what is birefringence?
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Birefringence is caused by a directional dependence to the refractive index of a material. This is often caused by the underlying crystal structure of the material (the unit cell might not be translationally or rotationally invariant, for example), or by an imposed stress which imposes a "directionality" on an otherwise non-birefringent material (a polymer like polystyrene which has been stretched, for example).\n\nThe refractive index is the speed of light in a material divided by its speed in a vacuum. That means, if the material has a refractive index that differs in one direction from another, light will pass through in one direction more quickly than in the other. This leads to addition or cancellation of light wave intensity due to phase shifts, resulting in dark and light areas when the material is viewed with white light under crossed polarizers (if the material is not birefringent, all would appear "black" through crossed polarizers).\n\nThe refractive index is not a simple number, or "scalar". It is actually best represented by a quantity called a "tensor". A tensor is a mathematicl quantity that is helpful in describing the directional dependence of quantities like the refractive index or the state of stress ina material.
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The outgoing intensity is found by applying the effective transmittance of each of the three polarizers, in order.  Assuming ideal polarizers:\n\n(I out) = (I in) * (50%) * (cos(24))^2 * (cos(45-24))^2\n\nso (I in) = (2.3 W/m^2) / (0.5) / (.834565) / (.871572) = 6.324032\n\nor about 6.324 W/m^2\n\nNote that this assumes the 45 degree angle is measured in the same rotation direction (e.g., both CCW) as the 24 degree angle.  If the 45 degree angle is measured in the other direction (e.g., CW rather than CCW), then the factor (cos(45-24))^2 should instead be (cos(45+24))^2, which would give the value of 42.918 W/m^2 for the intensity of the incident light.
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This phenomenon is call total internal reflection.\nThe theory explaining the phenomenon is detailed in most good physics optics textbooks.
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A plane image or pair of two-dimensional images that, when appropriately viewed using both eyes, produces an image which appears to be three-dimensional. By taking a pair of photographs from slightly different angles and then allowing one eye to view each image, a stereogram is not difficult to produce. \n\nAmazingly, it turns out that the three-dimensional effect can be produced by both eyes looking at a single image by defocusing the eyes at a certain distance. Such stereograms are called "random-dot stereograms."
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If your refering to chiral compounds like in organic chemistry.  I don't believe the sign of optical rotation is affected by the concentration of a pure solution.  however, if you have a racemic mixture of two isomers but with different chiral orientations then you will find the optical rotation to be "cancelled out", perse.  Meaning one compound is rotated "theta" and the other compound is rotated -"theta".  Hope this helps
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Rayleigh scattering (named after Lord Rayleigh) is the scattering of light by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. It occurs when light travels in transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight from particles in the atmosphere is one reason light from the sky is blue.
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When sunlighht is reflected at a significant angle from a surface the reflected light tends to be partially polarized, meaning that one of the polarization directions of the light is more strongly reflected than the other (which is either transmitted or absorbed by the surface).\n\nA polarizer is an optical element that transmits only one polarization of the light and (depending on the type) either reflects or absorbs the other polarization.  The polarizers in polarized sunglasses use a plastic film that absorbs one of the polarizations.  They are oriented so that the more strongly reflected polarization will be absorbed by the polarizer.  You can see this by looking at reflections from water, pavement, or car windshields.  If you rotate the glasses, you will see the reflection decrease in the normal wearing orientation and increase when the glasses are rotated 90 degrees.\n\nThe plastic polarizers in sunglasses are made by starting with a thin film of polyvinvyl alcohol (PVA) that is stretched to align the molecules.  The film is then treated in an iodine solution. The iodine molecules are incorporated into the PVA film and aligned with the oiented PVA molecules.  The iodine treated film is then coated with a clear protective plastic layer to protect it from humidity which would ohterwise bleach the iodine from the film. Light that has its electric field polarized along the direction of the iodine chains is absorbed.  Light that is polarized perpendicular to the chains is transmitted.
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Polarized  Unpolar.  Magnifying  Difracting Refracting Magnifying
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It is refraction, which deals with specific properties of materials and the angle at which the light enters and exits the material.\n\nA prism in effect splits a ray of light in a manner that a really sharp knife could split a strand of hair.
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The process of polarization is to bend a ray of light as it passes through a lens. To bend a ray of light is to make it less harsh on the eye.
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Electromagnetic waves. When a wave reaches a surface seperating two media refraction occurs.
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Refraction: Deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or energy wave in passing obliquely from one medium (as air) into another (as glass) in which its velocity is different.
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An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide light along its length by total internal reflection. The light-guiding principle behind optical fibers was first demonstrated in Victorian times, but modern optical fibers were only developed beginning in the 1950's. Optical fibers became practical for use in communications in the late 1970's, and since then several technical advances have been made to extend the reach and speed capability of optical fibers, and lower the cost of fiber communications systems.
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light, for example is electromagnetic. The absorbance term for light, although dimensionless is defined as -log(T) where T is the % transmittance through the sample.
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Really interesting question. \n\nThe Abbe Sine Condition is explained simply and clearly online, see the link below. \n\nBasically it is a simple mathematical formula which predicts how to make lenses form a sharp, good quality image. It simply relates the angles of two kinds of light ray and helps in lens design.\n\nThe two kinds of light rays he talks about are rays beaming in close to the center line and rays starting at the center line and beaming outwards to the outer edges of the aperture (opening) of the lens.\n\nThese two types of rays are called paraxial (because they are almost PARAllel to the AXIs) and marginal rays (because they head towards the MARGIN or edge of the lens opening). \n\nThese simple equations are still used today in Computer Graphics for tracing the paths of light rays and producing realistic effects.\n\nAbbe was a cool guy, he was one of the first managers to insist on an eight hour day for his workers.
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The link suggests laminations with polarized films.  Good luck.
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there is an optical effect like this ( it is just a refraction at an interface - like water and air ) and sorry i can't remember either ( i will search tho )\n\ncool i searched the term ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION and guess what LOL( go to Wikipedia )