proposed that *Caloian* originated with the pre-Christian Dacians in Northern Dobruja (Scythia Minor). Drăgoescu argues for the same reading, reviewing the practice as "pre-Christian, agrarian", and ultimately a remnant of Dacian material culture. Contrarily, other scholars place the *Caloian*'s roots in Roman Dacia, with imitations of the *Argei* cult. Beginning with the writings of Marcu Beza, researchers have focused on the death-and-rebirth component of the practice, drawing connections between the *Caloian* and various religions of the Ancient Near East—with specific focus on Dumuzid and Attis. Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru describe *Caloian* as "perhaps Thracian", and note parallels with both Attis and Dumuzid—but also with Baldr, Xipe Totec and Yarilo; the ritual in its details, they note, closely resembles one found among the Shapsugs. Writer Victor Eftimiu argues that *Caloian*'s immediate origin is in Slavic paganism, as a localized rendition of the Morena cult; instead, folklorist Mihail Vulpescu highlights parallels with the Adonis cult. Ceaușescu proposes a generic reading of the figurine itself as an "effigy of the rain god".

There is also significant overlap between the Romanian *Caloian* and *Germenchuk*, present in Bulgarian folklore, with which southern Romanian traditions are fully contiguous. Though *Gherman* is attested as an alternative for *Caloian* in Muntenia, some other Romanian iterations of the ritual have no known correspondent in any culture. The name of *(S)caloian*, whether or not indicative of its origin, is probably a borrowing from Greek onomastics; comparatist Francis Lebrun noted the existence of a *Khaloïánnis* (Χαλοΐάννης) song in Greek folklore, proposing that it shares traits with the Romanian ritual. Linguist Petre Coman verified the existence of the word *loián*, used for "rain" in the dialectal Romanian of Măcin. Another linguist, George Giuglea, noted its partial synonymy with the Albanian *llohë* ("sleet") and the Romanian *noian* ("deluge"). Giuglea further argued that a once-significant spread of *loián* would explain *(S)caloian*, specifically its "idea of rain, of water".

The name referring to both figurine and ritual has also attracted attention for its hypothetical connections with the Second Bulgarian Empire, which controlled territories on both sides of the Danube. Philologist Vasile Bogrea sees *Caloian* as originally a likely reference to a 12th-century Bulgarian Tsar, Ioannitsa (Ioniță) Kaloyan, polemically known in Greek as *Skyloioannes* (which would explain contexts in which *Scaloian* is used). However, Bogrea cautions that the origin may prove to be the Romanian noun *(s)căluș*, which would link *Caloian* with the *Călușari* fraternity. Geographer Constantin Brătescu uses *Caloian* rituals in Northern Dobruja as evidence "that a rather wide area" of Northern Dobruja was inhabited by proto-Romanian Vlachs during Ioannitsa's empire. In 2017, ethnologists Delia-Anamaria Răchișan and Călin-Teodor Morariu indicated the origin of the name in the Slavonic *kalŭ* (калъ), meaning "dirt", though also noting that "some have correlated the practice with the name of Tsar Ioniță" or derived it from John the Baptist. The Slavonic derivation had also been proposed earlier by Pericle Papahagi and Ion Aurel Candrea, who suggest *kale an* ("yellow clay").

### Spread and transformation

Săulescu was the first to record the *Caloian* as he witnessed it in Western Moldavia. In 1915, Burada was aware of it existing only in "certain villages" of Muntenia—Brăila, Buzău, Ialomița counties—and only one locality of Western Moldavia—namely Hermeziu, Iași County. To these he added Northern Dobruja's Tulcea County—with the figurine, exclusively known here as *Scaloian*, being disposed off on the Danube. *Caloian* and its variants were only known in certain parts of Transylvania, and were never popular there, possibly owing to a very specific interdiction being enforced during the Reformation—known to have been applied against the *Călușari*, by 1675. Ethnologist Pamfil Bilțiu notes that an unnamed rainmaking ritual was nevertheless always practiced in that region, into the late 20th century. According to Bilțiu, it was still recognized by the old women of Leordina and other villages in Maramureș County, who recalled figurines being made out of either cloth or clay. Meanwhile, the custom had spread out to eastern peripheral areas: one 1920 report notes the *Caloian* being practiced by the Gagauz and Romanians of Vulcănești, in Bessarabia (now Gagauzia, Republic of Moldova).

According to Pop, the ritual had a "much larger area" than usually acknowledged, though derivatives such as *Muma ploii* ("Mother of Rain"), in Oltenia, and *Cheloșag* at Ferești in Western Moldavia. As he notes, *Muma ploii* also involves a burial ceremony and litanies which "seem to be only variants of the *Scaloian* songs." Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru refer to the same issue in noting that *Caloian* and its most archaic forms appear in southernmost Moldavia, whereas heterodox varieties take precedence in rural areas situated more to the north, including some areas of Bukovina. Examples include *Ploița* and *Ploițica* ("Rainy Girl") in Focuri, *Păpușa* ("Doll") in Horodniceni, and *Mama secetei* ("Mother of Drought") in Heleșteni and Santa Mare. Late adoption correlates with the usage of common female names, as is the case with *Aglăița* of Concești and Havârna, *Catrina* of Lungani, and *Maricica* of Vorona. *Caloian*-related customs appearing under various guises were also scrutinized and discussed by other folklorists. They note (as with Adrian Fochi) that *Caloian* should be seen as one specific incarnation of a ritual which mostly employs feminine figurines under many other names, including *Caloiana*, *Ploaia* ("The Rain"), and *Maica Călătoarea* ("Mother Traveler"). Specifically in Oltenia, the female figurine was asked to ensure plentiful rainfall, whereas a male one, *Tatăl Soarelui* ("Sun's Father"), was buried next to her to ensure that the rains would also stop. These twin burials could also garner approval from the Orthodox clergy—at Leu, the mock-funeral involved passing through the churchyard. West of Transylvania, the Romanians of Hungary had "no recollection of the *Caloian*". They marked a festival known as *Paștele morțîlor*  \[*sic*\] ("Easter of the Dead"), in which they hurled eggshells into rivers, and also had *Păpărugă* as a localized *Dodola*; some fashioned *Muma ploii* on a separate occasion, using only clay that had been used to build a cob oven.

Pop argues that *Caloian* rituals were carefully maintained in certain communities by the more traditional folk, as "customs whose continued practice was of vital interest to the entire community", and "not at all child's play"; despite this, he reports that *Caloian* had died out by 1999, when his research was published. Similarly, Răchișan and Morariu note that, like both the *Dodola* and the *Caloian* stand as "agrarian customs practiced by children to benefit the community, and should not be mistaken for children's games." According to Ceaușescu, the practice only degenerated into "children's folklore" because of advances in agriculture, which rendered its sacred functions socially irrelevant.

In 1973, Valeriu Anania published his play *Greul Pământului* ("Weight of the Earth", or "Pregnancy with the Earth"), which is a mythopoeia of *Caloianul* as the "Vlach myth". Anania depicts Tsar Ioannitsa as a Vlach hero whose death is necessary for the survival of his kin, and whose burial under the Vlachs' main citadel consolidates their presence in history. The play also fictionalizes the origins of *Io*, once used as an introductory title by Romanian rulers, suggesting that it is the "seed" of Ioannitsa's name, and a recollection of his sacrifice. Anania's work was followed in 1975 by Ion Lăncrănjan's novel, *Caloianul*, which alludes to the clay doll as an existential metaphor—the protagonist, Alexandru Ghețea, is shown to be dying a "great" death, like a "creation of smooth clay." Such imagery was invoked by Ion Gheorghe in his 1976 poetry volume, *Noimele* ("The Meanings"). The ritual's name was also revived by Romanian wine producers, with *Crama Oprișor* marketing as *Caloian* its *Fetească neagră*, rosé and Merlot varieties.

* Mihaela Bucin, "Obiceiuri populare dintre Paști și Rusalii", in Ernő Eperjessy, Alexandru Hoțopan (eds.), *Din tradițiile populare ale românilor din Ungaria. A magyarországi románok néprajza*, Vol. 10, pp. 78–88. Budapest: Magyar Néprajzi Társaság, 1995. ISBN 963-7929-24-8 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: checksum
* Teodor Burada, *Istoria teatrului în Moldova. Volumul I*. Iași: Institutul de Arte Grafice N. V. Ștefaniu & Comp, 1915.
* Anca Ceaușescu, "Obiceiuri și practici rituale privind fertilitatea pământului", in *Arhivele Olteniei*, Issue 34/2020, pp. 305–314.
* Ion H. Ciubotaru, Silvia Ciubotaru, "Obiceiurile agrare – o dominantă a culturii populare din Moldova", in *Anuar de Lingvistică și Istorie Literară*, Vol. XXIX, 1983–1984, pp. 107–130.
* Doina Pologea, "Valeriu Anania: *Greul Pământului* or the Myth of the Land that Turns into Sky", in Iulian Boldea (ed.), *Discourse as a Form of Multiculturalism in Literature and Communication*, pp. 1681–1689. Tîrgu-Mureș: Arhipelag XXI Press, 2015. ISBN 978-606-8624-21-1
* Mihai Pop, *Obiceiuri tradiționale românești*. Bucharest: Editura Univers, 1999. ISBN 973-34-0622-8
* Delia-Anamaria Răchișan, Călin-Teodor Morariu, "Nume de sărbători între sacru și profan", in Ovidiu Felecan (ed.), *Numele și numirea. Actele Conferinței Internaționale de Onomastică. Ediția a IV-a: Sacred and Profane in Onomastics*, pp. 1005–1015. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega & Editura Argonaut, 2017.
* Alexandru Rosetti *et al.*, *Istoria literaturii romîne, I*. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1964.

## InfoBox

*Caloian*
| *Caloian* figurine from Viziru | |
| --- | --- |
| Grouping | Effigy |
| Folklore | Romanian<br>(also Csángó, Gagauz) |
| Other name(s) | *Calian(i)*, *Caloiță*, *Scaloian*, *Gherman*, *Iene* |
| Region | Muntenia, Northern Dobruja, Oltenia, Western Moldavia (principally)<br>Bessarabia, Bukovina, Transylvania (locally) |


title: Vellore Mutiny

abstract: The Vellore mutiny, or Vellore Revolution, occurred on 10 July 1806 and was the first instance of a large-scale and violent mutiny by Indian sepoys against the East India Company, predating the Indian Rebellion of 1857 by half a century. The revolt, which took place in the Indian city of Vellore, lasted one full day, during which mutineers seized the Vellore Fort and killed or wounded 200 British troops. The mutiny was subdued by cavalry and artillery from Arcot. Total deaths amongst the mutineers were approximately 350; with summary executions of about 100 during the suppression of the outbreak, followed by the formal court-martial of smaller numbers.

text:
# Vellore Mutiny

The **Vellore mutiny**, or **Vellore Revolution**, occurred on 10 July 1806 and was the first instance of a large-scale and violent mutiny by Indian sepoys against the East India Company, predating the Indian Rebellion of 1857 by half a century. The revolt, which took place in the Indian city of Vellore, lasted one full day, during which mutineers seized the Vellore Fort and killed or wounded 200 British troops. The mutiny was subdued by cavalry and artillery from Arcot. Total deaths amongst the mutineers were approximately 350; with summary executions of about 100 during the suppression of the outbreak, followed by the formal court-martial of smaller numbers.

## Causes

The immediate causes of the mutiny revolved mainly around resentment felt towards changes in the sepoy dress code and general appearance, introduced in November 1805. Hindus were prohibited from wearing religious marks on their foreheads while on duty, and Muslims were required to shave their beards and trim their moustaches. In addition General Sir John Craddock, Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army, ordered the wearing of a round hat resembling that associated at the time with both Europeans in general and with Indian converts to Christianity. The new headdress included a leather cockade and was intended to replace an existing model resembling a turban and considered unsuitable for service. These measures offended the sensibilities of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys and went contrary to an earlier warning by a military board that sepoy uniform changes should be "given every consideration which a subject of that delicate and important nature required".

These changes, intended to improve the "soldierly appearance" of the men, created strong resentment among the Indian soldiers. In May 1806 some sepoys who protested the new rules were sent to Fort Saint George (Madras then, now Chennai). Two of them – a Hindu and a Muslim – were given 90 lashes each and dismissed from the army. Nineteen sepoys were sentenced to 50 lashes each but successfully gained pardon from the East India Company.

In addition to the military grievances listed above, the rebellion was also instigated by the sons of the defeated Tipu Sultan, confined at Vellore since 1799. Tipu's wives and sons, together with numerous retainers, were pensioners of the East India Company and lived in a palace within the large complex comprising the Vellore Fort. One of Tipu Sultan's daughters was to be married on 9 July 1806, and the plotters of the uprising gathered at the fort under the pretext of attending the wedding. The objectives of the civilian conspirators remain obscure but by seizing and holding the fort they may have hoped to encourage a general rising through the territory of the former Mysore Sultanate. However, Tipu's sons were reluctant to take charge after the mutiny arose.

## Outbreak

The garrison of the Vellore Fort in July 1806 comprised four companies of British infantry from H.M. 69th (South Lincolnshire) Regiment of Foot and three battalions of Madras infantry: the 1st/1st, 2nd/1st and 2nd/23rd Madras Native Infantry. The usual practice for sepoys having families with them in Vellore was to live in individual huts outside the walls. However the scheduling of a field-day for the Madras units on 10 July had required most of the sepoys to spend that night sleeping within the fort so that they could be quickly assembled on parade before dawn.

Two hours after midnight on 10 July, the sepoys killed fourteen of their own officers and 115 men of the 69th Regiment, most of the latter as they slept in their barracks. Among those killed was Colonel St. John Fancourt, the commander of the fort. The rebels seized control by dawn, and raised the flag of the Mysore Sultanate over the fort. Retainers of Tipu's second son Fateh Hyder emerged from the palace part of the complex and joined with the mutineers.

However, a British officer, Major Coopes, had been outside the walls of the fort that night and was able to alert the garrison in Arcot. Nine hours after the outbreak of the mutiny, a relief force comprising the British 19th Light Dragoons, galloper guns and a squadron of the 3rd Regiment of Madras Native Cavalry, rode from Arcot to Vellore, covering 16 miles (26 km) in about two hours. It was led by Captain Robert Rollo Gillespie, who reportedly left Arcot within a quarter of an hour of the alarm being raised. Gillespie dashed ahead of the main force with a single troop of about twenty men. Arriving at Vellore, Gillespie found the surviving Europeans, about sixty men of the 69th, commanded by NCOs and two assistant surgeons, still holding part of the ramparts but out of ammunition. Unable to gain entry through the defended gate, Gillespie climbed the wall with the aid of a rope and a sergeant's sash which was lowered to him; and, to gain time, led the 69th in a bayonet-charge along the ramparts. When the rest of the 19th arrived, Gillespie had them blow open the gates with their galloper guns, and made a second charge with the 69th to clear a space inside the entrance to permit the cavalry to deploy. The Light Dragoons and the Madras Cavalry then charged and sabred any sepoy who stood in their way. About 100 sepoys who had sought refuge inside the palace were brought out, and by Gillespie's order, placed against a wall and shot dead. John Blakiston, the engineer who had blown in the gates, recalled: "Even this appalling sight I could look upon, I may almost say, with composure. It was an act of summary justice, and in every respect a most proper one; yet, at this distance of time, I find it a difficult matter to approve the deed, or to account for the feeling under which I then viewed it".

The prompt and ruthless response to the mutiny snuffed out any further unrest in a single stroke and provided the history of the British in India with one of its true epics; for, as Gillespie admitted, with a delay of even five minutes, all would have been lost for the British. In all, nearly 350 of the rebels were killed, and about the same number wounded before the fighting had finished. Surviving sepoys scattered across the countryside outside the fort. Many were captured by local police; to be eventually released or returned to Vellore for court-martial.

## Aftermath

After formal trial, six mutineers were blown away from guns, five shot by firing squad, eight hanged and five transported. The three Madras battalions involved in the mutiny were all disbanded. The senior British officers responsible for the offending dress regulations were recalled to England, including the Commander-in-Chief of the Madras Army, John Craddock, the company refusing to pay even his passage. The orders regarding the 'new turbans' (round hats) were also cancelled.

After the incident, the incarcerated royals in Vellore fort were transferred to Calcutta. The Governor of Madras, William Bentinck, too was recalled, the Company's Court of Directors regretting that "greater care and caution had not been exercised in examining into the real sentiments and dispositions of the sepoys before measures of severity were adopted to enforce the order respecting the use of the new turban." The controversial interference with the social and religious customs of the sepoys was also abolished.

There are some parallels between the Vellore Mutiny and that of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, although the latter was on a much larger scale. In 1857 the sepoys proclaimed the return of Mughal rule by re-installing Bahadur Shah as Emperor of India; in the same way mutineers of Vellore, nearly 50 years before, had attempted to restore power to Tipu Sultan's sons. Perceived insensitivity to sepoy religious and cultural practices (in the form of leather headdresses and greased cartridges) was a factor in both uprisings. The events of 1857 (which involved the Bengal Army and did not affect the Madras Army) caused the British crown to take over company property and functions within India through the Government of India Act 1858 which saw the total dissolution of the East India Company.

The only surviving eyewitness account of the actual outbreak of the mutiny is that of Amelia Farrer, Lady Fancourt (the wife of St. John Fancourt, the commander of the fort). Her manuscript account, written two weeks after the massacre, describes how she and her children survived as her husband perished.

## In literature

English poet Sir Henry Newbolt's poem "Gillespie" is an account of the events of the Vellore mutiny.

The novel *Strangers in the Land* (1976; ISBN 0-432-14756-X) by George Shipway centers on the Vellore mutiny, from the perspectives of both British and Indian participants.

## InfoBox

Vellore Sepoy Mutiny
| Pillar at Hazrath Makkaan Junction commemorating the Vellore sepoy mutiny. | |
| --- | --- |
| Date | 10 July 1806 (1806-07-10) |
| Duration | 1 day |
| Location | Vellore Fort<br>Vellore, Madras Presidency, Company Raj |
| Type | Mutiny |
| Casualties | |
| **Indian rebel sepoys:** 100 summarily executed. Total 350 sepoys killed, 350 wounded. | |
| **British officers** of sepoy regiments: 14 | |
| **British soldiers** of 69th Regiment: 115 | |


title: Cantons of Nantes

abstract: The cantons of Nantes are administrative divisions of the Loire-Atlantique department, in western France. Since the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015, the city of Nantes is subdivided into 7 cantons. Their seat is in Nantes.

text:
# Cantons of Nantes

The **cantons of Nantes** are administrative divisions of the Loire-Atlantique department, in western France. Since the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015, the city of Nantes is subdivided into 7 cantons. Their seat is in Nantes.

## Cantons

| Name | Population (2019) | Cantonal Code |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Canton of Nantes-1 | 44,152 | 4411 |
| Canton of Nantes-2 | 41,990 | 4412 |
| Canton of Nantes-3 | 53,323 | 4413 |
| Canton of Nantes-4 | 39,225 | 4414 |
| Canton of Nantes-5 | 42,874 | 4415 |
| Canton of Nantes-6 | 47,551 | 4416 |
| Canton of Nantes-7 | 49,693 | 4417 |
|

47°13′N 1°33′W / 47.22°N 1.55°W / 47.22; -1.55