what must a researcher do to demonstrate causation?
148770
To demonstrate causality, a researcher must account for all possible alternative causes of the relationship between two variables. Regardless of temporal order, variables may be associated with one another because they are both effects of the same cause.
1182492
['Define the research problem.', 'Determine the Research Design.', 'Choose the method to collect primary data.', 'Design the sample.', 'Collect the data.', 'Analyze and interpret the data.', 'Prepare the research report.']
157810
['Study design and ethics approval. According to COPE, “good research should be well adjusted, well-planned, appropriately designed, and ethically approved. ... ', 'Data analysis. It is the responsibility of the researcher to analyse the data appropriately. ... ', 'Authorship. ... ', 'Conflicts of interest. ... ', 'Redundant publication and plagiarism.']
1028824
['A hypotheses should be empirically testable. ... ', 'Hypotheses should be closest to things observable. ... ', 'The hypotheses must be conceptually clear. ... ', 'The hypotheses must be specific.']
496419
['Selecting the research area. ... ', 'Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses. ... ', 'Conducting the literature review. ... ', 'Selecting methods of data collection. ... ', 'Collecting the primary data. ... ', 'Data analysis. ... ', 'Reaching conclusions.']
121173
['Purpose/Question. Ask a question.', 'Research. Conduct background research. ... ', 'Hypothesis. Propose a hypothesis. ... ', 'Experiment. Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis. ... ', 'Data/Analysis. Record observations and analyze the meaning of the data. ... ', 'Conclusion.']
1216181
['Make an Observation. Scientists are naturally curious about the world. ... ', 'Form a Question. After making an interesting observation, a scientific mind itches to find out more about it. ... ', 'Form a Hypothesis. ... ', 'Conduct an Experiment. ... ', 'Analyse the Data and Draw a Conclusion.']
947534
['Forming a Hypothesis.', 'Designing a Study and Collecting Data.', 'Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions.', 'Sharing the Findings.']
755991
['Give your aim an active title that clearly states the objective in relationship to the hypothesis.', 'Include a brief summary of the experimental approach and anticipated outcomes for each aim.']
590608
['the demonstration of good research skills.', 'the identification of a cogent argument.', 'the quality of reasoning and evidence.', 'how well it analyses and evaluates the issue.']
520777
['Temporal Precedence. First, you have to be able to show that your cause happened before your effect. ... ', 'Covariation of the Cause and Effect. What does this mean? ... ', 'No Plausible Alternative Explanations.']
1286733
['#1. Presumed cause and presumed effect must covary.', '#2. Presumed cause must precede presumed effect.', '#3. Non-spurriousness.']
1361737
['Solve at the first meeting with a hypothesis.', 'Intuition is as important as facts.', "Do your research but don't reinvent the wheel.", 'Tell the story behind the data.', 'Prewire.', 'Start with the conclusion.', 'Hit singles.', 'Respect your time.']
59714
['Identification and Defining the Problem: ... ', 'Statement of Research Objectives: ... ', 'Planning the Research Design or Designing the Research Study: ... ', 'Planning the Sample: ... ', 'Data Collection: ... ', 'Data Processing and Analysis: ... ', 'Formulating Conclusion, Preparing and Presenting the Report:']
747781
Things to Remember Always write the method section in the past tense. Be descriptive. Provide enough detail that another researcher could replicate your experiment, but focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary detail that is not relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
437796
['A scientific hypothesis must be testable, and;', 'A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable.']
1189183
['Compare and contrast views of different authors.', 'Criticize previous work.', 'Highlight gaps in existing research.', 'Show how your work relates to previous work.', 'Identify problems, conflicts, debates, gaps.', 'Define a research area in a new way.', 'Question previous results.']