Where is glycogen stored in the body? How is it utilized to regulate blood sugar levels?
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Glycogen (commonly known as animal starch although this name is inaccurate) is a polysaccharide that is the principal storage form of glucose (Glc) in animal and human cells. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol in many cell types. Hepatocytes (liver cells) have the highest concentration of it - up to 8% of the fresh weight in well fed state, or 100–120 g in an adult. In the muscles, glycogen is found in a much lower concentration (1% of the muscle mass), but the total amount exceeds that in liver. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and white blood cells. Glycogen plays an important role in the glucose cycle.\n\nAs a carbohydrate meal is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Glucose from the portal vein enters the liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.\n\nAfter a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. About four hours after a meal, glycogen begins to be broken down to be converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8–12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen will be the primary source of blood glucose to be used by the rest of the body for fuel.
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LIVER\n\nIt plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body including glycogen storage, plasma protein synthesis, and drug detoxification. This organ also is the largest gland in the human body. It produces bile, which is important in digestion. It performs and regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions requiring specialized tissues.\n\nFAT\n\nFats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. They also serve as energy stores for the body. Fats are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy. The fatty acids are a good source of energy for many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle.
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glycosylated Hb is a Hb which is bound to glucose!\nthis occurs normally due to presence of glucose in the blood but id the amount of glucose is increased as in un controlled diabetes mellitus you will get high amount of HBb in the blood!\nit is useful in follow up of diabetic patients as some people who don't control their diabetes and coming fasting to their doctors! the urine results will be as if the patient controlling his diabetes but when examine the blood the doctor can find an increased amount of HBb and thus knowing that the patient where trying to deceive the doctors! this is happening!
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Glucose is a hyperglycemic it increases the BGL. It is used for diabetic hypo. In normal people this increase in glucose level stimulates insulin so the level falls. Its a balance between insulin, lowering blood glucose and other hormones like glucagon, adrenalin,steroids which increase the glucose level. Insulin is absent or low or ineffective in Diabetics so there is hyperglycemia. in diabetes--hypo occurs when you take the pill or shot and dont have food. the blood sugar falls dangerously low and the patient faints. The brain needs glucose 24*7. if there isnt glucose for 8 min or so there will be brain damage. In that case u give glucose IV and/or glucagon.
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In the absence of insulin, glucose remains in the blood and causes hyperglycemia (high blood sugar).  The liver is unable to metabolize the glucose and turns on the pathways for glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.  These pathways then produce additional glucose from glycogen, amino acids and glycerol.  \n\nSo in a nutshell the answer to your question is B.
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Insulin inhibits glucagon release BUT why does glucagon STIMULATE release of insulin? \n\n\nGlucagon does not directly stimulate release of Insulin. It is a cycle and negative feedback mechanism of glycogenesis and glucogenesis. In state of starvation, hunger, or decrease/low bood glucose level, glycogenolysis will be stimulated. Glycogenolysis pathway(breakdown of stored glycogen in liver cell not in muscle cell) Glucagon stimulates the debranching enzyme(cis and trans) to cut-off glycogen to form free Glucose. Where as in a state of high glucose blood level a negative feed back mechanism will occur. Insulin from Beta cells of Pancreas wiil be stimulated(Glucagon came from Alpha cell of pancreas). Insulin will stimulate the glycogenesis pathway.\nWhere-in the excess glucose will be stored as glycogen to liver and muscle cells.\n\nI made this explanation as brief and easy for you to understand. But if you are really interesterested in molecular level. Check out and read Carbohydrates Metabolism of Biochemistry book of Harpers. I hope this one is helpful to you.GoodLuck!
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Diabetes Mellitus, commonly referred to as "diabetes," means "sweet urine." Diabetes mellitus means "to flow, honey" in Greek\n\nIt is a disease that affects the body's ability to produce or respond to insulin, a hormone that allows blood glucose (blood sugar) to enter the cells of the body and be used for energy. It results from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. In diabetes too much glucose stays in the blood. Elevated levels of blood glucose (hyperglycemia) lead to spillage of glucose into the urine.\n\nAs a result of elevated levels of blood glucose, two problems occur: body cells become starved for energy, and, over time, the high glucose levels can damage the nerves, eyes, kidneys, heart and blood vessels.\n\nDiabetes is not an infectious disease, like a cold or flu. You can’t "catch" it from someone else, and no one can catch it from you. Diabetes is a lifelong disease.\n\nMen with diabetes often have erectile dysfunction which can begin before the diagnosis of diabetes is made. It is therefore recommended that men with unexplained erectile dysfunction be screened for diabetes with a fasting blood glucose test.\n\nWhat is High Blood Sugar?\n\n    * Normal blood sugar: 65 -140.\n    * High blood sugar: 250-350\n    * Very high blood sugar: (over 350) \n\nWhat happens when blood sugar falls too low?\n\nWhen blood sugar falls too low, the body will begin a process to increase blood sugar. The process is listed below.\n\n   1. The pancreas releases a hormone called glucagon\n   2. The muscles and liver convert their stored glycogen back into glucose.\n   3. When the stored glycogen is used up, the liver, kidneys, and small intestines can break down protein into glucose.\n\nSymptoms of Diabetes?\n\nSymptoms include:\n\n    * excessive thirst\n    * excessive urination\n    * infections (thrush)\n    * extreme hunger\n    * unusual weight loss\n    * extreme fatigue\n    * irritability\n    * nausea\n    * vomiting\n    * sweet smelling breath\n\nTypes of Diabetes\n\nThere are 4 main types of diabetes\n\n    * Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)\n    * Non Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)\n    * Gestational Diabetes\n    * Secondary Diabetes \n\nSecondary diabetes mellitus refers to elevated blood sugar levels that develop as the result of another medical condition. Secondary diabetes mellitus also develops when the pancreatic tissue responsible for the production of insulin is absent because it is destroyed by disease, such as chronic pancreatitis, trauma, or surgical removal of the pancreas. Diabetes can also result from other hormonal disturbances, such as excessive growth hormone production (acromegaly) and Cushing's syndrome.\n\nCure for Diabetes?\n\nA cure for Diabetes has not been found yet.  However, it can be controlled. Ways to control diabetes are: maintaining blood glucose levels, blood fat levels and weight.  Blood glucose levels can be maintained by following a diet designed by your doctor, exercising, and eating at regular intervals.\n\nTreatment Options for Diabetes?\n\nSome of the most common treatment options are: oral medicines (Diabetes pills), dietary changes, exercise, insulin and islet Cell Transplantation. The oral medicines may have negative side effects. The side effects of the oral medicines include: nausea, diarrhea, metallic taste in mouth, low blood glucose, skin rash or itching, and weight gain. Rare side effects are Liver failure, Respiratory infection, Headache, and Pain\n\nHow is Diabetes mellitus diagnosed?\n\nDiabetes can be diagnosed by performing a fasting plasma glucose test. The test is as follows: After the person has fasted overnight (at least 8 hours), a sample of blood is drawn and sent to the laboratory for analysis.\n\nNormal fasting plasma glucose levels are less than 110 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl). Fasting plasma glucose levels of more than 126 mg/dl on two or more tests on different da
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D-glucose (or just glucose, or dextrose) is the "normal" carbohydrate that biochemistry uses as both energy and as a building block for starches, cellulose etc.  \nL-glucose is it's "non-superimposable mirror image".  It is the left-handed version of glucose (if you can accept the notion that it is "right handed"\nL-glucose plays no biochemical role that I know of.
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Glucose is important to the body because it is broken down into just water and carbon dioxide in the process of oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of your cells-this requires oxygen..  This is where your body gets 95% of it's evergy-for example, runners use oxydative phosphorylation (aerobic energy) and can go steadily for 26 miles (or more)-while weightlifters when lifting use primarily anaerobic energy (without oxygen)-that only can give energy for a minute or so.  WIthout aerobic metabolism you would die in a few minutes.  So, glucose plus oxygen is where you get energy, and it happens in the mitochondria of cells.  Cyanide interfers with this reaction in the mitochondria, so that oxygen cannot be used to make energy (so cyanide primarily works against oxygen, but since it's glucose + oxygen that is burned to make the energy, is might as well work against glucose as well).  Burning glucose for energy using oxygen is exactly the same as burning fuel in a fire.  If you start a fire, but keep it from getting oxygen, it'll go out- cyanide starves your body of the oxygen, so *your* fire goes out.
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Diabetes is itself a derangement of the endocrine system. In type 1, a major endocrine system has completely failed. There is no insulin as a result of damage to the beta cells in charge of producing it. \n\nType 2 is more complicated. It is characteristically an inability of many body cells (about 2/3) to use insulin even if it's present. Some type 2s go on to have more insulin than normal in an attempt to get blood glucose levels down, or to beta cell death / exhaustion and reduced or no insulin. In any case, this is also a derangement of the endocrine system, also involving insulin.\n\nInsulin is tremendously important and is so important that it has been conserved across large evolutionary distance and time. The nematode worm, c elegans, uses insulin in much the same way and for the same purposes, that we do. So do fish. Beef insulin is exactly the same hormone as human insulin, except that it differs in two amino acids, and pork insulin is even closer, only one different amino acid. \n\nAs such, it's a great signal to rely on for controlling many things. If there's biochemical energy available, then protein synthesis will be possible, energetically. So cells use insulin levels to control amino acid uptake from blood stores. And similarly for electrolyte balances across cell membranes. And similarly for mobilization (or storage) of excess calories in the form of fats; if there's glucose in the blood, insulin levels will be high and so fats in the diet should be stored against future need. If there's little glucose in the blood, insulin will be low, and so energy in stores (ie, fat cells) should be used -- fats get dumped in the blood (as blood lipids), taken to the liver and turned into fuel for the rest of the body. (This is called ketosis, and it's the basis of the Atkins diet, though such diets are not 'normal' and, especially for diabetics, should be used with great caution. Diabetic ketoacidosis is a serious medical emergency and can be triggered by dietary derangements.) And so on and so on. \n\nInsulin is the direct cause of, or the indirect cause of, a great many things throughout the body. Consequences of its presence or absence are many, important, serious and cannot be too far wrong lest the damage be severe enough to cause damage or death.
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The empirical formula of glycogen is(C6H10O5)n.\n                                       \nGlycogen is a highly-branched polymer of 10,000 to 120,000 Glc residues and molecular weight between 106 and 107 daltons. Most of Glc units are linked by a α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, approximately 1 in 12 Glc residues also makes a α-1,6 glycosidic bond with a second Glc which results in creating of a branch. Glycogen has only one reducing end and a large number of nonreducing ends with a free hydroxy group at carbon 4. The glycogen granules contain both glycogen and the enzymes of glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and degradation (glycogenolysis). The enzymes are nested between the outer branches of the glycogen molecules and act on the nonreducing ends. Therefore, the many nonreducing end-branches of glycogen facilitate its rapid synthesis and breakdown.
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Normal glucose blood levels vary from person to person, but almost all fall into the range of 90 to 120 mg/dl when fasting. For perhaps 2 hours after a meal, glucose levels rise  to perhaps 140 mg/dl until the meal has been fully digested and absorbed. \n\nGlucose is kept at (or very near) the normal level at all times by arranging for stored glucose (in the liver) to be put into the blood when the level drops and by releasing insulin when blood glucose levels rise which forces most body cells (about 2/3) to absorb glucose from the blood. \n\nIn diabetes, either the the amount of insulin is reduced (loss of production) or body cells become insensitive to it. Or both in some cases. The result is more glucose left in the blood than normal, and that is the characteristic (and diagnostic) sign of diabetes (either Type).
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Impaired glucose tolerance is a condition similar to diabetes mellitus and can develop into it.\n\nThe body cannot handle the level of sugar in the bloodstream and this makes you thristy, drinking helps you urinate the excess sugar out of your system. \n\nWhat it means is that the body's insulin production is faltering for it not to be able to handle the sugar properly.
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It produces enzymes that are released into the small intestine to help with digestion. It also contains clusters of cells called islets. The cells in these islets produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon, which help control the level of glucose (a type of sugar) in the blood.
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After you eat, the food is broken down into glucose, the simple sugar that is the main source of energy for the body's cells. But your cells cannot use glucose without insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin helps the cells take in glucose and convert it to energy. When the pancreas does not make enough insulin or the body is unable to use the insulin that is present, the cells cannot use glucose. Excess glucose builds up in the bloodstream, setting the stage for diabetes.
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Four hormones are produced by the Langerhans islet cells. Insulin is produced in the B cells, glucagon in the A cells, somatostatin in the D cells, and pancreatic polypeptide in the F cells. Insulin promotes anabolism (building up of tissues) and inhibits catabolism (breaking down of tissues) in muscle, liver, and fat cells. It increases the rate of synthesis (blending) of glycogen, fatty acids, and proteins. Lack of insulin causes diabetes mellitus (a disease characterized by excess sugar in the blood and other body fluids).\n\nInsulin's most important feature is its ability to increase the rate of glucose (a crystalline sugar) absorption by cells. Glucose is the most efficient fuel used by and found in almost all cells. Insulin causes a decreased concentration of glucose in the blood and causes the cells to store glycogen (a starchlike substance), mostly in the liver. It also promotes the entry of other sugars and amino acids into the muscle and fat cells. Insulin is therefore responsible for promoting fat storage in fat cells and for the total quantity of protein in the body.
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The pancreas is the organ that contains the Alpha-Islet cells, also more commonly known as the Islets of Langerhans, which secrete insulin which is the enzyme responsible for lowering blood sugar, and beta-islet cells which are responsible for secreting proteins and enzymes responsible for causing the liver to convert stored reserves of glycogen in the liver into glucose to raise the blood sugar level to a normal level if the blood glucose level is below normal.