title: Cognitive ergonomics

abstract: Cognitive ergonomics is a scientific discipline that studies, evaluates, and designs tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems and how they interact with humans and their cognitive abilities. It is defined by the International Ergonomics Association as "concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. Cognitive ergonomics is responsible for how work is done in the mind, meaning, the quality of work is dependent on the persons understanding of situations. Situations could include the goals, means, and constraints of work. The relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-system design." Cognitive ergonomics studies cognition in work and operational settings, in order to optimize human well-being and system performance. It is a subset of the larger field of human factors and ergonomics.

text:
# Cognitive ergonomics

**Cognitive ergonomics** is a scientific discipline that studies, evaluates, and designs tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems and how they interact with humans and their cognitive abilities. It is defined by the International Ergonomics Association as "concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. Cognitive ergonomics is responsible for how work is done in the mind, meaning, the quality of work is dependent on the persons understanding of situations. Situations could include the goals, means, and constraints of work. The relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-system design." Cognitive ergonomics studies cognition in work and operational settings, in order to optimize human well-being and system performance. It is a subset of the larger field of human factors and ergonomics.

## Goals

Cognitive ergonomics (sometimes known as cognitive engineering though this was an earlier field) is an emerging branch of ergonomics. It places particular emphasis on the analysis of cognitive processes required of operators in modern industries and similar milieus. This can be done by studying cognition in work and operational settings. It aims to ensure there is an appropriate interaction between human factors and processes that can be done throughout everyday life. This would include everyday life such as work tasks. Some cognitive ergonomics aims are: diagnosis, workload, situation awareness, decision making, and planning. CE is used to describe how work affects the mind and how the mind affects work. Its aim is to apply general principles and good practices of cognitive ergonomics that help to avoid unnecessary cognitive load at work and improves human performance. In a practical purpose, it will aid in human nature and limitations through additional help in information processing. Another goal related to the study of cognitive ergonomics is correct diagnosis. Because cognitive ergonomics is a small priority for many, it is especially important to diagnose and help what is needed. A comparison would be fixing what does not need to be fixed or vice-a-versa. Cognitive ergonomics aims at enhancing performance of cognitive tasks by means of several interventions, including these:

* user-centered design of human-machine interaction and human-computer interaction (HCI);
* design of information technology systems that support cognitive tasks (e.g., cognitive artifacts);
* development of training programs;
* work redesign to manage cognitive workload and increase human reliability.
* designed to be "easy to use" and accessible by everyone

## History

The field of cognitive ergonomics emerged predominantly in the 70's with the advent of the personal computer and new developments in the fields of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence. It studied how human cognitive psychology works hand-in-hand with specific cognitive limitations. This could only be done through time and trial and error. CE contrasts the tradition of physical ergonomics because "cognitive ergonomics is...the application of psychology to work...to achieve the optimization between people and their work." Viewed as an applied science, the methods involved with creating cognitive ergonomic design have changed with the rapid development in technological advances over the last 27 years. In the 80's, there was a worldwide transition in the methodological approach to design. According to van der Veer, Enid Mumford was one of the pioneers of interactive systems engineering, and advocated the notion of user-centered design, wherein the user is considered and "included in all phases of the design". Cognitive ergonomics as defined by the International Ergonomics Association "is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system". It studies the cognition in work to help with the human well-being in system performances.

There are several different models which describe the criteria for designing user-friendly technology. A number of models focus on a systematic process for design, using task analysis to evaluate the cognitive processes involved with a given task and develop adequate interface capabilities. Task analysis in past research has focused on the evaluation of cognitive task demands, concerning motor control and cognition during visual tasks such as operating machinery, or the evaluation of attention and focus via the analysis of eye saccades of pilots when flying. Neuroergonomics, a subfield of cognitive ergonomics, aims to enhance human-computer interaction by using neural correlates to better understand situational task demands. Neuroergonomic research at the university of Iowa has been involved with assessing safe-driving protocol, enhancing elderly mobility, and analyzing cognitive abilities involved with the navigation of abstract virtual environments." Now, cognitive ergonomics adapts to technological advances because as technology advances new cognitive demands arise. This is called changes in socio-technical context. For example, when computers became popular in the 80's, there were new cognitive demands for operating them. Meaning, as new technology arises, humans will now have to adapt to the change leaving a deficiency somewhere else.

Human Computer Interaction has a huge part in cognitive ergonomics because we are in a time period where most of life is digitalized. This created new problems and solutions. Studies show that most of the problems that happen are due to the digitalization of dynamic systems. With this it created a rise in the diversity in methods on how to process many streams of information. The changes in our socio-technical contexts adds to the stress of methods of visualization and analysis, along with the capabilities regarding cognitive perceptions by the user.

## Methods

Successful ergonomic intervention in the area of cognitive tasks requires a thorough understanding not only of the demands of the work situation, but also of user strategies in performing cognitive tasks and of limitations in human cognition. In some cases, the artifacts or tools used to carry out a task may impose their own constraints and limitations (e.g., navigating through a large number of GUI screens). Tools may also co-determine the very nature of the task. In this sense, the analysis of cognitive tasks should examine both the interaction of users with their work setting and the user interaction with artifacts or tools; the latter is very important as modern artifacts (e.g., control panels, software, expert systems) become increasingly sophisticated. Emphasis lies on how to design human-machine interfaces and cognitive artifacts so that human performance is sustained in work environments where information may be unreliable, events may be difficult to predict, multiple simultaneous goals may be in conflict, and performance may be time-constrained.

A proposed way of expanding a user's effectiveness with cognitive ergonomics is to expand the interdisciplinary connections related to normal dynamics. The method behind this is to transfer the pre-existing knowledge of the various mechanics in computers into structural patterns of cognitive space. This would work with human factors in developing an intellectual learning support system and applying an interdisciplinary methodology of training, helping the effective interaction between the person and the computer with the strengthening of critical thinking and intuition.

## Disability

Accessibility is important in cognitive ergonomics because it is one pathway to build better user experience. The term accessibility refers to how people with disabilities access or benefits from a site, system, or application. Section 508 is the founding principle for accessibility . In the U.S., Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act is one of several disability laws and requires federal agencies to develop, maintain, and use their information and communications technology (ICT) accessible to people with disabilities, regardless if they work for the federal government or not. Section 508 also implies that any people with disabilities applying for a federal government job or any person using the website to get general information about a program or completing an online form has access to the same information and resources that are obtainable by anyone. Accessibility can be implemented by making sites that can present information through multiple sensory channels with sound and sight. The strategic multi-sensory approach and a multi-interactivity approach allows disabled users to access the same information as nondisabled users. This allows for additional means of site navigation and interactivity beyond the typical point-and-click-interface: keyboard-based control and voice-based navigation. Accessibility is very valuable because it ensures that all potential users, including people with disabilities have a good user experience and can easily access information. Overall, it improves usability for all people that use a site.

Some of the best practices for accessible content include:

* Not relying on color as a navigational tool or as the only way to differentiate items
* Images should include "alt text" in the markup/code and complex images should have more extensive descriptions near the image (caption or descriptive summaries built right into a neighboring paragraph)
* Functionality should be accessible through mouse and keyboard and be tagged to work with voice-control systems
* Transcripts should be provided for podcasts
* Videos on your site must provide visual access to the audio information through in-sync captioning
* Sites should have a skip navigation feature
* Consider 508 testing to assure your site is in compliance

## User interface modeling

### Cognitive task analysis

*Cognitive task analysis* is a general term for the set of methods used to identify the mental demands and cognitive skills needed to complete a task. Frameworks like GOMS provide a formal set of methods for identifying the mental activities required by a task and an artifact, such as a desktop computer system. By identifying the sequence of mental activities of a user engaged in a task, cognitive ergonomics engineers can identify bottlenecks and critical paths that may present opportunities for improvement or risks (such as human error) that merit changes in training or system behavior. It is the whole study of what we know, how we think, and how we organize new information.

## Applications

As a design philosophy, cognitive ergonomics can be applied to any area where humans interact with technology. Applications include aviation (e.g., cockpit layouts), transportation (e.g., collision avoidance), the health care system (e.g., drug bottle labelling), mobile devices, appliance interface design, product design, and nuclear power plants.

The focus of cognitive ergonomics is to be simple, clear and "easy to use" and accessible to everyone. Softwares are designed to help make better use of this. Its aim is to design icons and visual cues that are "easy" to use and function by all.

### Organizations

### Publications


title: Stay Young, Go Dancing

abstract: "Stay Young, Go Dancing" is a song recorded by the American rock band Death Cab for Cutie for their seventh studio album, Codes and Keys (2011). It was released as the third single from Codes and Keys on September 26, 2011, through Atlantic Records.

text:
# Stay Young, Go Dancing

"**Stay Young, Go Dancing**" is a song recorded by the American rock band Death Cab for Cutie for their seventh studio album, *Codes and Keys* (2011). It was released as the third single from *Codes and Keys* on September 26, 2011, through Atlantic Records.

## Background

"Stay Young, Go Dancing" is centered on domestic bliss, and was written for Gibbard's wife at the time, actress Zooey Deschanel. In the song, he croons "When she sings, I hear a symphony / And I’m swallowed in sound as it echoes through me." At the time of the song's writing, Gibbard had relocated to Los Angeles, a city he once derided as "the belly of the beast" in the 2001 song "Why You’d Want to Live Here". He repurposes this lyric in the opening lines of "Stay Young, Go Dancing", singing "Life is sweet / in the belly of the beast."

The song was sequenced at the end of the album in response to the band's previous tendency to end on melancholy notes. "As much as I felt really self-conscious about the sentiment of that song because it's so light, I thought, 'Why not just put it at the end?'" Gibbard reasoned. The song contains orchestral accompaniment from the Magik\*Magik Orchestra, with whom the band later toured and released a live album with.

## Music video

The song's music video documents a couple's relationship throughout life, beginning in their elderly years and ending as young lovers. Chris Coplan at *Consequence* compared it to the plot of the film *The Curious Case of Benjamin Button* (2008). The clips are intercut with footage of Gibbard performing the song on acoustic guitar in a forest. In a statement, Gibbard said "With all of these songs that I write, I want them to have as much universal appeal as possible and certainly don't feel like I want to undermine the complexity of the lyrics at times and make that happen."

## Release and reception

The band first announced the song would be their next single on August 1, 2011. The band promoted the song with a performance on *Late Show with David Letterman* on September 29, 2011.

"Stay Young, Go Dancing" received positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Jon Pareles at *the New York Times* called it "a folky, guitar-strumming waltz that goes orchestral." August Brown at the *Los Angeles Times* considered it limp, writing that Gibbard's "barbed wit can feel unattractive coupled with themes of finding bliss." Jillian Mapes at *Billboard* considered it evocative of the Canadian band Stars. Alexis Petridis from *The Guardian* said the song "\[packs\] an effortless Elliott Smith-like melody that just sweeps the listener along." Larry Fitzmaurice at *Pitchfork* called it a "moony-eyed closing hymn" in which his vocals are clear and present, unlike many other spots on the record. Some reviewers have examined it in the aftermath of Gibbard's divorce from Deschanel. Dan Caffrey from *Consequence* called the song perhaps overly sentimental, perhaps in retrospect reading "supremely sad yet honest." A decade on, Tony DeGenaro at PopMatters opined that the song, "in its melodramatic, over the top joyousness, \[is\] still deserving of some light ribbing."

## Charts

Chart performance for "Stay Young, Go Dancing"
| Chart (2011) | Peak
position |
| --- | --- |
| US Adult Alternative Songs (*Billboard*) | 11 |
| US Hot Rock & Alternative Songs (*Billboard*) | 40 |
| Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia) | 126 |

## InfoBox

| "Stay Young, Go Dancing" | |
| --- | --- |
| Single by Death Cab for Cutie | |
| from the album  *Codes and Keys* | |
| Released | September 26, 2011 (2011-09-26) |
| Length | 2:50 |
| Label | Atlantic |
| Songwriter(s) | Ben Gibbard |
| Producer(s) | Chris Walla |
| Death Cab for Cutie singles chronology | |
| "Home Is a Fire"
(2011) "**Stay Young, Go Dancing**"
(2011) "Underneath the Sycamore"
(2012) | |
|  | |
| Music video | |
| "Stay Young, Go Dancing" on YouTube | |
|  | |


title: Stay (miniseries)

abstract: Stay: Saga...Love Always is a Thai miniseries produced by GTH and Nadao Bangkok as a special project for the Line TV application, sponsored by LINE Corporation (Thailand) Co., Ltd. The series was written and directed by Songyos Sugmakanan and filmed in Japan's Saga Prefecture with support of the Saga Prefectural Government and the Saga Prefecture Film Commission. It is a love story of two Thai people living in Saga, a small province with hidden warmth. The series was aired on Saturdays at 20:00 on the Line TV application from 21 February to 14 March 2015, for 4 episodes. It was re-run on satellite/cable television on GMM 25 and GTH On Air beginning 27 June 2015.

text:
# Stay (miniseries)

***Stay: Saga...Love Always*** (known in Thai as "Stay ซากะ..ฉันจะคิดถึงเธอ") is a Thai miniseries produced by GTH and Nadao Bangkok as a special project for the Line TV application, sponsored by LINE Corporation (Thailand) Co., Ltd. The series was written and directed by Songyos Sugmakanan and filmed in Japan's Saga Prefecture with support of the Saga Prefectural Government and the Saga Prefecture Film Commission. It is a love story of two Thai people living in Saga, a small province with hidden warmth. The series was aired on Saturdays at 20:00 on the Line TV application from 21 February to 14 March 2015, for 4 episodes. It was re-run on satellite/cable television on GMM 25 and GTH On Air beginning 27 June 2015.

## Production

*Stay* was one of the special projects that GTH produced for Line Corporation (Thailand) to use as exclusive content in advertising and promoting the launch of the Line TV application. Filming was supported by the Saga Prefecture Film Commission as part of the prefecture's strategy of promoting its tourism through foreign cinema. Filming began at the beginning of 2015, with more than 30 crew members filming and staying in Japan for more than a month.

## Synopsis

Jook is a girl who has always dreamed of publishing her own book. She decides to combine her dream and her studies by thinking about working on a final project - a journal about food in Japan, with her best friend Ann. A journey to complete her dream then begins and her destination is a small farm in rural Saga, Japan. But in the end, Jook unexpectedly has to go to Japan by herself because suddenly, her best friend decides to ditch her.

At the farm, Jook meets Mee, a kind-hearted Thai man who has left his homeland to spend his life and work in Japan for 3 years. Mee is like Jook's babysitter who takes care of her, which quickly makes them grow closer. But little do they know, their feelings for each other also start growing.

## Cast

### Main

### Supporting

* Sakura Enokida as Naomi, homestay owner's daughter, Mee's fiancée
* Shinichiro Uchida as Hattori, homestay owner
* Atitaya Craig as Kate
* Thanabordee Jaiyen as Copter, Jook's boyfriend
* Arachaporn Pokinpakorn as Ann, Jook's best friend

## Release

*Stay* was revealed at the launch announcement of the Line TV application on 6 February 2015. The series' four episodes were originally aired on Saturdays at 20:00 on the Line TV application from 21 February to 14 March 2015. It was re-run on satellite/cable television on GMM 25 and GTH On Air beginning 27 June 2015.

The series, together with other Thai productions, helped fuel a rise in Thai tourism for the Saga Prefecture, which recorded 4,600 visitors in 2015, compared to 380 in 2012.

## Songs

| Title | Artist | Music video release date |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *Secret Admiring* (แอบชอบ) | La-Ong-Fong | February 7, 2015 |
| *STAY* | Getsunova | March 16, 2015 |

## InfoBox

| *Stay* | |
| --- | --- |
| Promotional poster | |
| Also known as | STAY: Saga..I will miss you |
| Genre |  |
| Created by | GTH |
| Developed by | Nadao Bangkok |
| Written by | Songyos Sugmakanan |
| Directed by | Songyos Sugmakanan |
| Starring | See below |
| Country of origin | Thailand |
| Original languages | Thai
Japanese |
| No. of seasons | 1 |
| No. of episodes | 4 |
| Production | |
| Producer | Songyos Sugmakanan |
| Production locations | Saga Prefecture, Japan |
| Running time | 60 minutes |
| Original release | |
| Network | LINE TV
GMM 25
GTH On Air (Re-run on TV) |
| Release | 21 February (2015-02-21)
14 March 2015 (2015-03-14) |


title: Startenhuizen

abstract: Startenhuizen is a hamlet at the border of the municipals Het Hogeland and Eemsdelta in the northeastern Netherlands. It is divided in two parts, the biggest in Eemsdelta, and a few farms in Het Hogeland. Startenhuizen is not a statistical entity, and the postal authorities have placed it under Startenhuizen. It had place name signs, however some have been removed. The hamlet was first mentioned in 1391 as "to Stertingahusum". The etymology is unclear. In 1590, the church was demolished, and never replaced. Startenhuizen was home to 112 people in 1840. Nowadays, it consists of about 17 houses.

text:
# Startenhuizen

**Startenhuizen** (Dutch pronunciation: \[ˈstɑrtə(n)ˌɦœyzə(n)\]) is a hamlet at the border of the municipals Het Hogeland and Eemsdelta in the northeastern Netherlands. It is divided in two parts, the biggest in Eemsdelta, and a few farms in Het Hogeland.

Startenhuizen is not a statistical entity, and the postal authorities have placed it under Startenhuizen. It had place name signs, however some have been removed.

The hamlet was first mentioned in 1391 as "to Stertingahusum". The etymology is unclear. In 1590, the church was demolished, and never replaced. Startenhuizen was home to 112 people in 1840. Nowadays, it consists of about 17 houses.

## InfoBox

| Startenhuizen | |
| --- | --- |
| Hamlet | |
| Farm in Startenhuizen | |
| StartenhuizenLocation in the province of Groningen in the NetherlandsStartenhuizenStartenhuizen (Netherlands) | |
| Coordinates: 53°22′07″N 6°42′26″E / 53.3686°N 6.7071°E / 53.3686; 6.7071 | |
| Country | Netherlands |
| Province | Groningen |
| Municipalities | Het Hogeland and Eemsdelta |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postal code | 9924 |
| Dialing code | 0595 |


title: Steeles Avenue bus rapid transit

text:
# Steeles Avenue bus rapid transit

A rapid transit corridor is proposed along Steeles Avenue in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, which would be operated by the Toronto Transit Commission. It has not been determined if this corridor would be a bus rapid transit or a light rail transit line. It is identified by Metrolinx in its regional transportation plan The Big Move as a project to be completed in its 25-year plan. In February 2016, City of Toronto and TTC planners recommended implementing the Steeles BRT/LRT within a 15-year horizon. At a meeting on February 20, 2020, the Metrolinx board of directors endorsed a prioritization framework for a proposed Frequent Rapid Transit Network that included a proposed BRT from Pioneer Village station to McCowan Road. The proposed 20.8 km line along Steeles Avenue had a forecasted ridership of 11,700 in 2031. The project scored 'high' with a preliminary benefit-cost ratio of over 0.90. The TTC released their 2020-2024 5-year Service Plan and 10-year Outlook, which discussed the implementation of exclusive bus lanes, stop consolidation, all-door boarding and other transit priority measures to speed up bus service on Steeles Avenue West between Pioneer Village Station and the future Steeles Station that will be constructed as part of the Yonge North Subway Extension. Currently, the implementation timeframe is to be determined following feedback on the RapidTO Eglinton East Bus Lanes and public consultation with the surrounding community.

## InfoBox

| Steeles Rapid Transit | |
| --- | --- |
| Overview | |
| Status | Proposed |
| Locale | Toronto, Ontario |
| Termini |  |
| Service | |
| System | Toronto Transit Commission |
| Operator(s) | Toronto Transit Commission |
| Technical | |
| Line length | 17 kilometres (11 mi) |
| Route map | |


title: State collapse

abstract: State collapse is a sudden dissolution of a sovereign state. It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly. When a new regime moves in, often led by the military, civil society typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level. Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and the informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and further undermining potential reconstruction.

text:
# State collapse

**State collapse** is a sudden dissolution of a sovereign state. It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly.

When a new regime moves in, often led by the military, civil society typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level. Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and the informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and further undermining potential reconstruction.

## Definitions and examples

While the definitions of "failed state" and "fragile state" have been contested for being "too broad and too vague", foreign policy experts such as Charles T. Call have advocated focusing on extreme cases of "collapsed states" instead, defined as "countries whose state apparatus ceases to exist for a period of several months". According to Call, between 1995 and 2005, the main examples of collapsed states included Somalia, which had a sustained collapse from 1990 to 2004; the Soviet Union in 1991; Yugoslavia in 1992; and possibly Afghanistan from 1992 to 1995.

Recent scholarship has focused on identifying measurable dimensions of state capacity, building on the institutionalist approach associated with Max Weber. Daniel Lambach, Eva Johais, and Markus Bayer have thus defined state collapse as the inability to make and enforce binding rules; maintain a monopoly on violence; and collect taxes. Using this framework, Lambach et al. identified 17 collapsed states between 1960 and 2007. The majority of cases were in sub-Saharan Africa, involving armed rebellions in countries including Chad, Uganda, Liberia, Somalia, Angola, Zaire, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone, plus Congo-Kinshasa, which collapsed following decolonization from Belgium. The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to state collapse in Georgia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Tajikistan. Other cases of state collapse included Laos, following an attack backed by the United States which led to partitioning of the country into spheres of influence; Lebanon, which went through a full-scale civil war; and Afghanistan, where insurgents challenged the communist regime and moved against Soviet intervention.

## Theories and causes

In 2020, Johais, Bayer and Lambach proposed a dynamic model of the causes of state collapse. In their article in *Global Change, Peace & Security*, they argue that a state collapse happens when 1) opposition groups arm themselves and mobilise against the government; 2) political transitions such as decolonisation or regime change cause existing power structures to be questioned; 3) politics prolong power struggles and undermine existing institutions; 4) repression causes extreme distrust between rulers and the rest of society; 5) factionalism obstructs strengthening of state policies; 6) loss of cohesion within the ruling elite erodes the monopolisation of violence, rule-making, and tax collection; and 7) external interventions contribute to destabilisation.

### Cyclical theories

Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) produced a general theory of state collapse, transforming the study of history into a "new science". In his eyes, dynasties repeatedly become "sedentary, senile, coercive, pompous, subservient to desire ... liable to divisions in the dynasty." Group feeling (asabiyyah, groupthink) disappears as the dynasty grows senile. After three generations a new invading clique, "restless, alert and courageous", will cause the old dynasty to collapse in accordance with the principle in the Book of Exodus, chapter 20, verse four: God "visits the sins of the fathers onto their children, even unto the third and fourth generation of those that hate Him". Ibn Khaldun was fatalistic: "This senility is a chronic disease which cannot be cured because it is something natural". Professor Geoff Mulgan discusses Ibn Khaldun in detail and agrees on the timescale: "There are obvious parallels between the lifespans of individuals and those of ruling groups."

In the case of the USSR, a Marxist revolutionary wave had formed in which several subordinate regimes in Eastern Europe and Africa collapsed almost simultaneously with the central power.

### Mass psychology

The Japanese philosopher Hajime Tanabe points to the quasi-religious role of the state to mediate between mortal individuals and the eternal universe, so that states regularly collapse; like religious figures, they must undergo a process of death and resurrection. In his view this may account for the perennial popularity of states because they regularly demonstrate their ability to transcend death.

Psychologists speak of a "Masada complex" that may drive fanatics to a suicidal, violent last-ditch stand. In a totalitarian state or an ideocracy, individuals may develop a closed mind and an authoritarian personality, making them more likely to resist threats to the incumbent regime.

According to psychologist Erich Fromm it is possible for an entire nation, if they all share the same vices and errors, to become insane—a *"folie a millions"*. Inhumane treatment by the rulers inevitably leads to collapse;

> Despots and ruling cliques can succeed in dominating and exploiting their fellow man ... but their subjects react ... with apathy, impairment of intelligence, initiative and skills ... or they react by the accumulation of such hate and destructiveness as to bring about an end to themselves, their rulers and their system. ... if man lives under conditions contrary to his nature and to human growth and sanity, he cannot help reacting.'

### Democratic decay

Mark Blyth alleges that a democracy can also collapse "if voters don't get what they want and merely affirm the status quo." In these circumstances, voters deprived of real choice may opt for the least democratic option. In a divided, collapsing country lacking civil institutions, or in a closed country attempting reform and openness, the process of democratisation is 'dangerous' and may hasten collapse.

### Increasing coercion and dictatorship

In the USSR and Apartheid South Africa, the state became 'evil or tyrannical... destroying the institutions of civil society'; and in Somalia between 1970 and 1991, Siad Barre changed from 'prophetic rule, to autocracy, to tyranny'. In this context John Kenneth Galbraith regrets the "very slight" amount of research on the nature of political power. Power regularly passes to those who "assert the unknown with the greatest conviction... not necessarily related to intelligence." What we call "power" is, "in practice, the illusion of power." Discussing how the "powerless" Mahatma Gandhi brought about the collapse of militarily "powerful" British India, Galbraith reflects that power, mostly seen as a possession of states and their leaders, would be better viewed as a flow, into and away from "those instruments that enforce it". Martin Wight deplored the "demonic concentrations of power" of the defeated countries in the two world wars. A devout Christian, he saw their "triumphant self-destruction" as "Antichrist moments".

### Messianic leadership style

According to political scientists, in an ideocracy there must be a ruthless charismatic leader: "the leader is the movement", and all individuals are required to submit to, and worship him. "Followers who lead barren, insecure, frustrated lives obey the leader, not through faith in his vision of a 'Promised land', but because he leads them away from their unwanted selves". When collapse threatens he may insist on a "fight to the finish".

Hitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the "Saviour of Germany" who performed "miracles" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a "mother symbol". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He "dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine". He was swept along by a tide of events.

Mussolini, according to Denis Mack Smith, "was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted him to be". He was vindictive, sadistic, impulsive, proud and cruel, full of "demonic wilfulness" and did not know right from wrong. When in 1944 he led a puppet state in northern Italy, he "divided Italy in two and initiated 18 months of terrible civil war." Ken Livingstone has compared Slobodan Milosevic to Hitler for his racism and expansionist goals. Saddam Hussein, who also suffered from a Messiah complex, was similar: "Hitler was not one of a kind. As long as millions of people passionately long for his return, it is only a matter of time until their wish is fulfilled."

Nicolae Ceaușescu "went mad" as early as 1971 according to John Sweeney, when, "blind to his own Messianism", he attempted to recreate North Korean totalitarianism in Romania. He "played the king" and the role of "chosen one" and "saviour".

### Neglect, corruption and incompetence

Managerial incapacity, failing to meet popular needs, causes dissatisfaction. If the government avoids necessary choices, practices only defensive politics, and represses the protests with tyranny, the state is likely to implode. This was the case in Chad when it collapsed in 1980, and in Ghana in 1981.

Czar Nicholas II, crowned at an early age, 26, was untrained in governance. Grand Duke Vladimir's son Cyril was a rival candidate for the throne. Liberals and revolutionaries challenged his autocracy. By 1916 he had become apathetic, dominated by the Czarina and Rasputin, a "Christ in the image of the rejected and agonizing monarchy".

Few political scientists credibly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union or agreed on its causes: in hindsight, Leonid Fituni lists 'poverty, hunger, regional conflicts, ethnic wars, deindustrialisation, foreign debt, elite corruption, disease epidemics, refugee problems, environmental issues' as causes.

### Military takeover

Armed forces may take over a collapsing state by coup d'etat. Some military regimes are able to reverse a downward spiral, but if they fail to do so, must rely ever more on coercion and control. The regime 'falls into the vacuum it has created'. This occurred in Uganda under Idi Amin in 1979; and in Somalia in 1991.

### Absence of legitimacy

Legitimacy refers to popular belief in, or acceptance of, an authority; thus it includes any leader achieving popularity at any given moment. When the state fails to reward the people with civil rights, participation, accountability and oversight, legitimacy fades and collapse may occur In Afghanistan, the non-inclusive 2004 constitution, the international coalition's focus on power consolidation at the expense of democracy, and president Ashraf Ghani's narrow circle of support, caused the regime to fall in 2021 as it 'lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the people'. In the USSR the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt was foiled, not by the Gorbachev regime but by Boris Yeltsin and other reformers: Gorbachev never recovered from this blow to his legitimacy

### Newly independent states

Such states are especially vulnerable to collapse as the people may not accept or understand the principles of legitimacy or nationhood. In Mozambique, the FRELIMO government lost legitimacy when the army refused to fight in the civil war. State collapse is prevalent in much of post-colonial Africa and has occurred in two waves: in the 1980's, the second decade of independence, in Chad, Uganda and Ghana; and a decade later, in Somalia and Liberia.

### Other states subvert or invade

Collapse is marked by the loss of control of political space. Neighbour states may intervene directly in a collapsing state; or they may host dissident movements. The collapse of Afghanistan in 2021 was only possible because the Taliban were sheltered in Pakistan. Idi Amin was forced out of Uganda by Ugandan exiles combined with the invasion by Tanzania.

### Economic collapse or decline

In a collapsing state the economy may shrink because a) the Black economy overshadows the formal, more controlled economy, and b) peripheral areas may prefer to use a neighbour state's currency, as in Chad, Ethiopia in the 1980's and Zaire in the 1990's. In the case of post-WW1 Austria, the loss of pre-war markets in the Austro-Hungarian empire encouraged fears of economic decline, thus the idea of Anschluss with Germany, and Austria's downfall by German invasion in 1938.

In the Soviet Union, the dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 and the Reagan administration's escalation of the arms race ('they can't sustain military spending the way we can') overstretched the USSR economy: while the economy of apartheid South Africa was weakened by sanctions, banking and other boycotts, divestment and shareholder activism.

### Ethnic and regional tensions

Loss of territorial control is a 'vital characteristic' of state collapse. If the components of society are neglected they may oppose the centre of power and fend for themselves. If civil war results, the state loses its Monopoly on violence, and force becomes privatised under warlords, paramilitary or guerrilla units. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed in the 1990s, when its six socialist republics broke apart to become separate countries; though Slovenia seceded peacefully, civil wars broke out in Croatia, Bosnia and Kosovo, then part of Serbia, due to nationalist elites manipulating communal tensions.

The ethnic discrimination of the apartheid system in South Africa ended through negotiations between the governing National Party, the African National Congress, and other political organizations, resulting in South Africa's first non-racial election, which was won by the African National Congress.

### Foreign war

'Misbegotten wars, when serving as culmination points of more general national decline, can be fatal', says Robert Kaplan. Participation in World War I was a decisive factor in the collapse of Ottoman Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia in 1917.

### Wars of succession

In an absolute monarchy, a disputed succession to the throne can cause the 'utter collapse of royal authority'. The Wars of the Roses ended the Lancastrian dynasty at the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471; and led to the downfall of Richard III and the Yorkist line at the battle of Bosworth in 1485.

### Dependence on outside support

In Angola in the 1980's, aid from the USSR was the 'principal cause of collapse', turning the ruling elite into unpopular 'worshippers of foreign divinities'. Soon afterwards the USSR itself collapsed, in part due to the 'demands of the main sponsor', the USA. The 2010 Haiti earthquake caused a surge in aid which: created a huge parallel government run by NGOs and contractors; destroyed weak institutions; inflated wages, rents, and prices beyond the reach of local businesses; and gave the Haitian government no incentive to undertake necessary reforms.

## Regeneration

Either the incumbent regime itself, or an extremist reactionary group dissatisfied with its performance, may attempt to postpone or avoid collapse by regenerating popular support; 'At the end of a dynasty there often appears some show of power giving the impression that the dynasty's senility has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is extinguished, like a candle which leaps up brilliantly just before it is put out'.

To do so they may have to take 'heroic' measures; 'Throughout history there have always been in the event of defeat two paths of action; the one aims at saving enough of the substance as possible. the other at leaving behind a stirring legend'. According to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, they may rethink or adapt the ideology, or replace it by a completely new set of ideals. For example, in Poland, according to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, communist ideocracy failed in 1980; the recognition of Lech Walesa's Solidarity Trade Union led to a military coup and authoritarian military rule.

According to Sabrina Ramet, regenerative changes occurred in Yugoslavia in the 1980s when the communist ideology was replaced by a nationalist drive for a Greater Serbia and by an anti-bureaucratic revolution in support of Slobodan Milosevic. The Young Turk coup of 1908, the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt, and the financial/industrial reforms of Sergei Witte in Imperial Russia, were all aimed at regenerating causes which were nearing collapse.

Marina Ottaway discusses the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ottoman Empire in 1918, British India in 1947, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the collapse of South Africa's white supremacist government in 1993, of Czechoslovakia the following year, and of Yugoslavia.

## Possible consequences of collapse

State collapse is 'not necessarily anarchy'.

### Failed state

If attempts at restructuring from within or without are unsuccessful, a long-term absence of a viable government results. Services are absent and national borders are unprotected, as in Haiti, Somalia, Yemen and South Sudan. A failed state can fragment, be taken over by outside forces, or descend into chaos.

### Annexation by another state

The Mongol Empire was able to conquer and unite the various kingdoms and empires spanning China into one state again in 1279, due to a lack of centralised state authority over the previous century of disunity.

The gradual weakening and collapse of the Byzantine empire starting in the 11th century led to territory being occupied by European and Ottoman powers, accelerating the total failure of the state.

The collapse in authority and failure of other states such as the Golden Horde led to their territorial occupation by other states, in this case Russia.

As in the Austrian Anschluss of 1938.

### Fragmentation

The partition of India in 1947 led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan. When Ottoman Turkey collapsed at the end of World War I, it lost territory, including what became Syria, Iraq and Palestine; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire gave rise to Czechoslovakia, Hungary and the Austrian Republic, while Slovenia and Croatia became part of Yugoslavia. Nazi Germany in 1945 fragmented into East and West Germany, while Pomerania and Silesia became part of Poland. The USSR breakup led to regional wars in the newly created states of Tajikistan, Moldova, Azerbaijan and Georgia.

### Genocide

The prospect, and chaos, of state collapse provides fearful elites with motive and opportunity to kill en masse (though the planning and implementation of genocide may be hampered by reduced resources). When defeat appeared inevitable, Hitler ordered the killing of invalids, Gypsies, Russians and Jews in the Final solution. In Ottoman Turkey, estimates for the death toll in the Armenian genocide vary between 300,000 and 1.5 million.

The partition of India displaced between 10 and 12 million Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, creating overwhelming refugee crises; there was large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. In the former Yugoslavia collapse led to state failure, and ethnic cleansing and genocide erupted.

### Ethnic cleansing, Refugee crisis or Diaspora

State collapse in most cases incurs humanitarian tragedies, ending in massive outflows of refugees and others. Africa leads the world in refugee crises, especially in Somalia and Rwanda, and elsewhere, Bosnia and Haiti. Earlier examples include: the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950) from areas now part of Poland or Russia; the Revival Process when the People's Republic of Bulgaria collapsed; the White emigres who left Russia after the Czarist regime fell; and the South African diaspora after the collapse of apartheid.

### Reconstruction and regime change

Collapsed states are now expected to be rebuilt, territorially intact and along democratic lines, with the help of multilateral organizations and bilateral donors. State reconstruction involves five basic elements; 1) a central political authority, 2) control of borders, 3) control of national territory, 4) sufficient control and supply of resources to maintain the state, 5) availability of state agents sufficient to execute policy. Anyone attempting this in Somalia would have to; disarm thousands of gunmen, stop the arms trafficking, set up a justice system and rebuild the economy, all against the opposition of warlords, extremists and smugglers.

In 1946, the Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan The new constitution drafted by Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan. "The political project drew much of its inspiration from the U.S. Bill of Rights, New Deal social legislation, the liberal constitutions of several European states and even the Soviet Union."

### Justice, guilt and denialism

Collapse may be followed by formal or informal efforts at justice, such as the Nuremberg trials and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa). Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein were also tried in court. Germany has faced up to its German collective guilt and 'legacy of 'shame' for the Hitler years in such media portrayals as *Downfall*. Denial has been a common reaction in post-collapse nations. In post-apartheid South Africa, white liberals were more likely to feel guilt feelings than conservatives. Some have refused to accept responsibility for massacres, as in Holocaust denial, the Myth of the clean Wehrmacht and the Armenian genocide denial; a fictitious explanation for the collapse of the German Empire in 1918 was found in the Stab-in-the-back myth.

### In the longer term

The collapse of the Ottomans in 1918 had long-term consequences, 'triggering most of the problems that plague the Middle East today'. Hegemony in the Middle East has been subject to quarrels between British, French, Israeli, American, Arab nationalist, Saudi and Iranian interests ever since.

Sebastian Haffner had argued that Hitler, 'whether we like it or not', created many features of the postwar world, including the state of Israel, the end of European empires, the division of Germany, and the joint hegemony of the US and USSR.

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title: Stein's unbiased risk estimate

abstract: In statistics, Stein's unbiased risk estimate (SURE) is an unbiased estimator of the mean-squared error of "a nearly arbitrary, nonlinear biased estimator." In other words, it provides an indication of the accuracy of a given estimator. This is important since the true mean-squared error of an estimator is a function of the unknown parameter to be estimated, and thus cannot be determined exactly. The technique is named after its discoverer, Charles Stein.

text:
# Stein's unbiased risk estimate

In statistics, **Stein's unbiased risk estimate (SURE)** is an unbiased estimator of the mean-squared error of "a nearly arbitrary, nonlinear biased estimator." In other words, it provides an indication of the accuracy of a given estimator. This is important since the true mean-squared error of an estimator is a function of the unknown parameter to be estimated, and thus cannot be determined exactly.

The technique is named after its discoverer, Charles Stein.

## Formal statement

Let $\mu \in {\mathbb {R} }^{d}$ be an unknown parameter and let $x\in {\mathbb {R} }^{d}$ be a measurement vector whose components are independent and distributed normally with mean $\mu \_{i},i=1,...,d,$ and variance $\sigma ^{2}$. Suppose $h(x)$ is an estimator of $\mu $ from $x$, and can be written $h(x)=x+g(x)$, where $g$ is weakly differentiable. Then, Stein's unbiased risk estimate is given by

$$\operatorname {SURE} (h)=d\sigma ^{2}+\\|g(x)\\|^{2}+2\sigma ^{2}\sum \_{i=1}^{d}{\frac {\partial }{\partial x\_{i}g\_{i}(x)=-d\sigma ^{2}+\\|g(x)\\|^{2}+2\sigma ^{2}\sum \_{i=1}^{d}{\frac {\partial }{\partial x\_{i}h\_{i}(x),}}}}$$

where $g\_{i}(x)$ is the $i$th component of the function $g(x)$, and $\\|\cdot \\|$ is the Euclidean norm.

The importance of SURE is that it is an unbiased estimate of the mean-squared error (or squared error risk) of $h(x)$, i.e.

$$\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\{\operatorname {SURE} (h)\\}=\operatorname {MSE} (h),\\,$$

with

$$\operatorname {MSE} (h)=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|h(x)-\mu \\|^{2}.$$

Thus, minimizing SURE can act as a surrogate for minimizing the MSE. Note that there is no dependence on the unknown parameter $\mu $ in the expression for SURE above. Thus, it can be manipulated (e.g., to determine optimal estimation settings) without knowledge of $\mu $.

## Proof

We wish to show that

$$\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|h(x)-\mu \\|^{2}=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\{\operatorname {SURE} (h)\\}.$$

We start by expanding the MSE as

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|h(x)-\mu \\|^{2}&=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|g(x)+x-\mu \\|^{2}\\\&=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|g(x)\\|^{2}+\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|x-\mu \\|^{2}+2\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }g(x)^{T}(x-\mu )\\\&=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|g(x)\\|^{2}+d\sigma ^{2}+2\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }g(x)^{T}(x-\mu ).\end{aligned}$$

Now we use integration by parts to rewrite the last term:

$$\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }g(x)^{T}(x-\mu )&=\int \_{{\mathbb {R} }^{d}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \sigma ^{2d}\exp \left(-{\frac {\\|x-\mu \\|^{2}{2\sigma ^{2}\right)\sum \_{i=1}^{d}g\_{i}(x)(x\_{i}-\mu \_{i})d^{d}x\\\&=\sigma ^{2}\sum \_{i=1}^{d}\int \_{{\mathbb {R} }^{d}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \sigma ^{2d}\exp \left(-{\frac {\\|x-\mu \\|^{2}{2\sigma ^{2}\right){\frac {dg\_{i}{dx\_{i}d^{d}x\\\&=\sigma ^{2}\sum \_{i=1}^{d}\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }{\frac {dg\_{i}{dx\_{i}.\end{aligned}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}$$

Substituting this into the expression for the MSE, we arrive at

$$\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\\|h(x)-\mu \\|^{2}=\operatorname {E} \_{\mu }\left(d\sigma ^{2}+\\|g(x)\\|^{2}+2\sigma ^{2}\sum \_{i=1}^{d}{\frac {dg\_{i}{dx\_{i}\right).}}}$$

## Applications

A standard application of SURE is to choose a parametric form for an estimator, and then optimize the values of the parameters to minimize the risk estimate. This technique has been applied in several settings. For example, a variant of the James–Stein estimator can be derived by finding the optimal shrinkage estimator. The technique has also been used by Donoho and Johnstone to determine the optimal shrinkage factor in a wavelet denoising setting.


title: Stein, Bavaria

abstract: Stein is a town in the district of Fürth, in Bavaria, Germany. It is situated 7 km south of Fürth, and 7 km southwest of Nuremberg (centre).

text:
# Stein, Bavaria

**Stein** (East Franconian: *Schdah*) is a town in the district of Fürth, in Bavaria, Germany. It is situated 7 km south of Fürth, and 7 km southwest of Nuremberg (centre).

## Geography

Stein is located in the metropolitan area Nürnberg/Fürth/Erlangen in Middle Franconia, Bavaria and is a part of the district of Fürth. It adjoins to Nuremberg in the north-west and lies on the left bank of the river Rednitz. Neighboring municipalities are Nuremberg, Rohr, Roßtal, Zirndorf and Oberasbach.

Stein is divided into 11 districts:

## History

Stein has first been mentioned in a document dating back to 1296. The origin of the settlement is linked to the first *Rednitzbrücke*, a bridge which first crossed the river Rednitz. It was referred to as “Steinbruke” and probably caused the town's naming. In 1498, the two famous sculptors Veit Stoss and Adam Kraft were appointed as counselors for construction works on the bridge.

Between the 15th and the 17th century, Stein was completely destroyed three times. After the two Margrave Wars, which took place between 1449 and 1552, the city was left burned to ashes. In the summer of 1632, King Gustav Adolf of Sweden confronted Albrecht von Wallenstein near Zirndorf in the Battle of the Alte Veste, which was part of the Thirty Years' War. Stein was no setting of the battle but was devastated during the troop's retreat.

In 1660, the Old Church (*Alte Kirche*) was built.

Stein's history is closely linked to its pencil industry. The first manufacturers of pencils have already settled in the town in 1717. In 1761, the company A.W.Faber-Castell was founded in Stein by Kaspar Faber, a carpenter, who had moved there from Langenzenn a few years before. The castel is open for visitors on certain times a year.

In 1806, Stein became a part of the Kingdom of Bavaria.

In 1861, the Martin-Luther Church was inaugurated and in 1906, the construction of the new Faber-Castell Castle was finished. In the same year, the company *Möbel Krügel* was founded in Stein.

Due to the local government reform in Bavaria, Stein was integrated into the district of Fürth in 1972. Before, the City of Nuremberg had made several unsuccessful attempts to incorporate Stein.

Stein received its town charter in 1977.

## International relations

Stein is twinned with:

## Culture and leisure

### Sights

In 1898, Ottilie von Faber married Count Alexander zu Castell-Rüdenhausen and a few years later, they decided to build a new castle, right next to the small old castle. The building work took only three years (1903 - 1906) and was supervised by Theodor von Kramer. The furniture features a combination of Historism and Jugendstil. Two rooms, which are especially remarkable, are the ladies and the gentlemen's bathrooms with sunken marble baths. During the two world wars, the castle remained mostly unharmed and was used as housing for international lawyers and journalists during the Nuremberg Trials. Reportedly, John Steinbeck and Ernest Hemingway resided there while writing for the US press. Nowadays, the castle is mainly used for cultural events and meetings. It is also used for weddings of the Faber-Castell family.

The *Heimatmuseum* (local museum) is located in the oldest building of the town. The house was built in 1635 and used to contain an inn. The city of Stein acquired and renovated it in 1988. The museum's exhibition consists of items on loan and donations by citizens and tries to reconstruct the history of craft, industry and family/community life. Its opening hours are from 1 to 5 pm, always on the third Sunday of the month and are accorded to the opening hours of the museum *Alte Mine*, which is run by Faber-Castell and which documents the historical development of lead production.

The *Freiland-Aquarium and -Terrarium Stein* is a smal park where local flora and fauna are presented to visitors for free entrance. It is open on weekends and holidays from May to September and its focus lies on local reptiles, amphibians, fish, swamp and water plants.

The Palm Beach is a large spa that was built in 1979 and privatized in 1993. The facility includes a 25-meter sports pool, a pool with artificial waves, thermal baths, a beach bar and a large outside area. In December 2012, the *Future world & Space Center*, which includes twelve water slides, was opened.also called as "Kristall-Palm Beach".

### Events

The Christmas Market in Stein takes place during the first weekend in Advent. On the first evening, school children walk with lanterns from the town hall to *Mecklenburger Platz*, where the mayor opens the market together with St. Nicolas and the Christkind. The booths usually represent the town's associations, unions or businesses.

The City Festival (*Stadtfest*) takes place every spring. The shops are open all weekend, and there is a stage with music and entertainment. The festival is accompanied by an arts exhibition in the town hall.

Every town district has its own church fair, which takes place between June and September.

## Education

Stein's Elementary School consists of three school buildings located in different districts of the town. They are located in *Neuwerker Weg* (Deutenbach), *Mühlstraße* (Stein) and *Stuttgarter Straße* (Oberweihersbuch). Directly next to the building in Neuwerker Weg, there is a Hauptschule (nowadays called *Mittelschule Stein*).

The Gymnasium in Stein was founded in 1982 and offers a mathematical/natural scientific and an economic/social branch to its students.

Further institutions of learning are the Adult high school (*Volkshochschule*) and the music school which offers a wide range of musical lessons.

## Infrastructure

Stein is located near the federal road Bundesstraße 14. The rush-hour traffic usually leads to long jams between Nuremberg and Stein, where the street becomes narrower. A motorway feeder, which is two kilometer away, links Stein to the autobahns A3, A6 and A9.

The city belongs to the Greater Nuremberg Transport Network (*Verkehrsverbund Großraum Nürnberg*) and is connected to Nuremberg's public transport system. The nearest Nuremberg U-Bahn station, Röthenbach station, can be reached by busses, which go every 5-10 minutes during weekdays. An extension of line U2 towards Stein has been proposed multiple times, as early as the first plans of the metro network, however, fears over the long term operational costs have led local politicians to oppose such an extension.

Stein has a railway station, which is located in Nuremberg-Gebersdorf, though.

## InfoBox

| Stein | |
| --- | --- |
| Town | |
| The Faber-Castell Castle in Stein | |
|  | |
| Location of Stein within Fürth district | |
| Stein Stein | |
| Coordinates: 49°25′N 11°1′E / 49.417°N 11.017°E / 49.417; 11.017 | |
| Country | Germany |
| State | Bavaria |
| Admin. region | Mittelfranken |
| District | Fürth |
| Subdivisions | 11 Stadtteile |
| Government | |
| Mayor (202026) | Kurt Krömer |
| Area | |
| Total | 19.52 km2 (7.54 sq mi) |
| Highest elevation | 380 m (1,250 ft) |
| Lowest elevation | 300 m (1,000 ft) |
| Population (2023-12-31) | |
| Total | 14,851 |
| Density | 760/km2 (2,000/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
| Postal codes | 90547 |
| Dialling codes | 0911 |
| Vehicle registration |  |
| Website | www.stadt-stein.de |


title: Stein, Limburg

abstract: Stein is a municipality and a town in the southeastern Netherlands. The municipality had a population of 24,875 in 2021 and covers an area of 22.80 km⁲ (8.80 sq mi) of which 1.72 km⁲ (0.66 sq mi) is water. The municipality of Stein makes part of the region of South Limburg and lies between the city of Geleen in the east and Beek in the southeast, and lies furthermore west of interchange Kerensheide and the chemical industries of Chemelot. To the west lies the Belgian border, across the Meuse river. In comparison to other cities and villages in the area, Stein is fairly big. It is also the capital city of the municipality with the same name. It has i.a. three Roman Catholic churches, an abandoned mediaeval castle, and a port to the Juliana Canal which used to be the second largest inland port in all of Europe. On 29 October 2009, the shopping mall of Stein suffered a severe fire. As a result of the calamity, the town subsequently lost 40 shops, 2 banks, 1 restaurant and 6 houses. The adjacent, iconic, 11-story apartment building 'De Stevel', remained intact.

text:
# Stein, Limburg

**Stein** (Dutch pronunciation: \[ˈstɛin\] , Limburgish: \[ˈstɛjn\]) is a municipality and a town in the southeastern Netherlands. The municipality had a population of 24,875 in 2021 and covers an area of 22.80 km2 (8.80 sq mi) of which 1.72 km2 (0.66 sq mi) is water.

The municipality of Stein makes part of the region of South Limburg and lies between the city of Geleen in the east and Beek in the southeast, and lies furthermore west of interchange Kerensheide and the chemical industries of Chemelot. To the west lies the Belgian border, across the Meuse river. In comparison to other cities and villages in the area, Stein is fairly big. It is also the capital city of the municipality with the same name. It has i.a. three Roman Catholic churches, an abandoned mediaeval castle, and a port to the Juliana Canal which used to be the second largest inland port in all of Europe.

On 29 October 2009, the shopping mall of Stein suffered a severe fire. As a result of the calamity, the town subsequently lost 40 shops, 2 banks, 1 restaurant and 6 houses. The adjacent, iconic, 11-story apartment building 'De Stevel', remained intact.

## Population centres

* Berg aan de Maas (Berg)
* Catsop (Katsep)
* Elsloo (Aelse)
* Maasband (Maasbendj)
* Meers (Meas)
* Nattenhoven (Nattenoave)
* Stein (Stein)
* Urmond (Uermend, Wermend)

(Local language in parentheses.)

## Notable people

## InfoBox

| Stein | |
| --- | --- |
| Municipality | |
| Stein castle | |
|  | |
| Location in Limburg | |
| Coordinates: 50°58′N 5°46′E / 50.967°N 5.767°E / 50.967; 5.767 | |
| Country | Netherlands |
| Province | Limburg |
| Government | |
| Body | Municipal council |
| Mayor | Marion Leurs-Mordang (PvdA) |
| Area | |
| Total | 22.80 km2 (8.80 sq mi) |
| Land | 21.08 km2 (8.14 sq mi) |
| Water | 1.72 km2 (0.66 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 61 m (200 ft) |
| Population (January 2021) | |
| Total | 24,875 |
| Density | 1,180/km2 (3,100/sq mi) |
| Demonym(s) | Steindenaar, Steinder |
| Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
| Postcode | 6129, 6170–6171, 6180–6181 |
| Area code | 046 |
| Website | www.gemeentestein.nl |


title: Colasposoma purcharti

abstract: Colasposoma purcharti is a species of leaf beetle endemic to Socotra. It was described by Stefano Zoia in 2012. The species is named after Luboš Purchart, who collected some of the material studied.

text:
# Colasposoma purcharti

***Colasposoma purcharti*** is a species of leaf beetle endemic to Socotra. It was described by Stefano Zoia in 2012. The species is named after Luboš Purchart, who collected some of the material studied.

## InfoBox

| *Colasposoma purcharti* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Chrysomelidae |
| Genus: | *Colasposoma* |
| Subgenus: | *Colasposoma (Colasposoma)* |
| Species: | ***C. purcharti*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Colasposoma purcharti***<br>Zoia, 2012 | |
|


title: Steffen Bringmann

abstract: Steffen Bringmann is a retired East German sprinter who specialized in the 100 metres.

text:
# Steffen Bringmann

**Steffen Bringmann** (born 11 March 1964 in Leipzig) is a retired East German sprinter who specialized in the 100 metres.

## Biography

At the 1986 European Championships he won silver medals in the 100 metres and in the 4 × 100 metres relay, the latter with teammates Thomas Schröder, Olaf Prenzler and Frank Emmelmann. He had already won the silver medal in the 60 metres at the European Indoor Championships the same year. He became East German champion in 1987 and 1989 and German champion in 1991 and 1992.

His personal best time was 10.13 seconds, achieved in June 1986 in Jena. This ranks him sixth among German 100 m sprinters, behind Julian Reus, Frank Emmelmann, Thomas Schröder, Sven Matthes and Eugen Ray.


title: Coccothrinax cupularis

abstract: Coccothrinax cupularis is a palm which is endemic to southern Cuba. Henderson and colleagues (1995) considered C. cupularis to be a synonym of Coccothrinax miraguama.

text:
# Coccothrinax cupularis

***Coccothrinax cupularis*** is a palm which is endemic to southern Cuba.

Henderson and colleagues (1995) considered *C. cupularis* to be a synonym of *Coccothrinax miraguama*.

## InfoBox

| *Coccothrinax cupularis* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| *Clade*: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Arecales |
| Family: | Arecaceae |
| Genus: | *Coccothrinax* |
| Species: | ***C. cupularis*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Coccothrinax cupularis***<br>(León) O.Muñiz & Borhidi | |
|


title: Coccothrinax boschiana

abstract: Coccothrinax boschiana is a palm endemic to dry forests on limestone on the Sierra Martín García ridge and Sierra de Neiba on the Barahona Peninsula in the south of the Dominican Republic on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. This species was first described in 1997.

text:
# Coccothrinax boschiana

***Coccothrinax boschiana*** (**guano de Barreras**) is a palm endemic to dry forests on limestone on the Sierra Martín García ridge and Sierra de Neiba on the Barahona Peninsula in the south of the Dominican Republic on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. This species was first described in 1997.

## Description

*C. boschiana* is palmate-leaved; its leaves have been described as "golden above and silvery below". Trees grow to about 12 metres in height.

* "*Coccothrinax boschiana* M.M.Mejía & R.García, Moscosoa 9: 1 (1997)". *Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families*. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
* "Morici, Carlo. 2002. *Coccothrinax boschiana*". *Palms 41:1*. Archived from the original on 2006-12-13. Retrieved 2006-12-12.

## InfoBox

| *Coccothrinax boschiana* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| *Clade*: | Tracheophytes |
| *Clade*: | Angiosperms |
| *Clade*: | Monocots |
| *Clade*: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Arecales |
| Family: | Arecaceae |
| Genus: | *Coccothrinax* |
| Species: | ***C. boschiana*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Coccothrinax boschiana***<br>Mejía & García, 1997 | |
|


title: Stemphylium sarciniforme

abstract: Stemphylium sarciniforme is a plant pathogen infecting lentil, red clover and chickpea.

text:
# Stemphylium sarciniforme

***Stemphylium sarciniforme*** is a plant pathogen infecting lentil, red clover and chickpea.

## InfoBox

| *Stemphylium sarciniforme* | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Leaf damage from *Stemphylium sarciniforme* | |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Dothideomycetes |
| Order: | Pleosporales |
| Family: | Pleosporaceae |
| Genus: | *Stemphylium* |
| Species: | ***S. sarciniforme*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Stemphylium sarciniforme***
(Cavara) Wiltshire \[as 'sarcinaeforme'\], (1938) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| *Macrosporium sarciniforme* Cavara \[as 'sarcinaeforme'\], (1890)
*Thyrospora sarciniforme* (Cavara) Tehon & E.Y. Daniels \[as 'sarcinaeforme'\], (1925) | |


title: Stephanie Borowicz

abstract: Stephanie Paige Borowicz is an American politician currently serving as a Republican member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives for the 76th district since 2019.

text:
# Stephanie Borowicz

**Stephanie Paige Borowicz** (born 1977) is an American politician currently serving as a Republican member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives for the 76th district since 2019.

## Early life and education

Borowicz was born on March 23, 1977, in Orlando, Florida. She graduated from Altamonte Christian School in 1995. Borowicz earned a bachelor of arts degree in liberal studies with a minor in Bible studies from Vanguard University, a private Christian university in Orange County, California. She worked as an elementary school teacher and as president of a non-profit organization. She moved to Clinton County, Pennsylvania, in 2009.

## Political career

Borowicz first ran for the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in 2016, challenging longtime incumbent Mike Hanna. She would lose that election. In 2018, Hanna decided against seeking re-election. Hanna's son Mike Hanna Jr. ran in his stead, but would lose to Borowicz by around 1,500 votes. Borowicz was re-elected in 2020 and 2022.

Borowicz garnered national attention when she gave an invocation at the start of a state house session in which she invoked Jesus 13 times, praised President Donald Trump, praised Israel, and said, "at the name of Jesus, every knee will bend." The prayer was given on the same day that Movita Johnson-Harrell was sworn in as the first Muslim woman to serve in the chamber. Johnson-Harrel criticized the invocation as "weaponized prayer" and as an example of Islamophobia. Borowicz brushed off the criticism in an interview with Todd Starnes on Fox News Radio, saying she prayed in the same manner she always prayed. She claimed that people were offended because "there's power in the name of Jesus."

In May 2019, a man in a shirt with the name and logo of the American Guard took a selfie with Borowicz at a pro-gun rally in Harrisburg. Borowicz's photo-op elicited criticism from the Anti-Defamation League who requested Borowicz apologize for the picture due to the American Guard's ties to white supremacy. She would issue a statement, but did not make mention of the American Guard or its ideology, "We do not, nor should we, require ID or background checks as a condition for being photographed with the people of Pennsylvania — our constituents! The many photos taken of me at this year’s Rally to Protect Your Right to Keep and Bear Arms are no different.”

During the COVID-19 Pandemic, Borowicz introduced a resolution that suggested the virus was a "punishment inflicted upon us for our presumptuous sins" and sought to proclaim March 30, 2020, a day of humiliation, fasting, and prayer.

Following the 2020 United States presidential election, Borowicz joined 25 other Pennsylvania Republican lawmakers in sponsoring a resolution to demand the decertification of Pennsylvania's electoral votes. The group cited false claims of a rigged election in their resolution.

In 2022, Borowicz introduced a bill modeled after Florida's "Don't Say Gay" law. Her bill would ban discussion of sexual orientation or gender identity in schools through the fifth grade, but Borowicz said the measure should be extended through twelfth grade. The introduction of her bill came after the Pennsylvania Department of Education launched a webpage containing advice for teachers to create "gender-inclusive classrooms." The bill was referred to the State House's Education Committee, but was never taken up. She reintroduced the bill in 2023.

In 2024, Borowicz reportedly jeered former Capitol Police Officers Harry Dunn and Aquilino Gonnell when they visited the State House. The officers defended the Capitol during the January 6 attack on the Capitol, and Borowicz shouted that the attack did not happen and yelled "traitor" at the former officers, according to fellow lawmakers.

## Personal life

Borowicz's husband, Jason, is a pastor and together they have three sons.

## Electoral history

2016 Pennsylvania House of Representatives election, District 76
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **Mike Hanna Sr. (incumbent)** | **13,213** | **52.16** |
|  | Republican | Stephanie Borowicz | 12,121 | 47.84 |
| Total votes | | | **25,334** | **100.00** |

2018 Pennsylvania House of Representatives election, District 76
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Republican** | **Stephanie Borowicz** | **11,224** | **53.64** |
|  | Democratic | Mike Hanna Jr. | 9,669 | 46.21 |
|  | Write-in | | 30 | 0.14 |
| Total votes | | | **20,923** | **100.00** |

2020 Pennsylvania House of Representatives election, District 76
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Republican** | **Stephanie Borowicz (incumbent)** | **19,157** | **65.47** |
|  | Democratic | Joe Waltz | 10,080 | 34.45 |
|  | Write-in | | 24 | 0.08 |
| Total votes | | | **29,261** | **100.00** |

2022 Pennsylvania House of Representatives election, District 76
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Republican** | **Stephanie Borowicz (incumbent)** | **15,776** | **67.41** |
|  | Democratic | Denise Maris | 7,627 | 32.59 |
| Total votes | | | **23,403** | **100.00** |

## InfoBox

| Stephanie Borowicz | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
from the 76th district | |
| **Incumbent** | |
| **Assumed office**
January 1, 2019 | |
| Preceded by | Mike Hanna |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1977-03-23) March 23, 1977
Orlando, Florida, U.S. |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | Jason |
| Children | 3 |
| Education | Vanguard University (BA) |
| Website | repstephanie.com |
|  | |


title: Cocoyoc

abstract: Cocoyoc is a poblation of Yautepec de Zaragoza in the north-central part of the Mexican state of Morelos. It is located at 18°53′N 99°04′W. Cocoyoc reported 10,178 inhabitants in the 2020 census and is the third-largest community in Yautepec. The name Cocoyoc comes from Nahuatl, meaning ″coyote″.

text:
# Cocoyoc

**Cocoyoc** is a poblation of Yautepec de Zaragoza in the north-central part of the Mexican state of Morelos. It is located at 18°53′N 99°04′W. Cocoyoc reported 10,178 inhabitants in the 2020 census and is the third-largest community in Yautepec.

The name Cocoyoc comes from Nahuatl, meaning ″coyote″.

## History

Cocoyoc was founded by the Tlahuicas, the Nahuatl group in the eleventh century, about 200 years before the Aztecs, who would become the dominant group. The Aztecs established their capital in Tenochtitlán, modern is Mexico City. Huitzilihuitl, the second *tlatoani* (king) of the Aztecs, conquered Cocoyoc (c. 1400) and was so amazed by the ideal climate, fertile land and lush vegetation that he married the daughter of the lord of the conquered region.

Hacienda Cocoyoc was built in the 16th century by the first viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, as chronicled by Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600-1681). Ownership of the hacienda changed several times, but by the 18th century it had become one of the twelve most important sugar cane mills in the country. In the early 19th century an aqueduct was built for irrigation; the aqueduct is still functional. With the Mexican Revolution it was pillaged and a large portion was destroyed; the lands were distributed to peasants. In 1957, Paulino Rivera Torres bought the hacienda and turned it into a luxury hotel. The hotel has restaurants, a spa, and a golf course.

18°52′N 98°59′W / 18.867°N 98.983°W / 18.867; -98.983


title: Cocountable topology

abstract: The cocountable topology or countable complement topology on any set X consists of the empty set and all cocountable subsets of X, that is all sets whose complement in X is countable. It follows that the only closed subsets are X and the countable subsets of X. Symbolically, one writes the topology as T = { A ⊆ X : A = ∅  or  X ∖ A  is countable }. Every set X with the cocountable topology is Lindelöf, since every nonempty open set omits only countably many points of X. It is also T1, as all singletons are closed. If X is an uncountable set then any two nonempty open sets intersect, hence the space is not Hausdorff. However, in the cocountable topology all convergent sequences are eventually constant, so limits are unique. Since compact sets in X are finite subsets, all compact subsets are closed, another condition usually related to the Hausdorff separation axiom. The cocountable topology on a countable set is the discrete topology. The cocountable topology on an uncountable set is hyperconnected, thus connected, locally connected and pseudocompact, but neither weakly countably compact nor countably metacompact, hence not compact.

text:
# Cocountable topology

The **cocountable topology** or **countable complement topology** on any set *X* consists of the empty set and all cocountable subsets of *X*, that is all sets whose complement in *X* is countable. It follows that the only closed subsets are *X* and the countable subsets of *X*. Symbolically, one writes the topology as $\mathcal {T}=\\{A\subseteq X:A=\varnothing {\mbox{ or }X\setminus A{\mbox{ is countable}\\}.}}$

Every set *X* with the cocountable topology is Lindelöf, since every nonempty open set omits only countably many points of *X*. It is also T1, as all singletons are closed.

If *X* is an uncountable set then any two nonempty open sets intersect, hence the space is not Hausdorff. However, in the cocountable topology all convergent sequences are eventually constant, so limits are unique. Since compact sets in *X* are finite subsets, all compact subsets are closed, another condition usually related to the Hausdorff separation axiom.

The cocountable topology on a countable set is the discrete topology. The cocountable topology on an uncountable set is hyperconnected, thus connected, locally connected and pseudocompact, but neither weakly countably compact nor countably metacompact, hence not compact.

* Steen, Lynn Arthur; Seebach, J. Arthur Jr. (1995) \[1978\], *Counterexamples in Topology* (Dover reprint of 1978 ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-486-68735-3, MR 0507446 *(See example 20)*.


title: Coleophora lurida

abstract: Coleophora lurida is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Mongolia.

text:
# Coleophora lurida

***Coleophora lurida*** is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Mongolia.

## InfoBox

| *Coleophora lurida* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Coleophoridae |
| Genus: | *Coleophora* |
| Species: | ***C. lurida*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Coleophora lurida***<br>(Reznik, 1977) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Multicoloria lurida* Reznik, 1977 | |


title: Colin Kenny

abstract: James Colin Ramsey Kenny is a former Canadian Senator. A member of the Liberal Party, he was appointed to the Senate in 1984 by Pierre Trudeau to represent the Rideau region of Ontario. On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Kenny had informed the Speaker of the Senate that he would be retiring effective February 2, 2018, ten months ahead of his scheduled retirement date, due to ill health.

text:
# Colin Kenny

**James Colin Ramsey Kenny** (born December 10, 1943) is a former Canadian Senator. A member of the Liberal Party, he was appointed to the Senate in 1984 by Pierre Trudeau to represent the Rideau region of Ontario.

On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Kenny had informed the Speaker of the Senate that he would be retiring effective February 2, 2018, ten months ahead of his scheduled retirement date, due to ill health.

## Early life and career

James Colin Ramsey Kenny was born in Montreal, Quebec, on December 10, 1943, to a wealthy Rockliffe family. His stepfather Roy H. Hyndman was the final president of Charles Ogilvy Ltd. a major Ottawa department store.

Kenny received his high school education at Bishop's College School. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1966 from Norwich University. In 1967, he received a Public Service Fellowship from the Tuck School of Business.

## Political career

Kenny's political career began in 1968 when he served as executive director of the Liberal Party of Canada in Ontario, a post he would hold until 1970. He worked in the Pierre Trudeau's Prime Minister's Office from 1969 until 1979, rising from special assistant to take up such roles as director of operations, policy advisor, and Principal Secretary to Prime Minister.

Following the Liberal government's defeat in the 1979 election, he worked as an executive with Dome Petroleum, until being appointed to the Senate on the recommendation of Trudeau in 1984.

As a member of the Upper House, Kenny has been active in writing anti-smoking legislation and legislation encouraging the use of alternative fuels. He has also represented Canada as a delegate to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

The SCONSAD reports examine areas of national security and defence, including airports, seaports, border crossings, coasts, Emergency Preparedness, and the Canadian Forces.

In the 35th Parliament, Kenny was the Vice-Chair of the Standing Committee on Energy, the Environment and Natural Resources from 1994 to 1997. In the same parliament, he chaired the Senate Standing Committee on Internal Economy, Budgets and Administration from 1995 until 1997. In the 36th Parliament, Kenny was the chair of the Subcommittee on Human Resources of the Standing Committee on Internal Economy, Budgets and Administration from 1999 to 2000. Kenny also served as Vice-Chair of the Special Committee on Illegal Drugs from 2000 during 36th Parliament to 2002 during the 37th Parliament. From 2001 to 2009, Kenny was the first chair of the Senate committee on national security and defence.

In 2009, Kenny gained national spotlight with a YouTube video of the Senate Defence Committee where several heated arguments occurred in committee when the meeting was disrupted repetitively by senators choosing not to follow rules.

He is also a member of the Trilateral Commission.

In October 2013, CBC News reported that a former staffer of Kenny's had accused him of sexual harassment. Kenny withdrew from the Liberal caucus on November 21, 2013, pending the outcome of an investigation into the allegations. In April 2014 an independent investigator cleared Kenny on all three charges brought forward by his former employee. The findings were upheld by both Liberal and Conservative senate whips and the investigation was closed. The investigation was criticized because it did not look into evidence of complaints made by other woman besides the former assistant. After the initial CBC story broke, nine other woman made complaints against Kenny, including two who had been employed by his tanning salon and two who were employed by NATO when Kenny was part of the NATO Parliamentary Assembly in 2001. By the time the investigation had concluded Liberal leader Justin Trudeau had removed all Liberal senators from the party caucus, and Kenny joined the newly independent Senate Liberal caucus in June 2014.

In 2015, Canadian auditor general Michael Ferguson recommended that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police should investigate Kenny along with eight other senators for questionable expenses paid to staff for non-parliamentary work. Afterwards, Kenny repaid $30,000 in expenses which had been deemed unjustified.

After 2013 and 2016 CBC News reports that Kenny had reportedly used Senate personnel for tasks such as payings bills for his personal residence and making orders for his tanning salon business, the Senate ethics officer launched a preliminary review of his use of publicly funded parliamentary resources in May 2017.

At the end of January 2018, Kenny wrote the Speaker of the Senate to inform him that he would retire on February 2, 2018, ten months before his mandatory retirement date of December 2018, citing his ill health. The decision was made a day after Kenny's former staffer who had accused him of sexual harassment emailed Prime Minister Justin Trudeau asking him to re-open the investigation so it could hear from the other women complainants as well.

## InfoBox

| The HonourableColin Kenny | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Senator from Ontario
(Rideau) | |
| **In office**
June 29, 1984  February 2, 2018 | |
| Nominated by | Pierre Trudeau |
| Appointed by | Jeanne Sauvé |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | James Colin Ramsey Kenny
(1943-12-10) December 10, 1943
Montreal, Quebec, Canada |
| Political party | Liberal (until 2013)
Independent Liberal (2014-2018) |
| Alma mater | Norwich University
Tuck School of Business |
|  | |


title: Colfax, North Dakota

abstract: Colfax is a city in Richland County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 172 at the 2020 census. Colfax was founded in 1881. It is part of the Wahpeton, ND–MN Micropolitan Statistical Area. In the mid-1960s it billed itself as the "smallest town in the U.S. with a public swimming pool".

text:
# Colfax, North Dakota

**Colfax** is a city in Richland County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 172 at the 2020 census. Colfax was founded in 1881. It is part of the Wahpeton, ND–MN Micropolitan Statistical Area. In the mid-1960s it billed itself as the "smallest town in the U.S. with a public swimming pool".

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.01 square miles (2.62 km2), all land.

## Demographics

Historical population
| Census | Pop. | Note |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1960 | 98 |  |  |
| 1970 | 70 |  | −28.6% |
| 1980 | 101 |  | 44.3% |
| 1990 | 80 |  | −20.8% |
| 2000 | 91 |  | 13.8% |
| 2010 | 121 |  | 33.0% |
| 2020 | 172 |  | 42.1% |
| 2023 (est.) | 202 |  | 17.4% |
| U.S. Decennial Census
2020 Census | | | |

### 2020 census

As of the 2020 census, there were 172 people, 58 households, and 49 families residing in the city. There were 61 housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 94.8% White, 0.0% African American, 1.2% Native American, 0.0% Asian, 0.6% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from some other races and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.

### 2010 census

As of the 2010 census, there were 121 people, 46 households, and 36 families residing in the city. The population density was 118.6 inhabitants per square mile (45.8/km2). There were 48 housing units at an average density of 47.1 per square mile (18.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White.

There were 46 households, of which 34.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.4% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21.7% were non-families. 19.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 2.94.

The median age in the city was 37.4 years. 28.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 33.8% were from 25 to 44; 19.8% were from 45 to 64; and 13.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 55.4% male and 44.6% female.

### 2000 census

As of the 2000 census, there were 91 people, 40 households, and 28 families residing in the city. The population density was 102.5 inhabitants per square mile (39.6/km2). There were 44 housing units at an average density of 49.6 per square mile (19.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 100.00% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.10% of the population.

There were 40 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.0% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.0% were non-families. 27.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.79.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 3.3% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 19.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 78.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $33,333, and the median income for a family was $55,833. Males had a median income of $28,333 versus $25,417 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,635. There were no families and 7.0% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 12.5% of those over 64.

## InfoBox

| Colfax, North Dakota | |
| --- | --- |
| City | |
| Post office in Colfax | |
| Location of Colfax, North Dakota | |
| Coordinates: 46°28′15″N 96°52′20″W / 46.47083°N 96.87222°W / 46.47083; -96.87222 | |
| Country | United States |
| State | North Dakota |
| County | Richland |
| Founded | 1881 |
| Area | |
| Total | 1.01 sq mi (2.62 km2) |
| Land | 1.01 sq mi (2.62 km2) |
| Water | 0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2) |
| Elevation | 961 ft (293 m) |
| Population (2020) | |
| Total | 172 |
| Estimate (2023) | 202 |
| Density | 170.30/sq mi (65.76/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC–6 (Central (CST)) |
| Summer (DST) | UTC–5 (CDT) |
| ZIP Code | 58018 |
| Area code | 701 |
| FIPS code | 38-15180 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1035975 |