title: Sequani

abstract: The Sequani were a Gallic tribe dwelling in the upper river basin of the Arar river (Saône), the valley of the Doubs and the Jura Mountains during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

text:
# Sequani

Gold coins of the Sequani Gauls, 5-1st century BC. Early Gallic coins were often inspired by Greek coinage. Silver coins of the Sequani Gauls, 5–1st century BC.

The **Sequani** were a Gallic tribe dwelling in the upper river basin of the Arar river (Saône), the valley of the Doubs and the Jura Mountains during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

## Name

They are mentioned as *Sequanos* by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Ammianus Marcellinus (4th c. AD), *Sequanis* by Livy (late 1st c. BC), *Sēkoanoús* (Σηκοανούς) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), and as *Sequani* by Pliny (1st c. AD).

The Gaulish ethnonym *Sequani* (sing. *Sequanos*) stems from the Celtic name of the Seine river, *Sequana*. This may indicate that their original homeland was located by the Seine.

## Geography

The country of the Sequani corresponded to Franche-Comté and part of Burgundy. The Jura Mountains separated the Sequani from the Helvetii on the east, but the mountains belonged to the Sequani, as the narrow pass between the Rhone and Lake Geneva was Sequanian. They did not occupy the confluence of the Saône into the Rhone, as the Helvetii plundered the lands of the Aedui there. Extending a line westward from the Jura estimates the southern border at about Mâcon, but Mâcon belonged to the Aedui. Strabo says that the Arar separates the Sequani from the Aedui and the Lingones, which means that the Sequani were on the left, or eastern, bank of the Saône only. On the northeast corner the country of the Sequani touched on the Rhine.

## History

Before the arrival of Julius Caesar in Gaul, the Sequani had taken the side of the Arverni against their rivals the Aedui and hired the Suebi under Ariovistus to cross the Rhine and help them (71 BC). Although his assistance enabled them to defeat the Aedui, the Sequani were worse off than before, for Ariovistus deprived them of a third of their territory and threatened to take another third, while subjugating them into semi-slavery.

The Sequani then appealed to Caesar, who drove back the Germanic tribesmen (58 BC), but at the same time obliged the Sequani to surrender all that they had gained from the Aedui. This so exasperated the Sequani that they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix (52 BC) and shared in the defeat at Alesia. Under Augustus, the district known as **Sequania** formed part of Belgica. After the death of Vitellius (69 AD), the inhabitants refused to join the Gallic revolt against Rome instigated by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus, and drove back Sabinus, who had invaded their territory. A triumphal arch at Vesontio (Besançon), which in return for this service was made a colony, possibly commemorates this victory.

Diocletian added Helvetia, and part of Germania Superior to Sequania, which was now called **Provincia Maxima Sequanorum**, Vesontio receiving the title of Metropolis civitas Vesontiensium. The southern reach of this territory was known as Sapaudia, which became the namesake of the later region of Savoy. Fifty years later, Gaul was overrun by the barbarians, and Vesontio sacked (355 AD). Under Julian, it recovered some of its importance as a fortified town, and was able to withstand the attacks of the Vandals. Later, when Rome was no longer able to afford protection to the inhabitants of Gaul, the Sequani became merged in the newly formed Kingdom of Burgundy.

## Major settlements

### Bibliography

* Falileyev, Alexander (2010). *Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-names: A Celtic Companion to the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World*. CMCS. ISBN 978-0955718236.
* Kruta, Venceslas (2000). *Les Celtes, histoire et dictionnaire : des origines à la romanisation et au christianisme*. Robert Laffont. ISBN 2-221-05690-6.
* Lambert, Pierre-Yves (1994). *La langue gauloise: description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies*. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-089-2.

### Primary sources

## Further reading

* This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sequani". *Encyclopædia Britannica* (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
* T. Rice Holmes, *Caesar's Conquest of Gaul* (1899), p. 483
* A. Holder, *Altceltischer Sprachschatz*, ii. (1904).
* Mommsen, *Hist. of Rome* (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. vii.
* Dunod de Charnage, *Hist. des Séquanois* (1735)
* J. D. Schöpflin, *Alsatia illustrata*, i. (1751; French trans. by L. W. Ravenèz, 1849).


title: Savage River State Forest

abstract: Savage River State Forest is located in the north and northeastern part of Garrett County, in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state forest has many waterways, including Savage River Reservoir, which was built in 1952 by the U.S. Army. The dam was built as an emergency water supply for Washington, D.C. Savage River State Forest is known for its hunting, fishing, camping, and hiking trails. Savage River State Forest is mostly located on the eastern side of the Eastern Continental Divide, which means that most of its waterways will eventually lead to the Potomac River and thus the Chesapeake Bay. But some of its waterways flow into the Youghiogheny River.

text:
# Savage River State Forest

**Savage River State Forest** is located in the north and northeastern part of Garrett County, in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state forest has many waterways, including Savage River Reservoir, which was built in 1952 by the U.S. Army. The dam was built as an emergency water supply for Washington, D.C. Savage River State Forest is known for its hunting, fishing, camping, and hiking trails.

Savage River State Forest is mostly located on the eastern side of the Eastern Continental Divide, which means that most of its waterways will eventually lead to the Potomac River and thus the Chesapeake Bay. But some of its waterways flow into the Youghiogheny River.

## History

In 1800, there were roughly 1000 settlers who lived in Garrett County. But cheap land, improved transportation and growth along the eastern seaboard led to a settlement boom. The national road was completed in 1818 and the rail road arrived in 1852. The transportation system better connected the resource rich Garrett County to the growth needs of the east. Increased quantities of lumber, coal and wheat were shipped east.

By the early 1900s, narrow gauge railroads were used to facilitate logging on steeper slopes as the demand for wood products continued to increase. The result was that Garrett County was heavily cut-over, essentially clear cut, within a 20-year period. The train engines frequently caused forest fires in the tops and slash that were left from the clear-cutting. As a result of the fires, a new forest was created. This legacy we can see today as most of our older forests are the same age and are approximately 100 years old.

In part, as a reaction to the rapid cutting of trees and the burning that was taking place, the Garrett Brothers, in 1906 gave 2000 acres to the state with the proviso that an agency would be created to manage the property and to institute scientific forestry- this led to the birth of the Maryland Forest Service. The rapid exploitation of the forests came to an end by the 1930s and logging companies moved west or converted to coal mining. The early efforts of the MD Forest Service were primarily fire suppression.

On January 8, 1929, the state purchased 9,352 acres of cut-over forest land from the N.U. Bond Company. This was the beginning of Savage River State Forest. Since that time there has been a number of acquisitions both big and small. Now Savage River State Forest consists of 54,324 acres.

In the 1930s, the Civilian Conservation Corps assisted the forest service with fire suppression efforts, tree planting, and constructing facilities for recreational activities. The CCC boys helped with the early snow skiing activities on the forest – later to become New Germany State Park. They helped build many trails where hiking, biking, horseback riding, and ORV riding are still taking place.

## The forest

The Savage River State Forest covers approximately 54,324 acres of land in Garrett County (40 acres are in Allegany County). Mature mixed oak and northern hardwood forests comprise a large proportion of the Savage River State Forest. In general, sixty-six percent of the area is composed of older, more mature forests, while thirty-four percent are younger and smaller.

**Forest Diversity of Savage River State Forest**
| Structure stage | Total | % Total |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Forest Type |  |  |
| Hemlock | 2,097.0 | 3.9 |
| Northern hardwood | 9,121.8 | 17.1 |
| Hardwood hard pine | 104.8 | 0.2 |
| Mixed oaks | 30,091.4 | 56.3 |
| Cove hardwoods | 4,927.9 | 9.2 |
| Red maple | 2,726.1 | 5.1 |
| Black locust | 1,153.3 | 2.2 |
| Hardwood white pine | 315.5 | 0.6 |
| Hardwood | 104.8 | 0.2 |
| Plantations | 2,830.9 | 5.3 |
| **Total** | **53,472.6** | 100.0 |

### Old growth

Old growth forests have generally been defined as forests in existence since pre-settlement times and lacking any significant Euro-American disturbance. The definition can differ according to climatic and eco-regional perspectives and the growth characteristics of specific native forest systems. In Maryland, an old growth forest is defined as a minimum of five acres in size with a preponderance of old trees, of which the oldest trees exceed at least half of the projected maximum attainable age for that species, and that exhibits most of the following characteristics:

1. Shade tolerant species are present in all age/size classes.
2. There are randomly distributed canopy gaps.
3. There is a high degree of structural diversity characterized by multiple growth layers (canopy, understory trees, shrub, herbaceous, ground layers) that reflect a broad spectrum of ages.
4. There is an accumulation of dead wood of varying sizes and stages of decomposition, standing and down, accompanied by decadence in live dominant trees.
5. Pit-and-mound topography can be observed, if the soil conditions permit it.

It is also important to recognize that old-growth forests are not static and may not be a permanent fixture on the landscape. The forests and trees within and around them change continuously. This would be true even if human influence could be eliminated. All forests, including old-growth, succumb to natural, destructive disturbances and regenerate over time. A functional old-growth ecosystem includes the loss of old trees due to natural disturbances and the death of old trees. An old-growth system is not static, nor is it always dominated by old trees. Natural processes dictate the age composition at any time. The important factor in this process is that the trees have the opportunity to reach old age if natural disturbances do not intercede.

### Forest production

"Savage River State Forest has been managed for industrial forest production for decades, and has been a major contributor to the region’s forest products industry. Numerous sawmills and New Page paper mill operations provide outlets for timber from local forests. Savage River State Forest makes up about 19.0% of the productive forests in the Garrett County area. However Potomac-Garrett State Forest is managed in a similar manner as Savage River State Forest and these two state properties comprise almost 25.4% of forest in the county."

**Savage River SF and Potomac-Garrett SF as a Percentage of Garrett County**
| State Forest | State Forest acres | SF as a % of County Area | SF as a % of County forest |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Savage River | 54,324 | 12.8% | 19.0% |
| Potomac-Garrett | 18,242 | 4.3% | 6.4% |
| Totals | 72,566 | 17.1% | 25.4% |

## Watershed

"The Savage River State Forest is located within six (6) of Maryland’s 8-digit watersheds. Those watersheds are Savage River, Upper North Branch of the Potomac and George’s Creek in the Chesapeake Bay Drainage and Casselman River, Youghiogheny River and Deep Creek Lake in the Ohio River. The majority of Savage River State Forest is located within the Savage River watershed (57.8%) with smaller amounts in George’s Creek (12.7%), Casselman River (17.9%) and Youghiogheny River (10.7%) watersheds. Very small amounts of the State Forest are located in Deep Creek Lake (0.4%) and Upper North Branch of the Potomac (0.6%) watersheds."

**Number of stream miles according to the Strahler stream order and grouped by major drainage**
| Watershed | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 4th | 5th |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| George's Creek | 55.8775 | 15.08063 | 12.91313 | 0 | 0 |
| Potomac River Upper North Branch | 90.67313 | 22.13625 | 7.47625 | 33.07813 | 0 |
| Savage River | 96.27 | 21.82875 | 16.80875 | 4.98 | 0 |
| **Chesapeake Bay** | **242.8206** | **59.04563** | **37.19813** | **38.05813** | **0** |
| Casselman | 60.95938 | 22.23813 | 13.105 | 0 | 0 |
| Deep Creek Lake | 24.4425 | 2.94125 | 1.70625 | 0 | 0 |
| Youghiogheny River | 166.7556 | 52.50938 | 30.00625 | 7.078125 | 19.84125 |
| **Ohio River** | **252.1575** | **77.68875** | **44.8175** | **7.078125** | **19.84125** |
| Grand Total | 494.9781 | 136.7344 | 82.01563 | 45.13625 | 19.84125 |

## Wildlife

"Maryland first began licensing hunters in 1916, with hunting license sales peaking at 180,000 in the early 1970s. Sales have since declined to about 135,000 now and today a smaller fraction (3-4%) of Maryland residents hunt. Maryland hunters are mostly males, who live in urban settings, between the ages of 30-49 years of age. Residents of Baltimore County bought 11.9% of licenses sold statewide. Residents from the five lower shore counties accounted for 9.7% of hunting licenses sold statewide."

"The majority of the Savage River State Forest acreage is open for public hunting, with the exception of safety zones and other similar areas. Hunting opportunities are primarily for white-tailed deer, but other species, depending upon the site, include bear, turkey and upland birds."

"There are more than 40 species of game animals that occur in Garrett County. Hunting has been a time honored tradition that continues to provide recreation, food, and quality of life in Garrett County. The large amounts of public land in the county makes it a popular destination for non-resident hunters and those from more urban areas where there is little hunting opportunity. The most popular species of game animals continue to provide for most hunter recreation days in Garrett County."

### White-tailed deer

"During the 2009-10 hunting season, Garrett County had the seventh highest reported deer harvest in the state. This is significant considering that most counties have a much more liberal bag limit and therefore, higher harvest potential. The reported harvest for Garrett County during the 2009-10 hunting season was a total of 4,922 deer."

### Black bear

"In October 2004, DNR implemented Maryland’s first bear-hunting season in 51 years. Subsequent hunts have been held each year since. DNR established a harvest quota targeting an approximate 8 to 12% harvest mortality. This was based on the objective of achieving 20 to 25% overall mortality (seasonal + non-seasonal mortality). Harvest quotas have ranged from 30 to 85 bears between 2004 and 2009. The harvest range for the 2010 season has been set at 65 – 90 bears."

In May and June 2005, DNR conducted western Maryland’s most recent black bear population survey. A DNA-based mark-recapture study was conducted across Garrett and Allegany counties. A similar study had been conducted in 2000. The results of the DNA analysis were entered into Program MARK which yielded a population estimate of 362 adult and subadult bears across the study area. The 95% CI ranged between 242 and 482 animals.

### Wild turkey

"In Garrett County the turkey season is split with both a spring and a fall season. It is estimated that over 10,000 hunters pursue turkeys during the spring season statewide. Garrett County ranked number one in harvested turkeys in 2010 with 345 birds reported (about 12% of the total statewide harvest)."

### Migratory birds

***Waterfowl associated with wetlands***

"Important waterfowl areas occur throughout Garrett County. Bottomland hardwood floodplains, beaver impoundments, lakes, farm ponds, and wooded wetlands serve as wood duck, mallard, teal and black duck habitat."

#### American woodcock

"Spring 'singing ground' surveys coordinated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service suggest that American woodcock numbers have been declining by an average of 1.9 percent per year since these surveys were started in 1968. However, population estimates are stable over the most recent 10-year period. Most woodcock biologists suspect that alterations of habitat, losses to development and changes due to maturation of abandoned farmland are the cause of the population decline. Woodcock use areas of State River State Forest as breeding and wintering habitat. Woodcock prefer moist soil areas with dense seedling/sapling cover and rich humus layers because earthworms, their primary food, are most plentiful in these habitats. State Forest lands are important to woodcock as breeding and nesting areas."

### Fish

#### Brook trout

"Brook trout are Maryland’s only native freshwater trout species. Brook trout in Maryland are valuable for aesthetic, recreational, economic, and biological reasons. Because of their habitat and life history requirements, brook trout are typically found in the pristine, aesthetically pleasant areas of Maryland. While there is no commercial fishery for brook trout, recreational angling has been occurring for centuries, and there is increasing local and national recognition of the uniqueness and quality of fishing for native brook trout. Anthropogenic alterations to Maryland’s environment over the last several centuries, including clear cutting of forests, establishment of large agricultural areas, and urbanization have resulted in the extirpation of brook trout from 62% of their historic habitat in Maryland. Of the remaining 151 populations, more than half are found in Garrett County, the westernmost, mountainous, and least developed area of Maryland. The vast majority (82%) of the remaining populations are classified as 'greatly reduced,' meaning that within the sub-watersheds where they occur they occupy only 1% to 10% of the area that was historically inhabited. A major difficulty in managing the brook trout resource is that only 11% of all brook trout streams and stream miles are fully within state lands, the vast majority of habitat is on private land and a mix of private/public lands. Of the immediate threats to brook trout populations in Maryland, urbanization is the most serious. In watersheds where human land use exceeds 18%, brook trout populations cannot survive and if impervious su rface area is greater than 0.5% in a watershed, brook trout will typically be extirpated. There are also long-term threats, of which global warming is the most serious. Current predictions indicate that warming water temperatures over the next 100 years could eliminate brook trout populations statewide except for western Maryland (Garrett County) by the year 2100."

## Geography

| Oakland, Maryland |
| --- |
| Climate chart (explanation) |
|  |
| Metric conversion  J F M A M J J A S O N D  90     3 −5       85     4 −3       105     13 4       98     12 3       131     21 12       112     22 12       139     26 17       96     23 14       88     19 11       80     14 6       97     5 −1       98     4 −2   Average max. and min. temperatures in °C  Precipitation totals in mm |

Savage River State Forest is located on the East-central edge of the Allegheny Mountain region of the Appalachian Plateau in the Appalachian Mountains. To the West is Deep Creek Lake State Park, Swallow Falls State Park, and Garrett State Forest; to the North is New Germany State Park and Casselman River Bridge State Park; to the East is Dan’s Mountain State Park; to the South is Potomac State Forest; and Big Run State Park is located within the forest’s grounds. Nearby notable mountains include Backbone Mountain, Big Savage Mountain, Conway Hill, Elder Hill, George Mountain, Lewis Knob, Little Mountain, Little Savage Mountain, Marsh Hill, Meadow Mountain, Negro Mountain, Rich Hill, Roman Nose Mountain, Snaggy Hill, Whites Knob, and Zehner Hill.

### Soil

Despite the streams and valleys that run through much of the forest, most of the soils are acidic and naturally low in plant nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. The soil is often steep and stony and is ideally suited for woodlands, wildlife habitat, and recreation. Water drainage is often stunted; locally called “glades” (poorly drained areas) are abundant throughout the forest and surrounding region. Peat covers most of the ground, reaching up to 9 feet deep at some points.

### Biodiversity

The many streams that run through Savage River State Forest serves as habitat for many types of rare and/or endangered species, such as: Johnny darter, striped shiner, mottled sculpin, stonecat, brook trout and hellbender. The brook trout population in Savage River State Forest is among the healthiest in Maryland and stonecats have only been found in the Casselman River that runs to Pennsylvania. Non-native species have also been found in the watersheds of the grounds, such as the fathead minnow, brown trout, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, rock bass, pumpkinseed, and bluegill.

Larger wildlife includes white-tailed deer, black bears, wild turkey, ruffed grouse, and various small furbearing mammals such as canids, opossums, rodents, and skunks. Additionally, birds that populate the area include wood ducks, bald and golden eagles, mallards, black ducks, woodcocks, and neo-tropical migratory birds.

## Recreation

Savage River State Forest has over 54,000 acres for many recreational activities. There are biking trails, boat launches, cross country skiing, campsites, fishing, flat water canoeing, hiking trails, hunting, picnics, snowmobiling, and white water canoeing.

### Trails

There are ten trails at Savage River State Forest totaling 78 miles. It is recommended that trail users should wear blaze orange during hunting season.

* Meadow Mountain Trail: 12 miles –moderate
* Monroe Run Trail: 6.4 miles - moderate
* Negro Mountain Trail: 8 miles - difficult
* Big Savage Trail: 17 miles - difficult
* Margraff Trails: 7.5 miles - moderate
* Mt. Aetna Tract Trails: 7.6 miles –moderate
* Asa Durst Trails: 4.5 miles - moderate
* Backpacker Loop: 24 miles – moderate
* Poplar Lick Trail: 6 miles – moderate
* New Germany Trails: 10 miles – easy to difficult

### Hunting, trapping and fishing

Savage River State Forest is one of the most used public lands for hunting. White-tailed deer is the most common species hunted in the forest and throughout the state. "A recent survey sponsored by the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies found that deer hunting in 2006 generated over $113 million in retail sales, with a total multiplier effect of over $190 million contributed to Maryland’s economy. Deer hunting in Maryland supports nearly 2,300 jobs and generates $71 million in salaries, wages, and business owner’s income, $15 million in state and local tax revenue, and $16 million in federal tax revenue."

"Hunting with rifles, handguns, shotguns, bows and muzzleloaders are permitted in all designated areas in accordance with state and federal laws. Possession or use of weapons is prohibited in State Forests outside of regular hunting seasons. Target shooting is prohibited except at the rifle range. All game birds and game mammals with open seasons may be hunted. Tree stands or blinds are limited to those of a temporary nature, which must be removed or dismantled at the end of each day. The hunting season in State Forests conforms to standard hunting seasons adopted by state and federal regulations."

A rifle range, located on New Germany Road, provides opportunity to target practice and for sighting in firearms prior to the hunting season.

Trapping on portions of the Savage River State Forest for furbearers is permitted through the issuance of a trapping permit.

Savage River State Forest offers many fishing areas in the Savage River Reservoir, and the tail waters that follow. The river is stocked 5-6 times per year and is usually stocked with trout. Some of the species of fish you can catch at Savage River include, large and small mouth bass, trout, yellow perch, blue gill, pickerel, musky and many more.

### Hiking, biking, horseback riding, nature observation and off-road vehicles

Savage River State Forest offers an extensive forest road system for hiking, biking, horseback rising, and observing nature.

### Canoeing and kayaking

Savage River offers white water rafting, flat-water boating, and canoeing. No gasoline motors are allowed on the reservoir.

### Camping

Savage River State Forest currently has 72 campsites. Designated camping areas include Big Run Road, Savage River Road, Westernport Road (Elk Lick), Blue Lick Road, Poplar Lick Trail, and Whitewater sites. If you do not want to stay at one of the camping sites you are allowed to backcountry backpack, with a pass, throughout the entire forest.

## InfoBox

| Savage River State Forest | |
| --- | --- |
| View of Savage River | |
|  | |
| Location | Garrett County, Maryland, United States |
| Nearest city | Grantsville, MD |
| Coordinates | 39°35′59.4″N 79°3′17″W / 39.599833°N 79.05472°W / 39.599833; -79.05472 |
| Area | 54,000 acres (220 km<sup>2</sup>) |
| Established | January 8, 1929 |
| Governing body | Department of Natural Resources |
| www.dnr.state.md.us | |


title: Çubukdiken, Şahinbey

abstract: Çubukdiken, historically Dostallı, is a neighbourhood in the municipality and district of Şahinbey, Gaziantep Province, Turkey. Its population is 369 (2022).

text:
# Çubukdiken, Şahinbey

**Çubukdiken**, historically **Dostallı**, is a neighbourhood in the municipality and district of Şahinbey, Gaziantep Province, Turkey. Its population is 369 (2022).

## InfoBox

| Çubukdiken | |
| --- | --- |
| Neighbourhood | |
| ÇubukdikenLocation in Turkey | |
| Coordinates: 37°1′51″N 37°2′32″E / 37.03083°N 37.04222°E / 37.03083; 37.04222 | |
| Country | Turkey |
| Province | Gaziantep |
| District | Şahinbey |
| Population (2022) | 369 |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (TRT) |


title: Dalcerides radians

abstract: Dalcerides radians is a moth in the family Dalceridae. It was described by Walter Hopp in 1921. It is found in southern Brazil. The habitat consists of subtropical wet, subtropical moist and warm temperate moist forests. The length of the forewings is 7–10 mm for males and 10–11 mm for females. Adults are on wing from September to May.

text:
# Dalcerides radians

***Dalcerides radians*** is a moth in the family Dalceridae. It was described by Walter Hopp in 1921. It is found in southern Brazil. The habitat consists of subtropical wet, subtropical moist and warm temperate moist forests.

The length of the forewings is 7–10 mm for males and 10–11 mm for females. Adults are on wing from September to May.

## InfoBox

| *Dalcerides radians* | |
| --- | --- |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Dalceridae |
| Genus: | *Dalcerides* |
| Species: | ***D. radians*** |
| Binomial name | |
| ***Dalcerides radians***<br>(Hopp, 1921) | |
|
| Synonyms | |
| * *Acragopsis radians* Hopp, 1921 | |


title: San Juan Nationalist revolt

abstract: The San Juan Nationalist revolt was one of many uprisings against United States Government rule which occurred in Puerto Rico on October 30, 1950 during the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts. Amongst the uprising's main objectives were an attack on La Fortaleza, and the U.S. Federal Court House Building in Old San Juan.

text:
# San Juan Nationalist revolt

The **San Juan Nationalist revolt** was one of many uprisings against United States Government rule which occurred in Puerto Rico on October 30, 1950 during the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts. Amongst the uprising's main objectives were an attack on *La Fortaleza* (the governor's mansion in San Juan), and the U.S. Federal Court House Building in Old San Juan.

## Events leading to the revolt

On September 17, 1922, the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was formed. José Coll y Cuchí, a former member of the Union Party, was elected its first president. He wanted radical changes within the economy and social welfare programs of Puerto Rico. In 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos, a lawyer, joined the party and was named its vice president.

Albizu Campos was the first Puerto Rican graduate of Harvard Law School. He had served as a Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army during World War I, and believed that Puerto Rico should be an independent nation - even if that required an armed confrontation. By 1930, Coll y Cuchí departed from the party because of his disagreements with Albizu Campos as to how the party should be run. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party.

In the 1930s, the United States-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Blanton Winship, and police colonel Riggs applied harsh repressive measures against the Nationalist Party. In 1936, Albizu Campos and the leaders of the party were arrested and jailed at the *La Princesa* prison in San Juan, and later sent to the Federal Prison at Atlanta, Georgia. On March 21, 1937, the Nationalists held a parade in Ponce and the police opened fire on the crowd, in what was to become known as the Ponce massacre. Albizu Campos returned to Puerto Rico on December 15, 1947 after spending 10 years in prison.

On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the island. The Senate, controlled by the *Partido Popular Democrático* (PPD) and presided by Luis Muñoz Marín, approved the bill that day. This bill, which resembled the anti-communist Smith Act passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the *Ley de la Mordaza* (Gag Law) when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, signed it into law on June 10, 1948.

Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the Flag of Puerto Rico, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (equivalent to $127,000 in 2023), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, member of the *Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño* (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives who did not belong to the PPD, the law was repressive and was in violation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He pointed out that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico.

On June 21, 1948, Albizu Campos gave a speech in the town of Manatí where Nationalists from all over the island had gathered, in case the police attempted to arrest him.

## The Ponce massacre

One particular event in Puerto Rican history had a galvanizing effect on the Puerto Rican Nationalist movement. The Ponce massacre occurred Palm Sunday, March 21, 1937, when a peaceful march in Ponce, Puerto Rico, turned into a bloody police slaughter of unarmed, defenseless Puerto Ricans.

The march had been organized by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico by the governing Spanish National Assembly in 1873. The march was also protesting the imprisonment, by the U.S. government, of Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos on alleged sedition charges.

The bloodshed began when the Insular Police fired on the marchers - killing 18 unarmed civilians, one policeman (shot in friendly fire from his fellow officers), and wounding some 235 civilians, including women and children. One 7-year-old girl was shot (and killed) in the back.

The Insular Police, a force resembling the National Guard, was under the military command of the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, General Blanton Winship. Ultimate responsibility fell on Governor Winship, who controlled the National Guard and insular police, and personally ordered the massacre. It was the largest massacre in Puerto Rican history.

## Uprisings

From 1949 to 1950, the Nationalists in the island began to plan and prepare an armed revolution, hoping that the United Nations would take notice and intervene on their behalf. The uprising was to occur in 1952, on the date the United States Congress was to approve the creation of the political status Free Associated State ("Estado Libre Associado") for Puerto Rico. The reason behind Albizu Campos' call for an armed revolution was that he considered the "new" status a colonial farce.

The police disrupted this timetable, and the Nationalist revolution was accelerated by two years. On October 26, 1950, Albizu Campos was holding a meeting in Fajardo when he received word that his house in San Juan was surrounded by police waiting to arrest him. He was also told that the police had already arrested other Nationalist leaders. He escaped from Fajardo and ordered the revolution to start.

The next day, on October 27, the police fired upon a caravan of Nationalists in the town of Peñuelas, and killed four of them. This police massacre inflamed many in Puerto Rico, and the outcry was immediate. The first armed battle of the Nationalist uprisings occurred in the early morning of October 29, in the *barrio* Macaná of town of Peñuelas. The insular police surrounded the house of the mother of Melitón Muñiz Santos, the president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party in the *barrio* Macaná, that Muñiz Santos was using as a distribution center for weapons for the Nationalist Revolt. Without warning, the police fired upon the Nationalists in the house and a firefight between both factions ensued, resulting on the death of two Nationalists and wounding of six police officers. Nationalists Meliton Muñoz Santos, Roberto Jaime Rodriguez, Estanislao Lugo Santiago, Marcelino Turell, William Gutirrez and Marcelino Berrios were arrested and accused of participating in an ambush against the local insular police.

The very next day, October 30, saw Nationalist uprisings all over Puerto Rico, including seven towns: Ponce, Mayagüez, Naranjito, Arecibo, Utuado (Utuado Uprising), Jayuya (Jayuya Uprising) and San Juan.

## Attack on the United States Federal Court House

In accordance with the planned uprising in San Juan, a group of Nationalists were supposed to attack the mansion known as *La Fortaleza,* where Puerto Rican governor Luis Muñoz Marín resided. Simultaneously, the Nationalists planned to attack the U.S. Federal Court House, located close to *La Marina* in Old San Juan.

The government learned of the planned attacks from informants named Faustino Díaz Pacheco and Luciano Cuadra. Faustino Díaz Pacheco was the brother of Raimundo Díaz Pacheco, the Commander-in-Chief of the Nationalist Cadets of the Republic. He was thus aware of all Nationalist activity and planning not only in San Juan, but throughout the entire island. Luciano Cuadra was president of the San Juan chapter of the Nationalist Party. Pacheco and Cuadra betrayed their own organization, informed the police, and later became government witnesses.

Unaware of the internal betrayal, Jesús Pomales González, one of five Nationalists assigned to attack the court house, approached the building and saw the police arresting his comrades Carlos Padilla, Diego Quiñones González, Juan Sandoval Ramos and Joaquín Padín Concepción. Pomales opened fire, the police fired back, and Pomales was taken to the municipal hospital where he would recover from his wounds.

## Attack on *La Fortaleza*

Earlier that morning, Nationalists Domingo Hiraldo Resto, Carlos Hiraldo Resto, Gregorio Hernández and Manuel Torres Medina who were assigned to attack *La Fortaleza,* met in the San Juan sector of Martín Peña, at the house of Raimundo Díaz Pacheco \- the Nationalist leader and Commander of the Cadets of the Republic. At 11 A.M. they boarded a blue Plymouth and headed towards Old San Juan to accomplish their mission. The men arrived at *La Fortaleza* at noon and stopped their car 25 feet from their objective's main entrance They got out of the car with a submachine gun and pistols in hand and immediately began firing towards the mansion. Díaz Pacheco headed towards the mansion while the others took cover close to their car and fired with their pistols from their positions.

The *Fortaleza* guards and police, who already knew of the planned attack, returned fire and a firefight between the two groups ensued. Díaz Pacheco, who was the Leader of the Nationalist Cadets, fired his submachine gun at the second floor of the mansion where the executive offices of Governor Luis Muñoz Marín were located. During the firefight, Díaz Pacheco wounded two police officers, Isidoro Ramos and Vicente Otero Díaz before he was killed by *Fortaleza* guard Carmelo Dávila.

Meanwhile, the police continued to fire upon the other Nationalists. Domingo Hiraldo Resto was seriously wounded, but despite his wounds he dragged himself towards the mansions entrance. He was able to reach the mansions main door and once there he was motionless and appeared to be dead. He suddenly turned and sat on the steps and with his hands held up pleaded for mercy, his pleas however, were answered with a fusillade of gunfire.

Hernández, who was also severely wounded continued to fire against the police from under the car. A police officer and a detective from *La Fortaleza* with submachine guns approached the car and fired upon Hernández, Carlos Hiraldo Resto and Torres Medina. Both Carlos Hiraldo Resto and Torres Medina were killed and their motionless bodies laid in the ground by the right side of the car. It was believed that Hernández was dead, however he wasn't and was taken to the local hospital along with the wounded police officers where they were operated for their respective wounds. The battle lasted just over one hour and at the ended of the battle there were five Nationalist casualties, four dead and one wounded, plus three wounded police officers. E. Rivera Orellana, a sixth Nationalist, who later turned out to be an undercover agent, was arrested near *La Fortaleza* and later released.

## Gun fight at *Salón Boricua*

The following day, October 31, at 2:00 p.m., 15 police officers and 25 National Guardsmen arrived at 351 Calle Colton (Colton Street), esquina Barbosa (at the corner of Barbosa Street), of *Barrio Obrero* (a section named Workers *Barrio*) in Santurce and surrounded a barbershop named the *Salón Boricua*. This barbershop was owned and operated by Vidal Santiago Díaz, a Nationalist who was the personal barber of Albizu Campos.

As they surrounded the barbershop, these 40 armed men believed that a large group of Nationalists were inside, and sent a police officer to investigate. Santiago Díaz believed that he was going to be shot by this officer, and armed himself with a pistol. The situation escalated quickly, Santiago Díaz shot first, and the police all fired back - with machine guns, rifles, carbines, revolvers, and even grenades.

The firefight lasted three hours and ended when Santiago Díaz received five bullet wounds, one of them to the head. Two bystanders and a child were also wounded.

This gun battle between 40 heavily armed policemen and one barber, made Puerto Rican radio history. It was the first time an event of this magnitude was transmitted "live" via the radio airwaves, and the entire island was left in shock. The reporters who covered the event for Radio WIAC were Luis Enrique "Bibí" Marrero, Víctor Arrillaga and Luis Romanacce. Miguel Angel Alvarez covered it for Radio WENA. Over a dozen other radio stations were there, as well.

Thinking he was dead, the attacking policemen dragged Santiago Díaz out of his barbershop. When they realized he was still alive, Santiago Díaz was sent to the local municipal hospital. He was hospitalized with fellow Nationalists Gregorio Hernández (who attacked *La Fortaleza,* the governor's mansion) and Jesús Pomales González (one of five Nationalists assigned to attack the Federal Court House).

## Student March

Olga Viscal Garriga, a student at the University of Puerto Rico was a student leader and spokesperson of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party's branch in Rio Piedras.

Though not involved in any violent act, she was arrested, along with nationalists Carmen María Pérez Roque and Ruth Mary Reynolds, in November 2, 1950 for participating in a demonstration that turned deadly in Old San Juan when U.S. forces opened fire, and one of the demonstrators was killed. Viscal Garriga was held without bail in *La Princesa* prison.

During her trial in federal court, she was uncooperative with the U. S. Government prosecution, and refused to recognize the authority of the U.S. over Puerto Rico. She was sentenced to eight years for contempt of court (not for the initial "charges" regarding the demonstration), and released after serving five years.

## The arrest of Francisco Matos Paoli

Francisco Matos Paoli, one of the island's greatest poets, was nominated for the Nobel Prize for literature. He was also named as Secretary General of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party in 1949. In this position, his responsibilities included the drafting and delivery of patriotic speeches in favor of Puerto Rican independence. In September 1950, Paoli traveled to the towns of Cabo Rojo, Santurce, Guánica and Lares, in order to participate in Nationalist activities.

On November 2, 1950, the police arrived at Francisco Matos Paoli's home in Río Piedras and searched for guns and explosives, however the only thing they found was a Puerto Rican flag.

Paoli was arrested and accused of violating the *Ley de la Mordaza* (Gag Law). The evidence used against him was the Puerto Rican Flag in his residence, and four speeches he had given in favor of Puerto Rican independence.

Paoli was fired from his professorship at the University of Puerto Rico and sentenced to twenty year's imprisonment, which was later reduced to ten. In jail, he shared his cell with Albizu Campos. Campos suffered from ulceration's on his legs and body allegedly caused by radiation and Paoli tended to his needs.

## The arrest of Pedro Albizu Campos

During the revolt, Albizu Campos was at the Nationalist Party's headquarters in Old San Juan which also served as his residence. That day he was accompanied by Juan José Muñoz Matos, Doris Torresola Roura (cousin of Blanca Canales and sister of Griselio Torresola), and Carmen María Pérez Gonzalez.

The occupants of the building were surrounded by the police and the National Guard, who fired their weapons without warning. Doris Torresola, was shot and wounded, and carried out during a cease-fire by Muñoz Matos and Pérez Gonzalez.

Alvaro Rivera Walker, a friend of Albizu Campos, somehow made his way to the Nationalist leader. He stayed with Albizu Campos until the next day, when they were attacked with tear gas. Rivera Walker then raised a white towel attached to a pole, and they surrendered. At that point the National Guard dragged Albizu Campos from his home. He had been rendered unconscious by the tear gas. All the Nationalists, including Albizu Campos, were arrested.

## Incarcerated Nationalists

The following is an FBI list of the San Juan Nationalists who were incarcerated in 1950, and were still in prison as of 1954:

## Aftermath

| External videos | |
| --- | --- |
| To view live-action **Newsreel scenes** and photos of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s (with commentary in Spanish), click **here** | |

United States law mandated that U.S. President Harry Truman take direct charge in all matters concerning Puerto Rico. In addition, the Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Muñoz Marín was required to consult directly with the White House. News of the military action involved however, was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico. It was called an "incident between Puerto Ricans."

Pomales, Hernández and Santiago were hospitalized at the municipal hospital and recovered from their wounds. Pomales was released after six months, accused of three counts of attempted murder, and sentenced to 15 years. Hernández was accused of two counts of attempted murder and sentenced to 15 years. Nationalists Carlos Padilla, Diego Quiñones González, Juan Sandoval Ramos, Joaquín Padín Concepción and Vidal Santiago were also sentenced to various years of prison. After two years, Santiago was eventually pardoned and released.

Paoli was released on January 16, 1952, on probation. During his confinement he suffered from hallucinations which resulted in a mental breakdown and he was sent to a Psychiatric hospital. In 1977, the Department of Hispanic Studies at the University of Puerto Rico campus in Mayagüez nominated him for the Nobel Prize in literature in recognition of his substantial contribution to world literature.

The top leaders of the nationalist party were arrested, including Albizu Campos and the leader of the Jayuya Uprising Blanca Canales, and sent to jail to serve long prison terms. On November 1, 1950, nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attacked the Blair House with the intention of assassinating U.S. President Truman. Torresola and White House police officer Leslie Coffelt lost their lives in the failed attempt. Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman, and he eventually received a presidential pardon.

The last major attempt by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to draw world attention to Puerto Rico's colonial situation occurred on March 1, 1954, when nationalist leader Lolita Lebrón together with fellow nationalists Rafael Cancel Miranda, Irvin Flores and Andres Figueroa Cordero attacked the United States House of Representatives. Lebrón and her comrades were charged with attempted murder and other crimes.

## Further reading

## InfoBox

| San Juan Nationalist revolt | |
| --- | --- |
| Part of Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s | |
|
The bodies of Nationalists Carlos Hiraldo Resto and Manuel Torres Medina lie on the grounds of "La Fortaleza" | |
| Date October 30, 1950  Location San Juan, Puerto Rico  Result United States victory

* Uprising suppressed | |
| Belligerents | |
| Puerto Rican Nationalist Party | United States |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Blanca Canales | Luis R. Esteves |
| Casualties and losses | |
| 3 dead, 1 injured | 6 police officers injured |


title: Pärnu VK

abstract: Pärnu Võrkpalliklubi is a professional Estonian volleyball team based in Pärnu, Estonia. It plays in the Baltic Volleyball League and the Estonian Volleyball League. The team won the 2015–16 Baltic Volleyball League title.

text:
# Pärnu VK

**Pärnu Võrkpalliklubi** is a professional Estonian volleyball team based in Pärnu, Estonia. It plays in the Baltic Volleyball League and the Estonian Volleyball League. The team won the 2015–16 Baltic Volleyball League title.

## Team roster

### 2021/2022

| **Head coach:** | Avo Keel |
| --- | --- |
| **Assistant:** | Karl Erik Eisenschmidt |
| **Assistant:** | Toomas Jasmin |
| **Assistant:** | Tarmo Tiits |

| No. | Name | Date of birth | Position |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Markus Uuskari (C) | April 22, 1997 | outside hitter |
| 2 | Silver Maar | February 11, 1999 | libero |
| 3 | Markus Kohtla | September 28, 2004 | opposite |
| 4 | Toms Švans | August 2, 1993 | middle blocker |
| 5 | Kristo Joosep Peterson | August 13, 2002 | middle blocker |
| 6 | Tony Tammiksaar | July 25, 2001 | outside hitter |
| 7 | Borys Zhukov | August 6, 1996 | outside hitter |
| 9 | Richard Voogel | May 15, 2001 | setter |
| 10 | Kristofer Rünt | November 7, 2004 | setter |
| 11 | Jo Mauricio Da Silva Neto | December 11, 2000 | setter |
| 12 | Ivory Õuekallas | November 4, 2001 | outside hitter |
| 14 | Gabriel Cavalcante | April 14, 1999 | outside hitter |
| 15 | Tõnis Hendrik Tallo | August 8, 2005 | outside hitter |
| 18 | Bohdan Mazenko | May 18, 1996 | middle blocker |

## Honours

**Baltic League**

* Winners: 2016
* Runners-up: 2011, 2013, 2017, 2018

**Estonian League**

* Winners: 1993, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2015, 2019
* Runners-up: 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2010, 2013, 2016, 2022

**Estonian Cup**

* Winners: 1992, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016
* Runners-up: 1998, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2018

## Head coaches

## Notable players

## InfoBox

Pärnu
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Full name | Pärnu Võrkpalliklubi |
| Founded | 1997 |
| Ground | Pärnu Sports Hall
(Capacity: 1,820) |
| Chairman | Reio Tilk |
| Manager | Toomas Jasmin |
| League | Baltic Volleyball League
Estonian Volleyball League |
| 2021–22 | 3rd (Baltic League)
2nd (Estonian League) |
| Website | Club home page |
| Championships | |
| **1** Baltic Championship
**8** Estonian Championships
**11** Estonian Cups | |


title: The Apocalypse Fire

abstract: The Apocalypse Fire is a 2016 mystery detective thriller novel by the English historian and journalist Dominic Selwood. It is part two of the Ava Curzon trilogy and sequel to The Sword of Moses. The novel's premise involves a hunt for an ancient biblical book to stave off a planned apocalypse in the Middle East, and features Dr Ava Curzon, an ex-MI6 archaeologist working at the British Museum.

text:
# The Apocalypse Fire

***The Apocalypse Fire***  is a 2016 mystery detective thriller novel by the English historian and journalist Dominic Selwood. It is part two of the Ava Curzon trilogy and sequel to The Sword of Moses.

The novel's premise involves a hunt for an ancient biblical book to stave off a planned apocalypse in the Middle East, and features Dr Ava Curzon, an ex-MI6 archaeologist working at the British Museum.

## Plot summary

Ava Curzon has returned from Baghdad to the British Museum, and is recruited by Britain’s ultra-secretive MI13 intelligence department to assist in recovering the Turin Shroud, which has been stolen by a Russian special forces team. As the chase moves to London, she finds herself on the trail of Oleg Durov, a Russian oligarch, who leads an apocalyptic group of castrati known as the Skoptsy.

With the stakes rising, Ava discovers that Durov possesses two of Rasputin’s personal notebooks, in which the Russian mystic left baffling clues. After a brazen attempt on her life, she infiltrates the headquarters of the mysterious Order of Malta in Rome, where the quest becomes infinitely more dangerous. Following up a hunch, she becomes involved with Mexican gang in London smuggling war-looted antiquities from the Middle East, and finds herself playing a lethal game over an ancient Aramaic artefact like none she has ever seen before. After re-establishing contact with Uri, a Mossad assassin, she solves Rasputin’s clues, which lead her to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where she finds an ancient manuscript hidden by a medieval Knight of Saint John.

As the net closes in on her, she solves the riddle of the knight’s manuscript, and is propelled towards the chilling climax, where she must confronts Durov and the Skoptsy at an ancient castle in the south of France. There, she finally comes face to face with the ancient biblical manuscript that has been driving the mystery all along. Finally, in the husk of the ancient Cathar castle of Montségur, where the medieval heretics were burned alive, she has to face Durov, and present him from unleashing his plan of devastation in the Middle East.

## Principal Characters

* Dr Ava Curzon, an archaeologist and former MI6 officer, now working at the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad reassembling the artefacts looted during the 2003 conflict
* David Ferguson, a former British army soldier, now with MI6
* Oleg Antonevich Durov, leader of the Skoptsy, an apocalyptic group of castrati
* Mary, an officer with the Vatican Intelligence Department
* Jack Swinton, an officer of Britain’s MI13 intelligence agency
* Sir Mark Jennings, a senior diplomat in the British Foreign Office
* Joaquín de Torquemada, Grand Master of the secretive Order of Malta
* Uri, a member of Mossad's Metsada department

## Critical reception

It was chosen by BBC radio as a feature “tale of violence, cults, and religious extremists”. It was described by the British Army's official publication, Soldier Magazine, as "Imagine the best of James Bond and The Da Vinci Code rolled into one, and that is what you get with this book". The UK's Catholic Herald newspaper said it "Keeps the tension ratcheted up ... Selwood breathes life into the conspiracy thriller by knowing his history and deploying it well." Counsel Magazine said "No frills … taut and tight … the story moves with the pace and grace of a Hollywood screenplay".

## InfoBox

The Apocalypse Fire
|  | |
| --- | --- |
| Author | Dominic Selwood |
| Genre | mystery, detective fiction, conspiracy fiction, thriller |
| Published | 31 October 2016 Canelo |
| Publication place | England |
| ISBN | 978-0-9926332-7-1 |
| Dewey Decimal | 823.92 |


title: Center for Mobile Communication Studies

abstract: The Center for Mobile Communication Studies (CMCS) is a research center at Boston University College of Communication. Its current director is Dr. James E Katz, Feld Professor of Emerging Media. The CMCS was established in June 2004 at the School of Communication and Information. it is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication, and that it has become an international focal point for research, teaching and service on the social, psychological and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution. The center's staff investigates how mobile communication is affecting human behavior as well as mobile technology's long-term organizational and policy implications. The center's staff includes: James E Katz, Ph.D., Director, Jacob Groshek, Ph.D., James Shanahan, Ph.D., Mina Tsay-Vogel, Ph.D., Tammy R. Vigil, Ph.D. T. Barton Carter, JD., Christopher B. Daly, and Dustin Supa. The Center helps to develop courses that enhance Boston University College of Communication's core focus on mediated communication in undergraduate and graduate coursework and outreach. The center also provides critical commentary and advice for public and non-profit groups and assists private sector organizations through research, information dissemination, and expert consultation. The center's official launch at Boston University took place on April 9, 2014.

text:
# Center for Mobile Communication Studies

The **Center for Mobile Communication Studies** (CMCS) is a research center at Boston University College of Communication. Its current director is Dr. James E Katz, Feld Professor of Emerging Media.

The CMCS was established in June 2004 at the School of Communication and Information (Rutgers University). it is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication, and that it has become an international focal point for research, teaching and service on the social, psychological and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution.

The center's staff investigates how mobile communication is affecting human behavior as well as mobile technology's long-term organizational and policy implications. The center's staff includes: James E Katz, Ph.D., Director, Jacob Groshek, Ph.D., James Shanahan, Ph.D., Mina Tsay-Vogel, Ph.D., Tammy R. Vigil, Ph.D. T. Barton Carter, JD., Christopher B. Daly, and Dustin Supa.

The Center helps to develop courses that enhance Boston University College of Communication's core focus on mediated communication in undergraduate and graduate coursework and outreach. The center also provides critical commentary and advice for public and non-profit groups and assists private sector organizations through research, information dissemination, and expert consultation.

The center's official launch at Boston University took place on April 9, 2014.


abstract: The University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition (UMME) was an archaeological expedition in Messenia, Greece, conducted between 1953 and 1975. It was devised and begun by William McDonald, who also served as its director for most of its duration. The project had its origins in the decipherment of Linear B in the early 1950s, and the consequent realisation that the Linear B tablets unearthed at the site of Pylos in Messenia – where McDonald had excavated since 1939 – had been the centre of a Mycenaean polity that controlled sites across the region. In the early 1950s, McDonald, soon joined by Richard Hope Simpson, carried out field surveys to match the toponyms given in the Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos to then-undiscovered archaeological sites in Messenia. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the project expanded to survey 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) of territory, gathering records of habitation from the Neolithic to the Medieval periods. The UMME's work established Messenia as one of the best-studied regions of Mycenaean Greece, and has been cited as an inspiration for numerous other archaeological projects in Greece. Its distinctive methods included the involvement of specialists in scientific fields, such as geologists and botanists, as well as its diachronic perspective, including the study of the modern human geography and anthropological investigation as a means of generating hypotheses about the ancient exploitation and habitation of the region. Between 1969 and 1975, the expedition carried out the excavation of Nichoria, a Mycenaean and Early Iron Age site in southern Messenia, which proved a significant source of information about the end of the Bronze Age in Greece, as well as a proving ground and case study for the use of scientific, multi-disciplinary methods in archaeological excavation. Animal bone remains found at the site have become significant in reconstructing the diets of people in Mycenaean and Early Iron Age Greece, and a debated source of evidence for social changes at the end of the Mycenaean period.

text:
# University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition

The **University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition** (**UMME**) was an archaeological expedition in Messenia, Greece, conducted between 1953 and 1975. It was devised and begun by William McDonald, who also served as its director for most of its duration.

The project had its origins in the decipherment of Linear B in the early 1950s, and the consequent realisation that the Linear B tablets unearthed at the site of Pylos in Messenia – where McDonald had excavated since 1939 – had been the centre of a Mycenaean polity that controlled sites across the region. In the early 1950s, McDonald, soon joined by Richard Hope Simpson, carried out field surveys to match the toponyms given in the Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos to then-undiscovered archaeological sites in Messenia. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the project expanded to survey 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) of territory, gathering records of habitation from the Neolithic to the Medieval periods.

The UMME's work established Messenia as one of the best-studied regions of Mycenaean Greece, and has been cited as an inspiration for numerous other archaeological projects in Greece. Its distinctive methods included the involvement of specialists in scientific fields, such as geologists and botanists, as well as its diachronic perspective, including the study of the modern human geography and anthropological investigation as a means of generating hypotheses about the ancient exploitation and habitation of the region.

Between 1969 and 1975, the expedition carried out the excavation of Nichoria, a Mycenaean and Early Iron Age site in southern Messenia, which proved a significant source of information about the end of the Bronze Age in Greece, as well as a proving ground and case study for the use of scientific, multi-disciplinary methods in archaeological excavation. Animal bone remains found at the site have become significant in reconstructing the diets of people in Mycenaean and Early Iron Age Greece, and a debated source of evidence for social changes at the end of the Mycenaean period.

## Background and rationale

In a later reflection on the project, McDonald stated that the inspiration for the Minnesota Messenia Expedition came in 1953. McDonald had been working on the excavations of the so-called "Palace of Nestor" at Ano Englianos (now known as "Pylos") in Messenia, which had commenced under the joint directorship of the American archaeologist Carl Blegen and Konstantinos Kourouniotis, an archaeologist representing the Greek Archaeological Service, in the spring of 1939. The project at Pylos took on a significant role in the decipherment of Linear B, the writing system used in Mycenaean Greece. On April 3, 1939, the excavation's first trench hit an area later known as the Archives Complex, which contained over 600 tablets and fragments. McDonald, who was supervising the digging, spent several days along with Blegen excavating them by hand, receiving his director's tribute in the excavation write-up for his "circumspection, perseverance and long-suffering in spending so many days on his hands and knees in positions of extreme discomfort."

Interrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War, the excavations resumed in 1952. Kourouniotis had died in 1945, leaving Blegen in sole charge of the excavations: his successor at Archaeological Service, Spyridon Marinatos, focused his efforts primarily on fieldwork in the wider Messenia region. On May 19 1953, the British scholar Michael Ventris wrote to Blegen, offering a transcription and translation of the Linear B tablet PY Ta 641 found at Pylos the previous year. Ventris' translation of this tablet served as near-conclusive proof that he had correctly deciphered Linear B, that Linear B encoded a form of Greek. In turn, the translation signalled the possibility of reading the archive of Linear B tablets that Blegen, with McDonald's assistance, had begun to unearth at Pylos. The Pylos tablets revealed a large number of toponyms, and gave hints as to the political organisation of the Mycenaean state centred on Pylos – in particular, its organisation into a "Hither Province" and a "Further Province".

Blegen, along with Ventris' collaborator John Chadwick and other scholars, saw the need for a greater understanding of the Mycenaean-era sites and settlements of Messenia, in order to match the toponyms listed in the Linear B tablets with the sites to which they related. While some field survey work had been carried out in Messenia during the first half of the 20th century, the number of known sites was comparatively low, and the quality of survey variable across different parts of the region. In 1935, the German archaeologist Georg Karo had been able to list only twenty-two plausibly-dated Mycenaean sites, most of which were in turn derived from the survey conducted by the Swedish Natan Valmin, who had focused his efforts on the Soulima Valley in the north of the region. Other small-scale surveys had taken place in the 1930s and 1940s, principally two investigations by the American Jerome Sperling and the German Ernst Meyer in the north of Messenia, while Blegen had surveyed the region around the Bay of Navarino in early 1939. However, there was little understanding of how settlements had been distributed between these disconnected areas. Blegen therefore suggested that McDonald make a large-scale survey of Messenia, aiming in particular to identify 'towns' contemporary with the Linear B tablets.

The British landscape archaeologist John Cherry would later chart another line of inspiration for the UMME in McDonald's interest in the historicity of the Homeric epics, pointing to McDonald's 1942 article 'Where Did Nestor Live?', which attempted to use evidence from the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* to argue for the site of Ano Englianos as the home of Homer's Nestor. Indeed, McDonald's later collaborator, Richard Hope Simpson, would publish several works in the same methodological vein, including his Ph.D. thesis and his co-authored 1970 volume *The Catalogue of the Ships in Homer's Iliad*, both of which attempted to find the archaeological analogues of the toponyms used in the so-called "Catalogue of Ships" in the second book of the *Iliad*, and the publication of the UMME's findings would include the Trojan War as an historical event on its chronological chart.

## The survey project (1953–1968)

### McDonald's first surveys (1953–1959)

> "Naturally, our methods of search were modelled on those of Blegen and Wace. They are sound methods, tested and improved over a half century ... The basis is the typological study of the surface pottery; but, of course, one must first locate the sites on which pottery may be found. To do this successfully it is essential to have a firm grasp of the ancient topographical sources and to build on it a thorough familiarity with the modern countryside. One must learn the location of the best agricultural land and most abundant sources of water, what constitutes a good defensive location, healthful orientation, good drainage, easy communication. A knowledge of the present–day language and good rapport with local farmers and officials is also important. So are patience, a dependable and rugged method of transportation, and above all experience and sound instinct gained by trial and error over several seasons."

William McDonald and Richard Hope Simpson, in the publication of the UMME, 1972.

In the earliest surveys, the main approach was to identify toponyms in Classical writers, particularly Homer, Strabo and Pausanias, and to attempt to cross–reference the descriptions of the places given in the ancient sources with the most likely sites for ancient settlement, given the surveyors' interpretation of the modern topography. McDonald and his collaborators largely looked for material dated to the LH IIIB period (c.1300 – c.1180 BCE), contemporary with the destruction of the palace at Pylos and the Linear B tablets discovered there. While these expeditions did not formally take place under the UMME name, McDonald and Hope Simpson would later include them under that label in their retrospective assessments of the development of the project.

McDonald's first surveys took place over two weeks in 1953, covering an area 5 to 10 kilometres (3.1 to 6.2 mi) in radius around the site of the Palace of Nestor, accompanied by Charalambos Christophilopoulos, a Messenian who had studied archaeology under Kourouniotis. He returned for four months in 1955, surveying the coastal region between Kyparissia and Methoni alongside Dionysios Androutsakis, the foreman of Blegen's excavations at Pylos. Finally, McDonald's receipt of a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1958–1959 allowed him to undertake a further series of expeditions with Androutsakis during 1958, from Korone to the Alfeios river. In other respects, McDonald experienced logistical and financial difficulties, later writing of his frustrations from having "practically no assured funding, and collegial attitudes ranging from cooperation to apathy to obstructionism." The Greek Archaeological Service issued annual permits for the work, and supervised the project's activities via its ephors for the Western Peloponnese.

In the spring of 1959, McDonald was joined by Richard Hope Simpson, with whom he developed the surveying methods that would characterise the project over its duration. These included large-scale, extensive survey (what McDonald called "regional exploration"), initially conducted by using a Land Rover to drive around Messenia and coming across sites by happenstance. Other distinctive methods of the UMME included a focus on identifying sites through surface finds rather than excavating them, a diachronic focus that collected and reported on evidence of habitation from the Neolithic until the Medieval period, and the attempt to find explanations for the patterns of site distribution and function observed through survey. The survey's approach would later be referred to as 'the Hope Simpson method', a label which McDonald resisted, writing in retrospect that "field strategies were not imposed by one collaborator but were gradually evolved by joint experience and discussion".

An early indicator of the project's diachronic nature was the presence throughout the 1959 season of Peter Topping, director of the Gennadeion Library in Athens, who was researching the medieval habitation of Messenia. The later project's interdisciplinary nature was also foreshadowed by the two weeks in which Diomedes Charalambous, a geologist from the University of Athens, took part in the expedition, using an auger to uncover evidence of coastline changes since the Bronze Age.

McDonald and Hope Simpson undertook a final, short expedition in July 1960, checking the results of their survey with the assistance of Hope Simpson's frequent collaborator John Lazenby, before publishing their initial findings in the *American Journal of Archaeology*.

### The University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition (1961–1968)

The UMME name was first formally used for the expedition from the 1961 season onwards. McDonald and Hope Simpson were joined on this expedition by three members of the University of Minnesota faculty: Jesse Fant, a civil engineer; Herbert E. Wright, a geologist; and Fred Lukermann, a geographer. During this period, the project received more regular funding: from the Louis W. and Maude Hill Family Foundation in 1962, 1964 and 1967; from the Bollingen Foundation of New York in 1963; and from various private donors. The expeditions' directors later wrote that all of these "should be credited with a crucial part in the UMME project."

As the project progressed, its scale and disciplinary range increased, inspired by contemporary projects in the Middle East (particularly the "Prehistoric Project", which surveyed in Iraq, Iran and Turkey, led by Robert Braidwood and Bruce Howe, and Robert McCormick Adams' Diyala Basin Archaeological Project), and in the New World (particularly the Teotihuacan Valley Project under William T. Sanders).McDonald and Hope Simpson expected all of the project's specialists to spend time working and socialising together, to read each other's work, and to become as familiar as possible with each other's area of expertise. The project secured the assistance of the Royal Hellenic Air Force to create aerial photographs of the region of Messenia, which were then interpreted by Fant (and later William Loy, who joined the project as a geographer and cartographer in 1965,) to identify potential ancient sites: McDonald and Hope Simpson later estimated that this allowed them to reduce their false positive rate for site identification below 50%, in contrast to over 90% from surface survey alone. While Hope Simpson and McDonald focused on the surface pottery, Fant surveyed for ancient roads while Wright attempted to reconstruct the paleotopography of the region. In total, the 1961 season uncovered around 150 probable Mycenaean sites.

The expedition returned to Messenia between March 25 and July 21, 1963, with the additional participation of the botanist Willem van Zeist; John Lazenby and his brother Stephen, an officer in the Royal Navy; Demetrios Christodoulou of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization; the ceramics specialist Frederick R. Matson; and Eskil Broburg, a graduate student at the University of Minnesota who served as the expedition's photographer. In 1964, Lukermann carried out investigations into the ancient population distribution, while Matson and Hope Simpson carried out anthropological investigations of contemporary ceramics manufacture on the island of Sifnos. Hope Simpson led the field survey between 1964 and 1968, also serving as acting director of the project from 1966 to 1968 as a result of McDonald's illness. He was assisted throughout by Fant; in 1964 by Lazenby; in 1965 by Roger Howell, a student at the British School at Athens; in 1967 by McDonald and in 1968 by two graduate students, Nancy Wilkie and Nancy Spencer. Loy, then Luckermann's Ph.D. student, assisted Hope Simpson with the 1966 field survey.

The findings of the project, which eventually surveyed around 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) of Messenia, were published in the multidisciplinary volume *The Minnesota Messenia Expedition: Reconstructing a Bronze-Age Regional Environment* in 1972, edited by McDonald and Rapp. Reviewing the work in the *American Journal of Archaeology*, L. Vance Watrous credited it, along with Blegen's volumes from the Pylos excavations, as having established Messenia as "the best-documented region of prehistoric Greece", an estimation echoed by the Mycenaean scholar Sterling Dow. In total, the project found 215 prehistoric sites and a further 98 inhabited between the Classical and medieval periods. The project estimated the overall population of Mycenaean Messenia at around 50,000, a figure McDonald reaffirmed in a 1979 article co-written with Joan Carothers.

## The excavation of Nichoria (1969–1975)

The excavation of Nichoria was conceived as the second phase of the Minnesota expedition, and as an opportunity to test in detail the large-scale hypotheses generated by the survey project. During the UMME survey, the site was suggested by John Chadwick as a possible location for the settlement known in the Linear B as 𐀵𐀗𐀶𐀀𐀑𐀁 (*ti-mi-to-a-ke-e*): the capital of Pylos' 'Further Province' and an important site for the flax industry, as well as the region's coastal defence.

McDonald first identified the prehistoric site of Nichoria in October 1958, and conducted test excavations there in 1959 with Nicholas Yalouris, ephor of the Western Peloponnese for the Greek Archaeological Service, to assess the suitability of the site for a full-scale excavation. Excavations, under the permits of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, took place between 1969 and 1973, with processing work continuing until 1975, and were published in three volumes between 1978 and 1983.

The site of Nichoria, which included a settlement and associated cemeteries, covered around 50,000 square metres (5.0 ha), centred around a 500m ridge that has been described as "perhaps the most eroded site ever to be excavated in Greece". Approximately 4,600 square metres (0.46 ha), or 9.2%, of the site was excavated in total. After an initial eight-week season in 1969, focusing on test excavations in seven areas of the site, work in 1970–1971 focused on the areas labelled in 1969 as I–IV, uncovering the remains of a *tholos* tomb (since known to scholarship as the "UMME" or "MME" tholos) and evidence of habitation from the Early Helladic period (c.3100 – c.2000 BCE) into the Early Iron Age.

The excavators found evidence of the abandonment of the site around 750 BCE, and suggested that this may have been a consequence of the defeat of the Messenians by the Spartans in the First Messenian War.

The excavation of Nichoria was particularly notable for its use of the scientific approaches of the 'New Archaeology' (now generally known as 'processual archaeology') developed in the 1960s. In the initial 1969 season, the whole site was surveyed by magnetometer, allowing the excavators to estimate the overall size of the ancient settlement at approximately 40,000 square metres (4.0 ha). The excavators experimented with the use of photogrammetry to produce maps of the site, and employed both dry sieving and wet sieving, then unusual in classical archaeology, to process soil samples, allowing the recovery of small fragments of artefacts as well as archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological remains. Attempts were also made to carbon-date some of the remains, which helped to indicate some of the limitations of the use of this technique in the Aegean region.

## Notable participants

## Legacy

John Cherry described the UMME as a "watershed" in the understanding of Bronze-Age Greece. It has been described as "the first truly multidisciplinary archaeological expedition in Greece", and credited with "kick-starting" the practice of regional studies in that country. It was the first of numerous regional landscape surveys in Greece, such as the Southern Argolid Survey and the Berbati Valley Project, which often adopted a more intensive survey methodology while maintaining the UMME's interdisciplinary, diachronic approach. In particular, the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project, which began in 1990, aimed to build on the material collected by the UMME; its director, Jack Davis, later cited the 1972 "Mycenaean Geography" conference at the University of Cambridge, centred on the results of the UMME, as the source of his interest in Messenia. Specifically, Davis hoped to complement the UMME's collection of large-scale, low-resolution information with more detailed, intensive survey of smaller areas of the region.

The survey expeditions significantly expanded the corpus of known Mycenaean sites, particularly those outside palatial centres like Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos, few of which had previously been excavated. The surveys carried out directly by the UMME were complemented by contemporary work by Spyridon Marinatos, who largely focused on funerary sites, and Natan Valmin, who surveyed and excavated in the region of Malthi. By the completion of the UMME survey, more *tholos* tombs were known in Messenia than had been known in all of Greece before 1940. The UMME's approach was later criticised for its reliance on aerial photography and the investigators' intuition to identify areas for survey, which led to uneven coverage and a tendency to miss smaller sites, particularly those whose location did not conform to the surveyors' expectations, but also described as "a prodigious influence on the development of archaeology in Greece", which "permitted for the first time the systematic examination of Mycenaean geography."

The UMME's findings were significant in the debate over the end of the Mycenaean period, sometimes termed the Late Bronze Age collapse. The excavations at Nichoria, in particular, have been described as "fundamental" for the understanding of the transition between the Bronze Age and Iron Age in Greece, as well as for the development of the Greek *polis*. At the end of the Bronze Age (c.1180 BCE), many Mycenaean sites, including the Palace of Nestor, were destroyed by fire, and the palatial system of administration that had characterised later Mycenaean civilisation ceased to exist. The UMME observed significantly fewer sites that could be dated to the LH IIIC period (c.1180 – c.1050 BCE), postdating the "collapse", than those that could be dated to the LH IIIB period preceding it, and these observations have been taken as evidence of demographic decline, either through mortality or emigration. However, the expedition also observed a large amount of continuity in site use and habitation on either side of the LH IIIB/IIIC divide, which suggested to McDonald and Hope Simpson that any collapse in the society of Mycenaean Messenia could not have been total. They also argued that their evidence weighed against then-popular theories for the reasons behind the end of the palatial system, including an external "Dorian Invasion" or a widespread uprising against palatial rule. The question of Messenia's population in the final decades of the Late Bronze Age remains controversial: in 2017, the archaeologist Sarah C. Murray wrote that "the record of intensive survey data, especially that from the period between the thirteenth and eighth century BCE, is deeply problematic for reconstructing accurate population figures."

### The animal bones from Nichoria

The project's interest in zooarchaeology and the recovery of animal bones made Nichoria into an important site for the study of diet in Mycenaean and Iron Age Greece. Initial examination by the expedition's animal-bone specialists, Robert Sloan and Mary Ann Duncan, suggested that the primary meat consumed at Nichoria during the Mycenaean period came from goats, followed by sheep, pigs and cattle. This provided a contrast with the proportion of animals mentioned in the Linear B tablets, where cattle and sheep predominated – a difference which Cynthia Shelmerdine, one of the UMME's archaeologists, suggested as a reflection of the greater interest of palace-based scribes in these animals, which had more direct economic importance to the palace. Sloan and Duncan also observed a significant increase in the proportion of cattle bones in the Early Iron Age, accounting for around 35% of the animals recorded versus 20% in the Mycenaean period, which they connected with a shift towards the use of cattle for meat, rather than for milk.

In the late 1980s, the British archaeologist Anthony Snodgrass used the results from Nichoria to argue for a "pastoral hypothesis" to explain the apparent drop in observed settlement numbers throughout Greece between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Under this hypothesis, large, permanent, archaeologically-visible settlements were abandoned in favour of transient pastoralism, which Snodgrass justified by the apparent rise in the proportion of cattle reared and consumed at Nichoria during this period. However, later studies by Elizabeth Mancz, who completed a PhD on the material in the 1980s, and Flint Dibble, who reviewed and reassessed the bones in the early 21st century, questioned the underlying data. Both Mancz and Dibble suggested that the apparent increase in the ratio of cattle bones is best explained by taphonomic processes, specifically chemical and attritional weathering, which had a disproportionate effect on later chronological layers (which lay closer to the surface) and the smaller bones of goats and sheep, and so artificially inflated the apparent proportion of cattle in the Early Iron Age samples vis-à-vis those from the Bronze Age. In addition, archaeobotanical evidence suggests that all of the subsistence plants cultivated at Nichoria during the Bronze Age continued to be grown during the Early Iron Age, which has led to the general rejection of the "pastoral hypothesis" by scholars.

## Footnotes

### Explanatory Notes

### References

1. McDonald 1984, p. 185.
2. Tracy 2018, p. 13.
3. Blegen 1953, p. 59.
4. Kourouniotis & Blegen 1939, p. 564.
5. Karadimas 2015, p. 183.
6. Bartonĕk 1958, p. 680.
7. Judson et al. 2019, p. 111.
8. Chadwick & Ventris 1956, pp. 141–145.
9. Chadwick 1961, pp. 125–126.
10. Karo 1935.
11. Valmin 1930.
12. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1961, p. 221.
13. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1972, p. 121.
14. Cherry 2004, p. 26.
15. McDonald 1942.
16. Hope Simpson 1963.
17. Hope Simpson & Lazenby 1970.
18. McDonald 1972b, p. 5.
19. McDonald 1972b, p. 10.
20. Shelmerdine 2008, p. 4.
21. McDonald 1984, p. 186.
22. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1961, p. 222.
23. McDonald & Rapp 1972, p. viii.
24. McDonald & Rapp 1972, p. 13.
25. McDonald & Rapp 1972, p. 16.
26. McDonald 1984, p. 187.
27. Greenberg 1962.
28. McDonald 1972b, p. 13.
29. McDonald 1972b, pp. 14–15.
30. McDonald 1972b, p. 15.
31. McDonald & Rapp 1972, p. 9.
32. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1972, p. 122.
33. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1964, p. 229.
34. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1969, p. 123.
35. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1969, p. 124.
36. Loy & Wright 1972, p. 36.
37. McDonald & Rapp 1972.
38. Watrous 1974, p. 86.
39. Dow 1978, p. 399.
40. McDonald & Rapp 1972, pp. 264–308.
41. McDonald & Rapp 1972, pp. 309–321.
42. McDonald & Rapp 1972, pp. 255.
43. Carothers & McDonald 1979, p. 450.
44. McDonald & Thomas 1990, p. 366.
45. McDonald & Rapp 1972, pp. 5–6.
46. McDonald & Thomas 1990, p. 359.
47. Chadwick 1972, p. 111.
48. Shelmerdine 1981, p. 321.
49. McDonald 1972a, p. 218.
50. McDonald 1972b, p. 16.
51. Hood 1985, p. 159.
52. McDonald 1972a, p. 237.
53. Muhly 1980, p. 101.
54. Aprile 2013, p. 430.
55. Petrakis 2021, p. 305.
56. McDonald 1972a, p. 231.
57. Hood 1985, p. 160.
58. McDonald 1972a, p. 33.
59. Muhly 1980, p. 102.
60. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1969, p. 125.
61. Shelmerdine 2014, p. xiii.
62. McDonald 1972a, p. 225.
63. *Modern Approaches to Ancient History*, lecture delivered at the University of Washington, 1987, quoted in McDonald and Thomas 1990, p. 405
64. Dibble 2017, p. 37.
65. Davis 2022, p. 16.
66. Kardulias 1994, p. 45.
67. Davis 2022, p. 19.
68. Cosmopoulos 2006, p. 395.
69. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1972, p. 120.
70. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1972, p. 135.
71. McDonald & Thomas 1990, p. 247.
72. Davis 2022, p. 18.
73. Davis et al. 1997, p. 395.
74. Monzani 2011, p. 69.
75. Deger-Jalkotzy 2008, p. 390.
76. Deger-Jalkotzy 2008, p. 394.
77. McDonald & Hope Simpson 1969, p. 177.
78. Murray 2017, p. 230.
79. Mayhew, Neale & Tandy 1985, p. 133.
80. Hamilakis 1996, p. 164.
81. Sloan & Duncan 1978, pp. 60–77.
82. Shelmerdine 1981, p. 324.
83. Snodgrass 1987, pp. 170–210.
84. Snodgrass 1987, p. 202.
85. Mancz 1989.
86. Dibble 2017, p. 114–118.
87. Dibble & Fallu 2020.
88. Foxhall 2015, p. 425.

## Bibliography

### Publications of the UMME

* Rapp, George; Aschenbrenner, Stanley E., eds. (1978). *Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece, Volume I: Site, Environs, and Techniques*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0824-9.
* McDonald, William; Wilkie, Nancy, eds. (1992). *Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece. Vol. 2, The Bronze Age Occupation*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0824-9.
* McDonald, William; Coulson, William D. E.; Rosser, John, eds. (1983). *Excavations at Nichoria in Southwest Greece. Vol. 3, Dark Age and Byzantine Occupation*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00107772. ISBN 978-0-8166-1144-7. S2CID 246875825.
* McDonald, William; Shay, C.Thomas; Wilkie, Nancy; Hope Simpson, Richard; Coulson, William D.E.; Donovan, William P.; Blitzer, Harriet; Rosser, J.; Aschenbrenner, Stanley; Howell, R.J.; Dickinson, Oliver T.P.K.; Hughes-Brock, Helen; Wade, William D.; Wolberg, Donald L.; Grady, Frederick V.; Sloan, Robert E.; Shay, Jennifer; Rapp, George; Cooke, S.R.B. (1975). "Excavations at Nichoria in Messenia: 1972-1973". *Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens*. **44** (1): 69–141. doi:10.2307/147426. JSTOR 147426.
* McDonald, William; Rapp, George, eds. (1972). *The Minnesota Messenia Expedition: Reconstructing a Bronze Age Regional Environment*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0636-8.
* McDonald, William (1972a). "Excavations at Nichoria in Messenia: 1969–71". *Hesperia*. **41** (2): 218–273. doi:10.2307/147682. JSTOR 147682.
* McDonald, William; Hope Simpson, Richard (1969). "Further Explorations in Southwestern Peloponnese: 1964-1968". *American Journal of Archaeology*. **73** (2): 123–177. doi:10.2307/502778. JSTOR 502778. S2CID 191396062.
* McDonald, William; Hope Simpson, Richard (1964). "Further Exploration in Southwestern Peloponnese: 1962–1963". *American Journal of Archaeology*. **68** (3): 229–245. doi:10.2307/502386. JSTOR 502386. S2CID 191378537.
* McDonald, William; Hope Simpson, Richard (1961). "Prehistoric Habitation in Southwestern Peloponnese". *American Journal of Archaeology*. **65** (3): 221–260. doi:10.2307/501685. JSTOR 501685. S2CID 191400047.

### Other works cited


title: Sequana Capital

abstract: Sequana Capital was a French pulp and paper company.

text:
# Sequana Capital

**Sequana Capital** was a French pulp and paper company.

## History

The company was founded as a coal importing business known as Worms and Cie in 1848. After diversifying into banking and finance it acquired Arjo Wiggins, a paper manufacturing business, in 2000. The founding Worms family stood down from the board in 2004 and it was renamed Sequana Capital in 2005. Following a protracted dispute with British American Tobacco over the payment of dividends, it was placed in liquidation in 2019.

## InfoBox

Sequana Capital
| Website | wormsetcie.com |
| --- | --- |