title: Taishun County

abstract: Taishun County is a county in the prefecture-level city of Wenzhou, in the southern part of Zhejiang province, China, bordering Fujian province to the southeast, south, and west. Taishun County has more than 900 covered bridges, many of them hundreds of years old, as well as a covered bridge museum. Wuyanling National Nature Reserve in the west of the county represents significant natural values as well as being a touristic attraction. The 2007 population was 350,000.

text:
# Taishun County

**Taishun County** (simplified Chinese: 泰顺县; traditional Chinese: 泰順縣; pinyin: *Tàishùn Xiàn*) is a county in the prefecture-level city of Wenzhou, in the southern part of Zhejiang province, China, bordering Fujian province to the southeast, south, and west.

Taishun County has more than 900 covered bridges, many of them hundreds of years old, as well as a covered bridge museum. Wuyanling National Nature Reserve in the west of the county represents significant natural values as well as being a touristic attraction.

The 2007 population was 350,000.

## Administrative divisions

Towns:

Townships:

## Climate

| Climate data for Taishun, elevation 539 m (1,768 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010) | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 25.6
(78.1) | 29.2
(84.6) | 32.3
(90.1) | 34.4
(93.9) | 35.2
(95.4) | 36.6
(97.9) | 39.2
(102.6) | 38.5
(101.3) | 35.3
(95.5) | 33.2
(91.8) | 33.3
(91.9) | 25.2
(77.4) | 39.2
(102.6) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 11.5
(52.7) | 13.4
(56.1) | 16.7
(62.1) | 22.0
(71.6) | 25.5
(77.9) | 28.3
(82.9) | 31.8
(89.2) | 31.0
(87.8) | 27.5
(81.5) | 23.2
(73.8) | 18.5
(65.3) | 13.6
(56.5) | 21.9
(71.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 6.4
(43.5) | 8.0
(46.4) | 11.1
(52.0) | 16.2
(61.2) | 20.1
(68.2) | 23.5
(74.3) | 26.0
(78.8) | 25.3
(77.5) | 22.4
(72.3) | 17.8
(64.0) | 13.2
(55.8) | 8.1
(46.6) | 16.5
(61.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.9
(37.2) | 4.2
(39.6) | 7.2
(45.0) | 11.8
(53.2) | 16.1
(61.0) | 20.1
(68.2) | 21.9
(71.4) | 21.7
(71.1) | 18.9
(66.0) | 13.8
(56.8) | 9.3
(48.7) | 4.3
(39.7) | 12.7
(54.8) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −8.4
(16.9) | −6.9
(19.6) | −5.3
(22.5) | 0.6
(33.1) | 5.7
(42.3) | 9.6
(49.3) | 17.0
(62.6) | 14.1
(57.4) | 9.5
(49.1) | 1.5
(34.7) | −3.9
(25.0) | −10.5
(13.1) | −10.5
(13.1) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 75.3
(2.96) | 99.1
(3.90) | 181.9
(7.16) | 172.2
(6.78) | 243.3
(9.58) | 325.7
(12.82) | 216.9
(8.54) | 310.1
(12.21) | 203.1
(8.00) | 73.9
(2.91) | 75.3
(2.96) | 69.2
(2.72) | 2,046
(80.54) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 15.0 | 15.8 | 19.3 | 18.0 | 19.7 | 20.7 | 17.5 | 20.8 | 16.7 | 10.1 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 196.9 |
| Average snowy days | 1.8 | 2.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.4 | 4.7 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 82 | 83 | 82 | 80 | 81 | 84 | 80 | 83 | 82 | 79 | 82 | 80 | 82 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 102.3 | 94.5 | 106.0 | 126.6 | 128.7 | 125.5 | 207.9 | 184.2 | 151.7 | 155.5 | 119.4 | 122.8 | 1,625.1 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 31 | 30 | 28 | 33 | 31 | 30 | 49 | 46 | 41 | 44 | 37 | 38 | 37 |
| Source: China Meteorological Administration | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| Taishun 泰顺县 | |
| --- | --- |
| County | |
| Covered bridge at Wuyanling National Nature Reserve | |
| Location of Taishun County within Wenzhou | |
| TaishunLocation of the seat in Zhejiang | |
| Coordinates: 27°33′25″N 119°43′05″E / 27.557°N 119.718°E / 27.557; 119.718 | |
| Country | People's Republic of China |
| Province | Zhejiang |
| Prefecture-level city | Wenzhou |
| Area | |
| Total | 1,768.02 km2 (682.64 sq mi) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 266,400 |
| Density | 150/km2 (390/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+8 (China Standard) |


title: Profundisepta alicei

abstract: Profundisepta alicei is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Fissurellidae, the keyhole limpets.

text:
# Profundisepta alicei

***Profundisepta alicei*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Fissurellidae, the keyhole limpets.

## Description

## Distribution

## InfoBox

| *Profundisepta alicei* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Vetigastropoda |
| Order: | Lepetellida |
| Family: | Fissurellidae |
| Genus: | *Profundisepta* |
| Species: | ***P. alicei*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Profundisepta alicei***<br>(Dautzenberg & Fischer, 1897) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
|  | |


title: Pretty Young Girl

abstract: "Pretty Young Girl" is a song by Bad Boys Blue from their debut album Hot Girls, Bad Boys. Released as a single in late 1985 and in the United States on December 30, 1986, it reached number 29 in West Germany, number 14 in Austria, and number 30 in Switzerland.

text:
# Pretty Young Girl

"**Pretty Young Girl**" is a song by Bad Boys Blue from their debut album *Hot Girls, Bad Boys*. Released as a single in late 1985 and in the United States on December 30, 1986, it reached number 29 in West Germany, number 14 in Austria, and number 30 in Switzerland.

## Composition

The song was written and produced by Tony Hendrik and Karin Hartmann (as Karin van Haaren).

## Charts

| Chart (1985) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40) | 14 |
| Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders) | 24 |
| Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade) | 30 |
| West Germany (Official German Charts) | 29 |

## InfoBox

| "Pretty Young Girl" | |
| --- | --- |
| Single by Bad Boys Blue | |
| from the album  *Hot Girls, Bad Boys* | |
| B-side | "Hot Girls – Bad Boys" |
| Released | September 10, 1985 |
| Genre | Eurodisco |
| Label | Coconut, Emergency (US) |
| Bad Boys Blue singles chronology | |
| "You're a Woman"
(1985) "**Pretty Young Girl**"
(1985) "Kisses and Tears (My One and Only)"
(1986) | |


title: Cassidulina (foraminifera)

abstract: Cassidulina is a genus of foraminifera described in the Treatise Part C., as having a free, lenticular test, with central boss of clear calcite on either side. Chambers are biserially arranged, enrolled planispirally with a subangular to keeled periphery. The wall is calcareous, hyaline (glassy), optically granular, perforate. The surface is smooth with a polished appearance. Sutures are radial to oblique, straight or curved. The aperture is a narrow arched slip at the base of the apertural face, partly closed by an apertural place. The taxonomy of Cassidulina is rather stable, and is included in the Cassidulinidae at least as far back as Cushman, 1950. Related genera include Cassidulinella, Favocassidulina, Globocassidulina, and Buriela. Cassidulina, itself, is cosmopolitan, with a stratigraphic range extending from the Upper Eocene to recent.

text:
# Cassidulina (foraminifera)

***Cassidulina*** is a genus of foraminifera described in the Treatise Part C. (Loeblich & Tappan, 1964), as having a free, lenticular test, with central boss of clear calcite on either side. Chambers are biserially arranged, enrolled planispirally with a subangular to keeled periphery. The wall is calcareous, hyaline (glassy), optically granular, perforate. The surface is smooth with a polished appearance. Sutures are radial to oblique, straight or curved. The aperture is a narrow arched slip at the base of the apertural face, partly closed by an apertural place. (Loeblich and Tappan 1988)

The taxonomy of *Cassidulina* is rather stable, and is included in the Cassidulinidae at least as far back as Cushman, 1950. Related genera include *Cassidulinella*, *Favocassidulina*, *Globocassidulina*, and *Buriela*. *Cassidulina*, itself, is cosmopolitan, with a stratigraphic range extending from the Upper Eocene to recent.

## Species

* Joseph A. Cushman, 1950. Foraminifera, their classification and economic use. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 4th edition, 1950
* Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr. and Helen Tappan, 1964. Sarcodina, chiefy "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part C, Protista 2. Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press, 1964.
* Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr. and Helen Tappan, 1988. Forminiferal Genera and their classification.

Geological Survey of Iran, (e-book) 2005.

## InfoBox

| Cassidulina
Temporal range: U Eocene to Recent | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| (unranked): | SAR |
| (unranked): | Rhizaria |
| Superphylum: | Retaria |
| Phylum: | Foraminifera |
| Order: | Rotaliida |
| Superfamily: | Cassidulinacea |
| Family: | Cassidulinidae |
| Subfamily: | Cassidulininae |
| Genus: | ***Cassidulina***
d'Orbigny, 1826 |
|
| Species | |
| See text | |


title: Polymeridium longiflavens

abstract: Polymeridium longiflavens is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling) crustose lichen in the family Trypetheliaceae, first described in 2016. It is found in Brazil.

text:
# Polymeridium longiflavens

***Polymeridium longiflavens*** is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling) crustose lichen in the family Trypetheliaceae, first described in 2016. It is found in Brazil.

## Taxonomy

*Polymeridium longiflavens* was formally described by André Aptroot, Cléverton de Oliveira Mendonça, and Marcela Eugenia da Silva Cáceres in 2016. The type specimen was collected in the Serra de Itabaiana National Park, Sergipe, Brazil, at an elevation of approximately 400 m (1,300 ft).

## Description

The thallus of *Polymeridium longiflavens* is not corticate, dull, continuous, covering areas up to 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter, and whitish-grey in colour. It is surrounded by a cottony dark brown hypothallus line approximately 0.4 mm wide and does not induce gall formation on the host bark. Ascomata are spherical, measuring 0.25–0.35 mm in diameter, single, and emergent from the thallus. The wall is carbonized and up to 40 μm thick. Ostioles are apical, not fused, flat, and black. The hamathecium is inspersed with yellow oil globules. Asci contain eight ascospores each. Ascospores are hyaline, have between 9 and 11 septa, fusiform, measuring 57–70 by 12–14 μm, with pointed ends and rounded lumina, and are not surrounded by a gelatinous layer. Pycnidia were not observed.

The thallus surface of *Polymeridium longiflavens* is UV+ (yellow), but does not react with standard chemical spot tests. Thin-layer chromatography analysis reveals the presence of lichexanthone.

## Habitat and distribution

This species is found on the smooth bark of trees in transitional forests and at the time of its original publication was known to occur only in Brazil.

## InfoBox

| *Polymeridium longiflavens* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Dothideomycetes |
| Order: | Trypetheliales |
| Family: | Trypetheliaceae |
| Genus: | *Polymeridium* |
| Species: | ***P. longiflavens*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Polymeridium longiflavens***<br>Aptroot, Mendonça & M.Cáceres (2016) | |
|


title: Polymeridium rhodopruinosum

abstract: Polymeridium rhodopruinosum is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Trypetheliaceae. Found in Puerto Rico, it was formally described as a new species in 2016 by Dutch lichenologist André Aptroot. The type specimen was collected by the author from Vereda Los Viveros in the Maricao State Forest (Maricao) at an altitude of 850 m (2,790 ft); there, it was found in a sclerophyllous forest growing on tree bark. The lichen has a white thallus lacking a cortex. The only lichen product detected from collected specimens using thin-layer chromatography was an anthraquinone compound. The combination of characteristics of the lichen that distinguish it from others in Polymeridium are the ascomata with external, red pruina that turn dark blood red with a K+ spot test; and the dimensions of its ascospores.

text:
# Polymeridium rhodopruinosum

***Polymeridium rhodopruinosum*** is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), crustose lichen in the family Trypetheliaceae. Found in Puerto Rico, it was formally described as a new species in 2016 by Dutch lichenologist André Aptroot. The type specimen was collected by the author from Vereda Los Viveros in the Maricao State Forest (Maricao) at an altitude of 850 m (2,790 ft); there, it was found in a sclerophyllous forest growing on tree bark. The lichen has a white thallus lacking a cortex. The only lichen product detected from collected specimens using thin-layer chromatography was an anthraquinone compound. The combination of characteristics of the lichen that distinguish it from others in *Polymeridium* are the ascomata with external, red pruina that turn dark blood red with a K+ spot test; and the dimensions of its ascospores (17–19 by 4–5 μm).

## InfoBox

| *Polymeridium rhodopruinosum* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Dothideomycetes |
| Order: | Trypetheliales |
| Family: | Trypetheliaceae |
| Genus: | *Polymeridium* |
| Species: | ***P. rhodopruinosum*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Polymeridium rhodopruinosum***<br>Aptroot & Mercado Diaz (2016) | |
|


title: Political history

abstract: Political history is the narrative and survey of political events, ideas, movements, organs of government, voters, parties and leaders. It is closely related to other fields of history, including diplomatic history, constitutional history, social history, people's history, and public history. Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies. From approximately the 1960s onwards, the rise of competing subdisciplines, particularly social history and cultural history, led to a decline in the prominence of "traditional" political history, which tended to focus on the activities of political elites. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, and the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.

text:
# Political history

**Political history** is the narrative and survey of political events, ideas, movements, organs of government, voters, parties and leaders. It is closely related to other fields of history, including diplomatic history, constitutional history, social history, people's history, and public history. Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies.

From approximately the 1960s onwards, the rise of competing subdisciplines, particularly social history and cultural history, led to a decline in the prominence of "traditional" political history, which tended to focus on the activities of political elites. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, and the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.

## Political world history

The political history of the world examines the history of politics and government on a global scale, including international relations.

## Aspects of political history

The first "scientific" political history was written by Leopold von Ranke in Germany in the 19th century. His methodologies profoundly affected the way historians critically examine sources; see historiography for a more complete analysis of the methodology of various approaches to history. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. One author asserts that "political history as a whole cannot exist without the study of ideological differences and their implications." Studies of political history typically centre around a single nation and its political change and development. Some historians identify the growing trend towards narrow specialization in political history during recent decades: "while a college professor in the 1940s sought to identify himself as a "historian", by the 1950s "American historian" was the designation."

From the 1970s onwards, new movements challenged traditional approaches to political history. The development of social history shifted the emphasis away from the study of leaders and national decisions, and towards the role of ordinary people, especially outsiders and minorities. Younger scholars shifted to different issues, usually focused on race, class and gender, with little room for elites. After 1990 social history itself began to fade, replaced with postmodern and cultural approaches that rejected grand narrative.

### United States: The new political history

Traditional political history focused on major leaders and had long played a dominant role beyond academic historians in the United States. These studies accounted for about 25% of the scholarly books and articles written by American historians before 1950, and about 33% into the 1960s, followed by diplomacy. The arrival in the 1960s and 1970s of a new interest in social history led to the emergence of the "new political history" which saw young scholars put much more emphasis on the voters' behavior and motivation, rather than just the politicians. It relied heavily on quantitative methods to integrate social themes, especially regarding ethnicity and religion. The new social science approach was a harbinger of the fading away of interest in Great Men. The eclipse of traditional political approaches during the 1970s was a major shock, though diplomatic history fell even further. It was upstaged by social history, with a race/class/gender model. The number of political articles submitted to the *Journal of American History* fell by half from 33% to 15%. Patterson argued that contemporary events, especially the Vietnam War and Watergate, alienated younger scholars away from the study of politicians and their deeds. Political history never disappeared, but it never recovered its dominance among scholars, despite its sustained high popularity among the reading public. Some political historians made fun of their own predicament, as when William Leuchtenburg wrote, "the status of the political historians within the profession has sunk to somewhere between that of a faith healer and a chiropractor. Political historians were all right in a way, but you might not want to bring one home to meet the family." Others were more analytical, as when Hugh Davis Graham observed:

The ranks of traditional political historians are depleted, their assumptions and methods discredited, along with the Great White Man whose careers they chronicled.

### Britain

Readman (2009) discusses the historiography of British political history in the 20th century. He describes how British political scholarship mostly ignored 20th century history due to temporal proximity to the recent past, the unavailability of primary sources, and the potential for bias. The article explores how transitions in scholarship have allowed for greater interest in 20th century history among scholars, which include less reliance on archival sources, methodological changes in historiography, and the flourishing of new forms of history such as oral history.

### Germany

In the course of the 1960s, however, some German historians (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler and his cohort) began to rebel against this idea, instead suggesting a "Primacy of Domestic Politics" (*Primat der Innenpolitik*), in which the insecurities of (in this case German) domestic policy drove the creation of foreign policy. This led to a considerable body of work interpreting the domestic policies of various states and the ways this influenced their conduct of foreign policy.

### France

The French *Annales School* had already put an emphasis on the role of geography and economics on history, and of the importance of broad, slow cycles rather than the constant apparent movement of the "history of events" of high politics. It downplayed politics and diplomacy. The most important work of the *Annales* school, Fernand Braudel's *The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II*, contains a traditional Rankean diplomatic history of Philip II's Mediterranean policy, but only as the third and shortest section of a work largely focusing on the broad cycles of history in the *longue durée* ("long term"). The *Annales* were broadly influential, leading to a turning away from political history towards an emphasis on broader trends of economic and environmental change.

### Social history

In the 1960s and 1970s, an increasing emphasis on giving a voice to the voiceless and writing the history of the underclasses, whether by using the quantitative statistical methods of social history or the more postmodern assessments of cultural history, also undermined the centrality of politics to the historical discipline. Leff noted how social historians, "disdained political history as elitist, shallow, altogether passe, and irrelevant to the drama of everyday lives."

### History of political regimes and institutions

* MaxRange data is a project that defines and shows in detail the political status and development of institutional regimes of all states in the world from 1789. MaxRange also describes the background, development, external sources and major causes behind all political changes.

MaxRange is a dataset defining level of democracy and institutional structure (regime-type) on a 100-graded scale where every value represents a unique regimetype. Values are sorted from 1-100 based on level of democracy and political accountability. MaxRange defines the value (regimetype) corresponding to all states and every month from 1789 to 2015 and updating. MaxRange is created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden

## Further reading

### In USA

* Bogue, Allan G. "United States: The 'new' political history." *Journal of Contemporary History* (1968) 3#1 pp: 5–27. in JSTOR.
* Brinkley, Alan. "The Challenges and Rewards of Textbook Writing: An Interview with Alan Brinkley". *Journal of American History* 91#4 (2005): 1391–97 online; focus on political history
* Gillon, Steven M. "The future of political history". *Journal of Policy History* 9.2 (1997): 240–255, in USA.
* Graham, Hugh Davis. "The stunted career of policy history: a critique and an agenda". *Public Historian* 15.2 (1993): 15–37; policy history is a closely related topic online.
* Jacobs, Meg, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer, eds. *The democratic experiment: New directions in American political history* (Princeton UP, 2009).
* Jensen, Richard J. "Historiography of American Political History" in Jack Greene, ed., *Encyclopedia of American Political History* (Scribner's, 1984), vol 1. pp 1–25 online
* Larson, John Lauritz, and Michael A. Morrison, eds. *Whither the Early Republic: A Forum on the Future of the Field* (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2012).
* Leuchtenburg, William E. "The Pertinence of Political History: Reflections on the Significance of the State in America", *Journal of American History* 73, (1986), 585–600.
* Newman, Richard. "Bringing Politics Back in... to Abolition." *Reviews in American History* 45.1 (2017): 57–64.
* Silbey, Joel H. "The State and Practice of American Political History at the Millennium: The Nineteenth Century as a Test Case". *Journal of Policy History* 11.1 (1999): 1–30.
* Swirski, Peter (2011). *American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History*. New York, Routledge.


title: Pollex balabaci

abstract: Pollex balabaci is a moth of the family Erebidae first described by Michael Fibiger in 2007. It is known from Balabac in the Philippines.

text:
# Pollex balabaci

***Pollex balabaci*** is a moth of the family Erebidae first described by Michael Fibiger in 2007. It is known from Balabac in the Philippines.

* Fibiger, Michael (2007). "Revision of the Micronoctuidae (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea). Part 1, Taxonomy of the Pollexinae" (PDF). *Zootaxa*. **1567**: 1–116.

## InfoBox

| *Pollex balabaci* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Superfamily: | Noctuoidea |
| Family: | Erebidae |
| Genus: | *Pollex* |
| Species: | ***P. balabaci*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pollex balabaci***<br>Fibiger, 2007 | |
|


title: Police F.C. (Rwanda)

abstract: Police Football Club is an association football club based in Kigali, Rwanda and currently competes the Rwanda Premier League.

text:
# Police F.C. (Rwanda)

**Police Football Club** is an association football club based in Kigali, Rwanda and currently competes the Rwanda Premier League.

## History

Police FC was founded 2000 by the Rwanda National Police (RNP). The club won 2003 the Championnat National de 2e Division and was promoted in the Rwanda National Football League. In 2011 and 2012, Police FC were runners up of the Rwanda National Football League. The first win followed 2015 with winning of the Rwandan Cup and 2016 lost in the final of the cup,

## Team

### Current squad

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

| No. Pos. Nation Player  1 GK  RWA   2 DF  RWA   3 DF  RWA   4 DF  RWA   5 DF  RWA   6 DF  RWA   7 MF  RWA   8 MF  RWA   9 FW  RWA   10 MF  RWA   11 FW  RWA   12 GK  RWA   13 FW  RWA   14 MF  RWA   15 FW  RWA   16 DF  RWA   17 MF  RWA   18 FW  RWA   19 MF  RWA   20 FW  RWA | No. Pos. Nation Player  21 DF  RWA   22 GK  RWA   23 DF  RWA   24 FW  RWA   25 DF  RWA   26 FW  RWA   27 MF  RWA Fabrice Martin Twizeyiimana  29 DF  RWA   30 GK  RWA   31 DF  RWA   32 MF  RWA   33 DF  RWA   34 MF  RWA   35 DF  RWA   36 MF  RWA   37 FW  RWA   38 MF  RWA   39 FW  RWA   40 FW  RWA Dany Usengimana |
| --- | --- |

### Staff

as of September 2021

Head Coach * Mashami Vincent

Assistant Coach * Alain Kirasa

Goalkeeper coach * Higiro Thomas

Fitness Coach * Mwambari Serge

Video Analyst * Samuel Ndayishimiye

## Stadium

Police plays its home games at Nyamiramboooooo Stadium in HAWAI

## Performance in CAF competitions

2013 – Preliminary round 2015 – Winner

## Notable coaches

## InfoBox

Police FC
| Founded | 2000 |
| --- | --- |
| Ground | Nyamirambo Stadium<br>Kigali, Rwanda |
| Capacity | 22,000 |
| Chairman | king mdizzo |
| Manager | Dieudonne mdizzo MUNYANEZA |
| League | Rwanda Premier League |
| 2023–24 | 7th |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Ponte Preta, Rio Grande do Sul

abstract: Ponte Preta is a municipality in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. In 2020 it had an estimated population of 1,524.

text:
# Ponte Preta, Rio Grande do Sul

**Ponte Preta** is a municipality in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. In 2020 it had an estimated population of 1,524.

## InfoBox

| Ponte Preta, Rio Grande do Sul | |
| --- | --- |
| View of Ponte Preta, Rio Grande do Sul | |
|  | |
| Location of Ponte Preta within Rio Grande do Sul | |
| Coordinates: 27°39′14″S 52°29′16″W / 27.65389°S 52.48778°W / -27.65389; -52.48778 | |
| Country | Brazil |
| State | Rio Grande do Sul |
| Mesoregion | Noroeste Rio-Grandense |
| Microregion | Microregion of Erechim |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Luis Carlos Parise |
| Area | |
| Total | 100.407 km2 (38.767 sq mi) |
| Population (2020 ) | |
| Total | 1,524 |
| Density | 19.6/km2 (51/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC−3 (BRT) |
| HDI | 0.782 (UNDP 2000) |
| GDP | R$ 20,210,994.00 (IBGE 2003) |
| GDP per capita | R$ 10,135.91 (IGBE 2003) |


abstract: The political history of Mysore and Coorg (1800–1947) is the political history of the contiguous historical regions of Mysore state and Coorg province located on the Deccan Plateau in west-central peninsular India, beginning with the acceptance of British suzerainty in 1800 to the independence of India in 1947.

text:
# Political history of Mysore and Coorg (1800–1947)

The **political history of Mysore and Coorg (1800–1947)** is the political history of the contiguous historical regions of Mysore state and Coorg province located on the Deccan Plateau in west-central peninsular India, beginning with the acceptance of British suzerainty in 1800 to the independence of India in 1947.

## Purnea's administration

In the *amāni* lands (*i.e.* government-managed lands) the tax on cultivation in dry regions was a fixed money amount paid annually at approximately *one-third* of the crop value; for a given area, the crop value, was estimated and fixed for several years at a time. In "wet" or rice-growing regions, however, which on average provided more abundant yields, but which also depended more on the vagaries of the monsoon rains, the crop value was estimated *annually*, as soon as an estimate could be made. The latter tax was computed at *one-half* of the crop value and was paid "nominally in kind," but commonly in money.

## Sources and historiography

There is very little contemporaneous documentation of the pre-1760 period of Mysore's history, especially the last century of that period. According to (Subrahmanyam 1989, p. 206), the 18th-century Wodeyar rulers of Mysore—in contrast to their contemporaries in Rajputana, Central India, Maratha Deccan, and Tanjavur—left little or no record of their administrations.

A Wodeyar dynasty genealogy, the *Maisüru Mahardjara Vamsävali* of Tirumalarya, was composed in Kannada during the period 1710–1715, and was claimed to be based on all the then-extant inscriptions in the region. Another genealogy, *Kalale Doregala Vamgdvati*, of the *Delvoys*, the near-hereditary chief ministers of Mysore, was composed around the turn of the *19th* century. However, neither manuscript provides information about administration, economy or military capability. The ruling dynasty's origins, especially as expounded in later palace genealogies, are also of doubtful accuracy; this is, in part, because the Wodeyars, who were reinstated by the British on the Mysore *gaddi* in 1799, to preside over a fragile sovereignty, "obsessively" attempted to demonstrate their "unbroken" royal lineage, to bolster their then uncertain status.

The earliest manuscript offering clues to governance and military conflict in the pre-1760 Mysore, seems to be (Dias 1725), an annual letter written in Portuguese by a Mysore-based Jesuit missionary, Joachim Dias, and addressed to his Provincial superior. After East India Company's final 1799 victory over Tipu, official Company records began to be published as well; these include (East India Company 1800), a collection of Anglo-Mysore Wars-related correspondence between the Company's officials in India and Court of Directors in London, and (Wilks 1805), the first report on the new Princely State of Mysore by its first British resident, Mark Wilks. Around this time, French accounts of the Anglo-Mysore wars appeared as well, and included (Michaud 1809), a history of the wars by Joseph-François Michaud, another Jesuit priest. The first attempt at including a comprehensive history of Mysore in an English language work is (Buchanan 1807), an account of a survey of South India conducted at Lord Richard Wellesley's request, by Francis Buchanan, a Scottish physician and geographer.

The first explicit *History* of Mysore in English is (Wilks 1811), written by Mark Wilks, the British resident mentioned above. Wilks claimed to have based his history on various Kannada documents, not only the ones mentioned above, but also many that have not survived. According to (Subrahmanyam 1989, p. 206), all subsequent *classic* histories of Mysore have borrowed heavily from Wilks's book for their pre-1760 content. These include, (Rice 1897), Lewis Rice's well-known *Gazetteer* and (Rao 1948), C. Hayavadana Rao's major revision of the *Gazetteer* half a century later, and many spin-offs of these two works. By the end of the period of British Commissionership of Mysore (1831–1881), many English language works had begun to appear on a variety of Mysore-related subjects. These included (Rice 1879), a book of English translations of Kannada language inscriptions, and (Digby 1878), William Digby's two volume critique of British famine policy during the Great Famine of 1876–78, which devastated Mysore for years to come; the latter work, even referred to Mysore as a "province."

### Contemporary sources

### Classic sources


title: Pontesford

abstract: Pontesford is a small village in Shropshire, England. It is located on the A488 outside the large village of Pontesbury, southwest of Shrewsbury. The population as taken at the 2011 census can be found under Pontesbury. It approximates to the northern extremity of the Pontesford-Linley geological fault, which trends approximately 11 miles to Linley near Bishops Castle. On 2 April 1990, the Pontesford-Linley Fault - registered an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.1 on the Richter scale, known as the Bishop's Castle earthquake. Coal was mined there in the 19th century.

text:
# Pontesford

**Pontesford** is a small village in Shropshire, England.

It is located on the A488 outside the large village of Pontesbury, southwest of Shrewsbury. The population as taken at the 2011 census can be found under Pontesbury.

It approximates to the northern extremity of the Pontesford-Linley geological fault, which trends approximately 11 miles to Linley near Bishops Castle. On 2 April 1990, the Pontesford-Linley Fault \- registered an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.1 on the Richter scale, known as the Bishop's Castle earthquake. Coal was mined there in the 19th century.

## Pontesford Hill

To its south is Pontesford Hill, which adjoins the foot of Earls Hill, the latter property of the Shropshire Wildlife Trust. Pontesford Hill was property of the Forestry Commission until it was sold to a private owner, Simon Hutchen, in 2010. Hutchen challenged a claim for two footpaths to be added to the definitive map as public rights of way, arguing that they were 'permissive' and not 'as of right'. The claim was referred to the Secretary of State and the subject of a Public Inquiry. Hutchen also applied for planning permission from Shropshire Council to build a replica Iron Age fort round house and amphitheatre and create a green burial ground. Both were voluntarily withdrawn by Hutchen and he agreed to sell the hill to a local campaign group. He sold the hill, which was bought in 2015 by the Shropshire Wildlife Trust with the help of more than £250,000 raised by the group called the Friends of Pontesford Hill to purchase the hill for public use.

Media related to Pontesford at Wikimedia Commons

## InfoBox

| Pontesford | |
| --- | --- |
| Entering Pontesford on the A488 | |
| PontesfordLocation within Shropshire | |
| OS grid reference | SJ408065 |
| Civil parish |  |
| Unitary authority |  |
| Ceremonial county |  |
| Region |  |
| Country | England |
| Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
| Post town | SHREWSBURY |
| Postcode district | SY5 |
| Dialling code | 01743 |
|  | |
| Police | West Mercia |
| Fire | Shropshire |
| Ambulance | West Midlands |
|  | |
| UK Parliament |  |
|


title: Pontestura

abstract: Pontestura is a commune with a population of 1,539 in the Province of Alessandria in the Italian region Piedmont. It is located on the right bank of the Po River about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of Turin and about 10 kilometres (6 mi) west of Casale Monferrato and borders the following municipalities: Camino, Casale Monferrato, Cereseto, Coniolo, Morano sul Po, Ozzano Monferrato, Serralunga di Crea, and Solonghello. John IV, Marquis of Montferrat from 1445 to 1464, was born in the castle of Pontestura in 1413.

text:
# Pontestura

**Pontestura** (in Piedmontese *Pont da Stura*) is a *commune* with a population of 1,539 in the Province of Alessandria in the Italian region Piedmont. It is located on the right bank of the Po River about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of Turin and about 10 kilometres (6 mi) west of Casale Monferrato and borders the following municipalities: Camino, Casale Monferrato, Cereseto, Coniolo, Morano sul Po, Ozzano Monferrato, Serralunga di Crea, and Solonghello.

John IV, Marquis of Montferrat from 1445 to 1464, was born in the castle of Pontestura in 1413.

1. "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
2. Population statistics from Italian statistical institute Istat.

## InfoBox

| Pontestura | |
| --- | --- |
| *Comune* | |
| Comune di Pontestura | |
|  | |
|  | |
| Location of Pontestura | |
| PontesturaLocation of Pontestura in ItalyPontesturaPontestura (Piedmont) | |
| Coordinates: 45°8′36″N 8°20′3″E / 45.14333°N 8.33417°E / 45.14333; 8.33417 | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Piedmont |
| Province | Province of Alessandria (AL) |
| *Frazioni* | Quarti, Castagnone, Rocchetta |
| Government | |
| Mayor | Franco Berra |
| Area | |
| Total | 18.87 km2 (7.29 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 140 m (460 ft) |
| Population (31 December 2010) | |
| Total | 1,485 |
| Density | 79/km2 (200/sq mi) |
| Demonym | Pontesturesi |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 15027 |
| Dialing code | 0142 |
| Patron saint | Saint Agatha |
| Saint day | 5 February |


title: Pomasia sacculobata

abstract: Pomasia sacculobata is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found on Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. The length of the forewings is 9–10 mm.

text:
# Pomasia sacculobata

***Pomasia sacculobata*** is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found on Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo.

The length of the forewings is 9–10 mm.

## InfoBox

| *Pomasia sacculobata* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Geometridae |
| Genus: | *Pomasia* |
| Species: | ***P. sacculobata*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pomasia sacculobata***<br>Holloway, 1997 | |
|


title: Polyclès Langlois

abstract: Polyclès Langlois was a French writer, draughtsman and painter.

text:
# Polyclès Langlois

**Polyclès Langlois** (29 September 1814  30 November 1872) was a French writer, draughtsman and painter.

## Biography

Polyclès Langlois was born in Pont de l'Arche in Normandy on 29 September 1814. He was the son of Eustache-Hyacinthe Langlois. Polyclès and his older sister Espérance Langlois were both taught by their father and often assisted him with drawings and engravings. He exhibited a view of Saint-Ouen and Old Street of old Rouen at the Salon de Paris of 1861. He drew views of the monuments of Rouen and then worked at the Sèvres porcelain factory. He died in Sèvres on 30 November 1872.

## Selected works

* *Fontaine de la Croix de Pierre de Rouen*. Eau-forte;
* *Samuël Bochart, né à Rouen*, 1835;
* *Figures dehors un château dans un paysage vert*, huile sur toile, 26×21 cm;
* *Château d'Hautot à M. le baron Lézurier de La Martel, Hautot-sur-Seine*, dessin au crayon noir;
* *Vielle tour normande*, aquarelle sur papier, 18×13 cm, 1842;
* *Rouen, le pont suspendu*, aquarelle sur papier, 28×43 cm;
* *Aux portes de la ville*, gouache on paper, 1850;
* *Église de Caudebec (pays de Caux)*, dessin, 1845;
* *La Grosse Horloge*;
* *Saint-Amand*;
* *Porche de l’église de Louviers*;
* *Tour de l’horloge*;
* *Quatre vues de Rouen et de Basse-Normandie*, aquarelles;
* *Souvenir de Rouen*, dessin au crayon noir;
* *Maison de la rue Impériale à Rouen*, dessin à la mine de plomb;
* *Marché de la Basse-Vieille-Tour, à Rouen*, dessin à la mine de plomb
* *Vue de l’église Saint-Ouen, à Rouen*, dessin au crayon noir;
* *Composition*, dessin an crayon noir;
* *Maisons de Rouen*, dessin à la mine de plomb.
* *L'Abbatiale Saint-Ouen de Rouen vue depuis les ponts du Robec*
* *Rouen, vue du quai de Paris, la cathédrale à l'arrière-plan*, 1838

Sources  * Michaud, Louis Gabriel (1859). *Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne: ou histoire, par ordre alphabétique, de la vie publique et privée de tous les hommes qui se sont fait remarquer par leurs écrits, leurs talents, leurs vertus ou leurs crimes. La - Leh*. Vol. 23. Desplaces.
* "Normandie 1820-1909". *Voyages pittoresques*. Milan: Silvana editoriale. 2009. p. 543. ISBN 978-88-366-1368-7. OCLC 690603127.

## InfoBox

| Polyclès Langlois | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 29 September 1814
Pont de l'Arche |
| Died | 30 November 1872(1872-11-30) (aged 58)
Sèvres |
| Nationality | French |
| Occupation(s) | Writer, cartoonist and painter |


title: Poor Girls

abstract: Poor Girls is a 1927 silent film drama directed by William James Craft and starring Dorothy Revier. It was produced and distributed by Columbia Pictures. The film is preserved in the Library of Congress collections.

text:
# Poor Girls

***Poor Girls*** is a 1927 silent film drama directed by William James Craft and starring Dorothy Revier. It was produced and distributed by Columbia Pictures.

The film is preserved in the Library of Congress collections.

## Cast

## InfoBox

| Poor Girls | |
| --- | --- |
| Film poster | |
| Directed by | William James Craft |
| Based on | original story by William Branch and Sophie Bogen |
| Produced by | Harry Cohn |
| Starring | Dorothy Revier |
| Cinematography | Norbert Brodine |
| Distributed by | Columbia Pictures |
| Release date | * May 5, 1927 (1927-05-05) |
| Running time | 58 minutes |
| Country | USA |
| Language | Silent..English titles |


title: Pomierki

abstract: Pomierki is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lubawa, within Iława County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 16 km (10 mi) east of Iława, and 51 km (32 mi) south-west of the regional capital Olsztyn.

text:
# Pomierki

**Pomierki** \[pɔˈmjɛrki\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lubawa, within Iława County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 16 km (10 mi) east of Iława, and 51 km (32 mi) south-west of the regional capital Olsztyn.

## InfoBox

| Pomierki | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
| Pomierki | |
| Coordinates: 53°36′N 19°48′E / 53.600°N 19.800°E / 53.600; 19.800 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Warmian-Masurian |
| County | Iława |
| Gmina | Lubawa |


abstract: The Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France, previously known as University of Valenciennes and Hainaut-Cambrésis until 1 January 2018, is a French public university, based in Valenciennes. It is under the Academy of Lille and is a member of the European Doctoral College Lille-Nord-Pas de Calais and of the Community of Universities and Institutions (COMUE) Lille Nord de France.

text:
# Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France

The **Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France** (*Université Polytechnique des Hauts-de-France*), previously known as **University of Valenciennes and Hainaut-Cambrésis** (*Université de Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambrésis*) until 1 January 2018, is a French public university, based in Valenciennes. It is under the Academy of Lille and is a member of the European Doctoral College Lille-Nord-Pas de Calais and of the Community of Universities and Institutions (COMUE) Lille Nord de France.

## Rankings

On a national scale, in terms of graduate's employability, the university ranks first in legal, economic and management training out of 69 universities. In the field of legal training, economics and management, 99% of the university's graduates are employed. Overall, the university is ranked 28th out of 73 universities in France.

## Notable people

**Faculty**

**Alumni**

50°19′34″N 3°30′50″E / 50.3262°N 3.5139°E / 50.3262; 3.5139

## InfoBox

Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France (UPHF)
| Université Polytechnique des Hauts-de-France (UPHF) | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Type | Public |
| Location | Valenciennes, France |
| Affiliations | Community of Universities and Institutions (COMUE) Lille Nord de France |
| Website | https://www.uphf.fr |


title: Porosły-Kolonia

abstract: Porosły-Kolonia is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Choroszcz, within Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland.

text:
# Porosły-Kolonia

**Porosły-Kolonia** \[pɔˈrɔswɨ kɔˈlɔɲa\] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Choroszcz, within Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland.

## Transport

Roads in Porosły-Kolonia:

## InfoBox

| Porosły-Kolonia | |
| --- | --- |
| Village | |
|  | |
| Porosły-Kolonia | |
| Coordinates: 53°10′30″N 23°04′30″E / 53.17500°N 23.07500°E / 53.17500; 23.07500 | |
| Country | Poland |
| Voivodeship | Podlaskie |
| County | Białystok |
| Gmina | Choroszcz |


title: Polystichum munitum

abstract: Polystichum munitum, the western swordfern, is an evergreen perennial fern native to western North America, where it is one of the most abundant ferns in forested areas. It occurs along the Pacific coast from southeastern Alaska to southern California, and also inland east to southeastern British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana, with disjunctive populations in northern British Columbia, Canada; the Black Hills in South Dakota, United States; and Guadalupe Island off of Baja California, Mexico. Western swordfern is known to have locally naturalized in parts of Great Britain and Ireland.

text:
# Polystichum munitum

***Polystichum munitum***, the **western swordfern**, is an evergreen perennial fern native to western North America, where it is one of the most abundant ferns in forested areas. It occurs along the Pacific coast from southeastern Alaska to southern California, and also inland east to southeastern British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana, with disjunctive populations in northern British Columbia, Canada; the Black Hills in South Dakota, United States; and Guadalupe Island off of Baja California, Mexico. Western swordfern is known to have locally naturalized in parts of Great Britain and Ireland.

## Description

The dark green fronds of this fern grow 50 to 180 centimetres (1.6 to 5.9 ft) tall, in a tight clump spreading out radially from a round base. They are single-pinnate, with the pinnae alternating on the stalk. Each pinna is 1 to 15 centimetres (0.39 to 5.91 in) long, with a small upward-pointing lobe (a sword hilt, hence the name) at the base, and the edges are serrated with bristly tips on the serrations. Beyond the upward-pointing lobe, the pinnae are broadly linear in shape, usually with a gradual taper and curved slightly toward the distal end of the frond. Individual fronds live for 1.5 to 2.5 years and remain attached to the rhizome after withering. When they emerge in spring, the fronds are doubled back on themselves and circinate (rolled up) only at the tip. The round sori occupy two rows on either side of the midrib of each pinna and are covered by a centrally-attached, umbrella-like indusium with fringed edges. They produce light yellow spores. In deep shade, fronds spread nearly horizontally but with increasing sun exposure grow more upright. In young plants the leaves are often paler green and have shorter pinnae.

## Habitat and cultivation

The preferred habitat of this fern is the understory of moist coniferous woodlands at low elevations. It grows best in well-drained acidic soil of rich humus and small stones. It is very resilient and survives occasional droughts, but flourishes only with consistent moisture and it prefers cool weather.

In cultivation, it also responds well to regular, light fertilization. While this fern is a favored horticultural subject in western North America, it has proved difficult or impossible to cultivate satisfactorily in the eastern part of the continent.

In the United Kingdom *Polystichum munitum* has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

## Phylogeny

According to a molecular phylogeny of *Polystichum* ferns based on plastid DNA sequences, *P. munitum* is most closely related to other North American *Polystichum* species, including the western species *Polystichum lemmonii*, *Polystichum scopulinum*, and *Polystichum dudleyi*, and the eastern species *Polystichum acrostichoides*.

## Utility

The Coast Salish people of B.C. and Washington state use this plant as a pain reliever. When applied directly to the area where pain and inflammation occur, according to Della Rice Sylvester, an elder and medicine woman of the Cowichan tribe, the sword fern "takes the pain away!". This traditional use has spread among the hiking communities and youth scouting organizations of the region, where it is a common piece of hiker's lore that a rash from a stinging nettle can be counteracted by rubbing the spores on the underside of sword fern on the area.

In spring, when other food is unavailable, Quileute, Makah, Klallam, Squamish, Sechelt, Haida, and other Native American/First Nations peoples roasted, peeled, and ate the rhizomes. The fronds were used to line fire pits and food drying racks and as filling for mattresses. The plant is also cultivated for its ornamental foliage, which florists include in vases. The fronds were widely used in other cultures. It is used as 'famine food', place mats, dancing skirts, and flower arrangements.

## InfoBox

| *Polystichum munitum* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Western sword fern growing in the Columbia River Gorge | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| Division: | Polypodiophyta |
| Class: | Polypodiopsida |
| Order: | Polypodiales |
| Suborder: | Polypodiineae |
| Family: | Dryopteridaceae |
| Genus: | *Polystichum* |
| Species: | ***P. munitum*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Polystichum munitum***<br>(Kaulf.) C.Presl | |
|


title: Pomaderris intermedia

abstract: Pomaderris intermedia, commonly known as lemon dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the family Rhamnaceae and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It is a shrub with hairy stems, elliptic to egg-shaped leaves, and clusters of yellow flowers.

text:
# Pomaderris intermedia

***Pomaderris intermedia***, commonly known as **lemon dogwood**, is a species of flowering plant in the family Rhamnaceae and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It is a shrub with hairy stems, elliptic to egg-shaped leaves, and clusters of yellow flowers.

## Description

*Pomaderris intermedia* is a shrub that typically grows to a height of up to about 3 m (9.8 ft), its branchlets covered with both simple and star-shaped hairs. The leaves are broadly elliptic to narrowly egg-shaped, 30–100 mm (1.2–3.9 in) long and 10–50 mm (0.39–1.97 in) wide with stipules 3–8 mm (0.12–0.31 in) long at the base but that fall off as the leaf develops. The upper surface of the leaves is glabrous and the lower surface covered with greyish, star-shaped hairs. The flowers are yellow and arranged in pyramid-shaped to hemispherical panicles 40–150 mm (1.6–5.9 in) long, each flower on a pedicel 2–5 mm (0.079–0.197 in) long with bracts at the base but that fall off as the flower opens. The floral cup is 1.0–1.5 mm (0.039–0.059 in) long, the sepals 2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) long but fall off as the flowers open, and the petals are spatula-shaped and 2.0–2.5 mm (0.079–0.098 in) long. Flowering occurs in September and October.

## Taxonomy

*Pomaderris intermedia* was first formally described in 1825 by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in *Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis* from an unpublished description by Franz Sieber. The specific epithet (*intermedia*) refers to a close association with two other *Pomaderris* species.

## Distribution and habitat

Lemon dogwood grows in forest, woodland and heath, and is found from south from the Gibraltar Range National Park in New South Wales to Western Port and French Island in Victoria, and in scattered locations in Tasmania, including on some Bass Strait islands.

## Conservation status

This pomaderris is listed as "rare" under the Tasmanian Government *Threatened Species Protection Act 1995*.

## InfoBox

| Lemon dogwood | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Pomaderris intermedia* near Orbost | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Rhamnaceae |
| Genus: | *Pomaderris* |
| Species: | ***P. intermedia*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pomaderris intermedia***<br>Sieber ex DC. | |
|
| Synonyms | |
|  | |


title: Pomaderris ligustrina

abstract: Pomaderris ligustrina, commonly known as privet pomaderris, is a species of flowering plant in the family Rhamnaceae and is endemic to south-eastern continental Australia. It is a shrub with hairy stems, lance-shaped to narrowly elliptic leaves, and loose clusters of cream-coloured or yellow flowers.

text:
# Pomaderris ligustrina

***Pomaderris ligustrina***, commonly known as **privet pomaderris**, is a species of flowering plant in the family Rhamnaceae and is endemic to south-eastern continental Australia. It is a shrub with hairy stems, lance-shaped to narrowly elliptic leaves, and loose clusters of cream-coloured or yellow flowers.

## Description

*Pomaderris ligustrina* is a shrub that typically grows to a height of 1.0–4.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 14 ft 9 in), its branchlets covered with both simple and rust-coloured, star-shaped hairs when young. The leaves are usually lance-shaped to narrowly elliptic, 20–80 mm (0.79–3.15 in) long and 10–20 mm (0.39–0.79 in) wide with stipules 5–7 mm (0.20–0.28 in) long at the base but that fall off as the leaf develops. The upper surface of the leaves is glabrous and the lower surface covered with silky, rust-coloured hairs. The flowers are creamy-white to yellow and arranged in loose panicles 10–50 mm (0.39–1.97 in) long, each flower on a pedicel 1.5–2.5 mm (0.059–0.098 in) long. The floral cup is 1.5–2.5 mm (0.059–0.098 in) long, the sepals 0.8–1.4 mm (0.031–0.055 in) long but fall off as the flowers open, and there are no petals. Flowering occurs in September and October.

## Taxonomy

*Pomaderris ligustrina* was first formally described in 1825 by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in *Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis* from an unpublished description by Franz Sieber. The specific epithet (*ligustrina*) means "privet-like".

In 1997, Neville Grant Walsh and Fiona Coates described subspecies *latifolia* in the journal *Muelleria* and the name, and that of the autonym are accepted by the Australian Plant Census:

* *Pomaderris ligustrina* subsp. *latifolia* N.G.Walsh & Coates has broadly egg-shaped to more or less circular leaves less than twice as long as wide, and sepals 1.5–2 mm (0.059–0.079 in) long;
* *Pomaderris ligustrina* Sieber ex DC. subsp. *ligustrina* N.G.Walsh & Coates has lance-shaped to narrowly elliptic leaves more than twice as long as wide, and sepals 0.8–1.4 mm (0.031–0.055 in) long.

## Distribution and habitat

Privet pomaderris grows in forest on the ranges and escarpments from south-east Queensland and New South Wales to as far west as Bairnsdale in Victoria. Subspecies *latifolia* is rare and only occurs in south-eastern Queensland and as far south as Guyra in northern New South Wales.

## InfoBox

| Privet pomaderris | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| *Pomaderris ligustrina* in the ANBG | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Eudicots |
| *Clade*: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Rhamnaceae |
| Genus: | *Pomaderris* |
| Species: | ***P. ligustrina*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Pomaderris ligustrina***<br>Sieber ex DC. | |
|


title: Ponca State Park

abstract: Ponca State Park is a public recreation area located on the banks of the Missouri River four miles (6.4 km) north of Ponca, Nebraska, in the northeastern corner of the state. The state park's approximately 2,100 acres (850 ha) are situated among high bluffs and steep, forested hills adjacent to the Missouri National Recreational River. The park is managed by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission.

text:
# Ponca State Park

**Ponca State Park** is a public recreation area located on the banks of the Missouri River four miles (6.4 km) north of Ponca, Nebraska, in the northeastern corner of the state. The state park's approximately 2,100 acres (850 ha) are situated among high bluffs and steep, forested hills adjacent to the Missouri National Recreational River. The park is managed by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission.

## History

The park was created in 1934 when 160 acres (65 ha) of land were donated under the sponsorship of Ponca Legion Post 117. In 1934, the Civilian Conservation Corps began developing the site. The park and town bear the name of the Ponca tribe, who inhabited the area before European settlement, and whose chief, Standing Bear, won a celebrated court battle to have the Indian declared a "person" under U.S. law.

## Natural history

The park is noted for its biodiversity. Eastern woodland flowers such as bloodroot, Canada violet, phlox and sweet cicely can be found growing among prairie plants, including yucca, clover, and larkspur. The wild plum and gooseberry thickets were also noted by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, who passed these bluffs with their Corps of Discovery in the summer of 1804. Forested ravines and hillsides contain bur oak, basswood, elm, black walnut and hackberry. White-tailed deer and wild turkey are commonly seen. Coyotes, red and gray foxes, raccoons and bobcats might also be spotted. This area is also known for the concentrations of waterfowl that congregate during the spring and fall migrations. The barred owl is a vocal resident, and wintering bald eagles are often sighted.

## Activities and amenities

Twenty-two miles of hiking and biking trails wind through the deep ravines and hilltop ridges of the park. The Three State Overlook offers a scenic blufftop view of Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota. An interactive museum at park headquarters includes exhibits about the Missouri River and its history. The park offers a fishing pond, swimming pool, campgrounds, and cabins.

## InfoBox

| Ponca State Park | |
| --- | --- |
| Ponca State ParkLocation in Nebraska | |
| Location | Dixon County, Nebraska, United States |
| Nearest city | Ponca, Nebraska |
| Coordinates | 42°35′58″N 96°42′40″W / 42.59944°N 96.71111°W / 42.59944; -96.71111 |
| Area | 2,123.63 acres (859.40 ha) |
| Elevation | 1,345 ft (410 m) |
| Established | 1934 |
| Administered by | Nebraska Game and Parks Commission |
| Designation | Nebraska state park |
| Named for | The Ponca people |
| Website | Official website |


title: Portages in North America

abstract: Portages in North America usually began as animal tracks and were improved by tramping or blazing. In a few places iron-plated wooden rails were laid to take a handcart. Heavily used routes sometimes evolved into roads when sledges, rollers or oxen were used, as at Methye Portage. Sometimes railways were built. The basic purpose of most canals is to avoid portages. Places where portaging occurred often became temporary and then permanent settlements. The importance of free passage through portages found them included in laws and treaties. The Northwest Ordinance says "The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States..." The Treaty of Greenville between the U.S. and the Indian tribes of the area includes: "And the said Indian tribes will allow to the people of the United States a free passage by land and by water, as one and the other shall be found convenient, through their country,..." Then four portages are mentioned specifically. Portages are also used in the treaty to set boundaries. One historically important fur trade portage is now Grand Portage National Monument. Recreational canoeing routes often include portages between lakes, for example, the Seven Carries route in Adirondack Park. Algonquin Park, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness and Sylvania Wilderness have famous portage routes. Numerous portages were upgraded to carriageways and railways due to their economic importance. The Niagara Portage had a gravity railway in the 1760s. The passage between the Chicago and Des Plaines Rivers was through a short swamp portage which seasonally flooded and it is thought that a channel gradually developed unintentionally from the dragging of the boat bottoms. The 1835 Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad connected the cities of New York and Montreal without needing to go through the Atlantic. The passage between Lake Superior and Lake Huron was by a portage dragway of greased rails with capstans until a railway was built in 1850 and a canal in 1855. The 5-mile-long Nosbonsing and Nipissing Railway was built just to carry logs between lakes on their way to the sawmill. Allegheny Portage Railroad and Morris Canal both used canal inclined planes to pass loaded boats through portages.

text:
# Portages in North America

**Portages in North America** usually began as animal tracks and were improved by tramping or blazing. In a few places iron-plated wooden rails were laid to take a handcart. Heavily used routes sometimes evolved into roads when sledges, rollers or oxen were used, as at Methye Portage. Sometimes railways were built (Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad). The basic purpose of most canals is to avoid portages.

Places where portaging occurred often became temporary and then permanent settlements (such as Hull, Quebec; Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Chicago, Illinois). The importance of free passage through portages found them included in laws and treaties. The Northwest Ordinance says "The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States..." The Treaty of Greenville between the U.S. and the Indian tribes of the area includes: "And the said Indian tribes will allow to the people of the United States a free passage by land and by water, as one and the other shall be found convenient, through their country,..." Then four portages are mentioned specifically. Portages are also used in the treaty to set boundaries ("The general boundary line between the lands of the United States and the lands of the said Indian tribes, shall begin at the mouth of Cayahoga river, and run thence up the same to the portage..."). One historically important fur trade portage is now Grand Portage National Monument. Recreational canoeing routes often include portages between lakes, for example, the Seven Carries route in Adirondack Park. Algonquin Park, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness and Sylvania Wilderness have famous portage routes.

Numerous portages were upgraded to carriageways and railways due to their economic importance. The Niagara Portage had a gravity railway in the 1760s. The passage between the Chicago and Des Plaines Rivers (and so between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River systems) was through a short swamp portage which seasonally flooded and it is thought that a channel gradually developed unintentionally from the dragging of the boat bottoms. The 1835 Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad connected the cities of New York and Montreal without needing to go through the Atlantic. The passage between Lake Superior and Lake Huron was by a portage dragway of greased rails with capstans until a railway was built in 1850 and a canal in 1855. The 5-mile-long Nosbonsing and Nipissing Railway was built just to carry logs between lakes on their way to the sawmill. Allegheny Portage Railroad and Morris Canal both used canal inclined planes to pass loaded boats through portages.

## Settlements named for being on a portage

Sometimes the settlements were named for being on a portage. Some places in the United States and Canada so named are:

Names with *portage* appear on various other geographical features, including road and lakes, as in Portage Lake. In Hull, Quebec a major street is named *promenade du Portage* as the city is the head of uninterrupted navigation from Montréal on the Ottawa River and one must portage around the Chaudière Rapids.

## Marathon portage

The area of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness west of Grand Portage, Minnesota, carries rich history of canoeing and portaging. The city of Ely, Minnesota, one of the main entry areas to the wilderness, hosts the Ely Marathon each September that has a canoe portage category, making it the only marathon portage in the country.

Jay Cooke State Park


title: Porter Chemical Company

abstract: Porter Chemical Company was an American toy manufacturer that developed and produced chemistry sets aimed as educational toys for aspiring junior scientists. The company's Chemcraft kits were first sold at major retail by Woodward & Lothrop, and appeared soon after at other retailers in the country. The company would later form a relationship with the Lionel Corporation, famed American maker of toy trains. The company also made the Microcraft line of microscope sets. The Chemcraft and Microcraft line competed with similar sets offered by A. C. Gilbert Company as part of a boom in science educational toys spurred by the Space Race between the US and USSR in the late 1950s. In 1951, the company's top-of-the-line "Chemcraft Master Laboratory" set retailed for $27.50 and contained, among other things, radioactive Uranium ore. At the peak of its success, Porter Chemical Company was the biggest user of test tubes in the USA. The company produced over a million sets before increasing consumer liability concerns led to its demise in the 1980s.

text:
# Porter Chemical Company

**Porter Chemical Company** was an American toy manufacturer that developed and produced chemistry sets aimed as educational toys for aspiring junior scientists. The company's *Chemcraft* kits were first sold at major retail by Woodward & Lothrop, and appeared soon after at other retailers in the country. The company would later form a relationship with the Lionel Corporation, famed American maker of toy trains. The company also made the *Microcraft* line of microscope sets. The *Chemcraft* and *Microcraft* line competed with similar sets offered by A. C. Gilbert Company as part of a boom in science educational toys spurred by the Space Race between the US and USSR in the late 1950s.

In 1951, the company's top-of-the-line "Chemcraft Master Laboratory" set retailed for $27.50 ($equivalent to $323 in 2023) and contained, among other things, radioactive Uranium ore.

At the peak of its success, Porter Chemical Company was the biggest user of test tubes in the USA. The company produced over a million sets before increasing consumer liability concerns led to its demise in the 1980s.

## InfoBox

Porter Chemical Company
| Industry | Toys and hobbies |
| --- | --- |
| Founded | 1916 |
| Headquarters | Hagerstown, Maryland |
| Key people | Harold M. Porter (Owner) <br>John J. Porter |
| Products | Chemistry sets |


title: Poppleton Building

abstract: The Poppleton Building is an historic building in Portland, Oregon's Yamhill Historic District. The structure was completed in 1867. In 1873, it was destroyed in a large fire, along with the neighboring Pearne building and many other historic cast iron structures throughout Portland. Both the Pearne and Poppleton buildings were rebuilt using their original columns.

text:
# Poppleton Building

The **Poppleton Building** is an historic building in Portland, Oregon's Yamhill Historic District. The structure was completed in 1867. In 1873, it was destroyed in a large fire, along with the neighboring Pearne building and many other historic cast iron structures throughout Portland. Both the Pearne and Poppleton buildings were rebuilt using their original columns.

## InfoBox

| Poppleton Building | |
| --- | --- |
| Detail of the building's exterior in 2008 | |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Town or city | Portland, Oregon |
| Country | United States |
| Coordinates | 45°31′0.3″N 122°40′26.2″W / 45.516750°N 122.673944°W / 45.516750; -122.673944 |


abstract: Poplar Grove Township is a township in Roseau County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 80 at the 2000 census.

text:
# Poplar Grove Township, Roseau County, Minnesota

**Poplar Grove Township** is a township in Roseau County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 80 at the 2000 census.

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 36.0 square miles (93.2 km2); 36.0 square miles (93.1 km2) is land and 0.04 square mile (0.1 km2) (0.06%) is water.

## Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 80 people, 31 households, and 22 families residing in the township. The population density was 2.2 people per square mile (0.9/km2). There were 41 housing units at an average density of 1.1/sq mi (0.4/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 98.75% White and 1.25% Asian.

There were 31 households, out of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.7% were married couples living together, and 29.0% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.23.

In the township the population was spread out, with 25.0% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 116.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $36,875, and the median income for a family was $51,875. Males had a median income of $29,375 versus $26,250 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,665. There were no families and 3.8% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 27.3% of those over 64.

## InfoBox

| Poplar Grove Township, Minnesota | |
| --- | --- |
| Township | |
| Poplar Grove Township, MinnesotaLocation within the state of MinnesotaPoplar Grove Township, MinnesotaPoplar Grove Township, Minnesota (the United States) | |
| Coordinates: 48°35′4″N 95°56′20″W / 48.58444°N 95.93889°W / 48.58444; -95.93889 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Minnesota |
| County | Roseau |
| Area | |
| Total | 36.0 sq mi (93.2 km2) |
| Land | 36.0 sq mi (93.1 km2) |
| Water | 0.0 sq mi (0.1 km2) |
| Elevation | 1,201 ft (366 m) |
| Population (2000) | |
| Total | 80 |
| Density | 2.2/sq mi (0.9/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC-6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC-5 (CDT) |
| FIPS code | 27-51982 |
| GNIS feature ID | 0665338 |


title: Portuguese Economic Journal

abstract: The Portuguese Economic Journal is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal of economics. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of ISEG, University of Lisbon and the editor-in-chief is Luís F. Costa (ISEG). The journal was established in 2002 with Paulo Brito as its founding editor-in-chief. The journal organizes an annual meeting, held at different Portuguese universities.

text:
# Portuguese Economic Journal

The ***Portuguese Economic Journal*** is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal of economics. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of ISEG, University of Lisbon and the editor-in-chief is Luís F. Costa (ISEG). The journal was established in 2002 with Paulo Brito as its founding editor-in-chief (until 2014). The journal organizes an annual meeting, held at different Portuguese universities.

## Abstracting and indexing

The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

According to the *Journal Citation Reports*, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 2.6. In their ranking of academic impact of economics journals, Kalaitzidakis et al. (2011) rank it 142nd out of 219 journals.

## InfoBox

*Portuguese Economic Journal*
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Discipline | Economics |
| Language | English |
| Edited by | Luís F. Costa |
| Publication details | |
| History | 2002–present |
| Publisher | Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of ISEG, University of Lisbon (Portugal) |
| Frequency | Triannually |
| Impact factor | 2.6 (2023) |
| Standard abbreviations
 | |
| ISO 4 | *Port. Econ. J.* |
| Indexing
 | |
| ISSN | 1617-982X (print)
1617-9838 (web)
 |
| Links | |
|  | |


title: Port O' Plymouth Museum

abstract: The Port O' Plymouth Museum, located in Plymouth, North Carolina contains many artifacts from the American Civil War. A replica of the CSS Albemarle is also located behind the museum in the Roanoke River. The museum is operated by the Washington County Historical Society.

text:
# Port O' Plymouth Museum

The **Port O' Plymouth Museum**, located in Plymouth, North Carolina contains many artifacts from the American Civil War. A replica of the CSS Albemarle is also located behind the museum in the Roanoke River.

The museum is operated by the Washington County Historical Society.

## InfoBox

Port O' Plymouth Museum
| Location within North Carolina | |
| --- | --- |
| Established | 1989 |
| Location | Plymouth, North Carolina |
| Coordinates | 35°52′07″N 76°44′54″W / 35.86858°N 76.74842°W / 35.86858; -76.74842 |
| Website | portoplymouthmuseum.org |


title: Portland Bay

abstract: Portland Bay is a small bay off the coast of Victoria, Australia. It is about 360 kilometres (220 mi) west of Melbourne. The city of Portland is located on the bay. The western end of the bay is marked by the headland of Point Danger. The bay was named after the Duke of Portland, a Secretary of State and later Prime Minister of Great Britain, by Lieutenant James Grant sailing on the Lady Nelson, on 7 December 1800. The town of Portland later took its name from the bay.

text:
# Portland Bay

**Portland Bay** (Dhauwurdwurrung: ***Kardermudelar / Pathowwererer***) is a small bay off the coast of Victoria, Australia. It is about 360 kilometres (220 mi) west of Melbourne. The city of Portland is located on the bay. The western end of the bay is marked by the headland of Point Danger.

The bay was named after the Duke of Portland, a Secretary of State and later Prime Minister of Great Britain, by Lieutenant James Grant sailing on the *Lady Nelson*, on 7 December 1800. The town of Portland later took its name from the bay.

## InfoBox

| Portland Bay
*(Kardermudelar / Pathowwererer)* | |
| --- | --- |
| Portland Bay
*(Kardermudelar / Pathowwererer)*Location in Victoria | |
| Location | Victoria |
| Coordinates | 38°19′44″S 141°38′10″E / 38.32889°S 141.63611°E / -38.32889; 141.63611 |
| Type | Bay |
| Basin countries | Australia |
|  | |
| Frozen | *never* |
| Settlements | Portland |


title: Potamopyrgus doci

abstract: Potamopyrgus doci is a critically endangered species of fresh water snail native to New Zealand.

text:
# Potamopyrgus doci

***Potamopyrgus doci*** is a critically endangered species of fresh water snail native to New Zealand.

## Habitat

This snail has been found in only one location in a spring at the exit of Ruakuri Cave, in the Waitomo Caves, north west of Te Kūiti. This habitat is only a few square metres in size but is within a protected area. However, there is recreational rafting in the cave and agriculture upstream may result in a decline in water quality. Despite this the population trend is regarded as being stable.

## Conservation status

In 2013 the Department of Conservation classified *Potamopyrgus doci* as Nationally Critical under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. The species was judged as meeting the criteria for Nationally Critical threat status as a result of it occupying a total area of less than 1 hectare. It is found only in one location.

## InfoBox

| *Potamopyrgus doci* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Type specimen in the collections of Te Papa | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Nationally Critical (NZ TCS) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Littorinimorpha |
| Family: | Tateidae |
| Genus: | *Potamopyrgus* |
| Species: | ***P. doci*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Potamopyrgus doci***
Martin Haase, 2008 | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Hydrobiidae sp. 4 (M.174064)* | |


title: Post-consumer waste

abstract: Post-consumer waste is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product. The terms of pre-consumer and post-consumer recycled materials are not defined in ISO standard number 14021 (1999), but pre-consumer and post-consumer materials are. These definitions are the most widely recognized and verified definitions as used by manufacturers and procurement officers worldwide. Quite commonly, it is simply the waste that individuals routinely discard, either in a waste receptacle or a dump, or by littering, incinerating, pouring down the drain, or washing into the gutter. Things that are used by a consumer and then recycled instead of being permanently disposed of are also considered post consumer waste, even though they are meant to be repurposed. [1] Post-consumer waste is distinguished from pre-consumer waste, which is the reintroduction of manufacturing scrap back into the manufacturing process. Pre-consumer waste is commonly used in manufacturing industries, and is often not considered recycling in the traditional sense. It should also be noted that post-consumer waste should not be equated with post-consumer material. Post-consumer material is post-consumer waste that is diverted from landfills and reprocessed into new material to reenter the production cycle. [2] Post-consumer waste is associated with a cradle to grave or linear cycle of production. In this system goods are created using standards of what is the easiest and most cost effective instead of using standards focused on creating recyclable and reusable materials. Instead of being sent back to the industrial sector to be repurposed into new products, the material is sent to the “grave” or landfills/open dumps. [3]

text:
# Post-consumer waste

**Post-consumer waste** is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product.

The terms of pre-consumer and post-consumer recycled materials are not defined in ISO standard number 14021 (1999), but pre-consumer and post-consumer materials are. These definitions are the most widely recognized and verified definitions as used by manufacturers and procurement officers worldwide.

Quite commonly, it is simply the waste that individuals routinely discard, either in a waste receptacle or a dump, or by littering, incinerating, pouring down the drain, or washing into the gutter. Things that are used by a consumer and then recycled instead of being permanently disposed of are also considered post consumer waste, even though they are meant to be repurposed. \[1\]

Post-consumer waste is distinguished from pre-consumer waste, which is the reintroduction of manufacturing scrap (such as trimmings from paper production, defective aluminum cans, etc.) back into the manufacturing process. Pre-consumer waste is commonly used in manufacturing industries, and is often not considered recycling in the traditional sense.

It should also be noted that post-consumer waste should not be equated with post-consumer material. Post-consumer material is post-consumer waste that is diverted from landfills and reprocessed into new material to reenter the production cycle. \[2\]

Post-consumer waste is associated with a cradle to grave or linear cycle of production. In this system goods are created using standards of what is the easiest and most cost effective instead of using standards focused on creating recyclable and reusable materials. Instead of being sent back to the industrial sector to be repurposed into new products, the material is sent to the “grave” or landfills/open dumps. \[3\]

## Types

Post-consumer waste consists of:

* packaging
* parts that are not needed, such as fruit skins, bones in meat, etc.
* undesired things received, e.g.:
    + advertising material in the mailbox
    + a flyer received in the street without having the opportunity to refuse
    + dust, weeds, fallen leaves, etc.
* things one no longer needs, e.g. a magazine that has been read, things replaced by new versions, clothes out of fashion, remaining food that one cannot keep or does not want to keep
* broken things, things no longer working, spoiled food, worn-out clothes, clothes which no longer fit
* outgrown items toys, clothing, books, schoolwork
* disposables such as Kleenex and finished batteries
* human waste, waste of pets, waste water from various forms of cleaning
* leftover materials from single use commodities
    + plastic grocery bags
    + plastic water bottles
    + cardboard boxes
* "post-life waste"

In many countries, such as the United States, there is no reasonable expectation of privacy in post-consumer waste once it leaves the consumer's home. Anyone can search it, including the police, and any incriminating evidence recovered can be used at trial. This doctrine was established in The *California v. Greenwood* case, in which the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. This has since led people to argue the legality of taking post-consumer waste for salvage value.\[4\]

There has also been controversy over the fact that these laws have caused many arrests for the use of illicit substances. After California v. Greenwood there were many cases of individuals having been convicted on evidence that was found in the trash of growing or processing illegal substances, most often marijuana. \[5\] The post-consumer waste in question varies from drug paraphernalia to full marijuana plants in some cases. This has caused some to wonder about who holds the legal responsibility towards and ownership of post-consumer waste.

According to the decision of California v. Greenwood, the consumer relinquishes ownership and responsibility of their refuse. \[6\] The verdict of this was intended to address cases like those mentioned above. But it also brings up questions of whether or not people are responsible for their own post consumer waste and the damage that it causes. There have been several cases in the wake of Greenwood questioning this very thing, such as if it is legal for third parties other than trash collectors to lay claim to someone's refuse or if someone is responsible for hazardous post-consumer waste they disposed of once it enters public landfills. \[7\]

## Excessive waste

Especially within the food system, there is a lot of waste occurring at the consumer end. Post-consumer waste accounts for a large proportion of food that is wasted. This can be attributed to many reasons, including the way in which food is labeled. According to a study published in 2020, the confusing labeling of "use by", "consume by", or "sell by" dates is a significant reason why food is wasted at such a high volume when the food is otherwise entirely edible.\[8\] Another reason is the way that food is used once it reaches the average consumer household due to many factors, with the main factors being social, behavioral, and personal purchasing habits. Additionally, each of those factors influences each other and affects the amount of food that is wasted per person.\[9\] Food waste from production to land use changes adds to the worldwide carbon footprint with the amount between 2000 and 3600 kg CO2-eq. The focus should be on prevention from within households as each generation are massively increasing their food waste. Multiple studies have shown that the greenhouse gases caused by our food waste at times can be more harmful to the environment than coal power plants.

This is part of a longstanding belief that manufacturers are responsible for the prevalence of post-consumer waste. Many people accused manufacturers for being responsible for its prevalence due to the many materials not being made with recycling or reuse in mind. Additionally products often have excessive packaging serving no real purpose other than being useful for marketing. \[10\] In recent years there has been increased regulation regarding the subject, such as in the EU where new regulations are being passed in order to support more sustainable packaging use and create a cradle-to-cradle material flow. \[11\] The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) discovered that 1/3 of all made food is wasted each year adding up to about 1.3 billion tons of food that was edible.

## Avoiding post-consumer waste

As previously mentioned, current systems of consumer waste use a cradle-to-grave or linear model of waste management. This is a model of the lifecycle of a product that results in the product reentering the supply chain instead of being disposed of. \[14\] This system allows for greater reduction of waste as a large section of the waste produced would be able to enter the supply chain.

There are many ways for individuals to participate in the process of reducing post consumer waste, especially in communities where local governments encourage processes that reduce post consumer waste and promote the cradle-to-cradle structure. The most productive activities to do this are to reuse materials that a person already owns instead of disposing of them, learning methods of repairing and repurposing materials that no longer function, and when buying items is necessary buying those items that will not break or lose functionality after a small number of uses. \[16\]

This process is often quite difficult as products are often not designed to be reused. This has led to many individuals blaming the producers of these products for the excess amounts of post-consumer waste. This accusation has been held against manufacturers for many years, claiming that retailers incentivized short term profits over the long term safety of the environment. One study shows how as far back as the 1990s, many large scale retailers were claiming to understand their responsibility to waste management, but offered no policies or initiatives to cut back on the amount of waste that is inevitably produced by the consumer \[13\]

To combat this, some governments and private institutions have attempted to find new ways of avoiding excessive post-consumer waste. In the European Union, one project is being developed which uses enzymes to dissolve plastic and cardboard waste into basic materials that can be remade into new products for consumer use. \[15\] In the United States there are organizations such as the Vermont Journal of Environmental Law which holds an annual conference to discuss how best to combat the excessive post consumer waste issue in the United States. \[12\] Strategies like this allow for greater control over the issue of post consumer waste without changing the supply chain as a whole.

1. “What Is Post-Consumer Waste?” Pro Environmental Services Ltd, Pro Environmental Services, 14 Feb. 2020, www.proenvironmentalltd.co.uk/what-is-post-consumer-waste.
2. “What Is ‘Post-Consumer Waste?’” Mass.Gov, Massachusetts State Government, 8 Nov. 2017,  (post consumer materials).
3. “Cradle-to-Grave in LCA: What Is It & How Does It Work?” *Ecochain*, 22 Mar. 2024, ecochain.com/blog/cradle-to-grave-in-lca/
4. ↑ "Legality of Scrapping Metal". Retrieved 2010-10-04.
5. Welty, Jeff. “Does a Dirty Trash Pull Provide Probable Cause to Search a Residence?” North Carolina Criminal Law, UNC School of Government, 20 Nov. 2022, nccriminallaw.sog.unc.edu/does-a-dirty-trash-pull-provide-probable-cause-to-search-a-residence/.
6. Line, Julie A. “Fourth Amendment: Further erosion of the warrant requirement for unreasonable searches and seizures: The Warrantless Trash Search Exception.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), vol. 79, no. 3, 1988, p. 623, https://doi.org/10.2307/1143534.
7. Manning, Colleen H. "California v. Greenwood: Did the United States Supreme Court Trash the Fourth Amendment." *Criminal Justice Journal,* vol. 11, no. 1, Fall-Winter 1988, pp. 267–284. *HeinOnline*, https://heinonline-org.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/tjeflr11&i=273.
8. ↑ Toma, Luiza; Font, Montserrat Costa; Thompson, Bethan (2020). "Impact of Consumers' Understanding of Date Labelling on Food Waste Behaviour". *Operational Research*. **20** (2): 543–560. doi:10.1007/s12351-017-0352-3. hdl:1842/33150. S2CID 158834200.
9. ↑ Roodhuyzen, D.M.A.; Luning, P.A.; Fogliano, V.; Steenbekkers, L.P.A. (October 2017). "Putting together the puzzle of consumer food waste: Towards an integral perspective". *Trends in Food Science & Technology*. **68**: 37–50. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2017.07.009. Retrieved 1 December 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
10. Wheeler, David. “Why Retailers Should Take Responsibility for Post-Consumer Waste.” *Greener Management International*, no. 9, 1995, pp. 95–105. *JSTOR*, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45259130. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
11. “Revision of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive.” Revision of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive, European Union Parliament, Nov. 2023, www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/745707/EPRS\_BRI(2023)745707\_EN.pdf.
12. Backsen, Megan, and Jack Hornickel. “Cradle-to-Cradle: The Elimination of Waste Introduction.” Vermont Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 16, no. 4, 2015, pp. 572–74. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/vermjenvilaw.16.4.572. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
13. Wheeler, David. “Why Retailers Should Take Responsibility for Post-Consumer Waste.” Greener Management International, no. 9, 1995, pp. 95–105. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45259130. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
14. “Cradle-to-Cradle: What Is It & How Does It Work in LCA?” Ecochain, 19 Mar. 2024, .
15. “Home.” REPURPOSE, www.repurposeproject.eu/. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
16. “Reuse & Buy Recycled.” Milpitas CA Public Works Footer, www.milpitas.gov/615/Reuse-Buy-Recycled. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.

## See also

## References