title: 44 Parachute Brigade (South Africa)

abstract: 44 Parachute Brigade was a parachute infantry brigade of the South African Army. It was founded on 20 April 1978, by Colonel Jan Breytenbach, following the disbandment of 1 SA Corps and the battle of Cassinga. Upon formation, the brigade was commanded by Brigadier M. J. du Plessis, who was assigned the task of establishing by working with the Parachute Staff Officer, Colonel Jan Breytenbach. At the time du Plessis was the commanding officer of the Orange Free State Command and had previous experience serving in 1 Parachute Battalion. Breytenbach had also been a member of 1 Parachute Battalion and had also founded the South African Special Forces Brigade and 32 Battalion. The location that was chosen for the brigade's headquarters was in the lines of the OFS Cmd Headquarters, next to the old Tempe Airfield in Bloemfontein. The brigade's units initially consisted of two Citizen Force units, 2 and 3 Parachute Battalions, that were manned by paratroopers who had completed their initial national service in 1 Parachute Battalion. Shortly after formation, it was realised that these two battalions, being infantry units only, were not capable of providing an effective and balanced force for conventional operations. An all-arms formation with an airborne capability was needed, and as a result, later on the brigade was expanded with various arms including engineering, artillery, signals, anti-aircraft, anti-tank, and maintenance and workshops units. The brigade remained in existence until 1999 when it was reduced in size and re-designated 44 Parachute Regiment. Prior to this, 44 Parachute Brigade undertook a number of operations in Angola during the South African Border War as well as counter insurgency operations inside South Africa.

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# 44 Parachute Brigade (South Africa)

**44 Parachute Brigade** was a parachute infantry brigade of the South African Army. It was founded on 20 April 1978, by Colonel Jan Breytenbach, following the disbandment of 1 SA Corps and the battle of Cassinga. Upon formation, the brigade was commanded by Brigadier M. J. du Plessis, who was assigned the task of establishing by working with the Parachute Staff Officer, Colonel Jan Breytenbach. At the time du Plessis was the commanding officer of the Orange Free State Command (OFS Cmd) and had previous experience serving in 1 Parachute Battalion. Breytenbach had also been a member of 1 Parachute Battalion and had also founded the South African Special Forces Brigade and 32 Battalion. The location that was chosen for the brigade's headquarters was in the lines of the OFS Cmd Headquarters, next to the old Tempe Airfield in Bloemfontein.

The brigade's units initially consisted of two Citizen Force units, 2 and 3 Parachute Battalions, that were manned by paratroopers who had completed their initial national service in 1 Parachute Battalion. Shortly after formation, it was realised that these two battalions, being infantry units only, were not capable of providing an effective and balanced force for conventional operations. An all-arms formation with an airborne capability was needed, and as a result, later on the brigade was expanded with various arms including engineering, artillery, signals, anti-aircraft, anti-tank, and maintenance and workshops units.

The brigade remained in existence until 1999 when it was reduced in size and re-designated 44 Parachute Regiment. Prior to this, 44 Parachute Brigade undertook a number of operations in Angola during the South African Border War as well as counter insurgency operations inside South Africa.

## History

### Early development of the Brigade: 1979–1980

Together with the announcement of the proposed establishment of the brigade by the then Minister of Defence, P. W. Botha, in April 1978, approval was also given for the establishment of 44 Parachute Brigade, 44 Field Engineer Squadron and 44 Parachute Brigade Signal Squadron with effect from 1 January 1979. 2 and 3 Parachute Battalions were officially placed under command of 44 Parachute Brigade on 4 January 1979, and in May 1979, the brigade became self-accounting.

In 1980 the brigade moved its headquarters and constituent units to Pretoria for administrative and accommodation reasons. Colonel Breytenbach believed that the brigade should be housed closer to its air transport facilities that were centered at the Waterkloof Air Force Base in Pretoria. The brigade HQ, however, was temporarily de-activated, and the post of SSO Parachute Operations was established under Director Operations at Army HQ. Colonel Breytenbach occupied this post, and was also responsible for the continued administration of the brigade. On 24 September 1980 the Brigade HQ was re-activated with Breytenbach as un-appointed Officer Commanding and moved to the farm Haakdoringfontein at Murrayhill near Wallmansthal, some 35 kilometers north of Pretoria. This farm once belonged to Commandant General Piet Joubert of the old Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, and the original stone farmhouse and outbuildings have been incorporated into the Brigade Headquarters.

Murrayhill would serve as the home of 44 Parachute Brigade until the commencement of scaling down of operations and in 1991 Tempe (Bloemfontein) again became its Headquarters.

### Formalising of 44 Parachute Brigade: 1981

After moving to Murrayhill in 1980, 44 Parachute Brigade experienced relatively little organizational development even though the individual units within the brigade remained operationally active. After the battle of Cassinga in 1978, Colonel Breytenbach motivated an urgent requirement for a Pathfinder detachment that would be capable of infiltrating a Drop Zone before the main force arrived so as to be able to direct the drop from the ground, instead of relying on dead-reckoning navigation by Air Force aircrew. A Pathfinding unit, nicknamed the Philistines, was duly established, manned by a combination of ex-Rhodesian soldiers and local volunteers. 18 Light Regiment, an artillery unit equipped with 120 mm heavy mortars, was transferred to the brigade, and in 1980 a Light Artillery Battery executed a drop together with 2 Parachute Battalion on the Zimbabwean border in the then Northern Transvaal as part of an exercise called 'Crossbow'. This further illustrated the need to develop an all-arms approach to the airborne doctrine, training and organization.

In 1981, one of the key objectives of the newly appointed Chief of the South African Army, Lieutenant General J.J. Geldenhuys, SSA, SD, SM, was the formalising of 44 Parachute Brigade. Following this, on 1 January 1982, Colonel F. J. Bestbier took up the post of the first formally appointed commanding officer of 44 Parachute Brigade. Bestbier had previously commanded a mechanised infantry battalion, although he had served with 1 Parachute Battalion for 10 years prior to that. Colonel Bestbier disbanded the Philistines and those foreign soldiers in the unit completed their contracts and left the SADF.

In 1998 the decision was taken to reduce the brigade to the status of a regiment, and in 2000 this came into effect when the formation was reduced to 44 Parachute Regiment (South Africa).

### Expansion of the brigade: 1982–1986

During this period the brigade went through a real period of expansion with additional staff officers being transferred into the brigade Headquarters. With the headquarters established and staffed domestic administration of the brigade was possible. This period also saw the following developments within the Citizen Force Units:

Approval in principle for the establishment of 4 Parachute Battalion

Approval for the upgrading of the following Sub-Units to:

* 44 Anti-Aircraft Regiment
* 44 Signal Unit
* 44 Maintenance Unit.
* 37 Field Workshop (Under the brigade from 1 January 1984)

The following sub-units were also activated:

* 44 Anti-Tank Company
* 44 Pathfinder Company
* 44 Dispatcher Platoon
* 44 Provost Platoon

Colonel D. J. Moore took command of 44 Parachute Brigade on 1 January 1985 having spent 13 years at 1 Parachute Battalion serving 4 of those years as Officer Commanding.

In 1985 the brigade also produced a manual on airborne operations, in which the concept of a Parachute Battalion Group as the basic, balanced airborne assault force is set out, together with its doctrinal employment. Organizations within the brigade were accordingly amended to conform to this concept, which gave the brigade the capacity to mobilise three balanced Parachute Battalion Groups.

### The Parachute Battalion Group concept: 1988

During 1988 the Chief of the SA Army tasked 44 Parachute Brigade to maintain a full-time parachute group ready for immediate deployment. This was as a result of the changing and uncertain operational situation in Angola at the time. In order to achieve this, several National Servicemen Companies from 1 Parachute Battalion were placed under the operational command of the brigade. 2 Parachute Battalion and other elements constituted the force from the brigade side.

This combined formation was dubbed '14 Parachute Battalion Group' (The 1 referring to 1 Parachute Battalion and the 4 to 44 Parachute Brigade).

### Air Drop Capabilities: 1982–1986

During this period the brigade conducted extensive tests on developing a heavy drop capability. The tests originated at 1 Parachute Battalion in 1982 with stripped-down Land-Rovers dubbed 'Fireflies', progressing to successfully dropping light armored reconnaissance vehicles carrying potent anti-tank weapons systems.

Vehicles were dropped by means of both the Platform Extraction System, as well as the Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System. In 1986 the brigade also evaluated several proto-types and finally select an Air-droppable Utility Vehicle which was named the Jakkals (Jackal). The origin of the 'Jakkals' is said to have derived from Colonel Jackel (Technical Service Corps) who developed it.

### Exercises and Brigade developments: 1987–1990

In 1987 the brigade's first large-scale airborne exercise took place with 3 Parachute Battalion Group carrying out Exercise Iron Eagle I in the Batavia area of North West Transvaal, close to the Botswana border. 500 troops, several vehicles and heavy weapons with ammunition were dropped by day from four C130 Hercules aircraft, four C160 ZZ Transall aircraft and twelve DC-3 Dakota aircraft in one lift. Due to various factors, Exercise Iron Eagle II with 4 Parachute Battalion Group, due to take place later in the same year, had to be cancelled.

In March 1988, Exercise Iron Eagle III was carried out by 2 Parachute Battalion Group on the training grounds at Murrayhill. It involved a night drop onto a very rough Drop Zone by 600 men and 34 tonnes of equipment, including 16 vehicles.

The drop was followed by a night march of 12 kilometers and a first light assault on an objective.

In May 1988, Exercise Hornet took place in the Batavia area close to the Botswana Border. This involved a battalion-sized parachute drop followed by a helicopter deployment which was executed by 3 Parachute Battalion.

1988 also saw 101 Air Supply Company come under the command of the brigade placing the SADF's complete air supply capability under the umbrella of the brigade.

Exercise Strandloper which was a large exercise was planned and executed between July and September 1988, 14 Parachute Battalion Group began preparing for this immediately. This exercise was amphibious and was held at Walvis Bay, SWA, and it heralded the start of a new era for the brigade at the time, one in which this new role would begin to supplement the traditional airborne role.

Following this exercise 14 Parachute Battalion Group was deployed in the Operational Area during April 1989. On returning from SWA, 14 Parachute Battalion Group was a depleted unit with the Citizen Force elements within it having been demobilised.

The depleted Group prepared for and took part in an Exercise known as Sweepslag II/88 together with other conventional forces at the Army Battle School near Lohatlha in the Northern Cape. The Paratroopers travelled 500 kilometres by road from Pretoria only to discover that they would immediately have to participate in a night drop with heavy equipment. The Exercise also involved 'assaults' on several objectives and the occupation of a bridgehead.

14 Parachute Battalion Group become a permanent unit of 44 Parachute Brigade with effect from 1 January 1989, amalgamating all parachute qualified National Servicemen elements of the Army for operational deployment in their second year of full-time National Service.

In September 1989 14 Parachute Battalion group carried out a second amphibious exercise, dubbed Exercise Vlakwater, in the Saldanha Bay area. This exercise also saw a full troop with two gun sections of 14.5 mm AA Guns, One Jakkals Vehicle with a Mamba double barreled 12.7 mm AA Gun being deployed in an air drop.

The brigade was at one stage on stand-by with both 14 Parachute Battalion Group and 2 Parachute Battalion in case events leading up to the SWA/Namibian independence turned sour. In April 1989, 14 Parachute Battalion Group was deployed to the Northwestern parts of Namibia where they carried out heli-borne operations from a base at Ehomba as part of Operation Merlyn, in what became known as the Nine Day War. Appropriately, the South African paratroopers, the first to see action in the Namibian war in the 1960s, were also involved in the final military operations.

With the rationalization of the SADF commencing from the end of 1989 and both 14 Parachute Battalion Group and 4 Parachute Battalion being de-activated, the brigade again adopted a programme of training, rather than of conducting operations.

During 1990 however, Iron Eagle 90, a parachute assault exercise, was carried out at Murrayhill by 3 Parachute Battalion, while 1 Parachute Battalion conducted a heliborne assault exercise known as Exercise Pegasus.

In 1990 the first company of black paratroopers were also trained by 1 Parachute Battalion.

44 Parachute Brigade conducted its first skeleton brigade exercise in 1990, combining it with a Naval Gunfire Support exercise in the Lake St Lucia area. It was called Exercise Leviathan.

### Setting the Strategy for 1990–1999

In April 1990 a symposium, termed *PARATROOPER 2000*, was held between 44 Parachute Brigade and 1 Parachute Battalion and a strategy was developed for the role, training, administration and development of the parachute forces for the next decade.

## Operations

### Operation Reindeer (The Battle of Cassinga) 1978

The brigade had barely commenced organizing when less than a month later, on 4 May 1978, the operational situation required the execution of South Africa's first large-scale airborne assault, Operation Reindeer. Prior to this, parachute operations by 1 Parachute Battalion had been rare, consisting mostly of platoon, or sometimes company size. This time the operation called for an assault on a SWAPO base and refugee camp 250 kilometers inside Angola by 367 paratroopers.

The brigade mobilised companies from 2 and 3 Parachute Battalions. These were supplemented by mortar, anti-tank elements as well as a rifle platoon from 1 Parachute Battalion. The composite force of a battalion minus, Commanded by Col Breytenbach carried out the first-light parachute assault on a SWAPO base code-name "Moscow", at Cassinga in Angola. The force was closely supported throughout by the South African Air Force, and inflicted heavy losses on enemy, with only four paratroopers being lost in the action during the operation.

An orderly extraction of the remaining half of the paratroopers went awry with the appearance and counterattack by a Cuban armored column. With the planned landing zones under fire, the paratroopers were forced to execute a 'hot extraction' by helicopter troopships. The initiative and perseverance of the leadership resulted in a successful extraction, minimizing of loss and the objective being achieved.

An analysis of the operation revealed certain deficiencies and shortcomings, namely the need to deploy a pathfinder unit to ensure that drop zones were marked and measured accurately, that the aerial photography was properly analyzed and that the principle of "Unity of Command" be adhered to. The importance of forming a parachute brigade had also been clearly demonstrated.

This event is remembered in Namibia as the Cassinga massacre, the subject of much continued controversy covered in part during the Truth and reconciliation commission in South Africa. It has emerged that the village was used as a defended refugee camp at the time and that during the assault 159 men, of whom 12 were soldiers, 167 women (number of those designated 'soldiers' not specified), and 298 teenagers and children.

### Operations on the increase: 1979–1982

During the early eighties 1 Parachute Battalion had grown in size to the extent that it had eight full-time rifle companies on strength. A permanent Paratrooper Base had been established alongside the Ondangwa Airfield in Owambo, Northern South West Africa, and a company was always on strength and deployed there. At times Citizen Force Parachute Companies would relieve the 1 Parachute Battalion Company for the purposes of rotation and furlough but usually it was a company from 1 Parachute Battalion stationed there.

The force at Ondangwa were used mainly for reaction tasks and internal Fireforce operations. Sometimes paratroopers would be dropped into contacts up to 3 times per day. During 1979 companies from 1 Parachute Battalion, as a part of Operation Bowler, achieved remarkably high success rates with Fireforce actions.

Other paratrooper companies were also from time to time deployed further south, in the farmlands, tracking and destroying insurgents who had penetrated that far. The numbers of insurgents caught or killed by the paratroopers was steadily increasing.

May 1980 saw the launch of another major offensive by the SADF into Angola, this was known as Operation Sceptic. During this Operation six companies from 1 Parachute Battalion were simultaneously deployed as ordinary infantry and later that year a company from 1 Parachute Battalion executed a successful heliborne assault on a SWAPO / MPLA headquarters at Chitado in Angola. The latter operation was known as Operation Klipklop.

During Operation Protea, Operation Carnation and Operation Askari 1 Parachute Battalion again deployed their companies as normal infantry and was noted as being instrumental in originating joint operations with the police. This would serve as the model on which the 'Koevoet' Police Unit was established.

A pathfinder company of the brigade were deployed primarily doing ground reconnaissance and composed mainly of foreign soldiers, serving a one-year contract, who had seen service in the Rhodesian Army airborne units which had since been disbanded when the government of the new state of Zimbabwe had taken office.

An operational night drop within Angola also took place as part of Operation Daisy in 1981 by several companies from 3 Parachute Battalion.

For paratroopers the 1980s were characterised by continual operational involvement in Angola. Citizen Force Companies from 2 and 3 Parachute Battalion were initially also involved, often in heavy fighting as at Evale in Angola in 1981. A helicopter operation involving a 2 Parachute Battalion company together with a company of "Bushmen" (khoisan trackers) resulted in the death of one paratrooper and the wounding of several others.

1 Parachute Battalion also continued to reinforce mechanised and motorised battle groups during operations into Angola with the support of its paratroopers, often using heliborne tactics. In 1982 the unit experienced a major setback when a Puma Helicopter was shot down during Operation Meebos by enemy anti-aircraft fire and 12 paratroopers perished.

During 1984 to 1986 when Citizen Force units of 44 Parachute Brigade were called up and became increasingly embroiled in the internal unrest situation in South Africa, 1 Parachute Battalion remained virtually the only parachute unit to carry on with operations in South West Africa and Angola. The refinement of the old "Fireforce" technique into the night-time Lunar Operations saw curfews being enforced as a result of night time parachute drops during this period.

At the end of 1980 the force was scaled down and 14 Para Battalion Group and 4 Para Battalion were disbanded.

### Urban and Rural COINOPS: 1984–1991

The period 1984 to 1986 saw intense internal unrest within South Africa and most elements of the brigade as well as the companies of 1 Parachute Battalion were called up to do urban Counter Insurgency Operations (COINOPS).

Unrest in Townships in the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Witwatersrand and Pretoria saw Infantry Companies of 44 Parachute Brigade, and later complete battalions being used to assist with the maintenance of law and order. These operations were dubbed Poncho and Zenon.

The gunners of 18 Light Regiment on the other hand found themselves deployed as an infantry battalion to prevent unrest within the homeland of Kwa Ndebele, in an Operation dubbed Windmeul.

This period even saw a battalion of technical, maintenance, signals and other supporting elements of the brigade being deployed in Soweto as part of an Operation dubbed Xenon.

The brigade's operational focus again shifted back to rural COINOPS in 1986 and members of the brigade were deployed along the borders of Zimbabwe and Botswana in an Operation known as Operation Pebble. Battalions who were called up during this period were called up for 60 days at a time for border protection duties.

In 1990 however 1 Parachute Battalion again saw further participation in numerous operational deployments to stabilise internal unrest situations in the country.

In January 1991, 2 Parachute Battalion carried out the first operational jump in an urban COINOPS role during a 60-day deployment insurgency role. They conducted a subsequent sweep through a built-up area as part of an Operation called Eardrum.

In May 1991, 3 Parachute Battalion mobilised with a Battalion HQ and two companies within 72 hours to deploy for 30 days in Soweto on urban COINOPS. During this time several operational parachute drops were executed in the urban areas, as part of cordon and search operations.

### Climax to the War in Angola: 1987–1988

31 October 1987, D company from 1 Parachute Battalion formed part of a battle Group (101 Battalion and 2 recce) in an operation called Operation Firewood. The fighting took place at Indungo, Swapo Eastern Area HQ. ( MK was not present at the battle as previously stated on this page )

1987 also was the year when the very last operational parachute drop was executed in Angola as a part of Operation Pineapple, where two companies from 1 Parachute Battalion performed a cordon and sweep maneuvers.

Finally, 1987 and 1988 saw the climax of the war in Angola with the battles taking place at Cuito Cuanavale and the Lomba River. Here Pathfinders from 1 Parachute Battalion were heavily deployed in the action and during Operation Moduler, Operation Hooper and Operation Packer they assisted liaison teams working between UNITA and the mechanised SADF forces by conducting reconnaissance missions within enemy-held territory in 1987. A battery from 18 Light Regiment was also deployed in January 1988 to take part in Operation Hooper which included heavy fighting against Cuban and Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola or People's Armed Forces for Liberation of Angola (FAPLA).

### The end in South West Africa: 1989

Colonel McGill Alexander took command of the brigade on 1 April 1989. He had already been Acting Brigade Commander in his previous post as SO1 for several months prior to this performing detached duties with the Joint Military Monitoring Commission on the Angolan / SWA Border. He had also served with 1 Parachute Battalion, 2 Parachute Battalion and 44 Parachute Brigade Headquarters amongst other postings.

Shortly after assuming command of the brigade he was tasked with mobilizing 14 Parachute Battalion Group to assist warding off a final infiltration by SWAPO insurgents into northern SWA. The Battalion Group deployed with all its personnel and equipment in an air-landed operation within 14 hours of being told to deploy. The operation, called Operation Merlyn, involved spending several weeks hunting insurgents, chiefly in the mountains of the Kaokoveld. As a result of this effort some 20 insurgents were killed during the operation.

## Insignia

### Insignia SADF

SADF Nutria Badges worn on Combat Uniform known as Browns, whilst the Metal insignia were worn on the Dress Uniform known as Step-Outs.

### Insignia SANDF

New badges were introduced 1996 for wearing on the camouflage combat dress. These are black embossed plastic on a thatch green background.

| Paratrooper Basic<br>(Qualification)  Basic, Static Line <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Small Black wings* | Paratrooper Dispatcher<br>(Qualification)  Dispatcher, Static Line <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Small Black wings* | Free Fall Paratrooper<br>(Qualification)  Advanced, Freefall <br>Black on Thatch beige <br>*Small Black wings* |
| --- | --- | --- |

| Freefall Instructor<br>(Qualification)  Instructor, Freefall Qualified <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Large Black wings* | Paratrooper Instructor<br>(Qualification)  Instructor, Static Line <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Large Black wings* | Pathfinder Badge<br>(Qualification)  Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br> |
| --- | --- | --- |

| Air Supply<br>(Qualification)  Half Wing <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Half wing* | Air Supply Instructor<br>(Qualification)  Full Wing <br>Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Full Wing* | Air Assault<br>(Qualification)  Black on Thatch beige, Embossed <br>*Small Helicopter with wings* |
| --- | --- | --- |

## Weaponry

Weapons used by Paratroopers of the Brigade
| FN FAL rifle (19781979) (Designated **R1**) | R4 and R5 Assault rifle (1980Present) | FN MAG (Image *FN Herstal*) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| M79 Grenade Launcher (Prior to 1985) | Milkor MGL (Multiple Grenade Launcher) | Rocket-propelled grenade (RPG-7) |
| Commando 60mm Mortar (Airborne Infantry) (60mm Patmor) | Jakkals Utility Vehicle ready for airdrop | Gecko 8x8 ATV during a mock battle at AFB Waterkloof |
|  | 120mm Mortar (Airborne Artillery) |  |

As an Airborne Brigade with various Sub-Units its support Weaponry also consisted of 81mm Mortar (Infantry) and various other standard and non-standard firearms.

## Leadership

44 Parachute Battalion Leadership
| **From** | **Officers Commanding** | **To** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 20 April 1978 | Col M. J. du Plessis SD SM MMM SAStC | 31 December 1979 |
| 24 September 1980 | Col J. D. Breytenbach DVR SD SM MMM SAStC | 31 December 1982 |
| 1 January 1982 | Col F. J. Bestbier SD MMM SAStC | 31 December 1984 |
| 1 January 1985 | Col D. J. Moore MMM SAStC | 31 March 1989 |
| 1 April 1989 | Col McGill Alexander SM MMM ORB SAStC | 31 January 1992 |
| 1 February 1992 | Col L. Rudman PVD SD SM MMM LOM (USA) | 1994 |
| c.1994 | Col G. P. Nel MMM SAStC | c.1996 |
| 1 January 1997 | Col J. H. van der Walt MMM SAStC | nd |
| nd | Col B. P. Foke, SAStC | nd |
| nd | Cmdt. John Brooks | nd |
| **From** | **Brigade Sergeants Major** | **To** |
| 1 January 1980 | WO1 J.H. Möller MMM | 31 December 1982 |
| 1 January 1983 | WO1 G.J. Kitching MMM | 31 December 1985 |
| 1 January 1986 | WO1 Joubert PMM MMM | 31 December 1991 |
| 1 January 1992 | WO1 S.S. Baard PMM MMM | 31 December 1992 |
| 1 January 1993 | WO1 J.C. Landman PMM MMM | 30 June 1997 |
| 1 July 1997 | WO1 S.S. Baard PMM MMM | 31 August 1998 |
| 1 September 1998 | WO1 Rendel, PMM | nd |

44 Parachute Battalion:Brigade HQ Unit Leadership
| **From** | **Officers Commanding** | **To** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 January 1983 | Cmdt W. Dalton | 31 December 1984 |
| 1 January 1985 | Cmdt R Mathews | 31 December 1987 |
| 1 January 1988 | Cmdt V. Hattingh | 31 December 1989 |
| 1990 | Cmdt G.I. Janse van Rensburg | 1991 |
| 1991 | Cmdt J.W. Lerm | 1993 |
| 1994 | Cmdt G.R. van Rooyen | 1996 |
| 1997 | Cmdt B.P. Foke | nd |
| **From** | **Regimental Sergeants Major** | **To** |
| 1986 | WO1 P.W. van Heerden | 1987 |
| 1988 | WO1 J. Hart | 1989 |
| 1990 | WO1 G. van Rooyen | 1991 |
| 1992 | WO1 S.S. Baard | 1993 |
| 1993 | WO1 A.R. Grebe | 1996 |
| 1997 | WO1 M.A. Helberg | nd |

## Units

Up until December 1989, 44 Parachute Brigade consisted of many different units. Herewith a breakdown of these, their composition, exercises, operations as well as command structure.

### Infantry

**1 Parachute Battalion** is the only full-time paratroop unit of the South African Army. It was established on 1 April 1961 by the redesignation of 2 Mobile Watch South African Engineer Corps. The unit's nickname "Parabat" is a portmanteau derived from the words "Parachute Battalion".

In 1960 fifteen volunteers from the SADF were sent to England, the majority to train as parachute instructors, some as parachute-packers and one SAAF pilot in the dropping of paratroopers. These formed the nucleus of 1 Parachute Battalion at Tempe in Bloemfontein. The first paratroopers were Permanent Force men, but soon the training of Citizen Force (similar to the National Guard of the United States) paratroopers commenced. Members of 1 Parachute Battalion were the first S.A. Army men to see action after World War II when, in 1966, they participated, with the South African Police, against insurgents in S.W.A. (now Namibia).

In 1966, members of 1 Parachute Battalion participated in the first action in the war in South West Africa during a heliborne assault on an insurgent base. Thereafter, Parabats were involved in operations in SWA/Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Mozambique and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and elsewhere on an almost constant basis for over 20 years.

1 Parachute Bn. was organised as follows: Permanent Force – Batt. H.Q., H.Q. Coy and A and B Coy's; Citizen Force: C Coy Cape Town, D Coy Durban, E Coy Pretoria and F Coy Johannesburg. Two further battalions were formed in the 1970s: 2 Parachute Battalion in 1972 and 3 Parachute Battalion in 1977.

In 1974 and 1975 1 Parachute Bn. operated along the Angolan border with South West Africa (SWA); along the Caprivi Strip; a platoon jumped near Luiana, Angola to relieve a group of "Bushmen" trapped by a SWAPO force; and in Operation Savannah during the Angolan Civil War of 1974–1975 when two companies of 1 Parachute Battalion were dropped on the northern border of SWA at Ruacana and Santa Clara in Angola to relieve two Portuguese communities trapped by the MPLA.

McGill Alexander writes that companies from 1,2, and 3 Parachute Battalions operated against Zimbabwean guerrillas inside Rhodesia in September 1979-FEbruary 1980, the last years of the Rhodesian Bush War.

With the coming of 44 Parachute Brigade in April 1978, under the leadership of Brig. M J du Plessis as Officer Commanding, it became a powerful force. The first large airborne exercise of the Parachute Battalion Group took place in 1987 in the North Western Transvaal (now North West Province). With the eventual disbanding of 44 Parachute Brigade its full-time personnel were moved to Bloemfontein and incorporated into the 1 Parachute Battalion Group.

In 1986, the unit embarked on its first High altitude Low Opening/High Altitude High Opening (HALO/HAHO) course in Bloemfontein. This would enable the troops to drop into enemy territory from aircraft following commercial routes.

### 44 Pathfinders

In 1976, 1 Parachute Battalion possessed a limited pathfinder capability in a small group of permanent force members who were Drop Zone Safety Officers and Freefall qualified. With fixed posts within the battalion, these members only grouped as and when the situation required and then mainly for the purpose of training.

With the lessons learnt from Operation Reindeer in May 1978, it became clear that a method for ensuring correct and safe dropping, grouping and extraction of paratroopers was urgently needed. In order to have the capability to covertly insert behind enemy lines, and do reconnaissance on the target, the battalion would need to create a formal structure, command system, specialised equipment and operational procedures to support this.

A process was begun to formulate staffing, equipment tables and to establish guidelines for the formation of an extended pathfinder capability within the unit. The blueprint used was a combination of the procedures used by the British SAS, U.S. Pathfinders and the Reconnaissance Regiments of the SADF. The objective was to train the Pathfinder to be on par with the Recces in their training schedule regarding land warfare, but specializing in pathfinder and airborne operations. The first group of pathfinders started training in September 1978.

### 44 Anti-Tank Company

#### Leadership

Anti-Tank Company Leadership
| **From** | **Officers Commanding** | **To** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 January 1985 | Lt S.J. Pienaar | 3 March 1986 |
| 1 April 1986 | Capt Du P. Lombaard | 31 December 1989 |
| 1 January 1990 | Capt N.Q.E. Smart | 8 October 2024 |

### Artillery

18 Light Regiment is claimed to be "The only Airborne Artillery Regiment in Africa". In contrast to most South African artillery units was one of the more "modern" artillery regiment that was created to cope with modern warfare requirements.

The need for a light artillery regiment that could support paratroopers during air assault operations was identified in the early 1970s; however, the regiment was officially established only in January 1977. Located with its headquarters in Randburg, Transvaal it was then still part of 1 SA Corps. Its name was allocated by General N. van den Berg. On 25 May 1981 Colonel Jan Breytenbach, the officer commanding of 44 Parachute Brigade, visited the regiment and the future airborne strategy and role of 18 Light Regiment was spelled out as support to the newly formed 44 Parachute Brigade with artillery firepower during airborne operations, or any other operations of the brigade. In June 1982 the regiment was incorporated into the newly formed 44 Parachute Brigade and its new base, Murray Hill. Attempts were made at the time by the brigade to change the regiment's name to 44 Light Regiment, but this idea did not meet the approval of the then Chief of Army.

18 Light Regiment was structured slightly different from the other conventional medium artillery regiments. The regiment consisted of a small RHQ element and 3 batteries, namely 181, 182 and 183 Battery. Each battery consisted of two troops, each with four 120 mm mortars. Each mortar detachment consisted of five gunners. The 120 mm mortars of the regiment gave it an ideal airborne capacity. The regiment could now be deployed as a true light artillery regiment.

In order to fulfill the airborne objective, the personnel were required to qualify as paratroopers. The existing officers and men of the unit who were not yet qualified took this as a challenge, and in March 1982 the leader element was sent to 1 Parachute Regiment in Bloemfontein for parachute training. The Regiments traditional blue artillery berets were now exchanged for the paratroopers' maroon berets.

### Engineering

#### 44 Field Engineer Squadron (20 April 1978  11 January 1990)

| 44 Parachute Engineer Regiment | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Active | 20 April 1978 to present |
| Country | South Africa |
| Branch |  |
| Type | Airborne Engineers |
| Part of | South African Infantry Corps<br>Army Conventional Reserve |

The unit was inaugurated in April 1978 as part of the formation of 44 Parachute Brigade. Initially a squadron, it started out from scratch without any office facilities or an official commanding officer.

It got its first leadership when in 1982, a then 2nd Lieutenant Gerhard Pretorius was appointed as first adjutant and later on as first officer commanding of the squadron.

He commenced with the construction of offices and the unit began organizing itself. On the first call out of this unit for training the unit comprised three 2nd lieutenants and thirty other ranks. The most senior non-commissioned officer at the time was a corporal. The unit underwent its first training at the hands of instructions from Special Forces in demolitions, mine warfare and infantry training. The emphasis of this training being to transform the engineers from a support role to that of an attack role adding the versatility providing own defense during operations.

In this way the Para-Sapper offers engineering support where required and the ability to deliver enhanced firepower.

As a reserve unit, it has a status roughly equivalent to that of a British Army Reserve or United States Army National Guard unit.

##### Operations

**Operation "Reindeer"**

The 1st Para-Sappers that ever took part in a SADF airborne assault operation were during Operation Reindeer at Cassinga on 4 May 1978. Both were two Lieutenants from the regular force.

**Operation "Jabber"**

In 1986 the unit served and distinguished itself as a part of 54 Battalion, in Sector 10 as well as in Angola taking part in Operation Jabber. It operated independently during the 3-month stint as a mine hunting unit as well as lifting caches, sometimes going on long range mine hunting missions without traditional infantry protection. A contact was recorded between the Para Sappers and SWAPO during such a long range mission where their retaliatory mortar fire caused the enemy to flee.

As a result of the units efforts, record mines and caches were lifted, more than any before and earned it the commendation (Floating Trophy) of Best Reserve Force Unit for 1986 within 44 Parachute Brigade.

With the unit having distinguished itself the concept of upgrading it to a conventional engineer regiment was motivated by the commanding officer together with the assistance of the Brigade HQ, who embarked up long negotiations and proposals to the Director of Engineers of the S.A. Army who finally accepted. The process of approval and upgrading however was long and protracted with this only realizing many years after.

Members of 44 Engineering Regiment also took part in several other operations:

##### Exercises

The squadron took active participation in the following major exercises :

Iron Eagle 1 (1987), Iron Eagle 3 (1988), Strandloper (1988) and Vlakwater (1989).

#### 44 Parachute Engineer Regiment (12 January 1990 – August 2019)

The unit finally upgraded to an engineer regiment on 12 January 1990 and through its structure continued to provide ongoing parachute engineering support to 44 Parachute Brigade for Airborne, air-landed, heliborne and/or amphibious operations.

The role of this regiment became more prominent with the changing South African situation with it forming an integral part of Airborne Forces and it positioned to provide parachute engineering support in many scenarios from counter-insurgency to international specialist military assistance if necessary.

As with the brigade and many units within it, the rationalization process of the South African Army after 1994 saw 44 Parachute Regiment being placed under the command and control of the SA Army Engineer Formation with effect from 1 April 1999.

#### Ukhosi Parachute Engineer Regiment (August 2019 – present)

In August 2019, 52 Reserve Force units had their names changed to reflect the diverse military history of South Africa. 44 Parachute Engineer Regiment became the **Ukhosi Parachute Engineer Regiment**, and have 3 years to design and implement new regimental insignia.

##### Leadership

44 Parachute Engineer Regiment Leadership
| **From** | **Officers Commanding** | **To** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1982 | Lt Col J. G. L. Pretorius | 1991 |
| 1991 | Lt Col K. F. van Heerden | 2005 |
| 2005 | Lt Col J. G. Benadé | present |
| **From** | **Second in Command** | **To** |
| 1987 | Capt J Rabie | 1987 |
| 1988 | Maj K.F. van Heerden | 1991 |
| 1992 | Capt G.L. Browne | 1994 |
| 1994 | Capt P. de V. Van Zyl | 1994 |
| 1995 | Capt J W Joubert | 1996 |
| 1997 | Lt Col P. Kuiper | 1999 |
| 2000 | Maj H. R. du Plessis | 2006 |
| **From** | **Regimental SergeantS Major** | **To** |
| 1987 | WO2 L M Lindeque | 1989 |
| 1989 | WO1 A.L.J. van Vuuren | present |

### Workshop and Maintenance

101 Air Supply Unit SAOSC was the brigade's South African Ordnance Services Corps support unit.

| 37 Field Workshop / 44 Maintenance Unit | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Active | 1 April 1974  present |
| Country | South Africa |
| Type | Workshop / Maintenance |
| Part of | South African Ordnance Services Corps |

#### 37 Field Workshop

37 Field Workshop was established 1 April 1974 in Windhoek, South West Africa as a Citizen Force second-line workshop under control of the then SWA Command.

On 19 January 1976, the unit was transferred without any personnel to Pretoria as a second-line workshop under the command of 1 SA Corps. The unit was originally established as a Technical Citizen force Unit in the SWA command. The unit first began to play an active role when it was under the command of 1 SA Corps. Under the command of SA Corps, the unit completed several tours of duties in the operational field and also in conjunction with 2 Parachute Battalion.

1 SA Corps was de-activated on 30 January 1977 and all Citizen Force Units were re-allocated. The unit has been under the command of Northern Transvaal Command since 1 February 1977 in its previous format which includes to the present day Far North and Eastern Transvaal.

With the establishment of Far North Command, Eastern Transvaal Command and the activation of 44 Parachute Brigade, the unit was placed under the command of 44 Parachute Brigade, from 16 January 1984. The unit is the only technical services unit of 44 Parachute Brigade. It is also the only Parachute technical services unit in the SADF. Since its inception the unit has done technical repair tasks under command of various Headquarters.

#### Sekhukhune Field Workshop (August 2019 – present)

In August 2019, 52 Reserve Force units had their names changed to reflect the diverse military history of South Africa. 37 Field Workshop became the **Sekhukhune Field Workshop**, and have 3 years to design and implement new regimental insignia.

#### Participation in Operations

* Protea
* Operation Geppetto
* Operation Daffodil
* Daisy
* Packer
* Firewood
* Hooper
* Modular
* Windmill
* Operation Pebble (During Operation Pebble unit members were also used in an Infantry capacity)

#### Command Structure of 37 Field Workshop

##### Commanding Officer

| Commander | Period |
| --- | --- |
| Cmdt P.M de Beer | 1 Jan 1979  Information Outstanding |

#### 44 Maintenance Unit

#### Command Structure of 44 Maintenance Unit

##### Commanding Officer

| Commander | Period |
| --- | --- |
| Maj N. Richie-Robinson | 15 Oct 1984  30 Apr 1986 |
| Maj E. Crots | 1 May 1986  5 Feb 1991 |
| Cmdt H Frits | 6 Feb 1991  Information Outstanding |

### Signals

| 44 Signals Squadron | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Active | April 1978  Present |
| Country | South Africa |
| Type | Airborne Signals |

#### 44 Signal Squadron

In April 1978 the Minister of Defence, Mr P.W. Botha, authorised the forming of 44 Signal Squadron. During the time of 24 September 1980 until October 1986, it supported the brigade in all aspects of signals; e.g., the supply of communication and the manning of a Communication Centrum (Comcen).

On 2 October 1986 the signal unit was formed with Commandant Mauritz Lombard as commander and his task was to supply the brigade with communication and to establish a full-strength signal unit. His second in command was Maj P. Drotsky and the RSM P. Snyders.

The signal unit flag was authorised in 1986.

In May 1989 the newly promoted Commandant Drotsky took over the command of the unit and Captain Hein von Berg became his 2IC.

During 1990 it was decided to move the brigade to Bloemfontein and this move took part during 1991. Some of the brigade units were moved to Pretoria City, and the signal unit moved into the Paulhof building, in Minnaar Street, on 29 November 1991.

During 1991 WO1 J.J. van Aswegen became the RSM of the unit.

##### Command structure of 44 Signals Unit

###### Commanding officer

| Commander | Period |
| --- | --- |
| Cmdt M. Lombard | 1 Aug 1984  31 Mar 1989 |
| Cmdt P. Drotsky | 1 Apr 1989  Information Outstanding |

###### Regimental sergeant major

| RSM | Period |
| --- | --- |
| WO1 J.J. van Aswegen | 1991  Information Outstanding |

### Medical services

44 Medical Task Group is a satellite unit of 7 Medical Battalion Group (7 Med Bn Gp), of platoon size.

### Anti-aircraft

| 44 Anti-Aircraft Regiment | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Country | South Africa |
| Branch | South African Army |
| Type | Airborne Anti-Aircraft |

#### 44 Parachute Anti-Aircraft Regiment

#### Command structure of 44 Anti-Aircraft Regiment

##### Commanding officer

| Commander | Period |
| --- | --- |
| Maj P. Case | 1 Jan 1986  31 Dec 1988 |
| Capt J. Roux | 1 Jan 1989  31 Mar 1990 |
| Maj J. Lourens | 1 Apr 1991  31 Dec 1991 |
| Capt G. Krenzer | 1 Feb 1991  Information Outstanding |

1. van der Walt, Col Skillie. *44 Parachute Brigade 1997*.
2. Pitta, Robert; Fannell, J. (27 May 1993). *South African Special Forces*. Elite. Illustrated by Simon McCouaig. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855322943. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
3. "Eagle Strike" on Operation Reindeer and many other documents — Col J. D. Breytenbach
4. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa. "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report - Volume 2" (PDF). *justice.gov.za*.
5. McGill Alexander, Edward (July 2003). *The Cassinga Raid* (PDF).
6. Els, Paul. *We conquer from above*.
7. Els, Paul. *We fly with the Eagles (Pre-publication)*.
8. McGill Alexander, 70.
9. Col McGill Alexander, Edward. *The South African Paratrooper (Historical Summary for 30th Anniversary Celebrations)*. 44 PARA BDE/514/2/9/1.
10. "LMT awarded Gecko work". defenceWeb. 9 September 2011.
11. Brig Gen McGill Alexander, 'South African Airborne Operations', Scientia Militaria 31(1), 2003, 51-52.
12. McGill Alexander, South African Airborne Operations, 58
13. McGill Alexander, South African Airborne Operations, 59-60.
14. Joubert, Lt Giel; Louw, Maj Loekie; Lowes, M C. *History of 18 Light Regiment*.
15. van Heerden, Cmdt KF; Pretorius, Cmdt JGL; Schreuder (SM, MMM), Brig Gen S.S.; Farrell, Col Ray. *Brief History of 44 Parachute Engineer Regiment*.
16. "New Reserve Force unit names". defenceWeb. 7 August 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
17. "Renaming process has resulted in an Army structure that truly represents SA". IOL. 16 August 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
*

## InfoBox

| 44 Parachute Brigade (SADF) | |
| --- | --- |
| 44 Parachute Brigade Beret Badge | |
| Founded | 1978 |
| Disbanded | 1999 |
| Country | South Africa |
| Branch | South African Army |
| Role | * Airborne Ops * Air-Landed Assault Ops * Heli-borne Assault Ops * Ltd Amphibious deployment * Parachute School * Parachute Depot * Air Supply |
| Part of | South African Army Infantry Formation |
| Anniversaries | 5 May (Paratroopers Remembrance Day) |
| Commanders | |
| 1978–1979 | Brig. M.J.du Plessis (co-founder) |
| 1980–1982 | Col. Jan Breytenbach (co-founder) |


abstract: First Presbyterian Church is an historic Presbyterian church located at 642 Telfair Street in Augusta, Georgia in the United States.

text:
# First Presbyterian Church (Augusta, Georgia)

**First Presbyterian Church** is an historic Presbyterian church located at 642 Telfair Street in Augusta, Georgia in the United States.

## History

The church was established in 1804, and the building was completed in 1812. In 1808, while the congregation was still holding services at St. Paul's Episcopal Church, members helped start a church in Smyrna in Wilkes County. In 1925 the Ladies' Foreign Missionary Society already was collecting donations, making it the first such ministry in the world, according to the statistics of the church. During his childhood, United States president Woodrow Wilson's father, Joseph R. Wilson, was minister at First Presbyterian from 1858 to 1870. The Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home is a historic site nearby. In 1861 the Church hosted the first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States and the first minister in this new denomination was President Wilson's father. During the Civil War the building was used as a hospital for men wounded, and the churchyard was a detention camp for Union prisoners in the Battle of Chickamauga. Men who died were buried in the Magnolia Cemetery. During this time Joseph Wilson was called to the chaplain ministry in the army, and in 1870 Wilson was called to serve at a seminary in South Carolina.

Westminster Day School was started in 1972. The campus of Westminster Schools, located on Wheeler Road, now has more than 500 pupils, grades K–4 through 12. First Presbyterian Church started a missions conference, and the annual event is a combination retreat and workshop for missionaries and their families. It also is an opportunity for the people of Augusta to hear about work in the field.

In 1973, First Presbyterian dropped its affiliation with the Southern Presbyterian Church over issues such as the authority of scripture and the role of women in the church, and became independent. It aligned itself with the Presbyterian Church in America in 1977.

## Church building

Later the church served as a center of social and religious activities during World War I and World War II.

It was designed by architect Robert Mills in the Romanesque style. Mills was also Presbyterian, and was an elder in the First Presbyterian Church in Columbia, SC. The church sanctuary was built in 1809–12. The church was finished and dedicated in 1812 in Classical style. The church was significantly changed in 1847 to incorporate Romanesque round-arched windows and doors and crenellated parapet walls. Mills' design, however, is still evident in the shape and scale of the historic building. A plaque marks the Wilson pew in the sanctuary. A letter signed by President Wilson and some furniture used by his family when they lived in the manse were installed in a classroom. Four halls on the sides and rear of the sanctuary were added to the building from 1951 to 1978. On February 21, 1997, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places, listed as **First Presbyterian Church of Augusta**. The church celebrated its 200th anniversary in 2004

## Doctrine

First Presbyterian Church is a member congregation of the Presbyterian Church in America.

It adheres to the Westminster Confession of Faith, Westminster Shorter Cathechism and Westminster Larger Catechism.

The church has about 1,900 members.

The lead pastor is Rev. Michael K. Hearon.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| First Presbyterian Church of Augusta | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
|  | |
| First Presbyterian Church in 2017 | |
|  | |
| Location | 642 Telfair Street, Augusta, Georgia |
| Coordinates | 33°28′13″N 81°57′54″W / 33.47028°N 81.96500°W / 33.47028; -81.96500 |
| Built | 1812 |
| Architect | Robert Mills |
| Architectural style | Romanesque Revival |
| NRHP reference No. | 97000100 |
| Added to NRHP | February 21, 1997 |


title: The Third Colour

abstract: The Third Colour is an album recorded in November 1997 as part of the 60th birthday celebration for Graham Collier, featuring his four new compositions. "Three Simple Pieces" are 'what the name implies, composed for his 60th birthday. The suite "Shapes, Colours, Energy" is formed by five moments, composed in July 1995, and was inspired by the Canadian Rockies. The suite "Mirò Tile" refers to Collier's memories of Spain in 1996. The last suite, which names the album, "The Third Colour", was specifically composed for the London Jazz Festival.

text:
# The Third Colour

***The Third Colour*** is an album recorded in November 1997 as part of the 60th birthday celebration for Graham Collier, featuring his four new compositions. "Three Simple Pieces" are 'what the name implies, composed for his 60th birthday (performed originally in February 1997 at the Royal Academy of Music). The suite "Shapes, Colours, Energy" is formed by five moments, composed in July 1995, and was inspired by the Canadian Rockies. The suite "Mirò Tile" refers to Collier's memories of Spain in 1996. The last suite, which names the album, "The Third Colour", was specifically composed for the London Jazz Festival.

## Reception

Valonkuvia wrote "All the compositions in the album are based on the peaceful development of themes, the constant dialogue between the orchestra and the soloists, and sometimes even the use of free jazz. There is plenty of room for solos in the compositions, but on the other hand, soloists are rarely free to solo alone without any other orchestra. After hearing the composition, the listener feels that they have wandered with the band on a journey that leads from a quiet beginning through swinging stages to a happy ending. The arc of the journey is built logically, but a little unexpectedly. Despite the slightly chilly recording, “The Third Color” is an interesting record, although it offers nothing previously unheard of if you are familiar with the work of other large European orchestras."

## Release

This work was firstly published by ASC Records (JazzContinuum) in 1999, followed by the JazzPrint reprint in 2003 with a different cover.

## Track listing

All compositions by Graham Collier.

1. "Three Simple Pieces" - 19:37
2. "Shapes, Colours, Energy" - 26:16
3. "The Mirò Tile" - 23:50
4. "The Third Colour" - 27:55

## Personnel

## InfoBox

| The Third Colour | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Studio album by Graham Collier | |
| Released | 1999 |
| Recorded | November 1997 |
| Venue | Oris London Jazz festival |
| Genre | Jazz |
| Length | 97:38 |
| Label | ASC Records
ASC CD28 |
| Producer | Graham Collier |
| Graham Collier chronology | |
| *Adam's Marble*
(1995) ***The Third Colour***
(1999) *Winter Oranges*
(2000) | |


title: Cognitive appraisal

abstract: Cognitive appraisal is the subjective interpretation made by an individual to stimuli in the environment. It is a component in a variety of theories relating to stress, mental health, coping, and emotion. It is most notably used in the transactional model of stress and coping, introduced in a 1984 publication by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman. In this theory, cognitive appraisal is defined as the way in which an individual responds to and interprets stressors in life. A variety of mental disorders have been observed as having abnormal patterns of cognitive appraisal in those affected by the disorder. Other work has detailed how personality can influence the way in which individuals cognitively appraise a situation. The reframing of stimuli and experiences, called cognitive reappraisal, has been found "one of the most effective strategies for emotion regulation." Cognitive appraisal also began to play an enormous role in the development of Economic Theory after the marginal revolution. During which, the classical objective “Labour theory of value” was displaced by the “Subjective theory of value,” where cognitive appraisals on behalf of acting agents became the basis of all price signals and exchange ratios observed in the market.

text:
# Cognitive appraisal

**Cognitive appraisal** (also called simply 'appraisal') is the subjective interpretation made by an individual to stimuli in the environment. It is a component in a variety of theories relating to stress, mental health, coping, and emotion. It is most notably used in the transactional model of stress and coping, introduced in a 1984 publication by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman. In this theory, cognitive appraisal is defined as the way in which an individual responds to and interprets stressors in life. A variety of mental disorders have been observed as having abnormal patterns of cognitive appraisal in those affected by the disorder. Other work has detailed how personality can influence the way in which individuals cognitively appraise a situation.

The reframing of stimuli and experiences, called **cognitive reappraisal**, has been found "one of the most effective strategies for emotion regulation."

Cognitive appraisal also began to play an enormous role in the development of Economic Theory after the marginal revolution. During which, the classical objective “Labour theory of value was displaced by the “Subjective theory of value,” where cognitive appraisals on behalf of acting agents became the basis of all price signals and exchange ratios observed in the market.

## Conceptualizations and theories

### Lazarus' transactional model of stress

This model uses cognitive appraisal as a way to explain responses to stressful events.

According to this theory, two distinct forms of cognitive appraisal must occur in order for an individual to feel stress in response to an event; Lazarus called these stages "primary appraisal" and "secondary appraisal". During primary appraisal, an event is interpreted as dangerous to the individual or threatening to their personal goals. During the secondary appraisal, the individual evaluates their ability or resources to be able to cope with a specific situation .

### Scherer's component process model

The component process model proposed by Klaus Scherer utilizes cognitive appraisal to explain an individual's psychological and physiological response to situations. Scherer's model makes additions to the Lazarus’ transactional model regarding how many appraisals occur. Rather than just two levels of appraisal in response to an event (primary and secondary), Scherer's model suggests four distinct appraisals occur: (a) the direct effects or relevance that an individual perceives an event being to them (b) the consequences an event has both immediately and long-term to an individual and their goals (c) the ability an individual perceives they can cope with the consequences of an event (d) the ways in which the events are perceived to result from an individual's values and self-concept. This model and additional work by Scherer notably highlights not only psychological responses, but many physiological responses according to how events are appraised by an individual.

### Roseman's appraisal theory of emotions

Ira Roseman utilized the concept of cognitive appraisal to build an explanatory theory that encompasses a wider range of emotions (when compared with Lazarus' transactional model). According to Roseman (1996), positive emotions result from events that an individual appraises as consistent with their motives, while negative emotions result from events that individuals appraise as inconsistent with their motives. More specific emotions are based on if the event is perceived to be as caused by others, the individual, or due to an uncontrollable circumstance.

## Strategies

Cognitive reappraisal is one of the most studied mechanisms of the emotion regulation form referred to as cognitive change. It encompasses a variety of different strategies, such as positive reappraisal (creating and focusing on a positive aspect of the stimulus), decentering (reinterpreting an event by broadening one's perspective to see "the bigger picture"), or fictional reappraisal (adopting or emphasizing the belief that event is not real, that it is for instance "just a movie" or "just my imagination").

## Practical applications

The way in which stress is cognitively appraised has been found to influence mental health. Cognitive styles of perceiving the world and interpreting events have been suggested as factors that may make certain individuals more prone to depression, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive theory (1967). A variety of studies have linked panic disorder with attentional biases and catastrophization.

1. Webb, Thomas; Miles, Eleanor; Sheeran, Paschal (2012). "Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation". *Psychological Bulletin*. **138** (4): 775–808. doi:10.1037/a0027600. PMID 22582737. S2CID 207667973.
2. Elson, Diane, editor. Value: The Representation of Labour in Capitalism. London: CSE Books, 1979. ISBN 978-0-85163-271-5.
3. Menger, Carl. Principles of Economics. Translated by James Dingwall and Bert F. Hoselitz. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007. Originally published in 1871. ISBN 978-1-933550-14-6.
4. Black, R. D. Collison, Coats, A. W., and Goodwin, Craufurd D., editors. The Marginal Revolution in Economics: Interpretation and Evaluation. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8223-0260-7.
5. S., Lazarus, Richard (1984). *Stress, appraisal, and coping*. Folkman, Susan. New York: Springer Pub. Co. ISBN 0826141900. OCLC 10754235.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. Scherer, Klaus R. (November 2009). "The dynamic architecture of emotion: Evidence for the component process model". *Cognition & Emotion*. **23** (7): 1307–1351. doi:10.1080/02699930902928969. ISSN 0269-9931. S2CID 145750370.
7. Roseman, Ira J. (May 1996). "Appraisal Determinants of Emotions: Constructing a More Accurate and Comprehensive Theory". *Cognition & Emotion*. **10** (3): 241–278. doi:10.1080/026999396380240. ISSN 0269-9931.
8. Buhle, J. T.; Silvers, J. A.; Wager, T. D.; Lopez, R.; Onyemekwu, C.; Kober, H.; Weber, J.; Ochsner, K. N. (1 November 2014). "Cognitive Reappraisal of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Human Neuroimaging Studies". *Cerebral Cortex*. **24** (11): 2981–2990. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht154. PMC 4193464. PMID 23765157.
9. Moster, J. S.; Hartwig, R.; Moran, T. P.; Jendrusina, A. A.; Kross, E. (2014). "Neural markers of positive reappraisal and their associations with trait reappraisal and worry". *Journal of Abnormal Psychology*. **123** (1): 91–105. doi:10.1037/a0035817. PMID 24661162.
10. Schartau, P. E.; Dalgleish, T.; Dunn, B. D. (2009). "Seeing the bigger picture: training in perspective broadening reduces self-reported affect and psychophysiological response to distressing films and autobiographical memories". *Journal of Abnormal Psychology*. **118** (1): 15–27. doi:10.1037/a0012906. PMID 19222310. S2CID 33850126.
11. Makowski, D.; Sperduti, M.; Pelletier, J.; Blondé, P.; La Corte, V.; Arcangeli, M.; Zalla, T.; Lemaire, S.; Dokic, J.; Nicolas, S.; Piolino, P. (January 2019). "Phenomenal, bodily and brain correlates of fictional reappraisal as an implicit emotion regulation strategy". *Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience*. **19** (4): 877–897. doi:10.3758/s13415-018-00681-0. PMID 30610654. S2CID 58591122.
12. Gomes, A. Rui; Faria, Susana; Lopes, Heitor (2016-07-09). "Stress and Psychological Health". *Western Journal of Nursing Research*. **38** (11): 1448–1468. doi:10.1177/0193945916654666. hdl:1822/42886. ISSN 0193-9459. PMID 27330045. S2CID 21304315.
13. *Psychopathology : history, diagnosis, and empirical foundations*. Craighead, W. Edward., Miklowitz, David Jay, 1957-, Craighead, Linda W. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. 2008. ISBN 9780471768616. OCLC 181903762.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: others (link)


title: Edwards's pheasant

abstract: Edwards's pheasant is a bird of the pheasant family Phasianidae and is endemic to the seasonal tropical forests of central Vietnam. It is named after the French ornithologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards and first described to science in 1896. The bird's length is 58–65 centimetres (23–26 in) and has red legs and facial skin. The male is mainly blue-black with a crest, and the female is a drab brown bird. The alarm call is a puk!-puk!-puk!. There are two varieties; the nominate form L. e. edwardsi has a white crest and upper tail, whereas the northern form, usually called Vietnamese pheasant, is found with a variable number of white rectrices. This difference in the two forms may be due to inbreeding of a restricted, fragmented population there, and has also been seen in captive, inbred L. edwardsi. In 2012 the nominate form of Edwards's pheasant have been uplisted to Critically Endangered by BirdLife International, having suffered from deforestation, hunting and the use of defoliants during the Vietnam War. The population is currently believed to number between 50 and 249 birds in the wild, mostly of the nominate form, but it is doing well in captivity, where it is the subject of ex situ conservation. There have been no confirmed sightings of a living individual in the wild since 2000 and in 2010 the World Pheasant Association (WPA) received funding from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to survey forests in the central Vietnam provinces of Quảng Bình and Quảng Trị.

text:
# Edwards's pheasant

**Edwards's pheasant** (***Lophura edwardsi***) is a bird of the pheasant family Phasianidae and is endemic to the seasonal tropical forests of central Vietnam. It is named after the French ornithologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards and first described to science in 1896. The bird's length is 58–65 centimetres (23–26 in) and has red legs and facial skin. The male is mainly blue-black with a crest, and the female is a drab brown bird. The alarm call is a *puk!-puk!-puk!*.

There are two varieties; the nominate form *L. e. edwardsi* has a white crest and upper tail, whereas the northern form, usually called Vietnamese pheasant, is found with a variable number of white rectrices. This difference in the two forms may be due to inbreeding of a restricted, fragmented population there, and has also been seen in captive, inbred *L. edwardsi*.

In 2012 the nominate form of Edwards's pheasant have been uplisted to Critically Endangered by BirdLife International, having suffered from deforestation, hunting and the use of defoliants during the Vietnam War. The population is currently believed to number between 50 and 249 birds in the wild, mostly of the nominate form, but it is doing well in captivity, where it is the subject of *ex situ* conservation. There have been no confirmed sightings of a living individual in the wild since 2000 and in 2010 the World Pheasant Association (WPA) received funding from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to survey forests in the central Vietnam provinces of Quảng Bình and Quảng Trị.

## Taxonomy and systematics

Edwards's pheasant was first observed in 1896. Twenty-eight years later, another species of Lophura, the Imperial pheasant (*Lophura imperialis*), was seen in the border area between Quang Binh and Quang Tri provinces. It was later proven to be a crossbreed between the Edwards's pheasant and the Silver pheasant (*Lophura nycthemera*). *Lophura hatinhensis* is considered a variant of *Lophura edwardsi*.

## Description

Edwards pheasants have a body length of 58-65 cm, including the tail length, which is about 24-26 cm for males, and 20-22 cm for females. Males are heavier, with a weight between 1115-1100 g, and females around 1050 g. Males are all black, with a blue tint throughout their feathers. Females are generally chestnut-brown with no crest.

## Distribution and habitat

Edwards's pheasant is endemic to central Vietnam and has been found in four provinces (Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, and Thua Thien Hue). They live in evergreen forests with lots of palms and patches of bamboo. The birds often hide in the low vegetation, and females dig their nests in the grounds of these forests. Edward's pheasants do not commonly migrate because they are not affected by cold weather and can spend most winters outside.

## Ecology

### Song and call

Male birds have a wing-whirring sound. Their alarm call is a low guttural "uk uk uk uk uk", sometimes a hard "puk puk puk puk puk".

### Diet

Edward's pheasants have rarely been observed in the wild, so little is known about its behavior in its natural habitat.

An Edwards's pheasant at Denver Zoo’s diet consists of mealworms, chopped fruit, and greens, specially formulated game bird diet.

### Reproduction

Edward's pheasants usually breed between the months of March and May. Males push their chests, vibrate their wings, and erect the feathers on their backs to find their mate. Females can begin to breed after two years, while their maximum fertility is usually around ages 4-5. On average, females lay between 4-7 eggs each time. The females make the nests well hidden and dug into the group, usually with plant debris and bamboo overtop. The female incubates eggs for around 20-22 days. However, the male remains stationed close to guard the bird. The eggs are round and have a faint pink color with dotted cream spots. Juveniles are primarily chestnut-brown.

## Conservation status and management

*Lophura edwardsi* was assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2018 and listed as Critically Endangered. It is one of the most endangered species of *Galliformes.* Their population is decreasing, with 50-249 mature individuals right now, according to IUCN Red List. Any remaining subpopulations are likely to be extremely small and declining. They have not been spotted in the wild since the year 2000. Intense hunting and trapping, habitat loss due to herbicide spraying during the Vietnam War, logging, and clearance for agriculture has significantly affected the population of this species. Khe Nuoc Trong, Bac Huong Hoa, Phong Dien, and Ke Go are reserves where these birds could reside. An Action Plan was published for this species in 2015.

The Phong Điền Nature Reserve was initially designated to protect the Edward's pheasant after the rediscovery of the species in the area in 1996. In 2018, a photograph of a dead female Edwards's pheasant was taken in A Lưới District, which includes part of Phong Điền; this marked the first evidence of a wild Edwards's pheasant in almost two decades, and indicates that the species may still persist in the reserve.

* *Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse* by Madge and McGowan, ISBN 0-7136-3966-0

## InfoBox

| Edwards's pheasant | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Male | |
|  | |
| Female, Zoo Bojnice, Slovakia | |
| Conservation status | |
|
Critically Endangered  (IUCN 3.1) | |
| CITES Appendix I (CITES) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Galliformes |
| Family: | Phasianidae |
| Genus: | *Lophura* |
| Species: | ***L. edwardsi*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Lophura edwardsi***
(Oustalet, 1896) | |
|


title: Southampton General Hospital

abstract: Southampton General Hospital (SGH) is a large teaching hospital in Southampton, Hampshire, England run by University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust.

text:
# Southampton General Hospital

**Southampton General Hospital** (**SGH**) is a large teaching hospital in Southampton, Hampshire, England run by University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust.

## History

The hospital was founded in 1900 as the Southampton Union Infirmary in Shirley Warren, Southampton, to replace hospital beds previously provided at the workhouse infirmary in St Mary's, Southampton. The Royal South Hampshire Hospital was the voluntary hospital, founded in 1835 in the city. The initial 35-acre (14 ha) site cost the Poor Law Guardians £8,200, and the foundation stone was laid on 31 March 1900. The original building, housing 289 beds, cost £64,800 to construct; it has since been demolished.

Southampton Borough Council took responsibility for the hospital in 1929, expanding the number of beds to 431. At this stage, the hospital became known as the Borough Hospital. When the National Health Service came into being in 1948, the hospital took its present name.

The Wessex Neurological Unit opened on the site in 1965, and the East Wing was constructed in 1974, providing 450 additional beds, a new Accident and Emergency Department, and a children's unit. Three years later, the Centre Block was built, which still provides the main entrance to the hospital. The 7-level Centre Block cost over £9 million to construct.

Former Prime Minister, Rishi Sunak, was born in the hospital on 12 May 1980.

In 1983, the £10 million West Wing was constructed, adding 472 beds to the hospital; this was followed a year later by installation of the Wessex Body Scanner at a cost of £1.5 million.

In July 2006, a new cardiac centre was opened, together with accommodation for relatives of cardiac patients. In September 2006 the Steve Mills Stem Cell Laboratory, which had been established by a charity created by Southampton F.C. footballer Steve Mills, moved from the Royal South Hants Hospital to a new location at Southampton General Hospital, and was officially opened on 27 September 2006 by Steve's widow Jo and former Southampton footballer and manager, Alan Ball.

In autumn 2016 the hospital was upgraded to become an adult and paediatric Major Trauma Centre (MTC) under the NHS plans for Regional Trauma Networks. It was one of a small number of accident and emergency departments to benefit from Pearson Lloyd's redesign - ‘A Better A&E’ - which reduced aggression against hospital staff by 50 per cent. A system of environmental signage was introduced providing location-specific information for patients. Screens were installed providing live information about how many cases were being handled and the current status of the accident and emergency department.

## Controversy

### Ashya King

In August 2014, Brett and Naghemeh King took their 5-year-old son Ashya from the hospital, where he was being treated for medulloblastoma, without doctor's knowledge. Brett King claimed this was in order to avoid the proposed treatment of chemotherapy and photon beam radiation therapy which he feared would result in brain damage to Ashya. The family's preferred treatment was proton beam therapy which was at the time unavailable in the United Kingdom except through an NHS overseas referral programme to fund treatment in America or Europe for specific indications. Although clinicians at Southampton felt proton beam therapy would not be beneficial in this case, it was discussed with the Kings and referred to the Proton Clinical Reference Panel although medulloblastoma is not an approved diagnosis to qualify for the overseas programme.

The Kings were keen to arrange proton beam therapy at a hospital in Prague. When the parents asked what would happen if they refused any kind of treatment, they were told the hospital could seek an emergency protection order. When the child subsequently went missing the hospital informed the police and the CPS issued a warrant for the arrest of the parents. Once it was revealed that the child had left the country, extradition back to the UK was also sought. The family were eventually located in Spain, where the parents were arrested and child put in a high dependency ward in a hospital in Málaga. David Cameron, the prime minister, called for "an urgent outbreak of common sense".

Ashya began proton beam therapy at the Proton Therapy Centre in Prague on 15 September. In late September NHS England agreed to fund the cost of the proton therapy treatment. NHS England had been told by the European Court of Justice to fund treatment abroad in previous cases. In March 2015 the King family announced that the treatment appeared to have been successful and Ashya's most recent scan showed no sign of the tumour.

### Burger King

There had been a Burger King outlet in the foyer of the hospital since 1997. In November 2014 the Trust announced that they would not be renewing its lease due to expire in 2016 - because it no longer fits with the "healthcare environment" it is trying to create in its main reception area. Hampshire GP Dr Hilary Jones approved and said that in the grip of an obesity problem in the UK, hospitals should be setting a good example to patients. However some patients started a petition against this decision on the basis that hospital food was "of a poor standard. Burger King seems to have a much higher quality of food that's cooked fresh and to order."

A hospital spokesman responded: "The trust, as with all NHS hospitals, is regularly assessed by a variety of independent bodies on all aspects of care, including the quality of patient food. In the most recent of these inspections, the trust scored highly on food quality (92%) according to panel members from the national patient-led assessment team and fully compliant with all of the Care Quality Commission's essential standards, which incorporate quality of food and drink." The fast food outlet was replaced by a Marks & Spencer shop and cafe and a Subway franchise as part of a £2.5m redevelopment which began in mid-2015.

## Media coverage

The hospital was the location for the daytime TV fly-on-the-wall documentary series, *The General* and the ITV documentary series *Trauma: Level One*. The neighbouring Princess Anne Hospital was the setting of the first two series of Channel 4's *One Born Every Minute*. Broadcast in 2024, the sixth series of BBC Two's Surgeons: At the Edge of Life was filmed at the hospital, highlighting some of the diverse range of surgeries that take place there.

## InfoBox

| Southampton General Hospital | |
| --- | --- |
| University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust | |
| The front of Southampton General Hospital, showing from left to right the North Wing, Centre Block, and West Wing | |
| Shown in Hampshire | |
| Geography | |
| Location | Southampton, Hampshire, England |
| Coordinates | 50°55′59″N 1°26′02″W / 50.933°N 1.434°W / 50.933; -1.434 |
| Organisation | |
| Care system | National Health Service |
| Type | Teaching |
| Affiliated university | University of Southampton School of Medicine |
| Services | |
| Emergency department | Yes (Major Trauma Centre) |
| Beds | 1,362 |
| History | |
| Opened | 1900 |
| Links | |
| Website | www.uhs.nhs.uk/for-visitors/southampton-general-hospital |


title: José Carlos (footballer, born 1966)

abstract: José Carlos Martins Ferreira, known as José Carlos, is a Portuguese retired footballer who played as a right back. He started his career with Benfica, where he won four major titles, representing four more teams in the Primeira Liga and amassing totals of 364 matches and 15 goals over 15 seasons.

text:
# José Carlos (footballer, born 1966)

**José Carlos Martins Ferreira** (born 2 August 1966), known as **José Carlos**, is a Portuguese retired footballer who played as a right back.

He started his career with Benfica, where he won four major titles, representing four more teams in the Primeira Liga and amassing totals of 364 matches and 15 goals over 15 seasons.

## Club career

Born in Lisbon, José Carlos started at local Desportivo Domingos Sávio at age 12, finishing his development at neighbouring S.L. Benfica. In his first two seasons as a professional he did not made a league appearance, as manager John Mortimore favoured António Veloso for the position. He made his debut in a Taça de Portugal match against SL Cartaxo on 18 January 1987, as the season ended in double conquest.

In the summer of 1987, José Carlos was loaned to Portimonense SC, being an undisputed starter during his tenure in Algarve and subsequently returning to Benfica. In the following four years he appeared in 135 competitive games and scored three goals, winning the 1991 national championship, another domestic cup and the 1989 edition of the Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira. He also took part in the final of the 1989–90 European Cup, lost to A.C. Milan.

In 1993, facing competition from Abel Silva and Abel Xavier, José Carlos moved to C.F. Estrela da Amadora, where he reunited with former teammates Edmundo, António Fonseca, Fernando Mendes and Paulinho. He helped his next club, Vitória de Guimarães, to two fourth-place finishes and one third, the latter befalling in the 1997–98 campaign.

José Carlos retired in 2003 at the age of 36, after one year in the top flight with C.F. Os Belenenses and three in the lower leagues with Atlético Clube de Portugal.

## International career

José Carlos earned one cap for Portugal, playing the second half of a 1–1 friendly draw with West Germany in Lisbon on 29 August 1990.

## Personal life

José Carlos's son, Filipe, was also a footballer. He too represented Belenenses and Atlético. He was also president of APJA (association for amateur footballers), vice-president of SJPF (association for professional footballers) and worked as a pundit for Sport TV.

## InfoBox

José Carlos
| Personal information | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Full name | José Carlos Martins Ferreira | | |
| Date of birth | (1966-08-02) 2 August 1966 | | |
| Place of birth | Lisbon, Portugal | | |
| Height | 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) | | |
| Position(s) | Right back | | |
| Youth career | | | |
| 1978–1983 | Domingos Sávio | | |
| 1983–1985 | Benfica | | |
| Senior career\* | | | |
| Years | **Team** | **Apps** | **(Gls)** |
| 1985–1987 | Benfica | 0 | (0) |
| 1987–1989 | Portimonense | 72 | (2) |
| 1989–1993 | Benfica | 99 | (3) |
| 1993–1994 | Estrela Amadora | 33 | (0) |
| 1994–1999 | Vitória Guimarães | 138 | (7) |
| 1999–2000 | Belenenses | 22 | (3) |
| 2000–2002 | Atlético | 67 | (11) |
| Total |  | **431** | **(26)** |
| International career | | | |
| 1988 | Portugal U21 | 4 | (0) |
| 1990 | Portugal | 1 | (0) |
| \*Club domestic league appearances and goals | | | |


title: Boreotrophon cymatus

abstract: Boreotrophon cymatus is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

text:
# Boreotrophon cymatus

***Boreotrophon cymatus*** is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

## Description

## Distribution

## InfoBox

| *Boreotrophon cymatus* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Gastropoda |
| Subclass: | Caenogastropoda |
| Order: | Neogastropoda |
| Family: | Muricidae |
| Genus: | *Boreotrophon* |
| Species: | ***B. cymatus*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Boreotrophon cymatus***<br>Dall, 1902 | |
|


title: 44 Tauri

abstract: 44 Tauri, also known as HD 1287 and IM Tauri, is a star located about 210 light years from the Earth, in the constellation Taurus. It is a 5th magnitude star, making it faintly visible to the naked eye of an observer located far from city lights. It is a Delta Scuti variable star, ranging between magnitude 5.37 and 5.58 over a period of about 3.5 hours. In 1966, Ivan Danziger and Robert Dickens discovered that 44 Tauri was a low amplitude variable star, with a period of approximately 3.22 hours. In a follow-up study published the next year, they reported that the period was irregular, indicating beat phenomena, and they classified it as a δ Scuti variable. In 1968, 44 Tauri was given the variable star designation IM Tauri. 44 Tauri has been a popular object for detailed astroseismic and spectroscopic studies, because its very slow rotation speed of 3±2 km/sec does not complicate pulsation mode identification or greatly broaden spectral lines. As of 2010, 44 Tauri had been found to pulsate with 15 independent periods, ranging from 1.89 to 4.52 hours.

text:
# 44 Tauri

**44 Tauri**, also known as **HD 1287** and **IM Tauri**, is a star located about 210 light years from the Earth, in the constellation Taurus. It is a 5th magnitude star, making it faintly visible to the naked eye of an observer located far from city lights. It is a Delta Scuti variable star, ranging between magnitude 5.37 and 5.58 over a period of about 3.5 hours.

In 1966, Ivan Danziger and Robert Dickens discovered that 44 Tauri was a low amplitude variable star, with a period of approximately 3.22 hours. In a follow-up study published the next year, they reported that the period was irregular, indicating beat phenomena, and they classified it as a δ Scuti variable. In 1968, 44 Tauri was given the variable star designation IM Tauri.

44 Tauri has been a popular object for detailed astroseismic and spectroscopic studies, because its very slow (relative to other δ Scuti stars) rotation speed of 3±2 km/sec does not complicate pulsation mode identification or greatly broaden spectral lines. As of 2010, 44 Tauri had been found to pulsate with 15 independent periods, ranging from 1.89 to 4.52 hours.

## InfoBox

44 Tauri
|
A light curve for IM Tauri, plotted from *TESS* data. The 3.479 hour period is marked in red. | |
| --- | --- |
| Observation data
Epoch J2000.0      Equinox J2000.0 | |
| Constellation | Taurus |
|
| Right ascension | 04h 10m 49.86084s |
| Declination | +26° 28 51.4365 |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 5.37 - 5.58 |
| Characteristics | |
|
| Spectral type | F2 IV |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Variable type | δ Scuti |
|
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|
| Astrometry | |
|  | |
| **Radial velocity (Rv)** | 17.43±0.64 km/s |
| **Proper motion (μ)** | RA: −30.919±0.123 mas/yr
Dec.: −35.105±0.072 mas/yr |
| **Parallax (π)** | 15.4199 ± 0.0863 mas |
| **Distance** | 212 ± 1 ly
(64.9 ± 0.4 pc) |
| **Absolute magnitude (MV)** | 1.44±0.16 |
|  | |
| Details | |
| Primary | |
| **Mass** | 1.89 |
| **Surface gravity (log *g*)** | 3.6±0.1 cgs |
| **Temperature** | 7000±200 |
| **Rotational velocity (*v* sin *i*)** | 2±1 km/s |
|  | |
| Other designations | |
| p Tauri, IM Tauri, BD+26 411, HIP 19513, HD 26322, HR 1287, SAO 76485 | |
| Database references | |
| **SIMBAD** | data |


abstract: First Presbyterian Church, incorporated as the Congregational Society of Brockport, is a historic Presbyterian church located at Brockport in Monroe County, New York. It is a Greek Revival–style edifice built in 1852. The main block of the building is four bays long and three bays wide, constructed of red brick on a sandstone foundation. It features a three-stage tower with an octagonal drum from which the spire rises. The main worship space has a meeting house plan with a three sided upper gallery supported by fluted Doric columns. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. It is located in the Park Avenue and State Street Historic District.

text:
# First Presbyterian Church (Brockport, New York)

**First Presbyterian Church**, incorporated as the Congregational Society of Brockport, is a historic Presbyterian church located at Brockport in Monroe County, New York. It is a Greek Revival–style edifice built in 1852. The main block of the building is four bays long and three bays wide (76 feet by 52 feet), constructed of red brick on a sandstone foundation. It features a three-stage tower with an octagonal drum from which the spire rises. The main worship space has a meeting house plan with a three sided upper gallery supported by fluted Doric columns.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. It is located in the Park Avenue and State Street Historic District.

## InfoBox

|  | |
| --- | --- |
| First Presbyterian Church | |
| U.S. National Register of Historic Places | |
| U.S. Historic district<br>Contributing property | |
|  | |
| First Presbyterian Church, July 2011 | |
|  | |
| Location | 35 State St., Brockport, New York |
| Coordinates | 43°12′52″N 77°56′14″W / 43.21444°N 77.93722°W / 43.21444; -77.93722 |
| Area | 0.7 acres (0.28 ha) |
| Built | 1852 |
| Architectural style | Greek Revival |
| NRHP reference No. | 99000752 |
| Added to NRHP | June 25, 1999 |