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OPINION HANISEE, Judge. {1} Susan Yurcic (Plaintiff) appeals the district court’s grant of summary judgment based upon the statutes of limitations applicable to her lawsuit for damages caused by a flood retention pond located adjacent to her building. Plaintiff argues that disputed material facts exist as to when Plaintiff knew or should have known about the injuries to her property and existence of her claims against Defendants. Alternatively, Plaintiff argues that her property incurred separate injuries, and each new injury had its own discovery date and period of limitation. For reasons explained below, we affirm in part, reverse in part, and remand to the district court. I. BACKGROUND {2} Plaintiff and Johnna Yurcic (a former plaintiff in this case and Plaintiffs late husband, who died during the pendency of this case) owned property with a building located next to the Gallup airport. In 1998, aretention pond (the pond) was dug directly next to Plaintiffs property to address flooding and drainage concerns on the airport property. The pond has neither an impermeable liner nor an automatic pumping system. Since its construction, the pond has often filled with water and has overflowed following rainstorms. No efforts have everbeen made to pump or drain the pond. Subsequently, water has remained in the pond for long periods of time, seeping into the ground. {3} In the years following the pond’s construction, the Yurcics’ building began exhibiting signs of damage to the foundation, walls, roof, and floors. On May 12, 2008, the Yurcics filed a complaint for nuisance, negligence, and damages against the City of Gallup (the owner of the airport), Gallup Flying Service (the airport operator), Molzen- Corbin and Associates, P.A. (the designer of the pond), and a John Doe contractor (the unknown contractor who constructed the pond). In 2010, the City of Gallup (the City), Gallup Flying Service, and Molzen-Corbin (collectively, Defendants) jointly moved for summary judgment premised upon expiration of the applicable statutes of limitations. Defendants argued that, as early as 1998 but no later than 2003, the Yurcics had notice that the pond was damaging their property and that they had a potential claim against Defendants. Defendants respectively contended that because a two-year statute of limitations applies to claims against the City and a four-year statute of limitations applies to claims against the other defendants, the Yurcics’ 2008 lawsuit was barred in its entirety because the lawsuit was not brought within either requisite period of prescription. {4} In response, Plaintiff asserted that evidence established the existence of disputed material facts as to whether she had notice of the damage and the potential claim against Defendants before the statutes of limitations ran. Plaintiff also argued that summary judgment was inappropriate because her property suffered successive injuries from the pond’s seepage, for which new statutes of limitations accrued under Valdez v. Mountain Bell Telephone Co., 107 N.M. 236, 239, 755 P.2d 80, 83 (Ct. App. 1988) (holding that the plaintiff could sue for successive seepage injuries caused by a utility pole, even though the statute of limitations expired on his initial claim, if the pole could be removed or the nuisance could be abated at a reasonable cost, or if the extent of the damages were not necessarily ascertainable when the plaintiff purchased the property). Following briefing by the parties and a hearing on Defendant’s motion, the district court granted the motion. Plaintiff now appeals. II. STANDARD OF REVIEW {5} “An appeal from the grant of a motion for summary judgment presents a question of law and is reviewed de novo.” Montgomery v. Lomos Altos, Inc., 2007-NMSC-002, ¶ 16, 141 N.M. 21, 150 P.3d 971. “Summary judgment is appropriate where there are no genuine issues of material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Self v. United Parcel Serv., Inc., 1998-NMSC-046, ¶ 6, 126 N.M. 396, 970 P.2d 582. “On appeal from the grant of summary judgment, we ordinarily review the whole record in the light most favorable to the party opposing summary judgment to determine if there is any evidence that places a genuine issue of material fact in dispute.” City of Albuquerque v. BPLW Architects & Eng’rs, Inc., 2009-NMCA-081, ¶ 7, 146 N.M. 717, 213 P.3d 1146. “However, if no material issues of fact are in dispute and an appeal presents only a question of law, we apply de novo review and are not required to view the appeal in the light most favorable to the party opposing summary judgment.” Id. “We are mindful that summary judgment is a drastic remedial tool which demands the exercise of caution in its application, and we review the record in the light most favorable to support a trial on the merits.” Woodhull v. Meinel, 2009-NMCA-015, ¶ 7, 145 N.M. 533, 202 P.3d 126 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). III. DISCUSSION A. Disputed Material Facts Exist as to Whether Plaintiff Filed Her Complaint Within the Four-Year Statute of Limitations {6} Plaintiff contends that disputed material facts exist as to whether the statute of limitations expired prior to her filing the complaint against Defendants. We first address the applicable statutes of limitations and then review Plaintiff’s arguments regarding the existence of disputed facts. {7} Pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-4 (1880), a four-year statute of limitations generally applies to claims “brought for injuries to property.” Plaintiff concedes and we agree that a four-year statute of limitations generally applies to this suit under this statute. But Defendants argued below and continue to argue on appeal that a two-year statute of limitations applies to the City under NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-15 (1977) of the Tort Claims Act. In its order granting summary judgment, the district court did not specifically address whether it applied a two- or four-year statute of limitations to Plaintiff’s claims against the City. Nonetheless, we conclude that, as a matter of law, the two-year statute of limitations applies to claims brought against the City. {8} Section 41-4-15(A) states that “[ajctions against a governmental entity' [must be] commenced within two years after the date of occurrence resulting in loss, injury or death[.]” In Cole v. City of Las Cruces, 99 N.M. 302, 305, 657 P.2d 629, 632 (1983), our Supreme Court expressly stated that a city is a governmental entity “because of its legal status as a local public body and as a political [subdivision] of the state.” (alteration in original) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Pursuant to Cole, the City of Gallup likewise is both a public body and political subdivision of the state. Thus, it is clearly a governmental entity, and the two-year statute of limitations applies to Plaintiff’s claim against it. {9} Knowing the applicable periods of limitation, we move on to discuss the key issue in this case: does evidence conflict as to when the existence of notice to Plaintiff commenced the periods of limitation? “[I]n actions for injuries to . . . property, the cause of action shall not be deemed to have accrued until the . . . injury . . . complained of, shall have been discovered by the party aggrieved.” NMSA 1978, Section 37-1-7 (1880). “[U]nder the discovery rule, the statute of limitations begins when the plaintiff acquires knowledge of facts, conditions, or circumstances which would cause a reasonable person to make an inquiry leading to the discovery of the concealed cause of action.” Gerke v. Romero, 2010-NMCA-060, ¶ 10, 148 N.M. 367, 237 P.3d 111 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted); see Wilde v. Westland Dev. Co., Inc., 2010-NMCA-085, ¶ 18, 148 N.M. 627, 241 P.3d 628 (“For purposes of determining when the cause of action accrues, discovery is defined as the discovery of such facts as would, on reasonable diligent investigation, lead to knowledge of [the] fraud or other injury.” (alteration in original) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). This means that “the statute of limitations is not tolled because a claimant does not have knowledge of the full extent of injury, but that the time period begins to run when the claimant has knowledge of sufficient facts to constitute a cause of action.” Gerke, 2010-NMCA-060, ¶ 10 (citation omitted). We subsequently refer to the standard set forth in the discovery rule, which requires knowledge of facts, conditions, or circumstances which would cause a reasonable person to make an inquiry leading to the discovery of the cause of action, as “inquiry notice.” See TRW Inc. v. Andrews, 534 U.S. 19, 30 (2001) (stating that certain events would place the plaintiff on “inquiry notice, and the discovery rule would trigger the limitations period at that point, only if a reasonable person in [the plaintiffs] position would have learned of the injury in the exercise of due diligence.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Rhinehart v. Nowlin, 111 N.M. 319, 328, 805 P.2d 88, 97 (Ct. App. 1990) (“Whatever puts a party upon inquiry is sufficient ‘notice’ and the party has a duty to inquire or he will be chargeable with all the facts.”). {10} “Historically, the courts of this state have characterized the application of the discovery rule as a jury question, particularly when conflicting inferences may be drawn.” Williams v. Stewart, 2005-NMCA-061, ¶ 16, 137 N.M. 420, 112 P.3d 281. “As a general rule, issues as to whether a claim has been timely filed or whether good cause exists for delay in filing an action are questions of fact, and such issues only become issues of law when the facts are undisputed.” Durham v. Sw. Developers Joint Venture, 2000-NMCA-010, ¶ 44, 128 N.M. 648, 996 P.2d 911. “Where there are disputed questions of material fact as to whether a plaintiff is barred by the statute of limitations, these questions are to be decided by a jury.” Medina v. Fuller, 1999-NMCA-011, ¶ 22, 126 N.M. 460, 971 P.2d 851 (alteration, internal quotation marks, and citation omitted). {11} In granting summary judgment, the district court determined that Plaintiff had sufficient notice of facts constituting a cause of action against Defendants at the time of at least one of three instances of notice argued by Defendants. In their motion to dismiss, Defendants asserted that Plaintiff acquired inquiry notice of the cause of action first in 1998, when the pond was constructed, second in 2001, and third in 2002 or 2003. Each instance of notice asserted by Defendants occurred in excess of four years from filing the complaint. We analyze the evidence presented by the parties below to determine whether there are any disputed material facts as to whether Plaintiff was or should have been on notice of a claim against Defendants at the time of each asserted instance. {12} Defendants first argued that sometime in 1998, Plaintiff noticed that “the northeast corner of the Yurcic Building had some structural-type cracks in the masonry, the slab had some cracks in it, and the corner of the building was sinking.” Defendants supported their argument with testimony from Pat Mataya, a contractor who remodeled the building in 1998. In a deposition, Mataya testified that Johnna Yurcic knew of and was concerned about the above described structural-type cracks in the masonry and foundation of the building. He added that Johnna Yurcic expressed concerns that the pond was causing some of the problems with the building. To rebut this evidence, Plaintiff presented testimony of Bob Witte, a former tenant of Plaintiffs building. Prior to his initial occupation of the building in March 1998, Witte examined the premises and found no noticeable problems with the exterior or interior structure of the building at that time. Witte also testified that he first noticed problems with the building’s exterior in 2001. We conclude that this conflicting testimony regarding the presence or absence of visible signs of building damage presents a question of fact as to whether there was any visible structural damage to the building in 1998 that would have then placed Plaintiff on inquiry notice of a cause of action against Defendants. Moreover, reasonable jurors listening to this conflicting testimony could disagree about the veracity of Mataya’s testimony or the timing of Mataya’s conversation with Johnna Yurcic about the pond. It would therefore be improper for the district court to have granted summary judgment on the basis of the 1998 alleged acquisition of notice. {13} Next, Defendants argued that Plaintiff had inquiry notice of a claim against Defendants when Witte reported a crack in the floor tiles ofthe building in 2001. Defendants stated and Plaintiff does not contest that in 2001, “Witte noticed [and reported to Johnna Yurcic] that the tiles laid during the 1998 [r]emodel were separating and that there was a quarter-inch crack in the floor that ran the entire length ofthe Yurcic building.” Plaintiff argues that this fact alone is legally insufficient to cause a reasonable person to make an inquiry leading to the discovery of the cause of action against Defendants. {14} In district court, Defendants did not offer any proof that this crack would lead a reasonable person to inquire as to the pond’s deteriorative effect on the building’s foundation. Due to the absence of evidence within the record linking the appearance ofthe crack with the nearby pond, we are unable to eliminate contrary explanations for this crack as a matter of law. In fact, Mataya’s testimony attributed the crack to a cause other than the pond. In response to Defendants’ question regarding the crack, Mataya explained that the crack “might have just been a control joint. . . . [W]hen they pour the [concrete] slab, sometimes they’ll have a control joint to separate the slabs, or the[y are] saw cut.” Because the crack in the tile floor might have been caused by an extrinsic source, such as a control joint, and there was then no evidence specifically linking the crack to the pond, we conclude that mere knowledge of the existence of the crack in 2001 was legally insufficient to place Plaintiff on inquiry notice of a claim against Defendants. {15} Lastly, relying on testimony from Witte, Defendants argue that in 2002 or 2003, Johnna Yurcic knew of the combination of structural damage and saturated ground sufficient to have acquired inquiry notice of the claim against Defendants. Witte initially testified that in 2002 or 2003, he noticed and then informed Johnna Yurcic about a crack in the foundation of the northeast corner of the building, where the ground was “mushy.” Witte described the damage as a “stair step crack” that extended ten feet on either side of the northeast corner of the building. Witte testified that he notified Johnna Yurcic of the crack and told him that he believed the pond was the cause of the building’s damage. Based on that conversation, Johnna Yurcic sent a person to inspect the crack shortly thereafter. {16} In response, Plaintiff countered that this conversation did not occur until 2004, and therefore a genuine issue of material fact exists as to whether Plaintiff had notice of the damage prior to May 12,2004 (more than four years before filing this case). Plaintiff cited Witte’s own subsequent testimony during the same deposition, where Witte clarified that he noticed the crack in the northeast corner of the building sometime after appearing at a city council meeting to express his concerns about mosquitos breeding in the pond. Witte stated that he noticed the foundational crack “[ajnywhere from six months to a year” after the city council meeting. When pressed for a greater level of specificity as to the timing of the notifying conversations, Witte responded that his “time-frame on this” was unclear as to the precise date. Plaintiff argued below and continues to assert on appeal that the city council meeting took place in June 2003. Yet neither Defendants nor Plaintiff provided evidence as to when the city council meeting in question took place. {17} Because ofthe express uncertainty of Witte’s recollection, combined with the parties’ inability to ascertain with greater precision the date on which the city council meeting took place, we conclude that Witte’s testimony is inconclusive as to precisely when, within the window of time between 2002 and 2004, he noticed and reported to Johnna Yurcic the damage to the northeast corner of the building. Because this last of the asserted grounds for summary judgment was also premised upon what are actually disputed material facts, it too fails to factually establish that Plaintiff had inquiry notice in excess of four years from when the Yurcic complaint was filed. {18} Because material disputed facts exist about when Plaintiff acquired a sufficient level of inquiry notice as to the existence of any claim assertable against Defendants, summary judgment as to Gallup Flying Service and Molzen-Corbin was improper. We therefore reverse the district court’s order as to those Defendants. B. Plaintiff Had Notice of the Claims Against the City More Than Two Years Before Filing {19} Also based upon the foregoing discussion of evidence, it appears that Plaintiff acquired inquiry notice of the claim against the City more than two years before the Yurcic lawsuit was filed. Defendants’ evidence establishes that sometime in 2004 or earlier, Johnna Yurcic received notice that the foundation on the northeast side of the building was substantially cracking, that the ground around it was saturated with water, and that his tenant, Witte, by then believed the pond to be the cause of the damage. The only arguments Plaintiff makes to rebut Defendants’ contentions about notice of the moistened ground and the crack in the building’s northeast corner is (1) that the notice occurred sometime within a year after June 2003, the date on which Plaintiff alleges the city council meeting took place; and (2) that she personally — distinct from her husband Johnna Yurcic — never had notice of damage to the building until 2006. {20} First, the facts of which Witte notified Johnna Yurcic by June 2004 placed Plaintiff on inquiry notice more than three years before the suit was brought. Unlike the earlier, more questionable evidence of the crack in the floor tiles, this latter evidence provided ample indicia of a causal nexus between the pond’s saturation of the ground and the building’s worsening structural damage. Evidence of the foundation’s twenty-foot-long stair step crack, surrounded by soggy ground, and the tenant’s communication with Johnna Yurcic that he believed the pond to be causing the foundational damage was sufficient to notify Plaintiff of both (1) serious structural damage requiring further investigation, and (2) a causal link between the pond and the injury to Plaintiffs property. See generally Palumbo v. Roberti, 839 F. Supp. 80, 85 (D. Mass. 1993) (holding that inquiry notice was satisfied where the plaintiff had knowledge both of oil stored in the nearby neighboring building and of damage to goods in her building caused by oil seepage); Redland v. Tharp, 498 P.2d 1240, 1242 (Wyo. 1972) (concluding that the plaintiffs were on notice of their claim regarding seepage “when the area of [the] plaintiffs’ land became so boggy that farm machinery, vehicles, and equipment became stuck”). {21} Second, to the extent Plaintiff argues that she did not individually gain inquiry notice of the damage until 2006, we conclude that the requirement of diligence as a co-owner of the visibly damaged property warrants enforcement of the statute of limitations against her. Under the discovery rule, “the statute of limitations begins to run when the plaintiff knows or, with reasonable diligence should know, of his injury and its cause.” Gerke, 2010-NMCA-060, ¶ 12; see McNeill v. Burlington Res. Oil & Gas Co., 2008-NMSC-022, ¶ 37, 143 N.M. 740, 182 P.3d 121 (“In New Mexico, a cause of action arises when the plaintiff discovers or with reasonable diligence should have discovered that a claim exists.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)); Williams v. Stewart, 2005-NMCA-061, ¶ 12, 137 N.M. 420, 112 P.3d 281 (stating that “[t]he discovery rule provides that the cause of action accrues when the plaintiff discovers or with reasonable diligence should have discovered that a claim exists” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)); Milwaukee Area Vocational Technical & Adult Educ. Dist. v. U.S. Steel Corp., 847 F.2d 435, 440 (7th Cir. 1988) (stating that “the discovery rule is an objective standard that does not protect those plaintiffs who sleep on their rights”); H. F. Wilcox Oil & Gas Co. v. Diffie, 186 F.2d 683, 697 (10th Cir. 1951) (concluding that an action brought by the plaintiff, the part-owner of a mine, against his co-owner for conversion was barred by the statute of limitations where the plaintiff failed to exercise diligence by examining his co-owner’s records, or asking the co-owner for a report regarding the subject mine); Martin v. Esponge, 388 So. 2d 128, 129 (La. Ct. App. 1 Cir. 1980) (stating that in the context of a leasing agreement, “a co-owner acts not only for himself but also as the agent of his other co-owners” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). Here, it is clear that Johnna Yurcic, Plaintiffs husband and co-owner of the property, discovered the damage no later than when it was reported to him by his tenant, Witte. If Plaintiff had been reasonably diligent as a co-owner, she would have, at a minimum, communicated with her co-owner or tenant regarding the status of her property. The assertion that Plaintiff did not engage in communications regarding the seepage and damage, and the absence of her actual knowledge of it, does not absolve Plaintiff of her duty to be reasonably diligent in discovering the injury and cause. {22} Thus, the claims against the City are time barred unless Plaintiff can succeed under her theory that each successive injury gave rise to a new cause of action with its own discovery date and period of limitation. We note that this theory bears the potential to also affect Plaintiff’s claim with regard to the other Defendants. C. Summary Judgment Was Improper Under Valdez {23} Plaintiff also contends that summary judgment was improper because successive injuries occurred to the property due to the pattern of ongoing seepage and, as a result, under Valdez, separate causes of action accrued with each new injury to the property. Plaintiff therefore asserts that, under Valdez, her claims for successive injuries arising within the statute of limitations are notbarred. We must determine whether under Valdez, Plaintiff’s injuries constitute separate causes of action with their own statutes of limitation. We note that if Plaintiff can only succeed in bringing her suit under the successive injury theory established by Valdez, her recovery is limited to those injuries incurred within the respective two- and four-year statutes of limitations. McNeill v. Rice Eng’g & Operating, Inc., 2006-NMCA-015, ¶ 29, 139 N.M. 48, 128 P.3d 476 (stating that, “[ajlthough . . . some jurisdictions set the cause of action accrual date for a claim for damages for all injuries from the continuing trespass to be the date of the last injury}, under Valdez, t]he accrual date is the date of each particular injury which, for an intermittent injury, is the date of that discrete injury, or for a continuous injury, each new day”). {24} In Valdez, a property owner sued a public service company for improperly maintaining a telephone pole near a drainage ditch on the south side of the plaintiffs property, which caused water to back up onto and seep into the owner’s land. 107 N.M. at 237-38, 755 P.2d at 81-82. Within two or three years of purchasing his home, the plaintiff observed that “the land on the south side of his home was constantly damp.” Id. at 238, 755 P.2d at 82. Almost a decade after purchase, the plaintiff noticed that walls inside his home were cracking and was notified by his insurance company that the cracks were caused by seepage. Id. Several years after the initial wall cracking, the foundation on the south side of his house began sinking, cracking, and falling apart. Id. Under the facts of Valdez, it appeared that the plaintiff knew, well beyond the applicable statute of limitations on his initial claim, that his property had suffered damage as a result of water seepage. Id. On appeal we considered, as a matter of first impression, whether a cause of action can accrue with every new injury to the plaintiffs property or whether the plaintiffs complaint was time-barred because the statute of limitations had already run on the first injury caused by the recurring seepage. Id. {25} After examining case law from other states dealing with this issue, we held that, when the “nuisance is of permanent character, and its construction and continuance are necessarily an injury, the damage is original, and . . . the statute of limitations begins to run upon the construction of the nuisance.” Id. at 240, 755 P.2d at 84 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). On the other hand, we concluded that the plaintiff in Valdez could recover for successive injuries from a temporary structure, which we defined as either “a permanent structure which is not per se injurious” but which becomes injurious under certain, temporary conditions, or a structure that “could possibly be easily removed at a reasonable expense.” Id. In other words, if the nuisance is permanent and therefore necessarily injurious, Plaintiff would not be able to recover if the statute of limitations has run on her initial claim because subsequent causes of action are not created by subsequent injuries. But, if the nuisance is temporary, Plaintiff could sue for later injuries caused by the same seepage, as the statute of limitations would run anew with subsequent injuries. We defined “[a] permanent structure or nuisance [a]s one that may not be readily remedied, removed or abated at a reasonable expense, or one of a durable character evidently intended to last indefinitely, costing as much to alter as to build.” Id. at 239, 755 P.2d at 83. In sum, the nuisance is temporary if either the structure can be removed at a reasonable cost or the nuisance can be remedied or abated at a reasonable cost. {26} This Court in Valdez explained that, “[the pjlaintiff alleges that the utility pole . . . is a permanent structure which is not per se injurious, but becomes so with excessive rain or snow. As such, the nuisance is temporary.” Id. at 240, 755 P.2d at 84. We also came to the conclusion that “the utility pole . . . could probably be easily removed at a reasonable expense, and is, therefore, a temporary structure.” Id. We held that, “[i]n either case, successive actions may be brought because each new injury allows a new cause of action to accrue.” Id. Additionally, we went on to hold that “successive recoveries should he allowed following each injury, where the improvement is negligently constructed and the damage to plaintiffs property could not be reasonably calculated at the time of the completion of the construction thereof.” Id. With these principles in mind, we concluded that the Valdez plaintiff could sue for successive injuries caused by the utility pole, even though the statute of limitations expired on his initial claim, because “the nuisance . . . is abatable},] the injuries are recurring},] the extent of the damages were not necessarily ascertainable when plaintiff purchased the property},] and the nuisance is not necessarily injurious.” Id. {27} In applying Valdez to the case at bar to determine whether Plaintiff can sue for successive injuries, we identify the pertinent factual inquiries to be: (1) whether the pond can be removed at a reasonable cost, (2) whether the seepage can be remedied or abated at a reasonable expense, and (3) whether the damages caused by the seepage on Plaintiff’s property could have been ascertainable when the pond was built. Neither party below produced evidence to address these issues. {28} On appeal, Defendants nonetheless contend that summary judgment was proper because “Plaintiff presented no evidence below to demonstrate that the retention pond was a temporary structure such that the rule in Valdez applied.” Defendants support this assertion with a citation and parenthetical indicating that when Defendants have met their burden of demonstrating a prima facie case in support of summary judgment, Plaintiff “bears the burden of demonstrating the existence of specific facts to support a trial on the merits.” Implicit in this assertion is that Defendants have successfully made a prima facie case for summary judgment. Although Defendants correctly state the standard for shifting burdens of proof, we conclude that they failed to make a prima facie showing below. {29} “In the civil litigation context, the statute of limitations defense is generally an affirmative defense}.]” State v. Kerby, 2007-NMSC-014, ¶ 13, 141 N.M. 413, 156 P.3d 704. When asserting an affirmative defense as grounds for summary judgment, the “[djefendant carrie[s] the burden of making a prima facie showing as to each element of the definition [of the defense].” Solorzano v. Bristow, 2004-NMCA-136, ¶ 15, 136 N.M. 658, 103 P.3d 582 (discussing the moving party’s burden in seeking summary judgment against the plaintiff on the affirmative defense of suicide); see Romero v. Philip Morris Inc., 2010-NMSC-035, ¶ 10, 148 N.M. 713, 242 P.3d 280 (stating that the moving party has the initial burden of establishing a prima facie case for summary judgment). Prima facie case is defined as “[a] party’s production of enough evidence to allow the fact-trier to infer the fact at issue and rule in the party’s favor.” Black’s Law Dictionary 1310 (9th ed. 2009); see Hyden v. Law Firm of McCormick, Forbes, Caraway & Tabor, 115 N.M. 159, 163, 848 P.2d 1086, 1090 (Ct. App. 1993) (stating that a prima facie showing is defined as “such evidence as is sufficient in law to raise a presumption of fact or establish the fact in question unless rebutted” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). {30} Since the statute of limitations is Defendants’ affirmative defense and since Defendants are the moving parties, they have the burden of producing evidence regarding every element of that defense. Here, the trier of fact cannot infer the necessary facts to conclude that the suit is time barred without Defendants producing sufficient evidence to address the issues pertinent to a Valdez determination. Thus, in order to obtain summary judgment on the statute of limitations affirmative defense, Defendants have the duty to produce sufficient evidence showing that the pond and seepage are permanent and that the damages were ascertainable at the time the pond was constructed. Valdez, 107 N.M. at 240, 755 P.2d at 84. Because Defendants failed to make the requisite prima facie case, Plaintiff bore no obligation to produce evidence to the contrary. {31} Defendants argue that Valdez does not apply to this case, in part because the injuries were not successive. We conclude there is abundant evidence to the contrary sufficient to create a disputed issue of material fact. In arguing otherwise, Defendants rely solely on testimony from Witte that the ground was “constantly wet.” First, this appears to misconstrue Witte’s testimony, in which he then discussed the character of the ground during monsoon season. Second, Plaintiff argued from the inception of this case that “[w]hen the pond is full due to precipitation},] the water is not contained inside the Airport’s property . . . but instead the water migrates beneath the surface into the Yurcics’ property.” The record appears to provide support to this theory that the pond was only a nuisance when full, particularly during monsoon season. Moreover, the record shows that there was a series of different injuries to the building: different cracks and damage developed in the foundation, walls, and ceiling over time. Lastly, it appears that Defendants misconstrue our case law regarding the characteristics of successive injuries. In Valdez, the seepage caused the ground to be constantly damp, and such seepage resulted in a series of injuries, similar to those which manifested in the case at bar. See Valdez, 107 N.M. at 238, 755 P.2d at 82. Based on the standard exemplified in Valdez, Plaintiff appears to have incurred successive injuries. For these reasons, we conclude that at the very least, disputed material facts exist regarding whether the injuries were successive. {32} Defendants argue that because “Johnna Yurcic was aware of specific damages to his property [between 1998 and 2003] and believed that the pond was to blame[,]” he cannot recover under the continuing wrong doctrine stated in Valdez. For support, Defendants cite out-of-state case law for the proposition that “the doctrine cannot be employed where the plaintiffs injury is definite and discoverable, and nothing prevented the plaintiff from coming forward to seek redress.” See Tiberi v. Cigna Corp., 89 F.3d 1423, 1431 (10th Cir. 1996) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). We disagree because first, as determined above, Defendants have yet to prove that prior to June 2004, Johnna Yurcic was or should have been aware of a definite injury caused by Defendants sufficient to constitute inquiry notice. Second, Defendants appear to misconstrue the principle regarding definite and discoverable injuries, which was originally derived from Wilson v. Giesen, 956 F.2d 738, 743 (7th Cir. 1992). The court in Wilson explained that a definite and discoverable injury was one resulting from a tortious act which “caused direct damages that occurred at a certain point in time — resulting in immediate and direct injury . . . with consequential effects.” Id. (alteration in the original) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). In the case at bar, the damages occurred gradually over a long period of time, in relation to the rise and fall of the pond water levels. There was no one specific point in time at which the building suddenly sunk into the soggy ground, breaking the foundation and cracking the building’s walls, floors, and ceiling. The injury was gradual and incremental, not immediate. Thus, the continuing wrong theory appears to be applicable to this case. {33} Arguing again that Valdez is inapplicable, Defendants cite Colorado case law for the proposition that claims involving seepage arise when the property is first visibly affected by the seepage. See Greene v. Green Acres Constr. Co., 543 P.2d 108 (Colo. App. 1975). We note that Greene is legally distinct from the present inquiry regarding successive injuries. Rather, it deals with the initial discovery of the injury, which is a topic we have already dealt with above when analyzing the issue of when Plaintiff acquired notice of the Yurcic cause of action. Thus, we are unp ersuaded by D efendants ’ assertion that this case is more similar to Greene than Valdez. {34} Since Defendants failed to present sufficient evidence establishing that separate causes of action did not accrue with each ensuing injury to the property and therefore failed to demonstrate that Valdez is inapplicable here, summary judgment was improper. We thus reverse the district court on this ground as well. C. Plaintiff Failed to Preserve Her Estoppel Argument {35} Finally, Plaintiff argues the doctrine of equitable estoppel tolled the statute of limitations in this case. Yet Plaintiff never argued estoppel below. “To preserve an issue for review on appeal, it must appear that appellant fairly invoked a ruling of the trial court on the same grounds argued in the appellate court.” Woolwine v. Furr’s, Inc., 106 N.M. 492, 496, 745 P.2d 727, 721 (Ct. App. 1987). The preservation rule “provides the lower court an opportunity to correct any mistake,... provides the opposing party a fair opportunity to show why the court should rule in its favor, and . . . creates a record from which this Court may make informed decisions.” State v. Lopez, 1008-NMCA-001, ¶ 8, 143 N.M. 274, 175 P.3d 942 (alterations in the original) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {36} Here, Plaintiff argues that she raised the issue below in her answer brief responding to the motion to dismiss. Yet the answer brief merely stated in a footnote that “Plaintiff also notes that she and Johnna Yurcic held off on filing their complaint while waiting for a response to the tort claims notice that they had filed in June 2007. A response was not received on behalf of the City of Gallup until September 2007.” We conclude that this footnote was insufficient to preserve the issue of estoppel for appellate review, as it never invoked a ruling on the issue from the district court, and it failed to alert Defendants to an opportunity to argue against estoppel below. As a result, we have no record from which to render an informed ruling on the issue. We therefore decline to address Plaintiffs estoppel argument on appeal. See Andalucia Dev. Corp. v. City of Albuquerque, 2010-NMCA-052, ¶ 25, 148 N.M. 277, 234 P.3d 929 (“Appellate courts will not consider issues that went unpreserved at the district court level.”). IV. CONCLUSION {37} We reverse the district court’s order of summary judgment because (1) disputed material facts exist as to whether the statute of limitations barred Plaintiffs initial claims against Gallup Flying Service and Molzen-Corbin, and (2) disputed material facts exist regarding whether separate causes of action accrued with each new injury to the property under Valdez. We remand to the district court for proceedings consistent with this Opinion. {38} IT IS SO ORDERED. J. MILES HANISEE, Judge WE CONCUR: CYNTHIA A. FRY, Judge TIMOTHY L. GARCIA, Judge
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OPINION WECHSLER, Judge. {1} Appellant Karen Montoya, Bernalillo County Assessor (the Assessor), appeals from the district court’s order reversing the Bernalillo County Valuation Protest Board’s (the Board) determination that Appellee La Vida Llena is not entitled to a charitable exemption from property tax. On appeal, we consider whether the property tax exemption for a continuing care facility that donates or renders gratuitously a portion of its facilities or services for charitable purposes found in NMSA 1978, Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) (2008) requires the continuing care facility to donate or to render gratuitously a minimum threshold amount in order to qualify for the exemption. We hold that (1) Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does not require a minimum threshold amount of donated or gratuitously rendered services or facilities for charitable purposes in order for the continuing care facility to receive the property tax exemption, and (2) the district court did not err by failing to give deference to certain findings of the Board. Accordingly, we affirm. BACKGROUND {2} La Vida Llena operates as a continuing care facility pursuant to the New Mexico Continuing Care Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 24-17-1 to -18 (1985, as amended through 2010). As governed by the Continuing Care Act, a continuing care facility is a live-in community that provides for “the residential, social and health maintenance needs for the elderly.” Section 24-17-2(A). La Vida Llena requires that new residents of its facility be at least sixty-two years old and capable of living independently. {3} In order to qualify for residency at La Vida Llena’s facility, potential residents are required to possess assets equal to double their entrance fee and have a monthly income of one and one-half times their monthly fee. Residents pay an entrance fee of between $91,000 to $342,000 based on the size of the unit to be occupied. Residents pay a monthly fee ranging from $1697 to $3870 for the remainder of their stay. Once residents move into La Vida Llena’s facility, their monthly payments remain the same regardless of whether the intensity of care increases. The entrance fee covers the expected cost for additional needs of the residents as they age. {4} On April 20, 2010, the Assessor sent a notice of valuation for property taxes for La Vida Llena’s facility. On May 18, 2010, La Vida Llena filed an application for exemption of property tax, which the Assessor denied. La Vida Llena filed an appeal to the Board. It based its claim for exemption upon its status as a facility operating under the Continuing Care Act and Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) provides for a property tax exemption for continuing care facilities if the facility meets three criteria: the facility (1) has been granted an exemption from federal income taxes pursuant to 26 U.S.C. § 501(c)(3) (2010); (2) “donates or renders gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities;” and (3) “uses all funds remaining after payment of its usual and necessary expenses of operation, including the payment of liens and encumbrances upon its property, to further its charitable purpose, including the maintenance, improvement or expansion of its facilities.” {5} After an evidentiary hearing, the Board upheld the Assessor’s denial of La Vida Llena’s claimed exemption. The Board concluded that La Vida Llena failed to demonstrate that it “donates or renders gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities” for charitable purposes as contemplated by Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). The Board made several factual findings regarding evidence that La Vida Llena presented to support its position that it did “donate[] or render[] gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities[.]” Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d). The Board found that: 19. [La Vida Llena] controls what is in essence a captive foundation solely for the benefit of residents unable to meet their obligations. The foundation, funded by resident contributions, helps residents with bills, such as pharmacy, dentist and other medical bills and in some instances credit card bills and pays out $65,000-$100,000 per year. 20. Residents receive help from the foundation for different periods oftime and in different amounts, but are given care for life regardless of ability to pay; residents are not asked to leave if they run out of funds after being accepted for entry. 21. As a separate track, when space is available [La Vida Llena] serves Medicaid residents who are not members of the community as described above. There is a “differential” between cost and Medicaid reimbursement. 22. [La Vida Llena] makes its facilities available for meetings by numerous groups. These tend to be groups with which residents or employees have an association or interest. 23. Employees are permitted time to serve other charitable organizations. However, the Board determined that it “cannot find that any material portion of [La Vida Llenaj’s services and facilities are ‘donated’ or ‘rendered gratuitously’ as those terms are commonly used. Rather, the use of [La Vida Llena] ’s services and facilities is incidental to its business operations.” (Emphasis added.) {6} La Vida Llena appealed the Board’s decision to the district court. The district court reversed the Board’s decision, holding that the Board’s factual findings supported a determination that La Vida Llena “donates or renders gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities.” The district court concluded that “Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does notprovide for a minimum amount of charitable acts” and that the word “portion” in Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does not contain a quantitative meaning. According to the district court, La Vida Llena donated or rendered a portion of its facilities and services because the Board found that “unchallenged evidence [establishes that La Vida Llena] donated the use of meeting rooms, that it donated some services of its employees, and that it donated approximately $65,000 in 2009 and $100,000 in 2010 through [the foundation.” The district court also stated that La Vida Llena “provided evidence that it provides care at a cost greater than what it is reimbursed through Medicaid, and considers the cost-differential it absorbs to be a donation” and that it does not terminate agreements with residents for failure to pay when the resident cannot afford the monthly fees. {7} The Assessor petitioned this Court for a writ of certiorari pursuant to Rule 12-505(C) NMRA, which this Court granted. The Assessor argues that the district court erred in reversing the decision of the Board by (1) incorrectly determining that the word “portion” in Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does not contain a minimum quantitative threshold on the amount of services and facilities that a continuing care facility must donate or render gratuitously; and (2) rejecting the Board’s factual finding that La Vida Llena failed to donate a “meaningful” portion of its services or facilities to qualify for the exemption contained in Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). {8} The only issue on appeal is whether La Vida Llena “donates or renders gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities” as contemplated by Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). The Assessor concedes that La Vida Llena operates as a continuing care facility under the Continuing Care Act, has been granted an exemption from federal income taxes pursuant to § 501(c)(3), and “uses all funds remaining after payment of its usual and necessary expenses of operation, including the payment of liens and encumbrances upon its property, to further its charitable purpose, including the maintenance, improvement or expansion of its facilitiesf.]” Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). SECTION 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) Standard of Review {9} Upon a grant of a petition for writ of certiorari under Rule 12-505, this Court “conduces] the same review of an administrative order as the district court sitting in its appellate capacity, while at the same time determining whether the district court erred in the first appeal.” Rio Grande Chapter of Sierra Club v. N.M. Mining Comm’n, 2003-NMSC-005, ¶ 16, 133 N.M. 97, 61 P.3d 806. In conducting our whole record review, we review the “record of the administrative hearing to determine whether the [bjoard’s decision was arbitrary and capricious, not supported by substantial evidence, or otherwise not in accordance with law.” Smyers v. City of Albuquerque, 2006-NMCA-095, ¶ 5, 140 N.M. 198, 141 P.3d 542 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). When an administrative decision is based on an issue of law, such as statutory interpretation, our review is de novo. ERICA, Inc. v. N.M. Regulation & Licensing Dep’t, 2008-NMCA-065, ¶ 11, 144 N.M. 132, 184 P.3d 444. However, although we engage in whole record review, we will not disturb any of an agency’s factual findings that are supported by substantial evidence. Montano v. N.M. Real Estate Appraiser’s Bd., 2009-NMCA-009, ¶ 8, 145 N.M. 494, 200 P.3d 544. Quantitative Meaning of “Portion” {10} We first address the Assessor’s argument that the district court erred in determining that Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d) does not provide for a minimum threshold amount of facilities or services that a continuing care facility must donate or render gratuitously because the word “portion” does not contain a quantitative meaning. In the Assessor’s view, a reasonable interpretation of the word “portion” requires that a continuing care facility gratuitously donate some meaningful quantitative amount or percentage of its revenue in order to meet the statutory requirement for an exemption. Without such a quantitative requirement, the Assessor asserts that the gratuitous donation requirement in the statute becomes superfluous. This issue requires the Court to interpret the statutory language in Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). {11} In engaging in statutory construction, our primary purpose is to give effect to the intent of the Legislature. Bd. of Educ. v. N.M. State Dep’t of Pub. Educ., 1999-NMCA-156, ¶ 16, 128 N.M. 398, 993 P.2d 112. “The first rule is that the plain language of a statute is the primary indicator of legislative intent. Courts are to give the words used in the statute their ordinary meaning unless the [Legislature indicates a different intent. The court will not read into a statute . . . language which is not there, particularly if it makes sense as written.” Johnson v. N.M. Oil Conservation Comm’n, 1999-NMSC-021, ¶ 27, 127 N.M. 120, 978 P.2d 327 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Although we apply the plain meaning rule, a “construction must be given which will not render the statute’s application absurd or unreasonable and which will not defeat the object of the Legislature.” Cox v. N.M. Dep’t of Pub. Safety, 2010-NMCA-096, ¶ 15, 148 N.M. 934, 242 P.3d 501 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Additionally, when interpreting a statute, all sections of the statute “must be read together so that all parts are given effect.” High Ridge Hinkle Joint Venture v. City of Albuquerque, 1998-NMSC-050, ¶ 5, 126 N.M. 413, 970 P.2d 599. {12} The Assessor also contends that the gratuitous donation requirement of Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) must contain a quantitative element in order to prevent a continuing care facility from abusing the available tax exemption. However, the Assessor’s view is unduly focused on the word “portion,” and the singular requirement that a continuing care facility donate or render gratuitously a portion of its services or facilities. The donation of services or facilities is only one of the requirements of Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). When we read the three requirements together, the legislative intent becomes apparent. See Key v. Chrysler Motors Corp., 121 N.M. 764, 769, 918 P.2d 350, 355 (1996) (“[A]ll parts of a statute must be read together to ascertain legislative intent. We are to read the statute in its entirety and construe each part in connection with every other part to produce a harmonious whole.” (citation omitted)). First, the Legislature required that the facility be exempt from federal income taxes. Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d). Additionally, Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d) requires that a continuing care facility “use[] all funds remaining after payment of its usual and necessary expenses of operation ... to further its charitable purpose[.]” Through this last requirement, Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) contains a mandate that a continuing care facility use all of its proceeds to further its charitable purpose. By not defining a minimum gratuitous contribution amount in the second requirement, the Legislature has provided flexibility for a continuing care facility to qualify for its property tax exemption while also allowing the facility to annually determine the most appropriate way of achieving its overall charitable purposes. {13} The plain meaning of the word “portion” further reinforces our conclusion. When determining the plain meaning of a term in a statute, we are guided by the common and ordinary use of the term as ascertained by a dictionary. See Battishill v. Farmers Alliance Ins. Co., 2006-NMSC-004, ¶ 8, 139 N.M. 24, 127 P.3d 1111 (“We . . . hold that the common and ordinary meaning . . . may be ascertained from a dictionary.”). In this context, “portion” is defined as “an individual’s part or share of something” or “a part of a whole.” Webster’s Third New Int’l Dictionary 1768 (Unabridged 1993). The plain meaning of “portion” is therefore synonymous with “part” and does not contain a minimum quantitative meaning. Accordingly, under the plain meaning rule, Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does not require a minimum amount of donated or gratuitously rendered services or facilities for charitable purposes in order for the continuing care facility to receive the property tax exemption. {14} If the Legislature had intended for “portion” in Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) to contain a minimum threshold amount for the required charitable contributions, it would have expressly provided the manner for determining the intended amount. See Bishop v. Evangelical Good Samaritan Soc’y, 2009-NMSC-036, ¶ 16, 146 N.M. 473, 212 P.3d 361 (stating that “[i]f the Legislature had intended to create different standards . . ., it likely would have done so expressly”). The Legislature has expressly defined “portion” in other statutes, including tax statutes, when it intended that the word “portion” to contain a minimum or threshold amount. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, § 7-1-36(B) (1993) (stating that “there shall also be exempt from levy on an employer of the taxpayer the greater of the following portions of the taxpayer’s disposable earnings: (1) seventy-five percent of the taxpayer’s disposable earnings for any pay period; or (2) an amount each week equal to forty times the federal minimum hourly wage rate” (emphasis added)); NMSA 1978, § 6-6-19(B) (2011) (“The amount that may be deposited into the local government permanent fund is any portion of the unappropriated general fund surplus that is in excess of fifty percent of the prior fiscal year’s budget of the county or municipality.” (emphasis added)). {15} The Assessor also argues that the plain meaning of “portion” is not so easily ascertainable and that “[a]n examination of different dictionary definitions of portion reveals that it is a dynamic word with a variety of possible meanings.” The Assessor further argues that due to the various meanings of “portion,” we should construe Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d) as requiring that the portion a continuing care facility donates or renders gratuitously for charitable purposes should exceed the benefit that the public loses in tax revenue as a result of the exemption. In the Assessor’s view, this interpretation of the “donation requirement should be decided on a case[-]by[-]case basis” and furthers the legislative purpose of “encourag[ing] charitable activities by providing them with tax relief, and to thereby promote the general welfare of society.” Sisters of Charity v. Cnty. of Bernalillo, 93 N.M. 42, 45, 596 P.2d 255, 258 (1979). However, as the Assessor conceded at oral argument, a formula for such an inquiry is not readily ascertainable from Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d), nor did the Assessor provide this Court with a framework to evaluate when a donation or rendering of services or facilities is sufficiently large enough to be a “portion.” {16} Additionally, the Assessor’s interpretation of Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) requires that this Court essentially rewrite the statute and place a minimum donation amount comparable to the loss of tax revenue. We decline to do so. See Martinez v. Sedillo, 2005-NMCA-029, ¶ 7, 137 N.M. 103, 107 P.3d 543 (“We will not rewrite a statute.”). Although, we agree that “portion” is a dynamic word and can have a number of possible meanings depending on the context, the Assessor fails to point to a single definition of “portion” that contains a quantitative minimum or any definition that supports its interpretation. {17} Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) provides the mechanism for a continuing care facility with a federal income tax exemption to be exempt from property tax. It contains the legislative intent to encourage a continuing care facility to engage in charitable activity by requiring only that the continuing care facility donate or render gratuitously a part of its services or facilities without a threshold requirement, provided that, after payment of operational expenses, it uses the balance of its funds for charitable purposes. The district court did not err in concluding that “Section 7-36-7(B)(1)(d) does not provide for a minimum amount of charitable acts.” Deference to Factual Findings {18} The Assessor also argues that the district court erred when, without citing any authority or acknowledging the standard of review, it rejected the Board’s factual determination that La Vida Llena failed to prove that it donated a meaningful portion of its goods or services. {19} Essentially, the Assessor argues that the district court failed to defer to several findings of fact considered by the Board that: (1) the donated meeting space was for organization and activities that are an integral part of the experience La Vida Llena offers to residents; (2) no material portion of La Vida Llena’s services or facilities are donated or gratuitously rendered, and their use is incidental to its business operations; (3) the foundation was merely a vehicle of mutual assistance between residents of La Vida Llena and did not constitute charitable donations by La Vida Llena itself; and (4) there is no charity when the cost of service to long-term residents is less than actual revenues from those residents. We agree with the Assessor that a district court sitting in an appellate capacity and reviewing an agency’s decision must accept all factual findings made by the agency as a factfinder that were supported by substantial evidence. See Montano, 2009-NMCA-009, ¶ 8 (“We will not disturb the agency’s factual findings if supported by substantial evidence, although we engage in a whole record review.”); see also Martinez v. N.M. State Eng’r Office, 2000-NMCA-074, ¶ 48, 129 N.M. 413, 9 P.3d 657 (stating that “in administrative appeals the district court is a reviewing court, not a fact-finder”). Thus, to the extent that substantial evidence supports the Board’s factual findings, the district court was required to give the factual findings deference and not substitute its judgment for that of the Board. {20} However, the Assessor does not challenge the Board’s findings that La Vida Llena (1) provides service to Medicaid residents when space is available and that the actual cost of care to these Medicaid residents exceeds the Medicaid reimbursement and that this amount was approximately $30,000 in 2009; (2) permits its staff time to serve other charitable organizations; (3) provides services such as bookkeeping and safeguarding for the foundation even though it does not actually provide funds for the foundation; and (4) does not terminate resident agreements if residents do not pay, although it is permitted to do so in the resident agreements. Indeed, at oral argument, the Assessor conceded that there is a charitable aspect to providing service to Medicaid residents that exceeds Medicaid reimbursement. These factual findings are therefore binding on appeal. See Franco v. Carlsbad Mun. Sch., 2001-NMCA-042, ¶ 13, 130 N.M. 543, 28 P.3d 531 (stating that unchallenged factual findings are binding on appeal). These uncontested factual findings made by the Board support a determination that La Vida Llena donated or rendered gratuitously at least some “portion” of its facilities and services. {21} To the extent that the Assessor contends that the factual findings indicate that the Board did not find that La Vida Llena rendered a “meaningful” amount of its goods and services to qualify for the exemption, this argument simply restates the previous argument that “portion” as used in Section 7-3 6-7(B)(1)(d) has a quantitative threshold. The meaning of “portion” and whether it contains a quantitative threshold is a legal question requiring statutory interpretation, not a factual determination entitled to deference. We have concluded that “portion” contemplates no such threshold requirement. CONCLUSION {22} The district court did not err by determining that Section 7-36-7(B)(l)(d) does not require a minimum amount of donated or gratuitously rendered services or facilities for charitable purposes in order for the continuing care facility to receive the property tax exemption. Additionally, the district court did not err by failing to give deference to certain findings of the Board. Accordingly, we affirm. {23} IT IS SO ORDERED. JAMES J. WECHSLER, Judge WE CONCUR: MICHAEL E. VIGIL, Judge TIMOTHY L. GARCIA, Judge
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OPINION HANISEE, Judge. {1} Defendant David Castillo was sentenced following an agreement with the State in which he pleaded no contest to criminal sexual penetration in the second degree. Defendant’s ensuing nine-year incarcerative sentence was suspended, and he was placed on supervised probation for a total of five years, commencing on December 16, 2005. As a special condition of his probation, Defendant was required to “enter and successfully complete a sex offender specific therapy to include polygraph testing as deemed necessary by the therapist.” In April 2010, the State filed a motion to revoke Defendant’s probation for failure to successfully complete a sex offender treatment program. A probation revocation hearing was held, and Defendant’s probation was revoked on December 14, 2010, a single day prior to its scheduled completion. {2} On appeal, Defendant argues that his right to confrontation was violated when the district court allowed the head of Forensic Therapy Service, the sex offender treatment center at which Defendantwas apatient, to testify about the results of his polygraph examination — rather than requiring that the State call the individual who actually administered the polygraph test. B ased on our New Mexico Supreme Court’s opinion in State v. Guthrie, 2011-NMSC-014, 150 N.M. 84, 257 P.3d 904, Defendant’s claim of error requires this Court to consider “the need for, and utility of, confrontation with respect to the truth-finding process and in light of the particular case at hand, including the specific charge pressed against the probationer.” Id. ¶ 43. Having taken this standard into consideration, we conclude that Defendant’s Fourteenth Amendment right to due process was violated by the district court’s allowance of testimony regarding Defendant’s polygraph results by someone other than the person who actually administered and interpreted the polygraph test. Accordingly, we reverse. BACKGROUND {3} Prior to the probation revocation hearing, Defendant filed a motion in limine or, in the alternative, a motion for continuance. In it, Defendant primarily sought to exclude any testimony regarding the results of his polygraph test from a witness other than Ralph Trotter, who administered Defendant’s polygraph test. Defendant argued that he possessed a due process right to confront the witnesses against him even in the context of a probation revocation proceeding, and absent a showing that there was good cause for not producing Mr. Trotter, the State should be barred from proceeding on the petition to revoke if it planned to present evidence regarding the polygraph. Defendant specifically asserted that absent Mr. Trotter’s testimony and availability for cross-examination, Defendant would be unable to test Mr. Trotter’s credentials and the manner in which the purportedly failed polygraph test was effectuated, and thus the district court lacked a constitutionally adequate basis to conclude that the asserted polygraph results were reliable. Alternatively, Defendant requested an extension of time to permit his chosen expert polygraph examiner the opportunity to review the materials related to the polygraph test and provide testimony regarding his own independent conclusions. {4} At the hearing, D efendant maintained that the polygraph results were central to proving the existence of any probation violation. The State countered that the probation violation was notbased exclusively on an allegation that Defendant failed his polygraph, but on the broader allegation that Defendant had “failed to fully cooperate and complete the sex offender treatment.” The State added that Therese Duran, the supervisor of Forensic Therapy Service, could competently testify regarding “the problems with the polygraphs, [that] they changed the course of treatment and still failed, because [D]efendantrefused to engage.” Defendant insisted that the core of Ms. Duran’s testimony would be as follows: “If the person is not admitting that they did the offense conduct, and the polygraph tests indicate that they are lying about that, then they consider the person to be noncompliant with the therapy.” Thus, while Defendant argued that the polygraph evidence was central to the proof of the probation violation, the State argued that evidence of the polygraph was not actually necessary to prove the violation. The district court took the motion in limine under advisement pending Ms. Duran’s testimony. {5} Ms. Duran testified that she supervised Defendant’s sex offender treatment and made the ultimate decision to terminate him from the program in late March 2010, roughly six months prior to Defendant’s completion of his five-year term of probation. She discussed the two distinct ways polygraphs were used by Forensic Therapy Service as part of the sex offender treatment program. Maintenance polygraphs were used to ensure compliance with the terms of probation — such as the prohibition against being within the specified vicinity of children. Ms. Duran testified that Defendant had passed all of his maintenance polygraph exams. Polygraph exams were additionally conducted regarding the sexual offenses with which the client was charged in order to determine the best course of treatment. According to Ms. Duran’s testimony, Forensic Therapy Service soughtto address all charges initially brought against the client (not only those to which the client pleaded or was convicted of), and if there were discrepancies between those charges and the client’s explanation of events, Forensic Therapy Service relied on polygraphs to resolve the incongruence. {6} According to Ms. Duran, based on Defendant’s polygraph results, he was considered to be in “denial” and was placed on a different treatment path aimed at achieving accountability for all conduct with which he was originally charged. Ms. Duran did not provide any testimony as to the manners in which Defendant’s polygraph test was conducted or its results were interpreted to reach the conclusion that he was being deceptive. Instead, Ms. Duran summarily stated that Defendant was placed in the “failed polygraph group” due to an indication of deception. She further maintained that he “significantly failed all of the polygraphs related to his sexual offense,” but that she did not “recall what the numbers were,” only that they were “clearly deceptive.” {7} Ms. Duran also discussed how Forensic Therapy Service utilized different therapists and therapies in an effort to progress beyond Defendant’s “deception” to achieve a therapeutically “accountable phase.” According to Ms. Duran, the difficulty with Defendant’s progress was his lack of “[a]ny form of accountability!].]” Once his initial polygraph tests showed deception, Ms. Duran testified that there was no way for Defendant to have graduated from the program without admitting the underlying offense. Ultimately, according to Ms. Duran, Defendant was released from the program for noncompliance “[b]ecause he was not being accountable.” {8} Following Ms. Duran’s testimony, Defendant reasserted his consistently argued position: In order for them to admit the testimony regarding the polygraph test results, pass or fail, they need more than Ms. Duran coming up and saying she got a report from someone. I don’t think the fact that she got a report is a reliable indication of whether or not the polygraph test was performed by somebody with the ability to perform it, that it was performed with the proper procedures, that the results obtained were reliable, what the level of deception — if that’s even an important indication for the polygraph tests — were. What we’re talking about is a scientific test. And the only person who testified has just seen the yes-or-no answer. . . . I think Ms. Duran’s pretty clear. The reason [Defendant] was terminated from the program was because he did not admit to the offense conduct. And the reason [why] that is a problem is because they believe he failed polygraph tests, indicating that he was lying about that. If he had passed these polygraph tests, by Ms. Duran’s own admission, he would be out of this program. He would be in a different one, maybe. But he would have successfully completed their program. The State reiterated that it was not the polygraph but Defendant’s continued denial that justified revocation. The district court found that the polygraphs were “a component of [Defendant’s] failure to finish the program” but that there were also “other behaviors and actions that were interpreted by the staff [as Djefendant . . . not engaging.” The district court therefore denied Defendant’s motion in limine. Following supplemental testimony by Defendant’s probation officer, which did not bear further on the issue of the polygraph, the district court revoked Defendant’s probation. The court further elected not to continue the proceeding in order to accommodate the alternative relief requested by Defendant — an opportunity to present his own expert. DISCUSSION {9} “Revocation of probation deprives an individual, not of the absolute liberty to which every citizen is entitled, but only of the conditional liberty properly dependent on observance of special [probation] restrictions.” Guthrie, 2011-NMSC-014, ¶10 (alteration in original) (quoting Gagnon v. Scarpelli, 411 U.S. 778,781 (1973)) (internal quotation marks omitted). “Because loss of probation is loss of only conditional liberty, ‘the full panoply of rights due a defendant in a [criminal trial] do [ ] not apply.’” Id. (alteration in original) (quoting Morrisey v. Brewer, 408 U.S. 471, 480 (1972)). Hence, “[t]he right protected in probation revocation[ cases] is not the [S]ixth [A]mendment right to confrontation, guaranteed every accused in a criminal trial, but rather the more generally worded right to due process of law secured by the [Fourteenth [A]mendment.” Guthrie, 2011-NMSC-014, ¶ 12. Due process includes “the right to confront and cross-examine adverse witnesses (unless the hearing officer specifically finds good cause for not allowing confrontation).” State v. Vigil, 91 N.M. 749, 751, 643 P.2d 618, 620 (Ct. App. 1982) (internal quotation marks omitted). Whether Defendant’s due process right to confrontation was violated is a question of law. We review questions of law de novo while deferring to the district court’s factual findings. Guthrie, 2011-NMSC-014, ¶ 22. {10} Our Supreme Court has directed the courts — when discharging their duty to find good cause for lack of confrontation — to consider “whether confrontation of the witness is essential to the truth-finding process in the context of probation revocation.” Id. ¶ 2. This entails considering whether the challenged hearsay evidence “relatefs] to objective or subjective observations, assert[s] that a probationer acted or failed to act as required, or supports] facts that are central or ancillary to the ultimate probation violation inquiry.” Id. ¶¶ 34, 37. Stated more specifically, our courts are to consider whether: (1) “the assertion [is] central to the reasons for revocation}] or . . . collateral,” (2) “the assertion [is] contested by the probationer, or... the state [is] being asked to produce a witness to establish something that is essentially uncontroverted,” and (3) the assertion is “inherently reliable.” Id. ¶¶ 34, 36. {11} Our Supreme Court presented the consideration of these factors as falling on a sliding scale “with extremes at either end and much balancing and weighing of competing interests in between.” Id. ¶ 40. On one end of the spectrum, Guthrie provides that good cause for not requiring confrontation will most likely exist where the state’s evidence is uncontested, corroborated by other reliable evidence, and documented by a reliable source without a motive to fabricate, or possibly situations where the evidence is about an objective conclusion, a routine recording, or a negative fact, making the demeanor and credibility of the witness less relevant to the truth-finding process. Id. On the other end of the spectrum, Guthrie provides that good cause will most likely not exist where evidence is contested by the defendant, unsupported or contradicted, and its source has a motive to fabricate; it is about a subjective, judgment-based observation that is subject to inference and interpretation, and makes a conclusion that is central to the necessary proof that the defendant violated probation. Id. ¶ 41. {12} We begin our consideration of the utility of confrontation under the particular facts of this case by looking at the nature of the evidence presented. Defendant argues that in contrast to the evidence challenged in Guthrie, the polygraph evidence here was central and contested, as opposed to being merely objective, routine or independently proven. In Guthrie, the defendant was placed on supervised probation and agreed to attend a ninety-day residential treatment program as part of a plea agreement. Id. ¶ 3. The State filed a motion to revoke probation based on the defendant’s failure to complete the program. Id. ¶4. At the probation revocation hearing, the defendant’s probation officer did not testify; rather, the probation officer’s supervisor testified and referred to documents contained in the defendant’s probation file. Id. ¶¶ 4-6. Based on the supervisor’s testimony, the district court revoked the defendant’s probation. In affirming the revocation, our Supreme Court relied on the fact that the defendant did not contest the allegation that he failed to complete the treatment program and that the defendant’s non-compliance was “an objective, negative, and rather routine fact” that “was easily and reliably established to a reasonable degree of certainty by a written statement from the treatment center.” Id. ¶ 46. In addition, our Supreme Court noted that there was little that could be gained by testimony from a direct employee of the treatment center under the facts of that case, and that the district court had independently corroborated the State’s testimony by taking judicial notice that it would have been factually impossible for the defendant to have completed the treatment as required, given the time and place of the defendant’s arrest. Id. ¶¶ 47-48. {13} “[T]he procedural protections inherent in the truth-finding process, such as a hearing or confrontation, are only necessary when the truth of the state’s allegation is challenged.” Id. ¶ 35. Thus, in Guthrie, our Supreme Court considered to be important the fact that the “[defendant never created any doubt in the truth of the evidence offered by the State.” Id. ¶34. It further noted that many courts would question the need for “a live witness to establish an evidentiary fact (failure to complete) that is never challenged for its accuracy or its reliability.” Id. In contrast, Defendant here emphatically challenged the reliability of the polygraph evidence in his motion in limine, his arguments on the issue, and his secondary effort to attain a continuance in order to present expert evidence rebutting the State’s polygraph testimony. {14} In addition, Defendant demonstrated through cross-examination of the State’s witnesses that the polygraph evidence was central to the State’s allegation that Defendant had failed to complete his treatment program. Ms. Duran testified that Defendant’s termination from the program was based upon his lack of accountability for the conduct with which he was originally charged. According to Ms. Duran, Defendant was only required to admit to the conduct with which he was first charged because his polygraph indicated that his denial of it was deceptive. If, on the other hand, Defendant’s polygraph had not indicated deception, no such admission would have been required. Because the testimony at the probation revocation hearing clearly indicates that Defendant’s ultimate failure to admit the offense conduct led to his termination from the program, the polygraph evidence that established the unresolved conflict was “central to the reasons for revocation.” Id. {15} Furthermore, Defendant accurately points out that polygraph evidence is neither objective nor routine. Instead, polygraph examiners are required to be licensed and adhere to specific procedures in the administration and interpretation of polygraph exams. Ms. Duran’s foundation-less testimony that Defendant’s polygraph examination indicated deception therefore gives this Court pause. “Evidence supporting subjective conclusions, which may require confrontation, includes sensory-based or judgment-based determinations or interpretations}.]” Id. ¶ 38. The conclusion testified to by Ms. Duran in explaining why Defendant was terminated from the sex offender treatment program was the direct product of Mr. Trotter’s interpretation of the polygraph results and his judgment-based determination that the results indicated deception. The State characterizes the evidence at issue as “the straightforward fact of treatment completion.” However, the incompletion of treatment in this instance is not premised on an objective fact as was the case in Guthrie-, rather, the genesis of Defendant’s failure to complete treatment was based on the State’s evidentiary assertions and argument regarding the' results of his polygraph exam. See id. ¶¶ 8, 48 (noting that the defendant’s failure to complete treatment was based on him not being present at the treatment facility). According to the Guthrie analysis, such subjective conclusions weigh compellingly in favor of requiring an opportunity for cross-examination. Id. ¶ 37 (citing Bailey v. State, 612 A.2d 288, 294 (Md. 1992) (“A second consideration may be whether the proffered hearsay is an objective fact reported by the declarant or instead contains conclusions which ought to be tested by cross-examination.”)). {16} The State does not directly address Defendant’s argument that the evidence was central, contested, and not objective or routine. Instead, the State contends that evidence regarding the polygraph was not necessary to proving Defendant’s violation of the conditions of his probation and that the burden to subpoena Mr. Trotter was on Defendant because the polygraph results were evidence of mitigation — in other words, a reason Defendant was unable to complete the treatment rather than proof of a violation of his probation. Despite the State’s contention that introduction of evidence regarding the polygraph results was unnecessary to prove a violation of Defendant’s conditions of probation, that is not the case before us. Rather, the State chose to introduce the polygraph results through Ms. Duran, along with Defendant’s refusal to admit all initially charged conduct, as well as the corresponding changes in Defendant’s treatment and his ultimate termination from the program. In the context of a probation revocation proceeding, we look to Guthrie to see if the evidence the State has elected to present situationally triggers a right of confrontation. Based on the centrality of the polygraph evidence in this circumstance, the subjective and interpretative nature of it, and the fact that Defendant challenged its reliability, we conclude that this case falls on the “no good cause” end of the spectrum established in Guthrie. Id. ¶ 41. Contrary to the circumstances in Guthrie, the utility of confrontation under these facts is evident. CONCLUSION {17} For the reasons stated above, we hold that Defendant’s Fourteenth Amendment right to due process was violated by the district court’s decision to allow Ms. Duran to testify exclusively regarding Defendant’s polygraph results. Accordingly, we reverse and remand for further proceedings. {18} IT IS SO ORDERED. J. MILES HANISEE, Judge WE CONCUR: MICHAEL D. BUSTAMANTE, Judge LINDA M. VANZI, Judge
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OPINION VANZI, Judge. {1} The New Mexico Subdivision Act (the Act), NMSA 1978, §§ 47-6-1 to -29 (1973, as amended through 2009), governs the subdivision review and approval process by counties. The appeals provision of the Act, Section 47-6-15(B), provides that a party adversely affected “by a decision of the board of county commissioners may appeal to the district court pursuant to the provisions of [NMSA 1978, §] 39-3-1.1 [(1999)]” — the statute governing administrative appeals. In this case, we address whether a county’s approval or disapproval of a preliminary subdivision plat application constitutes a final, appealable decision for purposes of Section 47-6-15(B) of the Act. We also decide whether a timely filed appeal from a decision on a preliminary plat application is rendered moot simply because the county proceeded to approve the final plat application during the pendency of the appeal. {2} We hold that a party adversely affected by a county’s decision on a preliminary plat application can appeal the decision to the district court and that this appeal, if timely filed, is not rendered moot by the county’s decision to approve the final subdivision plat application during the pendency of the appeal. Accordingly, we reverse the district court’s ruling to the contrary and remand for the district court to consider the merits. BACKGROUND {3} On January 8, 2008, the McKinley County Board of County Commissioners (the County) approved a preliminary plat application submitted by Tampico Springs Ranch 3000, LLC (Tampico) for a proposed 490-home phased subdivision development. On February 7, 2008, the Zuni Tribe (the Tribe) appealed the County’s approval of the preliminary plat application to the district court. Tampico filed a motion to intervene in the case, which the district court granted. {4} Shortly thereafter, the Tribe filed a motion to stay enforcement of the County’s decision approving the preliminary plat application to prevent Tampico from proceeding further in the subdivision development process during the pendency of the Tribe’s appeal. See Rule 1-074(Q) NMRA (permitting the district court to stay enforcement of the agency decision under review). The district court denied the Tribe’s motion, and the County then proceeded to approve Tampico’s final plat application. {5} Subsequently, Tampico filed a motion to dismiss the Tribe’s appeal on two grounds, arguing that: (1) the district court lacked jurisdiction because the County’s decision on the preliminary plat application was not a final, appealable order; and (2) the Tribe’s appeal from the preliminary plat approval was rendered moot by the County’s approval of Tampico’s final plat application during the pendency of the appeal. The district court granted Tampico’s motion, finding that the Tribe’s appeal “puts forth a moot question and the action complained of does not constitute a final decision.” We granted the Tribe’s petition for writ of certiorari to review the district court’s ruling. STANDARD OF REVIEW {6} The parties agree that this case presents pure questions of law, which we review de novo. See Santa Fe Pac. Trust, Inc. v. City of Albuquerque, 2012-NMSC-028, ¶ 10, 285 P.3d 595 (“Finality is a question of law we review de novo.”); Baber v. Desert Sun Motors, 2007-NMCA-098, ¶ 9, 142 N.M. 319, 164 P.3d 1018 (providing that “[wjhéther a lower court properly dismissed a case as moot presents a question of law, which we review de novo”). To the extent that this appeal requires this Court to interpret provisions of the Act, we also engage in de novo review. Hovet v. Allstate Ins. Co., 2004-NMSC-010, ¶ 10, 135 N.M. 397, 89 P.3d 69 (providing that “[sjtatutory interpretation is a question of law, which we review de novo”). DISCUSSION A. Finality {7} The first issue we address on appeal is whether the County’s approval of a preliminary plat application is a final, appealable order within the meaning of Sections 47-6-15(B) and 39-3-1.1. The Tribe argues that the district court erred in concluding that a county’s approval or disapproval of a preliminary subdivision plat application does not constitute a final decision that is appealable to the district court. Section 47-6-15(B) reads: A party who is or may be adversely affected by a decision of the board of county commissioners may appeal to the district court pursuant to the provisions of Section 39-3-1.1. (Emphasis added.) The Act does not define the term “decision” in Section 47-6-15(B), and here, the parties disagree as to whether a county’s approval or disapproval of a preliminary plat application is a decision from which an aggrieved party can seek judicial review. The Tribe contends that the County’s approval of Tampico’s preliminary plat application in this case constituted a “decision” under Section 47-6-15(B) of the Act and that this is a “final decision” within the meaning of Section 39-3-1.1. For the reasons that follow, we agree. {8} In interpreting Section 47-6-15 oftheAct, “we seek to give effect to the Legislature’s intent, and in determining intent we look to the language used and consider the statute’s history and background.” Key v. Chrysler Motors Corp., 121 N.M. 764, 768-69, 918 P.2d 350, 354-55 (1996); see State v. Nick R., 2009-NMSC-050, ¶ 11, 147 N.M. 182, 218 P.3d 868 (stating that in interpreting statutes, “we examine the plain language of the statute as well as the context in which it was promulgated, including the history of the statute and the object and purpose the Legislature sought to accomplish” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). “We must take care to avoid adoption of a construction that would render the statute’s application absurd or unreasonable or lead to injustice or contradiction.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {9} “The primary indicator of legislative intent is the plain language of the statute.” State v. Johnson, 2009-NMSC-049, ¶ 10, 147 N.M. 177, 218 P.3d 863. When a term is not defined in a statute, we must construe it, giving words “their ordinary meaning absent clear and express legislative intention to the contrary.” State v. Ogden, 118 N.M. 234, 242, 880 P.2d 845, 853 (1994). Although the term “decision” is not defined in the Act, it is ordinarily defined as “[a] judicial or agency determination after consideration of the facts and the law[.]” See Black’s Law Dictionary 467 (9th ed. 2009); see also Armijo v. Armijo, 77 N.M. 742, 744, 427 P.2d 258, 259 (1967) (defining “decision” as “a determination arrived at after consideration, an opinion formed, or a course of action decided upon”). As the Tribe points out, the review and approval process for preliminary plats set forth in the Act requires a formal review process by a board of county commissioners or its delegate. See § 47-6-11. The Act specifically requires the sub divider to furnish documentation of various matters, such as water availability and road access, along with its preliminary plat. Section 47-6-11(B). The Act requires the board of county commissioners to seek written input in the form of “opinions” from interested parties and various state entities, including the state engineer, the department of environment, and the department of transportation. Section 47-6-11 (F). The Act further requires the board of county commissioners to hold a public hearing to “weigh these opinions [if all are favorable] in determining whether to approve the preliminary plat.” Section 47-6-11(G); see § 47-6-11(H) (describing the process to be followed where negative opinions are submitted by state agencies, tribes, or other interested parties). At the public hearing, the board of county commissioners is required to “allow all interested persons a reasonable opportunity to submit data, views or arguments, orally or in writing, and to examine witnesses testifying at the hearing.” Section 47-6-14(E). And finally, the Act provides that the board of county commissioners is to render its decision on the preliminary plat “within thirty days of the public hearing at a public meeting.” Section 47-6-14(F). In light of the thorough review and decision-making process set forth in the Act for preliminary plats, it is reasonable to conclude that the approval or disapproval of a preliminary plat application would constitute a “decision” under Section 47-6-15 based on the term’s ordinary meaning. {10} In this case, the County’s approval of Tampico’s preliminary plat application was consistent with the foregoing statutory scheme. The approval was issued by the Board in the form of a written resolution with incorporated final findings and recommendations submitted by the County’s Smart Growth Commission. This resolution followed written input from state agencies and other interested parties, including the Tribe, as well as a series of public hearings before the Smart Growth Commission regarding Tampico’s preliminary plat application. Tampico and the Tribe submitted proposed findings and recommendations following the hearings. The final findings and recommendations adopted in the resolution included consideration of several important aspects of the subdivision development and review process, such as water availability, liquid and solid waste disposal, and access. Given the nature of the written resolution and the procedural history that preceded its passage, we agree with the Tribe’s argument that the resolution constitutes a “decision” under Section 47-6-15. {11} In addition, the statutory history of Section 47-6-15 confirms that the Legislature intended to provide for judicial review of a county’s approval or disapproval of a preliminary plat. In particular, we focus on the 1995 and 2005 amendments to the Act. See 1995 N.M. Laws, ch. 212; 2005 N.M. Laws, ch. 139, §§ 2-3. Prior to 1995, the Act did not delineate separate review and approval processes for preliminary and final plat applications. Instead, the earlier version of the Act provided a single overarching subdivision review and approval process for a “plat.” See, e.g., § 47-6-2(D) (1981) (defining plat); § 47-6-3 (1973) (describing certification requirement for plats); § 47-6-6 (1979) (providing filing requirement for plats); § 47-6-11 (1977) (detailing review and approval process for a type-one or type-two subdivision); § 47-6-15 (1973) (permitting appeals from a county’s approval or disapproval of a “subdivision plat”). {12} In 1995, the Legislature amended the Act substantially by separating the plat approval process into two distinct steps: the preliminary plat review process and the final plat review process. Specifically, the Legislature removed the broad definition of “plat” in the Act and in its place inserted definitions for preliminary and final plats. See § 47-6-2(E), (F) (1995). The Legislature also amended the Act to provide distinct requirements for review and approval of preliminary and final plat applications. See, e.g., § 47-6-11 (1995) (describingpreliminary plat approval process); § 47-6-11.3 (1995) (detailing final plat approval process); § 47-6-3 (1995) (describing requirements for final plats); § 47-6-4 (1995) (providing affidavit and acknowledgment requirements for final plats); § 47-6-6 (1995) (stating that approved final plats shall be filed with the county clerk’s office and indicating that this requirement does not apply to preliminary plats). And among other changes, the Legislature further amended the Act to require the board of county commissioners of each county to adopt regulations setting forth the county’s requirements for preliminary and final subdivision plats. Section 47-6-9(A)(l). Thus, the 1995 amendment to the Act reflected a clear legislative intent to create a substantively and legally distinct two-step subdivision approval process, with a portion of the Act now specifically tailored to address the preliminary plat review and approval process. {13} Section 47-6-15, the appeals provision of the Act at issue in this case, was also modified in 1995. Prior to 1995, Section 47-6-15(A) (1973) read: Any party who is or may be adversely affected by a decision of the board of county commissioners or its delegate in approving or disapproving a subdivision platva&y appeal to the district court. (Emphasis added.) Consistent with the changes made to other provisions of the Act in 1995, the Legislature amended this provision by replacing the language “a subdivision plat” with “preliminary or final plat.” 1995 N.M. Laws, ch. 212, § 16(A). Consequently, the language ofSection 47-6-15(A) after the 1995 amendment expressly permitted appeals to the district court from a decision of the board of county commissioner’s on preliminary or final plat applications. However, the Tribe’s appeal from the County’s approval of Tampico’s preliminary plat application in this case arose after Section 47-6-15 was amended in 2005 — when the Legislature removed the “approving or disapproving a preliminary or final plat” language from the provision. See § 47-6-15(B) (2005). As a result of the 2005 amendment, Section 47-6-15(B) now provides that “[a] party who is or may be adversely affected by a decision of the board of county commissioners may appeal to the district court.” Thus, while the 1995 version of Section 47-6-15 would have expressly permitted the Tribe’s appeal from the preliminary plat application approval, the current 2005 version of Section 47-6-15 no longer includes language expressly granting a statutory right of appeal from decisions on preliminary plat applications. {14} The Tribe contends on appeal that the removal of the “preliminary or final plat” language from Section 47-6-15 reflects a legislative intent to “broaden . . . the universe of county commission decisions subject to appeal.” We agree with the Tribe’s argument based on other aspects of the 2005 amendment to the Act. The primary objective of the 2005 amendment was to allow board of county commissioners in certain class A counties to delegate subdivision review and approval of preliminary plats and final plats to an administrative officer or to the planning commission. See 2005 N.M. Laws, ch. 139, § 2(D); accord NMSA 1978, § 47-6-9(D) (2005). While prior versions of Section 47-6-15 had only permitted appeals to the board of county commissioner from “a decision of a delegate ... in approving or disapproving a final plat under summary review,” the Legislature removed the qualifying language regarding final plats in 2005 to permit a much broader review, thereby allowing for appeals to the board of county commissioners from “a decision of a delegate.” Compare § 47-6-15(E) (1995) (emphasis added), and § 47-6-15(A) (1998), with § 47-6-15(A) (2005). Subsection A of Section 47-6-15 also provides that appeals to the district court are permitted from the board of county commissioners’ decision in an appeal from a delegate’s action. As we have noted above, the Legislature amended Subsection B at the same time by removing the language “approval and disapproval of preliminary and final plat.” See 2005 N.M. Laws, ch. 139, § 3; accord § 47-6-15(B) (2005). By removing the qualifying language from Subsection B, we conclude that the Legislature essentially confirmed that appeals from board decisions in delegation cases can be heard by district courts, thereby indicating a legislative intent to broaden the scope of appealable decisions. {15} We reject Tampico’s argument that the removal of the “preliminary or final plat” language from Section 47-6-15(B) served to eliminate a statutory right of appeal from decisions involving preliminary plats. If we were to employ this reasoning, we would be pressed to conclude that appeals from final plats are also not appealable since the language concerning final plats was also removed from Section 47-6-15. Such a reading is untenable if one considers that one of the primary objectives of the Act is to set forth a two-step subdivision review and approval process. The appeals provision of the Act would seemingly be rendered meaningless if no statutory right of appeal existed for decisions on preliminary or final plats. See Int'l Ass’n of Firefighters v. City of Carlsbad, 2009-NMCA-097, ¶ 11, 147 N.M. 6, 216 P.3d 256 (“We seek to give meaning to all parts of the statute, such that no portion is rendered surplusage or meaningless.”). We are not persuaded that the Legislature intended such a result. See City of Denting v. Detning Firefighters Local 4521, 2007-NMCA-069, ¶ 23, 141 N.M. 686, 160 P.3d 595 (“We ... do not give effect to legislative intent by reading a statute in a way that would render it meaningless.”). {16} Tampico also appears to argue that the approval or disapproval of a preliminary plat application does not constitute a “final decision” for purposes of Section 39-3-1.1, our administrative appeals statute, or Kelly Inn No. 102, Inc. v. Kapnison, 113 N.M. 231, 824 P.2d 1033 (1992), and its progeny. A “final decision” is defined in Section 39-3-1.1 (H)(2) as “an agency ruling that as a practical matter resolves all issues arising from a dispute within the jurisdiction of the agency, once all administrative remedies available within the agency have been exhausted.” “The general rule in New Mexico for determining the finality of a judgment is that an order or judgment is not considered final unless all issues of law and fact have been determined and the case disposed of by the trial court to the fullest extent possible.” Kelly Inn No. 102, 113 N.M. at 236, 824 P.2d at 1038 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {17} The gist of Tampico’s argument appears to be that a decision on a preliminary plat application is non-final because it does not dispose of all issues of law to the fullest extent possible. We are likewise not persuaded by this argument. Tampico offers no explanation as to why the County’s decision to approve Tampico’s preliminary plat application did not dispose of all issues of law to the fullest extent possible. Although Tampico’s answer brief noted a number of conditions placed by the County on Tampico in the resolution approving the preliminary plat, Tampico failed to argue that these conditions somehow rendered the resolution non-final for purposes of Section 39-3-1.1. Tampico only argues that an approval of a preliminary plat is non-final because of the possibility that the final plat for the subdivision could later be denied by the board of county commissioners. However, since the County went on to approve the final plat for the subdivision at issue in this case, we decline to address this issue further. See City of Sunland Park v. Harris News, Inc., 2005-NMCA-128, ¶ 50, 138 N.M. 588, 124 P.3d 566 (noting that an appellate court need not decide an issue that will have no practical effect on the current litigation and would answer only a hypothetical set of circumstances). {18} Drawing on the plain language of Section 47-6-15 and its legislative history, we conclude that the Legislature intended to allow aggrieved parties the right to appeal decisions on preliminary plat applications to the district court. We hold that the district court erred in concluding that the Tribe could not appeal from the County’s resolution approving Tampico’s preliminary plat application. We therefore reverse the district court’s ruling that the Tribe’s appeal was from a non-final decision. B. Mootness {19} We next address the district court’s determination that the Tribe’s appeal from the preliminary plat approval “puts forth a moot question.” Although the district court’s order did not state the underlying rationale for this decision, it appears that the district court was persuaded by Tampico’s argument below that the Tribe’s appeal was rendered moot due to the County’s approval ofTampico’s final plat application during the pendency of the Tribe’s appeal. We therefore address whether a timely filed appeal from a decision on a preliminary plat application is rendered moot because a board of county commissioners proceeded to approve the final plat application during the pendency of the preliminary plat appeal. {20} “As a general rule, this Court does not decide moot cases. When no actual controversy exists for which a ruling by the court will grant relief, an appeal is moot and ordinarily should be dismissed.” Republican Party of N.M. v. N.M. Taxation & Revenue Dep’t, 2012-NMSC-026, ¶ 10, 283 P.3d 853 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). The Tribe argues that its appeal was not moot because, even though the final plat was approved, the errors it has alleged regarding the County’s approval of Tampico ’s preliminary plat application remain a live controversy. The Tribe also contends that actual relief exists in this case and that by proceeding with the subdivision development process during the pendency of the Tribe’s appeal, Tampico bore the risk that the appeal could result in an unfavorable decision. In response to the Tribe’s contentions, Tampico claims that the finality issue discussed above should govern the mootness dispute in this case. {21} We have already determined that the district court erred in determining that the preliminary plat approval was a non-final decision. Given our reversal on the finality issue, if the Tribe’s claims of error regarding the preliminary plat approval are meritorious, we conclude that the Tribe would be entitled to actual relief. Thus, the Tribe’s appeal is not moot. This is the case notwithstanding the fact that, following the denial of the Tribe’s motion to stay, the County proceeded to approve Tampico’s final plat application during the pendency of the Tribe’s appeal in the district court. N othing in the Act prevents a subdivision developer from proceeding with the final plat review and approval process once a preliminary plat has been approved. However, where an aggrieved party has timely filed an appeal from a decision on a preliminary plat application, the subdivision developer undertakes such action during the pendency of the appeal at his or her own risk. See City of Bowie v. Prince George’s Cnty., 863 A.2d 976, 978 (Md. 2004) (holding that “an applicant may proceed to seek final plat approval of a subdivision . . . during the time that the preliminary plat approval remains under judicial review, but the applicant undertakes such action at his own risk that the underlying preliminary approval may be invalidated at a future time, thus, potentially voiding all subsequent governmental actions dependent on that approval”). C. Cancellation of Lis Pendens Notice {22} As a final matter, we briefly address one remaining aspect of the district court’s ruling. We observe that the district court’s order dismissing the Tribe’s appeal also included language cancelling the notice of lis pendens on file with the County clerk’s office in this case. This court-ordered cancellation of the lis pendens was premature and in error under existing New Mexico case law. We have previously held that a notice of lis pendens filed in an action continues “until expiration of the time for appeal or until final disposition of the case by the appellate court.” Kokoricha v. Estate of Keiner, 2010-NMCA-053, ¶ 18, 148 N.M. 322, 236 P.3d 41; Salas v. Bolagh, 106 N.M. 613, 615, 747 P.2d 259, 261 (Ct. App. 1987). Therefore, the district court’s cancellation of the lis pendens was improper. CONCLUSION {23} Based on the foregoing, we reverse the district court’s order of dismissal and remand for the district court to consider the merits of the Tribe’s appeal. {24} IT IS SO ORDERED. LINDA M. VANZI, Judge WE CONCUR: MICHAEL D. BUSTAMANTE, Judge CYNTHIA A. FRY, Judge Because the record is silent as to whether the notice of lis pendens was actually cancelled as a result of the district court’s order, we can only speculate as to whether, following final plat approval, Tampico proceeded to sell lots in the subdivision to buyers who did not have notice of the Tribe’s appeal to this Court. See D'Antonio v. Crowder, 2011-NMCA-016, ¶ 11, 149 N.M. 420, 249 P.3d 1243 (observing that “a notice of lis pendens selves to give notice to any third parties contemplating acquiring an interest in the property in question that title to the property is subject to ongoing litigation”).
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OPINION FRY, Judge. {1} Defendant was convicted of second degree murder, kidnapping (one count of first degree and one count of second degree), aggravated burglary, aggravated assault, and interference with communications. Defendant entered his estranged wife’s apartment without permission, kidnapped his wife’s paramour, and killed the paramour. Later, Defendant also kidnapped and assaulted his wife. On Defendant’s motion for judgment of acquittal notwithstanding the verdict, the district court vacated the conviction for aggravated burglary on the basis of a statute providing that “[njeither husband nor wife . . . can be excluded from the other’s dwelling.” NMSA 1978, § 40-3-3 (1907). The State appeals from this ruling, and Defendant cross-appeals, asserting several errors related to jury instructions, sufficiency of the evidence, denial of a motion for mistrial, and the alleged unconstitutional vagueness of our kidnapping statute. We affirm. BACKGROUND {2} In March 2007, Defendant was a non-commissioned officer in the Air Force, stationed in Korea. Defendant’s wife (Wife) was also in the Air Force and volunteered for a temporary deployment in Kuwait, where she began an affair with Victim, a military police officer. Wife ultimately admitted the affair to Defendant but told him that she was not going to continue the relationship with Victim. Over a period of several months in late 2007 and early 2008, Defendant and Wife discussed the possibility of getting divorced. {3} Wife returned to Alamogordo, New Mexico, in January 2008. Victim joined her there, and they resumed their affair. In February 2008, Wife revealed to Defendant that she had become pregnant with Victim’s child and that she had an abortion. A few days later, Defendant went AWOL, flew from Korea to El Paso, Texas, and drove to Alamogordo, where he checked into a motel. {4} The following day, Defendant bought a screwdriver and a box cutter to use in breaking into Wife’s apartment, and he also purchased a handgun. Defendant drove to Wife’s apartment and, leaving the handgun in the car, he crawled in through an open window, whereupon he discovered Victim in the bathroom. Defendant retrieved a handgun from a closet and confronted Victim. Defendant then bound Victim with duct tape and proceeded to interrogate Victim. Following this conversation, Defendant cut the duct tape from Victim. {5} Victim and Defendant drove to the motel where Defendant was staying and went to Defendant’s room. According to Defendant’s testimony, Victim insisted on accompanying him to the motel because he believed that Wife had lied to both Victim and Defendant. Also according to Defendant, after the two men entered the motel room, Defendant placed the guns and the knife on one of the beds and began to talk to Victim, whereupon Victim grabbed one of the guns and pointed it at Defendant. Defendant testified that he feared he was about to be shot, so he stabbed Victim to death. {6} Defendant then returned to Wife’s apartment. Wife testified that when she arrived at the apartment, Defendant accosted her and struck her in the head with a handgun, forced her to drive to the motel, and showed her Victim’s body in the motel room. According to Defendant, he accidentally hit Wife in the head with the gun and she voluntarily accompanied him to the motel. Soon after, Defendant drove with Wife to the office of the New Mexico State Police and turned himself in. {7} Following a trial, the jury found Defendant guilty of second degree murder, two counts of kidnapping, aggravated burglary, aggravated assault, and interference with communications. Defendant moved for a judgment of acquittal notwithstanding the verdict, arguing in part that his entry into Wife’s apartment was not unauthorized, as required by the burglary statute, because Section 40-3-3 provides that neither spouse can exclude the other from the spouse’s dwelling. The district court agreed and vacated Defendant’s conviction for aggravated burglary. The State appeals from this determination, and Defendant cross-appeals, raising several other issues. DISCUSSION 1. The State’s Appeal {8} The State argues that the district court improperly vacated Defendant’s conviction for aggravated burglary. In order to find Defendant guilty of aggravated burglary, the jury had to find, among other elements, that Defendant’s entry into Wife’s apartment was unauthorized. See NMSA 1978, § 30-16-4 (1963) (stating that “[ajggravated burglary consists of the unauthorized entry of any . . . dwelling” when the person is either armed with a deadly weapon, arms himself with a deadly weapon once inside, or commits a battery on a person in the place entered). The district court determined that Defendant’s entry into Wife’s apartment was not unauthorized in light of Section 40-3-3, titled “Separation of property; admission to dwelling of spouse[,j” which states: “Neither husband nor wife has any interest in the property of the other, but neither can be excluded from the other’s dwelling.” {9} “Statutory interpretation is an issue of law, which we review de novo.” State v. Duhon, 2005-NMCA-120, ¶ 10, 138 N.M. 466, 122 P.3d 50. “Our primary goal when interpreting statutory language is to give effect to the intent of the [Ljegislature.” State v. Torres, 2006-NMCA-106, ¶ 8, 140 N.M. 230, 141 P.3d 1284. “We do this by giving effect to the plain meaning of the words of [a] statute, unless this leads to an absurd or unreasonable result.” State v. Marshall, 2004-NMCA-104, ¶ 7, 136 N.M. 240, 96 P.3d 801. {10} We have no case law explaining the Legislature’s intent in 1907 when it enacted Section 40-3-3, but the State surmises that it was an aspect of the married women’s property statutes that were enacted in most states in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as “part of a national campaign to sweep away the common law web of limitations and disabilities which had entangled a married woman’s rights to own and dispose of property.” See Jane M. Keenan, Comment, The End of an Era: A Review of the Changing Law of Spousal Burglary, 39 Duq. L. Rev. 567, 570 (2001) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). This supposition is bolstered by the fact that at the same time it enacted Section 40-3-3, our Legislature enacted several other statutes addressing the issue of married women’s property rights. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, § 40-2-1 (1907) (stating that “[hjusband and wife contract toward each other obligations of mutual respect, fidelity and support”); NMSA 1978, § 40-2-2 (1907) (explaining contract rights of husband and wife); NMSA 1978, §§ 40-2-4 to -7 (1907, as amended through 1973) (explaining execution and recording of marriage settlement and separation contracts); NMSA 1978, §§ 40-2-8 to -9 (1907) (describing the extent to which husband and wife can contract to alter their legal relationship and consideration for such a contract); NMSA 1978, § 40-3-1 (1907) (stating that “[t]he property rights of husband and wife are governed by this chapter”); NMSA 1978, § 40-3-2 (1907) (stating how husband and wife may hold property). {11} If the State is correct in theorizing that Section 40-3-3 was enacted as part of broader legislation addressing the property rights of married women, this theory does not aid us much in determining whether the statute has the effect of limiting the reach of our criminal burglary statutes when the burglar and the burglary victim are married to each other. If we focus on the statute’s language, it appears that its reach is fairly broad. First, the statute does not appear to contemplate preservation of one “marital home” from which neither spouse can be excluded. Instead, the statute states that neither husband nor wife “can be excluded from the other’s dwelling.” Id. (emphasis added). This language suggests that, even if husband and wife maintain separate residences, neither can exclude the other spouse. Second, there are no limitations of any kind placed on this blanket prohibition against exclusion. As a result, estrangement of the spouses or the many forms of having possession of a residence appear to have no impact on the prohibition. {12} Through the lens of this sweeping prohibition against spousal exclusion, we consider the burglary statutes and our courts’ interpretation of those statutes. Our Supreme Court recently discussed at length the history and purpose of our existing burglary statutes in State v. Office of the Public Defender, ex rel. Muqqddin, 2012-NMSC-029, 285 P.3d 622. The Court noted that New Mexico case law has stated that “the purpose of our burglary statute is to protect possessory rights with respect to structures and conveyances, and to define prohibited space.” Id. ¶ 40 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). The Court stated that “[cjhief among the possessory interests that burglary is designed to protect is the right to exclude.” Id. ¶ 41 (emphasis added). The Court went on to state that “[t]his right to exclude has been described as perhaps the most fundamental of all property interests.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {13} The Court’s focus on the right to exclude dovetails with Section 40-3-3 insofar as Section 40-3-3 appears to eliminate either spouse’s right to exclude the other spouse from the first spouse’s dwelling. Therefore, the plain language of Section 40-3-3 appears to render inter-spousal burglary an impossibility. Applied to the facts in this case, Section 40-3-3 prohibited Wife from excluding Defendant from her apartment and, consequently, his entry into her apartment, even with felonious purpose, did not constitute burglary as a matter of law. It was a legal impossibility for his entry to be deemed “unauthorized” as required by our burglary statutes. {14} The State argues against this conclusion and relies for support on a New Mexico case and several cases from other jurisdictions. None of these cases persuade us that our reading of Section 40-3-3 is wrong. {15} The State first relies on State v. Rubio, which involved a defendant charged with breaking and entering his girlfriend’s apartment.' 1999-NMCA-018, ¶¶ 1-2, 126 N.M. 579, 973 P.2d 256. The defendant argued that he had the authority to be in his girlfriend’s apartment and, therefore, that he did not commit an “unauthorized entry” as required by the statute criminalizing breaking and entering. Id. ¶¶ 5-6 (internal quotation marks omitted). He further argued that the instruction given to the jury erroneously stated that an element of the crime was “entry without permission” rather than the statutory language of “unauthorized entry.” Id. ¶¶ 4-5 (internal quotation marks omitted). This Court concluded that because the defendant and his girlfriend maintained separate apartments, the defendant paid no rent on the girlfriend’s apartment, and there was no evidence that the defendant had a key to the girlfriend’s apartment, he did not have “blanket authority to enter the apartment,” and any authority he may have had “was freely revocable” by the girlfriend. Id. ¶¶ 2, 9. Consequently, the district court’s failure to instruct the jury on “unauthorized entry” was not reversible error. Id. ¶ 16 (internal quotation marks omitted). {16} The State argues that the present case is similar to Rubio in that both the burglary statutes and the breaking and entering statute seek to protect possessory interests rather than ownership interests. As a result, even if Section 40-3-3 protects some sort of property interest Defendant might have had in Wife’s apartment, the State argues, Wife’s possessory interest in the apartment was distinct and was protected by the burglary statutes. The State bolsters its argument by noting that the apartment’s lessor, Wife, and Defendant agreed to release Defendant from the lease’s obligations sometime before the events surrounding Victim’s murder. {17} We are not persuaded that Rubio is relevant to this case. The defendant and the victim in Rubio were not married, so Section 40-3-3 had no impact on this Court’s analysis. Section 40-3-3 injects into the case before us a factor not present in Rubio, which is the statutory prohibition against one spouse excluding the other from a spousal dwelling. Further, Section 40-3-3 makes no distinction between title to and possession of a spousal dwelling, which is the distinction Rubio relied on. For the same reasons, we are not persuaded by the Colorado case on which the State relies. See People v. Johnson, 906 P.2d 122, 124, 126 (Colo. 1995) (en banc) (reversing the dismissal of burglary and trespass charges against the defendant who had entered his estranged wife’s separately leased apartment, but not involving a non-exclusion statute such as Section 40-3-3). {18} The State more appropriately relies on a case from Ohio and one from California, both of which are states that currently have or once had statutory provisions similar to Section 40-3-3. In State v. Lilly, the Ohio Supreme Court addressed the impact of a non-exclusion statute on the prosecution of one spouse for the burglary of the other spouse’s residence. 717 N.E.2d 322, 325 (Ohio 1999). The Ohio statute, like New Mexico’s Section 40-3-3, provides that “[n]either husband nor wife has any interest in the property of the other” and that “[njeither can be excluded from the other’s dwelling.” Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3103.04 (1953). The only difference is that the Ohio statute provides an exception to the exclusion prohibition when a spouse has obtained a court order allowing exclusion. Id. The court in Lilly concluded that the statute did not preclude burglary by one spouse of the other spouse’s residence for two primary reasons. First, the non-exclusion statute was in a domestic relations chapter of the Ohio code, and the Court determined that the statute “was intended to address property ownership rights of married persons, matters of a civil nature,” and “not meant to be enforced criminally.” 717 N.E.2d at 326. Second, “the purpose of [the] burglary law is to protect the dweller” such that “custody and control, rather than legal title, is dispositive.” Id. at 327. Because the defendant had no right of custody or control over his estranged wife’s separately leased residence, the jury could reasonably find that the defendant trespassed in the wife’s apartment, where trespass was an element of the crime of burglary. Id. at 325, 327-28. {19} The California case relied on by the State focused on the alleged burglar’s intent in entering the residence in question. See People v. Sears, 44 Cal. Rptr. 330, 336 (1965), overruled on other grounds by People v. Cahill, 20 Cal. Rptr. 2d 582 (1993) (in bank). In Sears, the California Supreme Court cited the non-exclusion statute, which has since been repealed, see West’s Ann. Cal. Civ. Code § 5102 (1994), but did not discuss it. Sears, 44 Cal. Rptr. at 336. The court in Sears stated simply that “[o]ne who enters a room or building with the intent to commit a felony is guilty of burglary even though permission to enter has been extended to him personally or as a member of the public. The entry need not constitute a trespass.” Id. (citation omitted). Because the defendant in Sears had the intent to commit an assault when he entered what had been his home before he separated from his wife, the court had no difficulty rejecting the defendant’s contrary argument. Id. {20} Although the State does not cite a later California case, People v. Davenport, 268 Cal. Rptr. 501 (Ct. App. 1990), it is instructive because, unlike the California Supreme Court in Sears, the California Court of Appeal actually addressed California’s non-exclusion statute. That statute, like New Mexico’s Section40-3-3,provided, “[Njeither husband nor wife has any interest in the separate property of the other, but neither can be excluded from the other’s dwelling.” Cal. Civ. Code § 5102; see Davenport, 268 Cal. Rptr. at503. The court in Da venport rejected the defendant’s argument that the non-exclusion statute precluded his conviction for burglarizing the residence in which his estranged wife was living. Id. at 502, 505. In doing so, the court relied on case law interpreting the non-exclusion statute as relating to “the marital right of the spouses to occupy the family home” and on the holding in Sears. Davenport, 268 Cal. Rptr. at 503-04 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Thus, to the extent the defendant in Davenport had any right of entry under the non-exclusion statute, it was “qualified to a lawful purpose.” Id. at 505. {21} Although the results in these cases from Ohio and California seem “correct” in the moral sense, we are not persuaded by their rationale. With respect to the Ohio Supreme Court’s rationale in Lilly, we see nothing in Section 40-3-3 indicating that it applies only in the civil context, nor has the State cited any authority stating that civil statutes cannot circumscribe criminal statutes. And, as we have already mentioned, our burglary statutes’ purpose in protecting possessory rights rather than ownership rights leads us squarely into the wall created by the exclusion proscription of Section 40-3-3. Our burglary statutes protect the possessory right to exclude, and Section 40-3-3 dictates that spouses have no such right. See Office of the Pub. Defender, 2012-NMSC-029, ¶ 41 (explaining that “[c]hief among the possessory interests that burglary is designed to protect is the right to exclude”). As for the California cases, according to the court in Sears, unauthorized entry is not even an element of burglary in California as it is in New Mexico. The Sears court stated that even a person entering a building with permission can be guilty of burglary if that person has the intent to commit a felony. Sears, 44 Cal. Rptr. at 336. As a result, we cannot square the California cases’ reasoning with our burglary statutes’ requirement ofunauthorized entry, particularly where the effect of our non-exclusion statute is to immunize an otherwise unauthorized entry. {22} More importantly, the Ohio and California courts, as a matter of policy, appear to have simply brushed aside the non-exclusion statutes. In our view, it is not our role to dictate what constitutes sound public policy because that is a matter best left to the Legislature. See Torres v. State, 119 N.M. 609, 612, 894 P.2d 386, 389 (1995) (explaining that “it is the particular domain of the [Legislature, as the voice of the people, to make public policy” and that “[cjourts should make policy . . . only when the body politic has not spoken”). If the Legislature wants to limit the reach of Section 40-3-3, it can amend or repeal it. {23} We appreciate the policy concerns underlying the courts’ decisions in Lilly and Davenport — concerns that may well motivate our Legislature to clarify the impact it intends Section 40-3-3 to have on the crime of burglary. Inter-spousal burglary commonly leads to domestic violence. See, e.g., State v. O’Neal, 721 N.E.2d 73, 77-78 (Ohio 2000) (describing a defendant breaking into estranged wife’s separately leased residence and then shooting his wife and injuring his son); Sears, 44 Cal. Rptr. at 333 (describing husband entering estranged wife’s residence, injuring wife, and killing wife’s daughter); see also 39 Duq. L. Rev. 567 (describing numerous cases of inter-spousal burglary culminating in domestic violence). Some may be troubled that because of Section 40-3-3, the mere fact of marriage provides immunity to someone who burglarizes the residence of an estranged spouse. However, it is for the Legislature to determine whether to amend the statute to eliminate this immunity. 2. Defendant’s Cross-Appeal {24} In his cross-appeal, Defendant makes five arguments for reversal of his convictions: (1) the district court erroneously refused to give Defendant’s requested instruction on the definition of sufficient provocation in connection with the crime of voluntary manslaughter, (2) there was insufficient evidence supporting Defendant’s conviction for first degree kidnapping, (3) the kidnapping statute is unconstitutionally vague and therefore void, (4) the district court’s failure to provide the jury with use instructions for the special verdict forms constitutes fundamental error, and (5) the district court should have granted Defendant a mistrial when jurors saw him arrive at court in a sheriff’s vehicle. a. Instruction on Sufficient Provocation {25} The district court instructed the jury on the elements of voluntary manslaughter, including the explanation that“[t]he difference between second degree murder and voluntary manslaughter is sufficient provocation.” Defendant tendered an instruction defining sufficient provocation according to UJI 14-222 NMRA, which states: “Sufficient provocation” can be any action, conduct or circumstances which arouse anger, rage, fear, sudden resentment, terror or other extreme emotions. The provocation must be such as would affect the ability to reason and to cause a temporary loss of self control in an ordinary person of average disposition. The “provocation” is not sufficient if an ordinary person would have cooled off before acting. Defendant’s tendered instruction added the following language, which is not part of UJI 14-222: “A series of events over a considerable period of time may constitute sufficient provocation.” As authority supporting this addition, Defendant cited State v. Benavidez, 94 N.M. 706, 616 P.2d 419 (1980). The district courtrefused Defendant’s requested instruction and instead instructed the jury according to UJI 14-222. Defendant argues that the district court’s refusal of his tendered instruction was reversible error. He maintains that the additional language, supported by Benavidez, would have explained to the jury that events over a period of time could constitute provocation and that without this language, the jury was allowed to speculate. {26} Because Defendant preserved this issue by tendering the desired instruction, we review for reversible error. State v. Cabezuela, 2011-NMSC-041, ¶ 21, 150 N.M. 654, 265 P.3d 705. “Reversible error arises if . . . a reasonable juror would have been confused or misdirected.” Id. ¶ 22 (alteration in original) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Juror confusion or misdirection may arise from an instruction “which, through omission or misstatement, fail[s] to provide the juror with an accurate rendition of the relevant law.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {27} We arenotpersuadedthat¿?e«£m'<iez supports the additional instruction language sought by Defendant. In Benavidez, our Supreme Court concluded that there was enough evidence of sufficient provocation to support an instruction on voluntary manslaughter. 94 N.M. at 708, 616 P.2d at 421. The Court cited evidence of the victim’s conduct, which apparently occurred long before the defendant killed the victim, that constituted evidence of sufficient provocation. Id. However, there is nothing in the case suggesting that anything other than the UJI instruction was requested or necessary. {28} We do not read the holding in Benavidez as a requirement to instruct a jury that events over a period of time can constitute sufficient provocation. Furthermore, the instruction given in this case did not rule out the notion that sufficient provocation could arise from events occurring over a period of time.' In addition, our Supreme Court has not seen fit to change UJI 14-222 in the thirty-two years since Benavidez was decided. We therefore fail to see how the instruction given could have confused or misled the jury. See UJI Crim. General Use Note NMRA (stating that “when a uniform instruction is provided for the elements of ... a defense . . . , the uniform instruction must be used without substantive modification or substitution”). b. Sufficiency of Evidence Supporting Kidnapping Conviction {29} In order to convict Defendant of first degree kidnapping, the jury had to find beyond a reasonable doubt: 1. [Djefendant took, restrained, confined, or transported [Victim] by force, intimidation or deception; 2. [D]efendant intended to hold [Victim] against [Victim’s] will: to inflict death or . . . physical injury on [Victim] OR for the purpose of making [VJictim do something or for the purpose of keeping [VJictim from doing something; 3. [DJefendant was not suffering from a mental disease or disorder at the time the offense was committed to the extent of being incapable of forming the intention to hold [Victim] to inflict death or physical injury or for the purpose of making [VJictim do something or for the purpose of keeping [VJictim from doing something. 4. This happened in New Mexico on or about the 22nd day of February, 2008. The jury could have reduced the conviction to second degree kidnapping by finding that Defendant “voluntarily free[d VJictim in a safe place and [did] not inflict physical injury or a sexual offense upon [VJictim.” NMSA 1978, § 30-4-l(B) (2003). However, the jury answered special verdict questions and unanimously found against Defendant on the elements of freeing Victim in a safe place without physical injury. The commission of a sexual offense was not at issue. {30} Defendant argues that there was insufficient evidence that he failed to free Victim in a safe place because he released Victim from the duct tape at Wife’s apartment and there was no evidence that Victim was injured by the restraint up to that point. Defendant further argues that there was no indication that he restrained Victim in any way after that. He notes that security camera photos at the motel show Defendant entering his motel room ahead of Victim. {31} In reviewing for sufficiency of the evidence, we consider whether substantial evidence exists to support a verdict of guilty beyond a reasonable doubt with respect to every element of the crime charged. State v. Godoy, 2012-NMCA-084, ¶ 16, 284 P.3d 410. “We review the evidence in the light most favorable to the verdict, resolving all conflicts and indulging all reasonable inferences in favor of the verdict.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {32} Although Defendant testified that he freed Victim from the duct tape because he no longer had a “problem” with him, that Victim insisted on driving Defendant to the motel, and that Defendant did not force Victim to go to the motel, the jury was free to reject this testimony. See State v. Rojo, 1999-NMSC-001, ¶ 19, 126 N.M. 438, 971 P.2d 829 (“Contrary evidence supporting acquittal does not provide a basis for reversal because the jury is free to reject [the djefendant’s version of the facts.”). {33} There was other sub stantial evidence supporting the conviction for kidnapping. Defendant was armed with a knife and two guns when he and Victim left Wife’s apartment, the surveillance photos show Defendant with his hands in his pockets when he and Victim entered the motel room, and Victim left his watch and his wallet at the apartment. From this evidence, the jury could reasonably infer that Victim did not leave the apartment and accompany Defendant to the motel willingly because he feared that Defendant might use one ofthe handguns ifhe tried to escape. This inference was buttressed by Wife’s testimony that Defendant was armed with the same guns when he later forced her to accompany him to the motel and that she did not try to escape from Defendant when they subsequently drove to the police station because she was afraid Defendant would shoot her. c. Alleged Vagueness of the Kidnapping Statute {34} Defendant argues thatthe kidnapping statute as amended in 2003 is unconstitutionally vague and therefore should be deemed void. Specifically, Defendant claims that the 2003 amendment, which replaced “great bodily harm” with “physical injury,” turned all kidnappings and false imprisonments into first degree kidnapping because “physical injury” is not defined. The current form of the statute provides: A. Kidnapping is the unlawful taking, restraining, transporting or confining of a person by force, intimidation or deception, with intent: (1) that the victim be held for ransom; (2) that the victim be held as a hostage or shield and confined against his will; (3) that the victim b e held to service against the victim’s will; or (4) to inflict death, physical injury or a sexual offense on the victim. B. Whoever commits kidnapping is guilty of a first degree felony, except that he is guilty of a second degree felony when he voluntarily frees the victim in a safe place and does not inflict physical injury or a sexual offense upon the victim. Section 30-4-1. The 2003 amendment substituted “physical injury or a sexual offense” for “greatbodily harm” in Subsection B. {35} We review void-for-vagueness claims under a de novo standard. State v. Greenwood, 2012-NMCA-017, ¶ 39,271 P .3 d 753, cert. denied, 2012-NMCERT-001,__ P.3d __. “A strong presumption of constitutionality underlies each legislative enactment, and the party challenging constitutionality has the burden of proving a statute is unconstitutional beyond all reasonable doubt.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). To determine whether a statute is unconstitutionally vague, we consider: “(1) whether the statute gives fair notice to persons of ordinary intelligence as to the conduct it prohibits, and (2) whether the statute sets standards and guidelines sufficient to avoid arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.” Id. ¶ 40. {36} As an aside, we note that Defendant mentions equal protection and strict scrutiny in his brief, but he does not explain or flesh out any contention that the kidnapping statute violates equal protection. We therefore decline to consider such an argument, to the extent that Defendant has attempted to make one. See Headley v. Morgan Mgmt. Corp., 2005-NMCA-045, ¶ 15, 137 N.M. 339, 110 P.3d 1076. (explaining that the appellate court “will not review unclear arguments, or guess at what [a party’s] arguments might be”). {37} As for his void-for-vagueness argument, Defendant does not provide any explanation for why he thinks the term “physical injury” fails to provide notice to an ordinary person as to what conduct is being prohibited. Instead, he simply asserts in conclusory fashion that the term allows law enforcement, prosecutors, and fact finders “to engage in arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement of the statute.” State v. Laguna, 1999-NMCA-152, ¶ 26, 128 N.M. 345, 992 P.2d 896 (stating the standard for assessing whether a statute is unconstitutionally vague). {38} We fail to see how a person of ordinary intelligence would not understand what “physical injury” means. A rational juror would understand that the law intends a greater punishment for a kidnapper who fails to release his or her victim in a safe place without inflicting physical injury. We have already concluded that substantial evidence supported the jury’s view that Defendant failed to release Victim without physical injury; Victim’s death caused by Defendant clearly falls within the definition of “physical injury.” See id. ¶ 24 (stating that an appellate court reviews a void-for-vagueness challenge “in light of the facts of the case and the conduct which is prohibited by the statute” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). The statute is not unconstitutionally vague. d. Failure to Provide Jury With Instructions for Special Verdict Forms {39} Because there was an issue as to whether Defendant voluntarily released Victim in a safe place without inflicting physical injury, the district court provided the jury with special verdict forms asking the following: Do you unanimously find beyond a reasonable doubt that [Djefendant did not voluntarily free [Victim] in a safe place? (Yes or No) Foreperson Do you unanimously find beyond a reasonable doubt that [D]efendant inflicted physical injury upon [Victim]? ______(Yes or No) Foreperson These questions were consistent with UJI 14-6018 NMRA, and the jury answered each question in the affirmative. {40} However, the district court failed to provide the jury with the use instructions that, according to UJI 14-6018, precede the special verdict questions. The State tendered the preliminary instructions, but apparently due to an oversight, the instructions never made it into the jury’s packet. Those instructions tell the jury that if it finds the defendant guilty of kidnapping, then it must determine whether the defendant voluntarily freed the victim, whether the defendant inflicted physical injury on the victim, or, in appropriate circumstances, whether the defendant committed a sexual offense. The instructions also tell the jury that in order to answer “yes” to any question, the state must prove the factors beyond a reasonable doubt. Id. {41} At trial, Defendant did not object to the district court’s failure to provide the jury with these instructions. Therefore, he argues thatthe court’s failure constituted fundamental error requiring reversal of his kidnapping convictions. See Rule 12-216(B)(2) NMRA (stating that despite a lack of preservation, the reviewing court can consider, among other matters, fundamental error or fundamental rights of a party). {42} Fundamental error occurs only in “cases with defendants who are indisputably innocent, and cases in which a mistake in the process makes a conviction fundamentally unfair notwithstanding the apparent guilt of the accused.” State v. Barber, 2004-NMSC-019, ¶ 17, 135 N.M. 621, 92 P.3d 633. When the alleged error involves jury instructions, we first consider “whether a reasonable juror would have been confused or misdirected by the jury instruction.” Id. ¶ 19. We consider the claim of error “in the context of jury instructions as a whole.” State v. Reed, 2005-NMSC-031, ¶ 55, 138 N.M. 365, 120 P.3d 447. {43} Defendant’s perfunctory argument is that the failure to include the preliminary instructions meant that “the jury had no basis to understand what purpose}] [the special verdict forms] served.” We are not persuaded that the absence of the preliminary instructions resulted in the jury’s confusion regarding the special verdict forms. The prosecutor discussed the special verdict forms in her closing argument and explained that in connection with kidnapping, the jury would have to decide whether Defendant voluntarily freed Victim and Wife. The questions on the special verdict forms were self-explanatory. In addition, the jury understood the forms well enough to distinguish between the alleged kidnappings of Victim and Wife because the jury answered “no” in response to the question, “Do you unanimously find beyond a reasonable doubt that [Djefendant did not voluntarily [release Wife] in a safe place?” We conclude that the absence of the preliminary instructions to the special verdict forms did not constitute fundamental error. e. Propriety of Mistrial {44} Early in the trial, defense counsel moved for a mistrial on the ground that four jurors had seen Defendant arrive at the courthouse seated in the back of a police car. The district court denied the motion, and Defendant asserts that this was error. The district court’s ruling on a motion for a mistrial is addressed to the court’s sound discretion and will not be disturbed absent a showing of abuse of discretion. State v. Fry, 2006-NMSC-001, ¶ 52, 138 N.M. 700, 126 P.3d 516. {45} The district court relied on State v. Holly, 2009-NMSC-004, 145 N.M. 513, 201 P.3d 844 in denying Defendant’s motion. In that case, the defendant failed to preserve the issue but argued on appeal that he was prejudiced when a member of the jury may have seen him in handcuffs. Id. ¶ 40. Reviewing the argument for fundamental error, this Court concluded that there was no such error because it was unclear whether the juror actually saw the defendant in handcuffs and whether the exposure was “anything more than inadvertent or insignificant.” Id. ¶ 42 (internal quotation marks omitted). {46} In this case, as in Holly, no evidence was introduced establishing that any jurors actually saw Defendant in the police car and, if they did see Defendant, there is no indication that the exposure was not inadvertent. Although Holly was decided under a fundamental error standard, we have additional case law reviewing similar claims under an abuse of discretion standard and holding that inadvertent exposure to a defendant in handcuffs did not prejudice the defendant. See, e.g., State v. Mills, 94 N.M. 17, 21-22, 606 P.2d 1111, 1115-16 (Ct. App. 1980) (affirming denial of mistrial motion where the defendant was inadvertently seen hy jurors in handcuffs); State v. Gomez, 82 N.M. 333, 334, 481 P.2d 412, 413 (Ct. App. 1971) (affirming denial of motions to strike jury panel and for mistrial Where jurors saw the defendant in handcuffs before trial and during recess). Moreover, it would certainly be no surprise to jurors that someone accused of murder would be in custody. We fail to see how seeing Defendant in the back of a police car prejudiced him to the extent necessary to warrant a mistrial. CONCLUSION {47} For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the judgment of the district court. {48} IT IS SO ORDERED. CYNTHIA A. FRY, Judge WE CONCUR: MICHAEL E. VIGIL, Judge J. MILES HANISEE, Judge Apparently the lease on the apartment was originally in the names of both Wife and Defendant, but at some point prior to Defendant’s going AWOL, the apartment’s lessor, Wife, and Defendant agreed that Defendant would be released from any obligations under the lease.
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OPINION KENNEDY, Chief Judge. {1} The Town of Edgewood (the Town) petitioned the Municipal Boundary Commission (the Commission) to annex unincorporated land that was intermixed with its incorporated areas. The Commission denied the petition. On certiorari review, the district court of Santa Fe County reversed the Commission’s decision and ordered the annexation, holding that the Commission had overstepped its authority and considered matters outside of its statutory prerogatives. The Commission filed a petition for a writ of certiorari, which our Court granted. We now reverse. {2} The Commission has the power to determine the statutory sufficiency of a petition and may make that determination at any time in the proceedings. The Commission properly rejected the Town’s petition for failing to establish ownership of roads contained in and bordering the territory and for accounting for the ownership and consequences of ownership of roads owned by other government entities in and bordering the territory as required by NMSA 1978, Section 3-7-18 (1965) andNMSA 1978, Section3-7-4 (1965). We hold that the Commission properly denied the annexation. I. BACKGROUND {3} The Town filed its petition with the Commission to annex territory in the unincorporated area of Santa Fe County (the County) in September 2009. NMSA 1978, § 3-7-11(A)(1) (1995); NMSA 1978, § 3-7-13 (1983) (setting out requirements for filing of a petition to annex and its form). A meeting of the Commission was set in due course as required by NMSA 1978, Section 3-7-14(B) (1965). At the meeting in November 2009, two main issues arose: (1) the designation, ownership, and inclusion of roads within and bordering the territory proposed for annexation by the petition; and (2) whether the Town can provide municipal services to the annexed area within a reasonable period of time. The Town’s petition included a map of the territory proposed for annexation, which identified the territory to be annexed in relation to the Town and surrounding areas. It included roads both within and bordering the proposed annexation. The Town’s map did not identify who owned these roads. The Commission questioned whether any roads belonged to the state, county, or federal governments, and the extent to which the Town had taken such ownership into account. The Town’s attorney stated that there were some state and county roads on the map submitted. The Town stated that it had no intention of annexing any roads belonging to another governmental entity and no intention of maintaining any such roads. Consequently, the Town did not contact any other government that might own roads within or bordering the territory it sought to annex. The Town Administrator, Karen Machalick, provided some testimony regarding who maintained the roads as well as some ownership information. The Commission denied the annexation petition, holding in part that the Town had not properly included in its petition all streets located on the boundary of the territory proposed for annexation and that the map accompanying the petition did not show any federal, state, or county roads existing within that territory. {4} The Town sought review by way of certiorari to the district court, which reversed the Commission, holding that the Commission’s decision was not “in accordance with law.” In coming to this conclusion, the district court held that the Commission cannot look beyond the two statutory requirements included in NMSA 1978, Section 3-7-15 (1965) in making its decision, namely, that the territory to be annexed is contiguous to the municipality and that municipal services may be delivered to the annexed territory. It also held that the maps attached to the Town’s petition provided fair and sufficient notice of the territory proposed to be annexed and that the County’s use interest in the roads to be annexed did not create a bar to annexation, by relying on Santa Fe County Board of County Commissioners v. Town of Edgewood, 2004-NMCA-111, 136 N.M. 301, 97 P.3d 633. The district court concluded that the Commission did not have the authority to reject the petition. We granted the Commission’s petition for a writ of certiorari requesting that this Court review the decision of the district court. II. DISCUSSION {5} The Commission has statutory power to determine the annexation of territory to a municipality when the municipality brings a petition to annex. Section 3-7-11(A)(1). “On a writ of certiorari, we employ an administrative standard of review when determining whether a district court, sitting as an appellate court, erred in its review of an administrative decision.” Kirkpatrick v. Bd. of Cnty. Comm’rs of Santa Fe Cnty., 2009-NMCA-110, ¶ 10, 147 N.M. 127, 217 P.3d 613. Thus, our standard of review is the same as that employed by the district court. Mutz v. Mun. Boundary Comm‘n, 101 N.M. 694, 697, 688 P.2d 12, 15 (1984). On appeal of the Commission’s decisions, a reviewing court is limited to questions of law, including whether the administrative body acted fraudulently, arbitrarily, or capriciously, whether substantial evidence exists to support the decision, and whether the administrative body acted within its authority. Id. at 702, 688 P.2d at 20. Although it may correct a misapplication of the law, the reviewing court generally may not substitute its judgment for that of the administrative agency. Id. at 697, 688 P.2d at 15. “In applying whole record review, this Court reviews both favorable and unfavorable evidence to determine whether there is evidence that a reasonable mind could accept as adequate to support the conclusions reached by the fact finder.” Levario v. Ysidro Villareal Labor Agency, 120 N.M. 734, 737, 906 P.2d 266, 269 (Ct. App. 1995). {6} We first address the question of authority and whether the Commission is limited to considering only the issues of contiguity and the provision of municipal services under Section 3-7-15. We conclude that, in addition to determining these issues, the Commission may consider and determine the statutory sufficiency of the petition. We next consider the sufficiency of the evidence and determine that there was sufficient evidence to support the Commission’s determination that statutory requirements regarding identification of roads on the map were not met. A. The Commission May Determine the Sufficiency of Petitions {7} Our first concern is whether the Commission is limited to consideration of only the two issues of contiguity and provision of services. In this case, the issue is whether the Commission may also consider the requirement of NMSA 1978, Section 3-7-13(A)(3)(b) (1965) for designation of highways and the requirement of Section 3-7-18 that the proposed annexation include any streets located along the boundary of the territory to be annexed. {8} A petition to annex must include information about the roads within and along the boundary of the territory proposed to be annexed. Section 3-7-13(A)(3)(b). Pursuant to the statute, the petition shall be accompanied by a map of the territory proposed to be annexed, which must show, among other items, “any federal, state [,] or county highways which may exist in the territory proposed to be annexed}.]” Id. Territory owned by the federal government and its instrumentalities, or the State of New Mexico and its political subdivisions, may be annexed upon consent of that government entity. Section 3-7-4(A). Finally, “[a]ny municipality annexing any territory shall include in the annexation any streets located along the boundary of the territory being annexed.” Section 3-7-18 (defining“street” as “any thoroughfare that is open to the public and has been accepted by the board of county commissioners as a public right-of-way”). Combined, these statutes require that a petition to annex territory include all roads in and along the boundaries of the territory, and if they are owned by government subdivisions, that consent be obtained to annex those roads from those governments. {9} Our opinion, in State ex rel. State Highway & Transportation Department v. City of Sunland Park, 1999-NMCA-143, ¶ 21, 128 N.M. 371, 993 P.2d 85, confirms that an annexation must comply with all statutory requirements, not just with the provisions of Section 3-7-15(A). There, we invalidated an annexation for not including an adjacent state road. City of Sunland Park, 1999-NMCA-143, ¶ 27. Section 3-7-18 requires the annexation of roads adjacent to the territory to be annexed and failing to include roads adjacent to territory in an annexation petition rendered the petition invalid. City of Sunland Park, 1999-NMCA-143, ¶ 24. {10} In this appeal, the Town, like the district court below, incorrectly relies on our holding in Edgewood. In that case, we rejected Santa Fe County’s standing to object to an annexation by the town because it did not own roads within the annexed area. 2004-NMCA-lll^ 8. The question of compliance with Sections 3-7-13(A)(3)(b) and 3-7-18 was not the issue. Edgewood primarily established that maintaining public roads did not create an ownership interest in the roads, and a lack of ownership precluded a county’s standing to object to a road’s annexation. 2004-NMCA-111, ¶¶ 11-14. In the present case, the district court concluded that the “County’s use interest in the roads to be annexed does not create a bar to annexation.” However, the issue before us is not the use interest in the road, but rather whether the Town filed a petition that meets statutory requirements. Edgewood is not applicable to a determination of the sufficiency of the petition regarding required statutory representations and inclusions. {11} The next question is how and when the Commission can consider such defects. The Town concedes that the Commission is not required to review a petition if its statutory preconditions are not met, but it asserts that a review of the statutory sufficiency of the petition must be completed prior to the Commission taking up the merits of the petition. The Town’s rationale seems to be that because a petition may not be denied for any other reason than those two contained in Section 3-7-15, it cannot be rejected at the end of the Commission hearing for any other reason. We disagree, as we regard rejection of a petition that does not comply with statutory form requirements to be different than denial of a petition based on the merits of the petition itself. {12} We have evaluated a similar situation and noted that a board, reviewing a petition for incorporation, may review the statutory sufficiency of the petition at any time. See Citizens for Incorporation, Inc. v. Bd. of Cnty. Comm’rs, 115 N.M. 710, 713-14, 858 P.2d 86, 89-90 (Ct. App. 1993). There, we held that a board’s determination that the petition was insufficient should be upheld if supported by substantial evidence. Id. at 714, 858 P.2d at 92. We further held that the sufficiency of the petition is a jurisdictional issue and, therefore, that the statutory prerequisites for a petition can be raised at any time. Id. at 716, 858 P.2d at 92. The court in Citizens for Incorporation held that a board may properly determine the sufficiency of a petition for municipal incorporation and its supporting map. Id. In Citizens for Incorporation, the sufficiency issue was not raised prior to the hearing on other issues, but we held that this fact did not bar the board from determining that the petition was insufficient under applicable statutes. Id. Because the incorporation and annexation statutes are similarly structured, we adopt the rationale of Citizens for Incorporation and determine that the Commission may consider the sufficiency of the petition at any time. {13} The requirements of Sections 3-7-13(A)(3)(b) and -18 are preconditions to a petition being properly before the Commission. The Commission concluded as a matter of law that the Town did not include in its annexation request all streets as required hy these statutes. We regard the Commission’s conclusion to be that the petition did not conform with the legal requirements set forth by the Legislature in its statutes governing annexation. {14} We conclude that the Commission has the power to review petitions for their sufficiency and compliance with the annexation statutes. The Commission can request further detail at any time in the hearing should concerns arise aboutthe petition and its supporting map. The Commission was free to determine that the petition did not meet the requirements of Sections 3-7-13 and -18. Having concluded from testimony concerning the contents of the petition and its supplemental materials that the petition did not meet the statutory requirements, the Commission could then determine that the petition was invalid. Because this determination of its jurisdiction must be supported by substantial evidence, we now review the Commission’s findings and conclusions according to a substantial evidence standard of review. B. The Commission’s Determination That the Town Filed a Non-Compliant Petition Was Supported by Substantial Evidence {15} In reviewing the Commission’s decision, we look at the entire administrative record to see if substantial evidence supports the outcome. Mutz, 101 N.M. at 699, 688 P.2d at 17. At the hearing before the Commission, the Town conceded that its map contained state and county roads. However, the county roads were not designated as such. The Commission asked if the Town had obtained permission to annex county roads pursuant to Section 3-7-4(A). The Town responded that it was “not annexing any state or county property” and that the roads would remain state and county roads unless and until the state and county desired to dedicate them to the Town. {16} The Town relied on Section 3-7-4(B), which states that an annexation can be valid despite containing land belonging to other governmental entities within the territory to be annexed. The Town testified that about forty-five miles of county road existed within the area proposed for annexation. Other testimony established that the territory sought to be annexed was bordered by Old Route 66, which appeared on the Town’s map as State Route 333. Testimony referred to property to be annexed as being bordered by County Road 6C and Highway 344. The exhibits to the petition included multiple property locations on NM 344 and Old U.S. 66, which suggest the existence of state and county roads within and along the areas to be annexed. {17} The Commission’s order denying annexation found that, while the map showed roads that exist “within and along the boundary of the territory proposed to be annexed,” the map did not indicate whether the roads were owned by any other government entity. The Commission found that county and state roads were “within or border the territory proposed to be annexed” and that the Town was “unable to ascertain who the actual owner is of several of roads within or on the boundary of the territory.” It also found that the Town had no intention to annex any federal, state, or county roads, and no intention of having any government entity owning such a road, to continue to maintain it. The Town did not indicate any intention of annexing other, presumably private, roads that were not included in the petition. Based on our review of the exhibits and the testimony given at the hearing, all of the Commission’s findings are supported by substantial evidence. {18} Having concluded that substantial undisputed evidence supports both the Commission’s findings of fact and conclusions of law regarding the non-compliance of the Town’s petition with applicable statutes, we further conclude that the Commission’s decision that the Town did not comply with statutory requirements for its petition was not arbitrary and capricious. Our ruling being dispositive of the appeal, we do not address the issue of whether the Town would be able to provide municipal services to the annexed area. III. CONCLUSION {19} The district court erred in holding that the Commission’s review of the sufficiency of the petition was limited. The Commission has the power to evaluate the annexation petition’s compliance with statutory requirements for ownership and documentation of roads. There is no need to address any further issues because the petition did not warrant further proceedings before the Commission. We therefore reverse the district court and affirm the decision of the Commission. {20} IT IS SO ORDERED. RODERICK T. KENNEDY, Chief Judge WE CONCUR: CYNTHIA A. FRY, Judge CELIA FOY CASTILLO, Judge Pro Tem
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OPINION BUSTAMANTE, Judge. {1} Appellant’s motion for rehearing is granted. The opinion filed in this case on October 24, 2012, is withdrawn and this Opinion is substituted in its place. {2} Defendant appeals his convictions for kidnapping, battery on a household member, and intimidation of a witness on grounds that (1) the district court erred in denying an instruction on the lesser-included offense of false imprisonment, (2) convictions for kidnapping and battery violate the prohibition against double jeopardy, (3) the conduct constituting kidnapping was incidental to the battery, and (4) his counsel was ineffective because he failed to object to improper character evidence at trial and to seek mitigation of Defendant’s sentence. Defendant also argues that the district court did not consider mitigating evidence and, therefore, the case should be remanded for resentencing. {3} We conclude that there is no reasonable view of the evidence such that false imprisonment was the greatest offense committed and, thus, the district court did not err in refusing the request for a lesser-included offense instruction. We determine also that the conduct underlying the kidnapping and battery charges was neither factually unitary nor unitary as a matter of law. Therefore, there was no violation of the prohibition against double jeopardy. Furthermore, the restraint and/or movement involved in this case was not incidental to the battery, and Defendant failed to establish a prima facie case of ineffective assistance based on failure to object to improper character evidence because, even if there were error, there is no evidence that Defendant was prejudiced by the error. We affirm Defendant’s convictions. We remand for resentencing after consideration of mitigating circumstances. BACKGROUND {4} Defendant and Victim lived together at the time of the incident giving rise to the charges in this case. They have one child. Victim has two other children, one of whom was fifteen years old on July 13, 2009, the date of the incident. Victim testified that Victim and Defendant were at Victim’s parents’ house on July 12 but left together late in the evening in Victim’s car, with Victim driving because Defendant did not have a driver’s license. They stopped to get gas, and Defendant got into the vehicle in the driver’s seat. Defendant said he would drive the rest of the way to their home half a mile away. Instead, Defendant drove in the opposite direction. Victim asked where they were going, and Defendant responded that he was taking a drive. Defendant continued driving down the Hobbs Highway away from town and, after turning off the highway, drove ten to fifteen minutes to a deserted area. On the way, he told Victim that he wanted to take her to a place with “no cops [and] no phones.” Defendant pulled Victim out of the vehicle and started pulling her hair, kicking her, and throwing her into bushes. Victim testified that during this time, Defendant told her he was going to kill her or leave her there to die, and repeatedly stated that he “did not want to go back to j ail.” She stated that when she refused to swear that she would not call the police, he continued beating her. Defendant held Victim’s arm while driving to another location on Derrick Road, where he beat her some more. When Victim attempted to run away, Defendant chased her, put her back in the car, and drove to a third location on Hidalgo Road. Victim testified that Defendant beat her again and forced her to have intercourse with him. After driving around for an hour or two, Defendant drove to their home in the early morning of July 13. Victim’s daughter opened the door and told Victim to call the police. Defendant went to the bedroom. Victim then went to the sheriffs department to report the incident. {5} At trial, Defendant moved for a jury instruction on false imprisonment on the ground that false imprisonment was a lesser-included charge of kidnapping. The judge denied this motion. Defendant was convicted of kidnapping, battery on a household member, and intimidation of a witness. He was acquitted of criminal sexual penetration. At the sentencing hearing, Defendant requested a continuation to prepare a motion for mitigation of the kidnapping sentence, which was granted. A second hearing on November 8, 2010, was also continued. Defendant was sentenced on November 29, 2010. A motion for mitigation was not filed. {6} Defendant was sentenced to a total of twenty-one years: eighteen years for kidnapping, three years for intimidation of a witness, and 364 days for battery against a household member. The sentences for the latter charges were ordered to run concurrent to each other and consecutive to the kidnapping sentence. DISCUSSION {7} We address Defendant’s arguments in the order presented. A. Defendant Was Not Entitled to a Jury Instruction on a Lesser-included Offense {8} “The propriety of jury instructions given or denied is a mixed question of law and fact. Mixed questions of law and fact are reviewed de novo.” State v. Salazar, 1997-NMSC-044, ¶ 49, 123 N.M. 778, 945 P.2d 996. On appeal, the evidence is viewed “in the light most favorable to the giving of the requested instruction.” State v. Hill, 2001-NMCA-094, ¶ 5, 131 N.M. 195, 34 P.3d 139. {9} There are two prerequisites for a lesser-included offense instruction. First, the district court should “grant the request when the statutory elements of the lesser crime are a subset of the statutory elements of the charged crime.” State v. Meadors, 121 N.M. 38, 44, 908 P.2d 731, 737 (1995). Second, the trial court should grant ... an instruction [on a lesser-included charge] if (1) the defendant could not have committed the greater offense in the manner described in the charging document without also committing the lesser offense . . . ; (2) the evidence adduced at trial is sufficient to sustain a conviction on the lesser offense; and (3) the elements that distinguish the lesser and greater offenses are sufficiently in dispute such that a jury rationally could acquit on the greater offense and convict on the lesser. Id. Although the Meadors test applied to a prosecution request for an instruction on a lesser-included charge and focused on protection of the defendant’s due process rights, this Court applied it to a defendant’s request for such an instruction in Darlas. See State v. Darkis, 2000-NMCA-085, ¶ 14, 129 N.M. 547, 10 P.3d 871. When it is the defendant requesting a lesser-included offense instruction, “the appropriate focus is ... on the facts the [s]tate had arrayed and the theory of its case.” Id. ¶ 15. This analysis entitles a defendant to a lesser-included offense instruction when the evidence supports the lesser-included offense. Id. ¶ 17. {10} In reviewing on appeal whether a reasonable jury could find that the lesser-included offense is the highest offense committed, “[w]e will not ‘fragment the testimony ... to such a degree as to distort it’ in order to construct a view of the evidence which would support the giving of the instruction.” State v. Gaitan, 2002-NMSC-007, ¶ 24, 131 N.M. 758, 42 P.3d 1207 (second alteration in original) (citation omitted). In State v. Wilson, the Court held that a lesser-included offense instruction was properly denied where the defendant sought to show that the jury could have believed portions of testimony by both the victim and defendant and rejected other portions. 117 N.M. 11, 15, 868 P.2d 656, 660 (Ct. App. 1993). It held that “there must be some evidence other than that obtained by taking portions of the victim’s and portions of the defendant’s testimony to support the lesser-included offense instruction. . . . When there is other evidence [to support the lesser-included offense instruction], then the risk of impermissible distortion [of the testimony] is eliminated.” Id. {11} D efendant argues that “ [t]he jury was free to reject [Victim’s] . . . testimony that [Defendant] expressed a kidnapping intent. . . , especially in light of the significant impeachment of her credibility which resulted in acquittal for the [criminal sexual penetration] charge” and, therefore, there was “some view of the evidence that [false imprisonment] was the most serious offense committed.” The State responds, in essence, that no reasonable juror could find that false imprisonment was the highest offense committed because to do so would “requir[e] an impermissible fragmentation of the evidence, picking and choosing among elements of a single witness’s testimony.” {12} It is clear that the first Meadors prerequisite is metbecause false imprisonment is a subset of kidnapping. False imprisonment is “intentionally confining or restraining another person without his consent and with knowledge that he has no lawful authority to do so.” NMSA 1978, § 30-4-3 (1963). Kidnapping requires “the unlawful taking, restraining, transporting or confining of a person, by force, intimidation or deception, with intent ... to inflict death, physical injury[,] or a sexual offense on the victim.” NMSA 1978, § 30-4-1 (A)(4) (2003). The difference between these two statutes is found in kidnapping’s intent requirements. See State v. Clark, 80 N.M. 340, 343, 455 P.2d 844, 847 (1969) (“Merely to confine or restrain against a person’s will without the requisite intention is not kidnapping. This is false imprisonment. . . when done with knowledge of an absence of authority.” (citations omitted)). {13} The second Meadors prerequisite has three components. Two are satisfied readily: Defendant could not have committed kidnapping without committing false imprisonment since false imprisonment is a subset of kidnapping, and there is sufficient evidence to support a conviction for false imprisonment found in Victim’ s testimony that Defendant restrained her in the vehicle. It is the last component — whether “a jury rationally could acquit on the greater offense and convict on the lesser” — that is contested by the parties and on which the bulk of our analysis rests. 121 N.M. at 44, 908 P.2d at 737. {14} This part of the Meadors test requires that (1) “the elements that distinguish the lesser and greater offenses are sufficiently in dispute such that [(2)] a jury rationally could acquit on the greater offense and convict on the lesser.” Id. Defendant argues that the jury could have found that he did not intend to cause Victim harm. He points to Victim’s testimony that Defendant “did not become angry or violent until after they had arrived in a secluded location” as an indication that Defendant “lacked the intent to injure [Victim] at the time he drove out there.” He argues that the fact he intentionally battered Victim does not prove that he transported her to the deserted area with the intent to do so because “false imprisonment can involve a resulting injury without constituting kidnapping.” The State counters that Victim’s testimony that Defendant told her that he wanted to bring her to a place with “no cops [and] no phones” shows that “the only rational conclusion is that he took her there [to beat her].” These arguments focus on whether Defendant intended to batter Victim during the period starting at the gas station and ending when Defendant began beating Victim at the Hobbs Highway location. Essentially, the parties disagree as to when Defendant formed the intent to cause Victim physical injury. Victim’s testimony, the only evidence presented on what happened during the drive, permits a legitimate dispute on this issue, thus satisfying the first component of this test. {15} We are not limited to analysis of the dispute over this period, however, because this is not the only period relevant to the kidnapping charge. Even if the jury concluded that Defendant did not intend to harm Victim during the initial transport from the gas station to the Hobbs Highway location, there was restraint and movement to satisfy the requirements of kidnapping because, after beating Victim there, Defendant drove to two other locations where he continued to beat her. Victim testified as to the battery, and both the police officer to whom she reported the incident and her daughter testified as to the resultant bruising. The jury viewed photos of the bruising at trial. Based on this evidence, the jury convicted Defendant of battery against a household member. For the jury to believe that Defendant did not intend to batter Victim when he drove her from Hobbs Highway to Derrick Road and from there to Hidalgo Road would require substantial fragmentation of the evidence. In essence, such an interpretation would require the jury to believe that Defendant committed the battery but did not intend to do so while driving from place to place. This is not “a reasonable view of the evidence [that] could lead a fact[]finder to conclude that the lesser offense is the highest degree of crime committed.” State v. Neatherlin, 2007-NMCA-035, ¶ 22, 141 N.M. 328, 154 P.3d 703. Thus, the second component of this test fails. {16} Although we agree with Defendant that it is the intent to cause injury, not the injury itself, that distinguishes kidnapping from false imprisonment, evidence of injury may be used by the jury as circumstantial evidence of intent. See State v. Allen, 2000-NMSC-002, ¶ 65, 128 N.M. 482, 994 P.2d 728 (“[W]e [allow] a jury to ‘infer, from evidence of acts committed at some later point during the commission of a kidnapping, that the necessary criminal intent existed at the time the victim first was restrained. ’ ” (citation omitted)). If the incident had ended with Defendant driving Victim home after beating her at the Hobbs Highway location, there may have been a reasonable interpretation of the evidence that the battery was a spontaneous act not preceded by kidnapping. But that is not what happened. Instead, the transportation of Victim from Hobbs Highway to Derrick Road was preceded by an intentional battery and followed by an intentional battery. So was the transport from Derrick Road to Hidalgo Road. Defendant presented no evidence that such transport either did not occur or that he had another purpose for driving from place to place. The only rational view of the evidence is that Defendant intended to injure Victim as they traveled between these locations. The district court did not err in denying Defendant’s request for an instruction on the lesser-included offense of false imprisonment. B. Defendant’s Convictions Do Not Violate Double Jeopardy {17} “The constitutional prohibition against double jeopardy ‘protects againstboth successive prosecutions and multiple punishments for the same offense.’” State v. Armijo, 2005-NMCA-010, ¶ 15, 136 N.M. 723, 104 P.3d 1114 (citation omitted); see U.S. Const. amends. V, XIV; N.M. Const. art. II, § 15. Defendant argues that his convictions for kidnapping and battery violate this prohibition because his conduct was unitary both based on the facts and as a matter of law and the Legislature did not intend to punish battery and kidnapping separately. The State responds that (1) the issue was not preserved properly; and (2) the conduct is not unitary under the facts or as a matter of law and, therefore, double jeopardy does not apply. We agree that Defendant’s double jeopardy rights were not violated. {18} Defendant need not have preserved this issue in order to raise it on appeal. See State v. Martinez, 2007-NMCA-160, ¶ 5, 143 N.M. 96, 173 P.3d 18. “Double jeopardy presents a question of law, which we review de novo.” State v. Saiz, 2008-NMSC-048, ¶ 22, 144 N.M. 663, 191 P.3d 521, abrogated on other grounds by State v. Belanger, 2009-NMSC-025, 146 N.M. 357, 210 P.3d 783. “[T]he sole limitation on multiple punishments is legislative intentf.]” Swafford v. State, 112 N.M. 3, 13, 810 P.2d 1223, 1233 (1991). Under New Mexico’s double jeopardy jurisprudence, our inquiry into legislative intent proceeds in two stages. Id.; State v. Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶¶ 18-19, 142 N.M. 120, 164 P.3d 1. “The first part of our inquiry [is] whether the conduct underlying the offenses is unitary, i.e., whether the same conduct violates both statutes. The second part [is] whether the [Legislature intended to create separately punishable offenses.” Swafford, 112 N.M. at 13, 810 P.2d at 1233. If the evidence is such “that the jury reasonably could have inferred independent factual bases for the charged offenses},]” the conduct is not unitary. Saiz, 2008-NMSC-048, ¶ 30 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Independent factual bases “may be established by determining whether the acts constituting the two offenses are sufficiently separated by time or space, looking to the quality and nature of the acts, the objects and results involved, and the defendant’s mens rea and goals during each act.” Id. {19} In certain situations, two offenses are “unitary by definition.” Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 23. In those cases, where the Legislature has “define[d] the offenses as greater and lesser included, and the jury instructions require the jury to make the factual finding of unitary conduct,” the court need not assess whether the conduct was unitary. Id. ¶ 20. An example is the felony murder statute, which requires that the killing be committed “in the commission of or attempt to commit any felony[.]” NMSA 1978, § 30-2-1(A)(2) (1994). The construction of this statute requires a factual finding that one crime was committed in conjunction with another. Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 23. “Thus, when a jury finds a defendant guilty of felony murder, it has already determined the fact-based unitary conduct question — it has found that the killing happened during the commission of the underlying felony.” Id. Taken together with State v. Contreras, 120 N.M. 486, 903 P.2d 228 (1995), in which the Court held that “when the conduct is unitary, the defendant cannot be convicted of both felony murder and the underlying predicate felony},]” Frazier’s holding means that a defendant can never be convicted of both felony murder and the predicate felony because the conduct is always unitary. 2007-NMSC-032, ¶¶ 16, 23. 1. Defendant’s Conduct Was Not Factually Unitary {20} With this background in mind, we turn back to the facts of this case. We address first whether Defendant’s conduct was factually unitary, then whether it was unitary as a matter of law. Defendant argues that his conduct was factually unitary because “[t]he physical contact was constant” and “[Defendant’s] mental state of anger was also constant}.]” We are unpersuaded. Here, Victim testified that at different times during the encounter, Defendant kicked her, punched her, pulled her hair, and pushed her into bushes. She testified that he transported her from place to place while holding her by the shirt and arm and that when she tried to run, he dragged her back to the car. To convict for kidnapping, the jury was instructed they must find that Defendant “took, restrained, confined, or transported [Victim] by force or intimidation ... to inflict physical injury on her[.]” They were instructed that in order to convict for battery, they must find that Defendant “intentionally touched or applied force to [Victim] by hitting or kicking her[.]” (Emphasis added.) Thus, based on these instructions and Victim’s testimony, the jury could have found independent factual bases for kidnapping and battery because the instructions limited the conduct constituting battery to hitting or kicking Victim, thereby precluding inclusion of the conduct by which Defendant restrained or transported Victim in the car from place to place. See State v. Pisio, 119 N.M. 252, 260, 889 P.2d 860, 868 (Ct. App. 1994) (“The key to the restraint element in kidnapping is the point at which [the victim’s physical association with [the djefendant was no longer voluntary.”). The conduct was not factually unitary. State v. Urioste, 2011-NMCA-121, ¶ 28, 267 P.3d 820 (“[Where] the jury could reasonably have inferred an independent factual basis for . . . [defendant’s convictions, . . . we do not second-guess the factual conclusions of a jury.”), cert. quashed, 2012-NMCERT-008, 296 P.3d 491. 2. Defendant’s Conduct WasNot Unitary as a Matter of Law {21} Neither is the conduct unitary as a matter of law. Defendant argues that the kidnapping statute functions like the felony murder statute in Frazier. See Section 30-4-1(B); Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 23. Section 30-4-1 (B) allows punishment of kidnapping as a second degree felony if the defendant “voluntarily frees the victim in a safe place and does not inflict physical injury or a sexual offense upon the victim.” Therefore, Defendant argues, the elevation of a kidnapping charge to first degree based on physical injury is analogous to elevation of a killing to first degree murder based on a predicate felony. The State maintains that the kidnapping statute is not similar to the felony murder statute because, unlike that statute, it does not include a requirement of a predicate crime that is subsumed into kidnapping. We are not persuaded by Defendant’s analogy to the felony murder statute because the statutes at issue are neither facially nor functionally the same. {22} Frazier’s analysis of the felony murder statute relies on the legislative intent behind the statute. 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 26; see § 30-2-l(A)(2). Although that analysis “turn[ed] entirely on the unitary conduct prong of Swafford[,]” the Court stated that, in essence, both Swafford prongs depend on whether the Legislature intended multiple punishments. Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶¶ 17-18. The factual inquiry into “independent factual bases” is based on an “assum[ption] that the [Legislature intended to authorize separate punishments” when “criminal acts are sufficiently separate in time and space[.]” Id. ¶ 19. Thus, the unitary conduct analysis is “a proxy for legislative intent when the [Legislature is silent.” Id. The Court went on to determine that the Legislature was not silent in the felony murder statute: its intent to treat certain crimes as unitary is evinced by the “expres[s] require[ment] that the killing happen ‘in the commission of’ the underlying felony.” Id. ¶23. {23} Here, there is no such legislative intent indicated in the kidnapping statute. Unlike the felony murder statute, the kidnapping statute does not include as an element “in the commission of [a] felony.” Compare § 30-2-l(A)(2), with § 30-4-1. Thus, on its face, the kidnapping statute is not like the felony murder statute. In addition, there is no evidence that the Legislature has ever intended to make the kidnapping statute like the felony murder statute. “We presume that the [Legislature knows the law when enacting a statute.” State v. Bennett, 2003-NMCA-147, ¶ 11, 134 N.M. 705, 82 P.3d 72. Yet, although the felony murder statute has been part of New Mexico’s schema for homicide since well before 1963, see NMSA 1953, § 40-24-4 (Vol. 6, 1965) (defining first degree murder), the Legislature has not added a similar provision to the kidnapping statute even though it has amended that statute three times since 1963. See § 30-4-1. Finally, New Mexico has declined to follow the Model Penal Code’s kidnapping statute, adopted in 1962 and followed by some other states, which includes a provision such that kidnapping may be charged for restraint intended to facilitate another crime. See § 30-4-1; Model Penal Code § 212.1 (1962); see, e.g., Kan. Stat. Ann. § 21-5408(a)(2) (2010). {24} Defendant argues that, in spite of the difference in wording, the kidnapping statute functions like the felony murder statute. We disagree for two reasons. First, the kidnapping statute does not require that the jury find there was a crime that caused physical injury. In the felony murder context, the uniform jury instructions require the jury to find that the defendant committed a felony and that the murder was committed during the commission of that felony. See UJI 14-202 NMR.A. “There can be no conviction for killing in the course of a felony without proof of all of the elements of the [underlying] felony.” State v. DeGraff, 2006-NMSC-011, ¶ 26, 139 N.M.211, 131 P.3d 61. {25} To convict for first degree kidnapping, the jury must find that the defendant inflicted physical injury on or committed a sexual offense against the victim, or that the victim was not voluntarily released in a safe place. See § 30-4-1(B); UJI 14-6018 NMRA. If a sexual offense is alleged, the jury must find that the elements of that crime are satisfied. See UJI 14-6018 Use Note 5 (stating that the jury must be instructed in the elements of the sexual offense). This part of the statute is similar to the felony murder statute. See UJI 14-202 Use Note 3. The jury may convict for first degree kidnapping, however, if there is evidence of physical injury even if there is no charge for a crime associated with that injury. See UJI 14-6018 Use Note 4 (in which there is no requirement that the jury be instructed in the elements of a crime causing physical injury). In other words, the jury may find that the defendant inflicted physical injury on the victim without considering the elements of a specific crime against the person. The absence of a requirement for the jury to find that another crime was committed indicates that the Legislature intended to punish as first degree kidnapping conduct that meets the basic elements of second degree kidnapping and results in physical injury, even if the defendant is not charged with a crime for the conduct causing the injury. Contra Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 24 (“[T]he conduct required to commit felony murder will always support a parallel charge with respect to the underlying felony.”). In this case, the jury could have determined that Victim suffered physical injury when Defendant dragged her to the car, threw her into the bushes, pulled her hair, or otherwise restrained her — all actions distinct from the hitting and kicking on which the battery charge was based. {26} Second, Frazier is inapposite because the problem in that case does not exist here. Critical to Frazier’s analysis is the fact that the underlying felony increases punishment for a killing to the same level as an intentional killing even when there is no “premeditation or a depraved mind.” Id. ¶ 26. In the felony murder context, “the killer’s mental state is consistent with second[]degree murder.” Id. ¶ 9. Thus, if punished for both felony murder and the underlying felony, the “defendant will receive a greater punishment than a defendant who is shown to have killed with a more culpable mental state such as deliberate intent murder.” Id. ¶ 10. The key to this analysis is the recognition that different mental states determine the level of culpability formurder. See § 30-2-1; State v. Ortega, 112 N.M. 554, 564, 817 P.2d 1196, 1206 (1991), abrogated on other grounds as recognized by Kersey v. Hatch, 2010-NMSC-020, 148 N.M. 381, 237 P.3d 683. For example, first degree murder requires the intent to kill or “indifference for the value of human life.” State v.Ibn Omar-Muhammad, 102 N.M. 274, 278, 694 P.2d 922, 926 (1985); see § 30-2-1(A). Second degree murder, however, requires only the knowledge that the defendant’s conduct “create[s] a strong probability of death or great bodily harm.” Section 30-2-1(B). It is axiomatic that we punish intentional conduct more severely than unintentional conduct. See 1 Wharton’s Criminal Law § 27 (15th ed. 2012); Ortega, 112 N.M. at 562, 817 P.2d at 1204. In the felony murder context, when a defendant is sentenced for both felony murder and the underlying felony, he is punished more severely than one who acted with intent to kill, a result contrary to the schema of the murder statute. See Frazier, 2007-NMSC-032, ¶ 10. In contrast, in the kidnapping context, the mental state for first and second degree kidnapping is the same: in this case, the intent to inflict physical injury. The mental state that makes a perpetrator culpable for kidnapping is constant whether there is a physical injury or not. Punishment for both kidnapping and the conduct that caused physical injury, therefore, does not create the same arbitrary result as discussed in Frazier because the defendant is not punished more severely than someone with a “more culpable mental state.” Id. {27} We conclude that the kidnapping statute is not analogous to the felony murder statute and the battery and kidnapping in this case were not unitary as a matter of law. Since we determine that Defendant’s conduct was neither factually unitary nor unitary as a matter of law, there is no reason to proceed to the second prong of the Swafford analysis. See Swafford, 112 N.M. at 14, 810 P.2d at 1234 (“If it reasonably can be said that the conduct is unitary, then one must move to the second part of the inquiry. Otherwise, if the conduct is separate and distinct, inquiry is at an end.”). Defendant’s convictions for first degree kidnapping and battery against a household member do not violate the constitutional prohibitions against double jeopardy. C. Kidnapping Was Not Incidental to Battery {28} Defendant next argues that the Legislature did not intend to punish restraint that is incidental to another crime as kidnapping and cites to other jurisdictions that have interpreted kidnapping statutes to apply only when the restraint or movement has significance independent from the underlying crime. See, e.g., State v. Salamon, 949 A.2d 1092, 1121 (Conn. 2008); State v. Buggs, 547 P.2d 720, 723 (Kan. 1976); People v. Daniels, 459 P.2d 225, 238 (Cal. 1969) (in bank). He argues further that since “[t]he restraint involved here was done for the sole purpose of effectuating [Defendant’s] contact with [Victim] . . . and did not involve more restraint than was necessary to commit the battery as alleged,” the kidnapping conviction should be vacated. The State argues that Defendant failed to preserve these issues and that, even if they were preserved, “driving a person across miles of desert is [not] necessary to commit battery . . . , given the number of people who have succeeded in committing battery without driving at all.” (internal quotation marks omitted). {29} Defendant’s first contention was resolved in State v. Trujillo, 2012-NMCA-112, ¶ 39, 289 P.3d 238. In that case, the defendant was convicted of kidnapping for holding the victim during a fight in which he and an accomplice beat the victim with a bar. Id. ¶¶ 2-3. This Court examined the history and purpose of the kidnapping statute and concluded that “the Legislature did not intend to punish as kidnapping restraints that are merely incidental to another crime.” Id. ¶ 39. We examined three tests used by other states to determine whether restraint or movement is incidental to another crime. Id. ¶¶ 32-38. Although we did not adopt a specific test, we vacated the kidnapping conviction, stating that the restraint was incidental under any of the tests because it was “not longer or greater than that necessary to achieve a battery},] . . . did not subject [the v]ictim to substantially greater risk of harm[,]” and did not facilitate another crime. Id. ¶39. We stated that it was possible to make this determination on the facts of that case because “[t]he facts [did] not present a ‘close call.’ ” Id. But “[a] more complicated factual scenario would present a jury question — submitted under appropriate instructions — as to whether the restraint involved was merely incidental to the other crime.” Id. ¶ 42. This part of our analysis in Trujillo rested on an assessment of the sufficiency of the evidence to support kidnapping. See State v. Riley, 2010-NMSC-005, ¶ 12, 147 N.M. 557, 226 P.3d 656 (“In reviewing the evidence, the relevant question is whether any rational jury could have found each element of the crime to be established beyond a reasonable doubt.”) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted); State v. Ward, 51 A.3d 970, 984 (Conn. 2012) (examining whether the “jury reasonably could have concluded that the evidence adduced at trial established that the defendant was guilty of kidnapping” where the defendant argued that any movement of the victim was incidental to sexual assault under the test expressed in Salamon, 949 A.2d at 1121). {30} We apply this analysis to Defendant’s second contention: that any restraint of Victim was incidental to battery. Defendant need not have preserved this argument because it rests on whether the evidence was sufficient to convict him of kidnapping. State v. Stein, 1999-NMCA-065, ¶ 9, 127 N.M. 362, 981 P.2d 295 (“[T]he question of sufficiency of the evidence to support a conviction may be raised for the first time on appeal.”). Under this standard, “an appellate court reviews the evidence in the light most favorable to the guilty verdict, indulging all reasonable inferences and resolving all conflicts in the evidence in favor of the verdict.” Riley, 2010-NMSC-005, ¶ 12 (alteration, internal quotation marks, and citation omitted). In essence, Defendant argues that there was insufficient evidence that Defendant’s restraint of Victim was not “merely in furtherance of the ongoing battery and [that it had a significance of its own.” We are unpersuaded. Kidnapping may occur once the “[vjictim’s physical association with [the defendant [is] no longer voluntary.” Pisio, 119 N.M. at 260, 889 P.2d at 868. As discussed above, the jury was instructed that a battery conviction required finding that Defendant hit or kicked Victim. In addition, they heard evidence that Defendant drove Victim from one location to another while restraining her in the car. There was sufficient evidence for the jury to conclude that this conduct was not merely incidental to hitting or kicking her. See Trujillo, 2012-NMCA-112, ¶¶ 37-38. D. Appellant Has Not Established a Prima Facie Case of Ineffective Assistance Based on Defense Counsel’s Failure to Object {31} D efendant maintains that his counsel was ineffective because he did not object to character evidence presented at trial and because he failed to file a motion or argue for mitigation at the sentencing hearing. Claims of ineffective assistance of counsel are reviewed de novo. State v. Quiñones, 2011-NMCA-018, ¶ 28, 149 N.M. 294, 248 P.3d 336, cert. denied, 2011-NMCERT-001, 150 N.M. 559, 263 P.3d 901. The two prongs of the test for ineffective assistance claims were stated concisely in State v. Hernandez: To prevail on his claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, . . . [the d] efendant bears the burden of showing both that his attorney’s performance fell below that of a reasonably competent attorney, and that, as a result of his attorney’s incompetence, he suffered prejudice. Absent a showing of both incompetence and prejudice, counsel is presumed competent. 115 N.M. 6, 16, 846 P.2d 312, 322 (1993) (citation omitted); see Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 687 (1984). The range of conduct that is reasonable is broad; “[i]f we can conceive of a reasonable trial tactic which would explain the counsel’s performance, we should not find ineffective assistance.” Quiñones, 2011-NMCA-018, ¶ 29 (alteration, internal quotation marks, and citation omitted). Prejudice is present when there is a “reasonable probability that ‘but for’ counsel’s unprofessional error, the result of the proceeding would have been different.” Hernandez, 115 N.M. at 17, 846 P.2d at 323 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). A showing of prejudice presents a high barrier because “[cjounsel’s deficient performance must represent so serious a failure of the adversarial process that it undermines judicial confidence in the accuracy and reliability of the outcome.” Quiñones, 2011-NMCA-018, ¶ 30 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). {32} Defendant argues that defense counsel was ineffective because he failed to object to testimony referring to prior bad acts which was “clearly intended to prove conformity therewith” in violation of Rule 11-404(B)(1) NMRA (“Evidence of a crime, wrong, or other act is not admissible to prove a person’s character in order to show that on a particular occasion the person acted in accordance with the character.”). Specifically, he argues that references in the testimony to his impending court date, prior jail time, and previous altercations were objectionable. During the trial, Victim stated three times that Defendant had a court date the day following the incident. In the course of her testimony, she stated six times that Defendant had said that he did not want to go “back to jail.” At one point, Victim made reference to an incident that allegedly occurred several days earlier. Finally, Victim’s daughter testified that she advised her mother to call the police because “why would you want to deal with stuff like this, like someone hitting you all the timeV’ (Emphasis added). She also stated that she had “seen bruises on [Victim]” in the past. Both the State and defense counsel made reference to Defendant’s court date during closing arguments. Defense counsel also mentioned in closing arguments Defendant’s alleged statement that he did not want to go back to jail. Defense counsel did not object to any of these statements, nor did he file any motions in limine to exclude this evidence or request a curative instruction for the jury. {33} We agree with the State that even if defense counsel’s failure to object was unreasonable, Defendant has not demonstrated that the outcome of the trial would have been different but for this failure. See Hernandez, 115 N.M. at 16-17, 846 P.2d at 322-23 (“On review, we need not consider the two prongs of the test in any particular order.”). “Although the statements] may have had some prejudicial effect, Defendant has not demonstrated that had th[ese] statements] not come in, the result of the proceeding would have been different.” State v. Trujillo, 2002-NMSC-005, ¶45, 131 N.M. 709, 42 P.3d 814. In State v. Roybal, the Court considered whether defense counsel was ineffective when he failed to redact portions of a witness’ statement implicating the defendant in a prior murder. 2002-NMSC-027, ¶ 14, 132 N.M. 657, 54 P.3d 61. After finding that “[t]here is little question . . . that [defense] counsel’s” conduct was unreasonable, id. ¶ 22, the Court stated that the defendant was prejudiced because “evidence that he had committed a prior murder invites the impermissible inference that, because he had killed in the past, it is more likely that he committed this murder.” Id. ¶ 26. “Under the Strickland measure of ineffective assistance of counsel, [however,] mere evidentiary prejudice is not enough.” Roybal, 2002-NMSC-027, ¶ 25. The Court considered the prejudicial effect “against the totality and strength of the evidence of . . . guilt [to] determine if the outcome of the trial has been rendered unreliable.” Id. ¶ 26. The Court determined that, compared to the evidence against the defendant in that case, the statement “do[es] not make the reliability of the trial suspect and do[es] not deprive [the defendant of his due process right to a fair trial.” Id. ¶ 28. {34} Similarly, here the State presented testimony by Victim, the officer to whom Victim reported the incident, and Victim’s daughter. The State also presented photographs of Victim’s injuries. Defense counsel’s strategy was to attack Victim’s credibility; he did not call any witnesses nor did he present other evidence. “The cumulative effect of these . . . items of evidence, even considering Defendant’s efforts to discredit them, are simply too strong for us to conclude” that the trial would have been “any different absent [defense] counsel’s error.” Id. ¶ 29. Defendant has failed to establish a prima facie case of ineffective assistance based on failure to object. E. The District Court Failed to Consider Mitigating Circumstances in Sentencing {35} In his second claim of ineffective assistance, Defendant argues that defense counsel failed to argue for mitigating circumstances because he misunderstood the difference between the judge’s power to defer or suspend under NMSA 1978, Section31-203 (1985), and the judge’s power to reduce the sentence by one-third under NMSA 1978, Section 31-18-15.1 (2009). Defendant also argued, albeit glancingly, that the district court failed to consider mitigating circumstances. Both the judge and defense counsel made statements in the sentencing hearings about the judge’s lack of discretion in the kidnapping sentence. {36} In order to make a fully informed decision on whether the district court erred by not considering mitigating circumstances, we requested supplemental briefing. See State v. Clemonts, 2006-NMCA-031, ¶ 10, 139 N.M. 147, 130 P.3d 208; see State v. Nozie, 2009-NMSC-018, ¶ 15, 146 N.M. 142, 207 P.3d 1119 (stating that “an appellate court may decline to address [a claim not fully briefed by the parties], [but] it is not required to do so if the transcripts and briefs are sufficient to present the essential question for review on the merits,” and that “NMRA 12-213 does not require th[e] Court to disregard an issue when an appellant fails to comply with its provisions”) (alterations, internal quotation marks, and citations omitted)). The supplemental briefs addressed the interplay, if any, between Sections 31-18-15.1 and 31-20-3, whether the district court considered mitigating circumstances, and the holding of State v. Juan, 2010-NMSC-041, 148 N.M. 747, 242 P.3d 314, as it relates to this case. {37} “We review the trial court’s sentencing for an abuse of discretion.” State v. Jensen, 1998-NMCA-034, ¶ 19, 124 N.M. 726, 955 P.2d 195. A trial court abuses its discretion when it exercises its discretion based on a misunderstanding of the law. See State v. Elinski, 1997-NMCA-117, ¶ 8, 124 N.M. 261, 948 P.2d 1209, overruled on other grounds by State v. Tollardo, 2012-NMSC-008, 275 P.3d 110. We remand for resentencing because the district court did not consider mitigating circumstances in sentencing. Because our holding renders it unnecessary, we do not address Defendant’s arguments regarding ineffective assistance of counsel based on a failure to move for mitigation. {38} At the first sentencing hearing, defense counsel argued that the judge had discretion to suspend a portion of the eighteen-year sentence. He also argued that, although “some time is not inappropriate,” eighteen years is “extravagant.” At that point, the judge asked for the reference to the governing statute and was referred to Section 31-18-15 by defense counsel. This is the statute governing basic sentences, not suspension or deferral of sentences nor mitigation of sentences. The State interjected that the judge “ha[d] to read that section in conjunction with [Section] 31-20-3,” which is the statute governing suspensions and deferrals. The judge agreed with the State that under Section 31-20-3, he did not have the authority to suspend or defer sentences for first degree felonies. Later in the hearing, defense counsel requested that the hearing be continued to allow him to prepare a motion for mitigating circumstances. The judge continued the hearing and gave Defendant ten days to file a motion. {39} Defense counsel did not file the motion and stated at the next hearing on the matter, “after an extensive review[,] I would have to . . . agree with the court and [the prosecutor] that this is not one, the two lesser offenses would be available for mitigation, but not the first degree kidnapping.” (Emphasis added.) The judge responded, “what I recall reacting to was whether or not I had any discretion in suspending any portion of that eighteen-year sentence, which I don’t. But mitigation, I didn’t even really look at the mitigation statutes, haven’t seen a formal request for mitigation.” He proceeded to hear argument from counsel on sentencing. Defense counsel stated that “as to count one, I think we are basically dealing with something that the court doesn’t have a lot of discretion with ... in a situation like this, you’re looking at basically having to hand down an eighteen-year sentence.” He also stated that “like I said, there’s not much we can do with [the kidnapping sentence], there’s not much argument I can make to that.” After hearing from Defendant, the judge said, “I don’t have any discretion in count one, it’s an eighteen-year mandatory sentence, I don’t have any discretion in that count at all.” {40} This understanding of the scope of his authority is partially correct. The judge determined correctly that Section 31-20-3 does not apply to first degree felonies. See § 31-20-3 (stating that a court may defer or suspend a sentence only for crimes “not constituting a capital or first degree felony”). This statute does not have any effect, however, on the judge’s ability to alter a sentence based on mitigating circumstances. See State v. Cook, 2006-NMCA-110, ¶ 21, 140 N.M. 356, 142 P.3d 944. Under Section 31-18-15.1(G), the court may reduce the sentence by up to one-third. Had the court found mitigating circumstances here, the sentence could have been reduced by up to six years. {41} The State argues that the district court has no obligation to consider mitigating evidence “sua sponte, in the absence of a request from the defense” and that, therefore, this issue is not relevant to this appeal. We disagree. The plain language of the statute imposes a duty on the court. Section 31-18-15.1(A) states that “[t]he court shall hold a sentencing hearing to determine if mitigating or aggravating circumstances exist.” (Emphasis added.); see State v. Ayala, 2006-NMCA-088, ¶ 6, 140 N.M. 126, 140 P.3d 547. The statute does not prescribe any prerequisites to the district court’s exercise of this duty. {42} Furthermore, our cases have recognized the importance of mitigating circumstances in sentencing. In Tomlinson v. State, 98 N.M. 213, 215, 647 P.2d 415, 417 (1982), the Court held that failure to allow a defendant to allocute before sentence is imposed “renders the sentence invalid.” Allocution by the defendant is a form of mitigation evidence. Id. Indeed, the New Mexico Supreme Court defined allocution as “the formal inquiry or demand made by the court ... to accused at the time for pronouncing sentence as to whether accused has anything to say why sentence should not be pronounced on him.” State v. Setser, 1997-NMSC-004, ¶ 20, 122 N.M. 794, 932 P.2d 484 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Similarly, Black’s Law Dictionary defines allocution as “[a] trial judge’s formal address to a convicted defendant, asking him or her to speak in mitigation of the sentence to be imposed,” or “[a]n unsworn statement from a convicted defendant to the sentencing judge or jury in which the defendant can ask for mercy ... or say anything else in an effort to lessen the impending sentence.” Black’s Law Dictionary 88 (9th ed. 2009). In Tomlinson, the fact that the district court allowed the defendant to allocate after sentence was imposed was “no more than an empty gesture” because of the potential impact of the defendant’s statement on the sentence. 98 N.M. at 215, 647 P.2d at 417 (“There is no substitute for the impact on sentencing which a defendant’s own words might have if he chooses to make a statement.” (alteration, internal quotation marks, and citation omitted)). Implicit in the Tomlinson holding is the recognition that if a defendant chooses to speak, the sentencing court must consider his statement before imposing a sentence. See id. {43} In Juan, the district court reasoned that, because one-third of a life sentence could not be calculated, a life sentence could not be altered under Section 31-18-15.1. Juan, 2010-NMSC-041, ¶ 35. “Thus, the [district] court did not consider any mitigating evidence and imposed a life sentence, stating that its ‘hands were tied.’ ” Id. (alteration omitted). On appeal, the New Mexico Supreme Court determined that the district court misconstrued Section 31-18-15.1 and held that its failure to consider mitigating evidence was improper. Juan, 2010-NMSC-041, ¶¶ 39, 43. In that case, the district court’s misapprehension of the law as to his ability to mitigate was error; the result of the error was that mitigating factors were not considered. The Court concluded that the district court “improperly failed to consider mitigating evidence at [the d]efendant’s sentencing hearing pursuant to Sections 31-18-15 and 31-18-15.1.” Juan, 2010-NMSC-041, ¶ 43; accord State v. Wilson, 2001-NMCA-032, ¶ 15, 130 N.M. 319, 24 P.3d 351 (stating that a sentencing “hearing is mandatory in all cases and a sentencing court is required to consider . . . mitigating circumstances before imposing any felony sentence”), overruled on other grounds by State v. Frawley, 2007-NMSC-057, 143 N.M. 7, 172 P.3d 144; Ayala, 2006-NMCA-088, ¶ 6 (“A district court must hold a sentencing hearing to determine the existence of mitigating or aggravating circumstances.”) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted); cf. State v. Aragon, 2009-NMCA-102, ¶ 21, 147 N.M. 26, 216 P.3d 276 (holding that even in the absence of a formal motion, the fact that the judge was aware of the potentially mitigating factors when sentencing the defendant was sufficient to eliminate prejudice where the defendant argued ineffective assistance of counsel). {44} Here, the district court’s statements at the hearings suggest that he did not consider mitigating evidence. See State v. Bonilla, 2000-NMSC-037, ¶ 11, 130 N.M. 1, 15 P.3d 491 (rejecting the State’s argument that, because the defendant received a sentence within the statutory guidelines, the sentence was “per se non-violative of a defendant’s rights” and considering the judge’s statements at the hearing). Specifically, his statements that he “didn’t even really look at the mitigation statutes, haven’t seen a formal request for mitigation[,]” and “I don’t have any discretion in count one, it’s an eighteen-year mandatory sentence, I don’t have any discretion in that count at all[,]” suggest that either he believed a formal motion was required to trigger exercise of that authority or he did not believe he had statutory authority to reduce the sentence. As the State points out, the district court judge granted a continuance of the sentencing hearing to allow defense counsel to file a motion and it is unlikely that he would have done so “if he believed he lacked authority to act on the motion.” When considered in light of the district court’s later statements, however, this circumstance indicates that the judge felt that a motion by defense counsel was required. {45} The district court has an obligation to consider mitigating factors in sentencing. Failure to do so, whether based on a misapprehension of the authority given by statute or a belief that a formal motion is required, is an abuse of discretion. We conclude that the district court here did not consider mitigating circumstances and, therefore, remand for resentencing. To be clear, our holding is not a comment on the length of the sentence. “Defendant is entitled to no more than a sentence prescribed by law,” State v. Cumpton, 2000-NMCA-033, ¶ 12, 129 N.M. 47, 1 P.3d 429, and there is no abuse of discretion when mitigating circumstances are considered and rejected. Our holding is limited to S ection 31-18-15.1’s requirement that the district court consider mitigating circumstances in sentencing. CONCLUSION {46} We affirm Defendant’s convictions and remand for resentencing consistent with this Opinion. {47} IT IS SO ORDERED. MICHAEL D. BUSTAMANTE, Judge WE CONCUR: JAMES J. WECHSLER, Judge LINDA M. VANZI, Judge
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OPINION SUTIN, Judge. {1} Plaintiff LoRayne Bargman was admitted to Defendant Canyon Transitional Rehabilitation Center, L.L.C. (Canyon) for inpatient rehabilitative care. She sued Canyon and other related Defendants on claims arising out of the care she received there. The issue in the district court was whether she was required to arbitrate the claims pursuant to an arbitration agreement she signed upon admission into Canyon. The court ruled that the arbitration agreement was substantively unconscionable. Defendants appeal. We reverse and remand for further proceedings consistent with this Opinion. BACKGROUND {2} After Ms. Bargman fractured a hip and an ankle, her doctors ordered her to seek inpatientrehabilitative care. She was admitted to Canyon to receive treatment. After about a month of treatment, Ms. Bargman was provided with an admission agreement. The signature page of the admission agreement explained that parts of it existed in attachments. {3} A three-page arbitration agreement was included as a separate attachment to the admission agreement. The second paragraph on the first page of the arbitration agreement explained that by entering into the admission agreement, Canyon and “the Resident” were exchanging “mutual promises” to arbitrate “any [d]ispute” as later defined. It further explained that if a dispute arose, the parties desired to use alternative dispute resolution to resolve the dispute “in an expeditious manner[.]” {4} Another paragraph, in addition to describing the informal and binding aspects of arbitration, explained: By signing this Arbitration Agreement, [Canyon] and the Resident relinquish their right to have any and all disputes associated with this Arbitration Agreement and the relationship created by the Admission Agreement (including, without limitation, . . . claims for negligent care or any other claims of inadequate care provide [d] by [Canyon]; claims against [Canyon] or any of its employees, managers, or members) (each, a “[d]ispute” and, collectively, the “[disputes”), resolved through a lawsuit, namely by a judge, jury [,] or appellate court, except to the extent that New Mexico law provides for judicial action in arbitration proceedings. This Arbitration Agreement shall not apply to either [Canyon] or the Resident in any disputes pertaining to collections or discharge of residents. Another paragraph stated: BY SIGNING THIS AGREEMENT, [CANYON] AND THE RESIDENT UNDERSTAND THAT THEY ARE GIVING UP THEIR CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT TO A TRIAL IN COURT BY A JUDGE OR JURY, AND THE RIGHT TO APPEAL CONCERNING ANY DISPUTES. {5} A further paragraph encouraged the resident to “ask any questions” about the arbitration agreement “and/or to seek the advice of an attorney prior to signing [the] Agreement.” The arbitration agreement provided a line for the resident to initial, acknowledging these considerations. {6} The second page of the arbitration agreement contained paragraphs outlining how the arbitration process would work in practice. For example, Canyon and the resident would each select an arbitrator, each of whom, in turn, would select a third arbitrator who would serve as the lead arbitrator and resolve any pre-arbitration disputes. Further, the lead arbitrator would establish “a reasonable, but limited scheduling order” that would enable the arbitration hearing to take place “within twelve . . . months following the appointment of the arbitrators.” Other paragraphs addressed mutual discovery rights, identified the arbitration venue, and explained that while Canyon would “pay 100% of the arbitrators’ fees[,]” each side would pay their own attorney fees and costs incurred during the arbitration process. A “governing law” paragraph explained that New Mexico law, including the New Mexico Uniform Arbitration Act (the Arbitration Act) and any applicable federal laws would govern the enforceability of the arbitration agreement. {7} A third page was the signature page. By signing, the resident, among other things, acknowledged: I REPRESENT AND AGREE THAT I FULLY UNDERSTAND AND AGREE TO BE LEGALLY BOUND BY [THE ARBITRATION AGREEMENT’S] PROVISIONS. I UNDERSTAND THAT I HAVE A CHOICE IN SELECTING A PROVIDER .... I HAVE BEEN GIVEN ADEQUATE TIME AND THE OPPORTUNITY TO REVIEW THIS ARB ITRATION AGREEMENT. I . . . FREELY AND VOLUNTARILY CONSENT TO ALL OF THE TERMS OF THIS ARBITRATION AGREEMENT. {8} After reviewing the admission agreement and its attachments, Ms. Bargman signed the admission agreement, acknowledging, among other things, that she had read the admission agreement and each of its attachments or had each part explained to her. In addition, Ms. Bargman signed the two acknowledgments in the arbitration agreement. Preceding the first acknowledgment was an explanation that the terms of the arbitration agreement would be binding on the resident and, among others, the resident’s “family members}.]” {9} After signing the admission and arbitration agreements, Ms. Bargman continued to receive treatment at Canyon for a short period of time. After she was discharged, Ms. Bargman, joined by her husband, Plaintiff Gene Bargman, filed a lawsuit against Canyon, Skilled Healthcare Group, Inc., Skilled Healthcare, L.L.C., and the administrator for Canyon, AnMarie Dvorak (collectively, Defendants). The complaint alleged negligence, misrepresentation, unfair trade practices, and punitive damages counts on behalf of Ms. Bargman and a loss of consortium count on behalf of her husband, all of which allegedly arose out of Ms. Bargman’s care at Canyon. Pursuant to Section 44-7A-8(a)(2) of the Arbitration Act, NMSA 1978, §§ 44-7A-l to -32 (2001), Canyon filed a motion to dismiss and/or stay the litigation and to compel arbitration based on the admission agreement and the arbitration agreement. The district court denied the motion on the ground that the arbitration agreement was substantively unconscionable. {10} Defendants appeal, contending that (1) the district court misapprehended the standards that apply to the analysis of whether an arbitration agreement is substantively unconscionable; (2) application of the relevant standards reveals that the arbitration agreement is substantively conscionable; and (3) in light of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Rivera v. Am. Gen. Fin. Servs., Inc., 2011-NMSC-033, 150 N.M. 398, 259 P.3d 803, remand may be appropriate. DISCUSSION {11} We review de novo the denial of a motion to compel arbitration. Cordova v. World Fin. Corp. of N.M., 2009-NMSC-021, ¶ 11, 146 N.M. 256, 208 P.3d 901. Whether a contract is unconscionable presents a question of law that we review de novo. Id. {12} We start with controlling New Mexico precedent. See Rivera, 2011-NMSC-033; Cordova, 2009-NMSC-021; Figueroa v. THI of N.M. at Casa Arena Blanca, LLC, 2012-NMCA- ___, ___ P.3d ___(No. 30,477, July 18, 2012); Ruppelt v. Laurel Healthcare Providers, LLC, 2013-NMCA-014, 293 P.3d 902. The appellate briefs in this case were filed before this Court’s opinions in Figueroa and Ruppelt were filed. We held oral argument in this case to permit the parties to discuss Figueroa and Ruppelt. The parties were asked to focus on whether, under our Supreme Court cases and this Court’s cases, (1) there now exists a bright-line, fixed, and inflexible rule that the exception from arbitration of collection claims admittedly most likely to be pursued by the defendant facility are substantively unconscionable because that exception is unreasonably or unfairly one-sided and against New Mexico public policy; or (2) as the case law stands, the issue is to be analyzed and on a case-by-case basis based on evidence presented on the issues of unreasonableness, unfairness, onesidedness, and public policy. {13} In oral argument, Canyon distinguished what it saw as “narrow” and “nuanced” analytic approaches. The narrow approach sees a virtually irrebuttable presumptive substantive unconscionability resulting from an imbalance that is observable from the face of the arbitration agreement. The nuanced approach involves a case-by-case “holistic” (arbitration agreement as a whole) analysis that recognizes that the parties’ rights do not have to be identical and that courts should entertain evidence tending to show that a particular exclusion is not unreasonably or unfairly one-sided. Canyon argued against the narrow approach and for the nuanced approach. Ms. Bargman agreed that a case-by-case analysis was proper but argued that there was no basis for any further analysis because there was no evidence presented to the district court and thus before this Court on which to engage in any further analysis. {14} In Cordova, the lender reserved for itself, for resolution by a court, the judicial foreclosure or repossession remedies and other remedies provided by law. 2009-NMSC-021, ¶ 4. Our Supreme Court held the arbitration clause “void as unconscionable” in that the lender reserved for itself “the exclusive option of access to the courts for all remedies [it was] most likely to pursue against a borrower” and that it was “an inherently one-sided agreement [that was] against New Mexico public policy[.]” Id. ¶ 1. As well, in Rivera, the lender excepted foreclosure and repossession remedies from arbitration. 2011-NM S C-03 3, ¶ 53. Our Supreme Court applied the rule that “[c]ontract provisions that unreasonably benefit one party over another are substantively unconscionable” to the arbitration clause at issue. Id. ¶¶ 46, 53-54 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). The Court determined that the lender’s “ability under the arbitration clause to seek judicial redress of its likeliest claims while forcing [the borrower] to arbitrate any claim she may have [was] unreasonably one-sided.” Id. ¶ 53. The Court held that the arbitration clause was “unfairly one-sided and void under New Mexico law” and substantively unconscionable. Id. ¶ 54. {15} Recently, this Court filed two opinions relating specifically to the health care industry, Figueroa and Ruppelt. In Figueroa, the health care facility excepted from arbitration guardianship proceedings as well as collection and eviction actions. 2012-NMCA-__, ¶¶ 2, 26. Looking to Cordova and Rivera, where “[o]ur Supreme Court invalidated arbitration agreements that were unfairly and unreasonably one-sided in favor of the drafter[,] ” Figueroa, 2012-NMC A-012___, ¶ 24, we concluded in Figueroa that the arbitration agreement was “unreasonably and unfairly one-sided in favor of [the health care facility].” Id. ¶ 30. This Court further stated that [w]hile we agree that arbitration obligations do not have to be completely equal, and that parties may freely enter into reasonable agreements to exempt certain claims from arbitration, we refuse to enforce an agreement where the drafter unreasonably reserved the vast majority of [its] claims for the courts, while subjecting the weaker party to arbitration on essentially all of the claims that party is likely to bring. Id. Determining that “unconscionability voids a contract when it is unfair and grossly unreasonable, even if otherwise legally enforceable under contract formation principles[,]” id. ¶ 34, we affirmed the district court’s holding that “the terms of [the] arbitration agreement were unfairly and unreasonably one-sided and thereby, substantively unconscionable.” Id. ¶ 35. {16} In Ruppelt, with a provision similar to those in Cordova, Rivera, and Figueroa, we did not vary the analysis and result. The arbitration agreement in Ruppelt excepted from arbitration the claims of “collections or discharge of residents.” 2013-NMCA-014, ¶ 3 (internal quotation marks omitted). As in the forerunners, we determined that the arbitration agreement was unreasonably one-sided and substantively unconscionable. Id. ¶ 18. {17} It is noteworthy that in none of the foregoing cases did the defendant drafter of the arbitration provision offer evidence tending to prove that it was not unreasonable or unfair to except certain claims from arbitration even if they were claims most likely to be pursued by the defendant. Nothing in these cases expressly lays down a bright-line, inflexible rule that excepting from arbitration any claim most likely to be pursued by the defendant drafter will void the arbitration clause as substantively unconscionable. As our case law stands, cases should still be examined on a case-by-case basis. {18} As noted earlier, Canyon’s arbitration agreement with Plaintiffs provided two exclusions: discharge of residents and collections. Thus, the agreement at issue in this case provided exclusions identical to those that existed in the agreement at issue in Ruppelt. Id. % 3. Yet in this case, different from Ruppelt, the parties acknowledge and agree that, under both federal and state law, resident-discharge-related issues are to be handled in administrative proceedings with notice and a hearing and the right to appeal the decision, thus requiring the exclusion of resident-discharge-related issues from arbitration agreements. 42 C.F.R. § 483.12 (2011); 8.354.2.9 NMAC (11/1/1996) (amended 3/1/2012). Therefore, the parties agree that the focus of our inquiry into the substantive unconscionability issue is limited to whether the collections exclusion renders the arbitration agreement unreasonably or unfairly one-sided. {19} In their briefs, Defendants do not present arguments significantly different from those presented in Figueroa and Ruppelt. In an effort to distinguish the present arbitration agreement from the agreements at issue in Rivera, 2011-NMSC-033, ¶ 3, and Cordova, 2009-NMSC-021, ¶ 4, Canyon asserts that the arbitration agreement in this case did not explicitly reserve, solely for itself, the right to go to court to resolve any collections issues. See Rivera, 2011-NMSC-033, ¶ 3 (statingthat “[although the arbitration provisions require[d] [the borrower] to arbitrate any claims she may have [had] against [the lender], the arbitration provisions exempted] from binding arbitration certain claims that the [l]ender might have against [the borrower]”); Cordova, 2009-NMSC-021, ¶ 4 (explaining that the arbitration agreement “provided that the lender alone had the exclusive and unlimited alternative to seek any judicial remedies it might. . . have ... in the event of a default by the borrower”). In Canyon’s view, the bilateral collections exclusion in the arbitration agreement is substantively conscionable because it enables a resident to pursue collections-related claims against Canyon or, if Canyon initiated a collections proceeding, any corresponding counterclaims. Having considered and rejected similar arguments in Figueroa and in Ruppelt, we likewise reject Canyon’s argument. {20} In both Figueroa and in Ruppelt, the defendants pointed to the bilateral nature of the arbitration exemptions in an effort to persuade this Court that the respective arbitration agreements were not unreasonably or egregiously one-sided. See Ruppelt, 2013-NMCA-014, ¶ 10 (explaining that the defendants argued that the arbitration agreement’s exemption provision “[was] not unreasonably one-sided because it bilaterally allowfed] either party to pursue claims regarding collections and discharge of residents in a judicial forum”); Figueroa, 2012-NMCA-__, ¶ 28 (explaining that the defendant nursing home argued “that residents’ rights under the [arbitration] agreement to bring claims under $2,500 and guardianship proceedings in a judicial forum [were] sufficient to prevent [the] agreement from being egregiously one-sided”). In both cases, this Court rejected the defendants’ contentions. {21} In Figueroa, we concluded that although the agreement could be construed as granting a resident rights to a judicial forum for certain claims, nevertheless, those rights did not “sufficiently act to remedy the gross disparity that resulted] from [the defendant's reservation of its most likely claims to a judicial forum, while the resident’s most likely claims [were] subject to arbitration.” 2012-NMCA-__, ¶ 28. And, in Ruppelt, we held that “[although the exemption provision [was] facially bilateral in the sense that it [did] not completely extinguish [the p]laintiff s right to access the courts, in effect this distinction from Cordova and Rivera is illusory. . . [because c]ommon sense dictates that claims relating to collection of fees and discharge of residents are the types of [claims] that a nursing home, not its resident, is most likely to pursue.” Ruppelt, 2013-NMCA-014, ¶ 15. In both cases, we concluded that the exclusion from arbitration of the health care facilities’ most likely claims, including collections, while excluding access to courts for negligence, the type of claim most likely to be brought by a resident, rendered the arbitration agreements substantively unconscionable. See Ruppelt, 2013-NMCA-014, ¶¶ 16, 18; Figueroa, 2012-NMCA-__, ¶ 32. {22} Canyon argues that excluding collections claims from arbitration is not unreasonable or unfair, that owing to the “non-complex nature of collections disputes and the small sums typically involved, it is faster and cheaper for a resident — and, Canyon ... to litigate such claims rather than arbitrate them[.]” Canyon also points to the fact that under the arbitration agreement, it must pay the fees of three arbitrators and, making a reference to non-specific “sums involved” in collections disputes, Canyon argues that it would not be cost-effective for it to pursue arbitration for collections-related claims. Thus, in Canyon’s view, the pragmatic effect of requiring arbitration of collections-related disputes would be to deprive Canyon of a remedy when a resident fails to pay for services rendered. {23} None of the assumptions underlying Canyon’s argument regarding the reasonableness of the collections exclusion, however, are supported by evidence presented in the district court. Recognizing the lack of evidence, Canyon requested in its appellate briefing that we remand the case for an evidentiary hearing so that it may develop a record related to the collections exclusion and to show why the collections exclusion is not unreasonably or unfairly one-sided and is justified. Ms. Bargman argues against remand, contending that Canyon could have presented evidence in the district court but failed to do so and should not now be heard to seek remand for an opportunity to present evidence. Because at the time this matter was in the district court, Rivera, Figueroa, and Ruppelt had not been decided and the burden of proof was not all that clearly determined, and also because it is unclear that the district court would have considered evidence, we do not agree that Defendants have somehow waived or not preserved its remand position. {24} We agree with Canyon that, under the circumstances in this case, remand is in order for the purpose of allowing Canyon the opportunity to present evidence tending to show that the collections exclusion is not unreasonably or unfairly one-sided such that enforcement of it is substantively unconscionable. CONCLUSION {25} We reverse the district court’s order denying Canyon’s motion to compel arbitration and remand to the district court for further proceedings consistent with this Opinion. {26} IT IS SO ORDERED. JONATHAN B. SUTIN, Judge WE CONCUR: CYNTHIA A. FRY, Judge LINDA M. VANZI, Judge
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BICKLEY, C. J. The county board of education of Chaves county advertised for sealed competitive bids to operate school busses for the purpose of conveying children to the public schools and returning them to their respective homes in route 19A and 19B, respectively, of school district No. 19. There were four bidders. The plaintiff, Doyal, put in the lowest bid for route 19A, to wit, $900; the defendant Williams’ bid was $1,125, and to him was awarded the contract. As to route 19B, Mr. Helmstetler bid $752.40 and the defendant Waldrop placed his bid at $1,112.40 and to him was awarded the contract. The complaint alleges: “That one of the provisions of the laws of the state of New Mexico relative to letting said contracts, is that said contract shall be let to the lowest responsible bidder.” It is further alleged that the plaintiff Doyal and said Helmstetler were each responsible and fit and proper persons to drive said school busses .for the purpose of transporting said children to and from school and were physically fit and financially able to carry out the proposed contract. It is also alleged that the board willfully and unlawfully rejected the bids of said Doyal and Helmstetler and accepted the bids of the defendants Williams and Waldrop. There is no allegation that the successful bidders were in any manner unfit, and no allegations of fact showing any motives or reasons for favoritism toward the successful bidders. It was sought to invoke the equity jurisdiction of the trial court for an injunction prohibitive and mandatory to the effect that the contracts entered into with Williams and Waldrop be canceled and that the board award contracts to Doyal £nd Helmstetler, respectively, or to other fit and proper persons. Answers were filed denying the allegations of the complaint. When the matter came on for hearing, the defendants demurred upon the ground that the complaint does not state a cause of action for the reason- that it was not therein alleged that the board in awarding tbe contracts had grossly abused its discretion or that there existed fraud or collusion between the board and the successful bidders. The trial court sustained the demurrer and dismissed the complaint and rendered judgment against the plaintiff. The appellant here asserts, as in the trial court, that contracts of the nature involved are required by our statutory law to be let to the “lowest responsible bidders,” and invokes historically section 4893, Code 1915, which was as follows: “No expenditure involving an amount greater than two hundred dollars, shall be made except in accordance with the provisions of a written contract, and no contract, involving an expenditure of more than five hundred dollars, for the purpose of erecting any public buildings or making any improvements, shall be made except upon sealed proposals, and to the lowest responsible bidder.” Appellees contend that though such may have been the law under section 4893, said section has been expressly repealed, and that such matters are now controlled by section 804, chapter 148, Laws 1923, as amended by section 12, chapter 73, Laws 1925 (section 120-804, Comp. 1929), which is as follows: “Except with respect to independent and union high school districts, the county board of education shall have supervision and control of all rural schools and districts, and of sites, buildings, equipment and funds of said districts, with the power to employ and discharge all teachers and all school employees of said schools, subject to the limitations herein otherwise provided;' Provided, that the county board of education may, in its discretion, delegate to the county school superintendent the power to employ and discharge all teachers and school employees. Contracts involving the expenditure of more, than two hundred dollars shall be in writing. Contracts involving the expenditure of five hundred dollars or more, shall be in writing, and upon sealed competitive bids, after notice and advertisement of such bids shall have been published once a week for four consecutive weeks in some legal newspaper of general circulation in the county; Provided notices and advertisement shall not apply to teachers’ salaries. When plans and specifications for the erection of school buildings shall have been changed, altered or revised after advertisement of bids for the construction thereof, the governing boards shall be required to re-advertise for new ¡bids, provided that it shall not be necessary to re-advertise for bids to cover minor alterations or changes in plans required to correct errors or omissions in the original specifications.” In view of the fact that section 4893, Code 1915, dealt with contracts for the purpose of erecting public buildings or making improvements to property, and considering the language employed by section S04, chapter 148, Laws 1923, as amended, it might be contended that the later enactment is amendatory or a substitute for the earlier one and has application to building contracts and not to the character of contracts involved in the case at bar. However, no such question is here presented or argued, and we will not pursue it. The parties assuming that the later enactment applies to the case at bar, we will so assume. Appellant contends that the requirement of the later statute that certain contracts “shall be in writing, and upon sealed competitive bids, after notice,” etc., is the equivalent of the legislative mandate in section 4S93, Code 1915, that the contract shall be let “to the lowest responsible bidder.” We think appellant is mistaken. In Mayes v. Bassett, 17 N. M. 193, 125 P. 609, 613, we said that section. 4893, Code 1915, required competitive bidding based upon plans and specifications upon reasonable public notice. There was no ambiguity in the direction that the school authorities were to award contracts for erection of public buildings to the lowest responsible bidder. The court was dealing with something in addition to that, to wit, the necessary implication that there must be a public notice containing “a common standard by which to measure the respective bids, which should be prepared and upon which the bids must be based.” This view of the meaning of the phrase “competitive bids” finds support in Leininger v. Ward, 126 Okl. 114, 258 P. 863, deciding: “The term ‘competitive bidding’ means bidding upon the same undertaking, upon the same material items in the subject-matter, upon the same thing.” This view is reflected in Donnelly on the Law of Public Contracts, discussing the necessity for plans and specifications, where it is said: “To permit each bidder to propose his plans and specifications not only prevents competition but opens the door to favoritism and wipes out the standard by which the public body may determine who is the lowest bidder.” See paragraph 113. In Elliott on Contracts, discussing bidding, it is said at section 3636: “Where the purpose is to construct a public work, the statutes in most, if not all the states, require that the bids therefor shall be competitive, and in some, that the lowest and best bid shall be accepted.” We find no definitions according to the phrase the meaning contended for by appellant. The act of 1923 as amended calls for a “common standard by which to measure the respective bids,” by using the .phrase “competitive bids,” and it describes what the Legislature regarded as “reasonable public notice” the absence of which requirements had been the source of perplexity resulting in Mayes v. Bassett supra. While dealing with the subject, the 1923 and 1925 Legislatures saw fit to leave out the requirement that the contract should be let “to the lowest responsible bidder.” This change of language and the omission is significant and indicates that the clear intention of the Legislature was to repose in the school board a discretion subject only to the “limitations” mentioned in the enactment. A similar change in the terms of a statute was considered in Board of Com’rs of Harper County v. State, 47 Kan. 283, 27 P. 997, 998, where the court said: “As we have seen, up to 1872 the statute required that the county printing should be let to the lowest responsible bidder. It was then changed by striking out this proviso, so that the control was practically unlimited. * * * ‘before 1872 they must, since they may, let to the lowest bidder. * * * Taking away a restriction upon full discretion leaves the discretion full and free, and does not superimpose another restriction.’ ” The letting of public contracts has been variously dealt with by Legislatures delegating powers to executive boards. Sometimes the enactments contain no limitations upon the exercise of the power. Under such circumstances, the widest discretion is enjoyed. This discretion is limited in various degrees by statutory provisions. For instance, where the direction is that the contract shall be let to the “lowest bidder” the discretion is slight. Whore the legislative direction is that the contract shall be let to “the lowest responsible bidder,” the function is regarded as judicial in character and the courts will not interfere unless there has been an abuse of discretion. Under section 120-804, 1929 Comp., the only limitation upon the authority of the board is that competition shall be called for upon published notice of a common standard of measurement for bids. In the case at bar the board fully complied with the express provisions of the statute. There is no express requirement that the contract shall be let to the lowest responsible bidder. In a note to Butler v. Darst, 38 L. R. A. (N. S.) page 653, entitled “Discretion in choosing between bidders for public contract,” various statutory limitations are discussed, and it is said: “Where there is no statutory limitation upon the power to award public contracts, the authorities have a broad discretion. The whole subject-matter is within their control, provided they do not actually exceed their power or invade private rights, and they are left to their sense of official duty and responsibility; but they must act with due fidelity to the public and for the interest of the public, in good faith, with reasonable and ordinary care and diligence, and without fraud, collusion, corruption, or palpable abuse of discretion.” Chapter 18 of Donnelly on the Law of Public Contracts treats of the letting and refers to the statutory requirements of advertising for bids. The author mentions statutes regulating the opening of bids, provisions that a bond or other security or cash shall accompany bids. The author then in the opening paragraph of the following chapter says: “If these statutes regulating competitive bidding do not provide that public authorities, after inviting proposals by public notice, shall accept the lowest proposal, it is clear that the intention of the legislature is that they shall make such contract as in' their judgment the public interests require.” Following are some illustrations and arguments drawn from the cases cited in support of the text: In Mayo v. County of Hampden, 141 Mass. 74, 6 N. E. 757, 759, the court said: “County commissioners are not required by law to accept the lowest proposal for public works. Pub. St. c. 22, § 22, provides that all contracts for public works made by them shall, if exceeding $300 in amount, be made in writing, after notice for proposals therefor has been published at least three times in some newspaper published in the county, city, or town interested in the work. It does not provide that they shall accept the lowest proposal. It is clearly the intention of the legislature that the county commissioners, after inviting competition by public notice, shall have the authority to make such contract as in their judgment the interests of the county require.-’ In Michigan' a statute provided in case of certain street improvements the board of public works should advertise for proposals and require bidders to furnish security for the performance of proposals tendered; that the bids should be publicly opened, etc. The Supreme Court said in Kundinger v. City of Saginaw, 132 Mich. 395, 93 N. W. 914, 917: “These are the strongest provisions of the charter in regard to letting contracts after advertising. Manifestly they do not require that contracts must be let to the lowest bidder. It is discretionary with the ¡board, and when it acts in good faith its action is final. “The method adopted by the defendants secured to the city competitive bids both upon plans and cost.” In Minneapolis the charter of the city of Minneapolis required that: “All contracts for the expenditure of $100 or more, public notice shall be given and proposals invited for the same in such manner as the council shall direct.” In Elliot v. City of Minneapolis, 59 Minn. 111, 60 N. W. 1081, the court decided: “There is no provision in the city charter of the city of Minneapolis requiring contracts for the purchase of fuel to be awarded to the lowest bidder. Held, that the manner of awarding such contracts rests in the discretion of the city council, subject, however, to the rule of law that such power is not unlimited, and that if fraud enters into such contracts, or the council abuses its discretionary powers in making such awards, the contracts may be impeached therefor.” In Page v. Town of Gallup, 26 N. M. 239, 191 P. 460, 461, the court decided: “Where power to do an act is conferred upon a municipality ‘ in general terms without describing the mode of exercising it, the trustees have the discretion as to the manner in which the power shall be employed, and the courts will not interfere with this discretion. 1 Dillon on Municipal Corporations, § 242; Mc-Quillin on Municipal Corporations, yol. 1, § 376. This rule prevails, of course, only where there is no fraud or collusion on the parr of the officers charged with performance of the duty. The discretion which the officers are to exercise is an honest one, and so long as such officials are so acting the court has no power to interfere.” In Nohl v. Board of Education, 27 N. M. 232, 199 P. 373, 16 A. L. R. 1085, we decided: “A court of equity will not sit in review of the proceedings of subordinate, political, or municipal tribunals; and, where matters are left to the discretion of such bodies, the exercise of that discretion, in good faith, is conclusive, and will not, in the absence of fraud, be disturbed.” The opinion states: “The expenditure of public funds raised toy taxation or other methods for public purposes must necessarily be intrusted by the Legislature to the public agencies, and these agencies are required to exercise discretion and judgment in determining the purpose for which such money will be spent, within the limits of the au thority granted, and courts will not interfere unless there is a clear departure from the legislative authority. * * * It is clear that the courts should not interfere with the discretion intrusted to hoards of education under the statute, unless it plainly appears that there has been a gross abuse of such discretion.” In Oliver v. Board of Trustees of Town of Alamogordo, 35 N. M. 477, 1 P.(2d) 116, 117, we decided: “The decision of the governing body of a town or city on matters committed to its discretion will not be set aside or disturbed, in the absence of a showing of fraud or conduct so arbitrary as to be the equivalent of fraud.” It was there decided that there was no allegation in the complaint which would have warranted the lower court in giving to the plaintiffs a hearing upon the wisdom of the town board’s determination of discretionary matters. So in the case at bar, there are no allegations in the complaint which show fraud ox-gross abuse of discretion. The allegation that the board proceeded “wilfully and unlawfully” is a mere statement of a conclusion and is insufficient. In the absence of appropriate allegations of facts showing that the board was motivated by corrupt influences, or were actuated by motives arising from personal interest or improper partiality toward the successful bidders, we do not regard the fact that these bids were higher than those of the plaintiff Doyal and the bidder I-Ielmstetler is a sufficient showing to warrant the court in upsetting the action of the board, thus causing delay and confusion. The differences in the bids may be occasioned on account of perfectly legitimate reasons and such as would warrant the payment of the higher price. “Where jurisdiction and authority is given a public-board to exercise its discretion, and no facts appear showing an abuse thereof, it is not within the province of courts to review such discretion.” People v. Nellis, 14 Cal. App. 250, 111 P. 631. In the case of Butler v. Darst, supra, 68 W. Va. 493, 70 S. E. 119, 38 L. R. A. (N. S.) 653, the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals adverted to the evil consequences of interference by the courts with the action of executive officers and boards, and is well worth reading. A second proposition is advanced by counsel for the plaintiff to the effect that the county board of education was in contempt of court at the time of the hearing and was therefore not entitled to be heard in any way at the trial. The proposition is based upon the fact that at the time of the awarding of the preliminary injunction in this case there was a coux-t order entered providing that the money to be paid to the successful bidders should be paid into the office of the clerk of the district court, to be by her kept until final hearing in the case, and that the county board of education had failed to so make said deposit, thereby placing itself in contempt of the order of the court. There was a motion filed to commit the county board of education for contempt which the district court denied, holding that the order had been improvident ly made. The basis of this holding is not disclosed by the record, but we assume that it must have been based upon the fact that it was necessary for these successful contractors to be paid as they performed their services, and in that sense the order should not have been entered. We do not think that the county board of education, under these circumstances, was guilty o'f contempt of a character which should prevent them from being heard in the case. Upon the first application to commit them for contempt, the court held that they were not in contempt and therefore were entitled to be heard. This holding we deem to be correct. It follows that the judgment of the district court should be affirmed and the cause remanded, and it is so ordered. WATSON, SADLER, and HUDSPETH, JJ., concur.
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WATSON, Chief Justice. Appeal from a conviction and sentence for assault with intent to commit rape. By the indictment it was charged that appellant “unlawfully and feloniously did assault one Ethel Lee Burns a female with intent to commit the crime of rape upon her, the said Ethel Lee Burns.” The evidence on both sides shows that appellant and the prosecutrix spent some two ox-three hours of the night in an automobile. According to the prosecutrix’ testimony, the whole time was spent by her in resisting appellant’s more or less violent efforts and in frustrating his intent to accomplish his purpose by force and against her will. According to appellant, the time was spent in amorous passages in which the prosecutrix willingly participated, and in solicitation on his part, the prosecutrix never definitely refusing and, after wavering, finally yielding consent just as interruption came. Such was the issue of fact. By cross-examination admissions were sought from the prosecutrix of previous instances of lewd acts and conversations with one Kelly; also of lewd conduct and conversation with appellant and one Smith, two or three days before the alleged crime. On that occasion Smith had introduced appellant to the prosecutrix, .the three had sat together for some time in a one-seated car, and prosecutrix had engaged to go with appellant, as she did go, on the night of the alleged crime. She denied all that was implied in these questions. Without going into detail, it' seems sufficient to say that if she had admitted these implications her character for chastity would have been badly smirched, and it would have been very difficult to believe the prosecutrix’ account, and very easy to have believed appellant’s version, of the facts. The witness Kelly being on the stand for the defense, counsel offered to prove the instances of lewdness to which he had called attention in cross-examination. The state objected to the offer “as being incompetent, irrelevant and immaterial, and for the further reason it is attempted to impeach the prosecutrix upon collateral and immaterial matters by extrinsic evidence other than that given by the witness herself.” The court ruled: “Acting under authority of State v. Clevenger, 27 N. M. 466, 202 P. 687, and other New Mexico decisions by the Supreme Court, the objection will be sustained.” We cannot sustain the objection nor the ground on which the ruling was based. State v. Clevenger, supra, is not in point in this case. There the error lay in permitting the state to impeach a witness on a collateral matter. Whether the then witness had misconducted herself on particular occasions had no bearing on the guilt or innocence of the accused. It was pure matter of impeachment. Here, to have permitted the tendered proof would have impeached the prosecutrix, it is true; but not upon a collateral matter. Her alleged bad character for chastity was a proper and material issue. See State v. Newman, 29 N. M. 106, 219 P. 794, where we held that a witness’ bias or interest is not collateral, and that he may be impeached regarding it. Nevertheless, we consider the refusal of this offer to have been proper. The authorities generally admit that, in rape, the bad character of the prosecutrix for chastity is relevant to the question of consent. Yet, for-reasons which do not entirely satisfy Dean Wigmore, the majority of courts follow some rule of exclusion or limitation of such proof. 1 Wigmore on Evidence, § 200. In this jurisdiction, proof of specific acts of unchastity is excluded. Territory v. Pino, 9 N. M. 598, 58 P. 393. Dean Wigmore says in the same section of his work: “In actions for indecent assault, it would seem that the same principles apply; and the same attitudes would he taken upon this as upon rape.” We have found no authority for applying a different rule in the one case than in the other. Kelly being still in the witness chair, counsel offered to prove by Smith, above mentioned, the lewd acts and conversation of the prosecutrix with appellant. The state objected as before and added, “and thirdly for the reason it is an attempt to prove general reputation by 'specific acts.” The court ruled: “The objection will be .sustained under the same authority, State v. Clevenger.” Appellant himself being on the stand, his counsel offered the same evidence, was met with the same objection, and the court ruled: “Objection will be sustained for the same reasons heretofore stated as to the testimony tendered with reference to Arnold Kelly and Jim Smith.” The two rulings last mentioned we consider erroneous and, being so, clearly prejudicial. Even in those jurisdictions where, as here, the prosecutrix’ bad character for chastity may not be shown by specific acts, the rule of exclusion does not extend to acts- of lewdness with the accused. 52 C. J. 1082; 11 Ann. Cas. 672, note; 22 R. C. L. 1210. In -a case of this kind, where the intent is the gist of the offense, the distinction is of greater importance. It must be permitted the accused to show his previous relations with the prosecutrix, including acts of lewdness, in support of his contention that he had reason to believe that his advanqes would not be objectionable to her. 22 R. C. L. 1208; Kearse v. State (Tex. Cr. App.) 88 S. W. 363; Bannen v. State, 115 Wis. 317, 330, 91 N. W. 107, 965. The importance of such evidence is illustrated in Moore v. State, 79 Wis. 546, 48 N. W. 653, distinguished in Taylor v. State, 180 Wis. 577, 193 N. W. 353. The state here contends that the unchaste character of the prosecutrix, her consent, and whether appellant intended to employ the force necessary to overcome her resistance if any, were all immaterial matters, since the prosecutrix was under the statutory age of consent.' It was shown by the state that the prosecutrix was fifteen years of age at the time in question. We do not see how that fact can affect the case. It was not mentioned in the indictment nor in the instructions. It was not reflected in the objections nor in the rulings. The theory of the prosecution and of the conviction was that appellant made the assault intending to overcome all resistance by adequate force. The theory cannot be changed here. The state also invokes the rule that if a single tender includes objectionable as well as unobjectionable matter, it will not be error to reject it as a whole. This is based on the fact that, according to the offers, the prosecutrix had told appellant and Smith that she was seventeen years old. The state had already shown that she was fifteen years old. Assuming, though not deciding, the inadmissibility of the last-mentioned fact, we do not consider that the ruling, in so important a matter, should be upheld on that technical defect in the offer. The court did not rule generally. He stated the ground for it. The reason did not apply to the prosecutrix’ age, or what statements she had made concerning it. That matter was apparently ignored. In State v. Davis, 30 N. M. 395, 234 P. 311, we declined to consider the technical sufficiency of an offer, which all counsel and the court had assumed to be sufficient, and upon which the court had clearly and definitely ruled. The second offer was doubtless defective in that Smith was not on the stand when it was made. That point is not here relied upon. Other questions raised by appellant need not be decided. The judgment will be reversed. The' cause will be remanded for new trial. It is so ordered. SADLER, HUDSPETH, BICKLEY, and ZINN, JJ., concur.
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BICKLEY, Justice. Appellee (plaintiff) sued Ison & Simmons, contractors, as-principal and the appellant as surety, on a contractor’s bond and contract for the construction of a high school building. Appellant demurred to the complaint, and, its demurrer being overruled, refused to plead further, whereupon judgment was rendered against it, from which judgment this appeal was taken. The essential admitted facts drawn from the complaint and briefs of counsel are that appellant is a corporate professional paid surety, authorized to do business in New Mexico ; that it became surety for the performance of a contract with a school district for the construction of a public building. The building contract was by reference made a part of the surety bond. The contract by reference incorporated therein the plans and specifications, for the building. The contract contained the following provision: “This contract shall not be binding upon the Owner, until the said Contractors shall have executed a bond in some Surety Company authorized todo business in the state of New Mexico, to and in favor of the said Owner, for the amounts and with the conditions as provided by the Laws of the State of New Mexico, for the performance of this contract.” The specifications contained the following provision: “Bond “The successful bidder will be required to furnish bond to complete the entire work as per plans and Specifications, on or before Jan. 1st, 1929, unavoidable delays accepted. He shall give as security an approved surety bond equal to the full amount of the contract price, as required by the laws of New Mexico. Personal bonds will not be accepted.” The surety bond was in terms conditioned that: “If the principal indemnifies the obligee against loss or damage directly arising by reason of the failure of the principal faithfully to perform the above mentioned contract, then this instrument shall be null and void: otherwise it shall remain in full force and effect.” ; It is the contention of the appellee that the statute of New Mexico, being chapter 136, Laws 1923, 1929 Comp. § 17-201 et seq., specifies the character of bonds which public officials shall require for the construction of public works, and that the provisions of the' statute must be read into the bond whether omitted therefrom or not. The material portion of the statute is as follows: “Whenever any contract shall be entered into with the state or any county, municipality district, department, board, or public corporation thereof, for the construction, alteration, improvement or repair of any public building, structure or highway, or for any public work, the contract price for which exceeds five hundred dollars ($500), the contractor shall, before beginning work thereunder, furnish a bond executed by the contractor and some surety company authorized to do business in the state, or other suitable sureties to be approved by state board of finance in an amount equal to fifty per cent of the contr’act price, conditioned for the performance and completion of such contract according to its terms, compliance with all requirements of law, and the payments as they become due of all just claims for labor performed, and materials and supplies furnished, upon or for the work under said contract, whether said labor be performed, and said materials and supplies be furnished under the original contract or under any sub-contract. The said bond shall he in form as approved by the attorney general, district attorney, or attorney for the ■obligee in said contract, and as to sureties subject to approval of the authorities letting •the contract. Personal sureties may be accepted if the authorities letting the contract ■so determine, but in such case the amount of •■the bond shall be the full contract price and the sureties .shall justify under oath in amounts above liabilities and exemptions aggregating double the amount of the bond.” Appellant concedes that, if the statutory bond was given in the case at bar, then the terms of the statute must be read into the bond, and that the demurrer was properly overruled. However, it contends that: ‘‘The bond sued on clearly was not given pursuant to any statute * * * there is a provision in the specifications and in the contract requiring that a statutory bond be given, but no such bond was given.” This statement reflects one of the grounds advanced in the demurrer to the complaint, as follows: “That it appears on the face of said Complaint that the bond sued on is not the bond contemplated by the contract, as mentioned in paragraph two of the Complaint, and said bond was not given in compliance with such provision of the contract, it appearing that such provision in the contract was waived by the Owner by the acceptance of the bond on which this suit is brought, and it further appears that the bond on which this suit is brought is not the bond described in the specifications, and was not given in compliance with the terms of the specifications.” Again, in appellant’s reply brief, it states: “Appellant is certainly not estopped to set up a defense that the bond sued on was not the bond provided for in the contract, in that section of the contract providing for the statutory bond.” And again it therein says: “The condition which is the real essential of a statutory bond, that is, provision for payment for materials, is absent.” Appellant relies upon U. S., to Use of Stallings v. Starr (C. C. A.) 20 F.(2d) 803, 805, and cases there cited. The following quotation from that decision may be said to fairly represent the view taken by the federal courts when considering the federal statute, popularly known as the “Hurd Acts,” which, so far as material to the present controversy, are essentially the same as ours. The court, speaking through Circuit Judge Parker, said: “We think that the learned District Judge was correct in holding that the bond in suit did not cover the claims of laborers and materialmen. It is true that on a contract such as this, the Hurd Act (Act Eeb. 24, 1905, amending Act Aug. 13, 1894, 28 Stat. 278, 33 Stat. 811, U. S. Comp. Stat. § 0923 [40 USCA § 270]), requires that the bond given for the performance of the contract shall contain an obligation guaranteeing the payment of such claims. But this requirement of the statute does not authorize a recovery by la borers and materialmen, where neither the bond itself nor the contract contains such obligation. Babcock & Wilcox v. American Surety Co. (C. C. A. 8th) 236 F. 340; U. S. v. Montgomery Heating & Ventilating Co. (C. C. A. 5th) 255 F. 683; U. S. v. Stewart (C. C. A. 8th) 288 F. 187; U. S., to use of Zambetti, v. American Fence Construction Co. (C. C. A.) 15 F.(2d) 450. * * * “It is insisted, however, that the bond is obligated to laborers and materialmen because the contract provides that the contractors shall furnish a bond for their protection as required by the laws of the United States. But the trouble is that the contractors did not furnish such bond. The same point was involved in the ease of Babcock & Wilcox v. American Surety Co., supra, in which Judge Carland, speaking for the Circuit Court of Appeals of the Eighth Circuit, in denying the contention, said (236 F. 342, 343): “ ‘When all is said the case is simply this: That Opdhal by his contract agreed to give a bond obligating himself to pay the claims of materialmen, but he failed to give any such bond. The surety company signed the bond which was executed, and no other. The bond itself did not provide for the payment of materialmen, nor did the contract contain any such provision. The case is not difficult, unless we try to make it different from what it really is.’ ” , Without intimating our view one way or the other on the soundness of the conclusion reached under the facts in U. S., To Use of Stallings, v. Starr, supra, and like cases, that these cases are distinguishable upon' the facts from the case at bar may be readily seen. The decisions of the state courts are in conflict. See note in 77 A. E. R. 152. Some of the decisions proceed upon the theory that the intention or desire of the parties is controlling. Since appellant finds his strongest support in U. S., To Use of Stallings, v. Starr, supra, it is important to note that Judge Parker in Daughtry v. Maryland Casualty Co. (C. C. A.) 48 F.(2d) 786, 789 (more like the case now before us) explained the decision in the Starr Case, showing its inapplicability, to the case at hand. 1-Ie said: “Here only one bond was required; but the requirement was that it protect laborers and materialmen as well as the city. The bond sued on was delivered, as we have seen, both by the contractor and by. the surety, as a compliance with this requirement; and a copy of the contract was attached reciting that it was so delivered. By no fair and reasonable construction of the bond and contract in the Starr Case could it be said that the parties intended that the bond there in question should protect laborers and material-men. Here, we think, no other interpretation is reasonably possible.” And again: “As said by Chief Justice Stacy in Ideal Brick Co. v. Gentry, 191 N. C. 636, 132 S. E. 800, quoted with approval by us in the Fowler Case [(C. C. A.) 31 F.(2d) 881, 63 A. L. R. 1375]: “ ‘The principle is well established by many authoritative decisions, here and elsewhere, that in determining the surety’s liability to third persons on a bond given for their benefit and to secure the faithful performance of a building contract as it relates to them, the contract and bond are to be construed together. [Morganton] Mfg. Co. v. Andrews, 81 S. E. 418, 165 N. C. 285, Ann. Cas. 1916A, 763. In application of this principle, recoveries on the part of such third persons, usually laborers and materialmen, though not expressly named therein, are generally sustained where it appears, by express stipulation, that the contractor has agreed to pay- the claims of such third persons, or where 'by fair and reasonable intendment their rights and interests wore being provided for and were in the contemplation of the parties at the time of the execution of the bond. (Citing cases.) The obligation of the bond is to be read in the light of the' contract it is given to secure, and ordinarily the extent of the engagement entered into by the surety is to be measured by the terms of the principal’s agreement.’ ” The minds of judges reading the instruments themselves in the case at bar might ox-might not find ambiguity in the language employed, and might conclude differently as to the meaning of the language respecting the requirement as to the character of security to be given. But counsel for appellant surety company, notwithstanding a reading of decisions of many courts, might lead him to believe that his • client was one which was obliged to find its way through an unfriendly world, put its interpretation upon these instruments, and says in effect: “It is true under the statute the contractor before beginning work on a public work is required to give a double purpose bond, one purpose to protect the owner in the performance of the contract, the other to provide for paying labor and material claims. The contract and specifications contemplated the giving of such a double purpose boxxd, the bond referred to the contract, and made it part of the bond, but the bond given was not the one contemplated by the statute or by the parties and appellant is xxot therefore liable for labor and material claims.” This was the situatioix before the district court. Appellee says in his brief: “The decision of the district court was based upon this theory, as presented oix the argument of the appellant’s amended demurrer in the court below.” No objection is made by appellaixt to this statement. Appellant has not departed from that theory here. When we adopt appellant’s construction that the contract contemplated the giving of the double purpose statutory bond, and the contract was made a part of the bond, we think there is no question that it was intended by all parties, including the sureties, that the bond should guarantee the claim of laborers and materialmen. While it is true the contract was not signed by the surety, it is also true that the contract was attached to the bond which both the contrac- or and surety did sign. In other words, the surety says in the bond, “I am guaranteeing the performance of the contract hereto at taehed.” The attached contract says, “The contractor will give bond guaranteeing the payment of labor and materials.” After delivering the bond under the foregoing circumstances, the surety ought not to be heard to assert that it does not contain the guaranty which the attached contract stipulated it should contain. But, in the light of the interpretation placed by appellant on the contract, it is not necessary to resort to the principles of estoppel. To hold that the contractor intended that the surety should guarantee the payment for labor and materials, which the contractor had agreed to provide for the erection of the schoolhouse, would comport with the object and purpose of the statute, and with the duty of the school board, and with the duty of the contractor, to give such a bond before beginning work under the contract. To hold otherwise would be to convict the officials of the school district of carelessly letting a contract without requiring the security for laborers and materialmen, which the statute commands them to require in case of public works, and would convict the contractor of inattention to the mandate of the statute that he is not to begin work under his contract until he had provided such security for laborers and materialmen, and would place the surety in the unenviable and absurd position of executing a bond which would not comply with the terms of the contract and at the same time, attaching to it the contract containing the statement that the bond was to he given pursuant to its terms. If it was the deliberate design of the surety company to exclude the guaranty for the payment of labor and material claims, as has sometimes been attempted by use of express language in the bond such as: “No action shall accrue to anyone other than the obligee,” it is not manifested in the bond before us. It looks as though the failure to expressly incorporate in the bond the admitted intention and desire of the contractor occurred through inadvertence. The appellant further contends that the failure of the obligee' in the bond to retain 15 per cent, of the contract price from the contractor until final settlement, as provided by the contract, and which is commonly known as the “retainage,” works as a discharge of the surety, and cites the case of Morgan et al. v. Salmon, 18 N. M. 72, 135 P. 553, L. R. A. 1915B, 407. That case is not in point here. In the case of Morgan et al. v. Salmon, supra, the bond was conditioned as follows: “All moneys, which but for such default would be due, or would thereafter become due, to the principal, shall be held by the obligee and by him applied for the indemnification of the surety,” and also: “Fourth: That the obligee shall retain not less than fifteen (15%) per centum of the value of all work performed and materials furnished in the performance of said contract, until the complete performance by the said principal of all the terms, covenants and conditions thereof, on said principal’s part to be performed; and that the obligee shall faithfully perform all the terms, covenants and conditions of said contract on the part of said obligee to be performed.” The surety specified in the bond the conditions under which it would be held liable, and the obligee therein accepted the conditions as set forth in the bond to retain the 15 per cent, for the indemnification of the surety in the event of default by the principal. The liability of the surety is to the materialmen under the statute, chapter 136, Session Laws of 1923, supra, and the bond is for the protection of the appellee as well as the school board, and the failure of the school board to retain the 15 per cent, from estimates as the work progressed does not in any way release the surety to the laborers employed in the construction of the building, or the materialmen who furnished -the contractor with materials which went into the building. The appellee here had nothing to do with the estimates or their payment or the retainage. See U. S. F. & G. Co. v. Omaha Bldg. & Const. Co. et al. (C. C. A.) 116 F. 145. See, also, United States Fidelity & Guaranty Co. v. American Blower Co., 41 Ind. App. 620, 84 N. E. 555. From all of the foregoing, we view the matter as did the learned judge below, and the judgment is therefore affirmed, and the cause remanded, with directions to enforce 'the judgment, and it is so ordered. WATSON, C. J., and SADLER, HUDSPETH, and ZINN, JJ., concur.
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ZINN, Justice. On July 2,1930, appellee filed her complaint to quiet title to a tract of land located in Bernalillo county. On August 23, 1930, appellants filed notice, petition, and bond for removal of the cause to the United States District Court for the District of New Mexico, and an order was entered by the district court of Bernalillo county removing said cause. No other pleadings were filed by appellants in the state court. On January 12, 1932, the cause was remanded to the district court of Bernalillo county because the United States District Court lacked jurisdiction, and on the same day a default judgment was entered against appellants. On March 10, 1932, appellantsi filed a motion to vacate said judgment, alleging that they had a meritorious defense to the complaint, and because the' default judgment was rendered the very day the cause had been remanded to the state court. On March 16, 1932, the trial court entered an order denying and overruling the motion to vacate, for the reason that the appellants had not shown good cause to justify vacating the default judgment, from which final order appellants appeal. That the district court had jurisdiction to render judgment by default appellants do not question, but contend that the action of the district judge was a clear abuse of discretion. That appellants had a good defense to the complaint is not alone sufficient to justify this court in holding the trial court abused its discretion in refusing to vacate a default judgment. This case comes clearly within the rule laid down and established in this jurisdiction in the case of Citizens’ Light, Power & Telephone Company v. Usnik, 26 N. M. 494, 194 P. 862. We have held adversely to appellants on every question here presented in the Usnik Case, and w;e cannot distinguish this case from the Usnik Case. The distinction sought to be made by eminent counsel for appellants that in the Usnik Case the appellee waited thirteen days, whereas in this case the appellee took judgment immediately, does not move us. The right to default is as completa and attaches as fully the very moment the state court resumes jurisdiction after remand as at any time subsequent thereto. Appellee had a legal right to his default judgment at the very moment it was entered. Appellants contend that inj justice to their cause, in order to enable them to defend the case on its merits, the order of the trial court be reversed, the judgment vacated, and they be permitted to answer. To do justice to both litigants herein we must apply the principles of law and adhere to the established rules of practice and procedure which are known and established in this jurisdiction, for, otherwise, what seems justice to one would appear as injustice to another. Justice within the law is justice to all. To achieve this end, we must apply the known and established rules of practice and procedure, and not be tempted to deviate from the established course in a particular case. Appellants and appellee are both charged with knowledge of the procedure in a case of this kind. We laid down the rule in 1921; in the Usnik Case, that the party who removes a case to the federal court does so at his peril, and it is incumbent upon him to see that his rights are protected in the state court in the event that the order of removal is determined by the federal court to have been improper and the ease remanded. Unquestionably counsel for appellants were familiar with the law, and in their motion to vacate give no valid excuse for failing to demur or answer at the time of filing their petition for removal, which procedure is clearly pointed out in the Usnik Case. We see no abuse of discretion in the entry of the order of the district court of Bernalillo county denying appellants’ motion to vacate the judgment for appellee. The cause will be remanded for appropriate action. It is so ordered. WATSON, C. J., and SADEER, HUDSPETH, and BIOKLEY, JJ., concur.
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WATSON, Chief Justice. This is a suit to quiet title. The complaint, in addition to the allegations required by statute, predicated title upon a tax deed dated December 10, 1929, reciting a judgment rendered November 7, 1923, for taxes of 1922, a sale held September 15,1924, and a certificate issued the same day. Defendant, by its answer, denied plaintiff’s title generally; denied that any title was deraigncd through the tax deed; admitted making adverse claim, predicating its title upon a mortgage foreclosure and special master’s deed; alleged that the tax deed is null and void for the reason that the taxes of 1922 were due about a year before it made a loan to H. H. Edmondson, then owner, and that it was the latter’s duty therefore, and by the terms of his mortgage, to pay said taxes; alleged that the tax sale certificate is void “for want of compliance with the laws of New Mexico” and “because S. M. Edmondson has repeatedly admitted that he bought the tax sale certificate to protect his brother and did not claim any payment from defendant because of it.” There was no cross-complaint and no prayer for affirmative relief. Plaintiff offered his tax deed. It was received over the objection that it was not admissible without proof of the proceedings leading up to it. The objection was overruled, the deed was received, and plaintiff rested. Plaintiff’s objections to evidence of the giving of a mortgage by H. H. Edmondson and of a foreclosure thereof were sustained. Thereupon defendant made tender of its proofs, from which we derive that fraud and estoppel were relied upon. The court properly ruled out these defenses as not having been pleaded. The tender also includes certain objections to the tax sale Certificate. It was admitted, however, that the property was subject to taxation, and that the taxes had not been paid. The objections urged, if having any substance or merit, were cured by Laws 1921, c. 133, § 454. Moore v. National Bank of New Mexico, 35 N. M. 300, 295 P. 424. It was appellant’s position below, and is here urged, that because the burden of proof is upon a plaintiff in a suit to quiet title, and because he must obtain relief on the strength of his own title, rather than on the weakness of his adversary’s, a^tax deed cannot afford sufficient evidence on which to base a decree in the face of a denial that the deed passed title. In Hudson v. Phillips, 29 N. M. 101, 218 P. 787, 788, construing Laws 1921, c. 133, § 455, this court said that it “provides that a tax deed shall be prima facie evidence of a certain enumerated list of facts, which would seem to cover all of the questions as to the regularity of the tax proceedings. In other words, it provides, in substance and effect, that a tax deed shall be prima facie evidence of its own validity.” We see no reason to doubt the correctness of this interpretation. In numerous subsequent cases we have assumed it to be the true meaning of the section. The latest of such cases is Kreigh v. State Bank of Alamogordo, 37 N. M. 360, 23 P.(2d) 1085. The judgment must be affirmed. It is so ordered. SADLER, HUDSPETH, BIOKLEY, and ZINN, JJ., concur.
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ZINN, Justice. The appellants, defendants below, on appeal assign twenty-four errors to the trial court, which are grouped by the appellants as seven “issues.” The fifth, sixth, and seventh issues are assignments urged because of the failure to find for the appellants on the disputed facts. Inasmuch as the findings of ultimate facts as made by the trial court are supported by substantial evidence, they will not be disturbed on appeal. The findings reguested by the appellants are based on evidence either in denial or contradictory of the evidence in support of appellee’s theory, and apparently the court did not believe such evidence, and therefore it was not error to refuse those reguested by the appellants. The conclusion of fraud based on such facts has not been guestioned by appellants. Such disposition leaves the four remaining issues to be disposed of, and each will be treated as presented. This suit was brought to set aside and vacate two mineral deeds secured by the appellants from the appellee, and which deeds purported to convey to the appellants J. D. Selby and Carrie Selby a one-half interest in the mineral rights of the appellee’s land located in Lea county, N. M. The appellee alleged that he never knowingly or intentionally signed, acknowledged, or delivered any deeds to any of mineral land, and that, if his name appears on any deed, it was put there by Selby, or by E. T. Reese, agent for Selby, or it was obtained by trick and fraud practiced by the appellant Selby or E. T. Reese, and the deeds were secured without any consideration and through false statements, which appellee believed to be true, which statements were made with the willful design'and intention of cheating and defrauding the appellee and depriving him of his minerals and property wrongfully. That the mineral deeds in guestion were fraudulently obtained and without consideration, as found by the trial court, is amply supported by substantial evidence. The first issue presented by appellants is, that the court erred in overruling appellants’ motion made at the beginning of the trial reguiring appellee to- elect which one of two theories pleaded, namely, forgery or fraud, tbe appellee intended to prove. Tbe appellants contend that the two theories are inconsistent. , Appellants misconstrue the doctrine of election of remedies as applicable to the issue. The doctrine of election of remedies applies only where there are two or more remedies, all of which exist at the time of the election, and which are alternative and inconsistent with each other, and not cumulative, so that, after the proper choice of one, the other or others are no longer available. 9 R. C. L. 938. The appellee here was seeking but one remedy, the aid of equity to cancel the two deeds secured by the appellants by fraud or forgery and without consideration. We see no merit in appellants’ contention, or error in the refusal of the court to require the appellee to elect which of the alleged facts he intended to prove to justify cancellation, inasmuch as either fraud, misrepresentation, forgery, or want of consideration, coupled with the circumstances surrounding this transaction indicative of either fraud, misrepresentation, or forgery, justified the judgment. The next “issue” is that the court permitted the appellee to testify, over objection of appellants, the contents of a letter which the appellee received from appellant Selby, without first laying a foundation for the introduction of such testimony showing that the original letter could not be produced. The appellants contend that non-production of the original letter had not been sufficiently explained. Secondary evidence of the contents of a writing is admitted on the theory that the original cannot be produced by the party by whom the evidence is offered within a reasonable time after a diligent effort to obtain the original. The law exacts nothing unreasonable in such a case, and the degree of diligence required in any case depends upon the character and importance of the document, the purpose for which it is expected to be used, and the place where a paper of that kind might naturally be supposed to be found. If the document is valuable and important, a more diligent search is required than if it is of little or no value, and so the purpose for which it is proposed to use the written instrument has an important bearing in determining the degree of diligence required. 10 R. O. L. 918. In this case the court stated into the record that the appellee had made what to the court seemed a diligent search for the letter among his papers, and had not been able to find it. We have examined the evidence, and, considering the nonimportance and shadowy value of the secondary evidence introduced, being merely “to see Reese” without showing for what purpose, and considering the infinitesimal value pf the contents of the letter to the main issue, we believe the search was sufficient, and the court did not err. The third issue relates to the introduction of testimony repeating conversations the appellee had with Reese, after Reese’s power of agency for Selby had terminated, at which conversations Selby was not present. The appellants fail to cite in their briefs the objectionable testimony referred to, and the court is unable to determine whether or not the same is prejudicial in any manner to the cause of the appellants, and we are in this instance compelled to invoke rule XV, § 16, of the Rules of Appellate Procedure, and disregard the proposition urged. The fourth issue presented by appellants is that the trial court erred in refusing to make specific findings of fact as requested by the appellants on the theory that Comp. St. 1929, § 105-S13, requires the court in cases tried without a jury, upon request, to make such findings of ultimate facts essential to a conclusion and determination of the issues. In this instance the court did make findings of the essential or determining facts on which its conclusion in the case was reached, and such findings are sufficiently specific to enable this court to review the case on the issues made up below. That is all that the statute referred to requires. Merrick v. Deering et al., 30 N. M. 431, 236 P. 735. It is not necessary that the court make a finding on every inconsequential bit of uncontradicted immaterial testimony introduced. However, there was here no such request to find ultimate facts as was presented in Merrick v. Deering, supra, the denial of which was held error. Certain specific findings were requested, to be sure, and denied presumably because contrary to inferences drawn by the trial court from the evidence adduced. Appellant complains of uncertainty and omissions in the findings. But of this he may not avail himself, having failed to specify by request the particular ultimate facts as to which he desired findings, as in Merrick v. Deering-, or to embrace the particular ultimate fact desired found in a requested finding containing nothing objectionable which would justify its refusal. Springer Ditch Co. v. Wright, 31 N. M. 457, 247 P. 270. Since taking the appeal, the appellee James H. Williams died, and by stipulation of the parties hereto, which stipulation was approved January 30, 1933, the heirs of James H. Williams, to wit, Mae Williams, Emma Maude Taylor, Julia Cleo Culp, Harvey Boy Williams, Annie Ruth Schuertfeger, Tommie Lee Weir, Ora W. Weir, Lillie Pauline Hardin, and Robert Williams, the last named personally and as administrator, have been substituted as appellees, and the record in this court and in the district court will so show. Binding no error in the record, the judgment of the lower court is affirmed. It is so ordered. WATSON, C. J., and SADLER, HUDS-PETH, and BICKLEY, J.T., concur.
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SADLER, J. The parties to this appeal appear to have been engaged during the year 1930 in financing cotton farming through crop mortgages in Dona Ana county, N. M. One Baeza leased a certain thirty-acre tract for that year from a landlord by the name of Murphy under a tenancy which reserved to the landlord one-fourth of the crops which should be produced on the leased premises. Baeza sublet verbally to Paz Garcia, stipulating that the latter shoüld return the one-fourth rental to Baeza’s landlord and reimburse Baeza’s promised advancements to Garcia in the production of said crops. After subletting to Garcia, Baeza executed in favor of appellant a chattel mortgage on the crops to be grown on this and other lands to secure an indebtedness of $5,625, which mortgage was duly filed with the county clerk of Dona Ana county on April 5,1930. Baeza’s advancements to or for the account of Garcia in raising and harvesting said crop amounted to $261.16. ' Subsequent to the execution and filing of Baeza’s mortgage to appellant, Garcia executed in favor of appellee a chattel mortgage on his three-fourths interest in the crops to be grown on said land to secure an indebtedness of $347.43, which, mortgage was likewise filed with the county clerk of said county on April 28, 1930. Three bales of cotton were produced on the leased premises under this arrangement. They were harvested and ginned by Baeza, and by him delivered to appellant for application on his mortgage indebtedness after deduction of landlord’s rental. Appellant realized $150 for the cotton, paid $37.50 thereof to the landlord in satisfaction of the rent reserved, and credited Baeza with $112.50, the reasonable value of the cotton, as found by the court, after deduction of rental. • The appellee then sued appellant for conversion of a three-fourths interest in the cotton delivered to appellant by Baeza. The theory of appellee’s complaint was, of course, that by accepting from Baeza and disposing of cotton upon which appellee had a lien under its filed chattel mortgage, the appellant was guilty of a conversion. The charge of conversion was met by a denial on appellant’s part. In addition, it plea'ded specially as a defense that it also held a chattel mortgage and lien thereunder on all crops grown in 1930 on the lands in question, of which lien appellee had full notice and knowledge and which was claimed to be prior and superior to the lien of appellee’s chattel mortgage. After trial before the court without a jury, judgment was awarded appellee against appellant in the sum of $112.50, for the review of which this appeal is prosecuted. The parties at the trial seem to have agreed, and the court concluded, that the subletting by Baeza to Garcia created the relationship of landlord and tenant between them. The court also concluded that at the time Baeza executed his chattel mortgage to appellant, he already had parted with his expectant title to the crops by virtue of his sublease to Garcia, and that consequently the mortgage by him to appellant operated to create no lien upon the crop in question. Upon the other hand, it was held by the court that the chattel mortgage from Garcia to appellee did create a lien in the latter’s favor. The views reflected in these findings and conclusions of the trial court undoubtedly explain, and in the mind of the trial judge must have warranted, the judgment rendered against appellant. But in taking this view we think the trial court overlooked the determinative issue raised at the trial, both by the pleadings and in the proof, the findings upon which called for a judgment contrary to the one actually rendered. The appellee charged appellant with conversion. The appellant tendered the general issue to such charge and as an affirmative defense pleaded specially the existence of its chattel mortgage, claiming priority therefor, but without attaching a copy or predicating any relief thereon. Under its general denial, the appellant was privileged to interpose all defenses in bar except matters of confession and avoidance. 38 Cyc. 2075. See, also, Southern Car Mfg. & Supply Co. v. Wagner, 14 N. M. 195, 89 P. 259. It did rely upon Baeza’s landlord’s lien, denominated a “preference lien” in the statute (section 82-101, Comp. 1929), for moneys and supplies furnished the tenant to enable him to plant and harvest the crop in question. The appellant at the trial insisted before the court that on certain findings actually made it was entitled to judgment, and excepted to the court’s conclusion that it was not. It also has briefed and argued in this court its position on this point, thus invoking our ruling thereon. We are inclined to agree with appellant’s contention and to hold appellant not guilty of conversion under the facts found by the lower court. In reaching this conclusion we may lay to one side any consideration of the relative priorities of the parties under the two chattel mortgages hereinabove mentioned. For if Baeza, the person who actually received the cotton from Garcia’s possession, did not commit an act of conversion in so doing, it is difficult to predicate conversion upon appellant’s receipt of it from Baeza. In other words, Baeza’s justification furnishes a complete defense to appellant. Assuming the relationship of landlord and tenant between Baeza and Garcia, which the parties concede and the court found to exist, Baeza had a preference lien under the stat-. ute cited hereinabove to secure him in advancements found by the court to have been made in the sum of $261.16. Admittedly, this lien had priority over Garcia’s mortgage to appellee. Garcia could mortgage only his interest in the crop. The trial court correctly held that Garcia’s ownership of the crop was subject to the one-fourth rental reserved, and “to- the lien of said H. R. Baeza as landlord. for funds advanced by Baeza to Garcia to defray- the expense of making such crops.” The trial court found that the three bales of cotton were harvested and ginned by Baeza “with the full knowledge of said Paz B’. Garcia, who made no objection thereto”; and that in taking such crops “Baeza claimed the right to the same not under his landlord’s lien to secure him in the funds which he had theretofore advanced to Garcia, but under the claim of absolute ownership.” It is impossible fairly or reasonably to relate Baeza’s claim of ownership to anything other than his statutory preference lien on the cotton to secure him for advancements made. We have then a case of advancements by the landlord in the sum of $261.16, to secure which the tenant produces a crop in which his determined interest has a value of only $112.50. The landlord in such circumstances with the tenant’s full knowledge and acquiescence harvests and markets the crop applying the proceeds on the claim for advancements, leaving more than half of the claim therefor still unpaid. Any interpretation of this state of facts would be unreasonable which failed to stamp it as an abandonment of the crop to the landlord by the tenant, or at least as an agreement on the tenant’s part that the landlord should harvest, market, and apply the proceeds to the claim of landlord’s lien. The latter’s act in standing by and seeing his landlord harvest and prepare the crop for market, without uttering a single word of protest, does violence to any other conclusion. We are unfamiliar with any doctrine which denies to a landlord the right thus to proceed in a peaceable manner to secure the fruits of his lien, and appellee has cited us to none. Under the facts here disclosed appellee could have shown no injury nor any element of conversion until it established that proper handling by appellant would have produced an excess of value over and above the amount of the landlord’s lien of Baeza. This it neither did nor attempted. The facts acquit Baeza of conversion, and his acquittal is a discharge of appellant. It follows that the judgment of the lower court must be reversed and the cause remanded, with directions to such court to enter judgment for the appellant. The appellant will recover its costs both in the lower court and on appeal. It is so ordered. WATSON, C.' J., and HUDSPETH and BICKLEY, JJ., concur. ZINN, J., did not participate.
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WATSON, Chief Justice. Plaintiffs, claiming as owners of one-half of seven-eighths of all minerals and mineral rights, including natural gas, in and under a certain 80-acre tract, sued defendant for an accounting and damages for a conversion of gas from the premises. Third parties intervened, denying plaintiffs’ asserted title and setting up one of their own. Defendant’s lot is cast with the interveners, since he claims under them. The title of plaintiffs rests on a decree of the district court rendered June 5, 1926, adjudicating them the owners of the mineral right in question. In this, suit, however, Charles E. McHugh was the sole defendant. The title asserted by the interveners rests upon a warranty deed, dated January 8,1926, by which said McHugh conveyed the land to intervener Elizabeth A. Bolger, then Lenihan.' But McHugh was married and his wife did not join in this deed. For that reason the trial court held, and it is not here questioned, that if the beneficial title was in McHugh, the , deed was void. Appellees advanced, and the trial court adopted, the theory that McHugh’s title was not beneficial, hut was a resulting trust for the interveners. On this theory alone judgment went against the plaintiffs, and they have appealed. On this question of trust much evidence was received. It is highly conflicting. As usual in such cases, we are on the one hand reminded of the heavy burden of proof resting upon the proponent of a theory of resulting trust, and, on the other hand, reminded of the substantial evidence rule. In this case, however, we are able to reach a decision upon the testimony adduced on behalf of the appellees, without balancing it against the evidence to the contrary. Unfortunately, we are compelled to arrive at the ultimate facts by reviewing the record; the trial court having failed to make findings supporting its conclusions that intervener Bolger paid a valuable consideration for the conveyance to her, and that McHugh’s title was in trust. We may say at once that, aside from the evidence now to be examined, on which interveners rely to establish the trust, there is no proof or contention that intervener Bolger paid a consideration for the conveyance to her. All agree that Sarah B. Miller owned the property prior to May 16, 1925. On that date she executed a quitclaim deed to McHugh, reciting a consideration of $1, and reserving an undivided one-eighth interest in oil and gas. On January 18, 1926, as above stated, McHugh conveyed to Bolger, reciting a consideration of $100. Finally, on January 8, 1927, Bolger, by her attorney in fact, quit-claimed the land to interveners Fred Sahara and Leo Kelly, as trustees, for $1 and other valuable consideration. It is the nature of the first transaction that here concerns us. The two last conveyances are claimed to have merely executed the trust which resulted from the first. The nature of the trust impressed upon the final conveyance is not expressed in the deed, but in the petition in intervention it is thus stated: “ * * * Por the use and benefit of all the intervenors herein and all others who had from time to time invested moneys for the purchase of the said land by the said O. E. McHugh.” ' Late in the year 1924, McHugh, a resident of South Dakota, came to San Juan county, with a view to engaging in oil and gas speculation or development. He acquired a number of leases adjoining the Miller property. Upon the latter there was at the time a producing gas well. Having returned to South Dakota, he interested Mrs. Bolger in his projects; stating that he was endeavoring to raise money to acquire the Miller tract, which, as he expressed it, would “take the wild-cat out of” his adjoining leases, and which could be purchased for $2,000. He proposed to Mrs. Bolger that with the money raised he would purchase the Miller tract, which property, as Mrs. Bolger testifies, “was to stand in the name of the investors as security to them against loss in their investment. In addition there was to be acquired leases in the name of O. E. McHugh.” Mrs. Bolger became interested herself and thought that she could interest her father and relatives. It was agreed that she should go to Chicago for the purpose, and that the expense of the trip, $250, should be treated as an investment by her. She did go to Chicago and succeeded in interesting her father and others. Some weeks later, McHugh left for Chicago for the purpose of reaping the harvest which Mrs. Bolger had already sown. On his departure, Mrs. Bolger gave him $1,000, “which, together with the $250 previously expended on.this venture,” as she testifies, “was to constitute a part of the purchase price of the Miller place-and which property it was agreed would be purchased in my name as security for my investment and that of my father and others who were lending financial aid.” In Chicago, on May 6th, McHugh met Mrs. Bolger’s father, Frank M. Lenihan. The latter, on the next day, gave the former $700, taking a receipt in which it was said that the sum was “to be applied on exploiting the oil leases I own in San Juan County, New Mexico & the profits derived from, said leases are to be divided pro rata according to cost of the expenses' of developing between myself & Frank Lenihan, Sr.” Lenihan testified: “I asked him how much the place could be - bought for — the Miller place — and he said $2,000. I asked him where he came in on this proposition. He said that the fact of the matter was he was up against it in as much as the other leases were about due and he had not been able to produce any money, and he also stated that when he got it going that he would have a well of his own as good or better than the Miller place. The agreement was that this deed was to be placed in my daughter Elizabeth’s name as a trust deed for herself and others whom she might interest. * * * We were to share and share alike for any money we put in in the other leases. * * * He was to have nothing to do with that (the Miller ranch). That was the bait he threw out to us and we bit.” These moneys of intervener Bolger and her father are the only investments shown to have been, made with McHugh prior to his taking title in his own name on May 16, 1925. June 15, 1925, McHugh obtained $500 from intervener Sahara, giving a receipt certifying that the latter had “that day invested ($500) five hundred dollars in with me in the Aztec N. Mex. oil and gas fields and is to share with me in all my property I hold in Aztec, N. Mex. to share equally with me share & share alike.” McHugh then represented that the Miller ranch had already been acquired and stood in Mrs. Bolger’s name. Lenihan thereafter interested numerous friends and relatives in the project, the total of all contributions amounting to some $9,000. This evidence satisfactorily shows that McHugh obtained the money of Mrs. Bolger and her father upon a promise to acquire title to the property in question in the name of Mrs. Bolger; that he obtained money from Sahara on the representation that he (had already done this; and that numerous, other sums were accepted by him upon similar representations made by Lenihan and by which McHugh was no doubt bound. But appellees cannot stop with showing that they have been overreached or defrauded. In this case, as it comes to us, nothing will avail them but a resulting trust. The facts must be sufficient to raise the conclusive presumption of equity that McHugh intended to take and hold title for the 'interveners. White v. Mayo, 31 N. M. 366, 246 P. 910. That requires proof, not only that the interveners furnished the money for the purpose, but that tlioir money was so applied. White v. Mayo, 35 N. M. 430, 299 P. 1008. We might assume, though not deciding, that, under somewhat different circumstances, a trust might have been established in favor of Mrs. Bolger and Frank M. Lenihan. At least McHugh had their money in his hands and might have used it as consideration for the property. But such is not the trust claimed or established. It is plain that none of the other investors can qualify. They contributed after the acquisition. They did not expect their money thus to be used, and it was not. They merely invested in McHugh’s project, upon a false representation as to a security. Yet the trust is claimed and was declared in their favor. Mrs. Bolger, in her individual capacity, is an intervener. She did not claim and has obtained no relief independent of or distinct from that given to other investors. Her own testimony discloses that she did not expect to have a beneficial title. It was to be in trust for herself, her father, and those whom they might interest. There is no suggestion that she was not investing in the project as a whole. Though the purchase of the Miller tract was immediately proposed, and her money was to be used for the purpose, it was still but a part of a general scheme of development and exploitation, from which she expected to obtain profit, but to avoid loss, in some manner difficult to understand, by having thé Miller property as security for an indefinite number of investors. Lenihan’s position is somewhat different. He claims, notwithstanding the language of the receipt, that his $700 was to procure him an interest in the Miller property only; that he was to have no interest in the general scheme unless he should contribute further; and that McHugh retained no interest in the Miller tract. Just how McHugh would be benefited by inducing others to buy the Miller property, keeping it separate from his own; how transferring this adjoining, producing property from Mrs. Miller to Mrs. Bolger would “take the wildcat out of” McHugh’s leases; or why Lenihan would consent to and promote investment of $9,000 in the $2,000 Miller tract, and the consequent diminution of his interest, unless he was to profit from the general project; are matters not plain to our minds. However, he is not a party, and claims no relief, except, proportionally with other investors who, individually, could have none here. What we have said is not to cast doubt upon the good faith of the witnesses. It is in inquiry whether they have presented a situation involving a resulting trust. On the whole, the evidence adduced by appellees seems to disclose a situation of investors, eager for easy profits, grasping at a promised security not fully understood, which they cannot now explain, and altogether indefinite and impracticable. No sympathy need be wasted on McHugh', if some legal theory had been evolved by which form and substance could be given to this “security.” But he is not a party. Noth ing here stands between plaintiffs and the relief they claim, except a deed which is void unless the grantor’s title was a trust. The trust declared is not only for the benefit of Mrs. Bolger and her father, whose money may have gone into the land. It is equally and proportionately for Sahara and numerous others whose money was otherwise used. Mrs. Bolger can claim no separate benefit. Her own title was to be a trust. Lenihan is not here as a party. So, we conclude that there has been a failure of those for whose benefit the trust has been claimed and declared. to trace their money into the property in question. There is another failure of proof. To identify the money of any investor as the whole or an aliquot part of the consideration, it would seem to be essential that we know at the outset what the consideration was. There is no known reason to suppose that the actual consideration could not have been shown. Yet appellees made no effort to do so. The only evidence on the point is that of McHugh, testifying for appellants. He says that the consideration was $100 in cash, of his own money, and his undertaking, subsequently performed, by legal proceedings, to disencumber the land of an outstanding lease. It is not enough for appellees’ counsel to discredit McHugh. If this was not the consideration, what was it? We thus feel constrained to hold that there is error in the conclusion that the McHugh title was a trust. Appellants contend that, the claimed title of appellees the interveners having failed, they were and are entitled to judgment against appellee the defendant, on undisputed facts, in a sum which we compute at $367.60. The point is not contested. The judgment is reversed. The cause will be remanded with a direction to enter judgment dismissing the intervention, and for the plaintiffs as against the defendant in the sum just named. It is so ordered. SADLER, HUDSPETH, and BIÓKLEY, JJ., concur. ZINN, J., did not participate.
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BICKLEY, J. Plaintiff sued for personal judgment for balance due upon a written building contract, to recover price of construction of a building, and for a foreclosure of a mechanic’s lien upon the premises improved. Defendant appeared, and, upon a trial, the court, on August 31, 1931, rendered judgment against'defendant: “For three hundred ten dollars ($310) together with attorney’s fees and costs, for which let execution issue.’’ The judgment contains the further recital: “And it is further ordered, adjudged and decreed that the mechanics and materialmen’s lien be and the same is hereby foreclosed and that unless within sixty (60) days hereafter the defendant, George Potteiger, pay or cause to be paid to the plaintiff the sum herein adjudged to be due, the real estate hereinabove described shall be sold at public auction to the highest and best bidder for cash, * * * “Ordered that Joseph Gill be allowed the sum of $50.00 for foreclosure of the said mechanics lien, as provided by See. 82-213 Compiled Laws 1929, 'the same to be paid by the defendant.” On October 1, 1931, the defendant moved to vacate and set aside the decree and for a corrected decree, for the following reasons: “That the decree entered herein is contradictory and inconsistent in that one of the paragraphs of said decree provides that defendant, Potteiger, shall pay the sum of $310.-00, plus attorney’s fees and costs within sixty days, while the other paragraph provides for a Judgment for $310.00 with attorney’s fees, and directs the issuance of an execution without sixty days stay of execution, and that the Plaintiff is seeking to take advantage of his decree on the chancery side of the court, relieved of its sixty days stay of execution, in order to levy on persona! property of the defendant, under a Judgment for money, which of necessity, must have been granted on the Law side of the Court. “That this proceeding is essentially an equitable proceeding wherein Plaintiff sought by foreclosure to establish a mechanic’s Lien upon certain real estate of the defendant. “That in the event that the Plaintiff had sought a money judgment, then defendant would have been entitled to a jury trial. “That Plaintiff having elected to pursue his course upon one of the contradictory Judgments, or decrees, rendered by this Court, has thereby waived his right to take advantage of the other, or the Decree granted on the Equity side of the Court. “That the $50.00 attorney fee now included in the amount for which execution was issued, is not collectable under execution upon a money Judgment granted by a court of Law. “That the title of the document signed by the court, to-wit: ‘Decree’ is misleading and incorrect in that the so-called decree purports in part to be'a Judgment, which could not have been rendered under the pleading filed by Plaintiff wherein he sought the aid and relief afforded only by a court of Equity.” On October 8,1931, after hearing on the motion, the court vacated the decree “for the purpose of entering a correct decree herein,” and then recalled the execution theretofore issued on the judgment forming a part of the judgment and decree. Erom this order plaintiff, Mozley, appeals. The parties will be referred to herein as in the court below. The court, in sustaining the motion of defendant, said: “The motion was filed a day too late to bring it within the thirty day period during which the court has control of a judgment for purpose of correction or amendment, consequently some irregularity must he shown if the motion is to be sustained. The court signed a final decree after it had been initialed by attorneys for both parties and, because it had been thus approved, the court did not read it or consider its terms. The complaint presents but one cause of action and there is no problem of joinder of causes of action. The complaint is an ordinary bill in equity seeking foreclosure of mechanic’s lien and praying for a deficiency judgment, and the court intended to give no decree except for foreclosure. The court is aware that mere legal error does not constitute an irregularity and the mere inclusion of a personal judgment in a decree would not in itself constitute an irregularity, but 'the inclusion of a personal judgment creates a situation which the court thinks is manifestly an irregularity because the terms of the decree are so inconsistent as to make it unenforeible. In one paragraph the defendant is given sixty days within which to pay, while in another paragraph it is ordered that execution issue for the entire amount of the judgment. The decree on its face is wholly irreconcilable, inconsistent and ambiguous, and this circumstance, the court feels, constitutes an irregularity. The court desires to correct this decree and is glad to seize upon the patent inconsistency to give him jurisdiction.” Appellant, plaintiff below, presents the following points upon which he bases his claim for reversal: “1. Has the trial court jurisdiction to vacate, set aside or modify the decree entered in this cause on August 31, 1931, on motion filed by defendant more than thirty days thereafter. “2. Is there any irregularity shown in the record as a basis for vacating or modifying the decree more than thirty days after its entry. “3. Is the plaintiff entitled to a judgment both in personam and a decree foreclosing the mechanics lien under the findings in this decree.” On this review, the primary question is whether there was irregularity in the judgment which gave the court jurisdiction to vacate it within one year. 1929 Comp. St. § 105-846. The learned trial judge found the irregularity to consist in the fact that the judgment embraced both a recovery in personam and an order of foreclosure and sale. Not, as he !says, that the inclusion of the personal judgment itself would be an irregularity, but that its inclusion with the award of immediate execution is wholly irreconcilable with the grant of sixty days for the payment of indebtedness adjudged before the property subjected to the lien could be sold, and that this inconsistency renders the judgment ambiguous and unenforceable. The court was doubtless correct in saying that the mere inclusion of a personal judgment would not constitute an irregularity. Porter v. Alamocitos Land & Livestock Co., 32 N. M. 344, 256 P. 179. We fail to understand where the inconsistency is to be found in the judgment, or how it becomes ambiguous or unenforceable. The two forms of relief granted are independent of each other. We see no inconsistency in the result that appellant was allowed to have his execution at once, while his foreclosure sale must be postponed for sixty days. His execution sale would require four weeks’ pub< lication. He already had his mechanic’s lien. To give him the execution simply permitted him to acquire an execution lien. If a creditor is entitled to both forms of relief, he must have them under the provisions of law, and, unless the law prescribes in such cases that the execution sale and the foreclosure sale shall take place at the same time, there is nothing inconsistent in the result that they occur at different times, or that the execution sale may precede the foreclosure sale. There is no more inconsistency here than when a mortgagee of lands is given both remedies, as in Porter v. Alamocitos Land & Livestock Co., supra. The same statute, under which the court acted in granting sixty days for satisfaction of the indebtedness before sale, gives the same privilege to a mortgagor. Laws 1931, c. 149, § 1. When the Porter Case was decided, the time was ninety days. So we are unable to uphold the order on the ground on which the trial court placed it. Appellee argues that the court has inherent power independently of statutes to vacate or modify its judgment where it “was signed and entered inadvertently without having been read. The record did not speak the truth, and was not, in fact, the judgment óf the court.” No such ground is set up in the motion, nor did the trial court place the action on any such ground. That the judgment signed differs by inadvertence from that rendered, or intended to be rendered, cannot be admitted here for the reason, if for none other, that the record does not support the assertion. The affirmative fact stated by the trial court in its opinion is that he signed the judgment without reading it or considering its terms, because it had been previously initialed by attorneys for both parties. He was perfectly justified in doing this, but the result is that he rendered the judgment just as it appears in the record. There was no inadvertence about it. The judgment does speak the truth. The judge intended to render whatever decree was shown to be satisfactory to both parties. We do not think the fact that the judge was unaware that personal judgment was included, and that his undisclosed intention was to award foreclosure only, can bring the case within the principle urged by appellee. We doubt, either, if we should hear counsel to object to this judgment on such ground after predecessor counsel had initialed the form and led the court into error, if there was any. It is a noticeable fact that the motion makes no point that there was any inadvertence or misunderstanding in the case. There is some discussion between counsel as to whether the complaint warranted the award of both forms of relief, under the doctrines of Porter v. Alamocitos Land & Livestock Co., supra. We need not here pursue the matter. As held in that case, the question is not jurisdictional, and, if wrongly decided, is error, not irregularity. Some complaint is made that the court attempted to include attorney’s fees for the foreclosure in the personal judgment. While there is ambiguity in this respect, we do not Iso interpret the judgment. We have understood counsel for appellant to state that, unless foreclosure is resorted to, no claim will be made to collect attorney’s fees. Prom all of the foregoing, it appears that the order vacating and setting aside the judgment must be reversed, and it is so ordered. WATSON, O. J., and SADLER, J., concur. ZINN, J., did not participate.
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BIOKLEY, Justice. Plaintiff charged that defendant’s cattle were running at large contrary to the provisions of the 1909 herd law, in a district formed under the provisions of chapter 94, Laws 1909, and that said cattle trespassed upon plaintiff’s land situated in said district to his damage. The trial court rendered judgment in favor of plaintiff and against defendant, finding all the issues in favor of plaintiff. The court also made certain specific findings of fact and conclusions of law and refused requests therefor made by the defendants. Briefly, the findings are that the lands of plaintiff were situated in the herd law district No. 11, Quay county, N. M., in which defendant permitted his cattle to run at large, was legally adopted by residents of said district, and at the time of the impounding of said cattle was in force and effect; a specific finding also that the defendant allowed and permitted his cattle to run at large in said herd law district and over and upon the lands of the plaintiff. In the main, the points relied upon for reversal challenge the right of plaintiff to the possession of certain lands, and that defendant’s cattle were running at large, and the existence of the herd law district. The first two present questions of fact merely, and we find substantial evidence in support of the court’s findings in favor of the plaintiff. The last, more particularly perhaps, involves questions both of law and fact. The procedure for the establishment of the herd law district in question was in compliance with the act. Criticism is made of the proof of publication of the notice of election and of the publication of the order of the board of county commissioners after the board had canvassed the returns of the election. Section 2 of the act provides that: “The call for such election shall be published in some newspaper published in said county for at least three consecutive weeks before said election.” Assuming that the publication of the call for such election is mandatory and jurisdictional, we agree with the trial court that proof of publication was sufficient. Two witnesses testified that they were living in the precinct at the time of the election and for some time previous thereto; that the election interest was very high, and that they did not know of a single voter who was eligible who failed to vote; that notices notifying people of the election were posted at the post office and store in a town in said district and one at the sehoolhouse. An estimate, the correctness of which was not questioned, was given that at the time of the election the precinct involved had a voting population of 100, and it appears that 97 of these exercised their right of suffrage. It will thus be seen that the validity of the election cannot be questioned on the ground that there was no notice at all; the question here presented being merely as to the sufficiency of the proof thereof. The election call was published three consecutive weeks in the official newspaper of the county, published therein. The statute prescribes no form of proof of the publication or that any at all be filed. Under such circumstances, whether the election call was published as required by the statute was a fact to be proved like any other fact. See Yowell v. Mace, 221 Mo. App. 85, 290 S. W. 96; Humphreys v. Humphreys, 162 Mo. App. 408, 142 S. W. 757, affirmed (Mo. Sup.) 178 S. W. 52; Hayward v. Guilford, 69 Mo. App. 1. Section 3 of the act provides that, if a majority of the votes be east in favor of a herd law, the board of county commissioners shall make an order that all neat cattle, horses, mules, asses, swine, sheep, and goats shall be prohibited from running at large in said precinct, and said order shall be entered upon the record of the proceedings of said board, “and the same shall be published immediately thereafter, for three consecutive weeks in some newspaper published in said county, and said herd law shall be deemed established in said precinct in. thirty days from the day on which said order is made.” There is no method prescribed for making proof of the fact that'the order was published and none requiring that an affidavit of publication or other written proof be filed with the proceedings. Eor stronger reasons, what we have said" in the preceding paragraph, with respect to proof of the publication by parol evidence as of any other fact, is applicable to the publication of the order. The validity of the election is in no wise dependent upon the publication of this order, and it is nowhere said that the herd law shall not be deemed established or effective until the publication is complete. The publisher of the official newspaper of the county testified that the newspaper files showed the publication of the order on September 3 and 10, respectively, 1909, and that a mutilated copy of the newspaper dated September 17, 1909, strongly indicated that it had also been published upon that date. Another witness testified positively that the order of the board of county commissioners declaring the herd law in effect was published three times in the official newspaper. It is to be doubted whether this publication is mandatory (59 C. X 1072-1076), ■ but, if it is, we should find no reason to disturb the finding of the trial court that the publication was made. Finding no error in the record, the judgment of the district court is affirmed, and the cause remanded, with directions that judgment be entered against the sureties named in - the supersedeas bond. It is so ordered. WATSON, C. X, and SADLER, HUDS-PETH, and ZINN, JX, concur.
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ZINN, Justice. The railroad company has removed to this court for review an order of the State Corporation Commission entered on July 29,1932, directing and ordering the railroad company to open a crossing located nine poles south o'f mile post No. 31 at Moriarty, N. M., which crossing had been recently closed by the railroad company, and further ordered that said crossing should remain open until further order of the commission. It appears from the record that the Corporation Commission had been petitioned to close the crossing in question, which petition was presented to the commission on March 9, 1932. The petition was submitted to the railroad company for action, and on March 16,1932, the railroad company had closed and barricaded the crossing; that after such action, on April 26, 1932, the Corporation Commission received other petitions requesting that the crossing be reopened and the barricade removed. An attempt was made by the Corporation Commission to have all the interested parties settle the matter, but, failing to arrive at any satisfactory agreement, the commission set the matter for hearing on January 7, 1932, at Moriarty, N. M., which hearing was duly had, and the commission on the 29th day of July, 1932, issued its order to reopen the crossing, and ordered the crossing to remain open pursuant to the authority of the commission under section '7, article 11 of the New Mexico Constitution, from which order the railroad company removed the case to this court for review. The Corporation Commission found that public interest demands the crossing be reopened. The question presented for review is whether, under the conditions shown to exist, the order of the Corporation Commission is reasonable and just, considering the interest and rights, not only of the public, but that of the railroad. The crossing in question is located about one-quarter mile south of Moriarty, a small community in the Estancia Valley, with an approximate population of 275 people, through which runs the Santa Fé Railroad. Through the town runs a Center or main street, which street crosses the tracks of the Santa Fé Railroad just immediately south of the depot, and on which street most of the business of the community is situated. Going south into Moriarty the public travels on highway 470, and upon reaching the Center or main street of Moriarty the traveling public must make a sharp left turn to cross the tracks of the Santa Fé, and, immediately after crossing, make another sharp right turn and continue on the highway 470 south. Both turns are right angle turns. By continuing on the highway when the traveler reaches the Center or main street of Moriarty and not making the left turn above noted, the traveling public will cross the Santa Fé tracks on the crossing in question about one-quarter mile south of Moriarty and again be on highway 470, without making the necessary left and right turns above described, and will not pass through the business section of Moriarty located on the east side of the railroad track. To cross at Center or main street, the traveler crosses the main track as well as a side track, whereas, continuing along the west side until the crossing in question is reached, and then cross over the Santa Fé trapk, only one track need be crossed. The road on the east side of the track, beyond the Center street crossing, is maintained as a surfaced highway, but the road on the west side of the track which reaches the crossing in question is not maintained by either the state or county. Continuing south on .the west side to the crossing in dispute, the traveler finds himself at the end of a cut on a down grade of about 1 y2 per cent, though there are very few trains operated on that line and there have been no accidents. There is very little difference, if any, in distance, in crossing at Center street or at the one in dispute. Coming north from Estancia, and one-quarter of a mile before the town of Moriarty is reached, this highway splits in two; the two roads paralleling each-other 200 feet apart for a distance of-one-quarter of a mile leading into the town until they converge on Center street west of the Center street crossing. For many years both crossings were used. In fact, the crossing in question for many years 'was used more than the Center or main street crossing. The question presented is the necessity of two crossings for convenience of the public; one on the designated highway, and one on an abandoned highway, both highways paralleling each other about 200 feet apart for a distance of one-quarter of a mile. Public convenience and necessity, considering the interest and rights of the public and the railroad, are the determinative factors as to the reasonableness and justness of the order of the Corporation Commission. The present Center street crossing cannot be closed. It is the main street of Moriarty. To predicate the opening of the second crossing, as the commission has done, upon the fact that it is less dangerous than the town crossing, is fallacious reasoning. The commission evidently was led to open the crossing in dispute for the reason that it was necessary to make -the right angle turns to cross the railroad tracks in the center of Moriarty. This necessitates a slowing up of the automobile before and during the crossing of the railroad -track. However, the public is required, by section 11-70S, New Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1929 Compilation, to slow down automobiles before crossing any railroad track where the view is obscured, either wholly or partially, to a speed of six miles per hour before crossing. At such rate of speed the Center street crossing is not dangerous. It is true that straight roads without crossings are preferable to right angle turns at crossings, but, two crossings not being necessary, the state saw fit to designate the one through the center of Moriarty and constructed highway 470 accordingly. The density of traffic does not warrant two crossings. The order of the commission would require an opening of the crossing at a place where there would be no highway to connect with it, which would certainly be a crossing without the attributes of public necessity or public convenience. We must find from the facts that the order of the Corporation Commission to reopen the crossing is unreasonable, and must therefore decline enforcement of the order, and it is so ordered. WATSON, C. X, and SADLER, HUDSPETH, and BICKLEY, JX, concur.
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HUDSPETH, Justice. The chief question in this ease is the jurisdiction of the court to sell through its receiver the encumbered assets of an insolvent corporation, where the secured creditors object and there is no equity for the general creditors or stockholders. The appellees, stockholders and general unsecured creditors of Jackson Consolidated Company, a domestic corporation (no stockholders’ liability), commenced this, a statutory proceeding for an injunction and receiver to wind up said corporation under 1929 Comp., § 32-174 et seq. Sections 3 and 4 of the complaint, filed on June 8, 1932, are as follows: “3. That the said corporation is now and has been for a long time last past insolvent; that its indebtedness far exceeds its assets; that the said corporation issued its bonds in the principal sum of Forty Thousand Dollars ($40,000.00), and secured the same by a trust deed upon its property and assets; that all of the said bonds are now due and payable with interest in the aggregate sum of more than Fifty Thousand Dollars ($50,-000.00); that the total amount of indebtedness of the said corporation, as plaintiffs are informed and believe, approximates the sum and amount of Sixty Thousand Dollars ($60,-000.00); that the said corporation has no money with which to pay the same or any part thereof; that the assets of. the said corporation consist of two fractional patented mining claims in the Pino's Altos Mining District, Grant County, New Mexico, known as the Langston and Pinos Altos Mines, together with a small amount of equipment; that so far as plaintiffs are informed and believe, the said corporation ha's no other assets; that all of said assets are of a value of not to-exceed Twenty-five Thousand Dollars ($25,000.00); that the indebtedness of the said corporation far exceeds its assets. “4. That the defendant corporation has suspended its ordinary business for want of funds to carry on the same; that the ordinary business of the said corporation and the business for which it was incorporated and which it heretofore attempted to carry on has been suspended for a long time by reason of lack of funds to carry on the same; that the said corporation is not now able to and cannot resume its said business in a short time, or at all, with safety to the public or advantage to its stockholders.” On the 24th day of June, 1932, Charles C. Royall was appointed receiver and injunction issued against the corporation, its officers, etc., in the usual form. On the 30th day of June, 1932, six days later, the receiver filed a petition asking for authority to accept an offer made by a promoter for an option and lease on all the property of the receivership estate to run some four years (the first proposed payment on the purchase price, other than royalty on ore mined, falling due October 1, 1933, and the last proposed pay ment falling due October 1, 1936). The petition was granted and the lease and option agreement, with deed in escrow conveying the property free of liens, were entered into with the approval of the court. Objections on the ground, among others, that this was a “dry” receivership, and appeared to be such from the complaint of appellees, were seasonably made, and, on motion of appellants, appeals were granted from the order filed June 24, 1932, appointing the receiver and granting the injunction, and the order authorizing and approving the option and lease on the receivership property. It appeared that the promoter had obtained options and leases upon a large group of mining claims in the Pinos Altos mining district and “practically all the mining claims adjoining and in the vicinity of the Langston and Pinos Altos Mines owned by said receiver.” It further appeared that there was a deep shaft on the property of the receivership. Counsel for appellees denied that the lessee had removed considerable quantities of ore from the receivership property, and maintained that the main purpose of the promoter in obtaining the lease and option was to secure the right to the use of the deep shaft on the receivership property for the exploration, development, and in the mining of ore in adjoining properties. It was represented to the trial court that the use of this shaft, which had long been idle, would do the property no harm, that possession of it was essential to the carrying out of the plans of the promoter in developing and mining ores in adjoining properties, for the treatment of which the promoter promised to build a mill — and, in brief, to convert a “ghost town” into a thriving mining camp. These rosy promises of employment for idle men and prosperity for the community may have obscured the facts that the appellees showed no interest in the property and that their complaint did not state a case for the drastic remedy of receivership. It is admitted that the assets are insufficient to satisfy the undisputed secured claims. There is no allegation that the property would deteriorate during the litigation. On the other hand, it is a generally recognized fact that the extraction of ore from a gold mine is more than the ordinary use of real estate and sometimes amounts to waste or the consumption of the res. Hill v. Taylor, 22 Cal. 191; High on Receivership (4th Ed.) § 614. Counsel for appellees states that the lease and option to the promoter has been canceled by reason of his failure to make the payment on the purchase price, due October 1, 1933. The law of this case was recently very clearly stated by Mr. Justice Simms, speaking for the court, in Maxwell Lumber Co. et al. v. Connelly et al., 34 N. M. 562, 287 P. 64, 66: “Coming now to a construction of section 971, we find therein the only power which the trial court had to order a sale of assets free of liens. It must appear that the legality of the liens claimed are in dispute and that the property is of such a nature that it will deteriorate pending the litigation. Both of these elements must concur; one of them alone does not authorize a sale free of liens. Reilly v. Penn Cordage Co., 58 N. J. Eq. 459, 44 A. 161. Where the statute does not authorize a sale free of liens, the receiver has no other course left but to sell sübject to the liens, or, if there is no hope of realizing anything for the estate’s equity, he should demand that the lien claimants take the property over under permission from the court, and proceed in their own way to satisfy their liens. A long and expensive administration of property in which there is no equity is not intended by the statute and, where permitted, should not be at the expense of the secured creditors unless they consent thereto. * * * And where there is no equity to be administered for general creditors and such fact is apparent from, the start, even if the action is in statutory form and commenced by stockholders or creditors, it is a ‘dry receivership,’ and those who commence it may properly be required to give security for the costs and expenses, rather than attempt to charge them against the lienholders. Lembeck v. Jarvis Terminal Cold Storage Co., 68 N. J. Eq. 352, 59 A. 565.” Question is raised by the appellees, who gave no security, as to the right of V. H. Anderson, trustee for bondholders, to sue for foreclosure of the trust deed, the trustee named in the trust deed being a bank, now defunct, of a neighboring state. The court refused Anderson permission to sue the receiver, and this is assigned as error. It is unnecessary to determine the right of bondholders, or their trustee, to sue without first requesting the trustee named in the trust deed, or its successor in office, to bring this suit. The only parties beneficially interested in the property are the bondholders here objecting to its sale by the receiver, free of liens. Since appellees have shown no interest in the property sufficient to justify the appointment of a receiver, the court should divest the receiver of jurisdiction over the property. The bondholders are entitled to these assets without diminution by receiver’s costs or expenses. The receiver should not be permitted to reimburse himself or pay his counsel from funds in his hands, and should, upon hearing and notice to bondholders, be required to account for all money and properties, which have come into his hands, before his bondsmen are discharged. A receiver is not necessary for the winding up of the corporation where there is no unencumbered property and no equity in the encumbered property for general creditors or stockholders. The orders appointing' the receiver and authorizing the sale of the encumbered property, free of liens, will be reversed, and the cause remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent herewith. The costs, including the costs and expenses of the receivership, will be taxed against the appellees. It is so ordered. WATSON, O. J., and SADLER, BICKLEY, and ZINN, JJ., concur.
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ZINN, Justice. Appellant, a resident taxpayer and water user of Springer, N. M., sought to enjoin the appellees, the mayor and board of trustees of the town of Springer, from making, executing, and delivering to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation $37,500 revenue bonds for a loan of an equal amount, the bonds to be paid exclusively from net revenues to be derived by the municipality from the operation of its municipally owned waterworks system ; the money to be used in the betterment, replacement, and improvement of the present system. The proposed bonds are to be issued pursuant to Laws 1933, c. 57. (House Com. Sub. for S. B. § 17.) The appellees demurred to the complaint, the court sustained the demurrer, entered judgment denying the relief sought, and the case is before this court on appeal. Considering each proposition of law as presented, we first come to the appellant’s contention that the proposal to issue the bonds is the contracting of a “debt” within the meaning of N. M. Const, art. 9, § 12, and that without submitting the question to a vote of the taxpaying electors, and without a provision to levy a tax upon all taxable property within such town sufficient to pay the interest and to extinguish the principal, is contrary to N. M. Const. art. 9, § 12. The rule applicable in the instant question is well stated in 19 R. C. L. § 281, p. 985: “It is generally held that a limitation upon municipal indebtedness is not violated by an obligation which is payable out of a special fund, if the municipality is not liable to pay the same out of its general funds should the special fund prove insufficient, and the transaction by which the indebtedness is incurred cannot in any event deplete the general resources of the municipality. But the mere fact that a special fund is created for payment is not enough to make the obligation valid. The creditor must look to the fund alone for his recompense; and if the municipality is liable generally, an indebtedness is created within the meaning of the debt limit provisions. * * * When the receipts from a municipal water supply are pledged to meet an indebtedness incurred in establishing the waterworks, and the creditor has no right to look beyond this source for payment, it has been held that there is no indebtedness in the constitutional sense.” See the following cases: Quill v. Indianapolis, 124 Ind. 292, 23 N. E. 788, 7 L. R. A. 681; City of Laporte v. Gamewell Fire Alarm Tel. Co., 146 Ind. 466, 45 N. E. 588, 35 L. R. A. 686, 58 Am. St. Rep. 359; Kelly v. Minneapolis, 63 Minn. 125, 65 N. W. 115, 30 L. R. A. 281; Vallelly v. Park Commissioners, 16 N. D. 25, 111 N. W. 615, 15 L. R. A. (N. S.) 61. The idea of a “debt” in the constitutional sense is that an obligation has arisen out of contract, express or implied, which entitles the creditor unconditionally to receive from the debtor a sum of money, which the debtor is under a legal, equitable, or moral duty to pay without regard to any future contingency. Keeping in mind the rule that there is no “indebtedness” in the constitutional sense unless there is either a legal, equitable, or moral obligation on the part of the town of Springer to pay the bondholders of the proposed issue out of other moneys than the net revenue from the improved waterworks system, we find that section 5 of the act undfer which it is proposed to issue the bonds is as follows: “It is hereby declared that revenue bonds, issued under the provisions of this Act, shall not be considered or held to be general obligations of the municipalities issuing them, shall be collectible only out of the net revenues derived from the operation of the utility whose income is so pledged, and each of the bonds of any issue of revenue bonds so issued under the provisions of this Act shall recite on its face that it is payable and collectible solely from the revenues derived from the operations of the utility, the income of which is so pledged, and that the holders thereof may not look to any general or other fund for the payment of principal and interest of such obligation.” This section of the legislative act makes it clear that the proposed bonds are not to be considered or held to be general obligations of the municipality, are collectible only out of the net revenues derived from the operation of the utility whose income is pledged for that purpose; the bonds on their face are to recite that the principal and interest are payable and collectible solely from the revenues derived from the operation of the utility, and such recital is notice to the holder that he may not look for his recompense to any general or other fund for the payment of principal'or interest. The city incurs no liability payable out of its tax or other revenues on account of the issuance of the revenue bonds, and the act negatives any such liability. The town of Springer, as such, has no moral, equitable, or legal duty to pay out of any fund except the net revenues of the plant which is a special fund out of which the revenue bonds are to he retired. If the municipal officers discharge the duty devolved upon them by the act, namely, to maintain rates sufficient to raise revenues to pay the interest and principal on these bonds, they have fulfilled their duty. In the event of their failure to do so, an action in mandamus can be brought pursuant to section 6 of said act to compel them to perform their duty; in no event is there any financial liability created which will impose a debt upon the municipality. The debtor pledged the net revenues. The creditor knows exactly where to look for his money, and knows he cannot look elsewhere. The legal nnd equitable obligations are clear and well defined, and the moral obligation in this case does not go beyond the legal or equitable. In the case of State v. Regents of University of New Mexico, 32 N. M. 428, 258 P. 571, an injunction was sought to restrain the regents of the University of New Mexico from issuing $190,000 worth of building and improvement bonds, the interest and principal of which were to he paid out of the income from University land, without mortgaging the land in any manner. It was contended that the issuance of said bonds was contrary to N. M. Const. art. 9, § 8, in that there was no provision for an annual tax levy sufficient to pay interest and provide a sinking fund, and that the creation of such debt had not been submitted to a vote of the people for approval (identical with the appellant’s contention in this case, though construing a different section of our Constitution). We said: “The Legislature therefore had power to authorize the University to make such use of its income as was deemed best. This is all that is contemplated by chapter 47, Laws 1927, and all that is proposed by the University. It proposes to contract with its bondholders that it will appropriate out of its income sufficient sums of money to pay interest and provide a sinking fund for the retirement of the bonds. It does not propose to mortgage its property in specie. It simply agrees to pay out of its income. How it can be said that this will be an obligation of the state, we cannot understand. This is simply a contract of the University to pay out of a designated fund when received. It is no more an obligation of the state than would be the obligation to pay the salaries of the University faculty.” State v. Regents of University of New Mexico, 32 N. M. 428, at page 430, 258 P. 571, 572. In purpose and effect nothing more is proposed here. The town of Springer, desiring to extend and improve its municipally owned water system, proposes to issue bonds in the sum of $37,500 with which to make such ex tensions, betterments, and repairs, and proposes to pledge the net revenue from such water system to pay the interest and provide a sinking fund to retire said bonds, and to maintain rates sufficient to provide revenues for' such purpose. That is what is authorized by Raws 1933, c. 57. In its effect it .is not a “debt” of the town, simply an agreement to pay out of the net revenues of the waterworks when received, and is no more a “debt” of the municipality within the constitutional sense than would be a debt incurred to pay for the ordinary cost of repairing a water main. 1 The appellant contends that the statute requires the town to establish and collect water rates sufficient to cover the payments to become due, and, failing to collect sufficient to meet the interest and sinking fund requirements, the town would become generally obligated. We see no merit in such theory. The undertaking of the town of Springer is not a guaranty or pledge that the interest or the bonds will be paid, but only a pledge that the town of Springer shall establish a rate that will do so. Section 6 of the act provides that the governing body issuing the bond must establish such rates for services rendered as will create an income sufficient to pay all reasonable expenses of operation, and create a net revenue which shall be sufficient to pay interest coupons when due, and provide out of such net revenues a sinking fund which shall be adequate to discharge said bonds as and when they shall mature, and such rates must be continuously maintained an-til'the bonds are retired, and optional at the end of ten years, and due in not more than twenty years. The fixing of a proper rate and the application of the revenue in the manner directed by law constitutes the legal, equitable, and moral duty of the town board of the municipality, and, failing in that, the bondholder may apply to the court to have such rates established and applied. The charge is upon those who use the water, and not upon the taxpayers, and the taxpayer cannot be called to aid the water user in the retirement of these bonds. The credit of the city is not extended, nor is any money which is derived from taxation or other existing sources of revenue pledged in the payment of the interest or principal upon the bonds, and the city cannot be coerced into applying any of its general revenue. It is abundantly clear that no indebtedness can possibly result against the town of Springer from the issuance of the revenue bonds, and these bonds are not within the inhibition of the Constitution. The weight of authority is in accord with this view. Note, 72 A. L. R. 687. The next question presented by the complaint and demurrer is whether or not the issuance of the contemplated revenue bonds by the town of Springer is in contravention of the provisions of the N. M. Const. art. 9, § 13, which is as follows: “No county, city, town or village shall ever become indebted to an amount in the aggregate, including existing indebtedness, exceeding four per centum on the valúe of the tax able property within such county, city, town or village, as shown by the last, preceding assessment for state or county taxes; and all bonds or obligations issued in excess of such amount shall be void; provided, that any city, town or village may contract debts in excess of such limitation for the construction or purchase of a system for supplying water, or of a sewer system, for such city, town or village.” Whether the term “indebtedness” referred to in this section of the Constitution is the same as the term “debt” in the previous section need not be determined herein, for the apparent reason that the contemplated revenue bonds, if they create an “indebtedness,” within the meaning of N. M. Const. art. 9, § 13, are clearly within the exemption permitting any city, town, or village to contract debts in excess of such limitation for the construction or purchase of a system for supplying water. N. M. Const. art. 9, § 13, which limits the amount of indebtedness which a city, town, or village may contract, specifically exempts debts contracted for the purpose of the construction or purchase of a system for supplying water from the operation of the 4 per cent, limitation, and there is no limitation imposed upon the amount of indebtedness which may be contracted for such purpose. City of Albuquerque v. Water Supply Co., 24 N. M. 368, at page 377, 174 P. 217, 5 A. L. R. 519; Lanigan v. Gallup, 17 N. M. 627, 131 P. 997. Whether revenue bonds issued by a municipality for other purposes than supplying water or a sewer system' are such as would he valid or void under N. M. Const, art. 9, § 13, and are within the prohibition, we do not decide in this instance. ' The next issue presented is, that no authority exists to pledge the revenue of the existing plant as well as the net revenues from the proposed improvements to the payment of interest and retirement of the bonds, and that such pledge constitutes a “debt” within the meaning of our Constitution. We see no merit in this theory. The town, under the law, may pledge the present revenue from the existing plant, and can certainly pledge the future income of the enlarged, or improved plant. It would be a physical impossibility to determine what portion of the proposed revenue is attributable to the improved plant in its entirety, to the improvements alone, or to the present plant. A case in point on this question is that of Searle v. Town of Haxtun, in 84 Colo. 494, 271 P. 629. The Colorado court said: “The plaintiff, however, conceding that if the town were acquiring a wholly new plant an agreement to pay out of the revenue thereof only and a pledge of the revenue therefrom to pay the purchase price would not be a debt, and that such an agreement and pledge of the revenue of the mere improvements would not be such, insists that an agreement to pay out of the income of property already acquired and a pledge thereof creates a debt within our Constitution, and distinguishes Shields v. Loveland, supra [74 Colo. 27, 218 P. 913], by saying that there was, at the time of the issue of the Loveland bonds, no income from the plant of that city as it then stood. “We see, however, no difference in substance between a promise or pledge of the future income of property which now has an income and a promise or pledge of the future income of property which now has none. If one would make the sum secured a debt, the other would. In either case the income is produced by property already owned by the city, which seems to be the condition which is condemned by the cases which plaintiff cites on this point.” The next issue presented by the complaint and demurrer is that the proposal to pledge the net revenues of the improved utility to the payment of the revenue bonds, and that said revenue bonds while outstanding shall have a right of priority of payment from the net revenue over existing general obligation bonds of said town, is violative of the provisions of article 14 of the Constitution of the United States, because the pledge of all net revenues of said utility to the payment of said revenue bonds impairs the rights of holders of existing outstanding water bonds. We assume that the appellant has reference to the provisions of article 1, § 10, of the Constitution of the United States, being the section prohibiting the enactment of any law impairing the obligation of contracts. It appears from the record that the present existing and outstanding water bonds are of the series of June 15,1916, issued pursuant to article 11, c. 75 (§§ 3716-3722), 1915 Code, in the total sum of $21,000, with accruing interest, out of an original issue of $32,000, bearing interest at the rate of 5% per cent, per annum, due on June 15, 1946, callable at any time after June 15, 1936, the proceeds of which bond issue were used by the municipality for the acquisition of the present plant The 1916 bonds are general obligation bonds, issued on the faith and credit of the community, payable out of a levy upon all the taxable property in the community and not in anticipation of any revenue from the waterworks. It would be as reasonable and logical to state that the town of Springer cannot apply the money derived from occupation tax licenses on the purchase of a fire truck or other fire extinguishing equipment, because the surplus of said occupation license revenue after meeting ordinary municipal requirements might be employed to retire existing bonds, and that the holder of existing bonds is entitled to have the same credited to the bond fund rather than permit the same to be applied on the fire truck, and therefore such expenditure of occupation tax revenues for fire fighting equipment is an impairment of the obligation of the rights of the bondholder contrary to article 1, § 10, of the United States Constitution, or of article 2, § 19, of our own Constitution. The existing 1916 bonds have no present or future lien either upon the waterworks or the revenues therefrom, and the town of Springer has unquestioned power'to pledge the net rev enues of the waterworks to retire the proposed bonds as and when issued. In the event of default in the payment of any of said 1916 bonds now outstanding, either as to principal or interest, the holders thereof would be clearly limited in their remedy to the bond fund created by the tax levy provided by the ordinance under which the bonds were issued, and, in the event of its insufficiency, to a general judgment against the town of Springer for the amount due and a judgment levy as provided by the statutes of this state upon all of the taxable properly within the limits of the town of Springer, the proceeds of which would be used to satisfy said judgment. The bondholders would have no specific lien upon the waterworks or the revenue therefrom even after judgment. They could not impound and’sequester the revenues of __ said water system, nor would they have any right to seize by any known process the municipally owned waterworks. Their remedial rights would be limited to obtaining a judgment, and a mandatory order if need be, requiring the levying of a judgment tax upon all of the taxable property within the town for the purpose of paying said judgment. The phrase “the faith and credit of the Village of Springer are hereby pledged for the punctual payment of principal and interest of this bond,” contained in the 1916 bonds, has reference to the legal duty of the municipality to levy the tax provided for the payment of the interest and the retirement of the principal of the existing bonds, and did not in any manner contemplate a lien upon the waterworks that were purchased with the money derived from the sale of the 1916 bond issue, or a prior right to the revenue from said waterworks. The appellant in his complaint contends that Laws 1933, c. 57, is in conflict with 1929 Comp. St. c. 90, art. 26 (Laws 1919, c. 47, as amended by Laws 1925, c. 51), in that the 1933 law requires the net revenue derived from tlie operation of the waterworks to be pledged to the payment of the proposed bonds, whereas chapter 90, art. 26, supra, requires said net revenues, after paying for the maintenance of the utility in good repair and the improvement and extension thereof and the payment of legitimate operating expenses, to be used in the payment of interest due on existing bonds, and that therefore the pledging of the net revenues to the payment of the interest and principal of the proposed bonds deprives the existing bondholders of a right to have the net revenues applied first to the payment of interest on the existing bonds before applying said net revenues as security for a new bond issue, and such action imposes a burden on the taxpayer to meet the interest requirement of the existing bond issue by a tax levy on his property. Appellees contend that chapter 57 repeals by implication 1929 Comp. St. c. 90, art. 26. Whether the holders of the existing bonds have any vested right in the maintaining of the rates contemplated by article 26, supra, and the application of the revenue in the manner provided thereby, need not be determined herein, as the appellant is not a bondholder, and no determination of that question would be binding on a holder of the 1916 bonds. In 1919 the Legislature adopted a policy of retrenchment in municipal expenditure for the expansion of municipally owned utilities, limiting such expenditures to present earnings, and provided by Laws 1919, c. 137, now 3 929 Comp. St. § 90-1001, that no incorporated city, town, or village be permitted to issue or negotiate any certificate of indebtedness, the payment of which is secured by a pledge of, or lien upon, any pz-operty, or the income or revenue derived therefrom, belonging to such municipality, and that all such certificates or other evidence of indebtedness issued contrary to the provisions thereof shall be void, and by Laws 1919, c. 47, directed the manner in which the revenues from municipally owned utilities must be applied. Laws 1919, c. 47, made it the duty of the municipality to fix, establish, chai-ge, and collect for the service rendered rents, rates, charges, and prices which will furnish sufficient funds to maintain the public utility in good repair, and sufficient funds to improve and extend the same, and to pay intez-est on the existing bonds, and it became the duty of the municipality from and after March 13, 1921, to not only fix, establish, charge, and collect for the service rendered by the public utility such rents, rates, charges, and prices as will furnish sufficient funds to meet the requirements of the act under the designated provisions of (a) and (b), but also (c), to wit, the creation of a sinking fund provided by the terms of the bonds or the law governing their issue. The Legislature in 1925, by chapter 51 (Comp. St. 1929, § 90-2603), relaxed its strict policy, and amended the law as follows: “Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of every municipality coming within the provisions of this act to fix, establish, charge and collect for the service rendered by the public utility such rents, rates, charges and prices as will furnish sufficient funds to meet the requirements of this act and to apply such funds in the manner provided by this act and in no other manner; Provided, however, that the raising of sufficient funds, as provided by this act, to create a sinking fund shall be optional with the municipality.” This law became effective June 16, 1925. Prom March 13, 1921, to June 16, 1925, it was mandatory that municipalities establish rates sufficient to provide for the retirement of the principal of the outstanding bonds, and after June 16, 1925, it was optional with the governing municipal board to either establish the necessary rates to meet the requirements of (c) out of earnings of the plant or permit the creation of the sinking fund to retire the principal by a tax levy on property as provided by the ordinance issuing th'e bonds. The policy adopted by chapter 57, Laws 1933, is not necessarily a reversal of the policy of the state adopted in 1919, but is a relaxation of the strict policy. The apparent purpose of the 1933 law is an emergency measure to enable the municipalities of the state, where the present revenues of the utility are insufficient to pay for ex tensions or for betterments, and such municipalities have failed to set aside a sufficient sum out of past earnings to. provide for betterments and extensions, and it is immediately urgent to make improvements and extensions, the municipality can make such improvements by the issuance of bonds secured by a pledge of future revenues. ' It will continue to be the duty of municipalities to conform to the provisions of 1929 Comp. St. e. 90, art. 26, in the conduct of municipal water-work systems, except where they issue bonds under chapter 57, in which event article 26, supra, must give way to the 1933 act. Laws 1919, c. 47, was enacted and designed to preserve municipally owned public utilities from being despoiled by incompetent or corrupt city officials. See Dreyfus v. Socorro, 26 N. M. 127, 189 P. 878. Its purpose and object was to require municipalities to keep in repair water systems constructed for the benefit of the inhabitants of the city, to require the charging of such rates as would enable the municipality to keep such plant in repair and improve and extend the same as and when needed, and to meet the interest and principal on the bonds issued for the construction or purchase of such system, and, upon failure of the municipal authorities to do so, the court may appoint a receiver upon the application of a taxpayer to, carry out its purposes. This statute was designed to prevent the operation of the plant in an incompetent manner and to prevent an improper diversion of the revenues derived from the operation of the utility, and to guide and direct the application of such revenues. It was intended as a business code and rule to prevent extravagance and misapplication of revenues from public utilities and to direct the use of the surplus revenue, after meeting the cost of operation, to relieve the burden of the taxpayer rather than permit such revenues to be expended in new avenues of municipal adventure, and afforded taxpayers a j'udicial remedy for what might otherwise become an intolerable and oppressive political condition with reference to service by a municipally owned public utility. State ex rel. City of Roswell v. State Tax Commission et al., 34 N. M. 303, 280 P. 258. The Legislature has the unquestioned power to change the policy, and did, by the enactment of chapter 57, supra, so that the revenues from the waterworks which prior thereto were required by the statute to be placed in a fund to meet interest payments on existing bonds may be pledged to secure revenue bonds. The appellant, as a taxpayer, had no vested right in Laws 1919, c. 47, which the Legislature could not repeal. Did the taxpayer or bondholder have any vested right in chapter 47, making it mandatory to maintain sufficient water rates to create a sinking fund which the Legislature could not take away by Laws 1925, e. 51? Apparently not. If the Legislature first made it mandatory to provide and establish a rate sufficient to meet (a), (b), and (c), and subsequently amended the law leaving (c) optional, cannot it now make (b) likewise optional? We can see no distinction. Clearly chapter 47, Laws 1919, must give way to chapter 57, Laws 1933. The 1933 act does not repeal 1925 Comp. St. c. 90, art. 26, but is supplemental thereto, and a method is provided to enable municipalities which have insufficient funds on hand to make the necessary improvements, and, when immediately necessary. to raise funds for the improvement and extension of the utility thereof, may, in anticipation of future revenue, raise such needed funds by the issuance of revenue bonds, and provide that such bonds so issued will have a lien on the net revenue of said plant without burdening the taxpayer through the issuance of general obligation bonds. We deem such grant of power by the Legislature to the municipality as lawful and not in violation of article 26, supra. The only .other issue presented by the com • plaint and demurrer requiring our consideration is that the rates to be charged by a municipal corporation owning its water system are under the control of the State Corporation Commission and not under the jurisdiction of the municipal corporation, and therefore the Legislature cannot direct the town of Springer to contract the maintenance of rates in conformity with Laws 1933, c. 57. We find no authority cited by appellant and no provision of the Constitution or statutes where such power is granted to the Corporation Commission, whereas Laws 1933, c. 57, the- law in question, specifically grants such power to the municipal corporation in this instance, and makes it mandatory upon the town board to fix rates sufficient to meet the interest and the creation of a sinking fund, and is a proper grant of authority by the Legislature to a municipal corporation, and not in contravention of any constitutional powers of the State Corporation Commission. The appellant concludes his brief with the contention that the issuance of revenue bond’s pursuant to • the legislative act under consideration, and the pledge of rates for a long period of time to retire such bonds, creates a grave situation where cities can incur indebtedness and get money from the government which the cities believe will never have to be repaid, and that with' such frame of mind everyone is seeking to obtain money, which may cause regret on the part of the citizens of the town of Springer in the future, and therefore we should reverse the district court and grant the injunction. This court is not concerned with the wisdom, of the legislation here under consideration, or the necessity of improving the waterworks of the town of Springer, or of the certainty of the redemption of the bonds to be issued when due. The wisdom and necessity of legislation is a matter for the sound discretion of the Legislature of the state of New Mexico within the bounds of the Constitution, the desirability and necessity of improvements, betterments, and repairs of the Springer waterworks is a matter left to the good sense and conscience of the board of trustees of the town of Springer, and the value of the proposed bond issue as an investment is for the determination and judgment of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. Personal beliefs, views, ideas, preju dices, or philosophies outside of the law cannot influence or guide our ■ final decisions. We are here concerned only with reviewing ihe judgment of the lower court who held that the provisions of the legislative act under consideration are not violative of the state or Federal Constitution, and that the proposed proceedings of the board' of trustees of the town of Springer, pursuant to said act, are legal, and can find no error in the judgment of the district court on the issues presented. We conclude from the above that the lower court properly sustained the appellee’s demurrer, and the judgment is affirmed, and the cause remanded to the district court, with directions to enforce its judgment. It is so ordered. HUDSPETH, J., concurs in the result.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. Convicted of homicide by vehicle, defendant appeals. The issues concern: (1) the sufficiency of the evidence and (2) a refused instruction. Section 64-22-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2) defines the crime as “ . . . the killing of a human being in the unlawful operation of a motor vehicle.” The “unlawful operation” relied on by the State was driving a vehicle while either under the influence of intoxicating liquor or under the influence of a narcotic drug, or both. Section 64 — 22-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2). Sufficiency of the evidence. Defendant challenged the sufficiency of the evidence by motions for a directed verdict at the close of the State’s case and again at the close of all the evidence. Our review of the evidence is in the light most favorable to the State. State v. Gregg, 83 N.M. 397, 492 P.2d 1260 (Ct.App.1972); State v. McKay, 79 N.M. 797, 450 P.2d 435 (Ct.App.1969). Defendant asserts the evidence is insufficient as to three items: (a) the evidence of driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, a narcotic drug, or both; (b) evidence as to proximate cause of death; and (c) evidence of criminal intent. We disagree. (a) Defendant was driving the vehicle which crossed a double yellow line and struck another vehicle. The issue under item (a) concerns the evidence of being “under the influence,” both as to the intoxicating liquor and as to a narcotic drug. “Under the influence” means that to the slightest degree defendant was less able, either mentally or physically, or both, to exercise the clear judgment and steady hand necessary to handle an automobile with safety to himself and the public. State v. Deming, 66 N.M. 175, 344 P.2d 481, 77 A.L.R.2d 964 (1959); State v. Sisneros, 42 N.M. 500, 82 P.2d 274 (1938). There is evidence that on May 4, 1972, at 7:49 p. m., the defendant, while driving fast without lights, veered into the lane of an oncoming car driven by Mr. Fierro, striking it almost head-on. Mr. Fierro testified that when the other car got close to him he saw that the driver had his hands up in the air. An investigating officer found an opened can of beer on the floorboard under the steering wheel. The officer talked to defendant at the hospital about an hour after the accident. On the basis of the officer’s training, experience with intoxicated persons, the smell of defendant’s breath and defendant’s speech, the officer was of the opinion that defendant’s ability to drive was impaired. See State v. Fields, 74 N.M. 559, 395 P.2d 908 (1964); City of Portales v. Shiplett, 67 N.M. 308, 355 P.2d 126 (1960). A blood alcohol test by the gas chromatography method showed .075 percent alcohol. A urine alcohol test showed .086 percent alcohol. The blood and urine samples were taken from defendant at about 9:00 p. m. on the night of the accident. See § 64-22-2.10, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2). Defendant testified that he had imbibed 5 or 6 beers during the day, the last being one and one-half hours prior to the accident. Previous statements of the defendant indicate he had five beers in the afternoon, the last of which was about an hour before the accident. Defendant testified he was not aware he was on the wrong side of the road before the accident. A test for drugs was also performed. Morphine content of the blood was .15 micrograms per milliliter; morphine content of the urine was .45 micrograms per milliliter. According to the toxicologist, the morphine came from either heroin, morphine, or codeine. Defendant admitted to taking a “little bit” of heroin on the day of the accident. The toxicologist could not say whether this amount of morphine would affect the' average person; that the effect would depend on whether a person was used to taking the drug. He also testified: “ . . .It takes a lot less heroin than alcohol to give a person an affect [sic]. He might be dead if he had a corresponding level of morphine equated to the alcohol.” Defendant testified: “. That was the first time I ever used drugs before.” The evidence of a first time use of heroin, the amount of morphine disclosed by the tests, together with the circumstances of the accident disclosed in discussing whether defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor, permits the inference that defendant was driving while under the influence of a narcotic drug. There is substantial evidence that defendant was driving the car while under the influence of either intoxicating liquor, or a narcotic drug, or both. (b) The decedent, Gloria Gonzales, was a passenger in the front seat of defendant’s car at the time of the accident. Defendant contends there is no evidence that defendant’s driving while “under the influence” was the proximate cause of Gloria’s death. There are. two answers to this contention. First, no “proximate cause” issue was raised by defendant’s motions. He cannot raise that issue for the first time on appeal. State v. Martinez, (Ct.App.) 84 N.M. 766, 508 P.2d 36, decided March 9, 1973. Second, there is evidence that defendant, while driving “under the influence,” caused an accident; that Gloria suffered injuries in the accident; and that Gloria died from those injuries. This is substantial evidence of proximate cause. See State v. Sisneros, supra. As. a part of his proximate cause argument, defendant would apply the uncontradicted evidence rule. He claims the evidence is uncontradicted that Gloria had passed out and fallen against defendant and that the accident occurred when defendant “. . . pushed her over and turned around to straighten her up. . . .” The evidence on which this contention is based is not uncontradicted evidence within the meaning of the uncontradicted evidence rule announced in Medler v. Henry, 44 N.M. 275, 101 P.2d 398 (1940). The so-called uncontradicted evidence comes from two additional passengers in defendant’s car and from defendant himself. There is evidence that the two passengers were so drunk they did not know what happened. We have previously referred to the circumstances of the accident and the tests concerning alcohol and morphine. The uncontradicted evidence rule is not applicable because legitimate in ferences from the facts and circumstances cast reasonable doubt on the truth of the version of the accident to which defendant and the two passengers testified. Bell v. Kenneth P. Thompson Co., 76 N.M. 420, 415 P.2d 546 (1966). (c) The jury was instructed that criminal intent was a necessary element of the crime of homicide by vehicle. Defendant claims the evidence of criminal intent is insufficient. One of the State’s contentions is that no such intent is required. Both parties erroneously argue the concept of specific intent; defendant says there is no evidence that defendant intentionally drove on the wrong side of the street; the State says there can rarely be proof that a defendant had the specific intent of killing somebody with a motor vehicle. No specific intent is involved. The criminal intent involved is that of a mental state of conscious wrongdoing. State v. Jordan, 83 N.M. 571, 494 P.2d 984 (Ct.App.1972). The trial court so instructed the jury. Defendant asserts the only evidence of criminal intent is that defendant voluntarily was “under the influence.” He contends this is no more than evidence of a statutory violation, and more than a statutory violation must be shown to support a conclusion of criminal intent. The answer is that it depends on the particular statutory violation. Here, we have two statutory violations— that of driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor and of driving under the influence of a narcotic drug. See § 64-22-2, supra. We have the voluntary act of becoming under the influence. We have the voluntary act of driving. Voluntarily driving a vehicle while under the influence is an act malum in se and this action is substantial evidence of criminal intent. See Keller v. State, 155 Tenn. 633, 299 S.W. 803, 59 A.L.R. 685 (1927), which is quoted and approved in State v. Alls, 55 N.M. 168, 228 P.2d 952 (1951). Compare State v. Hayes, 77 N.M. 225, 421 P.2d 439 (1966); State v. Rice, 58 N.M. 205, 269 P.2d 751 (1954); State v. Clarkson, 58 N.M. 56, 265 P.2d 670 (1954). Rejused, instruction. Defendant asserts the trial court erred in refusing his requested instruction directed to the statutory presumptions concerning intoxication. These presumptions are based on tests of blood to determine the percentage, by weight, of alcohol. Defendant’s requested instruction would have informed the jury that if the blood tested contains .05% or less by weight of alcohol the presumption was that the person whose blood was tested was not under the influence of intoxicating liquor. The requested instruction would also have informed the jury that this presumption does not limit the introduction of other competent evidence. To this point, the requested instruction is consistent with § 64-22-2.10, supra. The next portion of the requested instruction is inconsistent with that statute. The next portion would have told the jury that unless the jury found the blood “ . . . contained more than .05% by weight of alcohol, you shall presume that the defendant was not under the influence of intoxicating liquor. . . .” This quoted phrase would apply the presumption based on a .05'% test result and would disregard the provision of § 64-22-2.10, supra, which states: “The presumptions ■. . . do not limit the introduction of other competent evidence. . . .” Specifically, this portion of the requested instruction would have given the .05% test result a conclusive effect regardless of other competent evidence. “ . . . [I]n case of failure to instruct on any issue, a correct written instruction must be tendered. . . .” Section 21 — 1— 1(51) (2) (h), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4). It is not error to refuse a requested instruction which is a misstatement of the law. State v. Torres, 82 N.M. 422, 483 P.2d 303 (1971). Defendant’s requested instruction would have misstated the law inasmuch as evidence other than the test result was admissible to show defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor. The judgment and sentence is affirmed. It is so ordered. ■HERNANDEZ, J., concurs. SUTIN, J., dissents.
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1177, 85 N.M. 487, 513 P.2d 1269 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This is a divorce case in which the trial court denied plaintiff’s petition for alimony and additional attorney fees. This appeal involves only these two issues. We reverse. It is plaintiff’s position that the trial court abused its discretion in (1) denying alimony to her, since she was effectively precluded from presenting evidence on this issue, and (2) denying her additional attorney fees without hearing any testimony on this issue. The movement of this case through the trial court was long and pathetic. Plaintiff filed her complaint on September 25, 1969. She was granted a divorce from defendant and awarded $350.00 to be applied as “partial payment on [her] attorney fees” by decree entered December 9, 1969. It was recited in this decree: “That there is expressly excluded herein any provisions for the settlement of the parties’ property rights, the custody of the minor children, provisions for the payment of alimony by the defendant to the- plaintiff, and such other matters as would necessarily be heard and determined in a hearing on the merits between the parties.” Thereafter and before the entry of the final order on July 26, 1972, from which this appeal has been taken, the plaintiff underwent psychiatric examinations, was hospitalized for some time, and, in another proceeding, was declared to be incompetent and guardians of her person and estate were appointed The custody of the three minor daughters of the parties was taken from plaintiff and awarded temporarily to defendant. The parties and the guardian of plaintiff’s estate engaged in rather extensive discovery proceedings by written interrogatories and filed motions, counterclaims, petitions, responses, replies and objections, and three or four hearings were conducted. The final hearing was held on June 16, 1972, and the final order entered on July 26, 1972. The transcript of the final hearing shows the following relative to the’ issue of alimony: (1)During the presentation of opening statements by counsel and prior to the actual presentation of evidence, the following statements were made by plaintiff’s attorney and the court: “MR. RUUD [plaintiff’s attorney]: * * “In addition to that we have asked the Court to consider at this time the issue of alimony, which we understood had remained and was reserved for further consideration throughout these proceedings. “Mr. Toulouse, who has been the attorney on this case from its inception, was prevented from being here today because of a death in his family. I was advised that the Court was of the impression that the question of alimony had been previously disposed of. Therefore, we are going to ask the Court at this time to leave the question of alimony in abeyance to be further considered after Mr. Toulouse will be able to be in the courtroom. “THE COURT: That part of your Motion is granted and your request is granted. << ‡ >fc Jji “THE COURT: * * * Each party is to defray their own expenses. So that leaves us then with the alimony. And then, as I have indicated, on the issue of alimony, I will let you consult with Mr. Toulouse, but it is my understanding that has already been concluded. But I won’t enforce that issue since you are at a disadvantage. Find out from Mr. Toulouse, If necessary, I will grant you another hearing on that issue. The only thing remaining now is the custody of the children.” (2) Thereupon the attorney for defendant apparently told the representative of the guardian of plaintiff’s estate, who had appeared pursuant to subpoenas issued at the request of both parties for the purpose of testifying as to the financial needs of plaintiff, that he could leave, and he left. (3) After plaintiff had offered the testimony of a witness upon the issue of custody of the three minor children, the following colloquy took place between the trial court and counsel for the parties: “THE COURT: Thank you Doctor, you may step down. Mr. Ruud, I have been thinking that perhaps we ought to go into the matter of alimony at this time. I would like to conclude all of the issues and not leave anything hanging, This has been the problem here. Why don’t you argue to me or present whatever evidence on that issue you may have. You are asking for alimony, how can you justify it? “MR. RUUD: Well, Your Honor, we would justify it on this basis, that the question of alimony, according to my understanding, was reserved in this case for disposition at a later date, and that be the case, then our support of her right to alimony would be the fact that the Plaintiff is now shown to be incompetent. She has a guardian appointed to handle her estate and if she is too incompetent to handle her estate and too incompetent to have the custody of the children, and the evidence will show that she has not been able to work — she has had one job for three weeks and lost it and has no means of support excepting the $65,000.00 that is coming in from the community property that was originally divided. “On the other hand, the Defendant is left in a position of making a substantial income and has continuously done so, and with the Plaintiff being unable to support herself, and we believe that is primary justification for alimony. “THE COURT: Mr. McAtee? “MR. McATEE [defendant’s attorney] : Yes, Your Honor. Now, alimony is based upon need, and when the need doesn’t exist, no alimony exists. That has been the decision of our Supreme Court for years. * * * “ * * *. I can see no need at this time for alimony, and I think that, again, that is something that would penalize Mr. Burnside. * * * “ * * “THE COURT: All right, I find and I hearby award the .permanent custody of the children to the Defendant. “The other issue you presented to this Court on the matter of alimony, I find and hearby so decree no alimony shall be awarded in the matter.” (4) There was absolutely no evidence adduced upon the issue of alimony, and no stipulation of facts relative thereto was tendered. On the basis of the statements of the attorneys, the trial court apparently decided the issue after having earlier assured plaintiff’s attorney that this issue would be. deferred for a later date and after defendant’s attorney had told the representative of the guardian of plaintiff’s estate that he might leave. At the June 16, 1972 hearing, the following occurred relative to attorney fees: (1) During the opening statements or colloquy between the court and counsel, the following was stated: “MR. McATEE: As far as attorney’s fees are concerned, Mr. Burnside has paid, and we think we can get additional records, but I have a record here — has paid $2,464.00 to Mr. Toulouse. We think we can add to that several more hundred dollars. He has paid Soleberg and Associates; paid, by Court Order, for the examination by Doctor Hovda; and he has married; he has three young ladies to raise; and there’s only so much you can do. The Court knows that if you tie a man to a position that he possibly is encumbered and overburdened, he will take the easiest way out. We are not saying that he will. But as far as the attorney’s fees are concerned, we paid to Mr. — ■ “THE COURT: Mr. McAtee, to ex-' pedite the hearing and so forth, I will not allow attorney’s fees in this matter, Mr. Ruud, to Plaintiff’s coujisel. “THE COURT: * * *. Also, the issue of attorney’s fees, that is concluded. I will not award attorney’s fees. * * * » (2) After plaintiff had concluded her evidence on the issue of custody of the children, the following occurred: “MR. RUUD: Your Honor, not to press the issue, but I guess the Court has already foreclosed my attorney fees, on the part to be awarded against Mr. Burnside ? “THE COURT: That’s right.” The court made the following findings and conclusions pertinent to the issues of alimony and attorney fees: “FINDINGS OF FACT “II. “That no testimony was given as to the financial needs of Plaintiff, although a representative of the bank [guardian of plaintiff’s estate] was in Court, and could have testified if called upon. «‡ if! if! “V. “That while attorneys’ fees were requested by Plaintiff’s counsel, there was no citation of law given the Court as to why Defendant should be compelled to pay attorneys again, or was any testimony given in support thereof.” “CONCLUSIONS “1. That the award of alimony, attorneys’ fees, and the custody of children, is a matter resting in the sound discretion of this Court. “2. That the Court has conducted hearings on the within matter repeatedly since its inception, and he believes that the findings and orders of the Court meet all requirements of sound judicial discretion.” In the final order entered on July 26, 1972 the trial court also found: “3. That plaintiff is not entitled to any alimony,” and “4. That plaintiff is not entitled to any attorneys’ fees, although the Court does not rule out said attorneys’ [sic] being .paid by the plaintiff.” The court then ordered: “ * * * that plaintiff’s motion for alimony and for attorneys’ fees be and the same is hereby denied.” As to the issue of alimony, clearly this issue was raised by the pleadings, was reserved for hearing on its merits by the decree entered December 9, 1969, and, at the final hearing on June 16, 1972, was at first continued for a subsequent time when Mr. Toulouse, plaintiff’s attorney from the inception of the case, could be present and for a hearing on the merits, if necessary. It was not until witnesses had been excused and evidence had been adduced on the remaining issue of child custody, that for some reason the trial court concluded this issue would then be determined, apparently on the basis of the statements of counsel quoted above. The right to alimony is a continuation of the right to support. It is a personal and not a property right. 2 Nelson, Divorce and Annulment § 14.06 (2d Ed. 1961). In New Mexico this right is recognized, but it is not an absolute right. The award or denial of alimony rests within the sound discretion of the trial court in making a determination as to what is just and proper under the circumstances. See § 22-7-6, N.M.S.A.1953 [Amended by N.M. Laws 1973, Ch. 319 § 7]; Muckleroy v. Muckleroy, 84 N.M. 14, 498 P.2d 1357 (1972); Fitzgerald v. Fitzgerald, 70 N.M. 11, 369 P.2d 398 (1962); Mindlin v. Mindlin, 41 N.M. 155, 66 P.2d 260 (1937). However, a determination based upon no evidence, and arrived at in the manner in which it was here reached, cannot be equated with sound discretion. The trial court’s finding No. II. above quoted, although true in. the abstract, does not square with what occurred in the proceedings on June 16, 1972. Plaintiff contended a need on her part for a continuation of her right to support. Defendant denied this need. Thus, the issue of alimony was raised, and a proper disposition of this factual issue entitled plaintiff to introduce evidence and be fully heard in support of her contention. The trial court, by disposing of the issue on the basis of the colloquy between it and counsel, denied plaintiff her right. Compare Morico v. Cox, 134 Conn. 218, 56 A.2d 522 (1947); Tularosa Ditch Case, 16 N.M. 200, 114 P. 285 (1911); Bole v. Bole, 76 Cal.App.2d 344, 172 P.2d 936 (1946). As to the issue of attorney fees, it appears that a total of $2,000.00 had been paid by defendant to plaintiff for this purpose. Reference is made in a statement by defendant’s counsel, which is above quoted, to $2,464.00 having been paid by defendant. However, in her brief in chief plaintiff has asserted, and has supported by transcript references, that she had been awarded $2,000.00. Defendant does not refute this assertion. He does refer to “fees in excess of $2,000.00,” but he makes no reference to the transcript in support thereof. The first award of $350.00 as “partial payment” of attorney fees was made on December 9, 1969, at the time the divorce was granted. The second award in the amount of $1,650.00 was made on December 17, 1970, for the recited purpose of being “applied upon the plaintiff’s attorney fees.” We agree with the trial court that the amount of an award for attorney fees rests within the sound discretion of that court. However, discretion in this regard must have been exercised with the purpose in mind of insuring the plaintiff an efficient preparation and presentation of her case. Section 22-7-6, supra; Moore v. Moore, 71 N.M. 495, 501, 379 P.2d 784, 788 (1963). The trial court’s finding No. V. above quoted, and which recites the facts upon which the trial court apparently relied for its conclusion that plaintiff was entitled to no further award of attorney fees, can hardly be considered as demonstrating an exercise of sound discretion in determining that $2,000.00 previously awarded was sufficient to insure her an efficient preparation and presentation of her case. Obviously she was precluded at the outset of the final hearing, and at every point thereafter, from citing any law or giving any testimony on the question of attorney fees. It may be that the evidence she could and would have adduced in support of her contentions that she was entitled to alimony and to a further award of attorney fees would have accomplished her nothing, but she was entitled to present her evidence on these questions. It was improper for the trial court, under the circumstances, to deny her request upon the grounds recited in Findings Nos. II. and V. To the extent that the order of the trial court denied plaintiff alimony and further attorney fees, the order should be reversed. The cause should be remanded to the district court for further proceedings on the issues of alimony and attorney fees consistent with the views herein expressed. It is so ordered. MONTOYA, and MARTINEZ, JJ.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. The opinion heretofore issued is withdrawn and the following substituted therefor. Defendant appeals from his conviction of first degree murder. We affirm. On December 29, 1971 at about 7:30 p. m., defendant and members of his family left Dallas, Texas, in two automobiles headed for Los Angeles, California. About 4:30 a. m. the following morning they stopped at some point along the road. Defendant and his wife became involved in an argument and she and the children, except for defendant’s sixteen year old son by a prior marriage, returned to Dallas in one of the vehicles. The defendant, his sixteen year old son and a nephew of defendant then proceeded west in the other vehicle. Defendant and his nephew were taking turns driving and both were drinking whiskey and beer as they travelled. While the nephew drove, defendant slept. Apparently at Pecos, Texas, the nephew relinquished the driving to defendant, and either fell asleep or “passed out” from drinking. Defendant stopped the automobile either very shortly before leaving Texas or shortly after entering New Mexico and picked up a hitchhiker. The hitchhiker, who will hereinafter be referred to as the decedent, is the person defendant later killed at Deming, New Mexico, on the evening of December 30, 1971. Decedent was a Mexican National and did not speak English. Defendant did not speak Spanish. However, in some manner they had sufficient communication between them that decedent understood he was to take over the driving. He drove for approximately thirty minutes or an hour. During this time defendant was in the back seat with his son. Either as they approached or were within the city limits of Deming, defendant asked decedent to stop. He asked three or four times before decedent stopped the automobile. Thereupon defendant returned to the driver’s seat and the decedent moved to the left rear seat. There is evidence that before getting into the driver’s seat defendant went to the rear of the vehicle and opened the trunk for some reason. After defendant and decedent had changed places in the automobile and decedent was seated directly behind defendant, the defendant turned around and fired four or five shots into the decedent from a gun defendant had secured from some place. The nephew heard the shots, but claims to know nothing more about the shooting or the events leading thereto. The son claims to have been half-asleep in the right rear seat, but he heard the shots and saw flashes from the gun. The defendant removed decedent’s body from the automobile and left it near an on-ramp to Interstate Highway 10. He then made inquiry at a service station as to the location of the bus depot in Deming; telephoned a sister in Dallas and told her he was sending his son to her; purchased a bus ticket for his son; and then he and the nephew continued on westward in the automobile. When later apprehended and charged with murder, defendant pleaded not guilty and not guilty by reason of insanity. The insanity plea was abandoned. His only defense was his claim that he was under the influence of alcohol to such an extent that he was incapable of forming the necessary intent to commit murder in the first degree. There was also evidence that he was taking some pills called “Red Birds,” which are apparently a barbiturate. However, there is no evidence as to just how many of these pills he took, when he took them in relation to the time of the murder, or the nature and extent of their effect, if any, upon him. Defendant relies upon three separately stated points for reversal, which have been briefed and argued on his behalf by his two highly competent, court-appointed attorneys. In addition, the attorneys have listed a number of claimed errors which defendant requested be presented to this court on appeal. Defendant first claims error on the part of the trial court in refusing his requested jury instructions on “diminished capacity.” There was evidence that defendant at times in the past had used drugs, but there was no evidence that he was using drugs on the trip from Dallas, except for the “Red Birds” above men tioned, or was in any way affected thereby at the time of the murder. There was also evidence as to his habitual and excessive use of intoxicants and to his use thereof on some past occasions to the extent that he had lapses of memory. There was no evidence as to any lapses of memory at or near the time of the murder. As shown above, he had been asleep while the nephew drove. He began driving at Pecos, Texas, and continued driving until decedent was picked up some thirty minutes or an hour before the killing. The only evidence as to defendant’s mental state or condition at or near the time of the murder was the testimony of his son that defendant was angry and appeared to be intoxicated, and the following statement of a psychiatrist who had examined defendant: " * * *. In my opinion at the present time and on or about December 30, 1971, Mr. Rushing was capable of knowing the nature and quality of his acts, the ability to distinguish between right and wrong, and to form the intent to kill. On or about December 30, 1971, he was in a state of voluntary intoxication. This state could possibly reduce his cognition functions (i. e., the ability to know right from wrong) to the point that he would be unable to control his acts however this would be a temporary derangement of mind due to intoxication and not due to a disease of the mind. His behavior after the crime shows that he had the ability to know the nature and quality of his acts and that they were wrong as he sent his son and disappeared himself. * * * ” Defendant requested and the trial court refused the following instructions as to the effect of intoxication or use of drugs upon the questions of defendant’s mental state and intent: “Defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 2: “You are instructed that if you find that the defendant committed the homicide in question and that by reason of either intoxication or the use of drugs, or both, the mind of the defendant was incapable of cool and deliberate premeditation, then in that event he cannot be found guilty of murder in the first degree. “Defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 4: "You are further instructed, no act committed by a person while in a state of voluntary intoxication or in a state of voluntary drug induced stupor, or a combination of both, is less criminal by reason of having been in such condition. “But, whenever the actual existence of intent is a necessary element to constitute any particular crime, the jury may take into consideration the fact that the accused was intoxicated, in a stupor caused by drugs or a combination of both at the time, in determining the intent with which he committed the act. “If the defendant did not have the intent to commit murder, then you may not find the defendant guilty of murder in the first degree.” The trial court instructed the jury as to the statutory definition of murder in the first degree [§ 40A-2-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6, 1972)]; in another instruction listed the essential elements thereof and instructed the jury that each of these elements must be proven to the jury’s satisfaction beyond a reasonable doubt; defined each of the essential terms, such as willfully, express malice, deliberation, etc.; and gave its Instruction No. 14, which covered the precise question now before us, and which was as follows: “No act committed by a person while in a state of voluntary intoxication or in a state of voluntary drug induced stupor, or a combination of both, is less criminal by reason of his having been in such condition. “But, if, by reason of intoxication or drug influence or both, the mind of the Defendant was incapable of that cool and deliberate premeditation necessary to constitute murder in the first degree, but that the killing was unlawful and the act was not done under circumstances which would make the killing only voluntary manslaughter necessarily it would be murder in the second degree, as malice would be implied.” Defendant concedes this instruction is almost identical with an instruction given and approved by this court in State v. Padilla, 66 N.M. 289, 293, 347 P.2d 312, 315 (1959). The contention is that: “[t]he present case is on all fours with what this Court decided in State v. Padilla,” and, therefore, it was error to refuse defendant’s requested instructions for the same reason the Padilla case was reversed by this court for refusal by the trial court to give the following instruction: “ ‘If you find the defendant was legally sane, then the Court instructs you that as an additional defense if you find or if you have a reasonable doubt whether by reason of a disease or defect of the mind the defendant was incapable of thinking over the fatal act beforehand with a calm and reflective mind (or with a fixed and settled deliberation and coolness of mind) then, you shall find the defendant not guilty of first degree murder and will pass on to the question of whether he is guilty of a second degree murder.’ ” State v. Padilla at 293, 347 P.2d at 315. We are unable to agree. The issue of “diminished capacity” by reason of a disease or defect of the mind is not here involved. Defendant has done nothing more than rearrange and slightly change in his requested instructions the identical elements found in the court’s Instruction No. 14, and has then apparently sought to add thereto the concept of “diminished capacity” by reason of disease or defect of mind contained in the quoted instruction from the Padilla case. Defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 2 and the first paragraph of his Requested Instruction No. 4 were merely cumulative of what was contained in the Court’s Instruction No. 14. Thus, it was not error to refuse these requests. Hudson v. Otero, 80 N.M. 668, 459 P.2d 830 (1969); State v. Martinez, 34 N.M. 112, 278 P. 210 (1929); Garcia v. Barber’s Super Markets, Inc., 81 N.M. 92, 463 P.2d 516 (Ct.App. 1969); State v. McFerran, 80 N.M. 622, 459 P.2d 148 (Ct.App. 1969). Apparently the second and third paragraphs of defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 4 are predicated upon a claimed “diminished capacity” by reason of intoxication or a drug induced stupor, or by reason of a combination of both, and has no reference or relationship to any claimed disease or defect of the mind. As already stated above, there was no issue presented as to any “diminished capacity” of defendant by reason of disease or defect of the mind. Thus, the last two paragraphs of defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 4 are not consistent with the above quoted instruction from State v. Padilla, supra, and, in effect, amount to nothing more than a repetition of the above quoted and referred to instructions given by the trial court. Instructions are to be read and considered as a whole, and, when so considered, they are sufficient if they fairly and correctly state the applicable law. State v. Weber, 76 N.M. 636, 417 P.2d 444 (1966); State v. Fields, 74 N.M. 559, 395 P.2d 908 (1964); State v. Zarafonetis, 81 N.M. 674, 472 P.2d 388 (Ct.App.1970); State v. McFerran, supra. The trial court also refused defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 3, which is as follows: “You are instructed that in order to convict a person of murder in the first degree, express malice must be proved— implied malice will not support a conviction of murder in the first degree. * * *» Defendant relies on State v. Ulibarri, 67 N.M. 336, 355 P.2d 275 (1960), wherein it is stated implied malice does not suffice to constitute murder in the first degree. In Torres v. State, 39 N.M. 191, 196, 43 P.2d 929, 932 (1935), it is stated that pre meditation and implied malice do not suffice to convict of first degree murder, but that “Deliberation and express malice are necessary.” The jury was instructed on the definitions of express and implied malice in the exact language of § 40A-2-2, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6, 1972); that in order to establish first degree murder the State must have proved decedent had been “unlawfully killed by the defendant, with express malice aforethought”; and that: “‘DELIBERATE’ or ‘DELIBERATION’ is a thinking over with a calm and reflective mind to do an act. Implied malice, as defined above [the statutory definition] is not sufficient to constitute murder in the first degree. In order to find the Defendant guilty of first degree murder, you must find express malice as defined herein [the statutory definition].” We fail to appreciate what was contained in defendant’s Requested Instruction No. 3 which was not contained in the court’s instructions. Repetition in instructions is improper. Scott v. Brown, 76 N.M. 501, 416 P.2d 516 (1966); State v. Martinez, supra; State v. McFerran, supra. Defendant next urges that the evidence was insufficient to support his conviction of .first degree murder. The contention is that: “There is no evidence of premeditation or cool deliberation and none from which it may be inferred.” The evidence as to defendant’s use of liquor and “Red Birds”, and his possible anger at the time of the killing is as previously related. We have absolutely no difficulty in finding substantial evidence to support the conviction. As stated in State v. Polsky, 82 N.M. 393, 398, 482 P.2d 257, 262 (Ct.App.1971): “In determining whether there is substantial evidence to support a conviction, the appellate court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the State, resolving all conflicts therein and indulging all permissible inferences therefrom in favor of the verdict. State v. Parker, 80 N.M. 551, 458 P.2d 803 (Ct.App.1969). Substantial evidence is such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate support for a conclusion. State v. Encee, 79 N.M. 23, 439 P.2d 240 (Ct.App.1968). The fact that there were conflicts in the evidence does not make the State’s evidence insubstantial. State v. Morra, 81 N.M. 631, 471 P.2d 201 (Ct.App.1970). The appellate court may not properly substitute its judgment for that of the jury as to credibility of the witnesses or the weight to be given the evidence. Gallegos v. Wilkerson, 79 N.M. 549, 445 P.2d 970 (1968); State v. McAfee, 78 N.M. 108, 428 P.2d 647 (1967); State v. Tafoya, 80 N.M. 494, 458 P.2d 98 (Ct.App. 1969); Rein v. Dvoracek, 79 N.M. 410, 444 P.2d 595 (Ct.App. 1968).” Defendant’s next ground for reversal is his claim that the trial court erred in denying his motion for change of venue filed pursuant to § 21-5-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970). Some time in April 1972 a bond election was held in Luna County on the question of whether or not a new county jail should be constructed. For several days prior to the election, the public, apparently in small groups, were permitted to go through the jail with a deputy sheriff as an escort. Defendant contended that because some of these people viewed him in jail and, according to him, were told he had been charged with murder in the first degree, the local populace were prejudiced against him. A hearing was held on this motion, and defendant was the only witness who expressed any opinion that there existed any prejudice against him in the minds of the people in Luna County. The sole foundation for his opinion were his contentions that he had been viewed in jail and had been identified as having been charged with first degree murder. Many of his contentions as to being so viewed and iden tified were inconsistent with the testimony of other witnesses. The State produced eight witnesses, consisting of deputy sheriffs, business people and other residents of the county. All of their testimony was to the effect that they-had heard nothing to indicate prejudice against defendant and that in their opinion defendant could get a fair trial in Luna County. The trial court considered the evidence and denied the motion. The determination, as to whether a change of venue should be granted after a hearing on a motion, rests in the sound discretion of the trial -court, and this determination will not be disturbed on appeal absent a showing of abuse of this discretion. The burden of showing such an abuse rests on the movant. State v. Jimenez, 84 N.M. 335, 503 P.2d 315 (1972). Here defendant failed to sustain this burden. Finally, defendant has listed the following, which he claims are additional errors committed by the trial court: 'T. Defendant asserts that he was denied equal protection of the law contrary to Section 18 of the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the State of New Mexico. “2. Defendant asserts that he was deprived of his right to be confronted with a witness against him in the preliminary hearing, contrary to Article VI of the United States Constitution. “3. Defendant asserts that at least two of the witnesses against him were illegal. “4. Defendant asserts that one member of the jury was extremely prejudiced by nature and in fact, therefore throwing doubt on the prejudice of the remaining members of the jury. “5. Defendant alleges that the jury was illegal as it was a thirteen member jury.” No argument is made in support of these contentions, because the record fails to lend support to any of them. The judgment of conviction and sentence should be affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This is an appeal by plaintiffs from a judgment declaring defendant to be the owner in fee simple of a certain parcel of real estate; declaring plaintiffs to have no lien upon, interest in, or right or title to the property; ordering plaintiffs to forthwith deliver possession of the property to defendant; and ordering plaintiffs to account to defendant for the mesne profits derived from crops grown on the property between April 23, 1968 and the date of delivery of possession to defendant. We affirm. Plaintiffs are husband and wife. Defendant is the father of plaintiff, Ismael Marquez. Upon the death of defendant’s first wife, the real estate in question became the separate property of defendant, and was his separate property and estate upon his marriage to Altagracia Marquez on July 7, 1947. Subsequent to his marriage to Altagracia, the property was sold to the State of New Mexico for delinquent taxes. After the lapse of the one year period, during which defendant had a prior right to' purchase the property [§ 72-8-31, N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1961)], the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, hereinafter referred to as the District, purchased the property. The trial court found that the purchase by the District was made after the period of redemption had expired, and this finding has not been attacked. The purchase by the District was accomplished some time prior to August 19, 1954, and was made pursuant to the District’s authority under § 75-30-20, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 11, pt. 2, 1968). On August 19, 1954, defendant purchased the property from the District with community funds belonging to him and his wife, Altagracia. Title was taken from the District by quitclaim deed naming defendant as grantee. On April 23, 1968, defendant purportedly conveyed the property by quitclaim deed to plaintiffs as joint tenants. Defendant’s wife did not join in this purported conveyance. Plaintiffs contend the property was conveyed to them as a gift from defendant. Altagracia died July 26, 1969. Plaintiffs filed their complaint in this suit on August 11, 1971, whereby they sought to quiet title to the property in themselves. Defendant answered and counterclaimed whereby he sought to have title to the real estate quieted in himself, possession thereof delivered unto him, an accounting by plaintiffs for mesne profits, and other relief not here pertinent. As above stated, judgment was entered in favor of defendant. Plaintiffs rely upon three separately stated points for reversal, but in the statement of proceedings in their brief in chief they admit: “The sole issue on appeal is whether or not Altagracia’s failure to join in that deed [the quitclaim deed of April 23, 1968 whereby defendant purportedly conveyed the property to plaintiffs], in the circumstances of this case, made the deed a nullity.” This is the issue to which we shall primarily address ourselves in this opinion. The position of plaintiffs is that the purchase of the property by defendant from the District amounted to a repurchase or a redemption by him of his separate estate, which he could properly convey without the joinder therein of his wife, and that defendant, as the survivor of the community, has only a claim for the amount of the community funds used to redeem the prop erty from the District. They rely upon the case of Langhurst v. Langhurst, 49 N.M. 329, 164 P.2d 204 (1945), and upon their position that the holding in that case should be applied to the purchase of the real estate by defendant from the District, since the District is a State agency and but “another arm of the sovereign.” Section 72-8-31, supra, provides: “Right to repurchase — Persons entitled to repurchase — Restriction period on sale. — The person, or any lienholder, whose title to or interest in property has been extinguished by the issuance of a tax deed to the state shall have the prior right to repurchase such property. “For a period of one [1] year after the date any tax deed to the state has been recorded, the state tax commission shall not convey any property acquired by such tax deed to any person other than one entitled to repurchase the property. Provided, however, that the prior right to repurchase shall continue after the expiration of one [1] year from the date the tax deed to the state has been recorded and until the property acquired by the state by virtue of such deed is sold at public auction or at private sale as in this act provided.” Section 75-30-20, supra, provides: “Purchase of property sold for delinqtient taxes. — The board [of the District] shall have the power to bid in and hold for the use and benefit of the district and with like effect as any other purchaser, any property sold for delinquent taxes or district assessments and to purchase from the county or other owner the tax sale certificate or duplicate tax sale certificate outstanding against any property within the district. At the expiration of the period of redemption under any tax sale of property within the district, the board may, at its election pay all taxes, penalties, interests and costs represented by the tax sale certificate or duplicate tax sale certificate therefor and thereupon the county treasurer shall execute and deliver a tax deed conveying said property to the district.” It is apparent from a reading of § 72-8-31, supra, that it refers to the right to repurchase from the State through the State Tax Commission. It is equally apparent from a reading of § 75-30-20, supra, that the District has the power to acquire and hold, as any other purchaser, property sold for delinquent taxes. The District acquired an independent and paramount title to the property upon its purchase thereof from the State. Compare Alamogordo Improvement Co. v. Hennessee, 40 N.M. 162, 56 P.2d 1127 (1936). Defendant had no right to redeem or repurchase the property from the District for taxes, penalties, interest and costs as provided in § 72-8-32, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1961). His right to redeem or repurchase the property continued only so long as he had the right to recapture or redeem it from the State pursuant to § 72-8-31, supra. In Langhurst v. Langhurst, supra, the property there in question was redeemed by the former owner by repurchase from the State in accordance with the provisions of § 72-8-31, supra. The property had not been sold to another purchaser and the owner’s right of redemption had not expired. A married person has the same right as a single person to redeem his or her separate property which has been conveyed by tax deed to the State. If he or she uses community funds for this purpose, the community may properly assert a claim for reimbursement. Langhurst v. Langhurst, supra. In the present case, as already stated, defendant did not redeem the property, he purchased it from the District with community funds. All property owned by a husband and wife before marriage, and that acquired by either during marriage by gift, bequest, devise or descent, with the rents, issues and profits thereof, is their respec tive separate property. Sections 57-3^4 and 57-3-5, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962). All other real and personal property acquired by either, or both, during marriage, is community property. Section 57-4 — 1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962). Property acquired during marriage is presumed to be community property. Campbell v. Campbell, 62 N.M. 330, 310 P.2d 266 (1957). If community funds are used to purchase the separate property of either spouse, such property becomes community property. McDonald v. Lambert, 43 N.M. 27, 85 P.2d 78, 120 A.L.R. 250 (1938). Thus, it is apparent that upon the purchase by defendant of the property from the District with community funds, this property became community property. The next question presented is the effect, if any, of the quitclaim deed of April 23, 1968, whereby defendant, without the joinder of his wife, purported to convey to plaintiffs, as joint tenants, this community property. Section 57-4 — 3, N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962) provides: “Management of community property vests in husband — Joinder in deeds and mortgages — Conveyance of separate property without joinder — Separate conveyances of community real property void — Exception.—The husband has the management and control of the personal property of the community, and during coverture the husband shall have the sole power of disposition of the personal property of the community, other than testamentary, as he has of his separate estate; but the husband and wife must join in all deeds and mortgages affecting real estate; Provided, that either husband or wife may convey or mortgage separate property without the other joining in such conveyance or mortgage; and, Provided, further, that any transfer or conveyance attempted to be made of the real property of the community by either husband or wife alone shall be void and of no effect, except, that the husband may convey directly to the wife or the wife to the husband without the other joining in the conveyance.” [Emphasis added] This section of our statutes, insofar as applicable to the present case, is identical with Chapter 320, § 57-4A-7, Laws of 1973, which became effective July 1, 1973. Insofar as pertinent to the question at hand, this statute is identical with the 1915 statute construed in Miera v. Miera, 25 N.M. 299, 181 P. 583 (1919). In that case this court, on motion for rehearing, gave literal effect to the language that “ * * * any transfer or conveyance attempted to be made of the real property of the community by either husband or wife alone shall be void and of no effect. * * * ” A deed executed by the husband alone was held “void and conferred no title upon appellant [grantee].” In Jenkins v. Huntsinger, 46 N.M. 168, 177, 125 P.2d 327, 332 (1942) we stated: “In Miera v. Miera, 25 N.M. 299, 181 P. 583, 586, we held in interpreting the statute here in question, that a deed of conveyance signed by one spouse alone was ‘void and conferred no title.’ See also El Paso Cattle Loan Co., etc., v. Stephens & Gardner, 30 N.M. 154, 228 P. 1076; Adams v. Blumenshine, 27 N.M. 643, 204 P. 66, 20 A.L.R. 369; Terry v. Humphreys, 27 N.M. 564, 203 P. 539; McKinney v. Merritt, 35 Idaho 600, 208 P. 244; Hughes v. Latour Creek Ry. Co., 30 Idaho 475, 166 P. 219. “We said in the closing paragraph in Terry v. Humphreys, supra [27 N.M. 564, 203 P. 541], something which seems significant, and which indicates that in this, as in all other cases where we have touched upon the question, we obviously always assumed there to be but one possible interpretation of this statute. We were never heretofore called upon to consider that the term ‘void and of no effect' as used in this statute, could mean ‘voidable’, instead of ‘having no validity from its inception.’ “ * * * “ ‘ * * *. As we construe the statute by its plain terms at the present time, neither husband nor wife can make a transfer or conveyance of the real property of the community without the other joining in such conveyance or transfer, and if such transfer or conveyance is attempted of such real property of the community by either husband or wife alone, such transfer or conveyance is void, and of no effect/ (Emphasis ours.)” Plaintiffs also rely on estoppel and laches. Both issues were resolved against them by the trial court. In McGrail v. Fields, 53 N.M. 158, 203 P.2d 1000 (1949), we refused to overrule our decision in Jenkins v. Huntsinger, supra, and stated at page 162 of 53 N.M. at page 1002 of 203 P.2d: “In that case [Jenkins v. Huntsinger] it was determined that the husband had attempted to convey community real property by his deed alone. Subsequently the parties were divorced, and he became the sole owner of half of it. We held that the deed was absolutely void, and that it did not convey the part of the property allotted to the husband in the division as subsequently acquired property. We reviewed the authorities at great length, and concluded that the deed being absolutely void, the grantor conveyed nothing by his deed and that he was not estopped to deny its validity [Emphasis added] As to the question of laches, the trial court found that defendant had made demand upon plaintiffs to surrender possession of the property to him, but plaintiffs refused. This finding is unattacked and is incompatible with a claim of laches on the part of the defendant. It is also inconsistent with plaintiffs’ assertions that defendant stood idly by and asserted no claim to the property until plaintiffs brought their suit to quiet title. The defense of laches is not favored. It should be given effect only in those cases in which a party has been guilty of inexcusable neglect. Cave v. Cave, 81 N.M. 797, 474 P.2d 480 (1970); Pratt v. Parker, 57 N.M. 103, 255 P.2d 311 (1953). We agree with the trial court in concluding that defendant was neither es-topped nor barred by laches from asserting and relying upon the invalidity of the deed by which the property was purportedly conveyed to plaintiffs. The judgment should be affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J, and STEPHENSON, J., concur.
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OPINION MARTINEZ, Justice. This case arose by way of an administrative hearing before the Health and Social Services Department. Mrs. Ossie Chavez, a 47-year-old diabetic with advanced heart disease was terminated from financial and medical assistance by the Department. Her reapplication for aid was denied and from that denial she appealed. The administrative appeal was denied and from that decision she perfected an appeal to the court of appeals. The court of appeals, 84 N.M. 734, 507 P.2d 795, reversed the Department and declared Mrs. Chavez eligible for public assistance. The Department moved for rehearing in the court of appeals and that motion was denied. The Department then petitioned this Court for review by way of certiorari, alleging that the decision of the court of appeals was of such substantial public importance that it necessitated review by this Court. A writ of certiorari was issued on March 28, 1973. The court of appeals found Mrs. Chavez to be eligible for public assistance by deducting from her income her medical expenses to arrive at a figure below the standard of need established by the Department. In so doing, the court has created a new category of persons eligible for such assistance. Since all such programs must be created and funded by legislative enactment, it is obvious to this Court that there- cannot be available funding for such a program spontaneously created by court interpretation of existing legislation. The courts must be extremely careful in making such an interpretation, for in so doing, they indeed open up a Pandora’s box. This Court cannot agree with the interpretation of § 13-1-11, N.M.S.A., 1953. However, whatever may have been the public importance of this case at the time of the decision, that importance has been seriously eroded by the repeal of the statutes on which the decision was based and the supercession thereof by a new statutory framework. In its 1973 legislative session, the New Mexico Legislature passed Senate Bill 374, Laws of New Mexico 1973, Ch. 376, which repeals and supercedes § 13 — 1— 11, supra. The obvious result, of course, is that § 13-1-11, which the court of appeals interpreted in this case is no longer the law within this jurisdiction. With the repeal of § 13-1-11 and the substitution of Senate Bill 374, it ca,n hardly be said that a dispute as to the interpretation of the repealed § 13-1-11 is of such “substantial public importance” as to warrant this Court’s review. In a companion Bill to SB 374, the 1973 session of the New Mexico Legislature, at the behest of the Department, enacted a medically needy health care program, and funded it. Laws of New Mexico 1973, Ch. 311. Given the present existence of a medically needy health care program in this State, it is hard to comprehend how the question of whether the court of appeals’ construction of § 13-1-11 required the implementation of such a program rises to the level of “substantial public importance” as to require this Court’s review. With the repeal of § 13-1-11 and the enactment of the medically needy health care program, the result of this Court reviewing this action will have little impact on the State of New Mexico. The current mootness of the court of appeals’ statutory construction of the language “decency and health” is evident, from a cursory comparison of prior law with current law. § 13-1-11, N.M.S.A. 1953 Comp, (repealed) provided: Public assistance shall be granted under this act to any needy person who: (a) Has not sufficient income or other resources to provide a reasonable subsistence compatible with decency and health. (Emphasis added) The new law provides only: A. Consistent with the federal act and subject to the availability of federal and state funds, the boards shall adopt a standard of need which shall establish a reasonable level of subsistence. (Emphasis added) Laws of New Mexico 1973, Chapter 376, § 3. Furthermore, it is evident that the problem of aid to the critical needy, to which Chavez v. New Mexico Health and Social Services Department addressed itself, has also been rendered moot by the enactment of the Laws of New Mexico 1973, Ch. 311. Mrs. Chavez’ medical condition is such that “ . . . without this medication Mrs. Chavez will either become very ill or die.” Current law clearly covers her in providing: The board shall by regulation establish a program to provide essential medical care for aged, blind or disabled persons not eligible for public assistance under the Public Assistance Act and who have a serious medical condition which will as a reasonable medical probability lead to death in the near future. (Emphasis added) Laws of New Mexico 1973, Ch. 311, § 3. These bills were signed into law by Governor Bruce King and are currently in force and effect. When the petition for writ of certiorari was filed in this Court, Laws of New Mexico 1973, Chapter 376 had not yet been enacted into law. Therefore, certiorari was not improvidently granted at such time as it was granted. However, the supervening legislation makes the question moot as to further examination. This Court will not determine abstract questions of law which do not rest on existing facts or rights. Henriquez v. Schall, 68 N.M. 86, 358 P.2d 1001 (1961). In view of the foregoing, this Court will not disturb the findings of the court of appeals. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ„ concur.
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OPINION SUTIN, Judge. Odis Echols, Jr., and Odis Echols, Sr., (Echols) sued N. C. Ribble Company, a corporation (Ribble) to recover damages for fraud in securing Echols’ guarantee of refinancing notes issued by Ribble for equipment. Trial was held before a jury. A verdict was rendered for Echols, judgment entered, and Ribble appeals. We affirm. I. Facts in Support of Verdict and Judgment In the early spring of 1964, Western Contractors, Inc. (Western) was organized for the purpose of developing certain land in the Ruidoso area. In August, 1964, Western determined that its equipment and materials were insufficient to undertake a project of the size contemplated, and it purchased the entire stock of Sacramento Sand & Gravel Company (Sacramento). Sacramento owned a gravel pit and certain heavy equipment needed to carry on the development plans. Western assumed the liabilities of Sacramento as. part of the stock purchase. Ribble sold Sacramento the equipment it owned. The original notes on these sales had been transferred by Ribble to various financial institutions with recourse. Prior to August 9, 1965, Ribble was contingently liable in the amount of at least $146,455.56, a tremendous contingent liability. Before and after the purchase of Sacramento by Western, Western was delinquent in its payments to the financial institutions. In writing, the financial institutions expressed acute dissatisfaction with the continual delinquencies of Western and threatened foreclosure and other legal action if the accounts were not brought current. Ribble became extremely concerned by the delinquencies and communicated its concern to the parties primarily liable. Western and Sacramento were financially insolvent throughout late 1964 and 1965. These difficulties required a change in the method of making equipment payments. On July 28, 1965, Ribble’s “credit manager” Collins asked a Western representative to meet with Mr. Ribble and himself, to discuss refinancing at the earliest possible time, if a current refinancing attempt was not successful. A refinancing scheme was planned whereby the payments to the several finance companies would be lumped into two payments with two finance companies with financially solvent persons signing as guarantors, and with Ribble as a party contingently liable. Echols had been interested in the development of the Ruidoso area. Prior to August 9, 1965, Echols loaned a Western representative $20,000.00 and was considering a public relations role if the project ever materialized. On August 9, 1965, Collins and a Western representative arrived unannounced at Echols’ place of business in Clovis, New Mexico, and asked Echols to sign as guarantors on the back of the new notes. Both men were reluctant to do so since neither knew anything about the equipment business. Collins showed both men an appraisal by Ira Ribble and stated that the equipment on the appraisal was security for the notes and the equipment was worth almost a third more than the amount of the notes. At one point, Echols walked out of the meeting, but they were induced to come back and discuss the matter further. Collins then reiterated his representation that the equipment was worth about $100,000 more than the amount of the notes. The Echols still refused to sign the notes since they knew nothing about the equipment and would not know how to dispose of or sell it if problems arose. At this point, Collins made the following representation: I don’t know why you are worried, because the N. C. Ribble Company, if you have any problems, if something goes sour, if you have any problems, the N. C. Ribble Company will pick up the equipment and sell it and bail us out. Again Echols asked this question: If something goes wrong on the present operation, then there will be no problem on the guarantors ? Collins responded: We are the largest equipment dealer in the southwest. We will pick up that equipment and bail you out. In reliance on these representations, Echols signed as guarantors on the notes. At the time of the appraisal, on September 24, 1964, the condition of the equipment was very poor, some not useable in the gravel operation, and a pile of junk. The Ribble appraisal had been pumped up. After the notes were signed by other endorsers, and the refinancing achieved, Western continued to be delinquent on their payments to the finance companies. In January, 1966, the Echols were concerned and requested Collins to pick up the equipment and sell it. Collins refused to acknowledge any such obligation and denied making a commitment to Echols. Thereafter, several meetings were held at which the same request was made by Echols and refused by Ribble. Ribble advised Echols and another guarantor, that they should make the equipment operative so it could be more easily sold. Echols paid substantial monies into the corporation to make the equipment payments and to attempt to bring it into operable condition. In May, 1967, Ribble agreed to pick up the equipment and sell it through his facilities, but reneged. The equipment was not picked up and sold. The Echols attempted to sell the equipment themselves, but were unable to do so. The Echols were required to make note payments directly to the finance companies, also to Sacramento so that Sacramento could make payments to the finance companies, and to Sacramento to enable it to operate so as to generate money to pay off the notes and to keep the equipment in operable condition. The loss which resulted was $144,209.70. The jury returned a verdict against Ribble in the sum of $75,000.00. Motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict by Ribble was denied. II. There was Substantial Evidence Upon Which to Predicate Liability Ribble contends there was no substantial evidence upon which to predicate liability because the fraudulent representations made by Collins were not within actual or apparent authority. Collins had been employed with Ribble for a total of thirteen and one-half years, and for eight and a-half years immediately preceding the trial of the case. He worked directly under N. C. Ribble, the president of the company. He signed letters as “credit manager.” His position with Ribble was to assist the president of the company in whatever particular job the president wanted Collins to do, to assist in the financing of equipment, collection under certain circumstances, and broadly, whatever might come forward in a small organization. Collins had handled several hundred accounts, including repossessions, such as picking up equipment and selling it. He was required to act in several capacities, “to wear several hats,” and he just could not have one particular job. The president called him “a finance man,” “the banker.” “He goes out and gets the papers fixed up. He is like any banker.” Collins enjoyed broad authority. With respect to securing the signatures of Echols on the new notes in Clovis, Collins advised one of the finance companies that the president had “spent a lot of money in attempting to help these people get financed so as to bail out all of us and his latest move was to send me down to Alamogordo to assist in getting the job done.” [Emphasis added] The president personally sent Collins to Clovis to secure the necessary signatures on the new notes. He turned the refinancing matter over to Collins with a “duty and responsibility to take the papers to Clovis, get the papers properly drawn, and get the papers properly signed.” “An agent’s scope of authority embraces not only his actual authority but also that apparently delegated.” Southwestern Portland Cement v. Beavers, 82 N.M. 218, 478 P.2d 546 (1970). Collins was acting in the scope of his authority because he was authorized to procure the signatures of Echols as guarantors. We do not find it necessary to determine whether Collins had actual or apparent authority to make false representations. This is a claim for damages. The only issue is whether Collins was acting within the scope of his authority. He was, Echols had a right to rely on the representations made by Collins in securing Echols’ signatures. If the representations were false, Ribble is liable, even though it was without knowledge of its agent’s fraud and otherwise innocent of wrongdoing. Grandi v. LeSage, 74 N.M. 799, 399 P.2d 285 (1965); Hammaker v. Lowe, 57 N.M. 585, 261 P.2d 129 (1953); Stewart v. Potter, 44 N.M. 460, 104 P.2d 736 (1940); Thrams v. Block, 43 N.M. 117, 86 P.2d 938 (1938). Our courts have held that private instructions between Ribble and Collins can have no effect on Echols who dealt with Collins in ignorance of the instructions and in reliance on the apparent authority with which Ribble had clothed him. South Second Livestock Auction, Inc. v. Roberts, 69 N.M. 155, 364 P.2d 859 (1961); New Mexico-Colorado Coal and Mining Co. v. Baker, 21 N.M. 531, 157 P. 167 (1916); Grandi v. LeSage, supra. We are convinced there was substantial evidence upon which to predicate liability on Ribble for damages because Collins was acting within the scope of his authority in procuring the signatures of Echols. III. There was substantial Evidence to Prove the Elements of False Representations and Reliance. Ribble argues that there was no substantial evidence to prove the elements of false representations or reliance. Ribble admits that Echols pleaded fraud with particularity as provided by § 21 — 1— 1(9) (b), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4), but it contends that what was alleged was not proven. Echols pleaded that Ribble made the following misrepresentations and fraudulent statements to Echols in order to persuade Echols to guarantee refinancing notes for the equipment: (a) Ribble advised Echols that the appraisal furnished to Echols showed the value of the equipment, although Ribble knew that the values on the appraisal were grossly inflated. (b) Ribble told Echols that the equipment had a value of more than the amount of the notes which Echols were asked to sign, although Ribble knew this was not true. (c) Ribble told Echols that if Sacramento became unable to pay the notes, Ribble, which was said to be the largest heavy equipment dealer in the State of New Mexico, would pick up the equipment and sell it, and Echols would suffer no loss. Actions for damages based on fraud are actions in tort, Montoya v. Moore, 77 N.M. 326, 422 P.2d 363 (1967), and the essential elements required to sustain an action for fraud are set forth in Prudential Insurance Company of America v. Anaya, 78 N.M. 101, 428 P.2d 640 (1967). The jury was instructed on these essential elements. Durrett v. Petritsis, 82 N.M. 1, 474 P.2d 487 (1970), repeats the guidelines for viewing jury verdicts, including claims based on fraud. Viewing the evidence on the basis of the rules and standards stated, there is substantial evidence to support the verdict. The facts were sufficient upon which to submit the essential elements of fraud to the jury. Ribble argues that Echols failed to meet the burden of proof on misrepresentation (c), supra, because of the language used. It reads in part “Echols would suffer no loss,” [emphasis added] whereas Collins testified that Ribble “would pick that equipment up and sell it and bail us out,” [emphasis added] and Ribble would “bail you out.” [emphasis added] These statements are not vague and indefinite representations. We see no material variance between what was pleaded and what was proved. In common parlance, the expressions used are synonymous in meaning. In any event, the parties understood the meaning of the expressions used. The issue of this misrepresentation was submitted to the jury, and it evidently understood the language. IV. There was Substantial Evidence that the Proximate Cause of Echols’ Damages was Attributable to Ribble’s Misrepresentations. Ribble contends that the proximate cause of Echols’ loss was the fact that Sacramento was unable to secure a loan for the golf course/subdivision project which they were promoting; that this precipitated the collapse of the project and led Sacramento to pursue a road project which proved a financial loss; that all of this occurred before Echols ever contacted Ribble’s president. Ribble misconstrues the proximate cause of the loss. The loss occurred when Ribble refused to pick up the equipment, sell it, and bail the Echols out. There was substantial evidence to support the issue of proximate 'cause of Echols’ loss. V. There was no Error in Instructions Given and Refused. Ribble claims the trial court erred in giving U.J.I. 3.6, Burden of Proof by Preponderance of Evidence, because it was not applicable in a case based on fraud. U.J.I. 3.6 reads as follows: It is a general rule applicable in all civil cases that a party seeking a recovery or a party asserting an affirmative defense, has the burden of proving the propositions necessary to support his claim or affirmative defense, as the case may be, by the greater weight of the evidence or, as it is sometimes called, the preponderance of the evidence. . Evenly balanced evidence is not sufficient. ■ Therefore, when I say in these instructions that a party has the burden of proof on any proposition, or use the expression “if you find”, or “if you decide”, I mean you must be persuaded, considering all the evidence in the case, that the proposition on which one has the burden of proof is more probably true than not true. Under Directions for Use, it is said: This instruction should be given in every civil case. This instruction embodies a new standard definition for “Burden of Proof.” Other instructions heretofore given defining “Burden of Proof” and “Preponderance of Evidence” should not be given in the future as this instruction is sufficient to cover the situation. By Order of the Supreme Court, No. 8000 Miscellaneous, U.J.I., “together with directions as to tise and non-use of instructions on certain subjects . . . shall be in effect . . . and shall be used as provided in Rule 51 of Rules of Civil Procedure (Section 21-1-1(51), N.M.S.A.1953) in cases filed on and after September 1, 1966.” [Emphasis added] U.J.I. does not provide instructions on burden of proof in actions for fraud. But an action for fraud is a civil case within the meaning of “Directions for Use.” Black’s Law Dictionary, Rev. Fourth Ed., at 311, 312. Actions for damages based on fraud are actions in tort. Montoya v. Moore, 77 N.M. 326, 422 P.2d 363 (1967). This establishes that the action presently before us is a “civil case.” In New Mexico, the doctrine of “clear, strong, and convincing evidence” does not apply to burden of proof. It applies in determining whether the evidence in support of the elements of fraud is substantial. McLean v. Paddock, 78 N.M. 234, 430 P.2d 392 (1967); Lumpkins v. McPhee, 59 N.M. 442, 286 P.2d 299 (1955). The trial court first gave U.J.I. No. 3.6 as its instruction No. 2, gave another instruction on the elements of fraud, and then gave instruction No. 10 which required that the elements of fraud be shown by evidence which was “clear, strong and convincing.” Instruction No. 10 stated, in its entirety: Fraud must be proved, though not necessarily by direct evidence, but when the plaintiff’s case goes no further than to establish a state of facts from which the inference of fraud may or may not he reasonably drawn, he has failed to establish his case by clear, strong and convincing evidence, and it becomes your duty to find in favor of innocence and uprightness. Ribble was adequately and carefully protected by requested instructions given where the question of fraud was involved. U.J.I. 3.6 not only applied to the issue of fraud, but it also applied to other material allegations of plaintiff’s complaint, such as scope of employment and mitigation of damages. The trial court did not err in giving instruction U.J.I. 3.6. We have reviewed the claimed error in giving and refusing other instruc tions, but we find them without proper objection and without merit. Attorneys are afforded a reasonable opportunity to object to instructions. Section 21-1-1(51), subd. l(i), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). Objections must be explicit. Objections in general terms are not sufficient. The trial court must be advised of the specific error so he may have an opportunity to correct it. Tapia v. Panhandle Steel Erectors Company, 78 N.M. 86, 428 P.2d 625 (1967); Sturgeon v. Clark, 69 N.M. 132, 364 P.2d 757 (1961). The instructions as a whole were correct and proper. VI. The Trial Court Properly Disallowed Ribble’s Counterclaim Piled the Morning of Trial. The complaint was filed July 30, 1969. The first amended complaint was filed October 16, 1970. No court order enlarging the time within which to answer was ever granted. Twenty months later, on June 7, 1971, the morning of trial, Ribble filed an answer and counterclaim. Ribble did not seek leave of court to file the counterclaim. The trial court allowed the answer and affirmative defenses, but disallowed the counterclaim. We agree with Echols that Ribble’s contention is patently frivolous. Anderson v. Jenkins Construction Co., 83 N.M. 47, 487 P.2d 1352 (Ct.App.1971). Ribble did not comply with § 21 — 1— 1(12)(a), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4), nor seek leave of court to set up the counterclaim by amendment due to oversight, inadvertence, or excusable neglect. Section 21-1-1(13) (f), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). The trial court properly disallowed the filing of the counterclaim. Affirmed. It is so ordered. HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION MARTINEZ, Justice. The defendant was found guilty of four counts of murder on September 27, 1968 and on September 30, 1968 was sentenced to death by lethal gas. Pursuant to §§ 40A-29-2.1 through 2.3 N.M.S.A. 1953 Comp. (2d Repl. Vol. 6, 1972) the New Mexico Supreme Court issued a Mandate to the District Court of Grant County on September 30, 1969 for resentencing. The defendant was then sentenced to life imprisonment on four counts. On May 18, 1970 the New Mexico Supreme Court affirmed his four convictions on appeal filed October 10, 1968. State v. Gillihan, 81 N.M. 535, 469 P.2d 514 (1970). The defendant filed a motion to vacate sentence on July 16, 1971 in accordance with Rule 93, § 21-1-1(93) N.M.S.A.1953 Comp. (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970). The District Court of Grant County denied the motion on March 15, 1972 without a hearing or the appointment of counsel and this appeal followed. The defendant alleges that his motion to vacate judgment and sentence pursuant to Rule 93 presents matter which, if proved, would require the setting aside of his conviction. Therefore, he argues that he was entitled to a hearing with the assistance of appointed counsel. The defendant alleges that his sentence violates the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution and laws of New Mexico on the following grounds: 1. His court appointed lawyer was ineffective and incompetent. 2. At the time of his arrest, he was denied the assistance of counsel and his confession was obtained through coercion and threats. 3. The trial court erred in admitting his confession into evidence. This Court has held repeatedly that where the trial record shows conclusively that an appellant is not entitled to relief under Rule 93, the court may deny the motion without a hearing or appointment of counsel. State v. Sanders, 82 N.M. 61, 475 P.2d 327 (1970). The defendant’s first ground is that his court appointed lawyer was ineffective and incompetent. The trial record shows that his lawyer was both effective and competent. At trial, his attorney objected to the use of defendant’s confession. Moreover, his failure to object to testimony of the State’s witnesses, as alleged by the defendant, constitutes a general claim and is not substantiated by specific facts which would serve as a basis for post-conviction relief. State v. Sharp, 79 N.M. 498, 445 P.2d 101 (Ct.App.1968). Finally counsel’s decision not to allow defendant to testify, to call witnesses, or to seek a change of venue are trial tactics and not the basis for relief. State v. Selgado, 78 N.M. 165, 429 P.2d 363 (1967). An appellant is denied effective assistance of counsel only where the trial is considered a mockery of justice, a sham, or a farce. State v. Hines, 78 N.M. 471, 432 P.2d 827 (1967); State v. Wilson, 82 N.M. 142, 477 P.2d 318 (Ct.App.1970). The defendant’s second ground for relief is that his confession was obtained by coercion and threats, and that he was denied the aid of counsel at the time of his arrest. The trial record shows the arresting officer instructed the defendant that he had a right to remain silent, a right to talk to a lawyer, a right to appointed counsel, and that anything he said could be used against him. The defendant waived these rights and made a confession. When a defendant expressly waives his right to counsel, he is not entitled to claim that he was denied the right. State v. King, 82 N.M. 200, 477 P.2d 1015 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Hansen, 79 N.M. 203, 441 P.2d 500 (Ct.App.1968). The testimony of the witnesses present depicts a friendly atmosphere, free from coercion and pressure. Moreover, the trial record demonstrates that no force or coercion was used, that the defendant confessed freely and of his own volition, and that he, himself, declared that the confession he was about to make was free from coercion. A nurse at the scene of the crime testified that Gillihan was not beaten or threatened by the arresting officer. In fact, she testified that the defendant was given hot chocolate and a blanket in an effort to calm and warm him after his arrest. She also testified that he confessed openly to her and the arresting officer prior to his confession at the District Attorney’s Office. The testimony of the reporter, who took defendant's statement at the District Attorney’s Office, indicates that at no time during his statement was he threatened by anyone, or that physical force was applied. Her testimony further indicates that Gillihan’s confession was freely given and only after he was informed of his constitutional rights. A motion for post-conviction relief based solely upon conclusions with no supporting factual base does not state a basis for relief. See State v. Ramirez, 81 N.M. 150, 464 P.2d 569 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Dominguez, 80 N.M. 328, 455 P.2d 194 (Ct.App.1969). There must be adequate allegations to support any conclusory statement; it is insufficient to allege that threats and coercion occurred and nothing more. Therefore, because the defendant has failed to adequately allege facts which would support a finding of coercion and threats, his second ground for relief must fail. See State v. Robinson, 78 N.M. 420, 432 P.2d 264 (1967); Nieto v. State, 79 N.M. 330, 443 P.2d 500 (Ct.App.1968). The defendant’s third ground for relief is that the trial court committed a fundamental error in admitting his confession into evidence. Fundamental error has been defined by this Court as follows: “Error that is fundamental must be such error as goes to the foundation or basis of a defendant’s rights or must go to the foundation of the case or take from the defendant a right which was essential to his defense * * * ” State v. Garcia, 46 N.M. 302, 309, 128 P.2d 459, 462 (1942). This Court further stated that no court “ * * * could or ought to permit [the defendant] to waive * * * ” this right and in determining whether fundamental error exists, each case must stand on its own. State v. Garcia, supra. As stated above, at the time of defendant’s confession, he had been advised of his rights to counsel. At trial, the defendant’s defense was insanity. The trial court heard testimony on this matter and decided that the defendant was acting in a rational manner and that his confession was voluntary and therefore admitted the confession. The defendant has raised merely a conclusory allegation of fundamental error, in that the trial court admitted his confession into evidence. However, he has failed to allege a specific factual basis sufficient to raise the issue of fundamental error. Therefore, because of defendant’s failure to allege sufficient facts, such relief as prayed for pursuant to Rule 93, supra, may not be granted. State v. Kenney, 81 N.M. 368, 467 P.2d 34 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Barefield, 80 N.M. 265, 454 P.2d 279 (Ct.App.1969). Therefore, because none of the grounds asserted by the defendant in support of his motion under Rule 93 serve as a basis for relief, the decision of the District Court of Grant County denying defendant’s motion without a hearing is affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur.
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari he and the same is hereby denied. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1064, 85 N.M. 274, 511 P.2d 760 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. The issue is whether the trial court erred in denying defendant’s motion to withdraw her plea of guilty before sentence was imposed. Defendant claims denial of the motion deprived her of due process. This is a companion case to State v. Ramos, 85 N.M. 438, 512 P.2d 1274 (Ct.App.1973). Defendant was charged with murder, to which she pled not guilty. Approximately two weeks prior to the trial date an amended information was filed charging voluntary manslaughter. She pled guilty to this charge. Sentencing was postponed until a pre-sentence report could be obtained. Here, as in State v. Ramos, supra, there is an affirmative showing that the guilty plea was voluntary. Defendant does not claim to the contrary. The pre-sentence report recommended a suspended sentence. There is some indication in the record that the probation officer was willing to change his recommendation to that of a deferred sentence. At the sentencing proceeding both the defense attorney and the district attorney recommended a deferred sentence. The district attorney’s recommendation, as in State v. Ramos, supra, was part of a plea bargain. Here, as in Ramos, supra, the trial court declined to follow the recommendations as to sentencing because of the offense involved — defendant shot and killed her husband. The trial court imposed the statutory penitentiary sentence for a third degree felony. It suspended all of the sentence except for sixty days to be served in the county jail and placed defendant on probation for two years from the date of her release from jail. As in Ramos, supra, this is not a case of an unkept plea bargain. The district attorney agreed to file the reduced charge of voluntary manslaughter and upon defendant pleading guilty to the reduced charge, to recommend a deferred sentence. He kept that bargain. This case differs from Ramos, supra, only in that the motion to withdraw the guilty plea was made before, rather than after, sentence was imposed. The judge and the attorneys were the same in both cases. Sentencing was the same day in both cases. Sentencing in Ramos, supra, took place immediately prior to sentencing in this case. At oral argument, defense counsel stated that the motion to withdraw the plea in this case was made because the trial court had declined to follow the sentencing recommendations in Ramos, supra. Before the trial court, defense counsel first argued that information as to the position of certain bullets had just been obtained. This was shown to be inaccurate and defendant does not claim the motion to withdraw the plea should have been granted on this ground. Defense counsel then pointed out to the trial court “ . . . that we have got practically a repeat ... of the Ramos case. . . . ” We agree. There is nothing showing defendant’s expectation of a deferred sentence was the district attorney’s doing. The agreement by the district attorney has been fulfilled. Defendant’s affidavit, in pleading guilty, covers the possible penalty for voluntary manslaughter and states the plea, was not induced by promises “ . . . nor by any indication that I may expect the Court to grant me leniency because of my plea.” The circumstances here, as in Ramos, supra, show a defendant aware of her rights and the consequences of her acts, and not getting the sentencing result she desired. There was no denial of due process in denying the motion to withdraw the guilty plea prior to imposition of sentence. Stafford v. State, 82 N.M. 365, 482 P.2d 68 (Ct.App.1971). The judgment and sentence is affirmed. It is so ordered. LOPEZ, J., concurs. SUTIN, J., dissents.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. After an audit, the Bureau of Revenue issued an assessment for gross receipts and compensating tax, penalty and interest to Waldroop, the proprietor of a bar and package liquor store. Waldroop protested the assessment, and after two partial abatements of the assessment, the protest was denied. Waldroop appeals directly to this Court from the decision of the Commissioner of Revenue denying the protest. Section 72-13-39, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1973). The assessment was based on the underpayment of taxes. The underpayment was determined after the Bureau auditor computed Waldroop’s gross receipts for the audit period. The issues are: (1) whether Waldroop’s books and records were inadequate so that the computation of gross receipts was proper and (2) whether the method of computing the gross receipts was erroneous. Adequacy of books and records. Section 72-13-27(A), • N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1973) requires Waldroop to “* * * maintain books of account or other records in a manner that will permit the accurate computation of state taxes. * * * ” Waldroop asserts his books and records met this statutory requirement. On this basis, he asserts the auditor’s conclusion that the books and records were inadequate and the auditor’s computation of gross receipts, independently of the books and records, were erroneous, as a matter of law. We disagree. Section 72-13-22, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1973) gives the Bureau general investigative authority in “ * * * determining the extent of the liability of any person for any tax. * * *” See Torridge Corporation v. Commissioner of Revenue, 84 N.M. 610, 506 P.2d 354 (Ct.App.1972). As part of that investigative authority: “The commissioner shall cause the records and books of account of taxpayers to be inspected or au dited at such times as he deems necessary * * *.” Section 72-13-28(A), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1973). The specially concurring opinion in Archuleta v. O’Cheskey, 84 N.M. 428, 504 P.2d 638 (Ct.App.1972) states: “The taxpayer has a duty to provide the commissioner with books and records upon which to establish a standard for taxation as provided by law. If he fails to do so, he cannot complain of the best methods used by the commissioner.” The adequacy of a taxpayer’s books and records is a question of fact. Tor-ridge Corporation v. Commissioner of Revenue, supra. The fact that Waldroop, in the hearing before the Commissioner, introduced evidence that his books and records were adequate did not require a ruling, as a matter of law, that they were adequate. There was conflicting evidence. This conflicting evidence will be referred to subsequently. Waldroop entered the totals shown on his cash register tapes on other records and then disposed of the cash register tapes. Waldroop contends the denial of his protest “* '* * rests upon the mere assertion of the auditor that, in the absence of cash register tapes, Appellant’s records are inadequate. * * * ” On the basis of this contention, Waldroop makes two “matter of law” arguments. First, he asserts that the failure to retain cash register tapes does not mean that his records are inadequate as a matter of law. Second, he contends that the Bureau, by assessing the taxes against him, is requiring the retention of cash register tapes as support for other books and records; that no such requirement appears either in the statutes or tax regulations and, thus, the imposition of such a requirement without prior notice violates due process of law. The answer is that nothing in this record shows any “matter of law” decision concerning the cash register tapes, nor is there anything in the record indicating that as a “matter of law” the tapes were required to be retained. Our review is limited to the record. Section 72-13-39, supra. Not being supported by the record, the “matter of law” arguments concerning the cash register tapes are without merit. Waldroop asserts that as a “matter of fact” his books and records were adequate. The Commissioner necessarily found to the contrary in denying the protest. We consider the evidence before the Commissioner. The auditor testified: (a) there were no substantiating or source documents by which the entries in Waldroop’s records could be verified; (b) the only inventory records were entries on profit and loss statements and Schedule C to the federal income tax returns, which Mrs. Waldroop indicated were estimates; (c) the profit and loss statements indicated inventory remained fairly constant on a month to month basis throughout the audit period, yet Schedule C indicated purchases higher than gross receipts reported; (d) Waldroop claimed that he had held special sales and had also sold at discount but there were no records of any kind to substantiate when or how often such sales occurred or prices charged in connection with such sales; (e) bank deposits for 1969 (a part of the audit period) exceeded $77,000.00, yet gross receipts reported were “about $35,000” and the bank deposits substantiated the amount of gross receipts computed by the auditor. Opposed to the foregoing is the evidence presented by Waldroop to the effect that his books and records were adequate. More than one inference can reasonably be drawn from the evidence. Thus, the question as to the adequacy of Waldroop’s books and records was not one of law based on facts permitting only one inference. Since more than one inference can be drawn, the determination made by the Commissioner, that the books and records were inadequate, is conclusive. Archuleta v. O’Cheskey, supra. The Commissioner, having properly determined that the books and records were inadequate, did not err in considering the auditor’s computation of Waldroop’s gross receipts. Method of computing gross receipts. The audit period was January 28, 1969, through March 31, 1971. The gross receipts for this period were computed by arriving at a mark-up percentage based on Waldroop’s cost of merchandise and selling prices weighted on the basis of types of sales (bar or package) and type of merchandise sold (beer, wine, liquor). See Archuleta v. O’Cheskey, supra. In arriving at the percentage of mark-up, the auditor used two test months, June, 1969 and October, 1970. As to test months, see Tor-ridge Corporation v. Commissioner of Revenue, supra. Waldroop has three complaints about use of the above method in computing his gross receipts. First, he asserts that in computing the mark-up for the test month of October, 1970, the auditor used merchandise costs for October, 1970 but used selling prices for June, 1971. He asserts this results in a distorted gross profit figure because of an increase in selling prices in the seven month interval between the two dates. The auditor, however, took the fact of increased selling prices and the seven month time period into account by reducing the mark-up computed for the test month of October, 1970. This reduction in the computed mark-up was 2.18 percent. This percentage reduction is explained by the auditor’s testimony that cost comparisons between June, 1969 and October, 1970 had a difference of less than 2 percent and by Waldroop’s testimony that: “As the wholesaler goes up, I increase. * * *” This testimony is substantial and supports the inference that the percentage reduction in the computed mark-up for the test month of October, 1970 accounted for the increase in selling prices. Second, he contends that the computed mark-up was applied to the purchase invoices contained in each month’s record file. Waldroop testified that the invoices were placed in the file in the month in which the invoice was paid. On this basis, he asserts there are two distortions in the computed mark-up because: (a) months might elapse between delivery of merchandise and its sale; (b) payment of the purchase invoice might not occur in the month the merchandise was delivered. Waldroop asserts the computed mark-up treated all merchandise as being sold in the month where the purchase invoice appeared in the file. The auditor testified that over the period of a year there was “no great variance” in the inventory; that this, together with quantities purchased, indicated Waldroop was selling what he was buying. Further, the auditor testified that on the basis of quantities purchased, the mark-up computed for a particular month would “remain consistent” throughout the audit period. Still further, the assessment was adjusted for inventory variances not taken into account in the original audit. Waldroop received the benefit of this adjustment in one of the partial abatements. The foregoing is substantial evidence that the computed mark-up was not distorted because Waldroop filed purchase invoices under the month paid. Third, he claims that the “test months” used in computing the mark-up were selected arbitrarily. The argument is that if other months had been used, the result would have shown an over reporting of gross receipts in those other months. Waldroop contends that since different results are obtained, depending on the test months used, the mark-up used is an arbitrary one. The auditor testified that the two test months used were chosen because they appear as average months for sales. The auditor testified that whether an underpayment or overpayment of taxes was indicated would depend on the test month chosen, but that even if a test month chosen indicated an overpayment of taxes, he would have arrived “ * * * at the same per cent [sic] of mark-up. * * * ” This mark-up would be applied to the entire audit period, thus, both underpayments and overpayments are taken into consideration in arriving at the total deficiency. This is substantial evidence that the two test months used in computing the mark-up did not produce an arbitrary result. Waldroop’s complaints as to the methods used in computing his gross receipts are without merit. The Decision and Order of the Commissioner, denying the protest, is affirmed. It is so ordered. HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION LOPEZ, Judge. Two bottles of liquor allegedly stolen from the house at the Rowley ranch were found in defendant’s zipped duffel bag at his place of residence. Defendant, by his court-appointed attorney, made a pretrial motion to suppress the evidence on the grounds of illegal search and seizure. The motion was denied and defendant was convicted of burglary of a residence pursuant to § 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). Although defendant raises five points for reversal, the dispositive issue concerns the denial of his motion to sup press. We hold that the motion should have been granted. Therefore, we reverse. The pertinent facts relating to the search and seizure are as follows: The defendant occupied a room in a house rented by his sister and his brother-in-law. The room was separated from the rest of the living area only by a space doorway and curtains. The defendant paid rent for the use of the room, but it is not clear as to whether- the rent had been paid regularly. Defendant’s sister and brother-in-law, the Padillas, used a closet in defendant’s room for storage purposes and permitted defendant’s half-brother, Ted Bilberry, to share the room with defendant. Ted Bilberry had seen a list of the items missing from the Rowley ranch. He saw two bottles of liquor similar to the liquor reported as stolen. These bottles were in a duffel bag in the room he shared with defendant. He reported his observation to the police. Three officers went to the Padilla residence while defendant was absent. They asked Mrs. Padilla for consent to search the premises. She refused, deferring to her husband as “head of the household.” Her husband voluntarily consented to a search of “my place of residence.” The police commenced a search of the defendant’s room. Mrs. Padilla testified that they were “very specific” about asking as to the ownership of various items, “. . . so they would only search his [defendant’s] things. . . .” Under a night stand the police found defendant’s zipped duffel bag. They searched the bag and found two allegedly stolen bottles of liquor. Padilla could consent to a search of his premises and this consent extends to portions of the premises that Padilla controlled jointly with other residents. However, there is no issue as to the consent for. a premises search. The issue is whether Padilla’s consent, under the facts of this case, can validate the search of defendant’s duffel bag. The search of the duffel bag, in this case, must stand or fall on Padilla’s consent. Before proceeding further it is important to determine what is not involved in this case. There is no question as to whether the item searched was an “effect” entitled to protection under the New Mexico and United States Constitutions. See U.S. Const. Amend. IV and N.M.Const. Art. II, § 10; Cf. Roberts v. United States, 332 F. 2d 892 (8th Cir. 1964), cert. denied, 380 U.S. 980, 85 S.Ct. 1344, 14 L.Ed.2d 274 (1965); State v. McCarthy, 20 Ohio App.2d 275, 253 N.E.2d 789 (1969), aff’d 26 Ohio St.2d 87, 269 N.E.2d 424 (1971). There is no claim that the consenting party had any ownership or possessory interest in the effect seized. Cf. Frazier v. Cupp, 394 U.S. 731, 89 S.Ct. 1420, 22 L.Ed.2d 684 (1969). There is no evidence that the bag was searched under the impression it was the property of someone other than the defendant. Nor is there evidence of any mistaken impression that the bag was jointly used, possessed or controlled by the consenting party and the defendant. Finally, there is no evidence of any authority (actual or mistaken) on the part of Mr. Padilla to consent to a search of defendant’s personal effects. To the contrary, the police officer’s testimony indicated that he knew the bag belonged to defendant. See White v. United States, 444 F.2d 724 (10th Cir. 1971); People v. Gorg, 45 Cal.2d 776, 291 P.2d 469 (1955). Finally, this case does not involve a claim that the evidence seized was in plain view, that the effect was abandoned or that the evidence was delivered into the hands of the police without official intervention. Cf. State v. Kennedy, 80 N.M. 152, 452 P.2d 486 (Ct.App.1969); People v. McGrew, 1 Cal.3d 404, 82 Cal.Rptr. 473, 462 P.2d 1 (1969), cert. denied 398 U.S. 909, 90 S.Ct. 1689, 26 L.Ed.2d 67 (1970), overruled in People v. McKinnon, 7 Cal.3d 899, 103 Cal.Rptr. 897, 500 P.2d 1097 (1972), U.S. appeal pending. What this case does involve is the Fourth Amendment, set out as follows: “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.” [Emphasis added] The Court in United States v. Jeffers, 342 U.S. 48, 72 S.Ct. 93, 96 L.Ed. 59 (1951), stated: “The Fourth Amendment prohibits both unreasonable searches and unreasonable seizures, and its protection extends to both ‘houses’ and ‘effects.’ A third party cannot consent to a search of a part of the premises within defendant’s exclusive use and control. See State v. Kennedy, supra; Reeves v. Warden, Maryland Penitentiary, 346 F.2d 915 (4th Cir. 1955). No reason for denying effects the same protection that we give to premises has been advanced, nor can we think of one. A number of cases from other jurisdictions support our conclusion. In People v. Gonzalez, 50 Misc.2d 508, 270 N.Y.S.2d 727 (1966), the court flatly stated: “. . . While the original entry was with the permission of defendant’s wife, she could not validly consent to a search of his personal effects which were not exposed to open view. Similarly, the court in State v. Evans, 45 Hawaii 622, 372 P.2d 365 (1962) held: “. . . When the officers searched the husband’s personal effects to discover jewelry hidden in a cuff link case in a bedroom bureau drawer they went beyond the bounds of any possible justification. . . .” The court in United States v. Poole, 307 F.Supp. 1185 (E.D.La.1969), succinctly states the rule as follows: “The rule which emerges is that a defendant may object to a search consented to by another where the defendant has exclusive control over a part of the premises searched or over an ‘effect’ on the premises which is itself capable of being (and is) ‘searched.’ ‘Enclosed spaces’ over which a non-consenting party has a right to exclude others, whether rooms or effects, are protected. . If X leaves his closed suit case [sic] in Y’s apartment, this is no authorization to Y to open the suitcase or for Y to allow others to open it. . ” Padilla’s consent to a search was not sufficient to validate the police search of defendant’s closed duffel bag because there is nothing showing Padilla had or claimed any interest or control in the duffel bag. We are not unaware of cases reaching an opposite result. See United States ex rel. Perry v. Russell, 315 F.Supp. 65 (W.D.Pa.1970); State v. Kinderman, 271 Minn. 405, 136 N.W.2d 577 (1965), cert. denied 384 U.S. 909, 86 S.Ct. 1349, 16 L.Ed.2d 361 (1966). However, these decisions rely on the consenting party’s interest in the premises and do not discuss separate ownership of the effects. We feel that the great weight of authority and reason requires that effects be treated separately. United States v. Brown, 300 F.Supp. 1285 (D.C.N.H.1969); Commonwealth v. Storck, 442 Pa. 197, 275 A.2d 362 (1971); State v. McCarthy, supra; People v. Cruz, 61 Cal.2d 861, 40 Cal.Rptr. 841, 395 P.2d 889 (1964); People v. Daniels, 16 Cal.App.3d 36, 93 Cal.Rptr. 628 (1971); People v. Gonzalez, supra; State v. Evans, supra; and United States v. Poole, supra. Therefore, we hold that the search exceeded the permissible scope of the consent and that the motion to suppress should have been granted. Finding no merit in defendant’s other points, we reverse and remand for a new trial. It is so ordered. WOOD, C. J., and HERNANDEZ, J., concur.
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OPINION MONTOYA, Justice. This was an action for damages sustained as a result of the alleged failure of defendants, Cain and Stevenson, to perform under a lease. The parties will be referred to as they appeared below. Plaintiff Family Farm & North 10 Riding Academy, Inc., a New Mexico corporation, was allowed to file a first amended complaint and both plaintiff-corporation’s complaint and first amended complaint were dismissed for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. Plaintiff-corporation was given leave to and did file a second amended complaint alleging, among other things, that a lease had been entered into between plaintiff-corporation and defendant Cain. Both defendants generally denied all the allegations of the second amended complaint and pled the statute of frauds and failure of consideration as defenses. The cause was tried without a jury and judgment was entered for plaintiff-corporation against Cain. The cause was dismissed as against Stevenson. Defendant Cain appeals and plaintiff-corporation cross-appeals. The record reveals the following pertinent facts: About February of 1970, defendants Cain and Stevenson met with one Mario Di Gesu regarding the possible lease of certain lands. Tentative agreements were reached and Di Gesu had his attorney prepare a lease agreement, which was never executed because of objections on the part of Cain. Thereafter, Stevenson moved horses and equipment belonging to her onto the premises, beginning sometime in March 1970. None of the horses or equipment were the property of Cain. Defendants attempted to make a structure on the premises useable and safe for occupancy by Stevenson’s horses. However, there was a wind storm in June 1970, and the structure collapsed. It was alleged in the second amended complaint that defendants enterd into a separate and distinct oral agreement to build a barn, an agreement which was denied by defendants. No writing or memo randum of any type concerning this agreement was alleged, and testimony discloses that the alleged oral agreement was never reduced to writing. During this time, Stevenson kept her horses on the premises and entered into several agreements with Di Gesu wherein she operated pony rides for him, rented her horses for him, used her horses for the promotion of Di Gesu’s business, and also for the mutual benefit of both herself and Di Gesu. Cain did not participate in these activities, nor did he share in the proceeds. Suffice it to say, the record discloses still other financial transactions concerning the parties herein. Defendant Cain sets forth four points on appeal. First, Cain contends that plaintiff-corporation was not a party to this action and had no interest in the controversy; second, that the district court erred in refusing to dismiss plaintiff-corporation’s second amended complaint; third, that there was no valid and enforceable contract between plaintiff-corporation and himself, but that if such a contract did exist, then Stevenson was also a party; fourth, that if plaintiff-corporation was entitled to damages, the damage award was excessive. We feel that point one is dis-positive of this appeal. This action was filed naming as plaintiff “FAMILY FARM & NORTH 10 RIDING ACADEMY, INC., a New Mexico corporation.” At trial, however, no proof was offered to either identify the corporation or show that the said corporation had any interest in the controversy. The only proof offered concerning the identification of the named plaintiff was the following direct examination of Di Gesu by plaintiff-corporation’s attorney: “Q. State your full name, please. “A. Mario Di Gesu. “Q. Are you the plaintiff in this action, Mr. Di Gesu? “A. Yes, sir.” The district court found that an oral agreement was entered into by plaintiff-corporation and defendant Cain, whereby an existing structure on plaintiff-corporation’s land would be remodeled and enlarged by Cain, and held that such alleged oral contract was valid and enforceable. We do not find in the record any evidence that plaintiff-corporation was in any way a party to the alleged oral contract, or that it had any interest in the controversy. This question was considered in Bank of New Mexico v. Rice, 78 N.M. 170, 429 P.2d 368 (1967), where we stated (78 N.M. at 175, 429 P.2d at 373): “It is a general rule of law that one who is not a party to a contract cannot maintain a suit upon it. [Citations omitted.] * * From the testimony of the parties herein, it is clear that Di Gesu was the party prosecuting this action. These points were brought to the attention of the trial court in the following requested findings of fact and conclusions of law submitted by Cain: (Findings of fact) “2. That no evidence was introduced to prove the ownership of the real estate described in Plaintiff’s Complaint, which is the main subject matter of this lawsuit. “22. That no evidence was offered by Plaintiff to establish that one MARIO DeGESU was in any way acting for Plaintiff or had authority to enter into any agreement in its behalf with the Defendants or either of them.” (Conclusions of law) “2. That Plaintiff is not entitled to recover against Defendant CAIN for the reason that it has failed to prove ownership or other interest in the real estate described in Plaintiff’s Complaint, which would have entitled it to exercise proprietary rights over same and enter into agreements with Defendants, or either of them. “9. That no one with authority to contract for or on behalf of Plaintiff entered into any agreements with' Defendants, or either of them, respecting the subject matter of this litigation.” It is to be noted that plaintiff in this case was denominated in the caption of the second complaint as “FAMILY FARM & NORTH 10 RIDING ACADEMY, a New Mexico corporation,” and in the body of the complaint the only reference to the party bringing the action is by the designation “plaintiff.” No evidence was presented to show that the corporation was in existence, or to show that it had any interest in the subject matter of the litigation. No attempt was made to show what interest Di Gesu had in the corporation as a stockholder, officer or agent. The trial court concluded that there had been an oral agreement between plaintiff (corporation) and Cain which was valid and enforceable. However, no proof was adduced to show that plaintiff-corporation was in any way a party to the said oral agreement. Our Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 17(a), (§ 21-1-1(17) (a), N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., Repl. Vol. 4, 1970), requires that every action must be prosecuted in the name of the real party in interest. The only proof of interest in the controversy is the testimony of Di Gesu that he was the plaintiff. The judgment, however, is in favor of the plaintiff-corporation. As we view the matter, it was error for the trial court to grant judgment to plaintiff-corporation, as the actual party to the alleged oral contract upon which the judgment is based was Di Gesu and not plaintiff-corporation. Therefore, we hold that the trial court’s findings and conclusions to the effect that plaintiff-corporation was in any way involved in the oral agreement between the parties are not supported by any evidence. Neither were the findings of the trial court that plaintiff-corporation was damaged supported by any evidence in the record. There being no findings to support the conclusions of law made by the court, plaintiff-corporation’s claim must fail. No evidence appears in the record which in any way tends to prove plaintiff-corporation’s claim of any oral agreement or dealings with defendants. Therefore, no judgment can be entered in its favor. Plaintiff-corporation’s claim that defendant Cain failed to raise the issue of the proper party is without merit. The above quoted requested findings of fact and conclusions of law submitted by defendant Cain are sufficient to alert the trial court and to call to its attention the lack of any evidence to 'prove plaintiff-corporation’s interest or any enforceable right, as alleged in its complaint. Such failure of proof must defeat any judgment rendered in its favor. As this issue is dispositive of this matter on appeal, discussion of defendant Cain’s other points would serve no useful purpose. In view of the foregoing, we reverse the judgment of the trial court with respect to Cain, and affirm the trial court’s judgment as to Stevenson. Accordingly, the cause is remanded to the trial court with direction to set aside that portion of its judgment awarding plaintiff-corporation damages against defendant Cain, and to dismiss the complaint against him and award him costs as provided by law. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This is the third time this cause has been before this Court on appeal. Our decision on the first appeal is reported in McLam v. McLam, 81 N.M. 37, 462 P.2d 622 (1969). The second appeal appears as No. 9189 on the docket of this Court and was dismissed by order entered March 3, 1971. The child custody issue referred to in McLam v. McLam, supra, has been resolved by an order awarding custody of the child to plaintiff. This order was entered without objection by defendant and is not involved in this appeal. The case is now before us on appeal from an order dismissing defendant’s claim of right to have the New Mexico courts decide all issues between the parties as to the nature and extent of their community property and to make an equitable division thereof between them. We affirm. This claim by defendant was asserted in her responsive pleading to plaintiff’s application for custody of the child. The trial court dismissed the claim under the doctrine of forum non conveniens. Its order of dismissal was predicated upon the following findings and conclusions: “ * * * that all property involved in said responsive pleading [the pleading in which defendant asserted her claim] is situated in the State of Idaho; plaintiff and plaintiff’s minor -child are residents and domiciliaries of the State of Idaho; all witnesses to this action are residents of the State of Idaho; a view of the real estate would be necessary but would not be available to this Court because of the location of said real estate in Idaho; the Court proceedings giving rise to this matter were in the State of Idaho; and that the law applicable to this action would be the law of Idaho; and that the State of New Mexico is not the forum for serving the ends of justice, convenience of witnesses and the Court and that the doctrine of forum non conveniens should be applied.” In the statement of proceedings in her brief in chief, defendant has challenged the foregoing findings by a parenthetical note as required by Supreme Court Rule 15(16) (b) [§ 21-2-1(15) (16) (b), N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. However, she has failed to state in her argument the ground or grounds for challenging any of these findings. Her arguments are directed entirely toward supporting her claims that the trial court improperly applied the doctrine of forum non conveniens to the facts of this case because (1) plaintiff chose the forum initially for the purpose of gaining custody of the child; (2) plaintiff and the trial court were both estopped from considering the doctrine because it was not raised until the case had long been in litigation; and (3) defendant has the right to assert her property claims in the forum of her choice. A mere challenge of a finding by parenthetical note in the statement of proceedings is not sufficient to raise an issue on appeal. The burden was on ap-pellaht to state in argument her precise ground or grounds for challenging the findings. Rule 15(16) (b), supra. It was also her burden to clearly point out the claimed error or errors in the findings upon which she relies. Morris v. Merchant, 77 N.M. 411, 423 P.2d 606 (1967); Cochran v. Gordon, 77 N.M. 358, 423 P.2d 43 (1967); Novack v. Dow, 82 N.M. 30, 474 P.2d 712 (Ct.App.1970). She failed in both respects. At the close of the evidence, defendant expressly asked leave of the court to file requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. Leave was granted, but she failed to file any requests or take any exceptions to the findings made by the trial court. Under these circumstances, she is not entitled to a review of the evidence, if this is what she was seeking by the challenge in her said parenthetical note. McNabb v. Warren, 83 N.M. 247, 490 P.2d 964 (1971); Hall v. Lea County Electric Cooperative, 78 N.M. 792, 438 P.2d 632 (1968); Kipp v. McBee, 78 N.M. 411, 432 P.2d 255 (1967); Texas Cotton Harvester Sales Co. v. Smith, 76 N.M. 495, 416 P.2d 159 (1966); Owensby v. Nesbitt, 61 N.M. 3, 293 P.2d 652 (1956). There is no merit to defendant’s contention that the doctrine of forum non conveniens was not applicable because plaintiff chose New Mexico in which to seek the custody of his child. The child was in New Mexico and had come into the custody of the New' Mexico Department of Welfare upon defendant being jailed. It was defendant who selected New Mexico as the forum in which to have the property rights of the parties litigated and determined, although this had been accomplished by an Idaho court. There is no merit to defendant’s contention that the plaintiff and the trial court were estopped from raising, considering or applying the doctrine of forum non conveniens because the case had been in court for a considerable time before the doctrine was raised. The question of disposing of. defendant’s claim as to the property rights of the parties came on for consideration immediately after the child custody question had been resolved. The applicability of the doctrine was thereupon considered by the court and defendant presented evidence in opposition thereto. There is also no merit to defendant’s contention that her choice of New Mexico as the forum in which to litigate the property rights of the parties was absolute and the New Mexico court was without discretion in the matter. The application of the doctrine of forum non conveniens rests largely in the discretion of the court to which the claimant resorts. Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 501, 508, 67 S.Ct. 839, 91 L.Ed. 1055 (1947); Price v. Atchison T. & S. F. Ry. Co., 42 Cal.2d 577, 268 P.2d 457 (1954); Proposed Official Draft, Restatement of the Law, Second, Conflict of Laws, § 84(b) (1967); Annot., Doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens, Assumption or Denial of Jurisdiction of Action Involving Matrimonial Disputes, 9 A.L.R.3d 545 (1966). The matters found by the trial court, as quoted above,'are among the more important considerations usually relied upon for denying jurisdiction under the doctrine. Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 508, 67 S.Ct. 839, supra; Gonzales v. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co., 189 Kan. 689, 371 P.2d 193, 198 (1962); St. Louis-San Francisco Ry. Co. v. Superior Court, 290 P.2d 118 (Okl.1955); Annot., 9 A.L.R.3d, supra, § 3 at 547. Another consideration which obviously confronted the trial court in the present case was that of the ultimate efficacy of any decree which the court might have rendered had it retained jurisdiction. A decree by a court of one state, purporting to affect title to realty situate in another state, appears to have limited binding effect upon the state wherein the property is located under the full faith and credit clause of the United States Constitution. Fall v. Estin, 215 U.S. 1, 30 S.Ct. 3, 54 L.Ed. 65 (1909). The decision in the Fall case has met with criticism. See Leñar, American Conflicts Law, § 83 at 191 (1968). However, it has not been overruled. In Rozan v. Rozan, 49 Cal.2d 322, 317 P.2d 11 (1957), the California court ordered a division of real estate situate in North Dakota. In Rozan v. Rozan, 129 N.W.2d 694, 701 (N.D.1964), the North Dakota court held: “ * * * that portion of the California decree purporting to vest a 65% interest to plaintiff (wife), and a 35% interest to defendant (husband), of North Dakota real properties, and thus directly affect and vest title in these litigants, is a nullity and is .not entitled to, nor shall it be accorded, full faith and credit by the courts of this State.” The order of the trial court should be affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. The parties were formerly husband and wife. By decree entered on December 27, 1971, plaintiff was awarded a divorce from defendant and the custody of their son, who is now about four years of age. After a subsequent hearing on a motion to modify the decree as to the custody of the child, the trial court entered an order on July 26, 1972 whereby the custody of the child was again awarded to plaintiff. Defendant has appealed from this order. We affirm. Defendant first contends the trial court erred in limiting the evidence to the period subsequent to the entry of the final decree of divorce on December 27, 1971. This contention is predicated upon the following provision in said final decree: “That the Plaintiff is hereby awarded the care, custody and control of the minor child of the parties; however, the Defendant may reopen this matter without showing change of circumstances.” [Emphasis added] We don’t know why the trial court inserted this provision in the final decree or what effect it was intended to ■have. However, we do not agree with defendant that this gave him permission to relitigate all matters pertaining to custody which had already been litigated and decided. Contrary to plaintiff’s contention that the evidence adduced at the hearing on the motion was limited to the period subsequent to December 27, 1971, considerable evidence was in fact admitted relating to the activities of the parties prior to that date. Just what else defendant may have wished to introduce into evidence he fails to mention in his brief-in-chief and he failed to mention in his oral argument before this Court. He also has failed to suggest just how he was prejudiced by the claimed limitation imposed upon him by the trial court. He relies upon his statement that he was obviously constrained and thereby greatly prejudiced. We are unable to determine the extent of any such constraint or the extent, if any, of any prejudice caused thereby. If error was in fact committed, and defendant intended to successfully rely thereon, he was obliged to demonstrate that his rights were prejudiced thereby. Apodaca v. United States Fidelity and Guaranty Co., 78 N.M. 501, 433 P.2d 86 (1967); Scott v. Brown, 76 N.M. 501, 416 P.2d 516 (1966); see also Jewell v. Seidenberg, 82 N.M. 120, 477 P. 2d 296 (1970). This defendant has failed to do. The child’s best interests is the principal consideration of the court in initially determining a child’s custody, as well as in effecting a change in custody. Stone v. Stone, 79 N.M. 351, 443 P.2d 741 (1968); Kotrola v. Kotrola, 79 N.M. 258, 442 P.2d 570 (1968). A change of custody is permissible only upon a showing of a change of circumstances. Stone v. Stone, supra; Fox v. Doak, 78 N.M. 743, 438 P.2d 153 (1968); Kerley v. Kerley, 69 N.M. 291, 366 P.2d 141 (1961). Defendant next claims error on the part of the trial court in entering the order of July 26, 1972, which he contends was based upon a finding of fact unsupported by the evidence. The finding to which he refers was: “That the report from the Department of Health and Social Services, which was presented to the Court on December 27, 1971, recommended that the Plaintiff receive custody of the minor child.” It is true the report does not appear in the record before us. However, the order is in no way dependent upon this finding. Some of the other findings which are either not attacked, or upon which the attack made must fail, as will be discussed hereinafter, are as follows: “3. That the Plaintiff was awarded custody of the minor child, Abraham Specter, after a hearing by the Court on December 27, 1971; * * * “ * * * * “6. That the Plaintiff is the fit and proper person to have care, custody and control of Abraham Specter. “7. That the evidence shows that the Plaintiff has taken excellent care of Abraham Specter and that said child is a happy and normal child. “8. That the Plaintiff has shown love and affection towards the minor child and has taken care of all his needs. « íj< >ji ‡ “10. That Abraham Specter is in excellent health and spirits, is a young bright child and shows great affection towards his mother. “11. That Abraham Specter needs the care and companionship of his natural mother, who is well able to take care of his needs. tc * * * 4-' “14. That the Plaintiff has no disabilities, physical or social, which would make her unfit to care for the minor child. “15. That the Plaintiff is best qualified to rear the minor child in a happy, normal and contented environment.” We agree that findings of fact made by a trial court must be supported by the record of the proceedings out of which the findings arise. However, erroneous findings of fact unnecessary to support the judgment of the court are not grounds for reversal. Prude v. Lewis, 78 N.M. 256, 430 P.2d 753 (1967); Garcia v. Color Tile Distributing Company, 75 N.M. 570, 408 P.2d 145 (1965); Board of County Comr’s of Dona Ana County v. Little, 74 N.M. 605, 396 P.2d 591 (1964). Defendant next contends the trial court erred in making findings of fact Nos. 7, 8, 10 and 11, which are quoted above. He claims the evidence fails to show plaintiff has taken excellent care of the child; the child is happy in her care; a reciprocal feeling of affection exists between her and the child; the child needs her; and she is able to take care of the child. Defendant would have this Court substitute his appraisal of the credibility of the witnesses and the evidence for the trial court’s appraisal thereof. A reading of the entire record shows clearly that the findings of fact now under attack are supported by substantial evidence. They will not be disturbed. Finally defendant urges the trial court erroneously made provisions in its order relating to visitation rights of defendant with the child which are contrary to the court’s opinion. The so-called opinion of the court was the following emphasized portions of an oral statement made by the court during the proceedings: “I believe in this case that the child should be placed in the custody of the mother with the right of visitation in the father for a period of two months during the summer." [Emphasis added] In the written order, the trial court was more explicit as to defendant’s visitation rights by providing: “ * * * that while the Plaintiff is residing in Dallas, Texas, the Defendant is entitled to visitation rights during the months of July and August of each year until further order of the Court; and that at all other times the Defendant is entitled to reasonable visitation rights.” A reading of the court’s entire decision, consisting of findings of fact and conclusions of law as required by Rule 52(B) (a)(1) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1 (52) (B) (a)(1), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970)], demonstrates that the foregoing quoted portion of the order concerning visitation rights is supported by this decision. Defendant recognizes that an oral opinion or statement is not a “decision” as contemplated by Rule 52(B) (a)(1), supra. Pack v. Read, 77 N.M. 76, 419 P.2d 453 (1966). The holding in Thompson v. H. B. Zachry Co., 75 N.M. 715, 410 P.2d 740 (1966), upon which defendant relies and which was based upon the failure of the trial court to make essential findings of all necessary ultimate facts as required by Rule 52(B) (a) (2) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1 (52) (B) (a) (2), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1970)], is not applicable here. Plaintiff has requested an award of attorney’s fees on this appeal. We award her the sum of $500.00 for this purpose. The order appealed from should be affirmed. It is so ordered. MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION RIORDAN, Justice. Plaintiff United Nuclear Corporation (UNC) brought suit under two different policies of insurance against defendants Allendale Mutual Insurance Company (Allen-dale) and its subsidiary, Appalachian Insurance Company (Appalachian). Each insurer provided different coverage to UNC. UNC sought reimbursement for business interruption and property damage losses that occurred when a tailings embankment failed at UNC’s Churchrock uranimum mill site. Both Allendale and Appalachian denied coverage. The trial court, finding coverage under Allendale’s policy, awarded judgment to UNC for losses and damages, including attorney’s fees, prejudgment interest and punitive damages. The trial court found in favor of Appalachian. Allendale appeals. We affirm in part and reverse in part. The issues on appeal are: I. Whether the trial court erroneously construed an exclusionary provision in Allendale’s policy of insurance. II. Whether the punitive damage award against Allendale is unlawful and unconstitutional. III. Whether the award of attorney’s fees against Allendale was unreasonable and an abuse of discretion. IV. Whether the trial court’s award of compensatory damages is supported by substantial evidence. V. Whether the award of prejudgment interest against Allendale is error. I. Policy Coverage. On July 16, 1979, the earthen tailings dam at UNC’s Churchrock uranium mill failed, releasing 94 million gallons of tailings and causing the mill to be shut down. At the time of the dam failure, the Allen-dale insurance policy issued to UNC provided coverage for: Collapse of buildings, structures or a material part thereof in excess of $25,000 for each occurrence, except that there shall be no liability for loss or damage caused by or resulting from flood, earthquake, landslide, subsidence or any other earth movement. Collapse shall not mean settling, cracking, shrinking, bulging, or expansion of pavements, foundations, walls, floors, ceilings or roofs. (Emphasis added.) Allendale’s refusal to honor UNC’s claim for coverage was based in part on the ground that the dam failure was excluded under the “subsidence or any other earth movement” exception. Allendale also disputed the amount of damages claimed by UNC under various other provisions of the policy. All parties agree that the “collapse” was caused by “differential settlement.” Allen-dale argues that differential settlement is a kind of “subsidence” and cites four dictionary definitions which, by various interrelated words, draw a connection between the two terms. We would agree that there is similarity between the events described by “settlement” and by “subsidence,” but the terms are not necessarily synonymous. Indeed, during argument on a motion for directed verdict, Allendale’s counsel stated that he understood the terms to mean different things. One of Allendale’s experts expressed an “explicit difference” in that one event was a “cause” and the other an “effect.” As UNC points out, the language used in the policy and the manner of expression indicate a distinction between “settlement” and “subsidence.” The collapse provision explains that “[c]ollapse shall not mean settling * * * of pavements, foundations, walls, floors, ceilings or roofs.” In its own “Collapse Guidelines for Adjustors,” an exhibit at trial, Allendale advised its adjustors that “settling,” unless accompanied by “significant physical deformation (falling) of the component and material impairment of the structural integrity of the structure,” does not mean “collapse.” UNC argues that this language demonstrates that minor settlement resulting in cosmetic damage is excluded from policy coverage but Allendale’s guidelines acknowledge that, even though “settling” is specifically excluded, in some cases of settlement when it is accompanied by or results in physical deterioration and material impairment of the structure, there is coverage under the policy. UNO's analysis is in accord with previous interpretations of similar clauses. Morton v. Great American Ins. Co., 77 N.M. 35, 419 P.2d 239 (1966), held that “settling” that impaired the structural integrity of the building constituted “collapse.” In Barash v. Ins. Co. of North America, 114 Misc.2d 325, 451 N.Y.S.2d 603 (1982), the court said that “settling, shrinking or expansion” meant normal wear and tear only. Thus, we determine that the trial court did not err in finding that the “differential settlement” that caused the collapse at the Churchrock uranium mill site was not a form of “subsidence” that would have been excluded under the Allendale policy. Alternatively, Allendale argues that if coverage is not excluded under the “subsidence” exception, loss by “differential settlement” must be excluded as “any other earth movement.” Allendale construes this phrase to cover all earth movement, and relies on Kolner v. Director, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Ins. Law Rep. (CCH), 1983 Fire and Casualty Cases, p. 1129 (N.D.Ill.1983), for the assertion that “earth movement” is unambiguous. However, in Kolner all the experts agreed that the direct cause of the damage was “earth movement.” The issue there was whether that exclusion applied when the earth movement itself was caused by flood — a covered peril. The question in Kolner did not concern the definition of the term of “earth movement.” However, in the instant case the scope of the term “earth movement” was at issue. The trial court construed the term to cover only “other naturally occurring phenomenon” in addition to “flood, earthquake, landslide, [and] subsidence.” In construing the term “earth movement” to cover only naturally occurring phenomenon, the trial court applied the doctrine of ejusdem generis. Numerous other cases have applied the doctrine to the term “earth movement.” See e.g. Peach State Uniform Service, Inc. v. American Ins. Co., 507 F.2d 996 (5th Cir.1975); Gullett v. St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co., 446 F.2d 1100 (7th Cir.1971); Wyatt v. Northwestern Mutual Ins. Co. of Seattle, 304 F.Supp. 781 (D.Minn.1969); Wisconsin Builders, Inc. v. General Ins. Co. of America, 65 Wis.2d 91, 221 N.W.2d 832 (1974); Government Employees Ins. Co. v. DeJames, 256 Md. 717, 261 A.2d 747 (Md.App.1970); Anderson v. Indiana Lumbermens Mutual Ins. Co. of Indianapolis, Indiana, 127 So.2d 304 (La.App.1961). Indeed, one of Allendale’s own internal communications discussed the Wyatt case and its holding and acknowledged that the term “earth movement” would most likely be construed to apply to naturally occurring phenomenon. The general rule of construction for insurance contracts is as follows: Terms used in a policy which have by prior judicial decisions been given a definite meaning, will be regarded as being used in view of such established construction and be governed thereby; and if the insurer continues to issue, without change, policies, clauses of which have been judicially construed, it will be considered as issuing them with that construction placed on them, even though such construction violates the literal sense of the words used. Patterson v. United States, 233 F.Supp. 447, 449 (E.D.Tenn.1964) (quoting 44 C.J.S. Insurance § 293 (1945)). Allendale issued its policy of insurance to UNC in July, 1977. All of the cases interpreting “earth movement” to apply only to naturally occurring phenomenon (cited above) were decided prior to issuance of the policy here in question. Thus, Allendale is considered to have issued its policy to UNC with the prior judicial interpretations given to the term “earth movement.” Further, New Mexico recognizes this general rule of construction. See Lopez v. Townsend, 42 N.M. 601, 82 P.2d 921 (1938). Therefore, we determine that the trial court did not err in applying the doctrine of ejusdem generis to the term “earth movement” and thereby finding that the exclusion in the Allendale insurance policy did not apply to the tailings dam spill at UNC’s Churchrock uranium mill site. II. Punitive Damages Award. The trial court found Allendale’s conduct in handling and denying UNC’s claim for coverage to be “willful, wanton, malicious and in reckless disregard of the rights of its insured.” Based primarily on that finding, punitive damages of $25 million were assessed against Allendale. Allendale claims that the award of punitive damages is unlawful and unconstitutional because Allendale had a reasonable basis for denying coverage to UNC and questioning the amount of UNO's claimed losses. Allen-dale further argues that the standard of proof to determine punitive damages should be a clear and convincing standard; Allendale also argues that an award of $25 million in punitive damages is excessive. We will address Allendale’s standard of proof argument first. New Mexico has never declared the standard of proof required to establish a justification for punitive damages. Allendale urges this Court to follow the lead of Indiana, Wisconsin and other jurisdictions in adopting a requirement of “clear and convincing” evidence. See e.g., Travelers Indem. Co. v. Armstrong, 442 N.E.2d 349 (Ind.1982); Wangen v. Ford Motor Co., 97 Wis.2d 260, 294 N.W.2d 437 (1980). In support of this higher evidentiary test, Allendale emphasizes that parties “against whom punitive damages are sought stand accused of highly opprobrious, morally reprehensible behavior.” Because they must face society’s scorn as well as the monetary assessment, Allendale argues that defendants who are held liable in punitive damages are denied due process, the opportunity to present their side of the case, and to their fair day in court unless the standard of clear and convincing evidence is imposed on the trier of facts. We are not convinced that due process is offended when morally reprehensible conduct is shown by substantial evidence which preponderates in favor of the finding. Allendale correctly notes that the “clear and convincing” test has been applied in this jurisdiction for determining compensatory liability in cases where defendant was accused of libelous or fraudulent wrongdoing, citing e.g., Hummer v. Betenbough, 75 N.M. 274, 404 P.2d 110 (1965) (undue influence); Mason v. Salomon, 62 N.M. 425, 311 P.2d 652 (1957) (fraud); Terrel v. Duke City Lumber Co., 86 N.M. 405, 524 P.2d 1021 (Ct.App.1974), rev'd in part on other grounds, Duke City Lumber Co. v. Terrel, 88 N.M. 299, 540 P.2d 229 (1975), (economic compulsion “like fraud”). However, we do not read Hummer to require the higher degree of proof; we note, however, that other New Mexico cases cited and those which we have researched all deal with allegations of fraud or are concerned with the “clear and convincing” burden established by statute—usually in connection with termination or deprivation of licenses or basic and inherent individual rights {e.g., termination of parental rights). It is the general rule, not only in New Mexico but elsewhere, that issues of fact in civil cases are to be determined according to the preponderance of the evidence. See NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 3.6 (Repl. Pamp.1980). As demonstrated by our adopted civil jury instructions and by New Mexico case law (e.g., Campbell v. Campbell, 62 N.M. 330, 310 P.2d 266 (1957)), the requirement of clear and convincing proof to sustain an issue claimed is the exception rather than the rule. We are not disposed to enlarge the areas of the exception’s application. We note that in Whitehead v. Allen, 63 N.M. 63, 313 P.2d 335 (1957), decided more than a quarter of a century ago, it was said that the jury’s finding of breach of contract, “wanton in character and maliciously intentional,” and the accompanying award of punitive damages, were “based upon substantial evidence.” Clearly, Allendale knew at the commencement of trial what degree of proof UNC would be required to produce, and also knew what the evidence would be on the issues of wrongful denial and wilful and reckless disregard of UNC’s rights. We are not convinced that the degree of proof should be changed in punitive damage areas. We now address the issue of whether the punitive damage award was erroneous. It has been held in New Mexico that: Punitive or exemplanary damages may be awarded only when the conduct of the wrongdoer may be said to be maliciously intentional, fraudulent, oppressive, or committed recklessly or with a wanton disregard of the plaintiffs’ rights. Loucks v. Albuquerque National Bank, 76 N.M. 735, 747, 418 P.2d 191, 199 (1966) (emphasis added.) To assess punitive damages for breach of an insurance policy there must be evidence of bad faith or malice in the insurer’s refusal to pay the claim. Anderson v. Dairyland Ins. Co., 97 N.M. 155, 158, 637 P.2d 837, 840 (1981); Curtiss v. Aetna Life Ins. Co., 90 N.M. 105, 108, 560 P.2d 169, 172 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 7, 558 P.2d 619 (1976). “Bad faith” has been defined as meaning “any frivolous or unfounded refusal to pay * * State Farm General Ins. Co. v. Clifton, 86 N.M. 757, 759, 527 P.2d 798, 800 (1974) (emphasis added). ? the instant case, although the questions of coverage were the major reasons given by Allendale for not paying UNC’s claim, they were not the only reasons. There remained questions regarding the amount of damages available to UNC under its insurance policy with Allendale. UNC’s amended complaint sought $30,032,-152 in compensatory damages. The trial court judgment for UNC was for $24,670,-724 in compensatory damages, a difference of $5,361,428. These are very substantial differences in the amount claimed and the amount awarded. It cannot reasonably be argued that Allendale did not have a legitimate reason to question, in a court of law, the amount of damages claimed by UNC. There existed legitimate issues under various policy provisions regarding UNC’s claim for lost net operating profits, extraordinary costs, carrying costs and costs of repair. Therefore, since there were legitimate questions regarding the amount of UNC’s claimed damages, as is evidenced in the trial court’s judgment awarding substantially different amounts than those claimed by UNC, we cannot say that Allen-dale’s failure to pay UNC’s claim was malicious or in bad faith (i.e., an unfounded refusal to pay). Thus, we determine that the trial court’s award of $25 million in punitive damages was erroneous and therefore reverse on that issue. III. Attorney’s Fees. The trial court awarded UNC attorney’s fees and costs in the amount of $3,210,759 by authority of NMSA 1978, Section 39-2-1, which reads: In any action where an insured prevails against an insurer who has not paid a claim on any type of first party coverage, the insured person may be awarded reasonable attorney’s fees and costs of the action upon a finding by the court that the insurer acted unreasonably in failing to pay the claim. In arriving at the attorney fee award of $3,210,759, the trial court determined a “lodestar” figure by using the number of hours worked by UNC’s legal counsel and multiplying that number by the attorneys’ hourly billing rate. This “lodestar” figure was then increased by a multiplier of three which represented, in the trial court’s view, a proper enhancement for the exceptional success of UNC’s attorneys in prosecution of the suit and for the advancement of public policy in litigated insurance claims, as shown by the punitive damage award. Although it can be argued that Allendale was unreasonable in failing to at least acknowledge coverage to UNC due to Allendale’s mistaken interpretation of the various exclusions contained in the policy, it does not follow that Allendale was unreasonable in failing to pay UNC’s claim since as we previously determined, Allendale had a reasonable basis for questioning the amount of UNC’s claimed damages under the various policy provisions. We cannot say that Allendale was unreasonable in failing to pay UNC’s claimed damages under the policy. C.f Urania Enterprises, Inc. v. Travelers Indem. Co., 335 So.2d 757 (La.App.1976) (insurer entitled to present breach of policy condition as defense to liability and therefore should not be charged with penalty or fee for failure to pay the claim). Thus, we determine that the trial court’s award of attorney’s fees to UNC was error and therefore reverse. Further, although unnecessary to our determination of the issue, we feel the “lodestar” method used to determine the amount of attorney fees and the multiplier allowed by the trial court are inappropriate in this type of case. The “lodestar” and multiplier have generally been applied in civil rights cases and class action suits. Compare, McKinnon v. City of Berwyn, 750 F.2d 1383 (7th Cir.1984) (civil rights action); Laffey v. Northwest Airlines, Inc., 746 F.2d 4 (D.C.1984) (civil rights action); City of Detroit v. Grinnell Corp., 495 F.2d 448 (2nd Cir.1974) (private antitrust national class action); In re Fine Paper Antitrust Litigation, 98 F.R.D. 48 (E.D.Pa.1983) (class certified antitrust action). IV. Compensatory Damages Supported by Substantial Evidence. Allendale attacks the award of $24,-670,724 in compensatory damages as being unsupported by substantial evidence. While objecting to “numerous other problems and errors” in the court’s calculations and decision, Allendale makes three specific challenges to the award. Allendale first claims error in the trial court’s refusal to consider certain receipts by UNC from the sale of borrowed yellowcake. It contends the profit from those sales should have been offset against the business interruption losses caused by the dam failure, thus reflecting no loss of net profits by UNC. The trial court found, on evidence produced by UNC, that the borrowings and sales relied on by Allendale to support its argument were normal business practices of UNC and would have occurred even in the absence of the dam collapse. Consequently, that income would have had no bearing on lost income from UNC’s own production. Additionally, the argument of Allendale gives no recognition to UNC’s obligation to repay the borrowings. At the time of trial, there was evidence that sales on borrowed uranium had no impact whatever on UNC’s losses from the shut-down of production; there also was testimony that the sales of borrowed uranium created no profits for UNC over its liability for repayment, or over the profit ordinarily to be anticipated by UNC in its engagement in this type of business practice common to the industry. UNC makes a further point in refutation of Allendale’s contention: The Allendale policy covers “loss of production,” not “loss of sales.” In its Adjuster Manual, Allendale rejects the argument it now makes, and instructs its adjusters that with respect to business interruption claims, “[t]he insured should never be given the impression that our policy covers loss of sales[;] it covers loss of production. The insureds do not have to prove a loss of sales.” If UNC would have made sales on borrowed supplies whether or not its own production had been interrupted, that income is irrelevant to a determination of the covered loss of production. The court’s findings regarding UNC’s lost net operating profits, resulting from interruption of its own production and its consequent inability to accept bids from willing purchasers, is supported in the evidence and will not be disturbed on appeal. Howard v. Howard, 100 N.M. 105, 666 P.2d 1252 (1983). Allendale next objects to the trial court’s finding that UNC could not have made up its loss of production within a one-year period following repair of the damaged property, which Allendale delineates as the “reasonable time” required by the policy. Without citation to any authority, Allendale argues that the policy provision requiring its insured to make up lost production “through the use of any property * * * obtainable from other sources” obligated UNC to buy yellowcake on the open market. Again, Allendale misreads its own policy. It is “production” which is to be made up, not “sales.” The argument advanced by Allendale was specifically rejected in Gordon Chem. Co. v. Aetna Casualty & Surety Co., 358 Mass. 632, 266 N.E.2d 653 (1971). We decline to hold that a mineral producer must buy the refined product from other sources to satisfy the “make-up of lost production” requirement of its business interruption coverage. Finally, Allendale disagrees with the trial court’s conclusion that only one day of the long delay in UNC’s getting back to full operating capacity was because of government regulation of construction or repair. Any increases in business losses resulting from compliance with “law and ordinance” requirements are excluded from the policy coverage. There was significant and substantial evidence presented by UNC on the various causes of delay, including the need to investigate the cause of the collapse, development of repair designs, acquisition and testing of repair materials, and inability to repair the dam during the winter months. Although there was some evidence UNC might have restructured portions of the tailings area to permit earlier resumption of milling, there was also evidence that UNC partially resumed operations as early as October, 1979 with modified facilities. But the overall repair delay was complicated by conflicts among the engineers regarding making repairs before design, engineering and construction plans had been fully examined and proven. If those delays occasioned by principles of engineering prudency overlapped the same delay period imposed by standards of a regulatory body that had to be met before production could be restarted, it cannot be said that delay was due only to the “law and ordinance” regulation of reconstruction and repairs. The trial court’s determination regarding the effect of governmental regulation does not fail for lack of substantial evidence. In its generalized attack on the amount of the compensatory damage award, aside from the specific objections addressed above, Allendale contends that the trial court made an error of $519,724 in the award for extraordinary losses. We note that UNC requested a finding of $4,566,902 for that item of damages and of $2,203,719 for carrying costs, based upon exhibits it submitted at trial; Allendale requested a finding of no extraordinary losses or carrying costs; and the trial court awarded damages to UNC of $3,464,240 and $1,859,591, repsectively. Allendale’s argument is that UNC referred in a footnote in its post-trial brief to a figure of $2,944,516 as the amount of extraordinary expenses, not compensated under the Appalachian policy, to partially make up for lost production or to reduce loss. Allendale says the difference between the amount awarded and the amount discussed in UNC’s brief shows the trial court’s “superficial” consideration of the damage issues. The trial court obviously rejected $1,102,662 of UNC's request for a finding of extraordinary loss damages of $4,566,-902, and disallowed $344,128 of its requested finding of $2,203,719 for carrying costs and for fixed, ongoing administrative and overhead expenses. Since the evidence could have supported a larger amount of damages in each category of loss and UNC has not appealed the court’s reduction of the amounts claimed, we do not see how Allendale has been injured. The footnote reference relied upon by Allendale obviously conflicts with other evidence of loss that was introduced at trial. Precise mathematical certainty of computation is not required when the evidence encompasses the monetary amount allowed. Acme Cigarette Services, Inc. v. Gallegos, 91 N.M. 577, 577 P.2d 885 (Ct.App.1978). The trial court’s award of compensatory damages within the range shown by the evidence is affirmed. See Jackson v. Goad, 73 N.M. 19, 385 P.2d 279 (1963); Wirth v. Commercial Resources, Inc., 96 N.M. 340, 630 P.2d 292 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 96 N.M. 543, 632 P.2d 1181 (1981). V. Prejudgment Interest. As its last point of error on appeal Allendale argues that the trial court erred in awarding prejudgment interest of 6% from March 21, 1980, (the date of Allen-dale’s denial of UNC’s claim), to date of judgment. Allendale argues that prejudgment interest was not allowable because the compensatory damage amount was neither liquidated nor ascertainable as of the date of denial, citing O’Meara v. Commercial Ins. Co., 71 N.M. 145, 376 P.2d 486 (1962). Contract damage awards against one who fails to perform should fully compensate the injured party for all damages naturally flowing from such breach. Shaeffer v. Kelton, 95 N.M. 182, 619 P.2d 1226 (1980). Prejudgment interest is meant to compensate a plaintiff for injury resulting from deprivation of the promised performance and for loss of the use and earning power of plaintiff’s own funds that have been expended as a result of a defendant’s failure to pay. Id. The allowance of prejudgment interest is governed by NMSA 1978, Section 56-8-3, which at the time of trial and judgment provided: The rate of interest, in the absence of a written contract fixing a different rate, shall be six percent per annum, in the following cases: A. on money due by contract * * *. Where the amount in question is fixed or liquidated, prejudgment interest should be awarded as a matter of right. Shaeffer v. Kelton, 95 N.M. at 188, 619 P.2d at 1232. Where the amount is ascertainable, prejudgment interest may be awarded at the judge’s discretion. Id.; O’Meara v. Commercial Ins. Co. ? the instant case, the amount payable to UNC under Allendale’s policy was not finally settled until judgment. Because UNC claimed several different amounts between the filing of the complaint and the time of trial, Allendale argues that an award of prejudgment interest is precluded. However, in a leading case on the allowance of prejudgment interest in this state, this Court adopted Wisconsin’s theory that: [Mere] difference of opinion as to amount is * * * no more reason to excuse [defendant] from interest than difference of opinion whether he legally ought to pay at all, which has never been held an excuse. State Trust & Savings Bank v. Hermosa Land & Cattle Co., 30 N.M. 566, 597, 240 P.469, 481 (1925) (quoting Laycock v. Parker, 103 Wis. 161, 79 N.W. 327 (1899)). Since the amount of UNC’s damages was ascertainable and the award of prejudgment interest was within the trial court’s discretion, and since neither a claim nor proof of abuse of discretion has been made or shown by Allendale, we affirm that portion of the judgment as well. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed in part and reversed in part. IT IS SO ORDERED. STOWERS, J., concurs. BIVINS, Judge (concurs in part, specially concurs in part). SOSA, Senior Justice, and WALTERS, J. (concur in part, dissent in part).
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OPINION STOWERS, Justice. Leslie P. Vihstadt (Vihstadt) filed suit in the Metropolitan Court of Bernalillo County to recover damages under a health insurance policy issued by Travelers Insurance Company (Travelers). After a non-jury trial, judgment was entered in favor of Vihstadt. Travelers appealed to the Bernalillo County District Court which upheld the Metropolitan Court judgment. Travelers appeals the District Court judgment. We reverse. The following facts are pertinent to this appeal. On June 25, 1983, 14 year-old Lynn P. Edmondson (Lynn) had a quarrel with her natural mother, Vihstadt. Follow ing the argument, Lynn deliberately ingested 50 aspirin. Her stated intention in taking the aspirin was to commit suicide or to scare her mother. After Lynn became ill from aspirin poisoning, she was hospitalized and successfully treated for the physical effects of the poisoning. Georgann Edmondson (Edmondson), Lynn’s step-mother, filed an insurance claim with Travelers to cover Lynn’s medical expenses. Edmondson filed the insurance claim because she purchased the health insurance policy which provided coverage for her step-daughter, Lynn. Travelers denied coverage because Lynn’s medical expenses were not covered by the policy. The policy covered medical expenses “incurred on account of ... an accident” or “incurred as a result of accidental injury or sickness.” According to Travelers, Lynn’s medical expenses were not incurred as a result of an accidental bodily injury or illness, but rather were the result of an intentional act for which the policy did not provide coverage. Vihstadt, as Lynn’s natural mother and guardian, then filed suit in Metropolitan Court where a judgment in Vihstadt’s favor was entered. Travelers appealed to the District Court. Edmondson was added as a plaintiff in the District Court proceeding. The District Court affirmed the Metropolitan Court’s judgment and found that the policy was ambiguous because the term “accidental injury or sickness” was undefined in the policy. The District Court stated that the policy should have included a specific provision excluding overdose or attempted suicide injuries from coverage in order to render the policy unambiguous. On appeal, Travelers raises the following issues: 1. The District Court erred in ruling that the insurance policy was ambiguous. 2. The District Court erred in ruling that there was substantial evidence to support coverage under the insurance policy. 3. The District Court erred in upholding the Metropolitan Court’s damage calculation. As to the first issue, we agree with Travelers that the district court erred in ruling that the insurance policy was ambiguous because it lacked a definition for the term “accidental injury or sickness.” Whenever the word “accident” is not defined in the insurance policy, “the word must be interpreted in its usual, ordinary and popular sense.” Watson v. Western Casualty & Surety Co., 72 N.M. 250, 253, 382 P.2d 723, 725 (1963). In Scott v. New Empire Insurance Co., 75 N.M. 81, 84, 400 P.2d 953, 955 (1965), we again stated, "[ajbsent any provision in the policy defining ‘accidental means’ as something different from that as understood by the general public, we follow the holding in Fowler v. First National Life Insurance Co. of America, [71 N.M. 364, 378 P.2d 605 (1963),] that words, phrases or terms will be given their ordinary meaning.” In Webb v. New Mexico Publishing Co., 47 N.M. 279, 284, 141 P.2d 333, 336 (1943) (quoting Stevenson v. Lee Moor Contracting Co., 45 N.M. 354, 367, 115 P.2d 342, 350 (1941)), with regard to the phrase “injury by accident,” the Court stated: “We ... hold that ‘injury by accident’ means nothing more than an accidental injury, or an accident, as the word is ordinarily used. It denotes an unlooked for mishap, or an untoward event which is not expected or designed.” The word “accidental” was also defined in King v. Travelers Insurance Co., 84 N.M. 550, 505 P.2d 1226 (1973). “In its ordinary, popular sense, [‘accidental’] expresses the thought of an event occurring without design or purpose, or unintentionally on the part of the assured____ [However, the definition of ‘accidental’] does not include the result of wilful design.” Id. at 553, 505 P.2d at 1229 (quoting Hamilton v. American Indemnity Co., 82 Pa.Super. 191, 194-95 (1923)). The Court further stated that an “[a]ccident, ... within the terms of an accident policy, is an unexpected, unforeseen, or undesigned happening or consequence from either a known or an unknown cause.” Id. 84 N.M. at 553-54, 505 P.2d at 1229-30 (quoting Hauen stein v. Saint Paul-Mercury Indemnity Co., 242 Minn. 354, 358-59, 65 N.W.2d 122, 126 (1954)). In this case, Lynn’s ingestion of 50 aspirin was not an unlooked for mishap or an untoward event which was not expected or designed. Lynn deliberately and intentionally ingested the aspirin. Therefore, her injury was not the result of an accident as meant by the policy. The district court in upholding the Metropolitan Court’s decision impliedly held that the term “accident” could be viewed as referring either to the means of incurring the injury or to the ultimate result. In other words, although the actual act of taking the overdose was intentional, nonetheless, the result, the aspirin poisoning, was an accident because it was unintended. We take this opportunity to lay to rest the possible revival of such a distinction. In Scott we rejected the distinction between accidental means and accidental results. In that case we stated, “[i]f there was no accident in the means, there was none in the result, for the two [are] inseparable____ There was an accident throughout, or there was no accident at all.” Id. 75 N.M. at 84, 400 P.2d at 954 (quoting Landress v. Phoenix Mutual Life Insurance Co., 291 U.S. 491, 501, 54 S.Ct. 461, 464, 78 L.Ed. 934 (1934) (Cardozo, J. dissenting)).” The court in Hayden v. Insurance Co. of North America, 5 Wash.App. 710, 490 P.2d 454 (1971), also rejected the distinction between accidental means and accidental results. In Hayden the court stated: [D]eath or injury does not result from accident or accidental means within the terms of an accident policy where it is the natural result of the insured’s voluntary act, unaccompanied by anything unforeseen, except the death or injury. [An ajccident is never present when a deliberate act is performed, unless some additional, unexpected, independent, and unforeseen happening occurs which produces or brings about the result of injury or death. Id. at 712, 490 P.2d at 456. (Emphasis added.) Since Lynn’s injury was the natural result of an intentional and voluntary act, the ingestion of 50 aspirin, her injury was not accidental; therefore, Travelers was not required to provide coverage. We do not discuss the issues raised by Travelers in Points 2 and 3 because the issue under Point 1 is dispositive of this case. For the above reasons, the judgment of the district court is reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. The opinion of this Court heretofore f'^d on August 14, 1985 is withdrawn and the following opinion is substituted therefor. Plaintiff-appellee, B. L. Goldberg & Associates, Inc. (Goldberg), brought suit in the District Court of Bernalillo County for money owed on an open account. Defendant-appellant, Uptown, Inc. (Uptown), filed a counterclaim sounding in breach of contract, fraud, and misrepresentation. The trial court dismissed the counterclaim by summary judgment prior to trial. Uptown appealed from the dismissal of its counterclaim. Goldberg subsequently filed a motion with this Court requesting that we dismiss the appeal for lack of jurisdiction. That motion was denied. Now, however, with the benefit of full briefing and further oral argument, we determine that this Court does not have jurisdiction over this appeal, because the trial court’s order of September 14, 1984, was not a final judgment, and Uptown failed to perfect properly an interlocutory appeal as required by NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 54 (Adv.Annot. July 1985). An order striking a counterclaim has long been considered by New Mexico courts to be an interlocutory order and not a final judgment. See Floyd v. Towndrow, 48 N.M. 444, 152 P.2d 391 (1944). For purposes of appeal, an order or judgment is not considered final unless all issues of law and fact have been determined and the case disposed of by the trial court to the fullest extent possible. Clancy v. Gooding, 98 N.M. 252, 647 P.2d 885 (Ct.App.1982); Johnson v. C & H Construction Co., 78 N.M. 423, 432 P.2d 267 (Ct.App.1967). When a court disposes of only one of several claims, it clearly has not determined all issues of law and fact presented by the case. See Mock Homes, Inc. v. Wakely, 82 N.M. 179, 477 P.2d 813 (1970) (judgment entered on cross-claims but not on plaintiff’s complaint was not a final judgment from which an appeal would lie). NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 54 (Adv.An-not. July 1985) permits an appeal from an interlocutory, non-final order in a multiple claims action under certain circumstances. Montoya v. Anaconda Mining Co., 97 N.M. 1, 635 P.2d 1323 (Ct.App.1981). Rule 54(c)(1) provides in pertinent part: [W]hen more than one claim for relief is presented in an action, whether as a claim, counterclaim, cross-claim or third-party claim, the court may enter a final judgment as to one or more but fewer than all of the claims only upon an express determination that there is no just reason for delay. (At the time this action arose the applicable section was 54(b)(1) which is identical to the present 54(c)(1).) An interlocutory order in a multiple claims lawsuit is appealable under Rule 54 provided the trial court makes an express determination that “there is no just reason for delay.” Montoya v. Anaconda Mining Co. The express determination of the trial court is commonly known as “certification.” Absent certification by the trial court, the multiple claims are treated as a single judicial unit, and an adjudication of any less than all of the claims is not a final order. Aetna Casualty & Surety Co. v. Miles, 80 N.M. 237, 453 P.2d 757 (1969). The present case involves a claim and counterclaim. A claim-counterclaim action is considered to involve more than one claim for relief. 6 J. Moore, W. Taggart & J. Wicker, Moore’s Federal Practice § 54.35[1] (2d ed. 1985); Cold Metal Process Co. v. United Engineering & Foundry Co., 351 U.S. 445, 76 S.Ct. 904, 100 L.Ed. 1311 (1956). Thus, Rule 54(c)(1) is applicable. The order dismissing the counterclaim in this case did not contain an express determination that there was no reason for delay. In the absence of certification by the trial court, the order is not final and the present appeal is premature. See Central-Southwest Dairy Cooperative v. American Bank of Commerce, 78 N.M. 464, 432 P.2d 820 (1967). This Court, therefore, lacks jurisdiction to consider the appeal. See Carpenter v. Merrett, 82 N.M. 185, 477 P.2d 819 (1970). The appeal is dismissed. IT IS SO ORDERED. RIORDAN, J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. NMSA 1978, Section 66-5-35 (Repl. Pamp.1984) provides for the issuance of a limited driving privilege upon suspension or revocation of a license following conviction. The 1978 N.M.Laws, ch. 35, § 257 provided for issuance of a license to drive “limited to use allowing him to engage in gainful employment.” This required district court approval. The 1983 N.M.Laws, ch. 257, § 1 continued the gainful employment limitation, but deleted the requirement for district court approval. This change had an effective date of January 1, 1984. In 1984, the legislature again amended the law. 1984 N.M.Laws, ch. 72, § 3 is the current law. As a result of the 1984 amendment, no limited license for gainful employment shall be issued when the applicant’s license was revoked or suspended for an offense for which the applicant is a subsequent offender. The effective date of this amendment is July 1, 1984. The precise issue presented by this appeal is whether the 1984 amendment applies to a suspension for a subsequent offense that occurred prior to the effective date of the amendment. Plaintiff Minero was convicted for driving under the influence (DWI) more than once, the last conviction occurring in 1982 following a plea. His license was suspended until 1987. Between 1982 and 1984 Minero applied for and obtained a license from the Department of Motor Vehicles limited to use in connection with his employment. This was authorized under the law at that time. When he applied in November, 1984 the director, defendant Dominguez, refused to issue the limited license. The refusal was based on the 1984 amendment because Minero was a subsequent offender. Minero has suffered no further convictions since 1982. He appealed the director’s denial of a limited license to the district court, which entered an order, following a hearing, in effect sustaining the director’s action. Minero now appeals to this court. Minero contends that the 1984 amendment as applied to him is ex post facto and, therefore, prohibited by both the federal and state constitutions. Alternatively, he argues that the rules of statutory construction preclude the retroactive application of the 1984 amendment. As a general principle, courts do not reach constitutional questions unless absolutely required to do so in order to resolve an issue presented. In re Bunnell, 100 N.M. 242, 668 P.2d 1119 (Ct.App.1983). Because the issue before us can be decided as a matter of statutory construction, we decide only whether the 1984 amendment can be applied retroactively. It is presumed that a statute will operate prospectively only, unless a legislative intention to give it retroactive effect is clearly apparent. Clark v. Ruidoso-Hondo Valley Hospital, 72 N.M. 9, 380 P.2d 168 (1963), overruled on other grounds, 88 N.M. 588, 544 P.2d 1153 (1975). See also Psomas v. Psomas, 99 N.M. 606, 661 P.2d 884 (1982); State v. Padilla, 78 N.M. 702, 437 P.2d 163 (Ct.App.1968). No such legislative intent is expressed in the 1984 amendment. In applying the rule which disfavors retroactive operation of a statute, courts have drawn a distinction between statutes which are procedural and statutes which are sub stantive in nature. Wilson v. New Mexico Lumber & Timber Co., 42 N.M. 438, 81 P.2d 61 (1938). Those which are procedural in nature may be applied retroactively. See, e.g., Gray v. Armijo, 70 N.M. 245, 372 P.2d 821 (1962); but cf. Davis v. Meadors-Cherry Co., 65 N.M. 21, 331 P.2d 523 (1958) (holding that not every statute is given retroactive effect even though it is remedial). On the other hand, statutes affecting substantive laws have been applied prospectively. Clark; Padilla. The question then arises as to whether the 1984 amendment is procedural or substantive in nature. Substantive law generally creates duties, rights, and obligations. Gray v. Armijo. In dealing with a question similar to ours, the court in Johnson v. Alexis, 143 Cal.App.3d 82, 191 Cal.Rptr. 529 (1983), referring to a person’s right to continue his licensed driving unless he suffered two convictions of drunken driving within five years, said: That this was an existing, important protectable [sic] right there can be no doubt (see Mackey v. Montrym, 443 U.S. 1, 10, 99 S.Ct. 2612, 2617, 61 L.Ed.2d 321, for procedural due process purposes, suspension of a driver’s license for statutorily defined cases implicates a protectable [sic] property interest; Bell v. Burson, 402 U.S. 535, 539, 91 S.Ct. 1586, 1589, 29 L.Ed.2d 90, same; Berlinghieri v. Department of Motor Vehicles, 33 Cal.3d 392, 398, 188 Cal.Rptr. 891, 657 P.2d 383, for purpose of independent judgment review standard, driver’s license suspension has impact on the individual sufficiently vital to compel full and independent review). 191 Cal.Rptr. at 530-31. In Berlinghieri v. Department of Motor Vehicles, 33 Cal.3d 392, 188 Cal.Rptr. 891, 657 P.2d 383 (1983), cited in the above quote, the California Supreme Court had occasion to inquire into the nature of a driver’s license. In determining the standard for administrative review, the court held that while a license does not rise to the level of a fundamental right for due process or equal protection purposes, continued retention of a license does involve a fundamental right of substantial importance in terms of both the economic implications and “ ‘the importance of’ the possession ‘to the individual in the life situation.’ ” 188 Cal.Rptr. at 895, 657 P.2d at 387, quoting from Bixby v. Pierno, 4 Cal.3d 130, 93 Cal.Rptr. 234, 481 P.2d 242 (1971). The court went on to say that this is obviously true with respect to those individuals whose occupations depend directly on the ability to drive, such as truck drivers or delivery persons. We agree with this rationale and hold that the retention of a driver’s license, while only a privilege subject to revocation or suspension, does involve an important right for the purpose of retroactive application of the 1984 amendment. While the legislature could change the existing law so as to deny limited permits to subsequent offenders, absent a clear intent to apply the new law retroactively, it should be applied only to licensees whose subsequent offenses occurred after the effective date of the amendment, July 1, 1984. By holding that the 1984 amendment operates prospectively, New Mexico drivers know that if they become subsequent offenders after the effective date, they will not be able to obtain limited permits or licenses for employment purposes, regardless of their needs. On the other hand, those drivers who relied on the existing law when their subsequent offenses occurred can still apply for limited work-related permits, a factor that may have influenced, in some cases, a plea of guilty or no contest. The result we reach finds support in other cases. Johnson v. Alexis involved a similar situation. In that case, plaintiff was convicted of two DWI offenses. Before a 1981 amendment, Johnson’s license would not have been suspended because his two convictions occurred more than five years apart. The amendment changed the law to require suspension where conviction of the second offense occurred within five years of the prior offense. Thus, the two offenses, rather than two convictions, became the basis for Johnson’s suspension. Holding that a license is an important, protective right, the California Court of Appeal refused to give retroactive application to the 1981 amendment. Accord Utter v. Alexis, 158 Cal.3d 1171, 205 Cal.Rptr. 352 (1984); Perez v. Department of Motor Vehicles, 157 Cal.3d 985, 204 Cal.Rptr. 26 (1984). For the same reasons, we refuse to give retroactive application to the 1984 amendment. The amendment applies to subsequent offenses which occur after the effective date of the amendment. The order dismissing Minero’s appeal is reversed, and the case is remanded with directions for the district court to instruct the director to proceed with Minero’s application under Section 66-5-35 as it existed before the 1984 amendment. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. This appeal involves the Special Zoning District Act (the Act), NMSA 1978, Sections 3-21-15 to -26 (Repl.1985). Deer Mesa Corporation (Deer Mesa) sued Los Tres Valles Special Zoning District Commission (District) and the Board of County Commissioners of Taos County (County). The complaint stated alternative and different theories of relief, NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 8(a) (Repl.Pamp.1980), including a request for declaratory judgment. The trial court ruled that the Act was “unconstitutional on its face in that it unconstitutionally delegates power to private persons and allows arbitrary exercise of power by individuals.” The County did not appeal; the appellant is the District. We discuss: (1) procedural matters, and (2) unconstitutional delegation. PROCEDURAL MATTERS There are three procedural matters. The District contends the trial court should not have decided the constitutional question. Deer Mesa contends this court should not decide this appeal. Deer Mesa contends the Act is unconstitutional on two additional grounds. (a) The trial court’s constitutional ruling. The trial court held a hearing to consider a variety of pending motions. One motion was Deer Mesa’s motion for summary judgment which alleged the Act was facially unconstitutional. The trial court granted this motion. The ruling did not involve any factual matters; only a legal question was involved. See generally, Westgate Families v. County Clerk of Incorporated County of Los Alamos, 100 N.M. 146, 667 P.2d 453 (1983). The District’s contention is that other issues should have been decided prior to the constitutional question. This claim was made at the motions hearing, and requires identification of the showing of undisputed facts before the trial court at the time it granted the summary judgment. The facts before the trial court, not controverted at the time of the summary judgment ruling, see NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 56(d) (Repl.Pamp.1980), are found in various documents. The documents are: 1) facts stated in the verified complaint on the basis of personal knowledge of the affiant, the president of Deer Mesa, see Martinez v. Metzgar, 97 N.M. 173, 637 P.2d 1228 (1981); Rekart v. Safeway Stores, Inc., 81 N.M. 491, 468 P.2d 892 (Ct.App.1970); 2) the District’s admissions in its answer to Deer Mesa’s complaint, see Lujan v. Gonzales, 84 N.M. 229, 501 P.2d 673 (Ct.App.1972); 3) the written stipulation of Deer Mesa and the County; and 4) the exhibits admitted at the motions hearing without objection. The facts were: (1) On August 12, 1982, a petition and a map were filed with the Taos County Clerk, which, if legally sufficient, created the District. See § 3-21-18. (2) An election for special zoning district commissioners was held on November 9, 1982, and commissioners were elected. The election was held eighty-nine days after creation of the District, thus, not within the sixty-day period provided by Section 3-21-20. (3) Deer Mesa applied to Taos County for preliminary plat approval of the Deer Mesa Subdivision on April 29, 1983. The application pertained to ninety-one acres owned by Deer Mesa. (4) On June 10, 1983, the district commissioners adopted an ordinance which, if enacted in a legally sufficient manner, took effect on July 8, 1983. The ordinance contains a comprehensive land use plan and regulations. The filing stamp on the ordinance indicates it was filed with the county clerk on May 20, 1983, apparently three weeks prior to its adoption, but no issue is raised as to this in this appeal. Accordingly, we have not reviewed the statutes incorporated by reference in Section 3-21-22. (5) The Taos County Planning Commission approved Deer Mesa’s subdivision application and preliminary plat on September 15, 1983. (6) The proposed Deer Mesa Subdivision is in compliance with applicable state and county subdivision laws and regulations. (7) The District contains approximately 50,000 acres, and Deer Mesa’s ninety-one acres are included within the District. (8) The proposed Deer Mesa Subdivision does not comply with the District’s ordinance as to lot sizes and the maximum number of lots in a subdivision. The proposed subdivision was not a “grandfathered” existing use under the ordinance. The proposed subdivision has not been approved by the District as a planned unit development under the ordinance. (9)The County “will not grant a final plat approval on the proposed Deer Mesa Subdivision unless the proposed subdivision complies with the Ordinance and any other applicable laws of the District.” Deer Mesa’s complaint in this suit stated three theories for relief. Count I challenged the constitutionality of the Act on various factual and legal grounds, including the claim that the Act was facially unconstitutional. Count II challenged the validity of the ordinance on constitutional grounds, on statutory grounds and on the facts. Count III asserted that Deer Mesa’s proposed subdivision was not subject to the District’s ordinance because of all of its preliminary work on the subdivision, including a drainage and flood hazard study, a soils report, a master plan, a water futures study, and the drilling of a test well. Deer Mesa alleged that this preliminary work occurred in 1982 and was included in its application, filed and pending, before the District’s ordinance was adopted. Deer Mesa filed a separate suit in quo warranto challenging the formation of the District under the Act. The quo warranto suit was not consolidated with this suit, nor was the trial court asked to do so. Nothing indicates that any hearing has been held in the quo warranto suit or the status of that suit. The District, however, includes the quo warranto suit in its procedural argument. The District contends there is a pecking order for deciding the issues in this case. In the trial court, it asserted that the quo warranto suit, which raised the issue of whether the District was properly formed, must be decided first. If properly formed, the District claimed the second issue was that raised in Count III, which asserted that the proposed subdivision was not subject to the District’s ordinance. If the pro posed subdivision was subject to the ordinance, only then could constitutional questions be decided. In the trial court, the District did not suggest which of the numerous constitutional issues could be decided first if constitutional questions were to be decided. The District’s brief suggests that all factual predicates for all constitutional issues would have to be decided before there could be a ruling on any constitutional issue as a matter of law. The District asserts the trial court was “required * * * to decide determinative non-constitutional issues * * * before reaching the constitutional issues.” The trial court rejected the argument that it was required to decide all nonconstitutional issues before considering whether the Act was constitutional as “contrary to the doctrine of judicial economy * * *.” The trial court’s meaning of judicial economy is illustrated by its comment that if the Act was unconstitutional there would be no need for a trial. The District asserts that economical and efficient use of a judge’s time must yield to the rule “reserving constitutional determinations until all determinative non-constitutional issues have been resolved.” The District’s briefs ignore Montoya v. Blackhurst, 84 N.M. 91, 500 P.2d 176 (1972). In Montoya the trial court declared a statute unconstitutional. In affirming the trial court, the supreme court stated: “When the issue has been placed before the court, the decision as to the constitutionality of a statute is generally within the judicial discretion of the judge.” The issue was before the trial court in this case; Deer Mesa sought a declaratory judgment that the Act was unconstitutional on its face. The trial court’s ruling disposed of this litigation at the trial level, and made unnecessary a trial of the numerous factual issues. There was no abuse of discretion by the trial court. The District, contrary to Montoya, contends the trial court lacked discretion to make the constitutional ruling. It states: “It is well settled in this jurisdiction that if an actual controversy between parties can be otherwise fairly decided and disposed of, the court will refrain from deciding constitutional issues.” The District cites State ex rel. Huning v. Los Chavez Zoning Commission, 97 N.M. 472, 641 P.2d 503 (1982), in support of its contention, asserting that Huning “is virtually identical * * *.” We disagree. In Huning there was an appeal after a trial on the merits. The supreme court reviewed the evidence and decided the case on that basis, stating: “We do not reach the constitutional issue raised in this case as this Court will not rule upon a constitutional question if the merits of the case may otherwise be fairly decided.” This states a rule for deciding appeals. Property Tax Department v. Molycorp, Inc., 89 N.M. 603, 555 P.2d 903 (1976), pointed out that appellate courts have “a duty to avoid a constitutional adjudication where a ruling on another issue would terminate the controversy.” Molycorp also pointed out that the determinative nonconstitutional issue must be met if there is a record on which the decision can be based. Huning does not address the trial court’s discretion in deciding a constitutional issue. There is no record in this case permitting an appellate disposition on the merits on the basis of nonconstitutional issues. The District asserts that the rule requiring appellate courts to avoid unnecessary constitutional adjudication also applies to trial courts. The District cites Tung Chi Jen v. Immigration & Naturalization Service, 566 F.2d 1095 (9th Cir.1977). That case does state that, in the federal system, the rule applies to courts and administrative agencies because unnecessary constitutional adjudication frustrates the rule of restraint and sound judicial administration. We have not reviewed the federal cases to determine how such a rule has been applied. There is no reason to do so in this appeal. Montoya states that a trial court has discretion to decide a constitutional issue that is before the trial court for decision. We must follow Montoya. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Quite apart from Montoya, the District’s contention is contrary to the authorized remedy of summary judgment in Civ.P. Rule 56. That remedy exists to avoid unnecessary trials, see DeVargas Savings & Loan Association of Santa Fe v. Campbell, 87 N.M. 469, 535 P.2d 1320 (1975), and to expedite litigation, see Goffe v. Pharmaseal Laboratories, Inc., 90 N.M. 764, 568 P.2d 600 (Ct.App.1976), rev’d on other grounds, 90 N.M. 753, 568 P.2d 589 (1977). Under the District’s contention, the constitutional issue could not be decided by summary judgment until the nonconstitutional issues had been decided. However, Civ.P. Rule 56 authorizes a summary judgment if a party is entitled to summary judgment as a matter of law. Westgate Families. Civil Procedure Rule 56 does not postpone a summary judgment on constitutional issues until nonconstitutional issues have been decided. Even if the trial court could decide the constitutional question in a summary judgment proceeding, the District contends it should not have done so in this case because “the challenged enactment is not even clearly applicable.” It refers us to State v. Hines, 78 N.M. 471, 432 P.2d 827 (1967), which states that “[t]he constitutionality of a legislative act is open to attack only by a person whose rights are affected thereby.” The District asserts that Deer Mesa is not affected until it is determined that the District exists. This argument amounts to semantic aphasia. The District exists; the petition and map have been filed, commissioners have been elected, an ordinance has been adopted. Deer Mesa’s rights have been affected by the District. The County has refused to give final plat approval until the proposed subdivision complies with the District’s ordinance. The trial court ruled that the District “is invalid, null and void, now and from its inception” because the Act was unconstitutional on its face. The trial court was not required to postpone a decision on that issue until nonconstitutional issues were decided. The District also argues that a policy of not deciding constitutional issues should be applied in this case. It asserts that Deer Mesa could win its lawsuit on several non-constitutional issues. The converse is that Deer Mesa could lose on all nonconstitutional issues with the result that a constitutional ruling would be eventually required. Inasmuch as the trial court had discretion to rule on the constitutional issue and could properly make that ruling in a summary judgment proceeding, policy considerations do not require that the constitutional ruling be deferred until nonconstitutional issues have been decided. We decline to vacate the summary judgment and require the trial court to try all nonconstitutional issues before this court reviews the constitutional decision on appeal. (b) Whether this court should decide this appeal. NMSA 1978, Section 34-5-14(C) (Repl. Pamp.1981) states: C. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in matters appealed to the court of appeals, but undecided by that court, if the court of appeals certifies to the supreme court that the matter involves: (1) a significant question of law under the constitution of New Mexico or the United States; or (2) an issue of substantial public interest that should be determined by the supreme court. Any certification by the court of appeals under this subsection is a final determination of appellate jurisdiction. Deer Mesa filed its answer brief on January 8, 1985; briefing was complete with the filing of the reply brief on January 21, 1985. On October 11, 1985, Deer Mesa moved that this court certify this appeal to the supreme court under Section 34-5-14(C). At that time, a panel of this court had been assigned to decide the appeal, and this court’s clerk was in the process of giving notice to counsel that the appeal had been set for oral argument on the merits of the appeal. The following notation was entered on Deer Mesa’s motion: “10/11/85—Panel agrees this motion to be held in abeyance until after oral argument.” Deer Mesa then moved for oral argument on the motion to certify. See NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 18(d) and (e) (Repl. Pamp.1984). The notation on this motion reads: “You can say what you want to on this at the oral argument scheduled Nov. 13, 1985.” The motion for certification argues that the trial court’s constitutional ruling involves a significant question of law under the federal and state constitutions and an issue of substantial public interest that should be determined by the supreme court. This view of the constitutional question was asserted in the trial court, and in the briefs filed in this court, as a reason why the trial court properly decided the constitutional question before deciding non-constitutional issues. Cf. State ex rel. Gomez v. Campbell, 75 N.M. 86, 400 P.2d 956 (1965). It was not necessary to classify the constitutional question as “significant” or “substantial” in deciding whether the trial court could properly decide the constitutional question at the summary judgment hearing, nor is it necessary in ruling on the motion to certify. We assume, but do not decide, that the constitutional question is significant and substantial. ? 34-5-14(C) authorizes certification of matters “undecided” by the court of appeals. This is not a case where the assigned panel, see NMSA 1978, Section 34-5-11 (Repl.Pamp.1981), lacked authority to decide an issue. See State v. Carter, 87 N.M. 41, 528 P.2d 1281 (Ct.App.1974). Nor is it a ease where the panel was unable to decide. See State v. Tijerina, 84 N.M. 432, 504 P.2d 642 (Ct.App.1972). Nor is it a case where the panel felt it should not decide an issue because the issue was before the supreme court in other cases. See State v. Puga, 84 N.M. 756, 508 P.2d 26 (Ct.App.1973), 85 N.M. 204, 510 P.2d 1075 (Ct.App.1973). Deer Mesa asserts this case “should” be certified because briefing was completed in January 1985, and this court had not decided the appeal by October 1985. Thus, Deer Mesa contends it is entitled to certification because of delay by this court in deciding the appeal. This ignores the reason for the delay. The delay in this case occurred because of the number of cases involving a subject matter to which this court accords priority—crime, children, and worker’s compensation. Primary consideration has been given to the priority cases during the delay period in this case. Our point is that delay by this court in deciding this case, without more, is an insufficient ground for certification. What if there had been no delay? Deer Mesa’s motion is directed solely to the merits of the constitutional question. The motion fails to consider the procedural issue of whether the trial court should have decided the constitutional question. If the constitutional question should not have been decided, the merits of the constitutional question would not be reached in the appeal. Deer Mesa does not contend that the procedural question merited certification. If the case had been certified, a remand could have been expected because of the procedural issue. This court cannot foist issues on the supreme court. See NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 29 (Repl.Pamp. 1984); cf. State v. Puga. The motion for certification is denied. (c) Two additional constitutional issues. Deer Mesa asserts the trial court should be affirmed because the Act is unconstitutional for two other reasons. Neither of these two additional constitutional grounds were decided by the trial court and are not before us for review. NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 11 (Repl.Pamp.1984); Adoption of Doe, 89 N.M. 606, 555 P.2d 906 (Ct.App.1976). UNCONSTITUTIONAL DELEGATION The trial court ruled that the Act was an unconstitutional delegation of power to individuals. What power is involved—the legislative, executive or judi cial? See N.M. Const. art. III, § 1. See State v. Spears, 57 N.M. 400, 259 P.2d 356 (1953). The Act provides for the “creation” of the district, Section 3-21-18; provides for the election of commissioners for the district, Section 3-21-19 and -20; and confers upon the commissioners the power to zone within the district, Section 3-21-21 and -22. The zoning power is involved. Coe v. City of Albuquerque, 76 N.M. 771, 418 P.2d 545 (1966), held that the zoning power was not a judicial power. Since Coe, it has been expressly stated that the power to zone “must come from enabling legislation,” Westgate Families, and the “power to zone * * * must be delegated * * * by state statute.” City of Santa Fe v. Armijo, 96 N.M. 663, 634 P.2d 685 (1981). See also Burroughs v. Board of County Commissioners, County of Bernalillo, 88 N.M. 303, 540 P.2d 233 (1975). The question of the boundaries of a district in which the zoning power is exercised “must be determined by the Legislature or some body having legislative or administrative powers to which their determination is delegated.” See Searle v. Yensen, 118 Neb. 835, 226 N.W. 464 (1929). Cf. Cox v. City of Albuquerque, 53 N.M. 334, 207 P.2d 1017 (1949). The power involved is the legislative power. Thus, the trial court’s ruling was that the Act was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to individuals. The issue of unconstitutional delegation goes to the formation of the District. Issues involving the election of commissioners, the adoption of the zoning ordinance and the contents of the ordinance were not decided by the trial court and are not involved in this appeal. The issue as to the formation of the District, in this appeal, is a limited issue involving Section 3-21-18. That section reads: A special zoning district is created in an area outside the boundary limits of an incorporated municipality when: A. there are at least one hundred fifty single-family dwellings within the area; B. at least fifty-one percent of the registered electors residing in the area sign a petition requesting a special zoning district; C. the signed petition, along with a plat of the area included within the district, is filed in the office of the county clerk of the county or counties in which the area is situate; and D. no general zoning ordinance applying to all areas in the county outside of incorporated municipalities has been adopted by the county or counties in which the area is situate; provided that any special zoning district in existence upon the effective date of this act may continue to exist without cost to any county, and any special zoning district created pursuant to this section may continue to exist after adoption of a general zoning ordinance applying to all areas in the county outside of incorporated municipalities by the county or counties in which the district is situate without cost to any county; but no new special zoning districts shall be created in any county after the adoption of such general zoning ordinance by such county. The issue as to the formation of the District does not involve the method for determining whether the requirements of Section 3-21-18 have been met. See Huning. Section 3-21-18 identifies requirements for “creation” to occur. The issue as to the formation of the District does not involve the requirements stated in the statute. Whether the requirements stated in Section 3-21-18 had been met was not decided by the trial court; compliance with these requirements is not an issue in this appeal. The issue as to the formation of the District goes to what is not stated in Section 3-21-18. This issue involves the location and size of the District. Section 3-21-18 provides the following limitations on location and size: the district must be outside the boundary limits of an incorporated municipality, there must be 150 single-family dwellings within the area of the proposed district, fifty-one percent of the registered electors within the area of the proposed district must sign a petition requesting a district, there must be no general zoning ordinance applicable to the area of the proposed district and the district is not limited to one county. The legislature has specified requirements for the creation of a district and review of the fulfillment of those requirements is available through quo warranto. On this basis, the District asserts there is no unlawful delegation of legislative power. Implicit in the District’s position is the view that the sufficiency of the legislative requirements is not a matter for review by a court. Deer Mesa contends the sufficiency of the legislative requirements is necessarily involved because the question of unlawful delegation involves limitations upon the legislative power delegated. We agree with Deer Mesa. State v. Spears pointed out that the question of unlawful delegation of legislative power involves the question of whether actions authorized by a statute are within defined limits. State ex rel. Holmes v. State Board of Finance, 69 N.M. 430, 367 P.2d 925 (1961), pointed out that the propriety of a delegation of legislative power involves the sufficiency of the standards by which the delegation is to be exercised. City of Santa Fe v. Gamble-Skogmo, Inc., 73 N.M. 410, 389 P.2d 13 (1964), states: It is settled that a legislative body may not vest unbridled or arbitrary power in an administrative agency but must furnish a reasonably adequate standard to guide it. * * * Standards required to support a delegation of power by the local legislative body need not be specific. Most decisions hold that broad general standards are permissible “so long as they are capable of reasonable application and are sufficient to limit and define the Board’s discretionary powers.” (Citations omitted.) The authority delegated must be restricted by specific legislative standards. Montoya v. O’Toole, 94 N.M. 303, 610 P.2d 190 (1980). Spears, State Board of Finance, Gamble-Skogmo, Inc. and O’Toole involved the delegation of legislative power to administrative agencies or local public bodies. The requirements for a proper delegation apply to private persons as well as governmental bodies. See Washington ex rel. Seattle Title Trust Co. v. Roberge, 278 U.S. 116, 49 S.Ct. 50, 73 L.Ed. 210 (1928), which involved a zoning ordinance giving control of use of land as a home for old people to property owners within 400 feet of the proposed building. The authority given to the property owners was “uncontrolled by any standard or rule prescribed by legislative action * * *. They are * * * free to withhold consent for selfish reasons or arbitrarily * * *.” Id. at 122, 49 S.Ct. at 52. NMSA 1978, Sections 3-21-1 and -2 (Repl.1985) authorize zoning within the jurisdiction of municipalities and counties within specified territorial limits. The Junior College Act -considered in Daniels v. Watson, 75 N.M. 661, 410 P.2d 193 (1966), provided territorial limits. In contrast, Section 3-21-18 identifies territory that may not be included in the district but provides no limitation on the amount of territory or the location of territory which may be included. Under Section 3-21-18, a district could consist of strips of land adjoining the Animas River in northern San Juan County, the Brazos River in northern Rio Arriba County, the Mora River in Mora County and the Gallinas River in San Miguel County. Such a district could affect access to fishing in northern New Mexico’s most productive streams. Similarly, the salt lakes in Catron, Torrance and Roosevelt Counties could be included in one district, and the ranchers’ access to the salt lakes could be affected. Land adjacent to Indian reservations, national and state parks, monuments and wildlife refuges could similarly be included in one district without regard to contiguity. Widely separate historic places — Puerto De Luna in Guadalupe County, Cimarron in Colfax County, Abi quiu in Rio Arriba County, Ramah in McKinley County, San Antonio in Socorro County, Folsom in Union County, Hillsboro in Sierra County — could be included in one district. The possibilities, and potential abuses, are constrained only by one’s imagination. That the District in this case is within Taos County does not matter. “It is not what has been done but what can be done under a statute that determines its constitutionality.” State ex rel. Holmes v. State Board of Finance; State v. Spears. Section 3-21-18 permits private individuals to “create” a special zoning district without any limitation on the size and location of the district. Section 3-21-18 is void as an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power. There is no standard to guide the private individuals in determining the size or location. Cf. State v. Jaramillo, 83 N.M. 800, 498 P.2d 687 (Ct.App.1972). The summary judgment is affirmed. No costs are awarded. IT IS SO ORDERED. MINZNER and GARCIA, JJ., concur. . The parties agree that the Attorney General was served but did not appear. See NMSA 1978, § 44-6-12.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Plaintiff H.J. Guthmann, personal representative of Kathleen MacKay, deceased, sought a refund of the entrance fee paid by Mrs. MacKay to defendant LaVida Llena (LVL), a non-profit, life-care retirement center. Guthmann’s complaint alleged that the Residence Agreement requiring the entrance fee is unconscionable and an unenforceable adhesion contract. The trial court found for the defendant and Guthmann appeals. We affirm. Kathleen MacKay was 79 years old, with a life expectancy of 7-9 years, when she began looking for a retirement/life-care facility. She visited and considered a number of facilities in the Sante Fe and Albuquerque area. After seeing LVL, she took several weeks to study the Residence Agreement, discussing it with a close friend, but not with her attorney. Mrs. MacKay signed the agreement on March 2, 1983, and made a deposit toward the entry fee on that date. On June 16, 1983, upon payment of the remainder of the fee, she moved in. Mrs. MacKay became sick on December 29th of that year, and she was moved to the LVL Nursing Care Center. Two days later, after being transferred to a local hospital, she died. I. The Terms of the Agreement Under the Residence Agreement, the entry fee of $36,950 entitled Mrs. MacKay to occupy a one-bedroom unit with a fully-equipped kitchen for the rest of her life, and guaranteed her admittance to the LVL Nursing Care Center whenever required. She was also required to pay a Monthly Service Fee (MSF) of $537.00 to cover such things as a daily meal, tray service when needed, building and grounds maintenance, laundry service, transportation services, utilities, basic or skilled nursing, special medical diets, planned activities, bi-weekly cleaning of the unit, parking, use of common areas, etc. Because of certain medical services provided by LVL, Mrs. MacKay was required to have Medicare A or B coverage and at least one tie-in health insurance policy. The Nursing Center would provide care for any condition other than psychiatric problems, legal insanity or dangerously contagious diseases. There was no time limit on use of the Nursing Center; however, if Mrs. McKay were confined there permanently or for an extended period, LVL had the right to reassign her unit. She was guaranteed a similar unit should she recover sufficiently to resume independent living. Mrs. MacKay had the right to terminate the agreement on ninety days’ notice, if she were able to live alone, and if the MSF was current and fully paid. LVL would then refund the entrance fee less “10% plus 1% for each month of residency." LVL also had the right to terminate the agreement if the resident created a significant disturbance within the center or contracted an illness which rendered her presence detrimental to the health, safety or peaceful lodging of others; or if she refused to pay the MSF and remained in default for ninety days. In each of those instances Mrs. MacKay would receive the same refund as if she had terminated the agreement. In addition, the contract specifically provided that: It is the declared policy of the Center that a Resident’s residency shall not be terminated solely by reason of financial inability of the Resident to pay the Monthly Service Fee, provided the Resident has applied for and established the facts which justify special financial consideration. Such consideration shall be granted at the sole discretion of the Board of Directors of the Center. To cover a resident’s potential inability to pay, and the possibility that some residents would require more care and expense than anticipated by the fees, Paragraph I(J) of the contract provided for no refund of the entry fee upon a resident’s death: If a resident passes away after taking residency in the Center, the obligation of the Center * * * shall be fulfilled, and there shall be no repayment of any portion of the Entrance Fee. Mrs. MacKay fully understood and accepted that provision when she signed the agreement. II. Adhesion Contract On appeal, Guthmann renews his argument that LVL should be required to refund Mrs. MacKay’s entry fee because the Residence Agreement is an unenforceable adhesion contract. Guthmann cites Albuquerque Tire Co. v. Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Co., 102 N.M. 445, 697 P.2d 128 (1985), for the proposition that an adhesion contract is per se unenforceable. That case did not go so far. A court will refuse to enforce an adhesion contract or a provision thereof only when the contract or provision is unfair. See Steven v. Fidelity Casualty Co. of New York, 58 Cal.2d 862, 879, 882-83, 27 Cal.Rptr. 172, 183, 184-85, 377 P.2d 284, 295, 296-97 (1962); C. Kaufman, Corbin on Contracts § 559A (Supp.1984). The determination that a contract is one of adhesion is simply the first step in deciding whether it should be enforced. Three elements must be satisfied before an adhesion contract may be found. First, the agreement must occur in the form of a standardized contract prepared or adopted by one party for the acceptance of the other. Albuquerque Tire. Second, the party proffering the standardized contract must enjoy a superior bargaining position because the weaker party virtually cannot avoid doing business under the particular contract terms. Id. Finally, the contract must be offered to the weaker party on a take-it-or-leave-it basis, without opportunity for bargaining. Id. LVL’s contract with MacKay does not satisfy either the second or third elements. The LVL Residence Agreement is a standard form contract. The trial court found that Mrs. MacKay was aware of and had considered other retirement communities and chose LVL. It concluded that “[t]he MacKay Agreement is not * * * an actionable contract of adhesion.” A party may be deemed unable to avoid doing business under the terms of a standardized form contract “when the dominant contracting party has monopolized the relevant geographic * * * market or when all the competitors of the dominant party use essentially the same contract terms.” (Our emphasis.) Albuquerque Tire, 102 N.M. at 448, 697 P.2d at 131. There was testimony that at the time MacKay investigated the various retirement centers, the only other life-care facility in the limited Santa Fe/Albuquerque area offering similar amenities had a waiting list of one year and, according to Guthmann, “she wanted to settle someplace else.” Other local facilities provided varying quarters and services under varying terms. The evidence was, however, that Mrs. MacKay selectively chose LVL’s offering as the most desirable for her needs and wishes. The trial court made no specific finding that the contract was or was not offered to MacKay on a take-it-or-leave-it basis with no opportunity for bargaining. It did, however, refuse plaintiff’s requested finding that “MacKay had the choice only of accepting and signing the ‘Residence Agreement’ or rejecting it.” ? of opportunity to bargain may be proven by showing that the dominant party has been granted a monopoly, or that it afforded no opportunity to negotiate, or that the weaker party attempted to negotiate and failed. See Albuquerque Tire, 102 N.M. at 449, 697 P.2d at 132. Mrs. MacK-ay’s close friend was present when LVL’s representative discussed the contract terms, and she testified that Mrs. MacKay did not express any wish to alter or negotiate the contract terms, but knew that if she didn’t like the contract she didn’t have to sign it. She heard the LVL representative explain the no-refund provision to Mrs. MacKay, and heard her reply, “That’s fine with me. I have no one to leave my money to anyway.” An absence of opportunity to bargain is relevant only where the weaker party to a standard form contract objects or has reason to object to one or more of the contract terms. There is no evidence in this case either that Mrs. MacKay objected to the no-refund provision, or was not satisfied with the contract terms. Based on the record and the trial court’s findings and conclusions, we are persuaded that the Residence Agreement is not a contract of adhesion. III. Unconscionability If there has been “an absence of meaningful choice on the part of one of the parties together with contract terms which are unreasonably favorable to the other party,” a contract may be held to be unconscionable. Bowlin’s, Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co., 99 N.M. 660, 668, 662 P.2d 661, 669 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 99 N.M. 644, 662 P.2d 645 (1983) (quoting Williams v. Walker-Thomas Furniture Co., 350 F.2d 445, 449 (D.C.Cir.1965)). Lack of meaningful choice relates to a procedural analysis of unconscionability and is determined by examining the circumstances surrounding the contract formation, including the particular party’s ability to understand the terms of the contract and the relative bargaining power of the parties. Bowlin’s, Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co., Inc.; In re Friedman, 64 A.D.2d 70, 407 N.Y.S.2d 999, 1008 (1978); Williams v. Walker-Thomas; Bennett v. Behring Corp., 466 F.Supp. 689, 696 (S.D.Fla.1979), appeal dismissed, 629 F.2d 393 (5th Cir.1980). Substantive unconscionability is concerned with contract terms that are illegal, contrary to public policy, or grossly unfair. Bowlin’s, Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co.; cf. Smith v. Price’s Creameries, 98 N.M. 541, 545, 650 P.2d 825, 829 (1982); Hernandez v. S.I.C. Finance Co., 79 N.M. 673, 675, 448 P.2d 474, 476 (1968). The weight given to procedural and substantive considerations varies with the circumstances of each case. In re Friedman. Guthmann contends that the no-refund clause of the LVL contract is both procedurally and substantively unconscionable. (A) Procedural Unconscionability Plaintiff argues that no “meaningful choice” existed because (1) the only other local “life-care” center that was acceptable to his decedent had no immediate openings; (2) the contract was presented in a standardized printed form on a “take-it-or-leave-it” basis, and (3) LVL did not fully disclose the value of the rights and services the deceased was to obtain under the contract. A contract is procedurally unconscionable not merely because of inequality in bargaining power, but only where the inequality is so gross that one party’s choice is effectively non-existent. See Bennett v. Behring Corp.; Williams v. Walker-Thomas; Jones v. Star Credit Corp., 59 Misc. 2d 189, 298 N.Y.S.2d 264, 266-67 (1969). Factors to be considered include the use of sharp practices or high pressure tactics and the relative education, sophistication or wealth or the parties, as well as the relative scarcity of the subject matter of the contract. See Williams v. Walker-Thomas; In re Friedman,; Jones v. Star Credit Corp.; City and County of Honolulu v. Midkiff 62 Hawaii 411, 417-18, 616 P.2d 213, 218 (1980). Guthmann admits that Mrs. MacKay was not subjected to high pressure tactics, that she read the contract in its entirety, and that she fully understood the implications of all of its terms. The record reveals that she had engaged in extensive comparative shopping and had discussed the contract at length with both the LVL representative and her close friend. She also had a lawyer available for consultation, though she declined his offer to review the contract for her. There is nothing to indicate that her health or financial circumstances required her immediate admission to LVL or to any other similar facility. The trial court found that “MacKay had a net worth exceeding $100,000 after paying her entrance fee. She also had a monthly income exceeding $1,200.” Guthmann challenges this finding “on grounds of relevance.” Mrs. MacKay’s financial independence is not irrelevant. Consumers who successfully assert unconscionability usually are poor or otherwise disadvantaged. Bowlin’s, Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co. Businessmen and middle-class purchasers are not ordinarily victims of the kinds of gross advantage-taking that constitute unconscionability. Id. As the deceased’s close friend testified: She was a very smart woman. The fact that she divorced fifty years ago and had no skills whatsoever and got a job to support herself and left a very healthy estate says something about the woman. None of the circumstances surrounding formation of the contract between LVL and Mrs. MacKay lead to a conclusion that it was procedurally unconscionable. (B) Substantive Unconscionability Challenging several findings of fact, Guthmann contends that the no-refund clause of the agreement is substantively unconscionable both on its face and as applied to Mrs. MacKay. When terms are unreasonably favorable to one party a contract may be held to be substantively unconscionable. Bowlin’s Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co.; Williams v. Walker-Thomas. The terms must be such as “ ‘no man in his senses and not under delusion would make on the one hand, and * * * no honest and fair man would accept on the other. [Citations omitted].’ ” In re Friedman, 64 A.D.2d at 84, 407 N.Y.S.2d at 1008. In determining reasonableness or fairness, the primary concern must be with the terms of the contract considered in light of the circumstances existing when the contract was made. The test is not simple, nor can it be mechanically applied. The terms are to be considered “in the light of the general commercial background and the commercial needs of the particular trade or case.” Corbin suggests the test as being whether the terms are “so extreme as to appear unconscionable according to the mores and business practices of the time and place.” [Citations omitted.] Williams v. Walker-Thomas Furniture Co., 350 F.2d at 450, quoted in Bowlin’s, Inc. v. Ramsey Oil Co., 99 N.M. at 668, 662 P.2d at 669. Under the Williams v. Walker-Thomas test, a contract that does not violate public policy is not unconscionable unless one or more of its terms is grossly unfair under the circumstances as they existed at the time the contract was formed. Guthmann’s argument of particularized unconscionability as to Mrs. MacKay-rests on the event that occurred subsequent to the agreement, i.e., Mrs. MacKay’s totally unexpected death some six months after she entered the retirement center. Vitiation of a contract on a basis personal only to Mrs. MacKay — simply because of her untimely death — is not a circumstance of unconscionability recognized in the law. We turn, then, to the circumstances as they existed when decedent signed the contract to determine if gross unfairness occurred at that time. It appears from the court’s findings that Mrs. MacKay was well able to pay LVL’s fees. This is, therefore, not a case asking relief from enforcement of an exorbitant price against an impecunious party. Cf. In re Friedman; Jones v. Star Credit Corp. Additionally, even though the residency fees were substantial, when a buyer is free to engage in comparative shopping, price alone will not render a contract substantively unconscionable. Bennett v. Behring Corp. Particularly must this be true when the item or service sought is not a business or personal essential. Cf. Albuquerque Tire, 102 N.M. at 447-49, 697 P.2d at 130-32. When we look to the general commercial background and the commercial needs of the trade, Williams v. Walker-Thomas, to examine those circumstances at the time of the contract’s formation, the trial court’s Findings of Fact are informative: I. La Vida Llena (LVL) is a non-profit New Mexico Corporation * * *. ****** 3. As part of a comprehensive plan of financing the construction and continued operation of the retirement center, LVL established a policy of giving no refunds of entrance fees for death after residency- ****** II. The entrance fees paid by residents to LVL include monies to cover the cost of using the nursing care facility in the future if required because of deterioration in health of the resident. 12. LVL’s entrance fees and monthly service fees paid by residents are reasonable and comparable to fees charged by other similar life care retirement centers. 13. The services provided by and contractual obligations of LVL to residents, especially as to health care, are substantially different in kind and quality from those provided by landlords of apartments and comparisons are not valid. ****** 17. The no-refund-after-death provision in the LVL Residence Agreement is not peculiar to it but is part of the financing structure of many continuing care retirement centers. 18. If LVL were to give refunds when residents die, entrance fees would have to be increased to maintain the same financial position of the Center. 19. The Residence Agreement between Kathleen MacKay and LVL is a reasonable and appropriate contract for its intended purposes, and no reason exists to refuse to enforce any of its terms. Although plaintiff challenges Findings No. 1 and 3 “on grounds of relevance,” clearly those are relevant facts concerning the commercial setting at the time of contracting. He also argues that Findings No. 12, 13, and 19 are not correct inferences to be drawn from the evidence. Additionally, Guthmann disputes the sufficiency of the evidence to support Finding 11. He bases that contention on the following language of paragraphs 1(G) and 11(B) of the contract, which state: In consideration for the Entrance Fee * * * Resident shall have the right of residency * * * in the assigned living unit, including admittance to the Nursing Care Center * * *. ****** For the payment of the Monthly Service Fee, the Center offers its Residents the following services and conveniences: * * * basic or skilled nursing care [in the Nursing Care Center]. Regarding Finding 11, plaintiff notes that the Monthly Service Fee, which may be increased at LVL’s discretion, is used to pay LVL’s operational expenses, including nursing care. He points out that residents in the Nursing Care Center must pay for two extra meals per day, and for their medications and doctor bills. Thus, he reasons, the right of admittance to the Nursing Care Center, given in return for part of the entrance fee, is nothing more than the bare right to enter the nursing facility. The monies charged by LVL were explained by defendant’s exhibits and witnesses. That evidence showed that some of the entrance fee is allocated as partial pre-payment of the anticipated cost of future health care; that residents were advised by LVL’s accountants that $10,202 of the entrance fee and $190 of each MSF payment are tax-deductible medical expenses for the resident; that in return for the entrance fee, residents are guaranteed admission to the nursing facility and the right to remain there indefinitely with no additional per diem charge; and that the Medicare and tie-in health policies would provide limited coverage following a hospital confinement of at least three days. We see no conflict in the evidence and the court’s finding. With regard to the other findings attacked, the same facts as discussed above clearly support the court’s Finding 13 that the services and contractual obligations of LVL are not comparable to those provided by landlords of apartments. Finding 13 was not erroneous. To challenge Finding 19, Guthmann analogizes this case to those wherein the court has refused to enforce the literal terms of a contract because to do so would result in a forfeiture which shocks the conscience. See, e.g., Huckins v. Ritter, 99 N.M. 560, 562, 661 P.2d 52, 54 (1983). He relies on cases disallowing forfeiture of an interest in real property when the purchaser defaults after paying a substantial sum on his obligation. The contract here, however, explicitly provides that a resident in the center acquires no interest, in real property. Consequently, we do not feel that an analogy to forfeiture in real estate cases is appropriate. In our view, the life-care contract in question is similar to a single-premium, life-only annuity agreement in which no minimum payment of benefits is guaranteed. Courts have consistently rejected the contention that death of an annuitant earlier than contemplated renders such contracts unfair or unconscionable. See, e.g., Rishel v. Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. of California, 78 F.2d 881, 883, 885, 887 (10th Cir.1935); 19 R. Anderson & M. Rhodes, Couch Cyclopedia of Insurance Law, § 81.6 (2nd ed. 1983), and cases cited therein. ■ The difference between the LVL entrance fee and a lump sum premium for a life-only annuity is that the latter most commonly is based on the life expectancy for persons of the annuitant’s age, and the former is based on the average life expectancy of 12 years for retirement center residents in general. Benefits under both plans end upon death. In his Reply Brief, Guthmann argues that because LVL reserved the right to terminate the agreement under certain circumstances, the agreement was not enforceable as a true life-care contract. The label of the agreement is not significant, nor was that issue raised in the Brief in Chief. Mrs. MacKay knew exactly what circumstances might trigger any termination, and she agreed to them. Under the formula used by LVL, any termination of the agreement during the resident’s lifetime would be accompanied by a partial refund of the entrance fee if the termination occurred within the first seven years of residency, because LVL would be deemed to have “earned” the entire fee after that time. Plaintiff does not take issue with the formula used to calculate the partial refund, but simply asserts that a refund should also be available to MacKay’s estate because the reason for termination of the agreement “makes absolutely no difference to La Vida Llena either financially or otherwise.” This argument contradicts the court’s unchallenged Findings 17 and 18 and overlooks the heart of the bargain struck in this contract, i.e., that when the resident dies, she will have received that for which she bargained— care for the remainder of her life — and that the center will provide it, no matter how long the resident lives. The doctrine of unconscionability is designed to prevent oppression and unfair surprise, and not to disturb allocation of risks because of superior bargaining power. Bernina Distributors, Inc. v. Bernina Sewing Machine Co., 646 F.2d 434, 440 (10th Cir.1981) (quoting U.C.C. § 2-302, comment 1); Drink, Inc. v. Martinez, 89 N.M. 662, 665, 556 P.2d 348, 351 (1976); Hernandez v. S.I.C. Finance Co. Here, Mrs. MacKay took the risk that she might die sooner than expected; LVL risked a lower entrance fee against the cost of a partial refund at death, as well as that Mrs. MacKay might live longer than seven to twelve years and thus use, to some extent, a portion of the fees paid by others who had died prematurely. It is therefore not unreasonable or unfair, nor unconscionable, for the parties to agree to no refund at death, and to no additional payments should the resident outlive her life expectancy. Courts of other jurisdictions have recognized that the financing and financial feasibility of non-profit retirement facilities are predicated upon averages. E.g., Bower v. The Estaugh, 146 N.J.Super. 116, 369 A.2d 20 (App.Div.) cert. denied, 74 N.J. 252, 377 A.2d 658 (1977); Gold v. Salem Lutheran Home Association of the Bay Cities, 53 Cal.2d 289, 1 Cal.Rptr. 343, 347 P.2d 687 (1959); Dodge v. New Hampshire Centennial Home for the Aged, 95 N.H. 472, 67 A.2d 10, 10 A.L.R.2d 858 (1949); Henry Keep Home v. Moore, 198 Okl. 198, 176 P.2d 1016 (1947). Bower v. The Estaugh, with which we fully agree, is directly on point. There the plaintiffs decedent had contracted for lifetime living accommodations and medical care in return for an entrance fee of $16,-750 and a monthly fee of $360. The contract expressly provided for no refund of the entrance fee upon death. Decedent died a month after entering the center. Denying the personal representative's claim that the non-profit retirement center had been unjustly enriched, the court said: The fact of Mrs. Pedlow’s early demise is of no legal moment. The vast majority of cases uphold life-care contracts entered into between nursing homes and aged persons as not unfair, unconscionable or unjust, even if the resident dies a relatively short time after entering the home and before receiving benefits roughly commensurate with the value of the property received by the home. [Citations omitted.] It- is reasonably foreseeable that death may occur at any time, and it is not unjust for each party to assume the risk that the predictable life span of the resident might vary. [Citation omitted.] However, plaintiff argues that the present situation is different because certain provisions of the contract make it unenforceable as a life-care contract. We disagree. While the contract allowed the home to reasonably raise the monthly fee to meet justifiable cost increases, its policy ... was not to dismiss any resident for his inability to pay but only for just and sufficient cause. The parties reached an agreement that for an entry fee and monthly payments defendant would provide decedent with certain care until her death or earlier termination of the agreement by either party. Defendant fully performed until the death of the deceased. Pedlow's early demise results in a benefit of sorts for defendant and others for whom it provides services, but the reverse was equally possible. It is no reason to now find the agreement was invalid. * * * With no evidence of undue influence or overreaching ... we see no basis for interfering with the obvious and expressed intention of the parties to the agreement. ****** The courts have long held that agreements by charitable organizations to provide life care for the aged in return for property or money are ill defined as wagering contracts and not against public policy. Such homes provide a needed service. 146 N.J.Super. at 120-22, 369 A.2d at 22-23. There is ample support for the findings and decision of the trial court. The judgment is AFFIRMED. RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. Convicted of two counts of criminal sexual penetration in the second degree and one count of aggravated burglary, defendant appealed. We assigned the case to our summary calendar, proposing affirmance of the eight issues raised in the docketing statement. Defendant has filed a timely memorandum in opposition to our proposed disposition. Only one issue is argued, although appellate counsel informs us that defendant wishes the case to be recalendared for consideration of all issues raised in the docketing statement. See State v. Boyer, 24 SBB 524 (Ct.App.1985). The issues not argued are affirmed for the reasons stated in the calendaring notice. With regard to the issue argued, we find defendant’s memorandum unpersuasive and, accordingly, affirm. Defendant was sentenced to three concurrent nine-year terms for his three convictions. The issue raised is whether this violates double jeopardy. Our calendaring notice proposed affirmance because each offense required proof of facts which the other did not and neither offense necessarily involved the other, State v. Young, 91 N.M. 647, 579 P.2d 179 (Ct.App.1978), and because, defendant having received concurrent sentences, there was no issue of merger, which involves multiple punishment, see State v. Sandoval, 90 N.M. 260, 561 P.2d 1353 (Ct.App.1977). Defendant challenges the proposed disposition on both grounds. Defendant contends that, under the facts of this case, see State v. Jacobs, 701 P.2d 400 (1985), the proof of each crime was an element of the other crime so that any increase in the penalty, from a third to a second degree felony, amounted to double jeopardy. The factor which made the criminal sexual penetration a second degree offense was that it was committed during the commission of an aggravated burglary; the burglary was a second degree offense because defendant committed a battery inside; the facts of the battery were the criminal sexual penetrations. Defendant argues that, under these facts, “enhancing each crime by the other violates double jeopardy. * * * He should have been convicted of, at most, three third degree felonies.” For purposes of answering this argument, we assume, but expressly do not decide, that State v. DeMary, 99 N.M. 177, 655 P.2d 1021 (1982), relied on in Jacobs, affected the holdings of State v. Stephens, 93 N.M. 458, 601 P.2d 428 (1979), and State v. Melton, 90 N.M. 188, 561 P.2d 461 (1977), both of which support our proposed affirmance. Nonetheless, the result in Jacobs affords defendant little relief. Jacobs would allow the sentence on a greater offense to stand. In this case, the sentence for either crime would stand. Accepting defendant’s contention that the aggravated burglary was a lesser included offense of the variety of CSP for which defendant was convicted, Jacobs would allow the sentence for CSP. Similarly, accepting defendant’s contention that the CSP was the battery in the aggravated burglary for which defendant was convicted, Jacobs would allow the sentence for the aggravated burglary. Thus, a nine-year sentence was authorized by Jacobs under the facts of this case. Defendant next argues that the three convictions violated double jeopardy. He relies, for this argument, on language contained in Ball v. United States, — U.S. —, 105 S.Ct. 1668, 84 L.Ed.2d 740 (1985), to the effect that principles of double jeopardy are offended by the collateral consequences of convictions, even apart from the sentence. We do not believe that the Ball language applies to this case. Ball was a case involving legislative intent and a determination, under Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299, 52 S.Ct. 180, 76 L.Ed. 306 (1932), of whether two statutorily created offenses were the same. Blockburger looked to the elements of the crimes to see whether each provision requires proof of a fact which the other does not. Applying this test in Ball, the court found that the two statutes there at issue, receiving and possessing a firearm, were the same and were directed to the same evil. The same cannot be said in the case at bar. CSP protects the bodily integrity of persons; aggravated burglary protects the physical security of places. As stated in Young, the offenses are not the same. It is only by application of the DeMary rule and look ing to the specific facts of this case that defendant has any double jeopardy claim whatsoever. Under these circumstances, we believe that defendant’s rights have been protected under traditional double jeopardy principles by running the sentences concurrently. Affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and NEAL, JJ., concur.
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OPINION This matter having come before this Court on June 5, 1985, after completion of disciplinary proceedings conducted pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline (Repl.Pamp.1983 and Supp.1984), wherein Attorney Charles W. Rawson was found to have engaged in conduct involving carelessness, negligence, conflicts of interest, and failure to maintain a trust account and appropriate records of client funds, the Court adopts the findings and conclusions of the Disciplinary Board and adopts the Board’s recommendations with modifications. The hearing committee and the Disciplinary Board found that Rawson displayed a total lack of knowledge and understanding of his obligations to maintain a trust account, to keep appropriate records of client funds, and to properly account for these funds to clients. He also failed to recognize and disclose a developing conflict of interest to his clients, the LaVictoires. Rawson's course of conduct in these matters reflects adversely upon his fitness to practice law in violation of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp. Rule 1-102(A)(6) (Repl. Pamp.1982). The hearing committee’s recommendation was that Rawson be suspended for a period of one year pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 11(a)(2) (Repl.Pamp. 1983), and that the suspension be deferred pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 11(b)(1) (Repl. Pamp. 1983), and that Rawson be placed on probation under specified conditions. The Board panel recommended that the period of suspension be increased to fifteen months of which only twelve months would be deferred, leaving Rawson with an actual suspension of three months. Because the hearing committee found and the Disciplinary Board agrees that Rawson’s acts were not fraudulent or done with intent to deceive, the Court agrees with the hearing committee’s recommendation. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that Charles W. Rawson be and hereby is suspended for a period of one year from the practice of law pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 11(a)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1983). IT IS FURTHER ORDERED THAT the one year period of suspension be deferred and that Rawson be placed on probation for a period of one year pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 11(b)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1983), commencing on August 1, 1985, under the following conditions: a. During the period of probation, Raw-son shall not commit any violation of any provision of the New Mexico Code of Pro fessional Responsibility or its successor Rules. b. During the period of probation, Raw-son shall accept instruction by a practicing attorney recommended by Disciplinary Counsel and engaged in the regular practice of corporate law in the areas of general corporate law practice, fee agreements with corporate clients, the potential for conflicts of interest with corporate clients, and the disciplinary rules relating to loans by a lawyer to a corporate client. Counsel has recommended Marian Matthews, Esq., of Albuquerque, and Ms. Matthews is hereby appointed to this position. A letter from Ms. Matthews certifying to the satisfactory instruction to Rawson in these areas shall be submitted to Disciplinary Counsel prior to the completion of the period of probation. c. During the period of probation, Raw-son shall create a trust account funded by $100 of his own funds and accept instruction from Ms. Matthews on the correct procedures for maintaining and auditing his trust account. A letter from her certifying to the satisfactory instruction to Rawson in maintaining and auditing his trust account shall be submitted to Disciplinary Counsel prior to the completion of the period of probation. d. -During the period of probation, Raw-son shall submit to, and bear the expense of, two unannounced audits of his trust account and records, including corporate client records, to insure that his trust account and records are being maintained in a manner in compliance with the Rules of the Code of Professional Responsibility or its successor Rules. e. During the period of probation, Raw-son shall deposit $17,500 plus interest computed at the rate of 8% simple interest from July 10, 1981 to the date of deposit with the Clerk of the District Court for the Second Judicial District for the Clerk to place in a separate interest-bearing account for appropriate distribution in Cause No. CV-84-04284, El Syd, Inc., et al. v. Charles W. Rawson when that case is decided. f.Rawson shall take and receive a passing grade on the next Multi-State Professional Responsibility Examination given in New Mexico. Costs in this action in the amount of $1,771.70 are assessed against Rawson and should be paid to the Disciplinary Board no later than September 1, 1985. IT IS SO ORDERED.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Wife appeals from the trial court’s order dismissing her petition to divide previously undivided community property interests in her former husband’s military retirement and his retirement from the Potash Company of America (PCA). There are five issues: (1) whether substantial evidence exists to support the trial court’s finding of an oral agreement for disposition of military retirement benefits; (2) failure of trial court to divide wife’s interest in the PCA retirement; (3) whether the statute of limitations or laches bars wife’s right to past military retirement benefits; (4) wife’s right to future military retirement benefits; and (5) wife’s right to attorney’s fees. Reversed and remanded. The parties were married from 1952 to 1977, with the exception of a three-month period in 1963, during which husband and wife were divorced and then remarried. Husband served in the military service from 1951 to 1972, when he retired with twenty-one years of credit. The parties were divorced on November 14, 1977, in Eddy County, New Mexico. At the time of the divorce, husband received a net monthly military retirement payment of $524.00 per month. On January 31, 1984, at the time of the hearing wife’s petition to divide additional assets, husband’s net monthly military retirement payment was $772.00. In 1973, after his discharge from the military in May, 1972, and prior to the divorce of the parties, husband began to work for PCA. The PCA retirement vests after ten years of employment, but retirement benefits do not mature until the employee attains sixty-five years of age. At the time of the divorce, husband was not receiving PCA retirement. In his petition for divorce, husband alleged that his military retirement benefits and the PCA retirement were community property. Husband and wife, through their respective counsel, entered into a written marital settlement agreement. However, no express reference was made in the settlement agreement to either the PCA or military retirement benefits. In Pacheco v. Quintana, Ct.App.No. 8181 (Filed December 23, 1985), we rejected wife’s argument that military retirement benefits had not previously been divided and were now subject to division. While Pacheco was in part similar to the instant case, the property settlement agreement in Pacheco compelled a different result. The parties in Pacheco agreed that husband would retain the balance of the community property, mutually released each other from further claims and agreed that the division was a full and complete settlement. In the present case, retirement benefits were not previously divided. On July 11, 1983, wife filed a petition in the District Court of Eddy County, New Mexico, alleging that when the parties were divorced in 1977, the interests of the parties in husband’s military retirement and in the PCA retirement were left undivided and that husband had been receiving military retirement pay since 1972. Husband answered wife’s petition for division of the undivided community property and admitted that the written property settlement agreement and final decree of divorce failed to divide all the interests of the parties, but alleged that since husband had had no vested right in the pension from PCA, wife was not entitled to any interest in the PCA retirement benefits. Husband denied generally that wife had any interest in his military retirement. No affirmative defenses were expressly pled by husband in response to wife’s petition. The trial court adopted findings of fact and conclusions of law, stating inter alia: 3. * * * Included in [his] Petition in said divorce cause [Husband] plead [sic] the existence of possible community interests in Potash Company of America retirement plan and retirement from the United States as a result of his naval service. Answer to the Petition was duly filed by the attorney for [wife]. On November 8, 1977, [the] parties entered into a Property Settlement Agreement [in the divorce action], wherein the parties agreed as to custody of a child, child support and division of community assets and temporary alimony * * *. 4. At the time of the Agreement and entry of the Decree, both parties and their attorneys knew of the existence of the retirement benefits with the Navy and the possible existence of retirement benefits with Potash Company of America as shown by the pleadings of the record * * *. 5. Both parties and their attorneys knew of the existence of the military retirement and agreed that said retirement would be paid to [husband], as a part of their Agreement, although this matter was not mentioned specifically in the Agreement or the Decree. 6. [Wife] had full knowledge of the existence of the military retirement benefits both at the time of the Decree in November of 1977, and through the time of the filing of the Petition in this cause. 7. There was no value as to the Potash Company of America Retirement Fund at the time the parties were divorced in 1977. The trial court concluded that wife was “barred from maintaining this action because it [the military retirement] is not a community asset that was [unknown to the parties] at the time [they] were divorced, but on the contrary was fully known to [wife] and taken into account by consent.” The court also concluded that wife was barred from asserting any interest in the military retirement under the statute of limitations, laches, and waiver. I. SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE Wife’s petition for division and distribution of her interest in the undistributed community assets was based upon statutory grounds. NMSA 1978. Section 40-4-20 (Repl.Pamp.1983), provides: The failure to divide the property on dissolution of marriage shall not affect the property rights of either the husband or wife, and either may subsequently institute and prosecute a suit for division and distribution, or with reference to any other matter pertaining thereto, which could have been litigated in the original proceeding for dissolution of the mar-riage. On appeal, wife asserts that there is no substantial evidence in the record to support the trial court’s finding of an express agreement between the parties of wife’s relinquishment of all her rights in husband’s military benefits. We agree. Husband’s petition for divorce in Eddy County alleged that the military retirement benefits were community property. The final decree of divorce entered by the court found all of the allegations of husband’s petition to be true. Wife argues on appeal that the trial court could not properly consider extrinsic evidence to change the meaning of the decree, where the decree was clear and unambiguous. See Parks v. Parks, 91 N.M. 369, 574 P.2d 588 (1978). Husband contends that even though the divorce decree found all of the allegations of his petition to be true, including the allegation that the military retirement was community property, nevertheless the decree omitted any division of this asset. Husband implies that these facts raise an ambiguity in the decree, and consequently, to explain the ambiguity, parties should be permitted to present testimony and evidence outside the decree. E.g., Parks v. Parks. Wife failed to assert in the trial court the argument now raised for the first time on appeal. Issues not properly raised in the trial court will not be considered on appeal. Eichel v. Goode, Inc., 101 N.M. 246, 680 P.2d 627 (Ct.App.1984). In light of wife’s failure to object at trial, we find no error on the part of the trial court in its consideration of extrinsic evidence concerning the existence, if any, of an agreement between the parties concerning the disposition of husband’s military retirement benefits. Husband, wife, and husband’s attorney testified that, at the time of divorce, they believed the military retirement was husband’s separate property. Husband also testified that the only agreement entered into between the parties during their divorce was the marital settlement agreement dated November 8, 1977, and that there were no outside agreements. Husband testified further that he was not claiming that wife had no interest in the retirement; rather, he believed that the division of property between the parties had been settled. He stated that: (1) at the time of the divorce, the parties were under the impression that the military retirement belonged to the retiree; and (2) he “believed” that his former wife did not want the retirement. After the divorce, wife testified that she learned that under New Mexico law she was entitled to her community property share of husband’s military retirement. See Walentowski v. Walentowski, 100 N.M. 484, 672 P.2d 657 (1983) (upholding the LeClert rule that military retirement is community property subject to division on dissolution of marriage); LeClert v. LeClert, 80 N.M. 235, 453 P.2d 755 (1969) (holding that the portion of military retirement earned during marriage became part of the community property subject to division in the divorce proceeding). Even when viewed in a light most favorable to the trial court’s finding together with all reasonable inferences, the trial court’s finding that wife orally agreed to relinquish her interest in the retirement benefits is not supported by substantial evidence. At most there is an inference that wife and her attorney were mistaken in their belief that wife could not assert a right to husband’s military retirement benefits. Substantial evidence is relevant evidence which a reasonable mind might accept as sufficient to support a conclusion. Schober v. Mountain Bell Telephone, 96 N.M. 376, 630 P.2d 1231 (Ct.App.1980). Findings must be based upon substantial evidence, not speculation and conjecture. Pacheco v. Martinez, 97 N.M. 37, 636 P.2d 308 (Ct.App.1981). A judgment based upon findings unsupported by substantial evidence will not be upheld on appeal. Henderson v. Lekvold, 99 N.M. 269, 657 P.2d 125 (1983); Getz v. Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, 90 N.M. 195, 561 P.2d 468, cert. denied, 434 U.S. 834, 98 S.Ct. 121, 54 L.Ed.2d 95 (1977). Because we determine that there was no substantial evidence to support the trial court’s finding that the parties orally agreed that husband should be awarded the entire community interest in the military retirement benefits, wife was not precluded from asserting her claim for this undistributed asset. II. PCA RETIREMENT BENEFITS Wife contends that she is entitled to a portion of the PCA retirement, because it was not divided at the time of divorce. Husband asserts that wife is not entitled to have this asset divided, since the trial court found that there was no value to this asset at the time of the divorce and that the parties’ interests in the retirement plan amounted to a mere expectancy. At the time of trial, husband presented evidence that he had been laid off from PCA, due to a reduction in the work force. Husband began working for PCA in 1973. The parties were divorced in 1977, and husband worked for PCA for a period of four years during the marriage. In order for husband’s PCA retirement to become vested, he would have to continue working for the company for six additional years. The PCA retirement vests after ten years of service; it matures when the employee becomes age 65. Husband argues that it is questionable whether his PCA retirement benefits will ever become vested, because economic conditions affecting the potash mining industry have caused his employer to lay him off periodically. The issue of whether a contingent interest in a nonvested and unmatured retirement benefit, earned in whole or in part during marriage, is subject to division upon dissolution of marriage is a matter that has not been directly addressed in this jurisdiction. Compare Copeland v. Copeland, 91 N.M. 409, 575 P.2d 99 (1978), modified in part, Schweitzer v. Burch, 103 N.M. 612, 711 P.2d 889 (1985) (holding that vested retirement rights earned during the marriage of the parties are a community asset subject to division at time of divorce, even though husband has not yet retired). The supreme court in LeClert v. LeClert, anticipated a number of the arguments asserted herein and which relate to the issue of contingent interests. As observed in Norris v. Saueressig, LeClert “was one of the first decisions to recognize that an unmatured retirement could be divided as community property.” See also Ridgway v. Ridgway, 94 N.M. 345, 610 P.2d 749 (1980) (holding that husband’s vested, unmatured interest in a noncontributory profit-sharing plan, which had no ascertainable future benefit, did have a current actual value at the time of divorce and was a community asset subject to division upon divorce). The court in LeClert considered and rejected the argument that a right to receive an interest in retirement benefits was not subject to allocation at the time of divorce. On appeal, the supreme court affirmed the award, stating that: [Pjlaintiff s retirement pay to which he was to become entitled July 1, 1968 cannot be considered a mere expectancy * *. Here, plaintiff has been ordered retired. When the retirement date occurs, the pay to be received by him is in payment for services performed, partly during the marriage of the parties. Id. 80 N.M. at 236-37, 453 P.2d at 756-57. When a substantial portion of the time and labor of a spouse has been expended during marriage to obtain retirement benefits but the right in retirement benefits has not yet vested, the worker has still accrued a valuable right in a contingent benefit. W. de Funiak & M. Vaughn, Principles of Community Property, § 68 at 149 (2d ed. 1971). An issue similar to that presented herein was considered by the California Supreme Court in In re Marriage of Brown, 15 Cal.3d 838, 126 Cal.Rptr. 633, 544 P.2d 561 (1976). There the court considered whether husband’s nonvested retirement rights earned during his employment were subject to division at the time of divorce. The court overruled its prior decision of French v. French, 17 Cal.2d 775, 112 P.2d 235 (1941), and held: Although * * * courts have previously refused to allocate [a] right in a nonvested pension between the spouses as community property on the ground that such pension is contingent upon continued employment, we reject this theory. In other situations when community funds or efforts are expended to acquire a conditional right to future income, the courts do not hesitate to treat that right as a community asset. [Footnotes omitted.] s}c * s}c s}: s}c The present case illustrates the point. [Husband’s] pension rights, a valuable asset built up by 24 years of community effort, under the French rule would escape division by the court as a community asset solely because dissolution occurred two years before the vesting date. If, as is entirely likely, [husband] continues to work for General Telephone Company for the additional two years needed to acquire a vested right, he will then enjoy as his separate property an annuity created predominently [sic] through community effort. This “potentially whimsical result,” as the Court of Appeals described in a similar division of community property in In re Marriage of Peterson * * * 41 Cal.App.3d 642, 651, 115 Cal.Rptr. 184, cannot be reconciled with the fundamental principle that property attributable to community earnings must be divided equally when the community is dissolved. Id. at 846-48, 126 Cal.Rptr. at 638-39, 544 P.2d at 566-67. The California Supreme Court reiterated the Brown rule in In re Marriage of Gillmore, 29 Cal.3d 418, 174 Cal.Rptr 493, 629 P.2d 1 (1981). The court in Gillmore stated: “Under California law, retirement benefits earned by a spouse during a marriage are community property, subject to equal division upon dissolution of that marriage. [Citations omitted.] This is true whether the benefits are vested or nonvested, matured or immature.” Id. at 422, 174 Cal.Rptr. at 495, 629 P.2d at 3. See also In re Marriage of Mastropaolo, 166 Cal.App.3d 953, 213 Cal.Rptr 26 (1985); Van Loan v. Van Loan, 116 Ariz. 272, 569 P.2d 214 (1977); Cearley v. Cearley, 544 S.W.2d 661 (Tex.1976); Wilder v. Wilder, 85 Wash.2d 364, 534 P.2d 1355 (1975); Farver v. Department of Retirement Systems, 29 Wash.App. 138, 629 P.2d 903 (1981); DeRevere v. DeRevere, 5 Wash.App. 741, 491 P.2d 249 (1971). In discussing the valuation of retirement benefits in community property settlements, Nordhauser, in The Valuation of Defined Benefit Retirement Plan Benefits in Community Property Settlements, 9 Com.Prop.J. 299 (1982), has pointed out that: [M]ost community property jurisdictions now agree that an employee’s contingent interest in an unvested defined benefit retirement pension plan that will mature at a future date is property. Furthermore, many courts agree that despite the inchoate nature of such prospective retirement benefits, they are community property to the extent that the retirement benefits were earned during marriage. Similarly, the court in Cearley observed: While the status of military pension benefits earned during marriage is now firmly established as community property, the decisions in this and other community property States have differed as to whether the pension payments must have vested or matured before they are subject to apportionment by a divorce court, or whether future contingent payments may be apportioned “if, as, and when” they mature and are received by the retired spouse. Reliance on the date of collectibility as the inception of contingent pension rights earned during coverture was soon recognized to be inconsistent with basic community property principles. [Emphasis added.] Id. at 663. As Hughes v. Hughes, 96 N.M. 719, 722, 634 P.2d 1271, 1274 (1981), states: “In New Mexico, time of vesting has not been considered significant in the analysis of whether retirement benefits are separate or community property.” The PCA retirement rights accrued by husband during coverture were earned by community labor and constituted a contingent interest in retirement benefits. The fact that a PCA retirement had no value at the time of divorce is irrelevant to wife’s suit to divide the parties’ rights in this asset. F.g., Hickson v. Herrmann, 77 N.M. 683, 427 P.2d 36 (1967); LeClert v. LeClert. A spouse’s entitlement to half of the community interest in a pension plan earned during coverture does not rest upon whether the employee’s interest was vested at the time of divorce, but whether the worker’s rights in the pension constitute a property interest or right obtained with community funds or labor. Van Loan v. Van Loan. While rights to benefits under the retirement plan may never vest or mature due to contingencies and unforeseeable occurrences, wife was, nevertheless, entitled to have her portion of the contingent interest computed and divided. In Schweitzer v. Burch, the supreme court has prospectively modified its holding in Copeland, to hold that at the time of divorce, unless both parties agree otherwise, the trial court must divide community property retirements on a “pay as it comes in basis,” in order to better assure equity, fairness and to divide the risk equally. Id. III. APPLICATION OF AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES TO PAST MILITARY RETIREMENT BENEFITS The trial court found that wife’s action for division and distribution of husband’s military retirement rights was barred by the statute of limitations, waiver and laches. Husband’s answer to wife’s action herein did not plead the affirmative defenses of statute of limitations, waiver or laches. Wife contends it was error to award the pension plans on the basis of defenses not pled nor argued by husband, but rather raised sua sponte by the court. Under NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 8(c)(Rep-l.Pamp.1980), a party is required to expressly plead affirmative defenses. Failure to plead an affirmative defense in a responsive pleading, under NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 12(h) (Repl.Pamp.1980), may result in the waiver of the defense. Chavez v. Kitsch, 70 N.M. 439, 374 P.2d 497 (1962). An affirmative defense is that state of facts provable by defendant which may bar plaintiff’s right to recover. Bendorf v. Volkswagenwerk Aktiengeselischaft, 88 N.M. 355, 540 P.2d 835 (Ct.App.1975). A trial court does not have the power sua sponte to amend a party’s pleadings. Branch v. Mays, 89 N.M. 536, 554 P.2d 1297 (Ct.App.1976); Pacheco v. Martinez. A trial court may, however, allow a party to amend his pleadings to set up an affirmative defense. Chavez v. Kitsch. Similarly, even though a party has not expressly pled an affirmative defense nor moved to amend its answer to include an affirmative defense, as provided by NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 15(b) (Repl.Pamp.1980), an issue may be otherwise raised. See Terrill v. Western American Life Insurance Co., 85 N.M. 456, 513 P.2d 390 (1973). Where an issue in the nature of an affirmative defense is raised and litigated without objection and specifically ruled on by the trial court, defendant’s failure to raise the issue as an affirmative defense or seek an amendment at trial does not present a viable issue on appeal. Id. See also J. Walden, Civil Procedure in New Mexico, Section 5(e)(2), at 125-26 (1973). ? did not object at trial to the introduction of evidence relating to the affirmative defenses found by the court. The trial court did not err in adopting findings based upon evidence admitted without objection. Wife further argues, however, that laches is not applicable under the facts herein. The elements of laches are: (1) defendant’s invasion of plaintiff’s rights; (2) delay in asserting plaintiff’s rights; (3) a lack of knowledge in the defendant that plaintiff would assert her rights; and (4) injury or prejudice to defendant if the suit is not barred. Baker v. Benedict, 92 N.M. 283, 587 P.2d 430 (1978). She asserts that the evidence merely shows a lapse of time, without proof that the delay was unreasonable or resulted in any prejudice to husband. See Butcher v. City of Albuquerque, 95 N.M. 242, 620 P.2d 1267 (1980). The passage of time is only one element of the defense of laches. Mere delay is insufficient to establish laches. City of Roswell v. Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Co., 78 F.2d 379 (10th Cir.1935); C & H Construction & Paving Co. v. Citizens Bank, 93 N.M. 150, 597 P.2d 1190 (Ct.App.1979). To establish the defense of laches, the evidence must show that the delay was unreasonable and that it prejudiced the defendant. Id. The application of the doctrine of laches depends upon the circumstances of each ease. City of Raton v. Vermejo Conservancy District, 101 N.M. 95, 678 P.2d 1170 (1984). The doctrine of laches is disfavored and is applied only where a party is guilty of inexcusable neglect in enforcing her rights. See, e.g., State ex rel. Department of Human Services v. Davis, 99 N.M. 138, 654 P.2d 1038 (1982); Butcher v. City of Albuquerque. Viewed in a light most favorable to the ruling of the trial court, the evidence supports a finding of unreasonable delay and prejudice to husband as to the previously paid installments of military retirement. Wife was aware that husband was receiving military retirement. She found out that she may have been entitled to share in the benefits in 1978, yet she delayed in filing suit until approximately five years later. Additionally, husband voluntarily paid more alimony to wife than required under the marital settlement. The court’s finding that wife’s claim for a portion of the military retirement benefits previously received by husband is barred by the statute of limitations and laches is supported by substantial evidence. See Plaatje v. Plaatje, 95 N.M. 789, 626 P.2d 1286 (1981). In Plaatje, the court held that an action to divide military retirement benefits is subject to a four-year statute of limitations and that the statute runs from the date of each installment payment of military retirement. However, under Plaatje, the court’s finding of laches herein only applies to past installments of military retirement. Property acquired by either or both spouses during marriage is presumptively community property. Stroshine v. Stroshine, 98 N.M. 742, 652 P.2d 1193 (1982). If community property is undivided at the time of divorce, it is held as tenants in common following the divorce. See Hickson v. Herrmann. The New Mexico Supreme Court has recently held that New Mexico community property law, which currently treats military disability retirement benefits as community property, is consonant with federal law in the Uniformed Services Former Spouse’s Protection Act, 10 U.S.C. Section 1408(c)(1) (West 1983) (which provides that: “a court may treat disposable retired or retainer pay payable to a member for periods beginning after June 25,1981, either as property solely of the member or as property of the member and his spouse in accordance with the law of the jurisdiction of such court.”). Austin v. Austin, 103 N.M. 457, 709 P.2d 179 (1985). The New Mexico Court of Appeals has also held that in allocating military retirement benefits upon divorce, the Act may be applied retroactively to June 25, 1981. Koppenhaver v. Koppenhaver, 101 N.M. 105, 678 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 101 N.M. 11, 677 P.2d 624 (1984). The trial court concluded that wife was barred from maintaining her action for military retirement benefits because of facts giving rise to the defense of waiver. On appeal, wife challenges the sufficiency of evidence to support a finding of waiver. We agree. Waiver is the intentional relinquishment of a known right. Young v. Seven Bar Flying Service, Inc., 101 N.M. 545, 685 P.2d 953 (1984); Wells Fargo Bank v. Dax, 93 N.M. 737, 605 P.2d 245 (Ct.App.1979). The evidence was undisputed that wife did not know at the time of the divorce that she had a right to a share of the military retirement. Husband’s attorney at the divorce was called to testify at trial herein and stated that he believed the retirement benefits belonged to husband and that wife’s attorney was under a similar impression. The findings adopted by the trial court do not support a finding of a valid waiver by wife to the military retirement benefits. IV. FUTURE BENEFITS Wife contends that the trial court’s finding of laches, statute of limitations, and waiver is not applicable to military benefits received by husband which have accrued since the filing of her petition seeking division of the military retirement. We agree. Plaatje held that the statute of limitations applicable to the receipt of payments for military retirement is a four-year statute and that it runs from the date of each installment of military retirement. See NMSA 1978, § 37-1-4. The right to receive each monthly installment accrued when each installment became due; thus, wife’s right to recover her portion of each installment commences to run from the time each installment is payable. Id. The statute of limitations would bar participation in those benefits which were paid and received by husband more than four years prior to the filing of wife’s action herein. After wife’s initiation of the present suit, the doctrine of laches would only bar wife’s right to a share of past due installments of military retirement benefits paid and received. The evidence, when construed in a light most favorable to the trial court’s findings below, supports a finding of laches, as discussed under Point III, supra. Under the facts herein, however, neither laches nor waiver bar wife’s right to recover a portion of retirement benefits paid subsequent to filing of this suit or benefits which may become payable in the future. See § 40-4-20. V. ATTORNEY FEES The trial court denied wife an award of attorney fees at trial. Wife points out that the trial involved a one-half day preparation and briefing. Additionally, wife seeks allowance of attorney fees incident to her appeal herein. Review of the record indicates little evidence concerning the financial status of the two parties. Husband has been receiving $772.00 per month in military retirement. He works for PCA, but has been periodically laid off due to company shutdowns. Both husband and wife have remarried. Wife testified that before employing her present attorney, she had attempted several times to employ counsel. However, no-attorney would take the case because she did not have sufficient funds for a retainer. Determination of whether to grant an award of attorney fees or the amount of the award rests within the sound discretion of the trial court. Burnside v. Burnside, 85 N.M. 517, 514 P.2d 36 (1973); see Hertz v. Hertz, 99 N.M. 320, 657 P.2d 1169 (1983). The trial court’s discretion must be exercised with a view toward insuring a party with an efficient preparation and presentation of her case. See Moore v. Moore, 71 N.M. 495, 379 P.2d 784 (1963); see also NMSA 1978, § 40-4-7 (Repl.Pamp.1983). The trial court’s ruling concerning the grant or denial of attorney fees will be reviewed only as to whether there has been an abuse of discretion. Fitzgerald v. Fitzgerald, 70 N.M. 11, 369 P.2d 398 (1962). A number of factors enter into a decision concerning an award or denial of attorney fees, including the following: the nature and character of the litigation, the ability of counsel for the party, the amount involved, the importance of the litigation and the benefits derived therefrom. Michelson v. Michelson, 89 N.M. 282, 551 P.2d 638 (1976). As noted in Allen v. Allen, 98 N.M. 652, 655, 651 P.2d 1296, 1299 (1982), “[i]f there is economic disparity between two adverse parties * * * such that one party may be inhibited from preparing or presenting a claim, then the trial and appellate courts should be liberal in exercising their discretion to award attorney’s fees to discourage any potential judicial oppression.” In Henderson v. Lekvold, the supreme court emphasized the need for the trial court to consider the relative financial status of the parties and the ability of the parties to employ counsel. See also Blake v. Blake, 102 N.M. 354, 695 P.2d 838 (Ct.App.1985). In light of our ruling, which reverses the trial court’s denial of wife’s portion of the PCA contingent rights and her portion of the military retirement installments paid since the filing of suit herein, we remand the issue of wife’s right to attorney fees at trial to the district court for further consideration. Wife is awarded $2,000.00 for services of her attorney, plus costs, incident to this appeal. The case is remanded to the district court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and GARCIA, JJ., concur. . In Norris v. Saueressig, Ct.App.No. 8205 (Filed December 12, 1985), this court traced the turbulent history of a spouse’s interest in the military retirement benefits of a military retiree. . The court in Copeland defined the terms "vested” and “matured” when utilized in conjunction with retirement plans. "Vested” refers to a pension right which is not subject to forfeiture if the employment relationship terminates prior to retirement. "Matured” means that an employee is entitled to receive benefits which he has earned throughout the years, when he is eligible to retire. Id. 91 N.M. at 412, 575 P.2d at 102.
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OPINION SOSA, Senior Justice. Defendant William McGhee appeals his conviction and sentence for first degree murder. McGhee was tried on a charge of capital murder, the aggravating circumstances being that the victim was a witness to a crime. Additionally, he was tried on counts of armed robbery and false imprisonment. The jury returned a verdict of guilty as to all counts, but failed to find that the murder was committed with the intent to kill a witness. Therefore, there was no capital sentencing and the court imposed life imprisonment for first degree murder. Numerous issues are raised by defendant on appeal. We discuss: whether defendant had the capacity to form the intent to commit first degree murder; whether the State met its burden of proof in overcoming the defendant’s exculpatory statement; whether it was fundamental error for the trial court not to instruct the jury concerning the State’s burden of proof in overcoming the exculpatory statement; and whether the trial court erred in admitting, over defendant’s objection, evidence of the first robbery. Defendant’s defense at trial was based on lack of capacity to form the specific intent to commit a deliberate murder. Defendant contends that it was part of the trial strategy to admit all elements of the three offenses charged, with the exception of intent and deliberation for first degree murder. The facts reveal that there were two robberies of two different Pic Quik convenience stores in Las Cruces. The first occurred shortly before midnight on October 6, and the second about four hours later in the early morning of October 7, 1981. Following the second robbery the store clerk, Lynch, was taken by defendant to a dam site in the desert, shot in the back of the head and buried in the sand. Johnson, a friend of defendant, testified he was present at the first robbery, but not at the second. After the second robbery, at about three in the morning, defendant called Johnson and told him he would pick him up at his apartment parking lot. Defendant arrived with Lynch and was driving Lynch’s car. Defendant told Johnson to hold the gun on Lynch while defendant drove. The three men drove in Lynch’s car to the dam site. Johnson stated he witnessed the killing of Lynch by defendant at the dam site. He further testified that defendant ordered Lynch to get out of the car and to lie on the ground. Defendant told Johnson to give him the gun. Defendant then walked around the car, put his knee in the victim’s back, put the gun to the back of victim’s head and pulled the trigger. Thereafter, defendant ordered Johnson to help bury the victim at the murder site. The two men returned to Las Cruces to gather a few belongings and then drove in Lynch’s car toward Dallas. They were stopped and arrested at Sierra Blanca, Texas. Johnson told the jury that during the drive from the murder site to Las Cruces, defendant told Johnson that he hoped Johnson’s girlfriend had not seen the victim in the car when he picked Johnson up, or he would have to kill her. ’ Johnson testified defendant also told him on the drive back that he was not going to go back to the penitentiary “for no white boy” because it was easier to beat murder than armed robbery. On cross-examination, Johnson said he was afraid after the first robbery because defendant threatened to kill him if he told anyone. The jury also heard testimony regarding defendant’s use of liquor and drugs prior to the killing. Johnson testified that he and defendant had dinner together on October 6, had been drinking and using drugs, and that near midnight they went to the first Pic Quik where defendant robbed the store at gunpoint. Several non-involved persons testified they had seen or spoken with defendant either late on October 6 or early in the morning on October 7, and that the defendant was stumbling or appeared in a groggy condition that could be associated with alcohol or drug use. A Texas border patrol officer observed defendant at the Hudspeth County jail where he was asleep and appeared “hungover or dopey.” CAPACITY TO FORM INTENT The State presented evidence on the issue of capacity to form intent in the form of the testimony of Johnson and two experts in psychology and psychiatry. Altogether, six psychologists were produced by the defendant and the State to testify as to the defendant’s capacity to form the intent to kill and capacity to deliberate. The experts had differing opinions as to whether defendant could deliberate and form an intent to kill. Dr. Welch, a psychiatrist, described numerous examples of behavior several hours before and after the time of the killing that indicated the defendant’s ability to deliberate, form intent and make decisions. Additionally, he explained that certain acts which occurred close to the time of the killing demonstrated that defendant knew the consequences of his acts. A second expert agreed with Dr. Welch’s conclusions. Certain other psychological experts were of the opinion that defendant suffered from a lack of self-control and had impulsive behavioral patterns. They indicated defendant was angry because he thought Lynch had tried to notify the police by pushing a button while still at the second store. Moreover, Lynch had made him mad when he commented in the car that defendant would not “get away with this.” Some of the psychologists thought Lynch’s comments caused the defendant to shoot Lynch impulsively. Other factors contributing to their conclusion that defendant did not deliberate were (1) the ingestion of drugs and alcohol and (2) the stress at the time of the killing. One of the psychologists who thought defendant acted impulsively indicated, however, that defendant might have known he was going to kill Lynch up to sixty seconds before the shooting. Properly qualified experts may testify as to a defendant’s intent. State v. Ellis, 89 N.M. 194, 548 P.2d 1212 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 89 N.M. 206, 549 P.2d 284 (1976). The jury may reject an expert’s opinion in whole or in part. Van Orman v. Nelson, 78 N.M. 11, 427 P.2d 896 (1967). Conflicts in the testimony of expert witnesses are to be resolved by the finder of fact. State v. Ellis. Exculpatory Statement Defendant argues that evidence contained in a statement he made to the police is insufficient to support his conviction. He maintains that his statement, which the State offered into evidence, is exculpatory as to the element of deliberation and formation of specific intent which is required for a conviction of first degree murder. As to admissibility of defendant’s statement, the trial court ruled there was compliance with Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966), and that there was a knowing and intelligent waiver and consent for an interview with the defendant. The statement was tape-recorded and relevant portions were played for the jury. Defense counsel subsequently read exculpatory portions of the transcript of the tape into the record as part of the defense of lack of capacity to form intent. These exculpatory portions included the defendant explaining that he guessed he killed Lynch because of insanity; that he did not kill Lynch because he was a witness; that the killing was a “split second type of thing”; and that he regretted the killing. This Court has held that if the State offers a statement of the accused containing exculpatory matter, the State must overcome the defendant’s claim of excuse or justification. State v. Lopez, 79 N.M. 282, 442 P.2d 594 (1968). Lopez explains that the State’s burden is not to prove the defendant’s statement is untrue, but simply that proof be submitted concerning the occurrence which, if true, or believed by the jury, would support a conclusion that the statement was not true, or, even if true, that the facts did not require acquittal. Id. at 286, 442 P.2d at 598. Defendant argues Johnson’s evidence is insufficient because Johnson’s credibility was impeached, Johnson’s statements and defendant’s exclupatory explanation for his actions were consistent, and the abduction and burying of Lynch was circumstantial. Circumstantial evidence may be used to establish an element of a crime. State v. Sanchez, 98 N.M. 428, 649 P.2d 496 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 98 N.M. 478, 649 P.2d 1391 (1982). The determination of the weight and effect of the evidence, including all reasonable inferences to be drawn from both the direct and circumstantial evidence is a matter reserved for determination by the trier of fact. State v. Vigil, 87 N.M. 345, 533 P.2d 578 (1975). The inculpatory portion of the defendant’s statement and the testimony of Johnson and the two doctors, if believed by the jury, were sufficient to overcome defendant’s contention that he did not deliberate and was incapable of forming the intent to commit first degree murder. See State v. Lopez. Failure to Instruct on Burden The defendant claims fundamental error because the trial court failed to instruct the jury on the State’s burden of disproving the defendant’s exculpatory statement with proof sufficient to meet the reasonable doubt standard. Defendant concedes that he did not object at trial to the court’s failure to instruct on the State’s burden of proof. We have previously stated that the burden of proof is that set out in Lopez, and not the standard of disproving the statement beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Lopez. We hold there was sufficient evidence under the Lopez standard for the jury to believe the State’s theory on intent and to disbelieve defendant’s denials of deliberation and intent. We have stated: In determining whether the evidence supports a criminal charge or an essential element thereof, the appeals court must view the evidence in a light most favorable to the state, resolving all conflicts therein and indulging all permissible inferences therefrom in favor of a verdict of conviction. [Citations omitted.] State v. Lankford, 92 N.M. 1, 2, 582 P.2d 378, 379 (1978). We have reviewed the record and find there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find that defendant had the capacity to deliberate and form the specific intent to kill. A reviewing court may neither reweigh the evidence nor substitute its judgment for that of the jury. Id. EVIDENCE OF THE FIRST ROBBERY Next we consider whether evidence of defendant’s commission of the first robbery was probative on the issue of defendant’s ability to form the specific intent to commit first degree murder following the second robbery. At trial defendant advised the court he would present evidence on diminished capacity and lack of ability to deliberate. Defendant’s position was that the first robbery was not relevant to deliberation. The State’s position was that evidence of the first robbery did not establish deliberation but it did indicate a capacity to form a specific intent to perform a particular act during a time period close to the time of the killing. The court offered several times to give the cautionary instructions in NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 40.28 (Repl.Pamp. 1982), regarding evidence of other wrongs and offenses. Defendant refused the instructions. The admission of evidence is within the trial court’s discretion and will not be disturbed absent a clear abuse of discretion. State v. Stout, 96 N.M. 29, 627 P.2d 871 (1981). See State v. Valdez, 83 N.M. 632, 495 P.2d 1079 (Ct.App.1972), aff'd, 83 N.M. 720, 497 P.2d 231 (1972), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 1077 (1972). Additionally, admission of evidence under NMSA 1978, Evid. Rule 404(b) (Repl.Pamp.1983), is governed by the same abuse of discretion standard. State v. Allen, 91 N.M. 759, 581 P.2d 22 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 751, 580 P.2d 972 (1978). Rule 404(b) provides that evidence is admissible for purposes “such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity or absence of mistake or accident.” The evidence of acts performed during the first robbery was used as a basis for forming the opinion of the expert psychistrist, Dr. Welch, a State’s witness on the defendant’s capacity to form intent. At trial Dr. Welch testified that the acts of defendant close to the time of the killing were indicative of his ability to form intent and to deliberate. Examples given by Dr. Welch of acts performed by defendant pri- or to the second robbery that required intent and deliberation were: the forming of the intent to rob the first Pic Quik store; carrying a gun; directing the clerk and a customer at the first store to go into the back room and count to five, then directing them to count to fifty, thus showing a recognition that more time was required to get away. In Dr. Welch’s opinion, defendant showed he recognized the consequences of the act of robbing the first store when he warned Johnson not to tell anyone about the robbery. ? is admissible under Rule 404(b) if it is probative of a material element at issue. State v. Beachum, 96 N.M. 566, 632 P.2d 1204 (Ct.App.1981). We are convinced that the acts of defendant within hours of the killing were so close in time as to be relevant and probative of the material issue of capacity to form intent. Furthermore, defendant agreed to allow certain portions of his taped statement to be read to the jury because he thought it was going to benefit him. The defendant’s statement, which included references to the first robbery, was played for the jury over defendant’s objection. Exculpatory portions were then read from a transcript to the jury at defendant’s request. The exculpatory portions included the following: Officer: “What made you decide to get hold of your friend, Ron Johnson, to come with you?” McGhee: “Well * * * * because I knowed * * * that he would know that I did it to that other Pic Quik.” We cannot allow defendant to selectively use and exclude evidence regarding the robbery of the “other Pic Quik.” Defendant also argues that the prejudicial effect of the evidence of the first robbery outweighed its probative value. On appeal we must consider the probative value in determining whether discretion was abused. State v. Schifani, 92 N.M. 127, 584 P.2d 174 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 180, 585 P.2d 324 (1978). The trial court must weigh the probative value of the evidence as against its possible prejudicial effect when admitting evidence as to intent and motive under NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Id. In State v. Garcia, 99 N.M. 771, 776, 664 P.2d 969, 974, cert. denied, 462 U.S. 1112, 103 S.Ct. 2464, 77 L.Ed.2d 1341 (1983), we stated, The fact that competent evidence may tend to prejudice a defendant is not grounds in and of itself for exclusion of that evidence. The trial court must determine whether the probative value of the evidence is outweighed by its prejudicial effect. In doing this, the trial court must be sensitive of the potential prejudice that is always inherent in evidence of a defendant’s prior wrong acts. The trial court has a duty to excise evidence of uncharged acts if it can be done without destroying the relevancy of the evidence which addresses the charges, defenses or issues. However, if the evidence is so interwined, the trial court may allow the evidence. [Citations omitted.] Furthermore, under Rule 404(b) the evidence of other wrongs is admissible to show defendant’s “intent” or “plan.” State v. Schifani, 92 N.M. at 129, 584 P.2d at 176. The evidence the trial court admitted in Schifani was testimony of persons who had had dealings with the defendant similar to those of the victim’s in the three counts being tried. The only defense raised by defendant was that of incapacity to form the intent to commit first degree murder. In light of this defense, the acts of the defendant which show the ability to form the intent to commit two identical crimes within four hours is evidence of a continuing performance of conduct by the defendant that is so “intertwined” with the ability to form the intent to commit first degree murder after the second robbery, that it is permissible evidence under State v. Garcia. ? trial court properly exercised its discretion in determining that the probative value of evidence of the first robbery outweighed any prejudicial effect. State v. Garcia. The remaining issues raised by defendant were reviewed and found to be without merit. The conviction and sentence are affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and WALTERS, J., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. The plaintiff, Hamilton Test Systems, Inc. (Hamilton), brought suit against the defendant, the City of Albuquerque (the City), in the United States District Court for the District of New Mexico for money which Hamilton claims it is owed on a contract with the City. The United States District Court certified to this Court the following question of New Mexico law: By entering into the contract with Hamilton * * * as described in the * * * [parties’] Stipulation of Facts, did the City * * * “contract any debt” within the meaning of Article IX, Section 12, of the New Mexico Constitution? We hold that the City, by entering into its contract with Hamilton, did contract a “debt” within the meaning of N.M. Const, article IX, Section 12. Article IX, Section 12 is a restriction upon municipal indebtedness. It provides, in pertinent part, that no city or other municipality may contract “any debt” without prior voter approval: No city, town or village shall contract any debt except by an ordinance, which shall be irrepealable until the indebtedness therein provided for shall have been fully paid or discharged, and which shall specify the purposes to which the funds to be raised shall be applied, and which shall provide for the levy of a tax, not exceeding twelve mills on the dollar upon all taxable property within such city, town or village, sufficient to pay the interest on, and to extinguish the principal of, such debt within fifty years. The proceeds of such tax shall be applied only to the payment of such interest and principal. No such debt shall be created unless the question of incurring the same shall, at a regular election for councilmen, aldermen or other officers of such city, town or village, or at any special election called for such purpose, have been submitted to a vote of such qualified electors thereof as have paid a property tax therein during the preceding year, and a majority of those voting on the question by ballot deposited in a separate ballot box when voting in a regular election, shall have voted in favor of creating such debt. The parties’ Stipulation of Facts, submitted to this Court with the certified question, states that the parties entered into a contract “under which Hamilton was to perform the service of operating for the City a motor vehicle emissions inspection program for a five year period (1983 through 1987).” The Stipulation also states that under the contract: Hamilton would collect from the owner of each inspected vehicle an inspection fee in an amount to be determined by regulation. From the fee, Hamilton was to retain a portion known as the “base fee” and turn the remainder over to the City * * *. If at the end of the year Hamilton had retained more than was needed to pay its full contract price, the difference was to be credited to the City. If at the end of the year Hamilton had retained less than was necessary to pay its full contract price, it was to invoice the City for the difference. (Emphasis added.) Thus the City was obligated to pay Hamilton at the end of each year for services performed that year, if the amount retained by Hamilton as “base fees” during that year fell short of the contract price for the year. The contract also contained a provision specifying certain compensation for Hamilton if the contract were prematurely terminated. According to the Stipulation of Facts: [T]he contract provided that if the City should default on its obligations, prematurely cancel the Contract or repeal the vehicle inspection ordinance, Hamilton would be paid equitable compensation including the cost to Hamilton of property acquired for performance of the contract, the cost to Hamilton of terminating contracts or leases entered into for performance of the contract, severance pay, winding down costs, overhead and indirect costs, and initial start-up costs. In addition, the City would pay Hamilton an amount to compensate Hamilton for its inability to obtain an equitable return on investment according to a declining scale based on the duration of contract performance. Hamilton was required to mitigate its losses, to limit its recovery to a maximum specified amount depending on the duration of contract performance, and to accept the contractually specified equitable compensation in full satisfaction of any claim against the City. The contract was terminated in March 1984, after this Court held in Chapman v. Luna, 101 N.M. 59, 678 P.2d 687 (1984), that certain portions of the emissions inspection program, unrelated to the question before us now, were unlawful. The amount which Hamilton retained as “base fees” during 1983 and the first quarter of 1984 is less than the contract price for that period. Hamilton has invoiced the City for the difference, together with the contractually specified adjustments. The City has refused to pay these invoices. Hamilton contends that the contract between the parties did not create a “debt” within the meaning of N.M. Const, article IX, Section 12, because the contract obligated the City to pay Hamilton each year only for services which Hamilton had already performed during that year. According to Hamilton, the so-called “service contract doctrine” states that a contract of this type does not create a “debt” within the meaning of constitutional debt restrictions. Hamilton further contends that the part of the contract providing for certain compensation in the event of early termination did not create a “debt” because it merely specified and limited damages which would arise by law for breach of contract. New Mexico has never recognized the service contract doctrine as an exception to its constitutional restriction upon municipal debt. This Court did recognize such an exception in Raton Waterworks Co. v. Town of Raton, 9 N.M. 70, 97-98, 49 P. 898, 907-08 (1897), rev’d on other grounds, 174 U.S. 360, 19 S.Ct. 219, 43 L.Ed. 1005 (1899), but that case was decided prior to the adoption of the New Mexico Constitution in 1911, and it interpreted debt restrictions which were contained in an act of Congress and in the territorial statutes. See also Palmer v. City of Albuquerque, 19 N.M. 285, 300, 142 P. 929, 934 (1914) (dictum). Since then, while this Court has not been called upon to answer the specific question before us now, we have indicated that any agreement by which a municipality obligates itself to pay out of tax revenues, and commits itself beyond revenues for the current fiscal year, falls within the terms of the constitutional debt restriction. State Highway Commission v. City of Az tec, 77 N.M. 524, 424 P.2d 801 (1967); Henning v. Town of Hot Springs, 44 N.M. 321, 102 P.2d 25 (1939); City of Santa Fe v. First National Bank in Raton, 41 N.M. 130, 65 P.2d 857 (1937); Lanigan v. Town of Gallup, 17 N.M. 627, 131 P. 997 (1913). Courts in several states have rejected the service contract doctrine, holding that an obligation is no less a “debt” merely because it is contingent upon the future provision of services. See Adamowski v. Public Building Commission, 11 Ill.2d 125, 137-38, 142 N.E.2d 67, 74 (1957); Simmons v. City of Missoula, 144 Mont. 210, 214, 395 P.2d 249, 251 (1964); Magnusson, Lease-Financing by Municipal Corporations, 25 Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 377, 382-83 (1957). We agree. The service contract doctrine is essentially a device to evade constitutional debt restrictions, and it would allow just what our constitutional debt restriction is meant to prohibit: the burdening of future taxpayers, without the prior approval of the municipality's voters. See Lanigan v. Town of Gallup; see also Bowers, Limitations on Municipal Indebtedness, 5 Vand.L.Rev. 37 (1951); Bowmar, The Anachronism Called Debt Limitation, 52 Iowa L.Rev. 863 (1967); Magnusson, Lease-Financing by Municipal Corporations. But see, e.g., Macon Ambulance Service, Inc. v. Snow Properties, Inc., 218 Ga. 262, 127 S.E.2d 598 (1962) (adopting service contract doctrine); Board of Supervisors v. Massey, 210 Va. 680, 173 S.E.2d 869 (1970) (same). We recognize that our holding may make more cumbersome the process of municipal financing. If any change is desired, however, it must be accomplished through constitutional amendment. See Magnusson, Lease-Financing by Municipal Corporations, 25 Geo.Wash.L.Rev. at 394-96. We conclude that the City, by entering into the contract with Hamilton in the instant case, did contract a “debt” within the meaning of N.M. Const, article IX, Section 12. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. On rehearing, the previous opinion is withdrawn and the following is substituted. The jury found defendant guilty of four counts of attempted first degree depraved mind murder of Ms. Parker, her two children, and a babysitter; two counts of attempted second degree murder of Cauffman and Shannon; and negligent arson. From the judgment and sentences entered on the verdicts, defendant appeals, raising the following three issues: 1. Whether defendant’s right to due process was violated when the jury was instructed on negligent arson, although the state’s charge against him specified willful and malicious arson. 2. Whether a single act involving multiple victims can give rise to multiple convictions and sentences or whether the bar against double jeopardy prohibits that result. 3. Whether the court’s refusal to give defendant’s tendered mistake of fact instruction denied defendant’s right to present a defense. Other issues listed in the docketing statement, but not briefed, are abandoned. State v. McGuinty, 97 N.M. 360, 639 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.1982). Although not raised below or on appeal, because of probable fundamental or jurisdictional error, this court raised sua sponte the question of whether a crime exists for attempted first degree “depraved mind” murder, for which defendant was convicted of four counts, or, under the facts of this ease, for attempted second degree murder, for which defendant was convicted of two counts. NMSA 1978, § 30-2-l(A)(3) and (B) (Repl.Pamp.1984). We requested the parties to brief the issue and, assuming no crime exists, to also brief the questions of whether defendant’s convictions for these crimes constitute fundamental or jurisdictional error, and how a holding of no crime would affect our disposition. The parties have filed supplemental briefs in compliance with our direction, and we now hold that no crime exists for attempted depraved mind murder or for attempted second degree murder of Cauffman and Shannon of the unintentional variety. As to the negligent arson conviction, we also reverse. We remand for new trial of the offense of attempted second degree murder of the intentional variety as to all victims, if the trial court determines the evidence so warrants. FACTS On May 10, 1983, a fire bomb was thrown into a mobile home occupied by Carolyn Sue Parker, her two children, a live-in babysitter, and two male friends of Ms. Parker, Mr. Cauffman and Mr. Shannon. All were asleep. The occupants managed to extinguish the fire before the fire fighters and police arrived. No one was injured. While talking to the police, Ms. Parker received a telephone call. According to Ms. Parker, the voice, whom she identified as being that of defendant, said, “I missed you this time, bitch, but I’ll get you next time.” Defendant, his wife, and Ray Wells, also charged as a result of the incidents, had lived in the Parker mobile home up to a week before the incident, but, according to Ms. Parker, had been “kicked out” for not paying their expenses. Defendant knew that Ms. Parker, her children, and the babysitter would likely be in the mobile home when the fire bomb was thrown, but he did not know that the two male friends would be there. While the evidence reflected that Ray Wells actually threw the fire bomb, the evidence linked defendant as an accomplice to the act and the jury, by its verdict, found that defendant helped, encouraged, or caused the crimes to be committed. DISCUSSION 1. The attempted murder convictions, Under this point, we discuss: (a) whether a crime exists for attempted depraved mind murder, and hold it does not; (b) whether the state in this case can refile on attempted first degree murder of the deliberate variety without violating defendant’s right against double jeopardy; (e) whether a crime exists for attempted second degree murder, and hold it does not for the unintentional variety but may for the intentional variety; (d) whether the case can be remanded for new trial of the latter, and as to which victims; and, finally, (e) the authority for raising the issues herein discussed. (a) To convict for attempted depraved mind murder of the mother, children, and babysitter requires that defendant intended to commit an unintended killing, a logical impossibility. The crime of attempt to commit a felony “consists of an overt act in furtherance of and with intent to commit a felony and tending but failing to effect its commission.” NMSA 1978, § 30-28-1 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (emphasis added); NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 28.10 (Repl.Pamp.1982). The crime of attempt to commit a felony is a specific intent crime. State v. Grayson, 50 N.M. 147, 172 P.2d 1019 (1946); State v. Foster, 87 N.M. 155, 530 P.2d 949 (Ct.App.1974). In comparison, the underlying crime of depraved mind murder does not require specific intent to kill. Indeed, it expressly excludes a specific intent to kill a specific person. Depraved mind murder “is the killing of one human being * * * by any act greatly dangerous to the lives of others, indicating a depraved mind regardless of human life.” Section 30-2-l(A)(3); NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 2.05 (Repl.Pamp. 1982). Such condemned behavior is required to be extremely dangerous and fatal conduct performed without specific homicidal intent but with a depraved kind of wantonness: for example, shooting into a crowd, placing a time bomb in a public place, or opening the door of the lions’ cage in the zoo. People v. France, 57 A.D.2d 432, 394 N.Y.S.2d 891 (1977). See also Randolph v. State, 83 Wis.2d 630, 266 N.W.2d 334 (1978) (to constitute a depraved mind, more than a high degree of negligence or recklessness must exist). It covers the type of situation in which one acts with outrageous recklessness and that recklessness results in one or more deaths. See State v. Weso, 60 Wis.2d 404, 210 N.W.2d 442 (1973). Even if the perpetrator had no specific intent to kill anyone, he would be guilty of depraved mind murder in the event someone died as a result of his actions, because he acted in a manner greatly dangerous to others. See State v. Sena, 99 N.M. 272, 657 P.2d 128 (1983). The defendant must know his act is greatly dangerous to the lives of others. See State v. Omar-Muhammad, 102 N.M. 274, 694 P.2d 922 (1985); State v. McCrary, 100 N.M. 671, 675 P.2d 120 (1984). Thus, in order to convict for attempted depraved mind murder the jury would have to find defendant intended to perpetrate an unintentional killing. The impossibility of this result is discussed in Commonwealth v. Griffin, 310 Pa.Super. 39, 456 A.2d 171 (1983), where the court said: The question squarely presented to us is whether someone can attempt to commit [depraved mind murder]. We think not. A person commits an attempt when, with intent to commit a specific crime, he does any act which constitutes a substantial step toward the commission of that crime. * * * [Depraved mind murder] occurs where the killing of the victim is the unintentional result of a criminal act. Thus, an attempt to commit [depraved mind murder] would seem to require proof that a defendant intended to perpetrate an unintentional killing — which is logically impossible. While a person who only intends to commit a felony may be guilty of [depraved mind murder] if a killing results, and a person who only intends to inflict bodily harm may be guilty of [depraved mind murder] if a killing results; it does not follow that those persons would be guilty of attempted murder if a killing did not occur. They would not be guilty of attempted murder because they did not intend to commit murder — they only intended to commit a felony or to commit bodily harm. LaFave and Scott have explained in their treatise on criminal law why it is necessary to prove an intent to kill in order to sustain a charge of attempted murder: Some crimes, such as murder, are defined in terms of acts causing a particular result plus some mental state which need not be an intent to bring about that result. Thus, if A, B, and C have each taken the life of another, A acting with intent to kill, B with an intent to do serious bodily injury, and C with a reckless disregard of human life, all three are guilty of murder because the crime of murder is defined in such a way that any one of these mental states will suffice. However, if the victims do not die from their injuries, then only A is guilty of attempted murder; on a charge of attempted murder it is not sufficient to show that the defendant intended to do serious bodily harm or that he acted in reckless disregard for human life. Again, this is because intent is needed for the crime of attempt, so that attempted murder requires an intent to bring about that result described by the crime of murder (i. e., the death of another). LaFave and Scott, Handbook on Criminal Law, § 59 at 428-29 (1972) (footnotes omitted). 456 A.2d at 177 (emphasis in original). See also People v. Hernandez, 44 Colo.App. 161, 614 P.2d 900 (1980); Merritt v. Commonwealth, 164 Va. 653, 180 S.E. 395 (1935); Thacker v. Commonwealth, 134 Va. 767, 114 S.E. 504 (1922); Smith, Two Problems in Criminal Attempts, 70 Harv. L.Rev. 422 (1957); Smith, Two Problems in Criminal Attempts Re-Examined—I, 1962 Crim.L.Rev. 135; Stuart, Mens Rea, Negligence and Attempts, 1968 Crim.L.Rev. 647. In New Mexico, specific intent is the intent to do a further act or achieve a further consequence. M. Thompson, Addendum 1. The Lazy Lawyer’s Guide to Criminal Intent in New Mexico; NMSA 1978, Judicial Pamphlet 19, at 275 (Repl. Pamp.1982). The specific intent for attempt is the intent to commit the crime attempted. UJI Crim. 28.10. A defendant charged with attempted depraved mind murder would have to have the specific intent to commit depraved mind murder. Yet, depraved mind murder is defined primarily by its consequences — a killing resulting from defendant’s outrageous acts regardless of his intent. Thus, specific intent concerns itself with the state of mind of the perpetrator, while an unintentional killing classified as depraved mind murder concerns itself with the consequences. We, therefore, hold that the crime of attempted depraved mind murder, for which defendant was convicted, does not exist and those convictions must be reversed. Does this holding conflict with the recent opinion of this court in State v. Gillette, 102 N.M. 695, 699 P.2d 626 (Ct.App.1985), in which we upheld a conviction of attempted murder of two individuals who tasted a poisoned Dr. Pepper anonymously delivered to a third individual, the intended vietim? In Gillette defendant was convicted of attempted first degree murder of the willful, deliberate, and premeditated variety, Section 30-2-l(A)(l), which requires a deliberate intent, analogous to specific intent. His specific intent was to kill the intended victim. His conviction as to the two other individuals was upheld based on the doctrine of transferred intent. Gillette’s specific intent to kill his intended victim was transferred to the intended victim’s two co-workers, who sipped from the poisoned Dr. Pepper. In the case before us the state filed an information against defendant on six counts under an open charge of attempted murder, but chose to proceed on attempted depraved mind murder. The jury was so instructed. Had the state instead proceeded on attempted deliberate murder as to Ms. Parker and the other occupants of the mobile home, the rule of Gillette would apply. This did not happen. Thus, Gillette is different and our holding does not conflict with that case. (b) Can the state now proceed on attempted first degree murder of the deliberate variety, as in Gillette, without violating defendant’s constitutional guarantee against being placed twice in jeopardy for the same crime? We hold it cannot. Defendant was charged with attempted murder under an open charge, which is a proper charge in this state, and upon which the state could seek to convict him on any theory of attempted first degree murder or lesser included offenses. State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646 (1936); State v. King, 90 N.M. 377, 563 P.2d 1170 (Ct.App.1977), overruled on other grounds, State v. Reynolds, 98 N.M. 527, 650 P.2d 811 (1982). Being a proper charge, jurisdiction was conferred on the court. Cf. State v. Mabrey, 88 N.M. 227, 539 P.2d 617 (Ct.App.1975). When the jury was impaneled and sworn to try the case, jeopardy attached on the charge. State v. Rhodes, 76 N.M. 177, 413 P.2d 214 (1966). Once that happens, defendant is entitled to a verdict of either a conviction or acquittal on the charge unless he seeks to abort the trial, See State v. Day, 94 N.M. 753, 617 P.2d 142, cert. denied, 449 U.S. 860, 101 S.Ct. 163, 66 L.Ed.2d 77 (1980), or unless the trial is aborted for reasons amounting to a manifest necessity. See State v. Castrillo, 90 N.M. 608, 566 P.2d 1146 (1977), overruled on other grounds, State v. Wardlow, 95 N.M. 585, 624 P.2d 527 (1981); State v. Sedillo, 88 N.M. 240, 539 P.2d 630 (Ct.App.1975). Under this line of cases, defendant was put in jeopardy on a charge of attempted open murder. On all theories except the ones on which the jury was instructed, the trial aborted without manifest necessity because the state simply chose not to proceed on those theories, although defendant was in jeopardy as to them. Thus, double jeopardy would preclude a retrial on the attempt to commit first degree murder. (c) We have held that, due to the inherent conflict between the elements of attempt and depraved mind murder, there could be no such crime as attempted depraved mind murder. The elements of second degree murder are somewhat similar to depraved mind murder. See McCrary. Depraved mind murder requires subjective knowledge that one’s act is greatly dangerous to the lives of others. Second degree murder requires objective knowledge that one’s acts create a strong probability of death or great bodily harm. McCrary. But see State v. Beach, 102 N.M. 642, 699 P.2d 115 (1985). (Notwithstanding the language in Beach, we do not believe the supreme court intended to make the elements of second degree murder and depraved mind murder identical.) In spite of the similarity between depraved mind murder and second degree murder, we believe that attempted second degree murder may still be a crime under the circumstances of this case. Cases of intentional murder are not necessarily excluded from second degree murder. See State v. Aragon, 85 N.M. 401, 512 P.2d 974 (Ct.App.1973). The fact that the legislature, in 1980, amended the murder statute to require only the elements of a killing in the performance of an act which the defendant knows creates the requisite probability, Section 30-2-l(B), does not mean that intentional killings are excluded. To the contrary, an intentional killing would always include these elements. The reason that depraved mind murder excludes intentional killings while second degree murder does not is one of statutory construction. First degree murder has three alternate definitions: deliberate, felony, and depraved mind. Section 30-2-l(A). Second degree murder contains only one definition. Section 30-2-l(B). Because there is a separate definition for deliberate, i.e., intentional, murders under subsection A, it must be presumed that the legislature meant something different in enacting a separate definition for depraved mind murder. However, second degree murder has only one definition, thereby not excluding intentional from its definition. Thus, it follows that where the second degree murder is of the unintentional variety, there can be no attempt to commit that type crime for the same reasons discussed above as to attempted depraved mind murder, but where it is of the intentional variety, the crime of attempt to commit does exist. (d) How do these concepts apply to this case? As we have stated, while second degree murder can be committed without a specific intent, all cases of intentional killing are not necessarily excluded from second degree murder. For example, a perpetrator could conceivably commit attempted second degree murder if he intended to kill someone, and did an act placing the person in danger, but the person did not die. If defendant fire bombed the mobile home, intending to kill someone inside but knowing that his act created the requisite probability with respect to others, it follows that this could constitute sufficient evidence to convict him of attempted second degree murder as to the others. See Gillette. In this case, then, as to all victims, we remand for a trial on attempted second degree murder. The determination of the weight and effect of the evidence are matters reserved for the trial court. State v. Vigil, 87 N.M. 345, 533 P.2d 578 (1975). A proper instruc tion on attempt together with NMSA 1978, UJI 2.11 (Repl.Pamp.1982) will adequately instruct the jury as to intent. The record reflects that the jury was instructed as to attempted second degree murder. Defendant having been convicted of attempted first degree murder and attempted second degree murder under general instructions, he would not be placed twice in jeopardy by a remand for a new trial on the lesser or equal attempted second degree murder. See Burks v. United States, 437 U.S. 1, 98 S.Ct. 2141, 57 L.Ed.2d 1 (1978); Vigil. Although defendant has been convicted of attempted second degree murder of two counts under correct instructions which he requested, we are not convinced that confusion did not arise due to the instructions on attempted first degree murder. Consequently, we remand for new trial to correct fundamental error. See State v. Buhr, 82 N.M. 371, 482 P.2d 74 (Ct.App.1971). (e) At the outset, we said that probable jurisdiction or fundamental error had been noted and we asked counsel to brief the question of whether this court has the duty to raise the issue, although not raised below or on appeal. The state, in its supplemental brief, agrees that we can and should raise the issue. We quote from the state’s brief: “A conviction for a non-existent [sic] crime should not stand simply because not raised by either of the parties. This would allow fundamental error to go uncorrected.” We agree. See NMSA 1978, Crim. Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 308 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Mabrey. Thus, the questions of whether a crime exists for attempted depraved mind murder and whether attempted second degree murder was proved, as applied to the facts of this case, could be raised for the first time on appeal, and this court had a responsibility to raise them. We summarize our holding under this point. Because of fundamental error, this court, on its own, raised the issue as to whether a crime exists for attempted depraved mind murder and attempted second degree murder of the unintentional variety. For the reasons set forth, we hold no crime exists. We further hold that under the facts of a case, attempted second degree murder of the intentional variety may exist. Double jeopardy does not apply where remand is for retrial on the lesser or equal attempted second degree murder charges. We, therefore, remand for new trial on the charge of attempted second degree murder of all occupants of the trailer. 2. The due process argument as to negligent arson. In addition to the open charge of attempted murder, defendant was charged with one count of malicious or willful arson. NMSA 1978, § 30-17-5(A) (Repl. Pamp.1984). Defendant claims he was denied due process and adequate notice when the trial court, after directing a verdict as to the malicious or willful arson charge, submitted a negligent arson instruction to the jury. Section 30-17-5(B). Defendant argues that “recklessness,” an element of negligent arson, Section 30-17-5(B), differs from the elements to convict for malicious and willful arson under Section 30-17-5(A). Defendant points out that the states of mind necessary to establish the two offenses differ and that negligent arson is not necessarily a lesser included offense of malicious and willful arson. The state concedes this point and we agree. A defendant in a criminal case is entitled to know what he is being charged with and to be tried solely on those charges. State v. Crump, 82 N.M. 487, 484 P.2d 329 (1971). It is improper to instruct the jury as to a crime not formally charged if that crime is not a lesser included offense of the crime formally charged. State v. Patterson, 90 N.M. 735, 568 P.2d 261 (Ct.App.1977). That determination requires consideration of the specific elements of each offense in light of the facts. State v. Brecheisen, 101 N.M. 38, 677 P.2d 1074 (Ct.App.1984). In the case before us, the evidence would not support negligent or reckless arson. Since defendant had no notice that he would be expected to defend against negligent arson, that conviction must be reversed. Because we remand for new trial on the issue of attempted second degree murder of Ms. Parker, her two children, and the babysitter, we address defendant’s remaining two points. 3. The double jeopardy issue. Defendant argues that the constitutional bar against double jeopardy requires the merger of the six counts of attempted murder into one, since each charge resulted from the same, single act of placing the incendiary device in the mobile home. Notwithstanding our disposition of the convictions on these counts, the issue of merger could on remand still be argued as to the four counts of attempted second degree murder. Defendant says that the application of the merger doctrine in New Mexico “is not altogether clear.” The state seems to agree, pointing out that the single-act-multiple-victim situation “has resulted in what might be considered conflicting viewpoints.” Both sides cite to State v. Boeglin, 90 N.M. 93, 559 P.2d 1220 (Ct.App.1977), which relies on policy to hold that the taking of five pistols as part of the same act constituted only one larceny. They also refer to State v. Cuevas, 94 N.M. 792, 617 P.2d 1307 (1980), in which the supreme court held that the defendant’s three convictions of contributing should have been merged into one. But in State v. Smith, 94 N.M. 379, 610 P.2d 1208 (1980), decided the same year as Cuevas, the supreme court let stand convictions for four counts of trafficking with intent to distribute narcotic drugs, all resulting from one sale. The constitutional provisions on double jeopardy prohibit putting a person twice in jeopardy for the “same offense.” Before State v. Tanton, 88 N.M. 333, 540 P.2d 813 (1975) (Tanton II), courts in New Mexico had used various approaches to determine whether the same offense was involved in a particular case. The result was the creation of several rules, each applying to a different situation. State v. Tanton, 88 N.M. 5, 536 P.2d 269 (Ct.App.1975) (Tanton I); State v. Medina, 87 N.M. 394, 534 P.2d 486 (Ct.App.1975). In Tanton II, the supreme court limited its review of a double jeopardy claim to three constitutional doctrines: collateral estoppel, necessarily included offenses, and the “same offense” rule. Holding that the doctrines of collateral estoppel and lesser included offenses did not apply to the particular case, the court then went on to approve and apply the “same offense” or “same evidence” test, i.e., whether the facts offered in support of one offense would sustain a conviction of the other. The supreme court reversed this court’s decision in Tanton I, holding that the facts offered to support a conviction for driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquors would not necessarily sustain a conviction for homicide by vehicle. Tanton II. In delineating the application of double jeopardy, the court stated: The double jeopardy clause only comes to the aid of defendants subjected to multiple prosecutions for the identical offense, or in such situations in which collateral estoppel, the concept of lesser included offenses or the same evidence test apply. By “piecemeal prosecutions” in Tijerina [86 N.M. 31, 519 P.2d 127 (1973)] we referred to multiple prosecutions to which the double jeopardy clause did not apply. Thus, we intended a statement of judicial policy rather than a rule of law. Tanton II, 88 N.M. at 336, 540 P.2d 813 (footnote omitted). What did the supreme court mean when it said “multiple prosecutions to which the double jeopardy clause did not apply”? We believe the supreme court intended that where the principles of collateral estoppel and necessarily included offenses do not apply, and where the facts offered in support of one offense would not sustain a conviction of the other (same evidence test) in a multiple prosecution case, no double jeopardy problem exists. Thus, in this situation, a policy approach is applicable where the limited definition of double jeopardy in Tanton II is inapplicable. See State v. Boeglin. The case law which followed Tanton II appears to accord with this analysis. In Boeglin, the next case following Tan-ton II, the defendant was charged with five counts of larceny where he had allegedly stolen five pistols from the same owner and from the same store on the same date. This court, in holding that the defendant could be prosecuted for only one larceny, followed Tanton II wherein the meaning of “same offense” was considered in relation to the prohibition against double jeopardy. In both Tanton II and Boeglin, the court looked to policy in deciding whether to merge the charges or prosecute them separately. Boeglin noted that Tanton II limited the meaning of double jeopardy to identical offenses or situations where collateral estoppel, the concept of lesser included offenses, or the same evidence test applied. However, the court further noted that Tan-ton II did not reject the use of policy in resolving questions of multiple prosecutions; rather, it affirmed the use of judicial policy to prevent piecemeal prosecutions and stated that the policy approach was applicable to situations in which the limited definition of double jeopardy in Tanton II was inapplicable. The doctrines of collateral estoppel and lesser included offenses were not applicable in Boeglin. Because each larceny count in that case required proof of a different pistol, the same evidence test was inapplicable; the use of policy in that case was proper. In the next case, State v. Smith, the supreme court reaffirmed its reliance upon judicial policy in resolving questions not involving the constitutional prohibition against double jeopardy, i.e., when multiple acts cannot be classified under the same evidence test, they may nevertheless be divided into multiple counts if some applicable policy so demands. The defendant in Smith was charged with four different counts of trafficking in drugs. The four counts stemmed from one sale and each count was for a different drug. The facts offered in support of one of the counts would have sustained a conviction of all other counts, except that each of the counts charged involved a different drug; therefore, there being no double jeopardy problem since the “same evidence” rule did not bar prosecution on each count, the court in Smith applied the policy that the charges be prosecuted separately in order to prevent a trafficker from offering a wider variety of drugs at a single sale. This result was also held to be consistent with the intent of the drug laws. Following Smith, and decided the same year, the supreme court in State v. Cuevas held that the same policy considerations in Boeglin which prevented five different prosecutions of larceny for a theft involving five guns (piecemeal prosecutions), required that three counts of contributing to the delinquency of three minors be merged into one count. The supreme court could not apply the “same offense” or “same evidence” test since different facts, different minors, needed to be proved to support each count. The latest case which discusses double jeopardy is State v. Edwards, 102 N.M. 413, 696 P.2d 1006 (Ct.App.1984). Although this case was decided largely on legislative intent, it falls in line with recent double jeopardy decisions. In Edwards, the defendant was convicted of five counts of practicing law without a license. The counts were based upon the filing of five different pleadings on different dates but in the same action. The concepts of collateral estoppel and lesser included offenses did not apply. Each count charged involved a different pleading and, since the question turned on the intent of the legislature, the “same evidence” test, although inapplicable, would have been considered merely an aid in determining legislative intent. After holding that the legislature intended that there be only one prosecution for the several violations, the court could find no policy consideration which argued for making the defendant liable for five separate convictions under the facts. Overall, Edwards falls within the spirit of recent New Mexico case law. In the present case, collateral estoppel and the concept of lesser included offenses are not involved. Because different potential victims were involved, the same evidence rule would not apply. No double jeopardy problem exists; therefore, reliance on judicial policy is proper. See Smith. Relying on judicial policy, we hold that the act of fire bombing a residence occupied by six people may be divided into multiple counts. We agree with the state that where there is but a single violent act and multiple victims, the societal harm is greater. And, thus, the greater the harm, the greater the need to deter such conduct. To hold otherwise would encourage single-act-multiple-victim type crimes. If judicial policy may be relied on to discourage “one-stop shopping” for drugs, it also may be relied on to discourage single act killings or attempted killings of humans. That defendant did not succeed in his attempt to kill the occupants of the mobile home is simply fortuitous. As stated by Justice Traynor in Neal v. State, 55 Cal.2d 11, 9 Cal.Rptr. 607, 612, 357 P.2d 839, 844 (1960), “A defendant who commits an act of violence with the intent to harm more than one person or by a means likely to cause harm to several persons is more culpable than a defendant who harms only one person.” The result we reach accords not only with the holdings of the supreme court which we have discussed, but also with the majority of other jurisdictions. See, e.g., State v. Irvin, 603 S.W.2d 121 (Tenn.1980); Neal v. State; Vigil v. State, 563 P.2d 1344 (Wyo.1977); Annot., 8 A.L.R.4th 960 (1981). We caution that our holding does not suggest there need be successive punishments in every case involving multiple victims, that being a matter addressed to the sentencing authority under the facts and circumstances of the case. Irvin. 4. The mistake of fact instruction. Although defendant did not take the stand, he introduced through Lt. Wheeler a handwritten statement defendant had made to a police arson investigator, which was read to the jury. It said that defendant had filled a Prestone antifreeze jug with gasoline for Ray Wells to use in his car the next morning. When defendant took Wells home, Wells began to talk about burning Carol Parker’s trailer. Defendant did not take Wells seriously and said he, Wells, should go home. Defendant left the area and saw the fire sometime later. Based on this evidence, defendant tendered a mistake of fact instruction. NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.15 (Repl.Pamp.1982). The trial court refused to give the instruction on the basis it was not supported by the evidence. Because criminal intent must be present in order to convict, defendant argues that his belief, that the gasoline would be used for proper purposes or that Mr. Wells did not actually intend to use the gasoline to fire bomb the mobile home, was sufficient to make his action lawful. Defendant’s tendered instruction presented the mistake of fact defense on the basis that he “omitted to act” rather than he “acted” under an honest and honorable belief that Ray Wells did not intend to carry out the threat. See UJI Crim. 41.15 note 2. In what way did defendant fail to act? He does not tell us. The state’s case was predicated on defendant’s actively aiding and abetting in the crime, not his omission to act. To preserve error defendant must tender a correct statement of the law. NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 41(d) (Repl.Pamp. 1980); State v. Garcia, 100 N.M. 120, 666 P.2d 1267 (Ct.App.1983). Defendant’s tendered instruction did not correctly state the law applicable to the evidence. The trial court did not err in refusing the tendered instruction. CONCLUSION The judgment and convictions for attempted first degree depraved mind murder and negligent arson are reversed. The judgment and convictions for attempted second degree murder are set aside and the case is remanded for new trial on attempt ed second degree murder of all occupants of the trailer in accordance with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and MINZNER, J., concur.
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OPINION This matter having come before this Court on October 2, 1985, after completion of disciplinary proceedings conducted pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline (Repl.1985), wherein Attorney John W. Stanton was found to have engaged in conduct involving moral turpitude resulting in his conviction for the crime of attempted criminal sexual contact in the fourth degree in violation of NMSA 1978, Section 30-9-12 (Repl.Pamp.1984), the Court adopts the findings and conclusions of the Disciplinary Board and the Board’s recommendation that Stanton be disbarred. Stanton, an assistant public defender, was charged with attempting to commit criminal sexual contact on the person of one of his female clients on February 5, 1985. Stanton entered a plea of nolo contendere to this charge on February 13, 1985. He was given a deferred sentence and placed on probation for a period of one (1) year. In the disciplinary proceeding, Stanton filed no answer or other written response denying the allegations in the criminal complaint that led to his nolo contendere plea. Nor did he appear at the hearing before the hearing committee of the Disciplinary Board. As provided under NMSA 1978, Disc.Brd.P.R. 10(c)(2) (Repl. 1985), the allegations charged in the criminal complaint were deemed admitted by the hearing committee. The hearing committee also found that Stanton had made similar sexual advances to another client. In a letter mailed to the hearing committee chairman, Stanton suggested that his misconduct might have been attributable to his alleged exposure to “Agent Orange.” The committee specifically rejected this claim as having no support in the evidence. It further found that Stanton had demonstrated neither remorse concerning his conviction nor anything more than a casual interest in the disciplinary proceedings. We note that on March 13, 1985, a hearing was held before this Court on Stanton’s petition to resign filed pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 14 (Repl.P1985). After a hear ing, for which Stanton did not appear, the Court summarily suspended Stanton and rejected his petition to resign and referred this matter to the Disciplinary Board for further proceedings. Rule 14 is not intended as an alternative to the disciplinary process for attorneys convicted of criminal acts who wish to avoid discipline or other sanctions which the Court may impose. This Court has an obligation to both the public and the profession to insure that acts that constitute a violation of the Code of Professional Responsibility will result in appropriate disciplinary action. Stanton has engaged in conduct involving moral turpitude, conduct adversely reflecting upon his fitness to practice law, and conduct during the attorney-client relationship which was damaging to his client in violation of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof. Resp.Rules 1-102(A)(3), 1-102(A)(6) and 7-101(A)(3) (Repl.1985). The Disciplinary Board has recommended that we impose certain preconditions to any application for reinstatement by Stanton. We do not believe it appropriate at the time of disbarment to establish conditions for readmission. When an attorney has been disbarred, the Court should not encourage his reapplication. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that Stanton be and hereby is disbarred, and his license to practice law in New Mexico is revoked. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that the Clerk of the Supreme Court strike forthwith, the name of John W. Stanton from the roll of those persons permitted to practice law in New Mexico and that this Opinion be published in the New Mexico Reports and in the State Bar of New Mexico News and Views. The costs of this proceeding in the amount of $328.98 are hereby assessed against Stanton and must be paid to the Disciplinary Board on or before November 29, 1985. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., SOSA, Senior J., and RIORDAN, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Defendant Kilpatrick was convicted of aggravated assault. The Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction and defendant petitioned this Court for a writ of certiorari. We reverse the Court of Appeals. The sole issue raised in defendant’s petition is whether the time period between his arrest and his indictment and trial must be considered in evaluating his speedy trial claim under the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. In United States v. MacDonald, 456 U.S. 1, 102 S.Ct. 1497, 71 L.Ed.2d 696 (1982), the United States Supreme Court answered that question affirmatively. “The speedy trial guarantee is designed to minimize the possibility of lengthy incarceration prior to trial, to reduce the lesser, but nonetheless substantial, impairment of liberty imposed on an accused while released on bail, and to shorten the disruption of life caused by arrest and the presence of unresolved criminal charges. ” Id. at 8, 102 S.Ct. at 1502 (emphasis added). In the instant case, defendant posted a surety bond of $2500 on the day he was arrested, and lived under its “impairment of liberty” and the cloud of “unresolved criminal charges” for almost a year before the indictment was filed. The indictment was later dismissed and he was reindicted two months later. Without stating any reasons, the trial court denied defendant’s motion to dismiss the new indictment. MacDonald, which relies on a line of cases holding that the protections of the Sixth Amendment become applicable when “the putative defendant in some way becomes an ‘accused’____” (United States v. Marion, 404 U.S. 307, 313, 92 S.Ct. 455, 459, 30 L.Ed.2d 468 (1971)), declares unequivocally, in repetition of Lovasco v. United States, 431 U.S. 783, 97 S.Ct. 2044, 52 L.Ed.2d 752 (1977); Dillingham v. United States, 423 U.S. 64, 96 S.Ct. 303, 46 L.Ed.2d 205 (1975); and Marion, that the time between defendant’s arrest and indictment must be considered. In affirming defendant’s conviction, the Court of Appeals focused first on dates of indictment and reindictment rather than upon the time between arrest and indictment, and then applied the “actual restraint” test outlined in State v. Tafoya, 91 N.M. 121, 570 P.2d 1148 (Ct.App.1977). Tafoya, because defendant had made no showing of actual restraint following his arrest, held that there had been no denial of the right to a speedy trial. In the instant case, defendant showed that he had been required to post a bond and bear the restrictions imposed upon one “accused.” Kilpatrick, therefore, carried the burden of showing “substantial impairment of liberty ... while released on bond,” MacDonald, and of “subjection to public obloquy ... and anxiety,” Dillingham, for more than 15 months before he went to trial. Defendant correctly points out in his petition that Tafoya was based upon a misunderstanding of the facts of Marion. The Marion defendants were arrested and indicted on the same day. Their speedy trial objection was grounded on the three-year delay between the time of the crime and the date of “arrest and indictment. ” Thus, the Marion language quoted in Tafoya (91 N.M. at 123, 570 P.2d 1150) was meant to recognize a distinction between the time before the putative defendant became an “accused,” which is not to be considered, and the time after arrest and accusation, which MacDonald, 456 U.S. at 7, 102 S.Ct. at 1501; Lovasco, fn. 8 at 431 U.S. 789, 97 S.Ct. at 2048 fn. 8; Dillingham, 423 U.S. at 64-65, 96 S.Ct. at 303-304; and Marion, 404 U.S. at 320-321, 92 S.Ct. at 463-464, all insist shall be counted. Marion emphasized that the purpose of the Sixth Amendment was not intended, as commonly believed, solely to limit possibilities that delay would prevent, impair or prejudice the accused’s ability to present a defense. Rather, “major evils” intended to be protected by the Sixth Amendment were to minimize interference that public arrest may cause “with the defendant’s liberty, whether he is free on bail or not,” and to avoid disruption of his employment, curtailment of his associations, subjection of defendant to obloquy, and creation of anxiety in him, his family and his friends. Marion, 404 U.S. at 320, 92 S.Ct. at 463. Finally,' contrary to the expression of the Court of Appeals, Tafoya cannot survive MacDonald untouched. Based as Tafoya presumably was on Marion and Lovasco, that case must be affected by the MacDonald ruling to the same extent Marion and Lovasco were. Although individual states may provide broader rights under state constitutions than those required by similar provisions of the United States Constitution, states are not free to restrict those rights to something less than as guaranteed under the federal charter. State ex rel. Serna v. Hodges, 89 N.M. 351, 356, 552 P.2d 787, 792 (1976). The Court of Appeals is reversed and the matter is remanded to that court for reinstatement and assignment to the limited calendar, to determine whether defendant was prejudiced, or otherwise unduly subjected to Marion -listed interferences and disruptions, by the delay between arrest and indictment so as to warrant dismissal of the charges. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, J., concur. STOWERS, J., dissents.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Plaintiff Oda Nursery, Inc. sued defendant Garcia Tree & Lawn, Inc. to recover the purchase price on a contract for the sale of 985 spreading juniper plants. Garcia counterclaimed for breach of contract, alleging that the plants were not of the quality warranted. The trial court found that Oda had provided .root-bound plants and that Garcia had effectively rejected them. Judgment was entered against Oda in the amount of $17,783.32, plus interest. Plaintiff appeals, arguing that there was no substantial evidence to support the trial court’s findings that the plants were defective nor that Oda breached its warranties of fitness and merchantability. Oda also argues that Garcia’s rejection of the plants was ineffective and untimely. We agree with the latter argument, and reverse. Garcia ordered the plants in early 1982, intending to use them in a beautification project for the City of Albuquerque. On March 13, 1982, Oda’s employee Velasco inspected the plants, and within 24 hours they were shipped to Albuquerque. On arrival they were inspected by one of Garcia’s employees, and a representative of the city examined them sometime between arrival and the time they were planted. For the four months following delivery the plants remained in their 5-gallon shipping containers. Garcia watered and fertilized them throughout that time. Finally, in July and August 1982, the junipers were planted but, by October, some of them had begun to die. Approximately 350 of the plants were removed at that time, and 350 more were removed in the following months. One of Garcia’s employees testified that she had called Oda soon after the arrival of the plants to complain of their poor condition and that Oda had agreed to send an agent to inspect the plants. Oda, on the other hand, denied that the alleged conversation ever occurred. On December 8, 1982, Oda filed suit for payment. Garcia answered on February 25, 1983, which, according to Oda, was the first notice it had received regarding any defects in the plants. When an inspection of the dying shrubs was made by Garcia eleven months after the plants had been delivered, he discovered they were root-bound. I. Substantial Evidence Plaintiff objects to certain of the trial court's findings of fact and conclusion of law as not supported by substantial evidence. We have said repeatedly that the trial court’s findings will not be disturbed on appeal if they are supported by the evidence. Wilson v. Employment Security Commission, 74 N.M. 3, 389 P.2d 855 (1963). When reviewing for substantial ev idence, the appellate court resolves all disputed questions of fact in favor of the successful party and all reasonable inferences are indulged in support of the judgment. Boone v. Boone, 90 N.M. 466, 467, 565 P.2d 337, 338 (1977); Tapia v. Panhandle Steel Erectors Co., 78 N.M. 86, 428 P.2d 625 (1967). We would agree that some of the trial court’s findings are not supported by substantial evidence, and that some are indeed conclusions of law. Our determination of this appeal rests, however, upon the legal issues of revocation and rejection; thus, the challenged findings (most of which really are conclusions) are immaterial to our decision. II. Rejection and Revocation The trial court found and concluded that Garcia had made a timely and effective rejection and revocation of acceptance of the juniper plants. The evidence and other findings do not support that conclusion. The agreement between Oda and Garcia qualifies as a “contract” (NMSA 1978, § 55-1-201) for the sale of “goods” (NMSA 1978, § 55-2-105), and as such is governed by the provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code (NMSA 1978, §§ 55-1-101 to 55-9-507). Even assuming that Oda breached warranties of fitness and merchantability, as the trial court concluded, Section 55-2-602(1) of the UCC provides that: Rejection of goods must be within a reasonable time after their delivery or tender. It is ineffective unless the buyer seasonably notifies the seller. (A) Effectiveness Section 55-1-201(26) of the UCC describes the act of “notification”: [A] person “notifies” or “gives” a notice or notification to another by taking such steps as may be reasonably required to inform the other in ordinary course whether or not such other actually comes to know of it. The trial court found that one of Garcia’s employees notified the plaintiff of the “deterioration” of the plants by telephone shortly after the plants arrived. Although later communications between the parties made no mention of such notice, and Garcia made a partial payment for the shrubs two-and-a-half months after receiving the shipment, the trial court was entitled to believe that Garcia telephoned Oda. The telephone call fulfills the requirements of Section 55-1-201. Nevertheless, when the notice in question regards rejection or revocation of acceptance because of a defect in the goods, the provisions of Sections 55-2-602, 55-2-605 and 55-2-608 must be met as well. Section 55-2-602 requires rejection “within a reasonable time after * * * delivery,” and makes any rejection ineffective if the seller is not seasonably notified. Section 55-2-605 provides: (1) The buyer’s failure to state in connection with rejection a particular defect which is ascertainable by reasonable inspection precludes him from relying on the unstated defect to justify rejection or to establish breach: (a) where the seller could have cured it if stated seasonably * * * * (Emphasis supplied.) And, under Section 55-2-608, a buyer may revoke acceptance within a reasonable time after he discovers, or should have discovered, grounds for revocation and before any change in the condition of the goods has occurred. The seller must be notified that acceptance is revoked or revocation is ineffective. According to Garcia’s witness, her telephone call was to the effect that the plants did not look “up to snuff.” The evidence on notification given by the person who made the notification nowhere describes a “deteriorating” or root-bound condition. Nor is there evidence of notice of either rejection or revocation of acceptance in the telephone conversations or correspondence between the parties. Indeed, partial payment in June, 1982, following the March 1982 delivery, belies any rejection or revocation based on March or April telephone calls from Garcia to Oda. A check from Garcia for the balance of payment on July 20, 1982, was returned to Oda marked “Insufficient Funds” on August 8, 1982. The letter from Garcia accompanying the check, read: GENTLEMEN: ENCLOSED IS OUR CHECK IN THE AMOUNT OF $4,024.90 WHICH IS THE BALANCE DUE ON INVOICE # 14101. WE APPRECIATE YOUR PATIENCE WITH US REGARDING THE LATENESS OF THE PAYMENT. WE SINCERELY HOPE THAT WE CAN DO BUSINESS UNDER MORE FAVORABLE CIRCUMSTANCES. WE FEEL THAT HAD WE NOT BEEN DELAYED WITH THE PAYMENT FROM THE CITY OF ALBUQUERQUE WE COULD HAVE SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED OUR PAYMENT TO YOU ON TIME. AGAIN, THANK YOU FOR YOUR PATIENCE AND COOPERATION. SHOULD YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS, PLEASE ADVISE. CORDIALLY, S/ JOSEPH V. GARCIA, ASLA JVG/ls Nothing in the July letter indicates dissatisfaction with non-conforming goods or rejection of the contract. A copy from Garcia’s records of a memorandum-note to Garcia's bank, dated “12-1-82,” and signed by Mrs. Garcia, directed the bank to stop payment on the July 20th check. Mrs. Garcia testified that the December date on the memo was “wrong.” There was no evidence produced to show that Garcia had either rejected or revoked acceptance in any acceptable effective manner during the period from delivery in March to payment in July 1982, that would have permitted cure by the seller as contemplated by § 55-2-605. (B) Timeliness The terms “reasonable time” and “seasonably” are defined, for purposes of the UCC, in Section 55-1-204 as follows: (1) Whenever this act [this chapter] requires any action to be taken within a reasonable time, any time which is not manifestly unreasonable may be fixed by agreement. (2) What is a reasonable time for taking any action depends on the nature, purpose and circumstances of such action. (3) An action is taken “seasonably” when it is taken at or within the time agreed or if no time is agreed at or within a reasonable time. In the instant case, the parties had no agreement as to a reasonable time for rejection of the plants. Thus, under subsection 3, we must consider the nature, purpose and circumstances of Garcia’s purported rejection or revocation. Of course, Garcia must be allowed a certain amount of time within which to inspect the plants. In Giles v. Phillips, 238 Miss. 528, 119 So.2d 349 (1960), the Mississippi court held that receipt of goods does not preclude a later rejection of them. “But receipt will become acceptance if the right of revocation is not exercised within a reasonable time.” Id. 119 So.2d at 351. Although the reasonableness of the time for inspection of the goods is usually a factual matter for the jury’s determination, G & H Land & Cattle Co. v. Heitzman & Nelson, Inc., 102 Idaho 204, 628 P.2d 1038 (1981), with regard to a sale of lumber, the Arizona court in Pace v. Sagebrush Sales Co., 114 Ariz. 271, 274, 560 P.2d 789, 792 (1977), held that “as a matter of law, notification four months after acceptance is not a reasonable time within which to notify a seller of defects in goods sold.” Considering that the health and quality of the goods in the present case (growing plants) were more dependent on the buyer’s awareness of the condition of the goods while in his possession than were the goods in Pace (lumber), we believe it eminently reasonable to hold, as a matter of law, that four months or more is not a reasonable time for revocation. Because we have determined that Garcia’s telephone call(s) did not constitute effective notice, the first true notice to Oda of claimed defects was in Garcia’s answer to Oda’s complaint for debt. That document was filed on February 25, 1983, almost a full year after delivery of the plants. Eleven months between receipt and rejection is clearly unreasonable. Garcia, citing Sumner v. Fel-Air, Inc., 680 P.2d 1109 (Alaska 1984), asks us to adopt a one-year limit as reasonable. But in Sumner, the court expressly stated that one year was reasonable only because during that time the seller had made repeated promises to correct the defect. No such promises were made in the instant case. Moreover, the “goods” in Sumner was an airplane incapable of change during possession; here the goods were perishable plants. Notice of a root-bound condition in growing plants eleven months after delivery is not seasonable notice. (C) Dominion Section 55-2-602(2)(a) also provides that after inspection any exercise of ownership by the buyer with respect to any commercial unit is wrongful as against the seller * * * * In O’Shea v. Hatch, 97 N.M. 409, 413, 640 P.2d 515, 519 (Ct.App.1982), the court held that a “buyer of goods who, after having a reasonable opportunity to inspect them * * * performs acts of dominion or other acts inconsistent with any intention to rescind, may be deemed to have accepted the goods or ratified the sale.” Accord, Livingston Shirt Corp. v. Great Lakes Garment Mfg. Co., 351 Mich. 123, 88 N.W.2d 614 (1958). In Giles, earlier cited herein, it was said that receipt of goods becomes acceptance “if any act be done by the buyer which he would have no right to do unless he were the owner of the goods.” 283 Miss, at 532, 119 So.2d at 351. Garcia claims to have rejected the plants in the spring of 1982. But in July and August of that year, the company removed the plants from their 5-gallon containers and planted them in fulfillment of its contract with the City of Albuquerque. That act of accepting and planting the delivered goods was clearly inconsistent with rejection or revocation of acceptance. We reverse the trial court because its findings and conclusions regarding timely rejection or revocation of acceptance are not supported by the evidence. We remand the case for a determination of damages to be awarded to Oda. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and STOWERS, J., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. The State petitioned this Court for a writ of prohibition directed to the Honorable Judge Bruce Kaufman (respondent), a district judge of the First Judicial District. The State seeks to prevent respondent from holding an evidentiary hearing in a habeas corpus proceeding because a different district court has already conducted a full evidentiary hearing on the same alleged facts and legal issues pursuant to a post-conviction motion for relief under NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 57 (Repl.Pamp. 1980). We previously granted an alternative writ, allowing the matter to be briefed and orally argued. The writ of prohibition is now made permanent. We agree with the State’s position that a district court is without jurisdiction to grant an evidentiary hearing, pursuant to a petition for writ of habeas corpus, when a different district court has previously conducted a full evidentiary hearing on the same alleged facts and issues pursuant to a Rule 57 post-conviction motion for relief. The prisoner, William Smith, was convicted in the Second Judicial District of two counts of first degree murder. On direct appeal, this Court affirmed those convictions. State v. Smith, 92 N.M. 533, 591 P.2d 664 (1979). Smith then filed a post-conviction motion for relief in the sentencing court, pursuant to Rule 57. The sentencing court granted a hearing on the motion and, after a full hearing, denied the motion. Smith next petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus in the district court of the First Judicial District, where he was incarcerated. In his petition for writ of habeas corpus Smith alleged the same facts, and raised the same issues and grounds for relief, as he had in the earlier Rule 57 motion. He contends that the sentencing court was “unfair” in denying his Rule 57 motion. The State filed a motion to preclude an evidentiary hearing at the habeas corpus proceeding, which was denied by respondent. At that point the State sought a writ of prohibition directed to respondent. NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 57 sets out the procedure by which a prisoner can attack the validity of his sentence in the district court which sentenced him. Rule 57 was adopted indirectly from the analogous federal post-conviction remedy, 28 U.S.C. Section 2255 (1982). NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 57 committee commentary (Rule 57 was derived from proposed rules to govern proceedings under 28 U.S.C. Section 2255); State v. Canales, 78 N.M. 429, 432 P.2d 394 (1967) (NMSA 1953, Civ.P.Rule 93, the predecessor to Rule 57, was adopted from 28 U.S.C. Section 2255). The federal remedy, Section 2255, was enacted in response to a dramatic rise in the number of habeas corpus petitions filed in the federal courts. United States v. Hayman, 342 U.S. 205, 72 S.Ct. 263, 96 L.Ed. 232 (1952); see also Annot., 41 L.Ed.2d 1193 (1975). This increased volume of habeas corpus petitions put an extraordinary burden on the courts of those districts where large federal prisons are located. It also meant that witnesses and lawyers often had to travel great distances, from the district in which a petitioning prisoner was tried and sentenced to the district where he was incarcerated. Id. Section 2255, accordingly, provided in the sentencing court a remedy “exactly commensurate” with the remedy which had previously existed, by habeas corpus, in the court of the district where a prisoner was confined. Hill v. United States, 368 U.S. 424, 427, 82 S.Ct. 468, 470, 7 L.Ed.2d 417 (1962). Subsequently individual states, likewise faced with an increasing volume of habeas corpus petitions in their courts, adopted post-conviction remedies similar to Section 2255, with the same purpose of simplifying and streamlining the post-conviction process. See, e.g., Marshall v. Warden, Nevada State Prison, 83 Nev. 442, 434 P.2d 437 (1967); Holt v. Morris, 84 Wash.2d 841, 529 P.2d 1081 (1974), overruled in part on other grounds in Wright v. Morris, 85 Wash.2d 899, 540 P.2d 893 (1975). See also NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 57 committee commentary (main purpose of Rule 57 “is to provide a uniform procedure for determining if the prisoner is entitled to relief”). It is clear that under circumstances such as exist in this case, a federal district court could not entertain the habeas corpus petition of a federal prisoner after another district court had denied the prisoner’s Section 2255 motion raising the same grounds for relief. E.g., Boyden v. United States, 463 F.2d 229 (9th Cir.1972), cert. denied, 410 U.S. 912, 93 S.Ct. 974, 35 L.Ed.2d 274 (1973); Stirone v. Markley, 345 F.2d 473 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 829, 86 S.Ct. 67, 15 L.Ed.2d 73 (1965); Haynes v. Ciccone, 248 F.Supp. 898 (W.D.Mo.1965). See also 3 C. Wright, Federal Practice and Procedure: Criminal § 591 (2d ed. 1982). Section 2255 contains language indicating that it is the exclusive remedy, in cases in which its use is authorized, unless it is “inadequate or ineffective to test the legality of [the prisoner's] detention.” 28 U.S.C. § 2255. The federal courts have established that the fact that the sentencing court has denied a prisoner’s Section 2255 motion does not make that remedy “inadequate or ineffective,” even if the sentencing court was allegedly erroneous or biased in denying the Section 2255 motion. E.g., Boyden v. United States; Haynes v. Ciccone. Such errors should be corrected by the appellate courts, and not by another district court. Id. “The court for the district in which the prisoner is confined cannot be permitted to second guess the sentencing court, and the court of appeals to which it is responsible.” 3 C. Wright, Federal Practice and Procedure: Criminal § 591, at 427. Because Section 2255 provides a remedy “exactly commensurate” with that which had been afforded by habeas corpus, Hill v. United States, 368 U.S. at 427, 82 S.Ct. at 471, this substitution of Section 2255 for habeas corpus as the exclusive remedy, in cases in which its use is authorized, is not an unconstitutional suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. Swain v. Pressley, 430 U.S. 372, 97 S.Ct. 1224, 51 L.Ed.2d 411 (1977); United States v. Hayman, 342 U.S. 205, 72 S.Ct. 263, 96 L.Ed. 232 (1952). The state courts have split over whether their sentencing-court post-conviction remedies provide a prisoner’s exclusive remedy, displacing habeas corpus, or provide an alternative remedy in addition to habeas corpus. Compare Marshall v. Warden, Nevada State Prison (post-conviction remedy in sentencing court does not displace habeas corpus), with Atkeson v. Cupp, 68 Or.App. 196, 680 P.2d 722 (1984) (sentencing-court post-conviction remedy is exclusive, superseding habeas corpus). Unlike the federal Section 2255, New Mexico’s Rule 57 does not contain express language indicating that it is a prisoner's exclusive remedy unless it is inadequate to test the legality of detention. A district court’s order on a Rule 57 motion also differs from a court order under Section 2255 in that it is not an appealable order. NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 57(a). This Court, therefore, does not hold that a writ of habeas corpus in district court is unavailable to any prisoner for whom a Rule 57 proceeding is available. We do hold, however, that to the extent a habeas corpus petition raises matters already heard by a different court in a Rule 57 hearing, the habeas court may not rehear those matters and is bound by the already-established record. The very purpose of Rule 57 of providing an efficient, uniform procedure for testing the legality of a sentence would be defeated if the district courts for the districts where prisoners are confined were permitted to rehear, at their discretion, matters already heard by Rule 57 motion in the sentencing courts. Also, the awkwardness and confusion that would result from allowing one district court to second-guess another is as much to be avoided in the state judiciary as in the federal judiciary. See People ex rel. Wyse v. District Court, 180 Colo. 88, 503 P.2d 154 (1972); Hittlet v. Police Chief, City of Reno, 86 Nev. 672, 474 P.2d 722 (1970). As we interpret the cases cited by respondent and Smith in opposition to this petition they hold that the sentencing court may, and in certain limited circumstances must, hold evidentiary hearings on successive post-conviction motions for relief. Sanders v. United States, 373 U.S. 1, 83 S.Ct. 1068, 10 L.Ed.2d 148 (1963); Townsend v. Sain, 372 U.S. 293, 83 S.Ct. 745, 9 L.Ed.2d 770 (1963); State v. Canales. See also NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 57(b)(3). It does not follow that a different district court may or must hold an evidentiary hearing on matters already heard in the sentencing court because it is designated as a habeas corpus hearing. On the contrary, these cases suggest that if, after an unsuccessful Rule 57 motion and habeas corpus petition in the district courts, a prisoner could make a sufficient showing to this Court that his Rule 57 hearing was unfairly conducted, this Court could order a new hearing in the sentencing court. We conclude that respondent is without jurisdiction to grant an evidentiary hearing in the instant case. The writ of prohibition against respondent is granted and made permanent. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION RIORDAN, Justice. Defendant Gracie Leal (Leal) appealed her conviction of child abuse resulting in death. The Court of Appeals summarily reversed. We granted certiorari and now reverse the Court of Appeals. In her docketing statement filed in the Court of Appeals, Leal raised three issues: A. Whether the trial court erred in refusing to grant Leal’s motions for directed verdict. B. Whether the evidence was sufficient to sustain a verdict of guilty. C. Whether the trial court erred in refusing Leal’s tendered instructions defining “negligently” and “permit” which related to Leal’s theory of the case, and giving the jury correct [sic] definitions of those terms in the context of the evidence in the case. Leal alleged that the evidence was insufficient to sustain a verdict of guilty of child abuse resulting in death for knowingly permitting the child to be cruelly punished by some other person. The Court of Appeals assigned the case to the summary calendar with a proposed summary reversal. The gist of the calendaring assignment was that the evidence was insufficient to sustain a guilty verdict of permitting child abuse resulting in death, although the information cited the applicable statute. See e.g., State v. Crump, 82 N.M. 487, 484 P.2d 329 (1971); State v. Garcia, 80 N.M. 247, 453 P.2d 767 (Ct.App.1969). The state, in its memorandum in opposition to summary reversal, alleged that the docketing statement itself permits the inference that Leal was present when the child suffered the fatal abuse. As pointed out by the state, on appeal all inferences are resolved in favor of the verdict. State v. Lankford, 92 N.M. 1, 582 P.2d 378 (1978). The issue is whether the evidence (circumstantial or direct) is sufficient to justify a rational trier of fact to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Carter, 93 N.M. 500, 601 P.2d 733 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 683, 604 P.2d 821 (1979). With a case in this posture, it is easy for a reviewing court to be tempted to substitute its judgment for that of the trier of facts. However, this is inappropriate. State v. Lankford. The Court of Appeals is reversed and the case remanded for reinstatement on the limited or general calendar, which is appro priate for reviewing a case where the sufficiency of the evidence is raised. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION LOPEZ, Judge. Counselor Wollen appeals from an order of contempt issued by the District Judge in Bernalillo County. He willfully disobeyed the order of District Judge Riordan, for which judgment was entered ordering him to pay a fine of $200 and be imprisoned for one day. , The events which gave rise to the contempt citation were as follows: A divorce decree between Robert William Gruber and Carol Lynn Gruber was entered February 9, 1972. The plaintiff-wife,, represented by Counselor Wollen, obtained an order amending the original decree. A hearing on December 20, 1972 on defendant-husband’s motion to vacate the amended decree gave rise to the events involved herein. Counselor Wollen attacked the jurisdiction and partiality of the court to hear the motion. After the rejection of his contentions by Judge Riordan, Wollen announced to the court his intention to leave the hearing. The court advised that if he left, he would be held in contempt, Wollen willfully ignored the warning and a judgment of contempt was entered 26 days later. Wollen raises three points for reversal. In view of our disposition of this case, we need consider only one: that the court denied defendant due process of law by entering the judgment of contempt 26 days after the events involved without notice or hearing. The disposition of the issue requires, at the outset, consideration of a number of principles of law on which the parties do not disagree. Conduct violating a court order in the presence of the court is a direct, criminal contempt. Such contempts can be punished summarily. “Summary” proceedings are not necessarily immediate. Rather, a summary proceeding is one in which the formal requisites of notice and hearing or trial are dispensed with. The justification for allowing such a procedure is set out by the court in State ex rel. Bliss v. Greenwood, 63 N.M. 156, 315 P.2d 223 (1957), as follows: “. . . Summary measures may be the only effective means of defending the dignity of judicial tribunals and of insuring that they are able to accomplish the purpose of their existence. So there should be no feeling that courts may safely be trifled with. . . .” The major issue presented by this appeal is whether the policy considerations allowing summary contempt are still compelling 26 days after the hearing. We think they are not. The court in United States v. Meyer, 149 U.S.App.D.C. 212, 462 F.2d 827 (1972), states: “The other policy justification for summary disposition — the need to preserve order in the courtroom — is by definition inapplicable after the trial is over. . The normal constitutional presumption in favor of a due process hearing is therefore controlling. . . .” In certain situations summary contempts have been upheld despite delay. We do not have such a case here, however-. For example, there could have been no prejudice to Wollen’s client by an immediate entry of the order. Cf. Sacher v. United States, 343 U.S. 1, 72 S.Ct. 451, 96 L.Ed. 717 (1952). Nor can such a delay be justified by considerations allowing a “cooling off” period or giving the defendant time to apologize. The court may, in a proper case, allow a delay in the adjudication of contempt for any of the above reasons. However, once a delay as long as the one involved here has ensued, the reasons for dispensing with the constitutional requisites of notice and hearing are not compelling. See Groppi v. Leslie, 404 U.S. 496, 92 S.Ct. 582, 30 L.Ed.2d 632 (1972); People v. Burt, 257 Ill.App. 60 (1930); In re Foote, 76 Cal. 543, 18 P. 678 (1888). Therefore, we vacate the judgment of contempt and remand the case to the trial court with instructions to hold a hearing which comports with the requirements set forth by Chief Justice Taft in Cooke v. United States, 267 U.S. 517, 45 S.Ct. 390, 69 L.Ed. 767 (1925). Appellant Wollen contends that Judge Riordan should not be allowed to preside at such a hearing. However, we do not think that the conduct of appellant, grave as it was, “personally embroiled” the judge to such an extent as to require his disqualification. The conduct of the appellant did not approach the level of intensity as that engaged in by the defendant in Mayberry v. Pennsylvania, 400 U.S. 455, 91 S.Ct. 499, 27 L.Ed.2d 532 (1971). Rather, we compare Wollen’s conduct to that of the defendant in Ungar v. Sarafite, 376 U.S. 575, 84 S.Ct. 841, 11 L.Ed.2d 921 (1964), where the Court stated: “It is true that Ungar objected strongly to the orders of the court and to its conduct of the trial during his examination. His final outburst, the subject of the contempt, was a flat refusal to answer, when directed by the court, togethér with an intemperate and strongly worded comment on the propriety of the court’s ruling. But we are unwilling to bottom a constitutional rule of .disqualification solely upon such disobedience to court orders and criticism of its rulings during the course of a trial. . . .” However, it should finally be noted that nothing in this opinion requires Judge Riordan to hear the case on remand. He may decide to follow the dictum of Justice Douglas in Mayberry v. Pennsylvania, supra, as follows: “. . . it is generally wise where the marks of the unseemly conduct have left personal stings to ask a fellow judge to take his place. . . .” The order of contempt is vacated and the case is remanded for proceedings consistent herewith. It is so ordered. HERNANDEZ, J., concurs.
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OPINION MARTINEZ, Justice. On April 5, 1969, William E. Nix, husband of defendant-appellant, was injured while riding a horse. He was thrown to the ground, render&d unconscious, and never regained consciousness. The plaintiffappellee, Aetna Life Insurance Company (Aetna), by its group health insurance policy, insured defendant-appellant Bettye H. Nix and her husband. The policy did not cover an injury related to employment. Bettye Nix erroneously represented that the injury suffered by her husband, for which claim was made, was not related to his employment. As a result of these representations, Aetna made payments covering the expenses of the doctors and hospital. This suit was brought in the District Court of Dona Ana County to recover the amount of the payments made under the terms of the policy. Judgment was for the plaintiff in the amount of $5,995.38. Defendant, Bettye Nix appeals. Appellant claims that the trial court erred in making findings of fact as submitted by the plaintiff, and in refusing to make findings of fact requested by defendant and that the court erred in finding that the policy did not extend coverage to her husband. She further contends that plaintiff failed to state and prove a cause of action against defendant. Pursuant to Rule 36, Rules of Civil Procedure of the State of New Mexico, Sec. 21-1-1(36), N.M.S.A., 1953, plaintiff served upon defendant a written request for the admission of facts and genuineness of documents. This request was never answered. Thus, each of the matters included in this request were deemed admitted. On the basis of these deemed admissions and an affidavit of Robert Byrdson, the supervisor of Aetna’s group claim department, the court granted plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment pursuant to Rule 56 of the Rules of Civil Procedure of the State of New Mexico, § 21-1-1(56), N. M.S.A., 1953. The court ordered that all +he allegations of plaintiff’s complaint exist without controversy and further ordered that the case proceed to trial with the plaintiff having to establish only the amount of its damages and the defendant having to establish her affirmative defenses. Because the trial court entered a partial summary judgment, as authorized under § 21-1-1(56) (a), N.M.S.A., 1953, the court order is not a final judgment and, therefore, is not appealable. Kam Koon Wan v. E. E. Black, Ltd., 182 F.2d 146 (9th Cir. 1950). By virtue of Rule 36, supra, appellant admits that her husband’s injuries occurred within the course and scope of his employment, and that appellant indicated in her statement of claim that the injury was not related to the employment of her husband. It was Aetna’s mistake as to this fact, a mistake induced by the erroneous statements in appellant’s claims, that resulted in Aetna’s paying to or on behalf of Bettye Nix benefits claimed by her to be owed under the insurance contract. Fraud of Bettye Nix in the inducement of payment by Aetna is not an issue in this action. The question here is whether Aetna was mistaken in fact as to whether’ the injury was related to employment. The evidence is clear that there was such a mistake. Three of the statements of claim, including the original one prepared by Bettye Nix, indicated that the injury was not related to employment. Aetna made payments based upon the representations in these claims. In Modisette v. Foundation Reserve Ins. Co., 77 N.M. 661, 667, 427 P.2d 21, 25 (1967) this Court stated: “The general rule, and the rule consistent with principles of contract and the duty of fair dealing which is the duty imposed upon both the insurer and the insured, is that if misrepresentations be made, or information withheld, and such be material to the contract, then it makes no difference whether the party acted fraudulently, negligently, or innocently.” (Citations Omitted) Whether fraudulently or innocently, Mrs. Nix did represent to Aetna that her husband’s injury was not related to his employment. These representations induced Aetna to make payments. An insurer that has made a payment under an erroneous belief induced by a mistake of fact that the terms of the contract required such payment is entitled to restitution from the payee. 167 A.L.R. 470, 472 (1947); 44 Am.Jur.2d Insurance, § 1806 (1969); 58 C.J.S. Money Received § 16 (1948). Three drafts totalling an amount of $672.26, paid out by Aetna to Bettye H. Nix were admitted into evidence by the trial court without objection. However, a fourth draft in the amount of $5,323.12 was paid out by Aetna directly to Providence Memorial Hospital of El Paso, Texas. This draft was admitted into evidence over the objections of defendant. The court found, that as part of the total amount paid, the sum of $5,323.12 was paid by Aetna directly to Providence Memorial Hospital, El Paso, Texas; that the benefits under the group insurance policy to the extent of the bill of Providence Memorial Hospital were assigned to that hospital; that the services provided by Providence Memorial Hospital were for William E. Nix; and that Bettye H. Nix authorized that hospital to file its claim directly to Aetna for payment under the group insurance policy. It is standard procedure and custom in appellee’s business to pay directly to the assignee when there is an assignment of the claim. However,- it is uncontested that appellee paid the sum of $5,323.12 directly to Providence Memorial Hospital. Regardless of any possible assignment or standard insurance custom and procedure, Mrs. Nix was not the payee of the $5,323.-12 check. Consequently, the appellee, having paid $5,323.12 to the hospital induced by a mistake of fact, has committed a second mistake in suing the wrong party. In order to claim restitution, the appellee must demonstrate that the appellant possesses money which belongs to it. 58 C.J. S. Money Received Sj 4 (1948). If appellee fails to show that appellant holds its money, it cannot recover. Id. Clearly, two mistakes do not make a right. There is sufficient evidence whereby a finder of fact could conclude that Mrs. Nix received three drafts totalling an amount of $672.26. However, because Mrs. Nix did not receive the check for $5,323.-12, the trial court’s judgment awarding $5,995.38 is reversed, and a judgment awarding the sum of.$672.26 to appellee is hereby ordered. The judgment of the trial court is reversed and remanded for further action consistent herewith. It is so ordered. STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HERNANDEZ, Judge. Defendant was convicted on two counts of unlawful sale of marijuana (§ 54-9-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2) (Repealed)) and sentenced to two concurrent terms of not less than two and not more than ten years. On appeal defendant contends: (1) that the trial court erred in denying his motion for a change of venue due to extensive pre-trial publicity and, (2) that the trial court erred in refusing to give two instructions tendered by defendant, defendant’s instructions Number 1 and Number 4. We affirm. Prior to defendant’s apprehension and subsequent conviction there had been much publicity given to the problem of drugs, the difficulties of apprehending drug “pushers” and the various possibilities for eliminating drug use in the community. Sometime before defendant’s arrest a reward procedure known locally as the “TIP Program” was initiated in Otero County by which persons could call a telephone number, give information about possible drug abuse and perhaps be eligible for a reward. Defendant introduced many exhibits consisting of newspaper clippings and transcriptions of radio broadcasts showing the extent and duration of both the “TIP Program” publicity and the publicity given to the drug problem generally. In addition, defendant introduced similar evidence dealing with a drug raid held on January 22, 1972 which resulted in defendant’s arrest and news articles which named defendant specifically as one of the persons arrested in the raid. Of the many exhibits on the issue of pretrial publicity introduced by the defendant, he was specifically named in only two as having been arrested in the January 22 drug raid. He contends that this publicity jeopardized his right to an impartial and unbiased jury in Otero County and that he should have been granted a change of venue to some location less tainted by the pre-trial publicity on the drug problem. The trial court conducted a lengthy hearing on the issue of pre-trial publicity and the motion for a change of venue. At the conclusion of this hearing the court denied the motion and made the following findings: “1. None of the publicity in the news media of Alamogordo and Otero County was shown to be prejudicial to the Defendant. “2. It was not shown that the Defendant is well known in Alamogordo and Otero County. “3. The TIP Program in Otero County was the establishing of a telephone number where persons could call and give information concerning sale or use of drugs, without having to give their name and if such information lead to the conviction of a drug pusher, such person could be eligible for a reward. “4. A large number of people in the State of New Mexico as well as the United States are very much aware of the drug abuse programs and publicity concerning same. The Defendant has not shown that the people of Otero County are more aware of these programs than people in any other part of the State of New Mexico and if they were, that this would prevent Defendant from obtaining a fair and impartial Jury in Otero County. “5. The Court finds that the Defendant can receive a fair and impartial Jury before which to stand trial.” A motion for change of venue which is disposed of after a hearing and upon stated findings will not be disturbed on appeal unless a clear abuse of the trial court’s discretion can be shown. State v. Foster, 82 N.M. 573, 484 P.2d 1283 (Ct. App.1971); Deats v. State, 80 N.M. 77, 451 P.2d 981 (1969). In order to show abuse of discretion in denying a motion for change of venue based upon improper pretrial publicity the burden of persuasion is on the defendant and he must sustain this burden even if the State offers no contradictory evidence whatsoever. State v. Foster, supra. Defendant has made no showing in our opinion that there was even the likelihood of prejudice at his trial. He has shown merely that the problem of drug abuse and the “TIP Program” had been given wide coverage by the news media in Otero County. The publicity given his own arrest appears to be nothing more than the conventional coverage given arrests by news media everywhere. He was not named in the earlier news items or in anyway referred to specifically. Generalized publicity given to social problems such as drug abuse and publicity given to such things as the “TIP Program” does not give rise to the sort of inflammatory or prejudicial news coverage necessary to warrant a change of venue. Defendant’s reliance on Estes v. Texas, 381 U.S. 532, 85 S.Ct. 1628, 14 L.Ed.2d 543 (1965) is misplaced; the abuses in Estes were in no way akin to the publicity given defendant’s arrest. Cf. Sheppard v. Maxwell, 384 U.S. 333, 86 S. Ct. 1507, 16 L.Ed.2d 600 (1966). Defendant’s requested instruction Number one, refused by the trial court, stated in pertinent part: “The Statutes under which this Indictment is brought read as follows: “54-9-3. Possession, planting, manufacture, sale, delivery prohibited — Exceptions. — No person shall plant, manufacture, sell, deliver or have in his possession any marijuana. “54-9-4. Penalties: C. Any person who has in his possession marijuana with intent unlawfully to sell, deliver or otherwise dispose of, or who sells, furnishes, gives away or delivers the marijuana to another person is: (1) for the first offense, guilty of a third degree felony;” The trial court’s instruction Number 7 duly instructed the jury on § 54-9-3, supra, in the express statutory language. At trial defendant, argued that the portion of the instruction based on § 54-9-4, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1971), was necessary because “it sets forth the unlawful intent, without which a crime does not exist.” But this objection disregards the court’s instruction Number 6 which required that the jury be satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt “[tjhat the defendant did knowingly and intentionally sell marijuana.” In his brief-in-chief defendant contends that the § 54 — 9-4 instruction, supra, was necessary so that “the jury be appraised of the offense for which he was on trial.” Section 54 — 9-4, supra, goes only to the possible penalties to be imposed upon one convicted under § 54-9-3, supra. Sentencing is not normally within the jury’s province in non-capital crimes. It has long been settled in New Mexico that the jury’s function is to determine guilt or innocence, not to participate in the imposition of punishment. “It was no concern of the jury what punishment the law prescribed.” State v. Ellison, 19 N.M. 428, 144 P. 10 (1914). The instructions tendered by the trial court contained all the necessary elements of the offense including the requisite intent. There was no error in refusing to give defendant’s requested instruction Number one. As his requested instruction Number 4, defendant proffered a verdict form which stated: “VERDICT WE, the Jury, find the Defendant guilty in the manner and form as charged in the indictment and recommend clemency.” The verdict forms actually used by the trial court contained.no mention of clemency. Defendant claims that “We can only speculate as to what the jury might have done if they had been given the form of verdict requested by the Defendant.” This argument disregards the fact that the trial court did instruct as to clemency in its instruction Number 20 : “Under the laws of this State, the penalty is assessed by the Trial Judge so that, by your verdict, you will only say whether the Defendant is guilty or not guilty. In the event of a verdict of guilty you or part of you may, however, recommend the Defendant to the clemency of the Court, and any such recommendation will receive due consideration.” The jury was instructed on the matter of clemency. The additional submission of a verdict form including clemency language would have been merely cumulative. Moreover, a recommendation of clemency by the jury is advisory in nature and not binding on the trial court’s final determination of sentence. State v. Carabajal, 26 N.M. 384, 193 P. 406 (1920). Since the trial court had properly instructed the jury on the matter of clemency in its instruction Number 20, it was not error to refuse the verdict form tendered by defendant. Affirmed. It is so ordered. SUTIN and LOPEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. After consideration of defendant’s motion for rehearing, the original opinion is withdrawn and the following opinion is substituted. From an adverse judgment in a medical malpractice case, entered pursuant to jury verdict, defendant appeals. The appeal raises three issues: (1) whether a verdict should have been directed or judgment n. o. v. entered; (2) whether certain instructions were correct; (3) whether the court erred in permitting a certain hypothetical question to be asked of an expert witness. We affirm. At the close of plaintiff’s case and at the close of defendant’s case, defendant moved for a directed verdict on the grounds of lack of substantial evidence to submit *the issues of medical malpractice, lack of consent to perform surgery, and lack of informed consent to the jury. Both motions were denied and the case was submitted to the jury on the following unobjected to instruction : “The plaintiff claims that he sustained damages and that the proximate cause thereof was one or more of the following claimed acts of malpractice: “1. The defendant proceeded to perform an operation upon him and in so doing failed to possess and apply the knowledge and use the skill and care which would be used by reasonably well qualified specialists in the same field practicing under similar circumstances. “2. The defendant proceeded to perform an operation upon the plaintiff without first obtaining a legal consent therefor. “3. The defendant proceeded to perform an operation upon the plaintiff which was different from any operation authorized by the plaintiff. “The plaintiff has the burden of proving that he sustained damage and that one or more of the claimed acts was the proximate cause thereof. “The defendant denies the plaintiff’s claims. “If you find that plaintiff has proved those claims required of him, then your verdict should be for the plaintiff. “If on the other hand, you find that any one of the claims required to be proved by plaintiff has not been proved, then your verdict should be for the defendant.” The foregoing instruction is in the almost identical "form as the instruction requested by defendant. No special interrogatories were requested. The jury returned a general verdict in favor of plaintiff. Subsequently, defendant moved for judgment n. o. v. or in the alternative a new trial, or in the alternative a remittitur. The trial court denied the motion. For the purpose of this opinion we assume that the trial court was in error in not granting defendant’s motion for a directed verdict on the theories of medical malpractice and lack of informed consent. See Reed v. Styron, 69 N.M. 262, 365 P.2d 912 (1961) and its progeny. We are, however, faced with defendant requesting an instruction which submitted the case to the jury on the alternative theory that “one or more of the claimed .acts or omissions was the proximate cause thereof.” This requested instruction was totally inconsistent with defendant’s motion for a directed verdict. Compare Platero v. Jones, 83 N.M. 261, 490 P.2d 1234 (Ct.App.1971). Defendant’s argument is that we must review the record as of the time of ruling on the directed verdict. However, this is not the rule in New Mexico. Our Supreme Court in Griego v. Conwell, 54 N.M. 287, 222 P.2d 606 (1950), in a similar case regarding the denial of motions for a directed verdict, stated to the effect that an unobjected to instruction becomes the law of the case on appeal. Implicit in Griego is that the court will not go behind the law of the case instruction. Accordingly, we need only determine whether there was evidence to support any of plaintiff’s theories. See also Marchant v. McDonald, 37 N.M. 171, 20 P.2d 276 (1933). We have reviewed the record and find that plaintiff’s theory of lack of consent to surgery is supported by substantial evidence. In the following review of the evidence all presumptions and inferences are in favor of the verdict, and all inferences or evidence to the contrary are disregarded. As has frequently been stated it is for the jury and not the appellate court to weigh testimony, determine the credibility of witnesses, reconcile inconsistent or contradictory statements of witnesses and say where the truth lies. Cooper v. Burrows, 83 N.M. 555, 494 P.2d 968 (1972); Durrett v. Petritsis, 82 N.M. 1, 474 P.2d 487 (1970). In 1963 plaintiff was operated on in Boston for an ileostomy and colectomy. An ileostomy is the creation of an outlet for the small intestine or ileum through the abdominal wall. A colectomy is an excision of all or part of the large bowel or colon. Plaintiff’s ileostomy functioned properly after this surgery. Plaintiff moved to Albuquerque in 1965 and first consulted the defendant, a general surgeon, on O.ctober 30, 1967. At that time olaintiff was 40 years of age and had a sixth grade education. Plaintiff’s native language was French, and he had some difficulty with English. Plaintiff consulted the defendant because of a lump located some distance from the ileostomy site. Defendant diagnosed the lump as a hernia. During the examination plaintiff stated that if repair of the hernia in any way involved surgery on the ileostomy that he would return to Boston for the operation. Defendant agreed not to touch the ileostomy. Plaintiff entered the hospital at approximately 2:00 p. m. on November 12, 1967. On admission plaintiff signed an “Authority to Operate” which described the operation to be performed as “ * * * repair of ventral hernia.” Sometime subsequent to admission a second “Authority to Operate” was obtained. This document bears two signatures by plaintiff and describes the operation to be performed as “Repair Ventral Hernia & revision of ileostomy and repair of hydrocele.” Plaintiff does not specifically recall, signing this authority to operate. He testified that after having been given a sleeping medication, later identified as Nembutal, he was awakened by a nurse. The nurse said that something had been forgotten and had to be completed. The nurse did not turn the lights on and the plaintiff could not see. She held her finger where the plaintiff was to sign, and he did so. There is an inference that what was signed was the second authority to operate. 'There was medical testimony that Nembutal has a “ * * * hypnotic effect in some forms of use, in that there will be the capability of introducing a state of mifid that is not fully aware of the situation.” The day after he was admitted plaintiff was taken to surgery. After he was anesthetized defendant proceeded to perform an examination which could not be performed while plaintiff was conscious. The examination consisted of the insertion of defendant’s gloved finger into plaintiff’s ileostomy in a manner and to an extent not possible while plaintiff was conscious. It was during this examination and prior to the making of any incisions that defendant discovered that plaintiff’s hernia protruded from the same opening in the abdominal wall as did the ileostomy. It was at this point that defendant definitely concluded that repair of plaintiff’s hernia would necessarily require relocation or revision of his ileostomy. Defendant proceeded to repair the hernia, revise the ileostomy and repair the hydrocele. Subsequent to surgery plaintiff developed complications which required surgery on two subsequent occasions and a long course of treatment. Among other treatments, plaintiff’s ileostomy had to be revised again to a location which is inconvenient. Defendant’s first point on appeal argues that it was error for the trial court to refuse to direct a verdict or grant judgment n. o. v. The rule applicable in consideration of a motion for directed verdict is that the trial court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the party resisting the motion, indulge every reasonable inference in support of the party resisting, ignore conflicts in evidence unfavorable to him and not grant the motion if reasonable minds might differ on the conclusion to be reached on the evidence or permissible inferences. Archuleta v. Johnston, 83 N.M. 380, 492 P.2d 997 (1971). In considering a motion for judgment n. o. v: the rule is that the motion is to be granted only when there is neither evidence nor inference from which the jury could have arrived at its verdict. Archuleta v. Johnston, supra. In support of his argument the defendant- cites the parol evidence rule. Defendant would have us hold that plaintiff is precluded by the parol evidence rule from attempting to show that he did not in fact consent to the revision of his ileostomy by signing the second authority to operate. Further, defendant cites the case of Grannum v. Berard, 70 Wash.2d 304, 422 P.2d 812 (1967), for the proposition that the law presumes competence in one consenting to an operation and that a patient seeking to avoid the effect of this presumption must present clear and convincing evidence of his lack of capacity to consent. We begin our discussion by noting that the physician-patient relationship is a fiduciary one. Moore v. Webb, 345 S.W.2d 239 (Mo.App.1961). See Woods v. Brumlop, 71 N.M. 221, 377 P.2d 520 (1962). The physician is required to exercise the utmost good faith toward the patient throughout the relationship. We do not inquire whether the physician has gained an advantage in performing surgery or whether his conduct was fraudulent. We only inquire whether the physician violated his fiduciary duty. If he did, any contractual relationship with the patient is void as against public policy. Iriart v. Johnson, 75 N.M. 745, 411 P.2d 226 (1965). In the present case it is not necessary to go so far as to find that defendant knowingly violated his fiduciary duty. The jury was instructed that plaintiff had the burden of establishing his lack of mental competence at the time he signed the second authority to operate by clear and convincing evidence. Proof of lack of capacity is not precluded by the parol evidence rule. Van Meter v. Zumwalt, 35 Idaho 235, 206 P. 507 (1922). The general verdict in plaintiff’s favor indicates that he bore that burden. The jury having found that plaintiff was not competent at the time he signed the consent, that consent is ineffectual. As pointed out above the defendant knew before making the first inci sion that repair of plaintiff’s hernia necessarily would involve revision of the ileostomy. ' The jury found that there was no valid consent to such a revision. It follows that defendant is liable for all damages’ proximately caused by the procedures he performed to which plaintiff did not consent. There was medical testimony that all the subsequent medical complications plaintiff suffered were the result of the hernia repair and ileostomy revision. Since the procedure for which a valid consent existed, namely the hernia repair, could not be performed without performing a procedure to which plaintiff had not consented the defendant was in effect without authority to perform either. Having undertaken an unconsented to course of treatment defendant is liable for all damages proximately caused thereby. See Annot. 56 A.L.R.2d 695 (1957). We conclude there was evidence to support the instruction as given. Defendant’s second point deals with two instructions given by the trial court. The first was the instruction on damages. The relevant portions of that instruction read as follows: “If you should decide in favor of the plaintiff on the question of liability, you must then fix the amount of money which will reasonably and fairly compensate him for any of the following elements of damages proved by the plaintiff to have resulted from the wrongful conduct of the defendant: “1. The nature, extent and duration of the injury. “2. The aggravation of any pre-existing condition, but you may allow damages only for the aggravation itself, and not for the pre-existing condition. “3. The pain and suffering experienced and reasonably certain to be experienced in the future as a result of the injury. . . .” Defendant puts his objection to the first element of the instruction this way: “ * * * Under any view, Dr. Gerety did not inflict a separate injury on plaintiff. * * * ” Defendant goes on to argue that at most what was caused was an aggravation of an existing condition. In considering defendant’s first point on appeal we have concluded that the entire course of surgery performed by defendant was unconsented to and therefore tortious. Under this theory we consider the incisions, sutures and other procedures necessarily involved in the surgery which defendant performed to be injuries inflicted by the defendant. It cannot be argued that these procedures were something from which plaintiff suffered prior to the surgery performed by defendant. On the other hand, the medical testimony makes it clear that the eventual revision of the ileostomy to its present inconvenient location was necessitated by complications which were a result of the unconsented to surgery performed by defendant. This is sufficient justification for the second element of the damage instruction. Defendant’s objection to the third part of the damage instruction is that plaintiff suffers no present pain from his ileostomy. Defendant also appears to argue that there is no evidence that any possible future pain which plaintiff may suffer will be proximately caused by defendant’s tortious conduct. Defendant’s argument asks this court to indulge in speculation about the basis on which the jury awarded damages for pain and suffering. The jury was properly instructed to award damages only for pain and suffering reasonably certain to be experienced. We will not assume that the jury failed to follow the instructions by not applying the “reasonably certain” standard. In other words, if no pain is reasonably certain to be experienced we assume the jury awarded no damages on that basis. Defendant’s last objection to instructions pertains to the following instruction : “The relationship between a doctor and patient is what is known in law as a fiduciary relationship, that is a relation ship reposing in faith, confidence and trust and the placing of reliance by one upon the judgment and advice of the other.” Defendant’s appellate objection to this instruction is that it is “abstract” in that it is not related to the instruction itself to any of plaintiff’s theories of recovery. Defendant overlooks the fact that instructions are read together, and that each need not,, within its own limits, contain all elements. Eidson v. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co., 80 N.M. 183, 453 P.2d 204 (1969); Roybal v. Lewis, 79 N.M. 227, 441 P.2d 756 (1968). When all the instructions given in this case are read together they fairly present the issues and the law applicable thereto. Tapia v. Panhandle Steel Erectors Co., 78 N.M. 86, 428 P.2d 625 (1967). The last issue raised by defendant on appeal deals with the correctness of a hypothetical question asked of an expert witness. This issue pertains to plaintiff’s theory of medical malpractice. As previously discussed, the general verdict returned in this case will be affirmed if any one of plaintiff’s theories is sustained by the evidence. Hopkins v. Orr, 124 U.S. 510, 8 S.Ct. 590, 31 L.Ed. 523 (1888); Berger v. Southern Pacific Co., 144 Cal.App.2d 1, 300 P.2d 170, 60 A.L.R.2d 1104 (1956); Larriva v. Widmer, 101 Ariz. 1, 415 P.2d 424 (1966). Since plaintiff’s theory of lack of consent is supported by the evidence, we do not find it necessary to consider the issue of the hypothetical question which pertains to one of plaintiff’s other theories. Affirmed. It is so ordered. HERNANDEZ, J., concurs. SUTIN, J., specially concurs.
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OPINION LOPEZ, Judge. The defendants were convicted after trial by jury on one count of sodomy contrary to § 40A-9-6, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). They were sentenced and, thereafter, appealed. We affirm as to defendant Sanchez and vacate and remand as to defendant Scott. Defendant Sanchez relies for reversal on one point: that the sodomy statute, under which he was indicted and convicted, is unconstitutional. Defendant Scott relies for reversal on two points: (1) that the trial court erred in allowing an in-court identification of him, because he was not afforded counsel at a post-indictment lineup in violation of the Sixth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution; and, (2) the alleged unconstitutionality of the statute. (1) The trial court erred in denying counsel’s request for a hearing on whether the in-court identification of defendant Scott was tainted by a post-indictment lineup without counsel. There is evidence that the two defendants, and an unidentified third male, attacked and struck Dixon, while the four were incarcerated in the Otero County jail. A fifth male “back[ed] them off,” but told Dixon he would continue to protect him only if he consented to acts of sodomy. Fearing further injury and violence, Dixon consented to the requested acts of sodomy. Defendants participated in these acts. On May 26, 1972, defendants were indicted on charges stemming from the jail incident and were arrested on August 19, 1972. After indictment and arrest, defendant Scott was exhibited in a lineup on August 21, 1972, where he was identified by the prosecuting witness, Dixon. No counsel was present at the lineup. At trial the witness Dixon made no reference to the lineup on direct examination. He made an in-court identification of defendant Scott which he testified was based on prior knowledge of the defendant’s identity both within the jail and without. On cross-examination of Dixon, defense counsel first elicited the fact of a prior lineup identification. At the close of Dixon’s testimony, Scott’s counsel moved that said testimony be stricken and that the jury be admonished to disregard it on the grounds that the in-court identification was tainted by the lack of counsel at the lineup. The court denied this motion. The motion was renewed at the end of the state’s case and an alternative motion for a directed verdict, coupled with a suggestion for a hearing on the issue of taint, was made to no avail. Defendant’s counsel called the sheriff as a witness and established that defendant Scott was not represented by counsel at the lineup. He did not, however, attempt to probe the possibility of improper suggestion or other possible impropriety in the conduct of the lineup. At the close of all the evidence, defendant again renewed his motion with no success. The defendant relies on the United States Supreme Court case of United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218, 87 S.Ct. 1926, 18 L.Ed.2d 1149 (1967). The Wade case stands for the proposition that an accused is entitled to counsel at all critical stages of the proceedings against him. In Wade the defendant’s counsel was not notified of a lineup, at which the victim identified Wade. At trial in-court identifications were made. The prior lineup identification was elicited on cross-examination. Wade’s counsel moved for a directed verdict, or, in the alternative, to strike the courtroom identifications. Conviction followed the denial of the motions. The Court of Appeals reversed the conviction and ordered a new trial at which the in-court identification evidence was to be excluded. The Supreme Court' held that the Court of Appeals went too far in excluding the evidence entirely. Although it held that the defendant was entitled to the presence of counsel at all critical stages including a post-indictment lineup, it recognized that the “primary illegality” could be “purged.” The court also recognized that an accused may waive his right to counsel at a critical stage of the proceedings. The state argues that defendant waived his right to have counsel present at the lineup. The state has the burden of showing a knowing and intelligent waiver. State v. Harrison, 81 N.M. 324, 466 P.2d 890 (Ct.App.1970). After the sheriff testified that Scott did not have counsel at the lineup, the following colloquy occurred: “THE COURT: Sheriff * * * was Willie Scott informed that this was a lineup ? “A. Yes he was. “THE COURT: Did he consent to it? “A. Yes, sir. Verbally * * * “THE COURT: Did you ask him if he wanted to ? “A. I told him we were going to have a lineup and that it was in regard to the sodomy charges and he said, ‘Fine.’ ” In Carnley v. Cochran, 369 U.S. 506, 82 S.Ct. 884, 8 L.Ed.2d 70 (1962) the defendant did not have the assistance of counsel at trial. Concerning waiver of counsel, Carnley stated: “The record must show, or there must be an allegation and evidence which show, that an accused was offered counsel but intelligently and understandingly rejected the offer. Anything less is not waiver.” The above quoted colloquy solely relied upon by the state does not show a waiver. Compare State v. Briggs, 81 N.M. 581, 469 P.2d 730 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Lewis, 80 N.M. 274, 454 P.2d 360 (Ct.App.1969). The state also argues that it presented testimony which provided an independent basis for the in-court identification. It relies on the uncontradicted nature of this testimony as dispositive of the appeal. However, the court in Wade recognized defense counsel’s dilemma when it stated: “ * * * The lineup is most often used, as in the present case, to crystallize the witnesses’ identification of the defendant for future reference. * * * The State may then rest upon the witnesses’ unequivocal courtroom identification, and not mention the pretrial identification as part of the State’s case at trial. Counsel is then in the predicament in which Wade’s counsel found himself — realizing that possible unfairness at the lineup may be the sole means of attack upon the unequivocal courtroom identification, and having to probe in the dark in an attempt to discover and reveal unfairness, while bolstering the government witness’ courtroom identification by bringing out and dwelling upon his prior identification. * * * ” This dilemma explains why the testimony is uncontradicted. The fact that the in-court identification is uncontradicted does not, however, provide a basis for affirmance. Under Wade defendant is entitled to a hearing at which the factors stated in Wade are to be considered in determining whether this uncontradicted in-court identification is tainted by the illegal lineup identification, or whether the in-court identification is sufficiently distinguishable so as to render the in-court identification admissible. The state has the burden of proving “ * * * by clear and convincing evidence that the in-court identifications were based upon observations of the suspect other than the lineup identification.” United States v. Wade, supra; see State v. Morales, 81 N.M. 333, 466 P.2d 899 (Ct.App.1970). No such determination has' been made in this case. See State v. Clark, 80 N.M. 91, 451 P.2d 995 (Ct.App.1969), overruled on other grounds, 80 N.M. 340, 455 P.2d 844 (1969); State v. Carrothers, 79 N.M. 347, 443 P.2d 517 (Ct.App.1968). Therefore, the conviction is vacated and the case is remanded to the trial court with instructions to hold a hearing and make a determination as to whether there was a basis for the in-court identification independent of the illegal lineup. See State v. Torres, 81 N.M. 521, 469 P.2d 166 (Ct. App.1970) and United States v. Wade, supra. The court may also hear further evidence on the issue of waiver if the state wishes to present it. If it shall appear that there is an independent basis for the identification or that there was a knowing, intelligent waiver of the right, the conviction shall be reinstated. Otherwise, the court shall grant a new trial and proceed in accordance with this opinion. See State v. Torres, supra, and United States v. Wade, supra. (2) Defendants may not properly raise the constitutionality of § 40A-9-6, supra. Defendants base their contention on the dissenting opinion in State v. Trejo, 83 N.M. 511, 494 P.2d 173 (1972). We need not reach the issues presented by the dissent. Rather, we rely on State v. Armstrong, 85 N.M. 234, 511 P.2d 560 (Ct.App.) decided May 23, 1973 and State v. Kasakoff, 84 N.M. 404, 503 P.2d 1182 (Ct.App.1972), where we held that the defendants lacked standing to challenge the act. Defendants in this case also lack standing. We affirm the judgment and sentence of defendant Sanchez. We vacate the judgment and sentence of the lower court as to defendant Scott and remand the case for proceedings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered. WOOD, C. J., and HERNANDEZ J., concur.
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OPINION CAMPOS, District Judge. The defendant at trial, appellant here, was charged by indictment with the crime of murder. She was accused of murdering her husband Neal Gardner. She went to trial on a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity. The jury returned a verdict of guilty of first degree murder. She has appealed here. We affirm. The facts preceding and surrounding the homicide are relatively simple and clear. There are no significant contradictions in any of these. About 1:00 p. m. the day of the homicide appellant purchased a 357 Magnum pistol at the Seven Idols Gun Shop in Albuquerque. At the same time and at the same place she purchased ammunition for the 357. To the sales clerk at the gun shop appellant appeared to be a “very nice lady” who never said anything, only that “she had prowlers like everybody else has.” The day before the homicide appellant and her husband had experienced domestic difficulty. He had moved to the apartment of a friend Larry Luchi. After the purchase of the pistol appellant went to the Luchi apartment, where, at about 6:30 in the evening, she, her husband and Luchi were joined by Mary Marrow. At the time Mary Marrow arrived at the apartment things appeared calm. Appellant was sitting on the couch watching television. Neal Gardner and Larry Luchi were, or had been, drinking. Mary Marrow washed some dishes then joined the others in the living room to watch television. She had been sitting in the living room about ten minutes when she heard Neal Gardner mention to appellant something about leaving and getting a divorce. Appellant was heard to remark, “then you are going to leave me.” To this Neal Gardner responded, “Yes.” A shot was heard. Mary Marrow looked up and saw appellant standing over her husband holding a pistol. He was lying on the couch. Mary Marrow then heard and saw appellant fire another shot. Other than the brief conversation overheard immediately before the shooting, Mary Marrow heard no arguments nor did she observe any fighting, striking or any other forms of violence in the living room that evening. Appellant remained at the apartment until the police came to investigate. One of the officers, upon walking in the apartment, observed a kitchen knife drop onto the floor from the person of appellant. The knife had a blade approximately six inches long. It appeared to have been tucked in the back of appellant’s pants. It was admitted at the trial that appellant shot and killed her husband. Appellant admitted to police that the gun used in the slaying was the 357 Magnum she had purchased earlier the day of the incident. The State’s case was presented through the testimony of ten witnesses. These included Mary Marrow, the sales clerk at the gun shop, the owner of the apartment where the slaying occurred, and seven officers of the Albuquerque Police Department who participated in the investigation of the homicide. The only witnesses called by the defense were two psychiatrists licensed to practice their profession in this State. Both psychiatrists at trial expressed professional opinions that appellant was suffering from a disease of the mind and, due to this, unable to control her impulse to shoot her husband. More on the psychiatric opinions later. Appellant relies on five points for reversal. MENTAL COMPETENCY TO STAND TRIAL: It is contended that the trial court erred in failing to make an independent determination as to appellant’s mental competency to stand trial. Section 41-13-3.1, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp. (2d Repl. Vol. 6, 1972), requires that “Whenever it appears, by motion or upon the court’s own motion, * * .* that there is a question as to the mental competency of a defendant to stand trial, * * * >> then the court must determine the issue. Although not being quite specific about it, appellant’s thrust is apparently directed, timewise, to the day of trial June 23, 1971. We deduce this from the fact that the court on its own motion on May 28, 1971, ordered a hearing set for June 14, 1971, to determine this very issue. An order in the case reflects that the court conducted a hearing on the latter date and the court, relying on the report of one of the psychiatrists who testified at trial, specifically found appellant competent to stand trial. To raise and advance the issue counsel for appellant quotes and points to the testimony of both psychiatrists who testified that on the day of the trial she was suffering from the same disease of the mind as allegedly afflicted her on the day she took her husband’s life. But from the psychiatric view, entertained by both psychiatrists, that appellant may not have had the mental capacity to commit- murder does not necessarily follow the proposition that she was not competent to stand trial. In the latter the “ * * * ‘test must be whether he has sufficient present ability to consult with his lawyer with a reasonable degree of rational understanding — and whether he has a rational as well as factual understanding of the proceedings against him.’ ” Dusky v. United States, 362 U.S. 402, 80 S.Ct. 788, 4 L.Ed.2d 824 (1960). See State v. Upton, 60 N.M. 205, 290 P.2d 440 (1955). One of the psychiatrists, whose testimony is asserted as having raised the question of competency to stand trial, speaking to this specific issue on June 9, 1971, fourteen days prior to trial, said: “Currently, Mrs. Gardner appears to be a woman of above average intelligence who understands the meaning of the murder charge against her, the consequences of being convicted, and possesses the ability to cooperate in her own defense at trial. * * * ” The second psychiatrist in his testimony, as it relates to this issue, maintained that appellant spoke clearly and coherently, understood the reason why he was examining her, understood that he would be a witness at her trial, knew where she was and was in touch with reality at the time of examination and, as far as the legal proceedings were concerned, she knew the gravity of her situation. He added that she was able to and did cooperate with him “to the fullest extent.” In the face of this testimony and the prior action of the court on the issue, it is not proper or just for us to hold that, at the. time of trial, a showing of reasonable cause for belief that accused was not competent to stand trial was made before the trial judge. See State v. Hovey, 80 N.M. 373, 456 P.2d 206 (Ct.App.1969); State v. Morales, 81 N.M. 333, 466 P.2d 899 (Ct.App.1970). PHOTOGRAPHS AND CLAIMED PREJUDICE: Three photographs were admitted in evidence over objection of counsel for appellant. The objection was that they were “inflammatory and prejudicial” and not relevant since it was admitted appellant had shot her husband. The photographs were of decedent’s body lying on the couch where he had been shot. Each photograph revealed essentially the same scene but from different perspectives. Firstly, relevance existed. The charge was murder. The photographs are elo quent in revealing an absence of violence or altercation prior to the shooting. This is revealed by the condition and placement of objects in the room and about the couch. All this was relevant to the State’s charge of murder. Also the photographs were visually explanatory and corroborative of testimony of witnesses. State v. Webb, 81 N.M. 508, 469 P.2d 153 (Ct.App.1970). See also State v. Upton, supra. As to inflammation and possible prejudice, we must, as so many times we have held, leave this to the discretion of the trial judge absent a showing of abuse of that discretion. State v. Armstrong, 61 N.M. 258, 298 P.2d 941 (1956); State v. Sedillo, 76 Nil. 273, 414 P.2d 500 (1966); and State v. Webb, supra. We find no error or abuse in admission of the photographs. INVOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER, INSTRUCTION: It is contended the trial court should have instructed the jury on involuntary manslaughter as requested by the appellant. Appellant’s claim is that evidence or testimony exists to support instruction on the proposition that, bearing no malice, she, when wielding and shooting the pistol (a) committed an unlawful act not amounting to a felony, or (b) committed a lawful act which might produce death, in an unlawful manner or without due caution or circumspection. See § 40A-2-3, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp. (2d Repl. Vol. 6, 1972). While an accused is entitled to instruction on his theory of the case if evidence exists to support it, the court need not instruct if there is absence of such evidence. State v. Ortega, 77 N.M. 7, 419 P.2d 219 (1966). The uncontradieted evidence in this case is that appellant killed her husband with not one, but with no less than two and possibly three well placed shots into his person. The parties stipulated that the victim died “as a result of a bullet wound through the right temple of his head, one through the back of his head and one in his right shoulder.” These shots were fired at close range while the victim was lying down on the couch and while appellant stood over him. The shots were fired immediately after a discussion about the victim leaving the appellant and the shots came from a pistol purchased by appellant earlier the day of the homicide. These, also, are uncontradicted facts. Reasonably, no foundation existed for instruction on involuntary manslaughter. We cannot accommodate or relate the facts in this case to the elements of involuntary manslaughter. The trial court properly refused to instruct on this theory of the case. APPELLANT’S SANITY AS JURY QUESTION: Lastly, we examine appellant’s claim that since the only testimony specifically addressed to legal sanity was that of the two psychiatrists who expressed opinions that because of a disease of the mind appellant was incapable of preventing herself from committing the death act, judgment notwithstanding the verdict or a new trial should have been granted. The opinions of the two experts were keyed to the extension of the McNaughten Rule found in State v. White, 58 N.M. 324, 270 P.2d 727 (1954). As a basis for the claim it is asserted that there was no evidence to support submission of the issue of appellant’s sanity to the jury. This position, simply viewed, is that the court should have ruled appellant’s legal defense of insanity as having been proven as a matter of law. It must be noted, candidly, that the State produced no direct testimony, lay or expert, or any other evidence specifically addressed to the issue. On this state of the record appellant constructs the rationale in support of her position in the following manner. In any criminal case the State must prove all elements of the crime charged by proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Where insanity is plead as. a defense to the charge of murder the State’s burden is first met by the presumption of sanity. Where, as in this case, the burden shifted to the appellant and she produced her evidence, the opinions of the two experts, it was then incumbent upon the State to produce some evidence to rebut. Since the State failed to produce any evidence on the issue the presumption evaporated or disappeared and there remained no issue properly submissible to the jury. So is woven the thread which binds the claim for reversal. We cannot accept this perspective on the matter. On this issue this court has previously assumed a position to which we will continue to adhere. Speaking to this very point in 1938 we said: “ * * *. In the absence of evidence, sanity is assumed to exist without evidence of its existence. When, however, evidence is received which tends to show that the accused was insane at the time of the alleged offense, then, and in such case, an issue is raised as to the mental condition of the accused, and it becomes the duty of the jury to determine such issue from the evidence independent of the presumption of sanity. If the jury, however, disbelieves the evidence, then the presumption stands. * * * ” (Last emphasis ours.) State v. Moore, 42 N.M. 135, 76 P.2d 19 (1938). And see State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646 (1936); State v. Victorian, 84 N.M. 491, 505 P.2d 436 (1973); State v. Botello, 80 N.M. 482, 457 P.2d 1001 (Ct.App.1969); State v. Lopez, 80 N.M. 599, 458 P.2d 851 (Ct.App.1969); State v. James, 83 N.M. 263, 490 P.2d 1236 (Ct.App.1971). We can accept the proposition, at least guardedly, that cases may arise where, absent evidence to the contrary, the defendant’s evidence on the issue of insanity may be so clear and of such overpowering and persuasive force that reasonable minds can move only in the direction of a finding of insanity. In such a case, a court need not hesitate to rule on the issue as a matter of law. But this is not the case before us. As mentioned, appellant’s experts testified that due to a disease of the mind appellant was unable to prevent herself from shooting her husband. However, the opinions of the two experts were contradictory of each other. Qne of them diagnosed the condition of appellant as “neurotic, obsessive compulsive” without psychosis. The other diagnosed it as a psychosis, “schizophrenia, paranoid type.” One testified appellant knew the difference between right and wrong. The other expressed the view that the disease interfered “with her knowing that it was wrong at the time.” Further, there may have been confusion or misunderstanding by one of these experts concerning the legal test of insanity. On the stand, and notwithstanding the balance of his testimony, he said, “ * * * I would have to say, no, she is not legally insane.” We believe a fair question was present for jury determination. The trial court properly refused to grant judgment notwithstanding the verdict or, alternatively, a new trial. Appellant proposed another point for reversal which is part of the parcel disposed of in the last point discussed above. Disposition of the last point controls point two in appellant’s brief in chief. The judgment is affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. Defendant Mike Dwyer was dismissed during trial. Defendant Josephine Dwyer appeals from a judgment for plaintiffs in an automobile accident case. The insurance company named in the caption intervened as a plaintiff on the basis it insured and had paid for part of the property damage to the car driven by Marilu Wood. The issue is the propriety of a question, on redirect examination, that informed the jury that Josephine had insurance. During the cross-examination of Marilu, the defense brought out that she had made a statement concerning the accident. Asked if in that statement she had said that her car “fishtailed,” she replied: “No, that was the man’s words.” On redirect examination it was brought out that certain portions of the statement were not written by Marilu. Plaintiffs’ counsel then asked: “Do you know who took this statement?” Marilu replied: “The insurance man for the Dwyers.” The trial court denied Josephine’s motion for a mistrial. Contending that a mistrial should have been granted, Josephine asserts that the knowing injection of liability insurance coverage into the case is inher ently prejudicial. This view appears to be supported by certain statements appearing in Fort v. Neal, 79 N.M. 479, 444 P.2d 990 (1968) and Falkner v. Martin, 74 N.M. 159, 391 P.2d 660 (1964). However, the New Mexico cases are not applicable to the fact situation in this case. Josephine’s view is supported by 21 Appleman, Insurance Law and Practice, § 12834 (1962), where it is stated that deliberately informing the jury of insurance is grounds for a mistrial. However, Apple-man, supra, at § 12835 states that where a statement is used for impeachment purposes “ . . . the other side has an absolute right to bring out who took the statements and his interest in the matter. The courts are not required to pussyfoot around at that stage to avoid embarrassment to the insurer.” Annot., 4 A.L.R.2d 761, § 9 at 782 (1949) states: “As a general rule, where a previously written statement is produced in court and used for the purpose of impeaching plaintiff or one of his witnesses, it is proper for plaintiff’s counsel to show that the person procuring such statement was a representative of defendant’s insurance company.” Turner v. Caldwell, 349 S.W.2d 493 (Mo.1961) applies the above quoted rule and cites numerous cases supporting the rule. See also, Industrial Farm Home Gas Co. v. McDonald, 234 Ark. 744, 355 S.W.2d 174 (1962); Williams v. Matlin, 328 Ill.App. 645, 66 N.E.2d 719 (1946); Stygles v. Ellis, 80 S.D. 346, 123 N.W.2d 348 (1963). What is the reason for this rule ? Where the statement of the witness has been used to impeach the veracity of the witness “. . . the credibility of the statement-taker, as well as that of the witness is, in a sense, likewise in issue. . ” Turner v. Caldwell, supra. Accordingly: “ . . . The identity of the person preparing the statement, the nature of his employment and by whom employed became material for the purpose of showing his interest, if any, in the litigation. . ” Williams v. Matlin, supra. Thus, the above quoted rule is based on the credibility of both the witness and the statement taker. In our opinion, this reason is no more than a specific application of the rule that on redirect examination the witness may explain matters made the subject of cross-examination so as to rebut the discrediting effect of the cross-examination testimony and correct any wrong impression which may have been created. Turner v. Caldwell, supra; compare State v. Edmondson, 26 N.M. 14, 188 P. 1099 (1920); State v. Roberts, 18 N.M. 480, 138 P. 208 (1914). We ' hold that the rule quoted from A.L.R., supra, is applicable. The question on redirect was proper; the motion for a mistrial was properly denied. The judgment is affirmed. It is so ordered. HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION SUTIN, Judge. This is an appeal by defendant from denial of post-conviction relief under Rule 93 [§ 21-1-1(93), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4)]. We affirm. The defendant seeks to vacate and set aside the judgment and sentence imposed, after a voluntary plea of guilty, in two cases in the same court and for dismissal of the charges upon the basis of Rule 95 [§ 21-1-1(95), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4, 1971 Supp.)] and the constitutional right to a speedy trial. On December 22, 1970, an information was filed charging defendant with aggravated battery. On April 22, 1971, an information was filed charging defendant with aggravated burglary, armed robbery and aggravated assault. On April 12, 1972, the three charges just stated were deleted from an “amended” information. It charged defendant only with escape from jail. On April 12, 1972, defendant pled guilty to aggravated battery and escape from jail. At the time of entry of plea of guilty, defendant was not aware of 'Rule 95 or its provisions and defendant’s counsel did not know the State’s motion for extension of time pursuant to Rule 95 had been denied. Rule 95 does not apply to informations and indictments filed prior to July 1, 1971. Rule 95(5); State v. Mascarenas, 84 N.M. 153, 500 P.2d 438 (Ct.App.1972). The rule is not applicable to the chirge of aggravated battery filed December 22, 1970. Neither is it applicable to the three charges filed April 22, 1971 because the original information was set aside and abandoned. Armstrong v. United States, 16 F.2d 62 (9th Cir.1926), cert. denied 273 U.S. 766, 47 S.Ct. 571, 71 L.Ed. 881 (1927); Brown v. State, 5 Okl.Cr. 567, 115 P. 615 (1911); Harris v. State, 9 Okl.Cr. 658, 132 P. 1121 (1913). An “amended” information vitiates the original information as fully as though it had been formally dismissed by order of the court. Wilcox v. State, 248 So.2d 692 (Fla.App.1971). It constitutes the filing of a new instrument which supersedes its predecessor. State v. Martin, 2 Ariz.App. 510, 410 P.2d 132, 136 (1966). Compare, State ex rel. Delgado v. Stanley, 83 N.M. 626, 495 P.2d 1073 (1972). Mascarenas, supra, held that a delay of 15 months between arrest and trial with unexplained delay stood as an unrebutted prima facie showing of prejudice; that the concept of waiver did not apply and defendant was deprived of his constitutional right to a speedy trial. Mascarenas was not a Rule 93 appeal, and did not involve a plea of guilty. Rule 95 pertains to time of commencement of trial of criminal cases, not to pleas of guilty. Compare, State v. Vigil, 85 N.M. 328, 512 P.2d 88 (Ct.App.1973). Thus, Rule 95 does not apply to the guilty plea to the amended information filed April 12, 1972. The rule is well established that “the entry of a voluntary plea of guilty constitutes a waiver of whatever right a defendant may have had to a speedy trial.” State v. McCroskey, 79 N.M. 502, 505, 445 P.2d 105, 108 (Ct.App.1968). The issue of a speedy trial does not provide a basis for post-conviction relief. State v. McCroskey, supra; State v. Padilla, 85 N.M. 140, 509 P.2d 1335, decided May 11, 1973. The issue must be raised prior to trial. Patterson v. State, 81 N.M. 210, 213, 465 P.2d 93 (Ct.App.1970). Defendant’s arguments that the State is estopped to deny the application of Rule 95, and that Rule 95 is applicable under the doctrine of law of the case, do not meet the challenge of the rules just stated. The fact that, the State twice requested relief under Rule 95 in the Supreme Court did not push Rule 95 within the scope of Rule 93. The State’s requests occurred prior to the defendant’s plea of guilty. Affirmed. It is so ordered. WOOD, C. J., and HERNANDEZ, J., concur.
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OPINION McMANUS, Chief Justice. This is a civil action brought in the District Court of Bernalillo County, New Mexico, to recover on a Bankers’ Blanket Bond, issued by the defendant to plaintiff, for losses ■ allegedly sustained by plaintiff as a result of various transactions with Go-Unlimited, Inc., a customer of the bank. After trial on the merits by the court, judgment was entered in favor of the defendant and against the plaintiff whose complaint was dismissed with prejudice. Plaintiff appeals. The appeal involves eleven separate counts alleged by plaintiff. All counts allege losses by the plaintiff as a result of its purchase of retail installment contracts from Go-Unlimited, Inc., a retail music store in Albuquerque, New Mexico. During the time in question plaintiff was insured against loss under a Bankers’ Blanket Bond, Standard Form No. 24, issued by defendant. The trial court’s' findings of fact were to the effect that there was substantial evidence to show there were no forgeries or alterations concerning the transactions between the defendant and Go-Unlimited, Inc., and therefore the provisions of the Bankers’ Blanket Bond were not applicable and there could be no recovery therefrom. We find from the transcript that there was substantial evidence for the trial court’s findings in this regard. Findings of the trial court, supported by substantial evidence, are binding upon appeal. Nygren v. Graves, 84 N.M. 358, 503 P.2d 641 (1972). This would be the end of the matter if appellant did not argue that it also relied on claims of larceny and false pretenses as well as upon forgeries and alterations. Appellant tried its case on the grounds of forgery and alteration of the .contracts. A party cannot change his theory on appeal. Papa v. Torres, 60 N.M. 448, 292 P.2d 322 (1956); Musgrove v. Department of Health & Social Services, 84 N.M. 89, 499 P.2d 1011 (Ct.App.1972). The fact that appellant, some three months after trial, submitted requested findings on the theories of larceny and false pretenses, cannot aid his position. See Hendricks v. Hendricks, 55 N.M. 51, 226 P.2d 464 (1950). Appellant also argues that forgeries and alterations were covered under the bond referred to above. We need not determine or answer this question because the trial court found there were no forgeries or alterations and the transcript reflects there was substantial evidence for the trial court’s findings in this regard. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. It is so ordered. OMAN and MARTINEZ, JJ„ concur.
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OPINION McMANUS, Chief Justice. This suit was brought in the District Court of San Miguel County to compel the county clerk to place on the November 7, 1972 general election ballot the names of appellees as nominees of a qualified political party for the office of County Commissioner of San Miguel County. Each appellee sought the office from a different district within the county. An alternative writ of mandamus was issued by the court and a peremptory writ followed. On November 1, 1972, appellant filed notice of appeal from the writ. That same day, the court granted supersedeas pending appeal. The November 7, 1972 general election has taken its place in history arid we assume that appellees’ names were never placed on the ballot. Now, appellant seeks to have this court determine the merits of the question: Does a county commission candidate, at the time he is nominated by a qualified political party for county commissioner for a given district, have to be a resident of that district ? Ordinarily, we would dismiss this case because no substantial relief can be afforded, the passage of time having rendered the issue moot. Board of Com’rs of Bernalillo County v. Coors, 30 N.M. 482, 239 P. 524 (1925). However, we decide the question involved for two reasons: (1) it seems to possess sufficient public importance to warrant a decision and (2) it is likely to recur. In part, art. V, § 13, of the New Mexico Constitution, states: “The legislature may in its discretion provide that elective county commissioners reside in their respective county commission districts.” Pursuant to this authority, the legislature enacted § 15-37-3, N.M.S.A.1953, which reads as follows, in pertinent part: “Each county may be divided by the board of county commissioners into three [3] compact districts, as equal in proportion to population as possible, numbered respectively as one, two and three, and if so divided shall not be subject to alteration oftener than once in two [2] years, and one commissioner shall be elected from each district by the votes of the whole county but he shall be a resident of the district from which he is elected." (Emphasis added.) The record shows that San Miguel County has been divided into districts. The trial court found that appellees were not residents of the respective districts from which they sought election. It concluded as a matter of law that appellees were required to be residents of the districts from which they sought election. However, it also concluded appellees were qualified as candidates from the districts for which they had been certified by their political party, even though they were not residents of those districts. A peremptory writ of mandamus was issued directing appellant to place the names of appellees on the November 7, 1972 election ballot. A reason for restricting candidates to residents of the district from which they seek election is to insure that each elected commissioner has knowledge of the problems and the needs of the district from which he is elected. We believe it is properly within the spirit of such restriction, and will promote efficient filing administration, to require that a candidate be a resident of the district from which he seeks election at the time his name is certified. Reversed, with instructions to quash the peremptory writ. It is so ordered. OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This is a suit for an alleged breach and the construction of an insurance contract. The trial court entered judgment for the defendant [Insurer] and plaintiff [Administratrix of the Estate of the Insured] has appealed. We affirm. The Insurer had reinsured decedent under a Cancer Insurance Policy issued by Century Life Insurance Company. The policy of insurance was issued on April 26, 1965, and, insofar as here pertinent, provided : “ * * * [T]he Company, does hereby insure the Insured * * *, to the extent herein provided, against loss resulting from hospital confinement and other specified expenses in accordance with the provisions, conditions, and limitations stated in this policy caused exclusively by cancer, hereinafter called ‘such sickness’ ” “If any Insured shall become afflicted with cancer * * * while this policy is in force, the Company will pay indemnities according to the Schedule of Benefits, * * * for the expenses incurred by any Insured within three years from the date of the first treatment for such sickness, * * “No loss shall be payable under this policy unless cancer is positively so diagnosed by a legally qualified Pathologist based on tissue examination * * The trial court made the following pertinent findings of fact which are not challenged : “In February, 1968, surgical and pathological examination disclosed that [Insured] was suffering from cancer of the colon. “The cancer of the colon was treated surgically in February of 1968. “[Insured] filed a claim with [Insurer] for the benefits to which he was entitled under [the] policy * * * as a result of suffering from medically diagnosed cancer. “For a period of three years, until February, 1971, all benefits to which [Insured] was entitled as a result of the medically diagnosed cancer were paid [by the Insurer]. “The cancer in the colon spread or metastasized from the colon to the left lung. The spread of the cancer was discovered by surgical and pathological examination in J anuary, 1972. “Metastasis is the transfer or spreading of disease from one part of the body to another not directly connected with it. “At all times from the first treatment of the cancer in February, 1968, to the discovery of the cancer in the lung in January, 1972, cancer disease remained in [Insured’s] body. “In February, 1972, [Insured] filed a claim with [the Insurer] for the benefits to which he claimed to be entitled under [the] policy * * * as a result of the discovery of the cancer of the lung.” The sole question presented to the trial court was whether the Insured was entitled to ' recover under the policy for expenses incurred for treatment of the cancer after the lapse of three years from the date of the first treatment therefor because the cancer had spread to the lung. Plaintiff takes the position that the policy was ambiguous and uncertain. This position is predicated upon her contentions that (1) cancer was not, but should have been, defined in the policy; (2) metastasis was not, but should have been defined and expressly excluded from the policy coverage, if this is what the. Insurer intended; and (3) the trial court “equates cancer and metastasis as being one and the same thing, when they are not.” The term “cancer” is commonly understood to mean a malignant growth which expands and often spreads to other sites or parts of the body. See definitions in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary Unabridged (1961); Random House American Dictionary (1968); American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1969). The fact that words and terms used in contracts of insurance, as well as in other contracts, may not be fully understood by everyone, does not give rise to ambiguity because such words and terms are not fully defined in the contract. Words and terms used in a contract are to be construed to effect the intent of the parties. Knotts v. Safeco Insurance Company of America, 78 N.M. 395, 432 P.2d 106 (1967). In accomplishing this construction, the words and terms must be read in their usual and ordinary sense, unless some different meaning is required. Couey v. National Benefit Life Insurance Company, 77 N.M. 512, 424 P.2d 793 (1967). If in fact ambiguity exists in the language of an insurance contract, then it should be construed liberally in favor of the Insured. However, resort will not be made to a strained construction for the purpose of creating an ambiguity when no ambiguity in fact exists. Miller v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n Of Omaha, 76 N.M. 455, 415 P.2d 841, 19 A.L.R.3d 1421 (1966); Anaya v. Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, 76 N.M. 334, 414 P.2d 848 (1966). In any event, there is no dispute over the fact that the Insured suffered from cancer. His ailment was so diagnosed by legally qualified pathologist, as required by the contract; the Insured filed claim for the benefits to which he was entitled under the contract by reason of expenses incurred for treatment of this cancer; and the Insurer paid benefits pursuant to this claim in accordance with the policy provisions. “Metastasis” is not defined in the contract, but neither is it used therein. Even assuming that the ordinary person does not understand the meaning thereof, the ordinary person does understand what is meant by “transfer” or “spreading,” which is what the trial court found “metastasis” means, and this finding has not been attacked. As above stated, one of the commonly understood characteristics of cancer is that it often spreads to other sites or parts of the body. We fail to understand the logic of plaintiff’s contention that “metastasis,” a word she contends is not understood by the ordinary person, should have been used and defined in the policy, and then excluded from the policy coverage, if the Insurer did not intend to pay benefits for the same cancer which had originally occurred in the colon and then spread to the lung. Our difficulty in understanding this position is enhanced by plaintiff’s stipulation that : “Pathological examination and comparison of cancer cells removed from the left lung of [Insured], with cancer cells removed from the colon of [Insured] in February, 1968, disclosed that the two sets of cells had similar histologic features and the doctors concluded as a reasonable medical probability that there had been metastasis of the cancer from the colon to the left lung.” It is apparent that the trial court did not equate “cancer” with “metastasis.” If anyone was confused by these terms and in any way considered them “as being one and the same thing, when they are not,” it is apparently plaintiff’s attorney. We view plaintiff’s contention in this regard as another suggestion of confusion and ambiguity, when no confusion or ambiguity exists. The language of the insurance contract is plain and precise. Plaintiff also complains of the trial court’s refusal to adopt several of her requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. We have carefully considered her contentions in support of her complaints and find them to be without merit. The judgment should be affirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. Defendant appeals his conviction of bribery of a witness in violation of § 40A-24-3(A), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The dispositive issue concerns the trial court allowing the jury to listen to a tape recording after the case had been submitted to the jury for decision. A portion of a tape recording was admitted into evidence, over defendant’s objection, and played to the jury. The tape is of a conversation involving several persons. There is evidence that one of the voices recorded on the tape is the voice of defendant. When the State rested its case, a juror informed the court that the jury did not hear “ . . . more than about five percent of what was on that tape, if they heard that much.” The portion of the tape which was in evidence was then played a second time. Defendant did not object to this second playing. After the case had been submitted to the jury, and after the jury had been deliberating approximately one and one-half hours, the trial court received a note from a juror. The note read: “ Would it be possible to hear the tape again.’ ” Over defendant’s objection, the trial court ruled the tape would be sent to the jury. The record shows that the portion of the tape which had been admitted into evidence was played to the jury, in the jury room, in the presence of the trial judge and counsel. The record also shows that forty minutes after the trial judge received the juror’s note the jury returned its verdict of guilty. This case is the opposite of State v. Valles, 83 N.M. 541, 494 P.2d 619 (Ct.App.1972). In Valles, supra, the trial court refused a request that exhibits be sent to the jury while it was deliberating. In holding refusal of the request was not error, we relied on State v. Lord, 42 N.M. 638, 84 P.2d 80 (1938). State v. Lord, supra, states a general rule that it is discretionary for the trial court to allow the jury to take exhibits to the jury room when the jury retires to deliberate on its verdict. Lord, supra, states that § 21-8-23, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4) does not change the general rule except to make it mandatory upon the trial court to permit the jury to take instruments in writing to the jury room, except depositions. Lord, supra, points out that § 21-8-23, supra, “ . . . does not in terms provide that depositions shall not go to the jury room, but .... it was held in those cases [Territory v. Eagle, 15 N.M. 609, 110 P. 862 (1910) and State v. Babcock, 22 N.M. 678, 167 P. 275 (1917)] that it was error for the court to permit depositions to go to the jury room.” State v. Lord, supra, states: “ . The reason for excluding depositions is . . . that the jury must depend upon their memories for oral testimony and the same rule should apply to depositions. . ” In Lord, supra, it was error to permit the jury to have, for consideration during their deliberations, “ . . . written confessions, or admissions from which guilt could be inferred. . . . ” In Territory v. Eagle, supra, it was error to allow a dying declaration to go to the jury. In Lord, supra, and Eagle, supra, the New Mexico Supreme Court noted the similarity between a deposition, a confession and a dying declaration. Territory v. Eagle, supra, states: “It could not be contended for a moment that a witness could be introduced into the jury room after the case had been closed. The same argument would apply with equal force to the deposition of a witness. State v. Lord, supra, states: “If the defendant denies the making of an alleged confession, or introduces testimony contradicting statements made in it, or if there is oral evidence before the jury of a contradictory character; then it would seem that the rules which preclude a dying declaration from going to the jury, should apply to a confession. In such case it would be a manifest disadvantage to a defendant for an alleged confession to be delivered to the jury for consideration by them during their retirement. It might, and probably would, operate on and prejudice them as against the oral testimony in conflict therewith regarding which they could not refresh their memories. . . ” The tape was a record of the oral statements of the voices heard on the tape. It is not necessary to decide whether these recorded statements should be equated with depositions. Playing the tape to the jury during its deliberation had the effect of presenting selected portions of the oral testimony to the jury. This situation unduly emphasized the oral testimony which had been recorded. This prejudiced the defendant because there was other oral testimony which conflicted with the oral testimony that had been recorded. Playing the tape to the jury was error because it gave undue prominence to the recorded testimony. Territory v. Eagle, supra. The jurors must depend on their memories for oral testimony. State v. Lord, supra. Since we do not, in this opinion, equate the tape recording with a deposition, the question is whether the trial court, under the “general rule,” abused its discretion in permitting the tape to be played to the jurors. We hold discretion was abused because of the prejudice to defendant in giving undue prominence to the oral testimony which had been recorded, when there was other and conflicting oral testimony. The State contends there is no showing that the jury was influenced by the playing of the tape. Defendant was not required to make such a showing. The situation here is comparable to the situation where there has been improper communication with the jury. In such a situation, there is a presumption of prejudicial error and the burden is upon the State to overcome the presumption. State v. Beal, 48 N.M. 84, 146 P.2d 175 (1944); compare State v. Mascarenas, 84 N.M. 153, 500 P.2d 438 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Dickson, 82 N.M. 408, 482 P.2d 916 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Gutierrez, 78 N.M. 529, 433 P.2d 508 (Ct.App.1967). It was the State’s burden to show the jury was not prejudiced by the playing of the tape. The State did not meet that burden because undue prominence was given to the recorded testimony. The State contends defendant waived any objection to the tape being played to the jury during its deliberation. This contention is based on the fact that defendant did not object when the tape was played the second time. The second playing occurred during the trial. Defendant specifically objected to the playing of the tape to the jury during its deliberation. There was no waiver. In light of the foregoing, only one of the other issues raised by defendant need be noted. Defendant, by motion, raised the issue as to whether there was sufficient evidence to go to the jury. We have reviewed the evidence; it is sufficient. Because the trial court abused its discretion in permitting the tape recording to be played to the jury during its deliberation, the judgment and sentence is reversed. The cause is remanded for a new trial. It is so ordered. SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. .
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OPINION LOPEZ, Judge. Defendant was tried and convicted by a jury for burglary under § 40A-16-3, N.M. S.A. 1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 6). Defendant asserts four points in his appeal: (1) that defendant was entitled to the Grand Jury minutes for impeachment purposes in the cross-examination of Rita Sedillo; (2) that the court erred in refusing to give defendant’s Instruction No. 1; (3) that the court erred in granting a continuance and severance of the case; (4) that the court failed to instruct the jury as to criminal intent. We affirm. (1) The court properly ruled that defendant was not entitled to the transcript of the minutes of the Grand Jury. The State called Rita Sedillo, who was an accomplice to the subject crime, as a witness. On redirect examination she was asked the following questions and gave the following answers: “Q. Do you remember testifying to the Grand Jury, Rita? “A. Yes, I do. “Q. Did you see that statement on that date? “A. I don’t remember. “Q. Have you seen that statement in the last month prior to today ? “A. No, I haven’t.” The defendant then moved for the production of the Grand Jury transcript on the grounds that since it had been referred to it raised the “ * * * inference that her testimony was truthful because without having the Grand Jury transcript to use we cannot impeach her testimony as she gave it to the Grand [J]ury. * * *” Defendant’s motion was denied. Defendant cites the following language from State v. Morgan, 67 N.M. 287, 354 P.2d 1002 (1960) in support of his claim of error: “* * * Common fairness would seem to indicate that the defendant should be accorded the opportunity to examine the transcript of the witnesses when the same is used in the trial, and to utilize it, if desired, * * *[Emphasis added]. Defendant overlooks one important difference between the instant case and Morgan and that is, that in Morgan the district attorney used the Grand Jury transcript as a basis for his questions. Mere reference to the fact that the witness had previously testified before the Grand Jury does not constitute a “use” of the prior testimony. Defendant also argues that it was error to deny his motion because he had shown a “particularized need” citing State v. Tackett, 78 N.M. 450, 432 P.2d 415, 20 A.L.R. 3rd 1 (1967), cert. denied 390 U.S. 1026, 88 S.Ct. 1414, 20 L.Ed.2d 283 (1968) as supporting authority. Our Supreme Court in Tackett adopted the Arizona rule laid down in State ex rel. Ronan v. Superior Court in and for County of Maricopa, 95 Ariz. 319, 390 P.2d 109 (1964) which states that:. “ ‘A particularized need’ which in the furtherance of justice would authorize a trial judge to make available to the de-fendant a transcript of testimony, must be shown by facts and circumstances which demonstrate that unless such relief is forthcoming, the defendant will, in some manner, be prejudiced, or his legal rights adversely affected. Under the law as it exists today, as set forth in this opinion, the defendant is not entitled to a transcript of testimony of any witness solely because he wants to find out what the witness said. To grant him such privilege is not in the ‘furtherance of justice’ because the public interest in preservation of secrecy outweighs the defendant’s interest in discovery.” The only thing offered by defendant to establish his “particularized need” is that “ * * * After the District Attorney alluded to the testimony of the witness before the Grand Jury and inferred that it was true the appellant needed to examine the minutes to rebut the inference of truth-fullness [sic] * * *” and concludes by saying “* * * It is difficult to be any more particular in showing need. * * * ” It may be difficult but more is needed to bring him within the rule adopted in Tackett. The defendant’s position on this point is without merit. State v. Valles, 83 N.M. 541, 494 P.2d 619 (Ct.App.1972). (2) The court properly instructed the jury regarding the accomplice witness, Rita Sedillo. After the completion of the testimony, the defendant submitted his requested Instruction No. 1, which was refused by the court and which read as follows: “If you believe from the evidence that any person was induced to testify in this case by any promise of immunity from further punishment, or that any hope was held out or entertained by him that he would be rewarded or in any wise benefit if he implicated the defendant in the crime charged herein, you must take such fact into consideration in determining what weight should be given to the testimony, closely scrutinize it and unless you can reconcile it with the truth, completely reject it.” The court gave its own Instruction No. 7, which read as follows: “INSTRUCTION NO. 7. There has been testimony in this case by an alleged accomplice of the accused. You as members of the jury must view the testimony of the accomplice with suspicion and receive it with caution. The testimony of an accomplice must be weighed with great care. However, you are instructed that an accused may be convicted upon the testimony of an accomplice, even though it is uncorroborated.” The defendant complains that the court erred in refusing his request in Instruction No. 1 and in giving the jury Instruction No. 7. Instruction No. 7 followed precisely the rule set forth in State v. Turnbow, 67 N.M. 241, 354 P.2d 533 (1960): “In this state an accused may be convicted upon the testimony of an accomplice, even though it is uncorroborated, although it is proper for the court to admonish the jury to view it with suspicion and receive it with caution. . . .” As was stated in State v. White, 77 N.M. 488, 424 P.2d 402 (1967): “. . . The court’s instructions fully covered the law of the case and the requested instructions tended to unduly emphasize the defendant’s theory of the case.” Such is the case here; no error was committed. (3) The court did not err in granting a continuance of the case or in severing the defendant. The defendant was charged with another co-defendant, on the same indictment and information. The case was set for trial on April 19, 1972. The State moved for a continuance on the basis that the State’s primary witness was sick and was unable to attend the trial. The court granted the continuance until May 1, 1972. The defendant objected on three grounds: (1) that the motion did not comply with the statutory requirements; (2) that the defendant at that time had already been incarcerated about three months and that to grant the motion would deny him a speedy trial; (3) that the State had not made a showing of due diligence in trying to compel the attendance of the absent witness. Section 21-8-10, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4) provides: f< * * “Motions for continuance on account of the absence of evidence must be founded on the affidavit of the party, his agent or attorney, and must state: “First. The name and residence of such witness, or if that be not known, a sufficient reason why not known; and also, in either case, facts showing reasonable grounds of belief that his attendance or testimony will be procured at the next term. “Second. Efforts, constituting due diligence, which have been used to obtain such witness or his testimony. “Third. What particular facts, as distinguished from legal conclusions, the affiant believes the witness will prove, and that the affiant believes them to be true, and that he knows of no other witness by whom such facts can be fully proved.” The rule in this State is that even if the statutory requirements were not complied with, the matter of the continuance of a cause rests within the sole discretion of the trial court and its action will not be questioned unless it appears that there has been an abuse of discretion. Houston Fire and Casualty Insurance Co. v. Falls, 67 N.M. 189, 354 P.2d 127 (1960); State v. Sibold, 83 N.M. 678, 496 P.2d 738 (Ct.App.1972). There is nothing in the record to indicate the trial court abused its discretion. We also hold that the defendant was not denied a speedy trial by the extension of the trial from April 19 to May 1, 1972. State v. Borunda, 83 N.M. 563, 494 P.2d 976 (Ct.App.1972). The defendant and one Eddie Ruben Garcia were jointly indicted by the Grand Jury for the offense that defendant was tried. Prior to May 1, 1972, the court upon oral motion of the State granted a severance. The defendant claims that he was prejudiced by the severance because he had prepared his case with the thought in mind that the co-defendant, Eddie Ruben Garcia, would be tried at the same time and that severance caused “surprise to the defendant.” He cites State v. Maes, 81 N.M. 550, 469 P.2d 529 (Ct.App.1970) as his authority. In the Maes case, continuance was denied after counsel for the defendant alleged that they were surprised when an informer started to testify; the appellate court said that not only must a defendant show surprise or prejudice, but he must show that the testimony of the “surprise witness” must not have been anticipated. The Maes case is not applicable to this case. Severance and continuance of cases is a matter of procedure which is addressed to the sound discretion of the trial court and must not be disturbed on review unless there is a clear showing of abuse of discretion which results in prejudice to the defendant. De Herrera v. United States, 339 F.2d 587 (10th Cir. 1964); State v. Ochoa, 41 N.M. 589, 72 P.2d 609 (1937); State v. Gunthorpe, 81 N.M. 515, 469 P.2d 160 (Ct.App.1970); State v. Pope, 78 N.M. 282, 430 P.2d 779 (Ct.App.1967). The defendant has failed to show that the trial court abused its discretion in the continuance and severance of the case. (4) The court properly instructed the jury on criminal intent and there is no fundamental error. The defendant claims that the court failed to sufficiently instruct the jury on the element of criminal intent. . The defendant did not tender any instruction on criminal intent. The court gave the following instruction: “INSTRUCTION NO. 1. You are instructed that any person who, without authorization, enters a dwelling house with intent to commit any felony or theft therein is guilty of burglary of a dwelling house.” We hold that this instruction given by the court was sufficient pursuant to the rule announced in State v. Lopez, 80 N.M. 599, 458 P.2d 851 (Ct.App.1969). In State v. Lopez, supra, Judge Hendley speaking for the court said: “Point K states that the trial court erred in failing to include in the initial instruc tion dealing with the elements of the various offenses charged, the element of intent. There is no support for this contention in the record. The offenses were set out in the instructions according to the applicable statutes: § 40A-9-2, § 40A-16-4, § 40A-16-2, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.1964). Instructions which substantially follow the language of the statute are sufficient. See State v. Maestas, 63 N.M. 67, 313 P.2d 337 (1957).” We hold that the judgment and sentence of the lower court are affirmed. It is so ordered. SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION FEDERICI, Chief Justice. Plaintiff-appellant Leo D. Tyrrell, Jr. (plaintiff), as personal representative of the estate of decedent Frances H. Cruse, brought this action seeking the trial court’s construction of decedent’s will based upon an alleged mistake of fact, or alternatively to have the court enforce a settlement agreement among the heirs. Following a trial without jury, the trial court held that the language of the will was unambiguous and that any mistake of fact that the testatrix might have made in her will was immaterial. The court also held that there was no valid settlement agreement among the heirs. The court held that the estate should be distributed as directed in the will. During trial the court refused to accept as evidence documents offered by plaintiff, holding that the documents were insufficient as a matter of law to show a family settlement agreement under NMSA 1978, Section 45-3-912. Plaintiff appealed to this Court. We affirm the trial court’s construction of the will. We reverse with respect to the family settlement agreement, and remand to the trial court for the purpose of taking evidence on this issue. The fourth paragraph of the testatrix’ will provides for her four adult children as follows: 4. It is my intention by this Will, to my way of thinking, to equalize in my own mind what has been received by my children and what will be received by my children. My thinking shall control as to the values which I place in this paragraph. I am not counting smaller gifts, in my mind, but I am counting larger gifts. It is my thought, and this will be the basis of this paragraph of my will, whether I am wrong in any way in my thinking as to such values or not, but I consider to start off with that I have given my son, Leo D. Tyrrell, Jr., the value of $130,000.00 and I have given to my daughter, Jean T. Hiestand, the value of $100,000.00, and I have given nothing to my daughters, Ann T. McCaw and Nancy T. Klein. Therefore, from the remainder of my estate, after paying for the matters mentioned in Paragraph No. 1 above, I give, devise and bequeath as follows: First, to Ann T. McCaw and Nancy T. Klein each the sum of $100,000.00; second, if there still be assets within my estate, I give, devise and bequeath to Ann T. McCaw, Nancy T. Klein and Jean T. Hiestand each the sum of $30,000.00; thirdly, if there remain assets in my estate still to be distributed, I give, devise and bequeath the same to my four children, Ann T. McCaw, Jean T. Hiestand, Leo D. Tyrrell, Jr., and Nancy T. Klein, share and share alike. (Emphasis added.) In fact, Jean T. Hiestand had never received a $100,000 advancement as stated in the will. If the estate is distributed as the will provides the four children will not have received equal shares of the estate. During a four-way telephone conference in January 1984, the four heirs discussed a settlement agreement to distribute the estate differently than as directed in the will. After the telephone conference plaintiff, one of the four heirs, sent a mailgram to the other three heirs and to the estate’s attorney “confirming” that an oral agreement had been reached. Two days later, however, defendant-appellee Ann T. McCaw (defendant), another of the four heirs, sent a letter in response. According to defendant, this letter disputes that any such agreement was reached. According to plaintiff, defendant’s letter attempts to repudiate the agreement but acknowledges that the four heirs did reach an agreement. I. Construction of the Will. Plaintiff contends that the testatrix, in drafting her will, clearly made a mistake of fact with respect to Jean T. Hiestand, and that the mistake renders the will ambiguous as to how the estate should be divided. Because of that ambiguity, plaintiff argues, the trial court should have considered extrinsic evidence to determine the testatrix’ true intent. According to plaintiff, the will in conjunction with extrinsic evidence shows that the testatrix’ intent was to equalize the distribution of her estate among her four children. Plaintiff is correct that the testatrix’ intent is the “polestar” which must guide the court’s construction of the will. Gregg v. Gardner, 73 N.M. 347, 357, 388 P.2d 68, 75 (1963); In re Estate of Shadden, 93 N.M. 274, 279, 599 P.2d 1071, 1076 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 172, 598 P.2d 215 (1979). In this case, however, we agree with the trial court that any mistake of fact that the testatrix might have made is immaterial to a determination of her intent. First, it is the general rule that if a will unambiguously fixes the amount of an advancement and charges it against the person to whom it is stated to have been made, the will’s statement as to such amount is conclusive, and extrinsic evidence is not admissible to show a mistake by the testator as to the fact or amount of the advancement. E.g., In re Estate of Miguet, 185 N.W.2d 508 (Iowa 1971); In re Estate of Kaldenberg, 254 Iowa 1333, 121 N.W.2d 108 (1963); Engemann v. Colonial Trust Co., 378 Pa. 92, 105 A.2d 347 (1954); Annot., 98 A.L.R.2d 273 (1964). Second, the testatrix in the instant case clearly and emphatically stated in the will her intent that her thinking regarding the value of advancements which she had made to her children should control the construction of the will. This was to hold true “whether I am wrong in any way in my thinking as to such values or not.” In the face of such language, the court must distribute the estate as directed by the will. While extrinsic evidence is always admissible to aid in interpreting a will’s provisions, In re Estate of Shadden, a court may not use extrinsic evidence to vary from or contradict the language of an unambiguous will or to defeat a testator’s intent. Gregg v. Gardner; Portales National Bank v. Bellin, 98 N.M. 113, 645 P.2d 986 (Ct.App.1982). Accordingly, the trial court is affirmed on this point. II. Family Settlement Agreement. Plaintiff's first contention with respect to the settlement agreement among the heirs is that Pennsylvania rather than New Mexico law should govern the question of the agreement’s validity. Plaintiff’s argument, essentially, is that this is a contract question and, under New Mexico conflict of law principles, it is governed by the law of Pennsylvania, where defendant was located when she accepted the terms of the agreement. We disagree. New Mexico law applies. In New Mexico the validity of an agreement among the heirs to distribute an estate other than as directed in the will is clearly a matter of probate law, covered by a statute in the Probate Code. NMSA 1978, § 45-3-912. It is undisputed in this case that the applicable probate law is New Mexico’s. The issue presented, then, is whether the purported agreement in this case is valid under New Mexico’s statute, Section 45-3-912. Section 45-3-912 provides, in pertinent part, that: Subject to the rights of creditors and taxing authorities, competent successors may agree among themselves to alter the interests, shares or amounts to which they are entitled under the will of the decedent, or under the laws of intestacy, in any way that they provide in a written contract executed by all who are affected by its provisions. The personal representative shall abide by the terms of the agreement____ (Emphasis added.) Plaintiff contends that the heirs entered into a valid and binding agreement, under this statute, through their telephone conversation and subsequent writings. Plaintiff’s position is that the requirement of a writing in Section 45-3-912 is, in effect, a “mini-statute of frauds”: it does not require that the agreement be embodied in a formal, written document, but only that there be a writing or writings, signed by all the parties to be charged, which contain the, essential elements of the contract. See Pitek v. McGuire, 51 N.M. 364, 184 P.2d 647 (1947) (discussing statute of frauds). This requirement of a writing or writings is satisfied, according to plaintiff, by: plaintiff’s mailgram to the other heirs “confirming” the agreement; defendant’s signed letter in response; and an affidavit signed by all of the heirs except defendant. According to plaintiff it is not significant that defendant’s letter repudiates the agree ment since it acknowledges that an oral agreement did exist. See Webb v. Woods, 176 Okla. 306, 55 P.2d 959 (1936); 2 Corbin, Contracts § 511 (1950). We agree with plaintiff that Section 45-3-912 is effectively a mini-statute of frauds which does not require that the agreement be in the form of a single formal document. The law traditionally favors family agreements which avoid a will contest or promote the settlement and distribution of an estate. Prude v. Lewis, 78 N.M. 256, 430 P.2d 753 (1967); Hughes v. Betenbough, 70 N.M. 283, 373 P.2d 318 (1962); Drummond v. Johnson, 643 P.2d 634 (Okla.1982); Annot., 29 A.L.R.3d 8 (1970). Such agreements avoid both family discord and the expense of litigation. Courts have specifically extended this doctrine to agreements among family members, who are beneficiaries, to distribute an estate differently than as prescribed in the will. Hughes v. Betenbough; St. Louis Union Trust Co. v. Conant, 499 S.W.2d 761 (Mo.1973). As a general rule, such agreements are valid even if entirely oral, absent a statute to the contrary, unless for some other reason the agreement comes under the statute of frauds. See Annot., 29 A.L. R.3d 8 § 5. This Court has long held that statutes in derogation of the common law are to be strictly construed. State v. Chavez, 70 N.M. 289, 373 P.2d 533 (1962); El Paso Cattle Loan Co. v. Hunt, 30 N.M. 157, 228 P. 888 (1924). “ ‘No statute is to be construed as altering the common law, further than its words import.’ ” State v. Chavez, 70 N.M. at 291, 373 P.2d at 534 (quoting from Shaw v. Railroad Co., 101 U.S. 557, 565, 25 L.Ed. 892 (1879)). A statute must not be construed so strictly as to defeat its purpose, see Albuquerque Hilton Inn v. Haley, 90 N.M. 510, 565 P.2d 1027 (1977), but even narrowly construed as a mini-statute of frauds, Section 45-3-912 fully serves the purpose of guarding against fraud or perjury. See Pitek v. McGuire; In re Estate of Vincioni, 102 N.M. 576, 698 P.2d 446 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 102 N.M. 613, 698 P.2d 886 (1985). We therefore interpret Section 45-3-912 as imposing a writing requirement no stricter than that imposed by the general statute of frauds. Plaintiff is also correct that, for purposes of Section 45-3-912, it is not necessarily significant that defendant’s letter repudiates any agreement the heirs might have reached, if the letter acknowledges that the agreement was reached. See Webb v. Woods; 2 Corbin, Contracts § 511. We offer no opinion, however, on whether the letter and other documents offered by plaintiff are sufficient under Section 45-3-912 to show an agreement. The trial court, as a matter of law, did not permit the introduction of the documents into evidence. We remand the cause for the taking of evidence and for a determination as to whether the heirs entered into a written agreement in accordance with Section 45-3-912. The cause is remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN, J., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Judge. Plaintiff sought common law damages from his employer on the basis of the alleged malpractice of two physicians in diagnosing and treating a compensable injury. The trial court granted summary judgment for defendant on the basis that plaintiff’s claim was premature. The summary judgment was granted on the uncontradicted showing that all compensation benefits, including medical, were current and had been paid. The summary judgment recites that “plaintiff would not be entitled to benefits exceeding the limitations set forth in the New Mexico Workmen’s Compensation Act for a cause of action brought pursuant to Section 52-1-49B. N.M.S.A. (1978 Comp.) * * *.” Plaintiff does not dispute that a claim for compensation was premature. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-69. His contention is that he may recover common law damages from his employer under NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-49(B) for the physicians’ malpractice, and that Section 52-1-69 is not applicable. We assigned the appeal to the legal calendar. Accordingly, we (1) explain the basis for reaching the legal issue, and (2) decide whether the employer’s liability under Section 52-l-49(B) is for compensation or common law damages. All statutory citations are to NMSA 1978 (Orig. Pamp. & Cum.Supp.1984). REACHING THE LEGAL ISSUE For the purposes of this appeal it is not disputed that plaintiff suffered a compensable injury to his right forearm in April 1981, that the injury was diagnosed and treated by two physicians, and that plaintiff claims the two physicians committed malpractice in their diagnosis and treatment of the injury. Section 52-l-49(B) is not applicable unless the employer was “furnishing” the services of the two physicians. Security Insurance Co. of Hartford v. Chapman, 88 N.M. 292, 540 P.2d 222 (1975) gave a liberal interpretation to the meaning of “furnishing.” Section 52-4-1 appears to restrict that liberal interpretation. The effect of Section 52-4-1 is not involved in this appeal. No one claims that Section 52-4-1, which was enacted in 1983, applies to the alleged malpractice occurring in 1981. For the purposes of this appeal, defendant was furnishing the services of the two physicians. Section 52-l-49(B) gives the worker the option of holding the employer liable or of suing the physicians. The election must be in writing. By letter dated February 24, 1984, plaintiff elected to proceed against defendant for the alleged malpractice. On March 5, 1984, plaintiff filed his complaint seeking common law damages for malpractice. However, on April 20, 1984, plaintiff filed a complaint against the two physicians seeking common law damages from them for their alleged malpractice. There is no question in this appeal as to plaintiff withdrawing his election. No one claims such a withdrawal. For the purposes of this appeal, plaintiff has elected to proceed against defendant under Section 52-1-49(B). Section 52-l-49(B) provides that the worker’s election to hold the employer liable^ assigns to the employer the worker’s cause of action against the two physicians. Thus, the election disposes of the worker’s right, see Section 52-l-56(C), to sue the physicians. The effect of the election on third-party claims by either the worker or the employer is not an issue in this case. COMPENSATION OR COMMON LAW DAMAGES The pertinent portion of Section 52-1-49(B) states: “[T]he employer furnishing * * * medical * * * services * * * shall be liable to the workman for injuries resulting from neglect, lack of skill or care on the part of any person * * * employed by the employer to care for the workman.” This quotation and other parts of Section 52-1-49(B) establish that the employer is “liable * * * for injuries.” Liability is not contested. Section 52-l-49(B) is silent as to whether this liability is satisfied by payment of compensation or by payment of common law damages. In deciding this issue we consider other portions of the compensation statute, the general law outside of New Mexico, and Chapman. (a) Other portions of the compensation statute. Section 52-l-49(B) was enacted as a part of 1959 N.M. Laws, ch. 67, the basic Compensation Act. Statutes are to be read as whole; each provision is to be considered in relation to every other part. Shaw v. Warner, 101 N.M. 22, 677 P.2d 635 (Ct.App.1984). All pertinent sections of the Compensation Act must be read in a manner to give effect to legislative intent. Transamerica Insurance Co. v. Sydow, 97 N.M. 51, 636 P.2d 322 (Ct.App.1981). Accordingly, we consider other portions of the compensation statute. This consideration reveals the following: 1. The employer’s liability under the Compensation Act, of which Section 52-l-49(B) is a part, is limited to the payment of compensation and related benefits. Section 52-l-6(D) provides that compliance with the Compensation Act is a surrender by the employee “to any other method, form or amount of compensation” and to any “common-law right to remedy * * *.” Section 52-1-8 limits the employer’s liability to the Compensation Act and abolishes all common law rights and remedies except as provided in the Compensation Act. Sec-' tion 52-1-9 provides that the right to the compensation provided in the Act is “in lieu of any other liability whatsoever * * The cases are clear that the Compensation Act provides the exclusive remedy. Efforts to avoid the exclusivity provisions and recover tort, that is, common law damages, have been unsuccessful. Dickson v. Mountain States Mutual Casualty Co., 98 N.M. 479, 650 P.2d 1 (1982); Gonzales v. United States Fidelity & Guaranty Co., 99 N.M. 432, 659 P.2d 318 (Ct.App.1983); Gallegos v. Chastain, 95 N.M. 551, 624 P.2d 60 (Ct.App.1981). 2. Under Section 52-l-49(B) the employer may be liable for injuries caused by a third person’s negligence. That this liability is to pay compensation for that negligence is not an anomaly. Section 52- 1-19; Galles Chevrolet Co. v. Chaney, 92 N.M. 618, 593 P.2d 59 (1979). The plain meaning of the compensation statute is that the Act is an exclusive remedy unless otherwise provided in the Act. Section 52-l-49(B) does not provide an exemption which authorizes common law damages. We cannot create one; we must apply the Act. See Kent Nowlin Construction Co. v. Gutierrez, 99 N.M. 389, 658 P.2d 1116 (1982). (b) General law outside New Mexico. Annot., 127 A.L.R. 1108, 1110 (1940) states: Under the compensation acts in most cases it has been held that aside from negligence in the selection of physicians, where an injured employee is entitled to compensation under the compensation act for injuries due to medical or surgical treatment occasioned by an injury sustained in his employment he cannot maintain an action for damages against his employer, or the latter’s insurer, for the injury due to such treatment, and it was so held in the following cases [cited in the Annotation]. (Citations omitted.) Cf. Annot., 16 A.L. R.3d 564, 568 (1967). Annot., 28 A.L.R.3d 1066, 1071 (1969) states: It is generally held, without regard to the question of negligence in the selection of physicians, that an injured employee may recover under the workmen’s compensation act for a new injury, or an aggravation of his original injury, resulting from medical or surgical treatment of a compensable injury, if there is no intervening cause to break the chain of causation between the new injury or aggravation and the original injury. (Footnote omitted.) 2A A. Larson, The Law of Workmen’s Compensation Section 72.61(c) (1983) refers to the “virtually universal rule * * * that the employer is liable in compensation for aggravation of a compensable injury by a physician’s negligence * * * >> Although the issue being discussed has not been specifically decided in New Mexico, our law is consistent. An employer is not relieved of a duty to pay compensation for a subsequent disability which is a natural and direct result of the initial accident. See Linton v. Mauer-Neuer Meat Packers, 71 N.M. 305, 378 P.2d 126 (1963); Gonzales v. Stanke-Brown & Associates, Inc., 98 N.M. 379, 648 P.2d 1192 (Ct.App.1982). (c) Security Insurance Co. of Hartford v. Chapman. Plaintiff does not seriously contend that other portions of the Compensation Act and the general law outside New Mexico support his position or that our discussion of those items is incorrect. He does disagree with our statement that the issue has not been specifically decided. He asserts that Chapman resolved the issue in his favor. Defendant points out that in Chapman there had been no election by the worker so that Section 52-l-49(B) did not apply and, thus, any discussion in Chapman of the issue in this case is dicta. We agree that the Chapman discussion is dicta; nevertheless, we are not free to “disregard that dicta. See Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Plaintiff directs us to the following language in Chapman which, referring to what is now Section 52-l-49(B), states: “The entire cause of action of the injured workman is assigned to the employer and the injured workman may look to the employer for damages for his injuries, and not for benefits under the Workmen’s Compensation Act.” 88 N.M. at 297, 540 P.2d 222. The meaning or, more precisely, the intent of the supreme court in making the above-quoted statement is not at all clear. As plaintiff commendably points out, Chapman also states: “[I]n those states where there are election provisions the employer or his insurer has no subrogation rights unless the employee has made the appropriate election to receive workmen’s compensation benefits from the employer for the additional malpractice.” 88 N.M. at 298, 540 P.2d 222. A permissible reading of the two quotations is that where there has been an election (as in this case, but not in Chapman) to hold the employer liable for injuries due to a physician’s malpractice, the worker has elected to receive “compensation benefits from the employer for the additional malpractice.” Such a reading is consistent with other provisions of our compensation statute and is consistent with the general law outside New Mexico. We so understand Chapman. If Chapman had intended to incorporate common law damages into our compensation law contrary to the consistent interpretation of the exclusivity provisions of the Compensation Act, we believe explicit language would have been used. Although plaintiff’s complaint was entitled- a complaint for medical malpractice, it stated a claim for compensation benefits against the employer on the basis of the physicians’ alleged malpractice. Inasmuch as compensation benefits were being paid, the complaint was properly dismissed as premature. The summary judgment is affirmed. No costs are awarded against plaintiff. Section 52-l-39(B). IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL and BIVINS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION MINZNER, Judge. On the court’s own motion, the prior opinion in this case is withdrawn, and the following opinion is substituted for it. We make this substitution in order to clarify our holding on the last issue discussed by the opinion. Defendants John Deere Company, Inc. and Deming Implement Company appeal a judgment on the ground that the trial judge erred in giving a products liability instruction. Defendants also contend that the trial court lacked jurisdiction to amend an order of remittitur more than thirty days after entering judgment. We affirm the judgment, but we agree with defendants that the trial court lacked jurisdiction to enter the amended remittitur order. FACTS Plaintiff Guadalupe Salinas suffered extensive injuries as a result of an accident which occurred during corn harvesting. At the time of the accident Hal Keeler, plaintiff’s employer, was operating a corn com bine manufactured by John Deere and distributed locally by Deming Implement. Plaintiff and Keeler were working in a corn field where wind had blown down the corn, causing the corn stalks to “bunch up.” As a result, the headers of the combine could not pick up the corn efficiently; debris collected in front of the combine on its row dividers, preventing the gathering chains from reaching the corn. Periodically, Keel-er stopped the forward motion of the combine and ordered his employees to remove the debris and salvage the accumulated “down corn.” Although the forward motion of the combine stopped, the gathering chains continued operating. During one such procedure, the gathering chains caught plaintiff’s leg and pulled him into the combine. Plaintiff sued defendants on theories of strict liability, breach of warranty, and negligence. At the close of plaintiff’s case, defendants moved for a directed verdict, and the trial judge reserved a ruling on the motion. Plaintiff submitted products liability jury instructions from New Mexico Civil Uniform Jury Instructions. Defendants objected to the strict liability instruction based on NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 14.1(C) (Repl.Pamp.1980), which purported to set out the defective conditions of the combine. The jury returned a verdict of $426,000, and the trial judge entered judgment on October 7, 1983. Defendants filed a motion for remittitur or, in the alternative, for a new trial, on October 17. The trial judge denied the motion for a new trial but granted remittitur of $236,000 on November 16, directing plaintiff to accept the remitted verdict or face a new trial. Later the same day, plaintiff filed a motion to vacate the conditional order of remittitur, asking that the trial court also condition remittitur on defendants’ acceptance of the remitted verdict. On December 15, the trial court filed an amended order of remittitur that provided, “If Salinas accepts the order of remittitur, and the defendants do not accept the order of remittitur, such order of remittiturs are hereby vacated and the original judgment * * * shall stand as the judgment in said cause.” Plaintiff filed an acceptance as to both orders, but defendants did not accept the amended order of remittitur. Defendants filed a notice of appeal on December 16. I. DISMISSAL OF APPEAL FOR BREACH OF APPELLATE RULES Plaintiff has argued in support of affirmance that defects in defendants’ statement of the proceedings justify dismissal of the appeal. See NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 9(m)(4) (Repl.Pamp.1984). If the transcript and briefs adequately notify the court of the issues raised on appeal, we should consider the appeal despite a technical violation of the rules. See Huckins v. Ritter, 99 N.M. 560, 661 P.2d 52 (1983). Defendants’ statement clearly sets out the proceedings that bear upon the trial court’s jurisdiction to enter the amended remittitur order. Defendants have provided a transcript reference to their objections at trial to the products liability instruction. Defendants’ statement of proceedings generally recited facts designed to support their contentions. Under some circumstances, a failure to summarize the substance of all evidence bearing upon factual issues precludes review of error. See Minor v. Homestake-Sapin Partners Mine, 69 N.M. 72, 364 P.2d 134 (1961). As we understand defendants’ argument, however, the issues raised do not require that we search the record. Defendants have not contended that there was insufficient evidence to support the verdict. Defendants contend that the trial judge, when instructing the jury on the claimed defects in the combine, described a condition as to which there was no evidence and that it was reversible error to give the instruction. Defendants have summarized the relevant evidence, and we can evaluate the claimed error. Under the circumstances of this case, there is no breach of the appellate rules that warrants dismissal. See Huckins v. Ritter. There is no breach of the rule that precludes review on appeal, although we have interpreted the argument as to factual sufficiency in light of the evidence summarized. II. PRODUCTS LIABILITY INSTRUCTION Defendants have argued two issues as to the products liability instruction. The relevant instruction is a modification of one of the uniform jury instructions. See UJI Civ. 14.1(C). As modified, the instruction reads: C. Plaintiff also claims that the defendant suppliers are subject to products liability for an unreasonable risk of injury resulting from a condition of the product or manner in which it was used, and that that risk was a proximate cause of the injury to plaintiff and resulting damages. Whereas the claim of failure to use ordinary care is based upon acts or omissions of the supplier, products liability is based upon the following claimed defects in the products: (1) Supplying the corn combine so that the header could foreseeably encourage its use in manually assisting to eliminate a pile up [sic] of corn in down crops. (2) Supplying a corn combine with gathering chains and snapping rollers which are not guarded by location to prevent human access. (3) Supplying the corn combine without corn cones or other appropriate equipment which would decrease stoppage in down corn and decrease the necessity of exposure where people would foreseeably attempt to manually assist in eliminating a pile up [sic] of corn in a down field. Plaintiff has the burden of showing that any one of his claims of failure to use ordinary care or products liability was the proximate cause of his injuries and resulting damages. Defendants complain that the first and third descriptions of claimed defects do not state the ultimate facts the jury must find. Specifically, defendants argue that subsections (1) and (3) contain “a series of undefined phrases,” and also that subsection (3) is “ambiguous.” Defendants’ contentions generally attack the clarity with which plaintiff has stated two of his strict liability theories. In addition, defendants claim that key elements of the theory presented in subsection (3) were not supported by the evidence. No complaint is raised as to subsection (2). A. Clarity of the Instruction Defendants have not preserved any issue as to subsection (1) on appeal. As to subsection (3), defendants either failed to preserve error or have not carried their burden on appeal. 1. Undefined Phrases Defendants have identified a number of phrases, including “corn savers or other appropriate equipment” as undefined phrases. However, they did not complain expressly to the trial judge about undefined phrases. Rather, defendants’ counsel argued to the trial court that subsections (1) and (3) were misleading and confusing, failed to state a duty imposed by law, and were unsupported by the evidence in the case. These objections were not sufficient to alert the trial judge to the error claimed on appeal. Objections which fail to point out specifically the vice or defect in an instruction are insufficient to preserve the issue for review. Scott v. Brown, 76 N.M. 501, 416 P.2d 516 (1966). Further, a party must raise the same objection on appeal that was raised at trial. Martinez v. Teague, 96 N.M. 446, 631 P.2d 1314 (Ct.App.1981). 2. Ambiguity of Subsection (3) Defendants generally attack the subsection as failing to state a legal duty. Plaintiff argues they have not preserved this issue for review. A mere assertion that an instruction does not state the law is insufficient. McBee v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co., 80 N.M. 468, 457 P.2d 987 (Ct.App.1969). Defendants should have pointed out in what manner they found particular phrases in the instruction confusing and misleading. See Bussell v. Missouri Pacific Railroad Co., 237 Ark. 812, 376 S.W.2d 545 (1964). Alternatively, defendants might have tendered a modified instruction. See Budagher v. Amrep Corp., 97 N.M. 116, 637 P.2d 547 (1981). Defendants’ counsel might have pointed out the claim of error to the trial judge with greater specificity, and he might have offered an amended instruction, but he apparently feared that he would waive any right to object to the instruction if he made suggestions that were accepted. Counsel may make suggestions, even in the form of an amended instruction, while reserving the right to object subsequently to legal and factual sufficiency. See NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 51(J) (Cum.Supp.1984). In fact, we believe that such a practice would have a beneficial effect by reducing the possibility of errors in the instructions. Counsel should be able to assist the trial court without fear that suggestions or tendered instructions might waive his right to claim error on appeal. We will not hold on the facts of this case that defendants waived the right to claim the instruction failed to state a legal duty. The record indicates that, in objecting to the instruction, defendants’ counsel made statements about the nature of the evidence that sufficiently raised the issue of ambiguity. Under the circumstances of this case, and in light of the limited number of New Mexico cases dealing with strict liability, we hold defendants preserved their right to appellate review of the error raised. Subsection (3) together with subsections (1) and (2) present alternative bases for strict liability. Each attempts to state a different design defect in the corn combine. The record indicates that the term “corn cones” was used in pleadings and during the course of trial as a synonym for terms such as “corn saver.” Subsection (3) was not the sole instruction on plaintiff’s third theory. Another instruction, to which defendants have not objected, defined “unreasonable risk of injury.” This instruction followed NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 14.7 (Cum.Supp.1984). Another instruction defined “defect” for the jury. This instruction followed NMSA 1978, UJI Civ. 14.6 (Cum.Supp.1984). Defendants did not object to these instructions and have not challenged them on appeal. In the context of the evidence at trial and the other instructions, subsection (3) addressed the issue of liability as a result of failure to equip the combine with attachments such as corn savers. In context, plaintiff presented a theory that the combine was defective because it was not equipped at the time of the accident with a device which would have limited the stops necessary on the day of the accident. In context, subsection (3) adequately states plaintiff’s alternative theory of strict liability. Compare Blunk v. Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Co., 143 Ind.App. 631, 242 N.E.2d 122 (1968) (decided under a common law negligence standard) with Davis v. Fox River Tractor Co., 518 F.2d 481 (1975) (reviewing sufficiency of the evidence in a products liability case that a machine was defective and unreasonably dangerous). See generally Annot., 4 A.L.R.4th 13, 34-42 (1981). Defendants also contend that, even if, in context, the phrase “corn cones or other appropriate equipment” refers to corn savers, subsection (3) is confusing because one of the defendants, Deming Implement, had sold plaintiff’s employer a corn saver. Defendants made this point when objecting to the instruction, but neither then nor on appeal have defendants articulated how this fact creates error in subsection (3). ? have not claimed that Deming Implement sold the corn saver to plaintiff’s employer for use with the combine involved in the accident. In fact, the record indicates that the combine involved in the accident belonged to Keeler’s brother, and the corn saver sold to Keeler was in use at the time of the accident on another machine. Defendants have the burden on appeal of identifying the claimed error. See Novak v. Dow, 82 N.M. 30, 474 P.2d 712 (Ct.App.1970). As to this contention, defendants have not met their burden on appeal. B. Sufficiency of the Evidence Defendants also contend that the trial court erred in giving the subsection (3) instruction because no evidence was presented that a failure to supply corn cones or other appropriate equipment made the combine defective and unreasonably dangerous. They note it is error to instruct on a theory not supported by the evidence. Reed v. Styron, 69 N.M. 262, 365 P.2d 912 (1961). Plaintiff contends that because there was sufficient evidence to support his other theories, any error was harmless. The fact that other evidence supports a general verdict would not entitle us to affirm a verdict if an erroneous instruction had been given. Gerety v. Demers, 86 N.M. 141, 520 P.2d 869 (1974). Defendants primarily rely upon a contention that no witness mentioned the specific term “corn cones” during trial. However, the term was used interchangeably with other terms, such as “corn saver,” during the course of the trial. Second, defendants argue there was no evidence that the absence of corn savers or other such equipment rendered the combine defective and unreasonably dangerous. Although no expert witness testified as to the danger that the absence of a corn saver posed, plaintiffs employer testified that a corn saver reduces the number of stops necessary in harvesting “down corn.” He also testified that he had stopped the forward motion of the combine at least twice before the time plaintiff was injured. There was other evidence in the record that several devices similar to corn savers are available commercially. A product is defective if its condition or the manner of its use creates an unreasonable risk of injury and was the proximate cause of injury. See UJI Civ. 14.6; see generally Comment, Torts — A Survey of the Law of Strict Tort Products Liability in New Mexico, 11 N.M.L.Rev. 359, 387-390 (1981). The plaintiff may rely on circumstantial evidence. See Springer Corp. v. Dallas & Mavis Forwarding Co., 90 N.M. 58, 559 P.2d 846 (Ct.App.1976). The question of whether a product is unreasonably dangerous ordinarily is a question for the jury. See Liberty Mutual Insurance Co. v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 35 Conn.Supp. 687, 406 A.2d 1254 (1979). The question on appeal is whether there was evidence from which the jury might conclude that there was a condition of the combine or manner of its use that created an unreasonable risk of injury. Cf. Flanary v. Transport Trucking Stop, 78 N.M. 797, 438 P.2d 637 (Ct.App.1968) (question was whether there was evidence that supported an instruction on unavoidable accident). There was such evidence. A jury might conclude that the combine lacked an available device which would have made the combine safer for its intended use. Under these circumstances, the question of whether the absence of a corn saver or other appropriate equipment made the product unreasonably dangerous was an issue for the jury. Defendants have not argued on appeal any deficiency in the evidence as to proximate cause. Third, defendants contend that there was no evidence to support the instruction because plaintiffs employer had a corn saver, sold separately from the corn combine by Deming Implement. Defendants have not explained how this fact relates to the evidentiary issue. We believe this contention is irrelevant to the question on appeal. Plaintiff must show the product was defective when it left defendants’ hands. Restatement (Second) of Torts § 402A comment f (1965). A supplier is liable as long as it is in the chain of distribution. Id. There is no dispute that the combine was sold by John Deere without a corn saver or other attachment or that Deming Implement resold the combine. A party is entitled to an instruction on the theory of his or her case where there is evidence to support it. Flanary v. Transport Trucking Stop. Defendant has not demonstrated that there was no evidence to support subsection (3), and we hold the trial judge did not err in giving it. III. THE AMENDED REMITTITUR ORDER Defendants argue that the amended order of remittitur, filed December 15, was without effect, citing NMSA 1978, Civ.App. Rule 3(d) (Repl.Pamp.1984) and Chavez-Rey v. Miller, 99 N.M. 377, 658 P.2d 452 (1982). The filings and dates relevant to this argument are as follows: (1) Judgment on Verdict — October 7, 1983; (2) Motion for Remittitur — October 17, 1983; (3) Order Denying New Trial and Order Granting Remittitur — November 16, 1983; (4) Motion to Vacate Conditional Order of Remittitur — November 16, 1983; (5) Amended Order of Remittitur — December 15, 1983. (6) Notice of Appeal — December 16, 1983. Defendants contend that any order entered more than thirty days after the filing of the original motion directed against the verdict is without effect. Plaintiff argues that the order of November 16, denying the new trial but granting remittitur, became a new final judgment for purposes of appeal. Thus, its motion to vacate operates in the same manner as defendants’ motion for remittitur and the trial court had thirty days from its filing to act, which it did by order on December 15. Because the motion for remittitur was filed and served not later than ten days after entry of judgment, plaintiff argues that the finality of that judgment was suspended. See Perez v. Perez, 75 N.M. 656, 409 P.2d 804 (1966); 6A J. Moore, Moore’s Federal Practice ¶ 59.09[4], at 59-243 (1983). We disagree with plaintiff’s analysis. Plaintiff has not directed us to, nor have we found, any authority for the proposition that the November 16 order represents an amended final order for all purposes. Perez distinguished NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 60(b) (Repl.Pamp.1980) and NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 59(e) (Repl.Pamp.1980) when it stated that the motion under the latter rule affected finality. The court specifically cited the terms of Rule 60(b) for the proposition that a motion under Rule 60 does not affect finality. Perez recognizes that a Rule 59(e) motion is available on different terms than a Rule 60(b) motion and that the latter may be made and granted, for the reasons specified in the rule, long after a Rule 59(e) motion has become untimely. A Rule 59 motion, whether granted or denied, may have the effect of reestablishing the final judgment. See 6A J. Moore, Moore’s Federal Practice ¶ 59.13[1], at 59-297 (1983). In this case, that was the result of the November 16 order. When the trial judge denied a new trial and ordered remittitur on November 16, he reestablished the final judgment as of October 7, because thereafter neither party was entitled to move for reconsideration. See 6A J. Moore, supra, ¶ 59.13[3], at 59-300, and ¶ 59.14[4], at 59-302 to -303. We hold that Salmas’ motion to vacate the order of November 16 was an impermissible motion to reconsider, because it raised the same issues that led to the order of remittitur or issues that might have been raised in resisting the Rule 59 motion. Id. The trial judge also lacked power on his own to enter the amended order on December 15. The same principles that preclude the parties from moving for reconsideration also make this amended order an impermissible reconsideration. See 6A J. Moore, supra, ¶ 59.12[1], at 59-289 to -290. Under the circumstances of this case, we need not consider whether the original order of remittitur was an amended final order for any purpose. Relief in this case would be destructive of the general purpose behind the relevant procedural rules. The rules do not permit successive attacks upon final judgments by motions to recon sider orders that deny a new trial “or that deny or grant an alteration or amendment of the judgment.” 6A J. Moore, supra, ¶ 59.13[1], at 59-298. A trial judge ordinarily retains jurisdiction over the final judgment for thirty days. NMSA 1978, § 39-1-1. This case does not fall within any exception to the rule. At oral argument plaintiff contended that, unless we hold the November 16 order to be an amended final judgment, this court lacked jurisdiction because defendants had filed their notice of appeal too late. See Civ.App.R. 3. As defendants note in their brief, however, the motion for a new trial or remittitur was denied in part and granted in part on November 16, when the trial judge entered the original remittitur. The full time for appeal commenced running with the court’s entry of the order on November 16. See Civ.App.R. 3(d). Defendants filed the notice of appeal on December 16, which was the last possible day under Rule 3. This court does not lack jurisdiction over the appeal. CONCLUSION We affirm the trial court’s judgment entered October 7 as amended by the order of remittitur entered November 16. We remand the ease for revocation of the amended order of remittitur dated December 15. IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL and BIVINS, JJ., concur.
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OPINION BIVINS, Judge. Convicted of driving under the influence (DWI) by a metropolitan court jury, defendant appealed to the district court for a trial de novo, where the district court, without a jury, convicted defendant. He appeals that conviction, raising two issues: 1. Whether the district court erred in refusing to suppress the results of defendant’s breath alcohol test when defendant’s warrantless misdemeanor arrest was made by an officer who did not observe defendant driving under the influence; and 2. Whether the district court improperly denied defendant a trial by jury. We affirm. 1. The warrantless misdemeanor arrest. Defendant argues that the results of his breath alcohol test should have been suppressed because: (1) there was insufficient basis for Officer Schultz to make an investigatory stop of defendant’s vehicle; and (2) the misdemeanor for which defendant was arrested was not committed in the presence of Officer Tellez, the arresting officer. We first set forth the facts giving rise to these contentions. Shortly before midnight on April 25, 1984, defendant drove his vehicle in the Coronado Shopping Center parking lot near the Sears’ Automotive Center, where the Albuquerque police had positioned their “Batmobile” for convenience. Twice defendant drove close to the Batmobile in which Officer Schultz was located. On both occasions Schultz observed a beer bottle between defendant’s legs. Schultz stopped defendant and cited him for an open container violation under an Albuquerque ordinance. Because he could not transport defendant in the canine unit vehicle and expose defendant to danger from the dog, and also because he needed to remain free to service the canine unit, Schultz radioed for assistance. Officer Tellez with the DWI unit responded. After explaining the situation to Tellez, Schultz remained, observing two of the field sobriety tests conducted by Tellez, which defendant failed. Schultz also watched defendant’s passenger who was acting “smartalecky, cocky,” and “loud,” because of his concern for “officer safety.” After conducting the field sobriety tests, Tellez arrested defendant in the presence of Schultz, and transported defendant to the Batmobile for a breath alcohol test, while Schultz helped park defendant’s car. Schultz observed the administration of the breath alcohol test, which defendant also failed. (a) The investigatory stop. The stop which Officer Schultz made was an investigatory stop; therefore, probable cause for stopping the car is not at issue. State v. Galvan, 90 N.M. 129, 560 P.2d 550 (Ct.App.1977). The inquiry is whether there were appropriate circumstances which would justify the stop. “Appropriate circumstances” is a reasonable suspicion that the laws have been violated. “Reasonable suspicion” is judged by an objective standard: would the facts and inferences available to the officer warrant the officer, as a person of reasonable caution, to believe the action taken was appropriate. The officer must be able to articulate specific facts and reasonable inferences drawn from those facts. Id. On appeal, the state argues that the investigatory stop was justified because Officer Schultz could have had a reasonable suspicion that the defendant was driving while intoxicated. Defendant, on the other hand, argues a lack of reasonable grounds to stop him in a private parking lot because the open container charge (dismissed in metropolitan court) applied only to public streets. Where there are reasonable grounds supporting a warrantless arrest for the commission of a misdemeanor, the arrest is not invalidated because the officer gave the wrong reasons for the arrest; the proper misdemeanor charge must, however, be known to the officer at the time of the arrest. State v. Luna, 93 N.M. 773, 606 P.2d 183 (1980). A review of the evidence shows that Officer Schultz was justified in making an investigatory stop. Defendant was seen driving into the Sears parking lot shortly before midnight. Defendant twice drove close to the Batmobile in which Officer Schultz was positioned. Each time the defendant was observed driving by, he had a beer bottle between his legs. At that hour only the police vehicles and the defendant were in the parking lot. Officer Schultz paid special attention to defendant’s vehicle under the circumstances because individuals would occasionally approach the Batmobile to cause trouble. After driving close to the Batmobile twice, defendant drove around the Sears Automotive Center. The Automotive Center was closed. Defendant continued driving around to the Sears store, which was also closed. Officer Schultz then stopped defendant. At that point, the officer observed that defendant’s speech was slurred, his eyes were watery and bloodshot and there was a moderate odor of alcohol coming from his person. The foregoing evidence was sufficient to induce a reasonably cautious person to believe that an investigatory stop of the defendant’s vehicle was appropriate. (b) The requirement of presence. The misdemeanor arrest rule in New Mexico provides that a police officer may make a warrantless arrest for a misdemeanor offense if the misdemeanor is committed in the officer’s presence. Luna; City of Roswell v. Mayer, 78 N.M. 533, 433 P.2d 757 (1967); Cave v. Cooley, 48 N.M. 478, 152 P.2d 886 (1944). A warrantless arrest may also be made under other circumstances. See NMSA 1978, § 66-8-125. In State v. Calanche, 91 N.M. 390, 574 P.2d 1018 (Ct.App.1978) this court upheld a warrantless arrest made by a police officer pursuant to NMSA 1953, Section 64-22-8.2, (2d.Repl.Vol.9, pt.2) (now Section 66-8-125(A)(1) of a person at the scene of the accident, either at the scene or at another place, if the arrest is made with reasonable promptness. Section 66-8-125 does not apply to the case before us because there was no motor vehicle accident. The state, in this case, acknowledges that arresting Officer Tellez did not actually observe the defendant driving his vehicle but argues that the officer in whose presence the offense was committed participated in the arrest to such a degree that the requirements of the rule were satisfied even though another officer technically placed defendant under arrest. In the alternative, the state urges this court to adopt the “police-team” qualification of the presence requirement. Under this qualification, a member of the police-team may arrest for a misdemeanor committed in the presence of another member of the police-team when their collective perceptions are combined to satisfy the presence requirement. Henry v. Commissioner of Public Safety, 357 N.W.2d 121 (Minn.App.1984). To accept the state’s contention that Officer Schultz’ participation was of such degree to satisfy the presence requirement, argues in effect for the adoption of the “police-team” qualification. Accordingly, we examine this qualification. ? purpose of the presence requirement is to prevent warrantless arrests based on information from third parties. State v. Jensen, 351 N.W.2d 29 (Minn.App.1984). Courts in other jurisdictions have developed the police-team qualification to the presence requirement by permitting officers working together to combine their collective perceptions so that the requirement is deemed satisfied even though the arresting officer does not witness all the elements of the offense. The arresting officer is viewed as the most reliable informant, but is not considered a third person. Id. Recently, some states have eliminated the presence requirement from their arrest statutes by removing the felony-misdemeanor distinction. The courts in these states have stressed that there is sometimes little correlation between the designation of a crime as either a felony or a misdemeanor and its heinousness or the attendant severity of its punishment. Pri- or decisions have eliminated the presence requirement for felonies as long as there was probable cause for the arrest. See, e.g., State v. Deltenre, 77 N.M. 497, 424 P.2d 782 (1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 976, 87 S.Ct. 1171, 18 L.Ed.2d 136 (1967). Therefore, the courts felt justified in extending the police-team qualification in order to legalize misdemeanor arrests. Comment, The Presence Requirement and the “Police-Team” Rule in Arrest for Misdemeanors, 26 Wash. & Lee L.Rev. 119 (1969); Robinson v. State, 4 Md.App. 515, 243 A.2d 879 (1968). Some states have retained the felony-misdemeanor distinction in their statutes, but allow an arrest without the element of presence, if the officer has reasonable grounds for believing that a misdemeanor has been committed. Howes v. State, 503 P.2d 1055 (Alaska 1972). Other states have viewed the qualification as a legal fiction based on the theory that a team is one body, i.e., what is done in the presence of one is done in the presence of all. The use of police radio supports this fiction by creating a proximity of awareness, purpose, and reliance between those officers in communication. See Comment; Robinson; Prosser v. Parsons, 245 S.C. 493, 141 S.E.2d 342 (1965). Still, other states have adopted this qualification on the basis that it does not infringe on the substantial rights of the defendant. State v. Standish, 116 N.H. 483, 363 A.2d 404 (1976). While elimination of the felony-misdemeanor distinction may merit consideration, this court must follow rules adopted by the supreme court. Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 507 P.2d 778 (1973). Nevertheless, we do no violence to those rules to expand on the requirement of “in the presence of”, particularly in light of recent developments in this area of the law, present day communication capabilities, and coordinated police methods. Given the mobility of today’s society, as well as the availability of transportation, criminals can quickly leave the scene of the crime. It is often impossible for one officer to chase a suspect for many miles, especially in urban areas, and the immediate cooperation of other police is necessary to prevent escape. See Comment; Robinson. A warrant in most cases cannot issue because it must be in the name of a known person or it must specifically identify the suspect. To adhere strictly to the presence requirement in these situations would not only shackle police efficiency and the use of modern communications equipment, but also exalt form over substance. In State v. Cook, 194 Kan. 495, 399 P.2d 835, 839 (1965), where a misdemeanor was deemed to have occurred in the presence of an officer on the ground, who kept in constant radio contact with officers in an airplane, the court said: The law does not blindly close its eyes to reason. While holding fast to basic truths, it acknowledges the inevitability of change and seeks to adapt itself to new conditions. For us to hold that [the officer’s] arrest of the defendant was illegal would, under the conditions prevailing in this case, violate common sense. Adopting the reasoning of Robinson, we think it a proper extension of the rationale of the misdemeanor arrest rule first adopted in Cave v. Cooley, that when a misdemeanor is committed in the presence of a police officer and information of such is promptly placed on the police radio or otherwise communicated and a description of the misdemeanant given, the arrest of the misdemeanant by another police officer within a reasonable time of receipt of the information is valid. See State v. Calanche (warrantless arrest must be made with reasonable promptness). We, therefore, hold defendant’s arrest valid, and the breath alcohol test results flowing from that arrest, State v. Richerson, 87 N.M. 437, 535 P.2d 644 (Ct.App.1975), were properly received in evidence. 2. The right to trial by jury. In metropolitan court, defendant pled not guilty and was then tried before a jury. On motion of the state, the open container charge was dismissed. The jury convicted defendant of driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, a second or subsequent offense. NMSA 1978, § 66-8-102 (Cum.Supp.1984). Defendant then appealed his conviction to district court. See, NMSA 1978, § 34-8A-6 (Repl.Pamp.1981). In district court, defendant filed a formal jury demand. The district court denied defendant’s request for a jury trial, concluding that it would reduce the offense charged to a DWI first offense. (The state determined that it could not prove prior valid convictions for DWI and so informed defendant and the district court.) Because he was convicted of DWI second or subsequent offense in metropolitan court, defendant contends that on his de novo appeal in district court, he could have only been tried for DWI second offense and not DWI first offense. Since a charge of DWI second would have exposed him to a term of confinement of up to one year, defendant claims a right to trial by a jury. See State v. Haar, 94 N.M. 539, 612 P.2d 1350 (Ct.App.1980) (hereinafter, Haar 94). By reducing the charge to DWI first which only carries a maximum penalty of 90 days imprisonment, defendant asserts a denial of his right to a jury trial. Whether defendant was entitled to a jury trial, depends upon the authority of the district court. A district court in trying a case de novo, which has been appealed from a court of limited jurisdiction, has only such authority as has been authorized by statute. State v. Haar, 100 N.M. 609, 673 P.2d 1342 (Ct.App.1983) (hereinafter, Haar 100). In a de novo appeal from both municipal and magistrate courts, a district court is statutorily empowered to impose a penalty which is greater or lesser than the penalty imposed by those lower courts. See City of Farmington v. Sandoval, 90 N.M. 246, 561 P.2d 945 (Ct.App.1977) (NMSA 1978, § 35-15-8, municipal courts); Haar 94; (NMSA 1978, § 35-13-2 (Cum.Supp. 1984), magistrate courts). No such statutory authority exists in a de novo appeal from metropolitan court. See Haar 100; (§ 34-8A-6). Since the legislature has not amended the metropolitan court statute, the district court in the present case lacked authority to impose a sentence greater than that imposed by the metropolitan court. The metropolitan court sentenced defendant to 90 days in jail, suspended 60 days of the sentence, and placed defendant on probation. Following the trial de novo, the district court imposed the exact same sentence. Defendant, on his de novo appeal, was never exposed to a term of confinement of over six months; defendant was not entitled to a jury trial. Haar 94. Although defendant was not entitled to a jury trial on his de novo appeal, the question remains as to whether he was entitled to appeal and be tried only as to DWI second. As has been shown, the district court was not empowered to change the sentence imposed by the metropolitan court; however, can the district court reduce the charge? This is a question of first impression which appears to be jurisdictional in nature. See Haar 100 (because the district court has only limited jurisdiction on appeals from magistrate court, there must be express statutory authorization for every action taken by a district judge in de novo appeals). The essence of defendant’s contention is that he cannot be tried on a different charge than what he was convicted of in metropolitan court. The defendant makes no specific argument nor does he cite any authority to support it. See NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 501(a)(4) (Repl.Pamp.1983). Nevertheless, NMSA 1978, Metro.Rule 39(a) (Repl.Pamp. 1981) supports the defendant in part: “The court may at any time prior to a verdict cause the complaint or citation to be amended in respect to any such defect * * if no additional or different offense is charged and if substantial rights of the defendant are not prejudiced.” There was no amendment made by the state. See also City of Mexico v. Merline, 596 S.W.2d 475 (Mo.App.1980) (after an appeal has been taken from the judgment of a municipal court, a new or different charge cannot be filed by way of an amendment to the original information, but the information may be amended to clarify the charge, or to charge a lesser included offense); State v. Mansfield, 576 P.2d 1276 (Utah 1978). The state contends that DWI second is not a crime distinct from DWI first; rather, DWI second relates to the enhancement of the defendant's sentence for DWI first. We agree. Section 66-8-102(E) provides for sentencing consequences upon a second or subsequent conviction of DWI. See State v. Ulibarri, 96 N.M. 511, 632 P.2d 746 (Ct.App.1981). The enhancement sentence is not an element of the conviction; rather, it is a consequence of the prior DWI conviction. Further, the enhancement provision does not create a new class of crimes; it only creates new consequences for the criminal conduct. State v. Barreras, 88 N.M. 52, 536 P.2d 1108 (Ct.App.1975) (aggravated battery involving firearm); see also People v. Leonowicz, 134 Mich.App. 152, 350 N.W.2d 770 (1984) (DWI conviction). The fact that DWI second relates only to enhancement is important in this case because, when the state charged the defendant with DWI second in metropolitan court, defendant was put on notice that the state would seek enhancement of his sentence. It did not affect the charge itself. Defendant must be given notice of the crime charged so as to enable him to prepare his defense to that crime. Barreras. On the appeal de novo, defendant was given notice that enhancement would not be sought by the state. The state was not required to seek enhancement of the defendant’s sentence. State v. Cruz, 82 N.M. 522, 484 P.2d 364 (Ct.App.1971). Since the defendant was given notice to prepare his case and because the defendant suffered no prejudice, the trial court’s ruling on this issue is affirmed. AFFIRMED. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and WOOD, J„ concur.
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OPINION This matter having come before this Court on October 9, 1985, after the completion of disciplinary proceedings conducted pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline (Repl.1985), wherein Attorney Elias N. Quintana was found to have committed nineteen (19) violations of eleven (11) rules of the Code of Professional Responsibility involving incompetence, neglect, harassment and other conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice, the Court adopts the findings and conclusions of the Disciplinary Board and the Board’s recommendation that Quintana be suspended from the practice of law indefinitely, but that he not be allowed to reapply for at least two years. Due to exigent circumstances giving rise to concern by this Court that the cases of Quintana’s clients might be in jeopardy, an order suspending Quintana and appointing counsel pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 18(a) (Repl.1985), was entered on October 9, 1985 pending the filing of this formal opinion. In February 1980, shortly after the riot at the New Mexico State Penitentiary in which her son Valentino Jaramillo was killed, Laura Cordova hired Quintana to represent her son’s estate in a wrongful death action. Although Quintana testified that he had never before handled this type of case, he nonetheless had Ms. Cordova sign an “irrevocable” agreement which provided for fifty percent (50%) contingency fee. While Quintana did file a complaint in wrongful death, there is no evidence which would indicate that he took any other action in the case of any material benefit to the client up to the point of his being discharged in April 1984. In the four years that he represented the estate of Valentino Jaramillo in this matter, Quintana did little more than answer some interrogatories and confer with other attorneys who were handling similar cases. He filed no discovery motions, did not obtain an autopsy report, attended no depositions, did no investigation as to the economic value of Jaramillo’s life for purposes of ascertaining damages, participated in no settlement negotiations, and kept no notes or memoranda to indicate any plan leading to a positive conclusion of the case. Additionally, he failed to name or amend his complaint to join certain necessary defendants or to properly serve others who were named. The statute of limitations now precludes the amendment of the complaint to include those defendants who are necessary parties to this action. After Ms. Cordova terminated Quintana’s representation of her son’s estate, he filed and attempted to assert a charging lien against any proceeds in the case claiming he was owed forty percent (40%) of any amount as his fee for work previously done. This claim was disallowed by the trial court, and Quintana was awarded $1200 as a reasonable fee for his services payable out of any judgment or settlement. In addition to his attempt to charge a clearly excessive fee in violation of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp. Rule 2-106(A) (Repl. 1985), Quintana’s neglect and incompetence in handling this case are also in violation of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp. Rules 1-102(A)(5), (6), 6-101(A)(l), (3), and 7-101(A)(1) (Repl.1985). In a workmen’s compensation case, Quintana was successful in obtaining a structured judgment for client Shirley Apodaca. Judgment was entered in May 1984, and an appeal was taken. On October 11, 1984, a mandate from the Court of Appeals affirming the judgment was received by the Clerk of the Court for the Second Judicial District. At this time, based upon the terms of the judgment, the total amount owed by the defendants was $27,929.99. Without bothering to ascertain from opposing counsel whether the judgment would be satisfied (the checks were actually in the mail) and without tendering a Judgment on the Mandate, Quintana sought to have a Writ of Execution issued in the amount of $31,-774.80 on October 11, 1984. The district court clerk’s office rejected the tendered writ, because the $31,774.80 was shown as having been paid in partial satisfaction when in fact no partial satisfaction had been made. Another writ was prepared by the clerk’s office at Quintana’s direction in which the balance due and owing was shown to be the full amount of the judgment ($168,973.40). With full knowledge that only past due payments together with costs and attorney fees were presently owed and that the writ was incorrectly prepared, Quintana attempted to have the sheriff serve this second writ on the defendants on October 12, 1984. After learning that his client had received her check on October 12, 1984, Quintana then filed a complaint with the disciplinary board against opposing counsel in which he alleged that counsel’s failure to make voluntary satisfaction necessitated his getting a writ of execution. He did not, however, disclose that the case had been on appeal and the mandate received only a few days earlier and thus deliberately misled disciplinary counsel. Quintana’s failure to disclose obvious errors in the writ to the clerk of the district court, his efforts to have an additional writ served which he knew or should have known was defective, and his attempt to mislead disciplinary counsel' are violations of NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp. Rules 1-102(A)(5), (6), 6-101(A)(1), 7-102(A)(l), (2), and (3) (Repl. 1985). During this same period, Quintana became embroiled in a dispute with neighbor Irving Hall over ownership of a strip of property Quintana wished to use for his office parking. After Hall refused Quintana’s offer to purchase the property, Quintana claimed that he owned the property under a theory of adverse possession. On several occasions Quintana called the police and threatened Hall with arrest if he (Hall) attempted to erect a fence on what he believed to be the property line. Hall hired an attorney, who requested Quintana to produce something to document his claim. Quintana refused to do this but told the attorney that if Hall attempted again to erect the fence, he (Quintana) would “knock it down with a truck.” The attorney advised Quintana that such action would be inappropriate. In the absence of any showing by Quintana that he had any claim to the disputed strip of property, Hall again attempted to erect his fence. Quintana knocked it down and, without attempting to give notice to Hall’s attorney, proceeded to the district court in Bernalillo County and obtained a temporary restraining order against Hall. In doing so, he did not comply with the requirements of NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 66(b) (Cum.Supp. 1985) and did not advise the district court judge that the opposing party was represented by counsel and that counsel had not been given notice. Quintana’s conduct in this matter violates NMSA 1978, Code of Prof.Resp. Rules 1 — 102(A)(5), (6), 7-102(A)(1), (3), and 7-106(C)(7) (Repl.1985). Of paramount concern to the hearing committee, the disciplinary board, and this Court is Quintana’s inability to appreciate the significance of what he has done or to acknowledge that his actions might be in violation of his professional obligations as an attorney. In this regard, Quintana, in some instances, denied any culpability. In other matters, he reluctantly accepted a finding of negligence or incompetence but asserted that no ethical considerations were involved. Finally, he has maintained that many of his actions were actually the fault of someone else and that, consequently, he cannot be held responsible for any alleged improprieties. Quintana by his actions has demonstrated incompetence as an attorney and an absence of understanding of his professional obligations as an attorney and those fundamental principles necessary to the practice of law. The public has the right to expect that any person licensed by this Court to engage in the practice of law is a person worthy of confidence in his performance of professional responsibilities and that this Court will withdraw its license to practice law from any lawyer who has demonstrated a lack of the required minimum skills. The hearing committee recommended that Quintana be placed on carefully supervised probation but that if it were impossible to arrange for supervision adequate to secure the protection of the public, that he be indefinitely suspended from the practice of law. The disciplinary board, after hearing oral argument, concluded that it would not be feasible to arrange for the type of constant supervision which would be necessary to insure that Quintana would do no further harm to clients or to the administration of justice. In reaching its decision, the Board considered not only Quintana’s unwillingness to accept responsibility for his actions but also the burdensome task that would be required of any supervisory attorney who might be asked to assume responsibility for Quintana’s re-education and rehabilitation. The Board’s recommendation that Quintana be suspended until he can satisfactorily demonstrate the knowledge and skill necessary to practice law without supervision as well as an appreciation of his professional obligations is consistent with the Board’s conclusion that Quintana is unable to accept his professional responsibilities as an attorney. We agree. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that Elias N. Quintana be and hereby is suspended indefinitely from the practice of law pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 11(a)(3) (Repl.1985), commencing on October 9, 1985. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that Elias N. Quintana not be permitted to apply for readmission to the bar of this state for a period of at least two (2) years and that any such application for readmission at that time shall be preconditioned upon the following: 1. The applicant has taken and passed the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination; and 2. The applicant has satisfied this Court that he has attained a level of competence in professional skills that would justify his readmission and is willing and able to accept his professional responsibilities. The Court will establish the procedure for determining these factors at the time any request for readmission is made. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to NMSA 1978, Rules Governing Discipline, Rule 18(a) (Repl.1985), Robert P. Tinnin, Esq., and such members of his law firm as he may request to assist him are designated to inventory Quintana’s open files and take any actions necessary to protect the interests of the clients until they can obtain new counsel. Costs of this inventory and any costs incurred by any client as the result of Quintana’s suspension will be assessed against Quintana upon an appropriate showing to this Court. The costs of this proceeding in the amount of $1856.82 are assessed against Quintana and must be paid to the disciplinary board no later than December 1, 1985. IT IS SO ORDERED WILLIAM R. FEDERICI, Chief Justice DAN SOSA, Jr., Senior Justice WILLIAM F. RIORDAN, Justice HARRY E. STOWERS, Justice MARY C. WALTERS, Justice
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Defendant was convicted of attempted sexual penetration of a child under the age of thirteen, criminal sexual contact of a minor, and two counts of indecent exposure. Initially, defendant appealed each of the convictions; however, following the filing of the docketing statement herein, defendant did not oppose this court’s proposed summary affirmance of his convictions, except for the two convictions of indecent exposure to a minor. Issues raised in the docketing statement but not briefed on appeal are deemed abandoned. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 205 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Martinez, 97 N.M. 585, 642 P.2d 188 (Ct.App.1982); State v. Edwards, 97 N.M. 141, 637 P.2d 572 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 97 N.M. 621, 642 P.2d 607 (1981). The single issue presented on appeal is whether defendant’s deliberate display of his genital area, on two different occasions before a minor' child in the household wherein he was living, constituted the offense of indecent exposure. We reverse. FACTS During the spring and fall of 1983, defendant was romantically involved with Christine C., not his wife. Defendant lived during this period at the home of his girlfriend and her two daughters, ages eight and twelve. On one occasion, during September 1983, the eight-year-old daughter of defendant’s girlfriend was in the living room of the home when defendant entered the room and opened his robe. The youth testified that defendant was wearing no clothes under his robe and that he appeared to deliberately open the robe to her view. No other persons were present in the room when this incident occurred. On another occasion, in October 1983, during her mother’s absence from the house, the twelve-year-old daughter was in the kitchen washing dishes, when defendant came into the room and opened his robe so as to expose himself in full view. Defendant was wearing nothing underneath the robe, and the child testified that defendant started “playing with himself.” Defendant was acquitted of a third charge of indecent exposure alleged to have occurred in the bathroom of the residence at a time when the older daughter was taking a shower. The older child stated that she did not initially reveal these incidents to her mother because she was afraid of defendant; she also stated that during October 1983, defendant threatened her with a knife when she told him that she was going to tell her mother. OFFENSE OF INDECENT EXPOSURE Defendant admitted that the two incidents of exposure occurred, but on appeal argues that since the exposures occurred inside the confines of a private home, the evidence was insufficient to support a finding that he had indecently exposed himself to “public view” as proscribed by the statute. The offense of indecent exposure as defined by NMSA 1978, Section 30-9-14 (Repl.Pamp.) Indecent exposure consists of a person knowingly and intentionally exposing his primary genital area to public view. Primary genital area means the mons pubis, penis, testicles, mons veneris, vulva or vagina. [Emphasis added.] The statute declares that the offense of indecent exposure before a child under thirteen years of age is a misdemeanor. In all other cases, commission of the offense is declared to be a petty misdemeanor. The words “public view” are not defined by statute, and the appellate courts of this state have not previously interpreted this language. Indecent exposure was an offense under common law. Annot., 94 A.L.R.2d 1353, 1355 (1964). Section 3 of Annot., 94 A.L. R.2d states that: “the elements of the offense of indecent exposure at common law are a wilful and intentional exposure, [occurring] in a public place and in the presence of an assembly.” Id. at 1355. In State v. Black, 260 Ark. 864, 545 S.W.2d 617 (1977), the court noted that in an Arkansas statute prohibiting sexual indecency, “public place” was defined as “a publicly or privately owned place to which the public or substantial numbers of people have access.” Id. at 866, 545 S.W.2d at 618. See also Annot. 96 A.L.R.3d 692 (1979). Under the majority English common law view, the public place element required the presence of more than one person; however, American jurisdictions have split on the question of whether more than one viewer is required in order to constitute the offense of indecent exposure. State v. Pallman, 5 Conn.Cir. 202, 248 A.2d 589 (1968). A number of jurisdictions adhere to the rule that in order to support a charge of indecent exposure, it is not necessary to show that more than one person actually saw the act if it was performed in a place subject to public view where others might have witnessed the incident. Annot., 94 A.L.R.2d 1353, 1357. See Messina v. State, 212 Md. 602, 130 A.2d 578 (1957); Commonwealth v. Broadland, 315 Mass. 20, 51 N.E.2d 961 (1943); Noblett v. Commonwealth, 194 Va. 241, 72 S.E.2d 241 (1952). E.g. People v. Legel, 24 Ill.App.3d 554, 321 N.E.2d 164 (1974). But see State v. Wolf, 211 Mo.App. 429, 244 S.W. 962 (1922). By statute in some jurisdictions, when a child or children are the victims, commission of the offense is not restricted to a public place. Annot., 94 A.L.R.2d 1353, 1364 (1964). New Mexico previously enacted a similar statute but has subsequently revised the statute to add the requirement that the offense occur in “public view.” See NMSA 1953, § 40-34-21 (1949 N.M. Laws, ch. 140, § 1). As discussed in Section 9 of Annot., 94 A.L.R.2d 1353, 1364-65: A number of states have statutes expressly prohibiting indecent exposures to children. The elements of the offense under such statutes appear to be similar to those which are found under the more general statutes, but with the important exception that they apply only to exposures to children under a specified age, and they include no requirement that the exposure be in a public place or where persons other than the child involved might see it. Examination of the legislative history of the offense in New Mexico reveals that this state prior to 1975 had two separate statutes proscribing the offense of indecent exposure and other lewd sexual behavior. See NMSA 1953, § 40-34-20 (1903 N.M. Laws, ch. 117, § 1); NMSA 1953, § 40-34-21 (1949 N.M. Laws, ch. 140, § 1). These early statutes consisted of a general statute declaring indecent exposure in a “public place” to constitute criminal behavior (a misdemeanor), and a separate statute prohibiting indecent exposure or lewd behavior upon a child under the age of eighteen (a felony). Id. As provided in former statute NMSA 1953, Section 40-34-21, “any indecent demonstration or exposure upon, or in the presence of any person under the age of eighteen (18) years” was declared to be a felony. As originally enacted, this statute had no requirement that the offense be committed in a “public place” or in “public view.” NMSA 1953, Section 40-34-20 was designed to protect persons over eighteen years of age from being subjected to indecent and offensive sexual exposure and provided that “any person who shall ... indecently expose his person in or upon the streets or other public places in any unincorporated village, town or city * * * shall be guilty of a misdemeanor * * *.” [Emphasis added.] The 1963 revised Criminal Code rewrote the two statutes, but continued treating the offenses separately. See NMSA 1978, § 40A-9-8 (1963 N.M. Laws, ch. 303, § 9-8); NMSA 1978, § 40-9-9 (1963 N.M. Laws, ch. 303, § 9-9). The 1963 revision of these statutes provided that any indecent demonstration or exposure of a person’s nude body before a child constituted a felony, but lowered the age of the victim from “under eighteen years” to “under sixteen years.” Laws 1963, ch. 303, § 9-9. The 1963 revision also materially rewrote the general statute pertaining to indecent exposure and deleted the words “expose his person in or upon the streets or other public places” to provide that: “Indecent exposure consists of knowingly and indecently exposing the private parts or sexual organs of a person to the public view.” [Emphasis added.] Laws 1963, ch. 303, § 9-8. In 1975, the legislature again amended the two statutes, this time combining the general indecent exposure statute with the statute proscribing lewd and indecent exposure in the presence of a child. NMSA 1978, § 30-9-14 (1975 N.M. Laws, ch. 109, § 5). The 1975 legislative amendment lowered the age of a minor victim from sixteen years to thirteen, and changed the penalty for indecent exposure before a child from a felony to a misdemeanor. Since the legislature in 1963 added the requirement that indecent exposure must oce.ur in “public view”, the legislative enactment criminalizes indecent exposure which occurs in a location rendering it subject to “public view.” Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary at 932 (1977), defines “public” as “a place accessible or visible to the public * * NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 9.70 (Repl.Pamp.1982), delineates the elements of the offense of indecent exposure. The Committee Comment to UJI Criminal notes that the scope of the term “public” is not defined in the statute. The committee, without citing authority, interpreted the import of the statute to mean that it was designed to protect “any group of persons who would ordinarily expect to be protected against a visual assault.” In Robey v. State, 75 Misc.2d 1032, 351 N.Y.S.2d 788 (1973), a New York court construed the term “public view” as it was utilized in a New York statute and declared it to be a criminal offense for an individual to expose to public view a defaced United States flag or standard. The court interpreted the words “public view” literally and held that the placing of an American flag or banner on an interior wall of a mobile van did not constitute exposure to “public view.” Intent is an element of the crime of indecent exposure. Section 30-9-14. The intent necessary is a general intent, not a specific intent, i.e., it is not necessary that the exposure be made with the intent that some particular person see it, but only that the exposure be made where it is subject to being viewed by a person or persons which the law seeks to protect from exposure to such lewd conduct. To come within the reach of the offense of indecent exposure, the act must involve an open display of one’s genital area coupled with the intent to indecently expose one’s self. Unintentional or inadvertent acts involving exposure of a person’s body to either an adult or child as a result of carelessness, particularly when the events occur in the privacy of one’s home, do not constitute a criminal offense. Hearn v. District of Columbia, 178 A.2d 434 (D.C.App.1962). What constitutes a public place within the meaning of the statute depends on the circumstances of each case. Messina v. State, 212 Md. 602, 130 A.2d 578 (1957). Since the legislature has added the words “public view” to the first paragraph of the redrafted statute, the offense must be intentionally perpetrated in a place accessible or visible to the general public to come within the ambit of proscribed criminal behavior. The second paragraph of Section 30-9-14 provides that “whoever commits indecent exposure before a child under the age of thirteen is guilty of a misdemeanor.” [Emphasis added.] This portion of the statute evinces an intent that the exposure, in order to constitute criminal conduct, need only occur in the presence of a single child. The first and second paragraphs of Section 30-9-14 read together indicate that the offense of indecent exposure occurs when the act is intentionally perpetrated before a child under the age of thirteen, in a place accessible or visible to the general public. Given the legislative history, it may be that the words, “public view” were inadvertently inserted in the 1975 amendment. In practical effect, what the 1975 amendment accomplished was the broadening of situations in which adults can be the victims of indecent exposure and the narrowing of circumstances in which children are victimized by indecent exposures. Until the legislature sees fit to remedy this incongruity, however, we are bound to interpret the statute by its plain and clear meaning. It is undisputed that the acts of defendant upon which the state relied to establish the convictions of indecent exposure occurred within the confines of a private residence. Defendant’s acts were not subject to being viewed by the public generally or by persons situated outside the home. Under these facts, the evidence does not support a finding that defendant intentionally exposed himself to “public view” as proscribed by the statute. Compare State v. Leyba, 80 N.M. 190, 453 P.2d 211 (Ct.App.) (defendant’s acts of indecently touching a minor and talking indecently to the child constituted contributing to the delinquency of a minor), cert. denied, 80 N.M. 198, 453 P.2d 219 (1969). Defendant’s convictions of indecent exposure are reversed. IT IS SO ORDERED. BIVINS and MINZNER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. On rehearing, the previous opinion is withdrawn and the following is substituted. Landmark Limited (Taxpayer), appeals from an administrative order of the Bernalillo County Valuation Protests Board (Board), upholding the Bernalillo County Assessor’s (Assessor) valuation of the property upon which Taxpayer’s apartment complex is located. On appeal, Taxpayer raises four issues. We find the first issue, whether the assessment of Taxpayer’s property was in accordance with the law, dispositive of the appeal. Reversed and remanded. FACTS Taxpayer has owned the Landmark, Ltd., an apartment building, and 3.2567 acres (140,862 square feet) of appurtenant land since 1970. The building and surrounding property has been used primarily for residential purposes. As shown by Board’s exhibit 2 admitted into evidence, the single tract of land embracing Taxpayer’s property falls within two diverse city zoning areas. The northern two-thirds of Taxpayer’s property abutting Jeannedale Drive is zoned C-2 (commercial). The remainder of the parcel, primarily adjoining Indian School Road and the portion underlying the Landmark apartment building, is zoned R-3 (residential). Taxpayer and Assessor have agreed that the property was utilized for residential purposes for the 1983 tax year. Taxpayer’s property was reassessed by Assessor in 1983 pursuant to a county reassessment program. In the 1983 Notice of Value, the Assessor determined the value of Taxpayer’s land, exclusive of the apartment building, to be $567,448.00 or $4.00 per square foot. For assessment purposes the building was separately valued at $1.00 per square foot. In response to the 1983 assessment, Taxpayer filed a protest pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 7-38-24 (Repl. Pamp.1983), challenging the valuation of the land. Taxpayer did not dispute the value placed on the apartment building. In its petition protesting the Assessor’s valuation of the land, Taxpayer estimated the value of its land to be $283,724.00. During the subsequent hearing on its protest, Taxpayer amended its estimate on the value of the land to $141,862.00 or $1.00 per square foot. At the protest hearing before the Board, Assessor presented two county appraisers who testified as to the 1983 market value of Taxpayer’s property. Each predicated their opinion upon comparable sales of three tracts of land located within a one mile radius of the Landmark. The comparabie sales relied upon by the Assessor occurred in 1972, 1973, and 1974 and involved tracts zoned C-3 (commercial), R-3 (residential), and C-2 (commercial), respectively. The three “comparables” were sold as undeveloped acreage and the prices of the tracts ranged from $4.68 to $5.60 per square foot. The sales price on the three comparable tracts were adjusted by the Assessor to 1975 market values. Assessor claims the comparables presented by his staff appraisers after adjustments uphold the valuation of the Landmark property at $4.00 per square foot. The Taxpayer called an appraiser, Roland J. Fletcher, as an expert witness. Fletcher testified that he used the market value method to appraise the value of the Taxpayer’s land and that he found eight comparable sales of residential properties situated within three miles of the Landmark. The eight comparable sales relied upon by Fletcher occurred between 1973 and 1978. Fletcher testified that each of the sales were of vacant land acquired for apartment development, ranging in price from $.55 to $1.20 per square foot. The witness stated that, according to these comparables, it was his opinion that the 1975 market value of Taxpayer’s land was between $1.00 and $1.25 per square foot. Based on the evidence presented at the protest hearing, the Board filed an order adopting findings of fact providing, inter alia: 18. The Landmark Building * * * is used primarily for permanent human habitation. 19. The subject property * * * is residential property * * *. ****** 24. The market value of the subject property in 1975, as determined by sales of comparable property, is determined by analyzing sales of similar recently sold properties * * *. ****** 29. In each case, the comparable [sales] contended by the property owner was a sale of vacant land, being acquired for the purpose of placing an apartment building on the land. ****** 31. On the other hand, the County Assessor contended at the hearing before the Board that the valuation placed on the property * * * is a uniform and accurate value applied by the Assessor to all land values in the area. 32. The Assessor contended that the value placed upon the subject property * * * is part of * * * placing a single uniform value on land in various areas of the city. ****** 36. * * * all but one of the comparables presented by the Assessor were sales of property zoned commercial. [Emphasis added.] Following the protest hearing, the Board entered an order denying Taxpayer’s protest of the valuation of the land. The Board upheld the Assessor’s valuation of the land “for the tax year 1983, [at] $567,-448, which is $4.00 per square foot, or $173,356.26 per acre,” and concluded that “the evidence presented did not show that [Assessor’s] value [was] incorrect * * *.” VALIDITY OF ASSESSMENT Was the proper method utilized by the Assessor to determine the 1983 market value of Taxpayer’s land? The answer to this question involves both compliance with the directives of NMSA 1978, Section 7-36-21.1 (Repl.Pamp.1983) (special method of valuation for residential property) and application of standard appraisal techniques. Section 7-36-21.1 requires that the tax valuation of “residential property” during 1983 be based upon its 1975 market value “as determined by sales of comparable property.” Taxpayer argues that “comparable property”, within the context of the special statute for valuation of residential property (Section 7-36-21.1), means comparable “residential” property. In opposition, Assessor argues that the Coronado Center area, where the Taxpayer’s property is situated, is unique because it encompasses some of the most valuable realty in Albuquerque. Assessor argues that in determining the value of Taxpayer’s land for 1983 property assessment purposes, he is not bound to compare the property only with other similar “residential” properties, but instead may utilize comparable sales of similar properties in the Coronado Center area, irrespective of whether the properties relied upon as “comparables” are in fact commercial or residential. The general rule is that evidence of comparable sales is admissible in support of the opinion of an expert about the market value of a parcel of real estate. State ex rel. Department of Highways v. Aker, 507 P.2d 1227 (Okla.1973); State v. Dillingham Corp., 60 Hawaii 393, 591 P.2d 1049 (1979); Montana State Highway Commission v. Jacobs, 150 Mont. 322, 435 P.2d 274 (1967). See also NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 702, 703 (Repl.Pamp.1983). Evidence of comparable sales is generally admissible to aid the trier of fact in determining the value of property where the sales are bona fide and voluntary, are sufficiently near in time, location, and size, and are sufficiently alike in character, situation, usability and improvements. Peterson Properties, Del Rio Plaza Shopping Center v. Valencia County Valuation Protests Board, 89 N.M. 239, 549 P.2d 1074 (Ct.App.1976). See also Maricopa County v. Sperry Rand Corp., 112 Ariz. 579, 544 P.2d 1094 (1976). In establishing the value of property, evidence of the value of comparable property must meet the test of relevancy. Whether the requisite degree of similarity exists for the purpose of admitting evidence of alleged comparable sales is largely within the discretion of the trial court. Transwestern Pipe Line Co. v. Yandell, 69 N.M. 448, 367 P.2d 938 (1961). However, evidence of other sales is relevant only where the properties are substantially similar in condition. Annett v. Post, 45 Or. App. 121, 607 P.2d 785 (1980); Lippert v. Angle, 211 Kan. 695, 508 P.2d 920 (1973). In 1981 the legislature enacted a special statute (Section 7-36-21.1) in order to standardize certain county property reassessment practices. Section 7-36-21.1 provides in applicable part: A. All residential property subject to valuation for property taxation purposes by the county assessor shall be valued in accordance with the provisions of this section. B. For the 1982 through the 1985 tax years, the value for property taxation purposes of residential property that was valued for property taxation purposes in the 1975 tax year shall be its market value in 1975 as determined by sales of comparable property and: (1) increased by the full value of any physical improvements made to the property during the period from January 1, 1975 to January 1 of the year in which the value for property taxation purposes is being determined; (2) increased by any increment of value resulting to the property from any rezoning or similar action of a governmental body that has resulted in a change of permitted use of the property since January 1, 1975 * * *. [Emphasis added.] Two of the three parcels of land utilized as "comparables” by the Assessor consisted of tracts of land zoned commercial and developed for office use. Ramona Nuzzo, a staff appraiser employed by Assessor, testified that the three comparable sales of property she relied upon in arriving at her opinion of the market value of Taxpayer’s property, involved tracts which were zoned at the time of the sale as R-3 (permitting houses, townhouses and apartments), C-2 (community commercial zone), and C-3 (heavy commercial zone). Assessor contends that the market value of Taxpayer’s property should be determined according to the highest and best use of the property permitted under the zoning laws. Assessor argues that since the land in question could be used either for residential or commercial purposes, an appraiser should look to the highest and best permitted use of the property in determining market value for tax valuation. Generally, market value is determined by the most valuable and best use to which property could reasonably, practically and lawfully be used. Masheter v. Ohio Holding Co., 38 Ohio App.2d 49, 313 N.E.2d 413 (1973), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 835, 95 S.Ct. 61, 42 L.Ed.2d 61 (1974); see also Encyclopedia of Real Estate Appraising 22 (E. Friedman ed. 1976). By statutory provision, a valuation fixed by the Assessor is presumed to be correct unless the presumption is rebutted by the Taxpayer. NMSA 1978, § 7-38-6 (Repl.Pamp.1983); see also Bakel v. Bernalillo County Assessor, 95 N.M. 723, 625 P.2d 1240 (Ct.App.1980). The presumption of correctness may be rebutted and once it is rebutted, the burden shifts to the Assessor to show a correct valuation. Id. See also Petition of Kinscherff 89 N.M. 669, 556 P.2d 355 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 8, 558 P.2d 620 (1976). In the present case, Taxpayer offered sufficient evidence to overcome the presumption of a correct valuation of its property. The language of Section 7-36-21.1 precludes valuation of residential property for tax purposes based on comparative sales of non-residential properties unless the permitted use of the property has changed. The title to Laws 1981, ch. 37, enacting Section 7-36-21.1 contains an insight to legislative intent at the time the statute was adopted. The title states: “An act relating to taxation * * * creating residential and non-residential classes of property for taxation purposes; establishing a special method of valuation for residential property; changing certain provisions relating to the administration of the property tax and other tax laws * * [Emphasis added.] Section 7-36-21.1, as it relates to the mode of determining the market value of residential property for property tax purposes, evidences an intention that the market value of the taxpayer’s property be determined by looking to the value of other comparable “residential property” and not on the basis of comparable sales of non-residential property. The record does not indicate that the market value of Taxpayer’s property was determined in accord with the statute. Assessor relied upon comparable sales, some of which were of non-residential properties, in arriving at his valuation. While this approach would be proper in fixing the value of that portion of Taxpayer’s property which has been subsequently rezoned C-2, use of comparable sales of non-residential properties to value that portion of Taxpayer’s lands which were zoned residential is contrary to the clear import of Section 7-36-21.1. The term “comparable property” as utilized in Section 7-36-21.-1(B) means other similar “residential” property. It is a fundamental rule of appraisal that in determining the market value of a tract of land, valuation must be based upon the highest and best use for which the property may be used. As noted in the Encyclopedia of Real Estate Appraising, ch. 1 at 8, each appraisal requires a study by the appraiser as to the property’s “highest and best” use, and; [t]he question of highest and best use becomes particularly pertinent when the subject property is compared with other properties in the neighborhood which have recently been sold, and the logical or permissive uses to which these sold properties may be put in comparison with the subject property * * *. If a logical or permissive use of the subject property is residential only, the sale of a commercial site is scarcely, if ever, pertinent for comparison purposes, even though the two properties [may] adjoin one another. [Emphasis added.] Section 7-36-21.1(B) directs that the portion of Taxpayer’s property which falls within the area zoned residential be valued based only upon comparable sales of other similar residential properties. The remaining portion of Taxpayer’s parcel which has been rezoned commercial is not subject to the use of comparable residential sales limitation imposed by the statute. However, the statute does require that residential property be increased in value if rezoning has enhanced the property’s worth. Since Taxpayer’s property is a single unit, although intersected by two different zoning areas, under the provisions of Section 7-36-21.1, the Assessor must determine the value of the two differently zoned areas of the property based upon comparable sales of “similar” properties and upon their respective highest and best uses. Then, a single market value must be determined for the entire tract after making appropriate adjustments for the fact of the bifurcated zoning of the property. Where a method of valuation is specified by law, an Assessor has a duty to follow the statute. First National Bank v. Bernalillo County Valuation Protest Board, 90 N.M. 110, 560 P.2d 174 (Ct.App.1977). Calculations by an Assessor not in accord with the basic requirements of statutes prescribing a method of assessing properties for tax purposes will render the decision void. La Jara Land Developers, Inc. v. Bernalillo County Assessor, 97 N.M. 318, 639 P.2d 605 (Ct.App.1982). The administrative order appealed from is reversed and the cause is remanded with instructions to reassess Taxpayer’s property in accordance with the provisions of Section 7-36-21.1 and consistent with this opinion. The parties shall bear their own costs on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. NEAL and ALARID, JJ., concur. . A copy of Assessor’s exhibit 2 is attached to this opinion. The exhibit indicates the dual zoning of Taxpayer’s property existed in 1983. . "Residential property” is "[p]roperty consisting of one or more dwellings together with appurtenant structures, the land underlying both the dwellings and the appurtenant structures and a quantity of land reasonably necessary for parking and other uses that facilitate the use of the dwellings and appurtenant structures * * NMSA 1978, § 7-35-2(1) (Repl. Pamp.1983). . "Non-residential property” means property that is not residential property. Section 7-35-2(E).
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ÓPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. The Revenue Division of the Taxation and Revenue Department (Tax Collector) appeals from a partial summary judgment entered by the district court directing Tax Collector to refund compensating taxes previously paid by Phelps Dodge (Taxpayer) incident to its mining operations in New Mexico. Two issues are raised on appeal: (1) whether a 1984 legislative amendment to the Tax Code is valid curative legislation and a proper exercise of legislative power; and (2) whether such legislation may be applied retroactively. We affirm. FACTS On December 28, 1983, Taxpayer filed a request with Tax Collector, pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 7-1-26 (Repl.Pamp. 1983), for a refund of compensating taxes previously paid by it during the reporting period of 1980 through 1983. Taxpayer’s request for refund was grounded upon a decision rendered by this court. RanchersTufco Limestone Project Joint Venture v. Revenue Division New Mexico Taxation & Revenue Dept., 100 N.M. 632, 674 P.2d 522 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 100 N.M. 505, 672 P.2d 1136 (1983). Ranchers arose from a lawsuit which challenged Tax Collector’s interpretation of NMSA 1978, Section 7-9-35 (Repl.Pamp. 1983), which interpretation permitted uranium mining companies an exemption from the gross receipts tax but denied exemption for compensating taxes. In Ranchers this court held in part that under Section 7-9-35, certain mining companies were exempt from the payment of compensating and gross receipts tax by reason of their payment of the resources tax. Ranchers held that the language of Section 7-9-35 was plain and unambiguous and entitled taxpayers to the benefit of both exemptions. Ranchers further stated: Section 7-9-35 states that no provision of the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act applies to the “privilege of en gaging in the business” when the resources tax applies. The business of both taxpayers is severing natural resources. The definition of “severing” includes mining or producing any natural resources in New Mexico for sale or profit. Property used in the mine operations of the taxpayers as an integral part of the mining operation is used in the business of severing. [Citations omitted.] Id. at 643, 674 P.2d at 533. Following the issuance of this court’s opinion in Ranchers, and during the period that Taxpayer’s refund request was pending, the state legislature enacted House Bill 6 (HB 6), 1984 N.M. Laws, ch. 2, §§ 1-10, materially amending and changing certain statutory definitions and exemptions contained in the New Mexico Tax Code, and specifically amending Section 7-9-35. The 1984 legislative amendment revised the language of Section 7-9-35 to provide that “[a] taxpayer subject to the Resources Excise Tax Act is also subject to the compensating tax pursuant to the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act and any other taxes imposed by any tax act which is applicable to the taxpayer * * Section 10 of the 1984 Act declares that the legislature “finds that the intent of the legislature * * * has been misconstrued. It has been the intention of the legislature * * * that privileges for engaging in activities taxed under other tax acts would be exempt from only the gross receipts tax, unless otherwise specifically exempted from the compensating tax, and only to the extent specified by law.” Section 10; compiled at NMSA 1978, § 7-9-12.1 (Supp. 1984); see also NMSA 1978, § 7-9-12 (Supp.1984). House Bill 6 included legislative language directing that the amendments enacted by certain provisions of the act, including the amendment to Section 7-9-35, be given retroactive effect. “The provisions of Sections 2 through 5 [amendment of Section 7-9-35], 8 and 9 of this act apply to taxable events occurring on and after January 1, 1980.” 1984 N.M.Laws, ch. 2, § 13. Following the enactment of HB 6 on February 11, 1984, Tax Collector denied Taxpayer’s claim for refund on February 13, 1984. Taxpayer filed a timely appeal from the denial of its refund in the District Court of Santa Fe County pursuant to Section 7-l-26(A)(2). The district court adopted findings of fact and conclusions of law determining that the 1984 statutory amendment to Section 7-9-35 should be accorded prospective application, but not retroactive effect. The trial court also concluded that “[t]he provisions of Chapter 2 of Laws 1984 respecting the exemption provided by * * * § 7-9-35 * * * are an attempt by the 1984 legislature to construe the meaning of that section as enacted by the 1969 legislature and cannot be given effect because they constitute an exercise of the judicial function * * * prohibited by Section 1 of Article III of the New Mexico Constitution.” VALIDITY OF AMENDMENT We jointly address Tax Collector’s two issues on appeal. Both parties on appeal agree that the legislature had the authority to enact HB 6, amending the tax laws of this state. The dispute in this case turns upon the issue of whether the legislature may validly enact legislation directing that the 1984 statutory amendment shall be accorded retroactive application to January 1, 1980. Tax Collector argues that HB 6 was curative legislation and was intended to correct a technical defect in the tax laws which was pointed out by the Ranchers decision. Tax Collector in its brief-in-chief attacks the rationale of Ranchers and contends that the legislature may retroactively rewrite the language of Section 7-9-35 to reflect the interpretation previously placed upon the exemption statute by Tax Collector. Tax Collector argues that as curative legislation, the 1984 act came within the legislature’s constitutional authority to affect present and future applications of the law to present and past situations. Taxpayer argues that HB 6 substantially changed Section 7-9-35 by restricting Taxpayer’s exemption to the gross receipts tax eliminating the compensating tax exemp tion upheld by Ranchers. Therefore, the 1984 amendment was not merely a correction of a technical defect, but was a substantive change of the statute. Taxpayer argues that a substantive change of the statute can only be constitutionally applied prospectively. Taxpayer further argues that HB 6, if given retroactive application so as to deny its application for tax refund, violates Article IV, Section 34 of the New Mexico State Constitution which provides that “[n]o act of the legislature shall affect the right or remedy of either party * * * in any pending case.” Tax Collector in response argues that Taxpayer’s request for tax refund under Section 7-1-26 is not a “pending case” within the meaning of Article IV, Section 34 of the constitution. We disagree. Section 7-1-26 requires a taxpayer to first apply to the Director of the Bureau of Revenue for a tax refund. NMSA 1978, Section 7-1-22 (Repl.Pamp. 1983) provides that no court has jurisdiction to entertain any proceeding by a taxpayer until the taxpayer has exhausted his administrative remedies. If the claim is denied, the taxpayer may either apply to the director for further hearing on its claim or file suit in the district court asking the court to adjudicate the validity of the denial of the refused claim. Article IV, Section 34, prohibiting the application of retroactive legislation to pending case was interpreted in Stockard v. Hamilton, 25 N.M. 240, 245, 180 P. 294 (1919), where the court held: This provision of the Constitution [Art. IV, § 34] was inserted for the purpose of curing a well-known method, too often used * * * [the enactment of new legislation was used] to win cases in the courts by legislation which changed the rules of evidence and procedure in cases which were then being adjudicated by the various courts of the state. In the instant case, Taxpayer had formally applied for the tax refund requested in accordance with state law, and since exhaustion of administrative remedies is a prerequisite to seeking relief in the district court, Taxpayer is entitled to the protection extended by Article IV, Section 34 of the state constitution. Under the facts in this case, the legislature’s enactment of HB 6, with retroactive application, violated Article IV, Section 34 of the New Mexico Constitution. Further, in advancing its argument that HB 6 constitutes “curative” legislation and thus is entitled to retroactive application, Tax Collector relies in part upon Welch v. Henry, 305 U.S. 134, 59 S.Ct. 121, 83 L.Ed. 87, reh’g denied, 305 U.S. 675, 59 S.Ct. 250, 83 L.Ed. 437 (1938); Purvis v. United States, 501 F.2d 311 (9th Cir.1974), cert. denied, 420 U.S. 947, 95 S.Ct. 1329, 43 L.Ed.2d 425 (1975); Ferguson v. Superior Court of Maricopa County, 76 Ariz. 31, 258 P.2d 421 (1953); and Mecham v. State Tax Commission, 17 Utah 2d 321, 410 P.2d 1008 (1966). Examination of these authorities indicates that the common thread in each of these cases was that the legislation sought to be given retroactive application did not substantively change the result of judicial application of tax law retroactively. In the case at bar, HB 6 sought to abrogate the interpretation of the exemption statute in Ranchers found to be clear and unambiguous and to preclude the decision in Ranchers from being accorded normal stare decisis effect. The instant case is similar to a decision rendered by the Arkansas Supreme Court in Federal Express Corp. v. Skelton, 265 Ark. 187, 578 S.W.2d 1 (1979). In that case the court cited the Arkansas constitutional prohibition against any department exercising power invested in another, and held: Sections * * * of [the] Act * * * is [sic] a clear attempt by the 1975 General Assembly to interpret a law enacted by the 1949 General Assembly after this Court has interpreted and applied that law. We think this violates the Separation of Powers principle. The legislature can prospectively change the tax laws of this state * * * but it does not have the power or authority to retrospectively abrogate judicial pronouncements of the courts of this State by a legislative inter pretation of the law. The 1975 legislature cannot state what the 1949 legislature intended when it enacted Act 487 of 1949; such interpretation falls exclusively within the province of the judicial branch. For the 1975 legislature to declare the intent of a prior legislature and make the declaration retroactive so as to affect an interpretation already rendered by the courts is an abuse of legislative power which violates the Separation of Powers Doctrine. [Citations omitted.] 578 S.W.2d at 7-8. Similarly, the Illinois Supreme Court in Roth v. Yackley, 77 Ill.2d 423, 33 Ill.Dec. 131, 396 N.E.2d 520 (1979) invalidated a legislative amendment which sought to declare legislative intent retroactively regarding an earlier statute. There, the court held, “[t]he General Assembly’s subsequent declaration of prior intent cannot alter the clear import of the prior statutory language.” 396 N.E.2d at 522. See also Road Builders, Inc. of Tennessee v. Hawes, 228 Ga. 608, 187 S.E.2d 287 (1972); Des Moines Independent Community School District v. Armstrong, 250 Iowa 634, 95 N.W.2d 515 (1959). Ordinarily a change in legislative language “is evidence that the previous statute meant the ‘exact contrary.’ ” State v. Foglia, 182 N.J.Super. 12, 440 A.2d 16, 18 (1981). While it is clear that the courts in New Mexico have recognized the effect of curative legislation, Worman v. Echo Ridge Homes Cooperative, Inc., 98 N.M. 237, 647 P.2d 870 (1982), the new legislation must not alter the clear language of a prior statute if it is to be applied retroactively. Since this court in Ranchers was able to ascertain and apply the “plain meaning” rule of statutory construction when interpreting Section 7-9-35, the 1984 changes to Section 7-9-35 were substantive, rather than clarifications of a statute that this court found to be plain and unambiguous in Ranchers. In City of Santa Fe v. Armijo, 96 N.M. 663, 634 P.2d 685 (1981), the court referred to a statute as “curative” which attempted to validate a zoning ordinance which had been adopted without authority, and held that the city’s lack of authority to adopt the ordinance could not be “cured” retroactively. Careful scrutiny of HB 6 indicates that the law seeks to correct the interpretation of a number of the definitions and exemptions in the state tax laws. The title to the act provides: “An Act Relating to Taxation; Changing and Clarifying Certain Definitions and Exemptions * * *.” Undeniably, the provisions of HB 6, changing the applicability of the exemptions set out in Section 7-9-35, are within the proper reach of legislative authority, however, since HB 6 substantively changes the exemption provisions of Section 7-9-35, the statute must be accorded prospective application only. Changes, not merely clarifications, of an existing law cannot be constitutionally applied retroactively. Federal Express Corp. v. Skelton. The tax collector in Ranchers did not argue that the case should be limited to prospective application, but seeks to advance that contention in the instant case. ■ The provisions of HB 6, modifying the right to claim tax exemptions, may be prospectively applied as emergency legislation only from and after February 11, 1984, the date the legislation was signed into law. The district court’s granting of plaintiff’s partial summary judgment motion is supported by either our holding that HB 6, as a substantive tax amendment, may not be constitutionally applied retroactively or our holding that Phelps Dodge is protected by the safeguards in Article IV, Section 34 of the state constitution. Either ground is sufficient to uphold the district court’s ruling. Ranchers embodies the applicable interpretation of Section 7-9-35 for taxable events occurring before February 11, 1984. The order of the district court finding that the provisions of HB 6 do not bar Taxpayer from seeking the refund, is affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD and NEAL, JJ., concur. . NMSA 1978, Section 7-9-12 (Repl.Pamp.1983), prior to the 1984 legislative amendment provided: "Exempted from the gross receipts or compensating tax are those receipts or uses exempted in Sections 7-9-13 through 7-9-42 NMSA 1978.”
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OPINION HENDLEY, Judge. Convicted of two counts of burglary and one count each of larceny and arson, defendant appeals. The dispositive issue is ineffective assistance of counsel. We reverse and remand for a new trial on all counts. Defendant and Jimmie Don Shamlin met while they were both staying at the Gospel Rescue Mission in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Shamlin had a car and defendant had some money. During the day of the Fourth of July, defendant and Shamlin drove around and shared between five to twelve pitchers of beer at the Welcome Inn. After the Welcome Inn closed, defendant and Shamlin drove to a residence known as “the old Burk house” and removed items valued at over $1,000, or more. The residence had recently been rented by Amazing Grace Fellowship which had employed defendant to do some of the repairs needed. At the time of the theft, defendant informed Shamlin that, since his fingerprints were in places where they should not be, he was going to set fire to the place. A fire was set and subsequently rekindled. The only witness presented by the defense was Don Combs, a mental health professional, who testified that defendant suffered from an impulse disorder of pyromania. He testified that the disorder was increased by drinking. He also testified that the disorder was serious because of defendant’s extensive history of setting fires. Defendant also claims that it is double jeopardy to prosecute him on the two counts of burglary. We answer his claim only because we remand the case. Because defendant committed the burglaries for two separate reasons — to steal and to commit arson — it is not double jeopardy to prosecute him on two counts of burglary. The claim is without merit. Ineffective Assistance of Counsel The standard for ineffective assistance of counsel in New Mexico was changed from the old test of a “sham and mockery” to that of whether defense counsel exercised the skill of a reasonably competent attorney. State v. Orona, 97 N.M. 232, 638 P.2d 1077 (1982); State v. McGuinty, 97 N.M. 360, 639 P.2d 1214 (Ct.App.1982). Orona explained that the change in the language articulating the standard of ineffective assistance was simply a formalization of recent trends in the case law, even though the “sham and mockery” standard was nominally still the rule until Orona and McGuinty. Defendant has the burden of showing both the incompetence of his attorney and the proof of prejudice. McGuinty. Further, absent a showing by defendant, counsel is presumed competent. State v. Moser, 78 N.M. 212, 430 P.2d 106 (1967). In considering an ineffectiveness claim, the entire proceeding must be considered as a whole. State v. French, 92 N.M. 94, 582 P.2d 1307 (Ct.App.1978); State v. Kincheloe, 87 N.M. 34, 528 P.2d 893 (Ct.App.1974). In considering a claim of ineffective assistance, the duties of counsel are considered. Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 104 S.Ct. 2052, 80 L.Ed.2d 674 (1984). These duties include loyalty, avoiding a conflict of interest, consulting with defendant on important decisions, keeping defendant informed of important developments, and using skill and knowledge to render the trial a reliable adversarial testing process. Strickland. “The benchmark for judging any claim of ineffectiveness must be whether counsel’s conduct so undermined the proper functioning of the adversarial process that the trial cannot be relied on as having produced a just result.” Strickland. See also United States v. Cronic, 466 U.S. 648, 104 S.Ct. 2039, 80 L.Ed.2d 657 (1984). Cases in New Mexico that have found ineffective assistance of counsel involved conflict of interest (State v. Aguilar, 87 N.M. 503, 536 P.2d 263 (Ct.App.1975)), the failure to sufficiently instruct client so that a guilty plea could not have been freely given (State v. Kincheloe), and a cumulation of eight instances of deficient attorney performance (State v. Pitts, 700 P.2d 650 (1985)). In State v. Luna, 92 N.M. 680, 594 P.2d 340 (Ct.App.1979), this Court remanded a matter for determination of whether failure to file a pretrial motion concerning a conspiracy charge, which either had been dismissed or upon which co-conspirators had been acquitted, constituted-ineffective assistance of counsel. a. Failure to tender a proper instruction on defense of inability to form specific intent Defense counsel failed to request a proper instruction on the defense of inability to form specific intent. Instruction Number 10, the instruction given the jury, does not comply with the use instruction which requires that the instruction “[rjepeat the applicable intent to do a further act or achieve a further consequence from the essential elements instruction of the crime.” NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.11 (Repl.Pamp.1982). State v. Kendall, 90 N.M. 236, 561 P.2d 935 (Ct.App.1977), considered this requirement. In Kendall, the defendant complained that UJI Crim. 41.11 was not given following each of the kidnapping counts, but instead followed all the kidnapping counts. We held that the “application of a specific intent instruction to several counts involving the same specific intent crime was not a substantial modification of UJ.I.Crim. 41.11.” The complaint of defendant in this case is of greater magnitude than the alleged error in Kendall. In this case, the specific intent instruction followed the elements instructions for three different specific intent crimes — burglary, larceny, and arson. Instead of repeating the language concerning specific intent of each of the substantive crimes, the specific intent instruction simply described the intent in question as “deliberate intention to commit the crimes.” The problem in this case arose from the fact that UJI Crim. 41.11 was not given. Rather, the court gave a modified NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.10 (Repl.Pamp.1982), which is the inability to form the specific intent instruction for first degree murder of the willful and deliberate variety. Use Note 1 to UJI Crim. 41.10. This is contrary to the use instruction for UJI Crim. 41.11, the appropriate instruction in this case, which requires that the “applicable intent to do a further act or achieve a further consequence” be included in the instruction to describe the type of intent that defendant may not have been capable of forming. Use Note 4 to UJI Crim. 41.11. Moreover, this error is compounded by the fact that each of the crimes charged — two counts of burglary, one count of larceny and one count of arson — all carry a specific intent element unique to that crime. (UJI Crim. 41.11’s Committee commentary provides that the instruction is only applicable to crimes that contain an element of intent to do a further act or achieve a further consequence. See State v. Beach, 102 N.M. 642, 699 P.2d 115 (1985).) The instructions given were thus contrary to law and, as a consequence, did not allow the jury to make a decision on the effect of defendant’s mental disorder, which only affects intent to achieve a further consequence or do a further act. See State v. Buhr, 82 N.M. 371, 482 P.2d 74 (Ct.App.1971). Cf. State v. Trivitt, 89 N.M. 162, 548 P.2d 442 (1976). The state contends that even if the giving of the erroneous instruction constituted incompetence on the part of defense counsel, no prejudice was shown because Combs’ testimony regarding defendant’s inability to form a specific intent was “highly equivocal, and even internally contradictory.” We disagree. Combs testified that defendant was a pyromaniac and that pyromaniacs were unable to avoid impulses to set fires. He further testified that when defendant lost his impulse control through intoxication his behavior was not under his control. Defendant suffered prejudice from the fact that the jury was not properly instructed concerning inability to form specific intent. b. Failure to tender limiting instruction regarding defendant’s statement made during a mental examination. Defendant next argues that ineffective assistance of counsel is demonstrated by the fact that defense counsel did not request that NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 40.09 (Repl.Pamp.1982) be given, which would have directed the jury that Combs’ testimony concerning what defendant said should only be used for the purpose of considering the question of defendant’s insanity. The testimony that most concerns defendant was information elicited by the prosecutor on cross-examination of Combs that the defendant had previously set fire to a car that he had stolen because he had touched everything in the car. The state argues that the failure to give this limiting instruction did not create a reasonable probability that the jury would have reached a different result, one of the tests for showing ineffective assistance of counsel. It contends that the prosecutor’s use of the statement concerning the defendant’s previous burning of a stolen car to destroy his fingerprints was only for the purpose of refuting Combs’ opinion as to the defendant’s mental disorder. Thus, the state concludes, since the jury was not urged to use the statement as factual evidence of guilt, defendant has not shown that UJI Crim. 40.09 was necessary to the jury’s deliberations. This reasoning is fallacious. According to the Committee commentary to UJI Crim. 40.09, “ ‘such statements could be prejudicial * * * [and] [t]he district judge must therefore * * * be careful in instructing the jury as to the significance of the testimony.’ ” Nowhere is the giving of the instruction limited to situations where the testimony is used by the prosecution for the wider improper purpose. The failure to tender the instruction showed the incompetence of defense counsel. McGuinty. Standing alone, the omission was not prejudicial, but it was prejudicial when combined with the error discussed previously. This instance of incompetence is cumulatively an aspect of ineffective assistance of counsel. State v. Pitts. c. Failure to tender instruction concerning lack of ability to form a specific intent due to intoxication. Defendant argues that the defense of intoxication was raised by defense coun sel in his opening statement. No instruction was tendered on this theory of the case. Throughout the opening statement, defense counsel stated that defendant’s alcoholism, coupled with his mental disorder, caused defendant to be subject to irresistible impulses. Thus, defense counsel did not act incompetently in not requesting an instruction concerning the lack of ability to form specific intent due to his intoxication. See State v. Samora, 82 N.M. 252, 479 P.2d 532 (Ct.App.1970), in which this Court ruled that failure to request this instruction, even when evidence revealed defendant to be quite intoxicated “may have been no more than bad strategy on the part of counsel.” But given the facts of this case and Combs’ testimony, it was one more thread with which to tie the knot of ineffective assistance of counsel. Based solely on the foregoing, we hold that the cumulative effect of failure of defendant’s counsel to tender proper jury instructions amounted to the denial of effective assistance of counsel. Defense counsel acted incompetently at least in the area of the instructions and likely in his preparation of the defense. This incompetence prejudiced defendant because no defense was presented at all for the larceny and first burglary charge (defense counsel argued that Shamlin was the principal actor in these crimes). Defense counsel failed to present instructions to the jury on one of the major defenses to all four counts — the defense of inability to form specific intent. This omission is more than a matter of trial tactics. See Trivitt; Samora. State v. Chacon, 80 N.M. 799, 461 P.2d 932 (Ct.App.1969), states that this Court’s “obligation on review, however, is to affirm a conviction unless the record reveals a very real possibility of a miscarriage of justice.” Under the circumstances here a miscarriage of justice did occur. We recognize that defendant is not entitled to a perfect trial free from error, but he is at least entitled to a fair trial with his defenses fairly presented. Compare State v. Moore, 94 N.M. 503, 612 P.2d 1314 (1980). Reversed and remanded for a new trial. IT IS SO ORDERED. DONNELLY, C.J., and ALARID, J., concur. ORDER AND ORDER TO SHOW CAUSE In this cause, defendant filed a pro se notice of appeal on March 28, 1984. The trial court's order of May 1, 1984, appointing the public defender also ordered trial counsel be responsible for the preparation and filing of the docketing statement. On June 22, 1984, the public defender filed a motion for compliance with NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App. Rule 205 (Repl.Pamp.1983). On July 2, 1984, this court issued an order and order to show cause, ordering trial counsel, Jose Arrieta, to file a docketing statement by July 16, 1984, and further ordering Mr. Arrieta and the public defender to show cause why they should not be held in contempt of this court for their failure to insure that a timely docketing statement was filed. The public defender has responded to our order to show cause, detailing its activities to insure the timely filing of a docketing statement. Its activities included communication with defendant, ascertainment that the public defender had been appointed as counsel on appeal in an order which provided that trial counsel file the docketing statement, its communications with this court, and conversations with Mr. Arrieta in which Mr. Arrieta agreed to file the docketing statement by June 18, 1984. This response shows cause why the public defender should not be held in contempt of this court and the order to show cause directed at the public defender is, accordingly, quashed. Mr. Arrieta has also responded to the order to show cause. His response states that, in his opinion, the appeal is frivolous and requests withdrawal on the ground that he is not obligated to advance frivolous contentions in this court. The re sponse states that the only issue of which Mr. Arrieta is aware is ineffective assistance of counsel. Mr. Arrieta states his understanding of State v. Franklin, 78 N.M. 127, 428 P.2d 982 (1967), and cases therein to be that, in this situation, trial counsel’s responsibilities are at an end and that it is the responsibility of appellate counsel and the appellate court to review the entire record of proceedings and decide whether the appeal is frivolous. Mr. Arrieta has still not filed a docketing statement. This response does not show cause why Mr. Arrieta should not be held in contempt for the following reasons. First, Franklin and the cases therein were decided in the context of rules of appellate procedure which provide that appellate contentions are decided on the basis of a record which contemplates a verbatim transcript of proceedings. Our rules of appellate procedure, of which Rule 205 is a part, do not so provide. It has never been held that a complete verbatim transcript of proceedings is necessary to afford adequate appellate review. State v. Herrera, 84 N.M. 46, 499 P.2d 364 (Ct.App.1972). Our appellate rules provide for a docketing statement, Rule 205, which, if not challenged, is accepted as the facts of the case. State v. Sisneros, 98 N.M. 201, 647 P.2d 403 (1982). The docketing statement is an adequate alternative to a complete transcript of proceedings. Reading Franklin and Rule 205 together, it is obvious that trial counsel’s responsibility, in a case where he believes the appeal is frivolous, is nonetheless to prepare a docketing statement of sufficient completeness to afford adequate appellate review. Defendant has an absolute right of an appeal. N.M. Const, art. VI, § 2. This means that counsel should state the contentions advanced by a defendant pursuant to Franklin. Counsel should also include in the docketing statement a statement of all facts material to those contentions pursuant to Rule 205(a)(3) and should also inform this court, pursuant to Rule 205(a)(4), whether the contentions were raised in the trial court. Because of the nature of appellate review, in the event that contentions advanced by defendant would not appear of record, counsel should also inform this court of that fact. Second, if the foregoing was not clear to Mr. Arrieta, the least he should have done was to arrange for his withdrawal in a timely fashion. His unilateral notice of withdrawal, filed in the trial court, was ineffective to do this. It was not only inaccurate, but it also violated NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 53(b) (Repl.Pamp.1980) and Rule 205(b). Mr. Arrieta is, therefore, ordered to appear in the court of appeals courtroom on, August 7, 1984, at 1:30 P.M. to show cause why he should not be held in contempt of this court. Under the unique circumstances of this case detailed above, in order to insure defendant’s right to appeal, Mr. Arrieta’s motion to withdraw is granted. The public defender shall be responsible for filing the docketing statement in this cause. The docketing statement shall be due not later than August 6, 1984. The public defender shall exercise its judgment in determining the extent and mode of preparation necessary to filing the docketing statement. If conversations with trial counsel and the defendant are deemed sufficient, the docketing statement shall be written on the basis of those. If not, the public defender shall obtain the tapes of the trial and base the docketing statement on them. In any case, this court has set the due date for filing the docketing statement sufficiently in advance to allow the public defender to listen to the tapes. No extensions will be granted. Citations to tape counters are not necessary.
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. We granted certiorari on this matter only to review the basis for the Court of Appeals’ decision regarding reimbursement of compensation paid after the workman’s disability has ended. Repeal of a statute by implication is disfavored. We affirm the decision of the Court of Appeals but, with regard to reimbursement, we adopt Judge Bivins’s special concurrence. IT IS SO ORDERED. FEDERICI, C.J., SOSA, Senior Justice, and RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., concur. APPENDIX Nos. 7996, 8003. Court of Appeals of New Mexico. July 16, 1985. OPINION DONNELLY, Chief Judge. Both plaintiff and defendants appeal from a judgment modifying a prior workmen’s compensation award of total and permanent disability. We discuss: (1) whether substantial evidence supports the trial court’s finding that plaintiff’s disability had partially diminished; (2) whether defendants were entitled to reimbursement for total disability benefits paid after plaintiff obtained other employment; and (3) denial of an award of attorney’s fees. We affirm in part and reverse in part. Plaintiff was injured on May 29, 1979, while employed as a carpenter for defendant, Kaufman Plumbing and Heating Company. While jumping from a scaffold, plaintiff hit his head and fell. As a result of the injury, plaintiff experienced neck pain, headaches and dizziness, pain in his right shoulder and arm, accompanying numbness in his right arm, and lower back pain. In September 1980, the trial court entered a judgment finding plaintiff was totally and permanently disabled and awarded him weekly benefits of $186.38, not to exceed a total of six hundred weeks. Prior to his accident, plaintiff had previously worked as a sheriff's deputy for Sandoval County and as a reserve sheriff’s officer for Bernalillo County. Because of this background, plaintiff decided in the course of rehabilitation counseling to seek admission to the New Mexico Law Enforcement Academy (Academy). In March 1981, less than six months following the judgment awarding him total disability benefits, plaintiff was physically examined in connection with his application to the Academy. As part of the exam, plaintiff filled out a checklist, indicating that he was not suffering headaches, dizziness or back pain, but also indicating that he had received workmen’s compensation benefits for a neck and back injury. At the time of the examination on March 10, 1981, plaintiff reported that he was experiencing “no difficulty now.” Plaintiff was admitted to the Academy and attended a six-week course in the summer of 1981. He graduated sixth in a class of 28. Frank A. Mulholland, deputy director of the Academy, testified that plaintiff’s test performance scores were “near perfect”. Plaintiff’s transcript from the Academy showed that he scored a grade of 100 on the physical agility component of the program which, according to Mulholland, involved running after a suspect to make an arrest, climbing a chain link fence, crawling and climbing through an open window, dragging heavy weights and climbing stairs. Plaintiff testified that although he had difficulty performing these physical requirements, he never complained to Academy personnel for fear of being rejected from the program. After graduating from the Academy, plaintiff applied for a position as a policeman with the Rio Rancho Police Depart-, ment. In his employment application, plaintiff acknowledged having suffered a back injury, but denied having any current physical defects. As part of the application process, plaintiff was required to submit to a comprehensive physical examination. The medical report indicated that plaintiff denied having ever had a “serious” accident or illness, back trouble, frequent headaches or dizzy spells. Dr. Roy Kropinak, who conducted the physical examination of plaintiff incident to his job application, noted that plaintiff was in “excellent health— both physical and mental,” and testified at the hearing that in his opinion plaintiff was not disabled. Plaintiff was employed as a Rio Rancho police officer, effective October 22, 1981, and served in that capacity until June 7, 1982, when he was terminated from employment. Rio Rancho Police Chief, Dencil Haycox, testified that plaintiff was dismissed for reasons of “job performance” not related to any type of physical disability. Defendants learned of plaintiffs full-time employment with the Rio Rancho police department and on February 15, 1983, filed a motion in the workmen’s compensation action to reduce or terminate plaintiff’s disability benefits. One month later, and prior to any hearing on the pending motion, defendants stopped making any additional payments to plaintiff. Defendants sought and obtained a setting on their motion for April 28, 1983. The motion hearing was rescheduled for May 16, 1983. The May 16, 1983 hearing was vacated at the request of plaintiff’s attorney, who was in the process of withdrawing as counsel. For reasons not explained at trial, a hearing on defendants’ motion was delayed until March 2, 1984. During this time, plaintiff received no disability payments. Following hearing, the trial court determined that the benefits had been terminated without court order, and that the plaintiff was entitled to recover total disability benefits in the amount of $9,691.76, withheld by defendants from March 15, 1983 up through the date of the hearing on the motion. The court also concluded that the plaintiff’s disability had diminished to 15 percent (permanent partial) as of the date of hearing, and ordered a prospective reduction in the payment of future compensation benefits. No attorneys fees were awarded plaintiff. I. SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE On appeal, both the plaintiff and the defendants challenge the trial court’s finding that plaintiff is 15 percent permanently partially disabled. Defendants argue that the plaintiff’s disability ended when he returned to full-time employment as a police officer on October 22, 1981. They also point to the fact that plaintiff, by his own testimony, experienced no significant physical problem in performing his duties as a police officer. In challenging the sufficiency of evidence, defendants additionally cite the testimony of Dr. Barry Marón, an orthopedic specialist, who examined plaintiff on four occasions between 1979 and 1983, and who testified that there was no objective evidence to support the plaintiff’s subjective complaints; Dr. William Keightley, a psychiatrist who treated plaintiff for anxiety and depression, and who testified that he “had the impression” that he was dealing with a “physically intact” person; Dr. Kropinak, who examined plaintiff for the Rio Rancho police department job, testified that he found plaintiff to be in excellent health; Mr. Mulholland, deputy director of the Academy, testified that plaintiff had fulfilled both the Academy’s physical and mental entry and graduation requirements; and Rio Rancho Police Chief Haycox, who said he was not aware that plaintiff suffered from any physical disability during the time he was employed with that department. In contrast to the evidence relied upon by defendants, plaintiff presented evidence of a continuing physical disability, although somewhat diminished in degree. Plaintiff testified that he continues to suffer back and neck pain, dizziness, headaches, and numbness of his right arm; that these symptoms are aggravated whenever he attempts any hard physical work; and that, consequently, he has been unable to return to his chosen work as a carpenter. Plaintiff also testified that after losing his job as a police officer, he attempted to work as a millwright, but that notwithstanding this work was less strenuous than carpentry, he was unable to do the work for any sustained period of time and, in fact, had to request that he be “laid off.” Plaintiff further testified that his job as a police officer involved less physical exertion and that he had to use actual force only one time in his seven months as a policeman. Additionally, plaintiff testified that, whereas he had earned approximately $1,800 per month as a carpenter, he earned little more than $966 per month as a police officer. Plaintiff’s testimony was augmented by Dr. Michael Plaman, a chiropractor who testified that plaintiff had poor reflexes and weakened motor capability in his upper body, and that he has a reduced range of movement resulting from spinal degeneration. Dr. Plaman stated that in his opinion, plaintiff is 100 percent disabled from working as a carpenter since that work involves heavy lifting and persistent use of the upper body and arms but that plaintiff was only 30-40 percent disabled as to performing other types of work and that he could still do “many things.” Defendants assert Dr. Plaman’s opinion concerning plaintiff’s disability went beyond the limited area of his expertise. However, Dr. Plaman’s opinion concerning the plaintiff’s physical limitations based upon the physical examination conducted by the witness were relevant to the issue of disability. Defendants concede that in New Mexico chiropractors have been deemed competent to give testimony within their area of training and education. Selgado v. Commercial Warehouse Co., 86 N.M. 633, 637, 526 P.2d 430 (Ct.App.1974). Compare Katz v. New Mexico Department of Human Services, 95 N.M. 530, 624 P.2d 39 (1981). Defendants did not object to Dr. Plaman’s qualifications as an expert witness nor to his testimony during the hearing. The focus of defendants’ objections goes to the weight to be accorded Dr. Plaman’s testimony, not its admissibility. The weighing of evidence and credibility is a matter for determination of the trial court as the fact finder, not the appellate court. Newcum v. Lawson, 101 N.M. 448, 684 P.2d 534 (Ct.App.1984). The argument of defendants also centers upon plaintiff’s return to full-time employment as a police officer and his testimony that he was not physically disabled from performing that job. Defendants contend that plaintiff’s resumption of full-time employment conclusively indicates that plaintiff is no longer disabled to any percentage extent. The statutes defining disability, NMSA 1978, Sections 52-1-24 and -25, have been construed to contain two tests for determining disability: (1) the workman must be totally or partially unable to perform the work he was doing at the time of the injury; and (2) the workman must be wholly or partially unable to perform any work for which he is fitted and qualified. Medina v. Zia Co., 88 N.M. 615, 544 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1975), cert. denied, 89 N.M. 6, 546 P.2d 71 (1976). Both the supreme court and this court have held that the second test should not be narrowly applied. Anaya v. New Mexico Steel Erectors, Inc., 94 N.M. 370, 610 P.2d 1199 (1980). In Anaya, the supreme court rejected an argument similar to that advocated by defendants here, that the claimant should be denied disability benefits because of a demonstrated ability to perform work other than the type of work he was performing at the time of injury. The court repudiated what it termed the “proposition that a workman is not disabled if he is able to perform any work,” saying this was a “strained and unreasonable” construction of the statute. The court held that the phrase “unable ... to perform any work' for which he is fitted,” means an inability to perform some of the work for which he is fitted, given the workman’s previous training and work experience as well as his age, education, and physical and mental condition. To hold otherwise, the court stated, would have the effect of discouraging a workman from seeking post-injury employment. Similarly, in Schober v. Mountain Bell Telephone, 96 N.M. 376, 630 P.2d 1231 (Ct.App.1980), this court held that the existence of post-injury employment does not necessarily disqualify the workman from receiving disability benefits. In Schober, as here, claimant’s income was substantially reduced by the fact that he was unable to return to his previous work. There, it was held that since claimant’s current work did not utilize his training and background experience in electronics, and because he was unable to perform some of the work for which he was fitted, the trial court erred in finding that the workman’s disability effectively terminated at the time he became re-employed. Other New Mexico cases have reached the same conclusion. See Smith v. Trailways Bus System, 96 N.M. 79, 628 P.2d 324 (Ct.App.1981); Aranda v. Mississippi Chemical Corp., 93 N.M. 412, 600 P.2d 1202 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 683, 604 P.2d 821 (1979). In his appeal, plaintiff argues that the trial court erred in not finding the existence of a higher percentage of permanent partial disability. Plaintiff concedes that his disability is no longer total; however, he argues that the trial court was not justified in finding less than a 35 percent permanent partial disability, given Dr. Plaman’s testimony that plaintiff is 30 to 40 percent disabled “as a person.” We disagree. Dr. Plaman’s testimony was in direct conflict with the testimony of Dr. Mar-on, an orthopedic specialist, who testified that plaintiff gave physically improbable and deceptive responses to some of his questions. In Schober, this court said that the determination of the degree of disability in workmen’s compensation cases is generally a matter for the trial court, and absent a lack of substantial evidence or a misapplication of the law, a reviewing court will not second-guess the trial court. See also Trujillo v. Tanuz, 85 N.M. 35, 508 P.2d 1332 (Ct.App.1973). Under the facts herein, including the plaintiff’s own testimony and that of Dr. Plaman, the trial court was justified in finding that the plaintiff continued to remain permanently partially disabled. In Romo v. Raton Coca Cola Co., 96 N.M. 765, 635 P.2d 320 (Ct.App.1981), it was held that the trial judge may properly reject all percentage opinions and arrive at a different percentage as long as that figure is supported by substantial evidence. See also Sedillo v. Levi-Strauss Corp., 98 N.M. 52, 644 P.2d 1041 (Ct.App.1982). In reviewing evidence on appeal, an appellate court construes the evidence and all reasonable inferences therefrom in a light most favorable to the findings of the trial court. Perez v. International Minerals & Chemical Corp., 95 N.M. 628, 624 P.2d 1025 (Ct.App.1981). Additionally, in Garcia v. Genuine Parts Co., 90 N.M. 124, 560 P.2d 545 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 254, 561 P.2d 1347 (1977), the court held that a claimant’s own testimony may constitute substantial evidence supportive of a finding of disability. The trial court’s finding the plaintiff has a 15 percent disability is supported by substantial evidence. II. DENIAL OF REIMBURSEMENT Defendants contend that the trial court erred in refusing to order that plaintiff reimburse them for workmen’s compensation benefits paid by them after the date of October 22, 1981, when plaintiff returned to full-time employment as a policeman. The facts are undisputed that from October 22, 1981, when plaintiff went to work as a police officer, until March 15, 1983, when defendants halted benefit payments to him, plaintiff continued to receive payment of weekly total disability compensation amounting to approximately $13,-525.88. In their requested findings and conclusions, defendants asked the trial court to find that plaintiff's failure to advise them of his full-time employment while continuing to receive workmen’s compensation benefits (based on total disability) constituted fraud and unjust enrichment, entitling them to full reimbursement of all amounts paid to plaintiff during this period. The trial court refused defendants’ requested findings and conclusions and ruled that NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-56, as a matter of law, precludes any retroactive determination of benefits. The court also concluded in part: 2. Plaintiff was entitled to receive benefits as determined by the Court until such time as the Court terminated or diminished his benefits pursuant to section 52-1-56, NMSA, 1978. Plaintiff should have continued receiving benefits until such time as a hearing was held on defendants [sic] motion to terminate or diminish. Therefore, plaintiff’s benefits were wrongfully terminated on March 15th, 1983. 3. Plaintiff is entitled to recover from defendants the benefits which were withheld between March 15th, 1983 and the date of the hearing on defendants [sic] motion at the rate of $186.38 per week. In addition to concluding that defendants were not entitled to reimbursement, the court also determined that defendants were additionally liable for the payment of $9,691.76 in total disability payments from March 15, 1983 through the date of the hearing on March 2, 1984. Two separate statutory provisions of the Workmen’s Compensation Act relate to the issue before us. NMSA 1978, §§ 52-1-47(C) and -56(A). Section 52-l-47(C) states that “in no case shall compensation benefits for disability continue after the disability ends or after the death of the injured workman.” (Emphasis added.) Section 52-1-56 provides in applicable part: A. The district court in which any workman has been awarded compensation under the Workmen’s Compensation Act [52-1-1 to 52-1-69 NMSA 1978] may, upon the application of the employer, workman or other person bound by the judgment, fix a time and place for hearing upon the issue of claimant’s recovery and if it shall appear upon such hearing that diminution or termination of disability has taken place, the court shall order diminution or termination of payments of compensation as the facts may warrant * * *. Hearings may not be held more frequently than at six-month intervals, and ... the compensation of the workman as previously awarded shall continue while the hearing is pending * * *. [Emphasis added.] A motion to modify an award of compensation requires an evidentiary hearing with the entry of new findings of fact and conclusions of law and a new judgment. Burton v. Jennings Brothers, 88 N.M. 95, 537 P.2d 703 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 88 N.M. 318, 540 P.2d 248 (1975); Goolsby v. Pucci Distributing Co., 80 N.M. 59, 451 P.2d 308 (Ct.App.1969). The language of Sections 52-1-47 and -56 are in conflict insofar as both statutes purport to specify the time when a district court may modify or terminate a previous award of compensation when the court determines that a workman’s impairment no longer exists or has diminished. The two conflicting statutory provisions were enacted by the legislature at different times. Section 52-1-56 providing that the compensation previously awarded to the workmen shall continue while the hearing is pending, was originally adopted by 1945 N.M. Laws, chapter 65, section 1. Subsequently, Section 52-l-47(C), was adopted by 1959 N.M. Laws, chapter 67, section 26. The manifest intent of Section 52-l-47(C) providing that compensation benefits shall cease when “the disability ends” prevails over any contradictory statutory provision since it is a later declaration of legislative intent and effectively repeals by implication the earlier conflicting legislative language. Abbott v. Armijo, 100 N.M. 190, 668 P.2d 306 (1983); Vaughn v. United Nuclear Corp., 98 N.M. 481, 650 P.2d 3 (Ct.App.1982). Moreover, the section heading for Section 52-1-47, adopted by the legislature, declares that the provisions of this section are intended to constitute “limitations on compensation benefits.” In the instant case defendants terminated all payments prior to the hearing on their motion to terminate or modify benefits. The hearing on defendants’ motion to modify compensation benefits was inexplicably delayed for over a year following the filing of the motion. This delay is contrary to the clear mandate of the Workmen’s Compensation Act that such proceedings be promptly heard. Perez v. International Minerals & Chemical Corp. Defendants unilaterally stopped payments of all benefits in March 1983 and the hearing on the ’motion was held in March 1984. As provided in NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-35 (Cum. Supp.1984), the district court is directed to “advance the cause on the court’s calendar and dispose of the case as promptly as possible.” The trial court erred in concluding that plaintiff was entitled, as a matter of law, to total disability benefits from March 15, 1983 to March 2, 1984, and in concluding that defendants were not entitled to any reimbursement. On remand the court should make a factual determination of the date or dates that plaintiffs disability changed and determine the extent of his disability from the time he returned to work as a law enforcement officer until the date of hearing on March 2, 1984, when plaintiff was found to be 15 percent disabled. If plaintiff’s disability is determined to have diminished prior to the date defendants terminated payment of compensation benefits, the trial court should factually determine whether defendants are entitled to a credit for overpayment made by them against the payment of future workmen’s compensation benefits as provided in Paternoster v. La Cuesta Cabinets, Inc., 101 N.M. 773, 689 P.2d 289 (Ct.App.1984). Section 52-1-56(A). See also Roybal v. Chavez Concrete & Excavation Contractors, Inc., 102 N.M. 428, 696 P.2d 1021 (Ct.App.1985). III. ATTORNEY’S FEES In his appeal, plaintiff argues that the trial court erred in denying any award of attorney’s fees incident to the hearing on defendants’ motion for modification of the award of compensation benefits. The issue of whether a plaintiff is entitled to an award of attorney’s fees in connection with a hearing to modify a prior judgment allowing workmen’s compensation benefits, and where the previous judgment has been ordered reduced, is a matter of first impression in New Mexico. Plaintiff argues that he is entitled to attorney’s fees based upon his success in obtaining a judgment for benefits wrongfully withheld (i.e., the total disability payments withheld by defendants from March 15, 1983, until the March 2, 1984 hearing), and in successfully defending against the defendants’ claim for reimbursement. We have held that the trial court, on remand, must determine, as a fact, plaintiff’s disability from October 22, 1981 to March 2, 1984. Pending that determination, plaintiff has not obtained benefits wrongfully withheld and has not successfully defended against defendants’ claim for reimbursement. Thus, under plaintiff’s own theories, plaintiff is not entitled to attorney’s fees in the trial court at the present time. If, upon remand, the trial court determines that defendants are entitled to reimbursement for overpayments between October 22, 1981 and March 15, 1983, plaintiff would not have been successful as to this issue. If, upon remand, the trial court determines that defendants are not liable for total disability benefits between March 15, 1983 and March 2, 1984, then plaintiff will not have been successful as to this issue. Plaintiff does not rely on NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-54(E) in claiming an entitlement to attorney fees. Yet, that section specifically addresses the issue. It provides: [I]n all actions arising under the provisions of Section 52-1-56 NMSA 1978, where the jurisdiction of the court is invoked to determine the question whether the claimant’s disability has increased or diminished, and the claimant is represented by an attorney, the court shall determine and fix a reasonable fee for the services of claimant’s attorney only if the claimant is successful in establishing that his disability has increased or if the employer is unsuccessful in establishing that claimant’s disability has diminished, as the case may be. If, on remand, defendants are successful in their claim that plaintiff had no disability, no attorney fees are authorized. If, however, the trial court determines that plaintiff was 15 percent disabled (as an example only) between October 22, 1981 and March 2, 1984, the employer would have been “unsuccessful in establishing that claimant’s disability had diminished” to that percentage extent. An award of attorney fees would be authorized on the basis of defendants’ lack of success. To the extent that defendants’ claim is unsuccessful, plaintiff has preserved a benefit for which attorney fees may be awarded. Romo v. Raton Coca Cola Co. The cause is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. Plaintiff is awarded $900 for the services of his attorney in defending the 15 percent disability award as of March 2, 1984 on appeal. IT IS SO ORDERED. WOOD, J., concurs. BIVINS, J., specially concurring.
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ORDER This matter having come before the Court for consideration upon the Report and Recommendations to the Supreme Court by the Judicial Standards Commission, wherein the Hon. John R. Perea was found to have engaged in conduct in violation of N.M.S.A. 1978, Code of Judicial Conduct, Canons 2(A), 3(A)(1), 3(B)(1) and 3(B)(2) (Rep.1986), for having delegated the duty to perform marriages to a municipal court clerk, and the Court having considered said report and recommendations, and having heard oral argument, and now being sufficiently advised; NOW, THEREFORE, IT IS ORDERED that the Hon. John R. Perea is hereby suspended for a period of five working days without pay commencing December 4, 1985, and is hereby reprimanded for failing to exercise his responsibilities as Magistrate with the sufficient care necessary to maintain the integrity of the judiciary and promote public confidence therein. WILLIAM R. FEDERICI Chief Justice DAN SOSA, JR. Senior Justice HARRY E. STOWERS, JR. Justice MARY C. WALTERS Justice
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OPINION WALTERS, Justice. Lorrine Estep, as Personal Representative of the estate of her deceased husband, James T. Estep, and in her individual capacity as an injured claimant, sought a judgment against State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company to declare that the exclusion of coverage for household members in an automobile liability insurance policy is invalid or, in the alternative, that she is covered by the uninsured motorist provisions of the policy. The trial court granted summary judgment for State Farm on both claims. Mrs. Estep appeals. On July 18, 1982, Lorrine was a passenger in a 1974 Ford Bronco registered in the name of and driven by her husband, James Estep. The State Farm policy insuring the vehicle provided automobile liability insurance and uninsured motor vehicle coverage. An accident occurred; James died as a result, and Lorrine suffered personal injuries. Lorrine presented a claim against James’s estate, alleging injuries sustained as a result of James’s negligence in the operation of the vehicle, and she also filed this declaratory judgment action against State Farm. In granting summary judgment, the trial court sustained the validity of the household exclusion clause contained in the insurance policy, and refused to declare that Lorrine could recover under the policy’s uninsured motorist coverage. Mrs. Estep appeals the correctness of the court’s ruling on both of these questions of first impression. Under the terms of the insurance policy, State Farm agreed: To pay on behalf of the insured all sums which the insured shall become legally obligated to pay as damages because of (A) bodily injury sustained by other persons * * He >(c * caused by accident arising out of the * * use * * * of the owned motor vehicle; The policy further provided, in what is commonly known as the “household exclusion,” the following: This insurance does not apply * * * (h) * * * TO BODILY INJURY TO ANY INSURED OR ANY MEMBER OF THE FAMILY OF AN INSURED RESIDING IN THE SAME HOUSEHOLD AS THE INSURED. (All emphasis to the policy language has been added.) Mrs. Estep fits within the definition of both alternatives listed in Exclusion (h), since the policy defines an “insured” as including the spouse of the named insured, and she was also a member of the family residing in the same household as James. Mrs. Estep’s principal argument is that the household exclusion clause is void as against public policy because it conflicts with those provisions of the Financial Responsibility Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 66-5-201 to 66-5-248, as were in effect at the time of the accident in this case. It is her contention, first, that the purpose of the Act was to provide protection to members of the general public from injury resulting from operation of motor vehicles, and to protect the vehicle operator from suspension of his license if a judgment of liability should be rendered against him but he was insured at the time of an accident; and secondly, that the primary purpose of protecting persons injured through motor vehicle accidents is frustrated by the household exclusion clause. Suggesting that New Mexico’s public policy regarding automobile insurance coverage is reflected in our statutes and in case law, we are reminded by appellant that exclusionary clauses in insurance policies require a narrow construction, particularly when the insurer has expressed coverage through broad promises. King v. Travelers Insurance Co., 84 N.M. 550, 505 P.2d 1226 (1973). Looking to the statutes to discern the legislature’s concerns (and we refer to the statutes effective in 1982), we note that Section 66-5-213 of the Financial Responsibility Act provides that an unsatisfied judgment against a motorist shall be forwarded to the division of motor vehicles upon the request of the judgment creditor or his attorney. Section 66-5-215 requires that, upon receipt of the certified copy of a judgment, the division of motor vehicles “forthwith suspend the license and registration * * * of any person against whom such judgment was rendered, except as herein after otherwise provided * * Section 66-5-219 then makes the following exception: The provisions of * * * [Section] 66-6-215 NMSA 1978 shall not apply A. to the driver or owner if the owner had in effect at the time of the accident an automobile liability policy or bond with respect to the vehicle involved in the accident * * * Section 66-5-230 outlined the policy requirements: A. A “motor vehicle liability policy” means an owner’s policy or an operator’s policy of liability insurance, certified as provided in Section 66-5-227 or Section 66-5-228 NMSA 1978 as proof of financial responsibility for the future and issued * * * by an insurance carrier duly authorized to transact business in this state to or for the benefit of the person named therein as insured. B. The owner’s policy of liability insurance: ‡ % * Sj! ifc * (2) shall insure the person named therein, and any other person, as insured, using any such vehicle or vehicles with the express or implied permission of such named insured, against loss from the liability imposed by law for damages arising out of the ownership, maintenance or use of such vehicle * * * We apply the definition of “motor vehicle liability policy” in Section 66-5-230(A) to “owner’s policy of liability” referred to in Section 66-5-230(B) and to “automobile liability policy” referred to in Section 66-5-219(A), because the Act nowhere defines “owner’s liability policy” or “automobile liability policy.” The Supreme Court of Arizona agreed that the meanings were the same, in Jenkins v. Mayflower Insurance Exch., 93 Ariz. 287, 380 P.2d 145 (1963), and we concur in its rejection of “artful distinctions” between motor vehicle liability policy, owner’s liability policy and automobile liability policy. The terms are not contradistinctive. Read together, the statutes require a policy of insurance enabling owners of motor vehicles to respond in damages to innocent victims injured by negligent drivers. With some logic, Mrs. Estep urges that the household exclusion clause in the insurance policy in this case is in conflict with the requirement of Section 66-5-230(B)(2) that the policy “shall insure * * * against loss from liability imposed by law.” (Her emphasis.) We have held that when an insurance provision conflicts with the public policy expressed in a statute, it is void. Chavez v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co., 87 N.M. 327, 329, 533 P.2d 100, 102 (1975). New Mexico has established that interspousal immunity is an “archaic precept” out of tune with and contrary to public policy. Maestas v. Overton, 87 N.M. 213, 531 P.2d 947 (1975). Since a wife in this jurisdiction has a cause of action for injuries suffered because of her husband’s negligence, it is difficult to discern how a fundamental public policy purpose of the Financial Responsibility Act — i.e., to provide financial protection to those who sustain injury through the negligence of motor vehicle owners or operators — is served, or how the requirement of the Act — i.e., to provide proof of financial responsibility for losses from liability imposed by law which arise from the use of an insured motor vehicle — is observed, when the family exclusion clause in the policy specifically carves out from coverage a considerable segment of the “other” persons described in Section 66-5-230(B)(2) who are entitled by law to recover for the owner’s or driver’s negligence. Our bemusement is not diminished when we consider what is commonly referred to as the “Conformity Clause” of State Farm’s policy, wherein State Farm warrants to its insured that the policy complies with “any motor vehicle financial responsibility law * * * to the extent of the coverage and limits required thereby * * (The clause continues and adds “ * * * but not in excess of the limits of liability stated in this policy.” “Limits of liability” is elsewhere defined in the policy as meaning the policy’s stated monetary limits of liability; it does not refer to the limits imposed by exclusion of liability coverage to a class of certain persons.) The Act mandates protection for “loss from liability imposed by law for damages arising out of the * * * use of such vehicle.” § 66-5-230(B)(2). State Farm’s inclusion of a restriction against coverage for household members is not only a contradiction of the “broad promise” (King v. Travelers, supra) in its “Conformity Clause” warranty, but it is a violation of the requirements of the Act and a repudiation of New Mexico’s public policy. See Hughes v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 236 N.W.2d 870 (N.D.1975). Under materially and substantially identical Financial Responsibility Acts, other jurisdictions have reached the result we adopt today. For extremely thoughtful and exhaustively researched opinions on the questions of insurance exclusions and public policy as related to the provisions of acts requiring proof of financial responsibility, we are impressed with the expositions of Justice Williams in Mutual of Enumclaw Ins. Co. v. Wiscomb, 95 Wash.2d 373, 622 P.2d 1234 (1980), and Paulson, J., in Hughes v. State Farm Mut. Ins. Co., supra. See also Transamerica Ins. Co. v. Royle, 656 P.2d 820 (Mont. 1983), for a reasoned discussion of the interaction between statutory financial responsibility requirements and legal liability upon exclusionary insurance clauses. State Farm, on the other hand, relies on decisions in a majority of jurisdictions which have upheld the exclusionary clauses on grounds of freedom of contract or minimization of fraudulent or collusive claims. E.g., Walker v. American Family Mut. Ins. Co., 340 N.W.2d 599 (Iowa 1983); Farmers Ins. Exch. v. Cocking, 29 Cal.3d 383, 173 Cal.Rptr. 846, 628 P.2d 1 (1981); United Farm Bureau Mut. Ins. Co. v. Hanley, 172 Ind.App. 329, 360 N.E.2d 247 (1977). Our examination of the divergence in the majority and minority decisions on the questions raised by this appeal, and our review of the comparable statutes in the various jurisdictions, lead us to conclude that only the degree to which considerations of public policy are applied separates the results reached. We consider that our legislature’s requirements for a policy covering security for a first accident, as well as for assuring financial responsibility for injuries caused, could not more clearly express a public policy consistent with the decisions of those jurisdictions we approve. This Court has previously recognized that concerns of fraudulent and collusive claims may not be accepted as justification to subvert concerns for persons “free from the evil” of participating in fraudulent or collusive lawsuits. McGeehan v. Bunch, 88 N.M. 308, 540 P.2d 238 (1975). We reiterate what we held there: that denial of negligence actions to an entire class of persons — here, all family members — cannot be tolerated simply because some undefined portions of that class might instigate fraudulent lawsuits. Instead, we must recognize that the possibility of collusion exists to some extent in any case, and rely upon the judicial process to sift the evidence in separating truth from falsity to arrive at the correct result. See also Nocktonick v. Nocktonick, 227 Kan. 758, 611 P.2d 135 (1980), and the realistic dispatch of this dubious theorem in Sorensen v. Sorensen, 369 Mass. 350, 339 N.E.2d 907 (1975). With respect to the freedom of contract argument, we suggest, as did the court in the second case of Mutual of Enumclaw Ins. Co. v. Wiscomb, 97 Wash.2d 203, 211, 643 P.2d 441, 445 (1982), that to say there is freedom of contract regarding inclusion or exclusion of coverage for family members in these cases “is to ignore reality.” The discussion in Wiscomb of the “take-it- or-leave-it” nature of obtaining automobile liability coverage, and the effect of the policy’s exclusion on third parties who are or may be ignorant of the insurance arrangements and unable or incompetent to contract for coverage for themselves, illustrates the fragility of any assertion that the terms of this or similar insurance policies truly are the product of conscious bar gaining between the parties. The argument might be more credibly made were there evidence that insureds had been, or traditionally are, offered the choice of including or excluding coverage for family members. There is no such evidence in this record. State Farm has attempted further to deflect the impact of the decisions we find persuasive by insisting that Mrs. Estep was denied coverage in this case because she is an “insured,” rather than because she is a member of the “household.” We do not think that a distinction between “insureds” and other members of the household is a significant factor in the treatment of the issue. “Insured” is generally defined in automobile policies (as it is in the instant case) to include most if not all of the members of the household. In Hughes, denial of coverage under the “insured” exclusion met the court’s response that coverage required by financial responsibility statutes must be extended to that liability imposed by law. Section 66-5-230(B) states that requirement. The husband’s liability to his injured wife, in New Mexico, just as in Hughes, is clearly imposed by law; ergo, the claimed exclusion as an “insured” is as susceptible to a holding of invalidity as is the household exclusion when a member of either class is legally entitled to recover for damages inflicted by the negligent driver. To hold otherwise would be inconsistent with our earlier determination that public policy and the statutes do not permit insurance companies to limit the class of beneficiaries in a policy of motor vehicle liability insurance. The fundamental purpose for the enactment of financial responsibility laws — namely, .protecting innocent accident victims from financial hardship — is no less frustrated when the beneficiary limitation applies to the “named insured” [or an included “insured”] than when it applies to a broader and more comprehensive group, i.e., the family or household of the named insured. In either case, an innocent accident victim may suffer financial hardship if such clauses are validated. Consequently, we find that such an exclusion also violates public policy and the statutes, and is therefore void. Hughes v. State Farm Mut. Auto Ins. Co., 236 N.E.2d at 886. See Dowdy v. Allstate Ins. Co., 68 Or.App. 709, 685 P.2d 444 (1984), to the same effect. Finally, State Farm relies on Larson v. Occidental Fire & Casualty Co., 79 N.M. 562, 446 P.2d 210 (1968), to assert that only insureds holding certified policies fall under the requirements of the Financial Responsibility Act, and then that the protections of the Act apply only to persons injured in a future accident. We expressly overrule any such implications or expressions in Larson. It is clear to us that the Act in existence at the time of that decision, NMSA 1953, Sections 64-24-65 and -76, saved the driver or owner from suspension of his license if, at the time of the first accident, he had in effect an automobile policy providing minimum coverage for damages for liability arising out of the accident. A certified policy, under the old law (§ 64-24-84) as well as under the new (§ 66-5-219), means simply the certificate of the insurance company, filed with the motor vehicle division, verifying that the person required to furnish evidence of financial responsibility has in effect a policy meeting the minimum liability coverage provisions of the Act. NMSA 1953, Section 64-24-82, required such proof when one subject to its provisions sought to register or re-register his motor vehicle. That is still the reason for requiring certified policies. §§ 66-5-205, -206. Obviously, one was not required to furnish such evidence until an accident had occurred. Consequently, the necessity for proving a certified policy to avoid license suspension became operative only when the results of the first accident called into effect the penalty of suspension. To hold as State Farm suggests would elevate the provision of a “certified” policy above the conformity clause provision of the policy and the purpose of legislation aimed at protecting innocent accident victims. We have already expressed our view that the conformity clause of the insurance contract must prevail because it comports with New Mexico’s public policy. We do not agree with Farmers Alliance Mut. Ins. Co. v. Bakke, 619 F.2d 885 (10th Cir.1980), that the Financial Responsibility Act was only to mandate insuring provisions for drivers coming within its purview. It established a method for keeping uninsured vehicles off the highways, but its principal thrust was to provide financial response in damages for highway victims. “Certified” policies then and now permit vehicle registration and license renewal following an accident and they redound only to the benefit of automobile owners and drivers seeking to avoid suspension of driving priviléges; the terms of a policy (whether certified or not) which warrant financial responsibility, then and now, mandate coverage for the liability imposed by law. We hold that the “insured” and “household” exclusions contained in motor vehicle liability policies issued or delivered in New Mexico were and are contrary to public policy and the statutes of this state, and they are therefore invalid exclusions. We need not at this time decide plaintiff’s alternative argument that, applying the rationale adopted herein to invalidate exclusionary clauses in adhesion contracts of insurance, in some instances a plaintiff in the circumstances of Mrs. Estep might be able to claim coverage for damages under the “uninsured motorist” provisions of her husband’s policy. Suffice it to say that the legislature clearly expressed its purpose in Section 66-5-201.1: The legislature is aware that motor vehicle accidents in the state of New Mexico can result in catastrophic financial hardship. The purpose of the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act [66— 5-201 to 66-5-239 NMSA 1978] is to require and encourage residents of the state of New Mexico who own and operate motor vehicles upon the highways of the state to have the ability to respond in damages to accidents arising out of the use and operation of a motor vehicle. It is the intent that the risks and financial burdens of motor vehicle accidents be equitably distributed among all owners and operators of motor vehicles within the state. The courts are obliged to accede to the legislative purpose in applying the statutory law governing mandatory insurance. This matter is remanded to the district court with directions to set aside the summary judgment and reinstate the cause on the trial docket. IT IS SO ORDERED. SOSA, Senior Judge, and NEAL, J., concur. RIORDAN and STOWERS, JJ., dissent.
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OPINION SOSA, Senior Justice. Defendant Danny Ray Coates appeals his conviction of first degree murder, armed robbery, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. We affirm. On August 26, 1982, Louise Cecil was found dead in her residence in Hobbs, New Mexico and her 1976 white Plymouth was missing. On that same day the police found Coates driving the Plymouth near Loving, New Mexico and took him into custody. The district attorney filed a criminal complaint against defendant on August 26, 1982, charging him with murder, robbery, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. On September 3, 1982, a preliminary hearing was held, at which time the magistrate orally bound defendant over on charges of murder, armed robbery, and unlawful taking of an automobile. The magistrate’s written order, however, only bound Coates over on an open charge of murder with a deadly weapon and did not mention the other two counts. On October 14, 1982, the district attorney filed a criminal information in which defendant was charged with murder while armed with a deadly weapon. Coates’ trial on that charge, which began February 28, 1983, ended in a mistrial March 1, 1983, when it was discovered that two members of the jury had read impermissible information on the case in a newspaper. On March 3, 1983, the district attorney filed an amended criminal information in which defendant was charged with murder, armed robbery, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. Coates filed a motion to quash the amended criminal information on March 8, 1983, contending that it did not conform to the bind-over order of the magistrate and that it constituted vindictive prosecution. On that same day, the district court found that the written bind-over order did not conform to the magistrate’s bind-over as recorded on the tape of the preliminary hearing. The court found, however, that “the failure of the Clerk of the Magistrate Court to properly conform the bind-over to the order of the Court would not amount to vindictive prosecution.” The inference, then, is that the trial court did not view the filing of the amended criminal information as vindictive prosecution since the amended information conformed to the bind-over order of the magistrate as pronounced orally though transcribed incorrectly. Accordingly, defendant’s motion to quash was denied. Beginning on December 6, 1983, defendant was tried as charged in the amended information and convicted of all three counts. Coates was sentenced on January 23, 1984 to life imprisonment for murder in the first degree, eighteen months for unlawful taking of a motor vehicle, and nine years for armed robbery. On appeal, defendant’s brief-in-chief raises seven points of error. Other issues raised in the docketing statement but not briefed are deemed abandoned. State v. Cordova, 100 N.M. 643, 674 P.2d 533 (Ct.App.1983). Coates’ main contention is that the amended criminal information was invalid because it failed to conform to the magistrate’s bind-over order. As part of that contention, defendant also argues that the filing of the amended information following his mistrial amounted to vindictive prosecution. I. (A) Failure of the Amended Information to Conform to the Bind-Over Order In State v. McCrary, 97 N.M. 306, 639 P.2d 593 (Ct.App.1982), the New Mexico Court of Appeals held that the criminal information must conform to the magistrate’s bind-over order. There, the court relied on N.M. Const, art. II, § 14 which provides, in pertinent part, that “[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital, felonious or infamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury or information filed by a district attorney. * * * No person shall be so held on information without having had a preliminary examination before an examining magistrate. * * * ” This provision of our constitution is to insure that no person is deprived of his liberty without due process of law. Thus, a defendant cannot be held for trial unless a preliminary hearing has been held at which time the accused is informed of the crime charged against him and a magistrate has determined that probable cause exists to hold him. The court in McCrary was also guided by the pronouncements of this Court in State v. Melendrez, 49 N.M. 181, 159 P.2d 768 (1945), although the issue in Melendrez was not identical to the one presented in McCrary. In deciding whether the information filed by the district attorney must charge substantially the same crime as that stated in the complaint, Melendrez held that “where the crime charged in the complaint in the magistrate’s court is kindred to that to which the accused is held to answer in a preliminary examination otherwise sufficient, and the information is in substantial accord with the magistrate’s commitment," the defendant has been afforded due process of law as a condition preliminary to the exercise of the power vested in the district attorney to file an information. Id. at 188, 159 P.2d at 773. (emphasis added). Thus, by requiring that the information conform to the bind-over order, the defendant is assured that his detention is based upon charges of which he has been apprised and which have been reviewed by a neutral authority. Contrary to Coates’ assertion, however, the amended information in this case is not invalid by reason of its failure to conform with the magistrate’s bind-over order. Here, the tapes of the preliminary hearing reveal that the magistrate heard evidence on the counts of murder, armed robbery, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle. At the conclusion of the hearing, the magistrate, in fact, announced that he was binding defendant over on those counts. The written order, binding him over solely on the count of murder, inadvertently omitted the other two counts. NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 4.1 (Repl. Pamp.1980) states that “[cjlerical mistakes in judgments, orders or other parts of the record and errors in the record arising from oversight or omission may be corrected by the court at any time. * * * ” In its order of March 8, 1983 denying defendant’s motion to quash the amended information, the trial court acknowledged that the failure of the court clerk to include the counts of armed robbery and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle was a clerical error. The trial court, thereby, effectively amended the written bind-over order to conform with the announcement of the magistrate at the close of the preliminary hearing. Hence, the amended criminal information was in accord with the magistrate’s bind-over order and was valid. I. (B) Vindictive Prosecution Defendant contends that the filing of the amended information following his successful motion for a mistrial amounted to vindictive prosecution since the amended information adds two counts not contained in the original information. This action by the district attorney, Coates argues, impermissibly encroaches upon his free exercise of a procedural right in .contravention of the Due Process Clauses of the United States and New Mexico State Constitutions. In this regard, we find persuasive the reasoning of the California Court of Appeals in People v. Flowers, 14 Cal.App.3d 1017, 92 Cal.Rptr. 647 (1971). There the court considered the propriety of allowing an amended information which added a new count after a mistrial. The court found that under Cal. Penal Code Section 1009 (West 1970), an amended information following a mistrial is subject to certain limitations: (1) the information cannot be amended so as to add an offense not shown by the evidence taken at the preliminary hearing; (2) if the amendment would otherwise prejudice the substantial rights of the defendant, a reasonable postponement of any pending proceeding may be allowed; and (3) the amendment may not be accomplished without leave of the court. In sustaining the trial court’s allowance of the amended information, the court of appeals observed that the defendant’s substantial right to a trial on a charge of which he had due notice is preserved by Section 1009 itself, in that it forbids any additional charge to be brought which was not borne out by evidence adduced at the preliminary hearing. Further, in response to defendant’s assertion that the right of the district attorney to add counts after a mistrial “gives rise to an opportunity to harrass or vex the defendant with successive amendments,” the court pointed out that “the discretion of the trial court to disallow such amendments protects the defendant against such unfair proferred amendments; a failure to protect against such harrassing amendments would be an abuse of discretion.” Id. at 1021, 92 Cal.Rptr. at 650. Turning to the case before us, NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 7(c) (Repl.Pamp.1980) provides that the trial court may at any time allow the * * * information to be amended in respect to any variance to conform to the evidence. If the court finds that the defendant has been prejudiced by an amendment, the court may postpone the trial or grant such other relief as may be proper under the circumstances. In accord with this rule is the statement of our court of appeals that “[u]nless prejudice to the defendant results a reviewing court will not disturb the trial court’s discretion in permitting an amended information”. State v. Benally, 99 N.M. 415, 417, 658 P.2d 1142, 1144 (Ct.App.1983) (citations omitted). After reviewing the record to determine whether the trial court abused its discretion in allowing the amended information we note, first, that the defendant and the district attorney both should have made efforts immediately to determine why the written bind-over order did not square with the magistrate's announcement at the end of the preliminary hearing. This would have eliminated the present confusion. Defendant did move for a statement of facts under NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 9 (Repl. Pamp.1980); however, he did not do so until the day of the second trial, and we agree with the trial judge that this motion was not timely filed. Second, we observe that it would have been more appropriate for the district attorney to have included all three counts in the original information, if as the State contends, the district attorney intended to charge Coates with these crimes all along and Coates knew at all times of the charges against which he would have to defend. In ruling on the motion to quash the amended information, the trial court concluded that there was no prosecutorial misconduct. This determination by the court below afforded defendant protection against an unfair and vexatious amended information filed subsequent to the mistrial. People v. Flowers. We cannot say that the trial court abused its discretion in finding no vindictiveness on the part of the district attorney, since there is nothing in the record to indicate that he, in fact, acted in bad faith. Furthermore, there is nothing in the record which would even give rise to a presumption of vindictiveness. Rather, it appears that the prosecutor added the armed robbery and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle counts simply because they were improvidently omitted from the original information. Defendant was not prejudiced by the filing of the amended information and, therefore, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in allowing it. We now address defendant’s remaining points of error which he alleges occurred during the second trial. II. Tainted Jury Venire During the trial, the court conducted a portion of voir dire at which time the following exchange took place: Court: Any of you acquainted with the defendant in this case? Mr. Newton: Yes, I am your honor. Court: You know Mr. Coates? Mr. Newton: Yes, I do. Court: And the nature of that acquaintance, sir? Mr. Newton: I am the warden at the correctional center. * * * Court: * * * Mr. Newton, I will excuse you in this matter. During jury selection in chambers, defense counsel moved for a mistrial on the grounds that Mr. Newton's response had left the prospective jurors with the impression that Coates had been incarcerated previously. Therefore, Coates’ attorney argued that the impartiality of the jury had been adversely affected and that a presumption of prejudice arose. The trial judge denied the motion. The record reveals that the defense attorney made no effort to pursue the matter further or to show that his client was, in fact, prejudiced. In State v. Segotta, 100 N.M. 18, 23, 665 P.2d 280, 285 (Ct.App.1983), the court of appeals stated that “[ujnless the record affirmatively shows that defendant was not tried by a fair and impartial jury, there is no error.” In the instant case, there is no evidence in the record that the conversation between the trial judge and Mr. Newton during voir dire prevented the jurors from making a fair-minded decision. Mere speculation on the part of defendant that his right to an impartial jury was violated will not suffice to show that the trial court abused its discretion in not granting a mistrial. III. Admissibility of the Pry-Bar and Hammer into Evidence Defendant argues that the trial court erred in admitting into evidence a pry-bar and hammer as purported murder weapons because there was insufficient evidence to connect the tools with the victim’s death and because their prejudicial effect outweighed their probative value. We observe that the admission of evidence is within the discretion of the trial judge and we will uphold its ruling unless there is a clear abuse of that discretion. State v. Valdez, 83 N.M. 632, 495 P.2d 1079 (Ct.App.), aff'd on other grounds, 83 N.M. 720, 497 P.2d 231, aff'd mem., 83 N.M. 741, 497 P.2d 743, cert. denied, 409 U.S. 1077, 93 S.Ct. 694, 34 L.Ed.2d 666 (1972). Upon review of the record, we do not find that the trial court erred in admitting these two items into evidence, particularly in view of the fact that the judge cautioned that the pry-bar and hammer were being admitted only within the scope of the testimony given about them. IV.Witnesses’ Violation of NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 615 During the State’s case-in-ehief, Dewanna Roberts, the girlfriend of defendant testified on direct examination that she and Coates had taken a drive in the country early on the morning of August 26, 1982. Roberts stated that, at that time, defendant asked her what she would do if she knew that he had just killed someone. She told Coates that she would “freak out”. On cross-examination, the defense attorney elicited from Roberts that she had told State’s witness Robin Walker of this alleged conversation after both Roberts and Walker had been sworn in as witnesses and cautioned not to discuss the case. Defense counsel chastised Roberts for having discussed the case with Walker. Further, on several occasions the trial court admonished the witnesses not to talk with one another. On appeal, defendant argues that during the trial, defense counsel pointed out to the court that Walker and Roberts were attempting to manipulate their testimony in violation of NMSA 1978, Evid.Rule 615 and that Roberts’ testimony should be excluded from the jury’s consideration. Defendant asserts that the trial court refused to strike the testimony, thereby abusing its discretion. In direct contradiction, the State argues that defense counsel failed at several opportune times during trial to request that Roberts’ testimony be stricken. Further, the State observes that the record does not support the assertions that defendant argued to the court that Walker and Roberts were attempting to manipulate their testimony and that the trial court refused to exclude Roberts’ testimony. After a painstaking review of the tapes of the trial, we find that if the defense did request that Roberts’ testimony be stricken because of manipulation and that request was denied by the court, this colloquy was not recorded. It is the duty of the party on appeal to make certain that a proper record has been made of the trial court proceedings. State ex. rel. Alleman v. Shoats, 101 N.M. 512, 684 P.2d 1177 (Ct.App.1984). We cannot consider whether the trial court improperly denied defendant’s alleged request to strike Roberts’ testimony since “[t]he scope of appellate review by the Supreme Court is limited to a consideration of those matters disclosed by the record.” State v. Buchanan, 78 N.M. 588, 589-90, 435 P.2d 207, 208-09 (1967). V. Sufficiency of Evidence to Support Defendant’s Conviction for Armed Robbery Defendant contends that the trial court erred in denying his motion for a directed verdict with respect to the armed robbery charge since the evidence was insufficient to support a verdict of guilty. In passing upon this question, we will view the evidence in the light most favorable to the State. State v. Zamora, 91 N.M. 470, 575 P.2d 1355 cert. denied, 91 N.M. 491, 576 P.2d 297 (1978). Upon a careful review of the entire record, we find that there was substantial evidence to support the verdict of guilt and that the trial court did not err in denying defendant’s motion. VI. Sufficiency of Evidence to Support Defendant’s Conviction of First Degree Murder Defendant argues that the evidence is insufficient to show that he killed Louise Cecil and that the killing was with the deliberate intention to take away her life. In support of this contention, defendant notes that where circumstantial evidence is used to establish guilt in a prosecution for homicide, “[tjhose circumstances must point unerringly to the defendant and be incompatible with and exclude every reasonable hypothesis other than guilt.” State v. Coulter, 84 N.M. 647, 650, 506 P.2d 804, 807 (Ct.App.1973). In State v. Brown, 100 N.M. 726, 676 P.2d 253 (1984), this court expressly recognized that the traditional distinction between direct and circumstantial evidence had been abolished in New Mexico. Accordingly, our only function on review is to determine whether substantial evidence “exists to support a verdict of guilt beyond a reasonable doubt with respect to every element essential to a conviction.” Id. at 728, P.2d at 255. Applying the above standard to the evidence presented to the trial court, we find sufficient evidence to support defendant’s conviction. VII. Defendant’s Competency to Stand Trial During the State’s case-in-chief, the district attorney called Joe Ponder, a witness crucial to the State’s proving that defendant had killed the victim with premeditation. Before Ponder could testify, however, defense counsel requested an evidentiary hearing on defendant’s competency to stand trial under NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 35(b) (Cum.Supp.1984), and notified the court that he had prepared a motion on this issue. It was the defense’s contention that Ponder would be testifying about a phone conversation he had with defendant the night before the victim was found dead, but that defendant could not remember the conversation because of amnesia, an alcoholic blackout, or an epileptic seizure, or some combination thereof. Because Coates would be unable to rebut Ponder’s testimony and assist his attorney in his own defense, he would be incompetent to stand trial. The trial judge expressed dismay at defendant’s having raised the claim of incompetence only in response to Ponder’s testifying but allowed an in camera hearing on the issue. At the hearing, Dr. Jerry Serafino, a forensic psychologist testified that he believed Coates was competent to stand trial if the court did not consider defendant’s alleged lack of memory as a bar to competence. When pressed by defense counsel, however, Serafino expressed a reasonable doubt as to whether Coates was competent to stand trial given his history of epilepsy, the fact that he apparently was intoxicated around the time of the offense, and other relevant data. The trial judge, applying New Mexico’s three-pronged test of competency as set out in NMSA 1978, UJI Crim. 41.03 (Cum.Supp.1984), summarily found that there was no reasonable doubt as to defendant’s competency and refused to submit the issue to the jury. On appeal, defendant urges that New Mexico courts should adopt the position that loss of memory is a factor which must be considered in determining competency. If that position is adopted, defendant contends that the trial judge erred in failing to take into account his claimed loss of memory and in failing to submit the issue to the jury. We find that in order to dispose of this point we need not reach the questions of whether amnesia must be considered in competency determinations nor whether the judge erred in refusing to examine defendant’s loss of memory. In permitting the in camera hearing, the trial judge obviously took into account Coates’ alleged amnesia and inability to put on an alibi defense as factors in determining defendant’s competence to stand trial. That the judge found defendant’s claim untenable is no grounds for asserting that he failed to consider these factors. The question, then, is whether the issue should have been submitted to the jury. In State v. Nelson, 96 N.M. 654, 657, 634 P.2d 676, 679 (1981), this Court observed that under Rule 35(b), “the right to have a jury determination of competency attaches only where competency to stand trial is at issue and when a reasonable doubt is raised after the trial has begun but before it has ended.” Furthermore, we have acknowledged that once the trial court concludes that there is no reasonable doubt as to the defendant’s competency to stand trial, there is no question for the jury to decide, and on review we cannot overturn the lower court’s determination unless there was an abuse of discretion. State v. Noble, 90 N.M. 360, 563 P.2d 1153 (1977). In this case, we find no abuse of discretion for the following reasons. We note that while a defendant may raise the issue of his competency at any stage of the proceedings under Rule 35(b), the claim of incompetence cannot be contingent upon whether one of the State’s witnesses will testify or not. Rather, the claim of incompetence must be raised in good faith. State v. Folk, 56 N.M. 583, 247 P.2d 165 (1952). Apparently, defendant professes to have never remembered what happened during the hours in which the victim was killed. Thus, his lack of memory was a condition which should have existed all along and should not have been triggered by Ponder’s forthcoming testimony. Further, defendant knew before trial that Ponder might testify since Ponder’s name was included on the State’s witness list; therefore, defendant could have raised the issue of incompetence earlier if he felt that the ability to rebut Ponder’s testimony was crucial to his defense. Defendant also points out that Dr. Serafino expressed reasonable doubts about his competency to stand trial and that the State presented no testimony refuting that of the doctor, thus implying that Serafino’s opinion should have been given greater weight. It is axiomatic that the trial court need not adopt the opinion of Dr. Serafino that there was reasonable doubt about defendant’s competence. The court may weigh the evidence itself and draw its own conclusions. Chapman v. Jesco, Inc., 98 N.M. 707, 652 P.2d 257 (Ct.App.1982) In view of all the foregoing, we find no error and the defendant’s conviction of first degree murder, armed robbery, and unlawful taking of a motor vehicle is hereby affirmed. IT IS SO ORDERED. STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur. . The failure of the amended criminal information to conform to the bind-over order and prosecutorial vindictiveness were not issues contained in defendant’s docketing statement. Normally, issues not raised in the docketing statement but asserted for the first time in the brief-in-chief are not to be considered by the reviewing court. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child Ct. Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 205 (Repl.Pamp.1983); State v. Aranda, 94 N.M. 784, 617 P.2d 173 (Ct.App.1980). Because these issues involve defendant’s fundamental right to due process of law, however, they fall within one of the exceptions to the above-stated rule and we will consider them. NMSA 1978, Crim., Child Ct., Dom. Rel. & W/C App.R. 308 (Repl.Pamp.1983). . Cf. State v. Stevens, 96 N.M. 627, 633 P.2d 1225 (1981), cert. denied, 458 U.S. 1109, 102 S.Ct. 3489, 73 L.Ed.2d 1371 (1982) (refusing to find a presumption of prosecutorial vindictiveness at the pre-trial stage of criminal proceedings absent a showing of prosecutorial misconduct). Because of the unique circumstances of the instant case, in which clerical error was compounded by an inadvertent omission on the prosecutor’s part, we are not presented with the facts from which we can determine whether, in general, an amended information adding counts after a mistrial leads to a presumption of vindictiveness, an issue clearly not decided by Stevens.
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 894, 85 N.M. 27, 508 P.2d 1324, be and the same hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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OPINION SUTIN, Judge. Defendant was convicted of aggravated assault. Section 40A-3-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6). He appeals. We affirm. First, defendant claims error that he was not tried, (1) within the time set by § 41-11-4.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6, Supp.1971), repealed after defendant’s trial by the Laws of 1972, ch. 71, § 18; (2) that § 41-11^4.1, supra, had priority over Rules of Civil Procedure, rule 95(1) [§ 21-1-1 (95)(1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4)] by virtue of Article II, § 14 of the New Mexico Constitution which grants a person charged with crime “a speedy public trial by an impartial jury . . .” The Supreme Court has already decided that § 41-11-4.1, supra, need not be considered because Rule 95 “covers the field.” State ex rel. Delgado v. Stanley, 83 N.M. 626, 495 P.2d 1073 (1972). Defendant was tried within six months from the time the information was filed. He was not denied his constitutional right to a speedy trial. Rule 95(1), supra, provides in part: . . . [T]he trial of all persons charged with the commission of a crime in the district courts of this state shall be commenced within six (6)- months of the date of filing of the information or indictment. Compare State v. Mascarenas, 84 N.M. 153, 500 P.2d 438 (Ct.App.1972). Second, during the cross-examination of the prosecuting witness, she was asked this question: Q. How close a relationship did you have with Mr. Hamilton, Mrs. Omey ? The trial court sustained an objection because the relationship had nothing to do with the case. Defendant wanted to impeach the credibility of this witness on the grounds of misconduct, a sexual relationship with defendant and her general reputation in the community, pursuant to § 20-2-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). The record shows that defendant was tried on the crime of an unlawful assault or strike at another with a gun. The prosecuting witness testified that defendant shot at her with a shot gun and hit the side of her car. The defendant admitted that he shot and hit the car with a shot gun. As far as the crime was concerned, there was nothing about the credibility of the witness to impeach. The scope and extent of cross-examination rests largely within the sound discretion of the trial court. What the defendant sought from the prosecuting witness would not have impeached her prior testimony. Therefore, the trial court did not abuse its discretion. State v. Sanchez, 79 N.M. 701, 448 P.2d 807 (Ct.App.1968). Affirmed. It is so ordered. LOPEZ, J., concurs. HENDLEY, J., concurs in part and dissents in part.
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OPINION LOPEZ, Judge. The defendant was convicted on three counts of unlawful sale of a narcotic drug, contrary to § 54-7-14, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 8, pt. 2), and one count of unlawful sale of a stimulant, depressant or hallucinogenic drug, contrary to § 54-6-38, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1971). Defendant appeals alleging two points for reversal: (1) the court erred in denying his motion for advancement of expenses for investigation; and, (2) the court erred in giving its Instruction No. 13. We affirm. (1)The court did not err in denying defendant’s motion for advancement of expenses. Counsel was appointed for defendant pursuant to the Indigent Defense Act, §§ 41-22-1 through 41-22-10, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). Defendant based his motion upon § 41-22-3, supra, of that act, which states : “A needy person who is being detained by a law enforcement officer, or who is under formal charge of having committed, or is being detained under a conviction of, a serious crime, is entitled to be represented by an "attorney to the same extent as a person having his own counsel and to be provided with the necessary services and facilities of representation, including investigation and other preparation. The attorney, services and facilities and expenses and court costs shall be provided at public expense for needy persons.” [Emphasis added] Defendant’s motion was properly denied. The Indigent Defense Act does not contemplate the payment of advances. Section 41-22-8(B), supra, states: “The court assigning counsel under the Indigent Defense Act . . . shall reimburse counsel for direct expenses the court determines to have been properly incurred by him. . . .” [Emphasis added] Defendant argues that an attorney would be hesitant to incur these expenses, not knowing whether they are “properly incurred.” However, the Twelfth Judicial District, where this case was tried, allows prior authorization of such expenses. Even if defendant’s motion could be construed as a request for prior authorization and not a motion for advancement, we would still be compelled to affirm. The act contemplates reimbursement only for “necessary” expenses. To the trial court, defendant argued for an advancement of fees to hire an investigator solely on the basis that without the advancement he was “hindered” in the preparation of the defense. This is not a showing of the necessity for an investigator. See State v. Dillon, 93 Idaho 698, 471 P.2d 553 (1970), cert. denied, 401 U.S. 942, 91 S.Ct. 947, 28 L.Ed.2d 223 (1971); Washington County v. Day, 22 Utah 2d 6, 447 P.2d 189 (1968); also see State v. Tackett, 78 N.M. 450, 432 P.2d 415 (1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1026, 88 S.Ct. 1414, 20 L.Ed.2d 283 (1968); State v. Toussaint, 84 N.M. 677, 506 P.2d 1224 (Ct.App.1973). Defendant contends that the statutory requirement has been met because there is a need for investigation in every case. However, his motion specifically requested funds for a professional investigator. Such an expenditure is clearly not required in every case and need not be provided unless the necessity is shown. Since there has been no showing of need, we cannot say the trial court abused its discretion in regard to the expenses. Therefore, we hold that the motion was properly denied. (2) Defendant cannot raise the propriety of the instruction for the first time on appeal. The court’s Instruction No. 13 pointed out that the defendant was a competent witness in his own behalf but that his interest in the trial could be taken into account. There was no objection to this instruction before the trial court. Defendant argues that the instruction was an adverse comment by the court, singling out the defendant and denying him due process of law. The alleged error is neither jurisdictional nor fundamental. See State v. Lopez, 84 N.M. 402, 503 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Reynolds, 79 N.M. 195, 441 P.2d 235 (Ct.App.1968) ; also see Louie v. United States, 426 F.2d 1398 (9th Gir. 1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 918, 91 S.Ct. 180, 27 L.Ed.2d 158 (1970). Therefore, it cannot be raised for the first time on appeal. See § 21-2-1(20), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4). Affirmed. It is so ordered. WOOD, C. J., and HENDLEY, J., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This cause originated in this Court by petition for writ of mandamus. It arose out of a divorce proceeding in which Petitioner, Edward A. DuBois (Edward), was plaintiff, his former wife, Marie Alice DuBois (Marie), was defendant, and his present wife and petitioner, Hazel Waggoner DuBois (Hazel), was an intervenor. Respondent is the district judge who presided over the divorce proceedings. We issued an alternative writ under our power of superintending control. After a full hearing on the writ and the response thereto, we entered an order making the writ of superintending control permanent, dismissing the appeal to this Court by Petitioners from an amended decree entered in the divorce proceedings, and remanding that cause to the district court with directions to vacate and set aside the amended decree and reinstate the original decree of divorce previously entered. We exercised our superintending control herein only because of the extremely unusual circumstances. Edward, who is in the United States Air Force, sued Marie for divorce on the ground of incompatibility. Marie denied the claim of incompatibility and filed a counterclaim by which she sought a legal separation. In her brief in this Court she contends she asserted the defense of recrimination to Edward’s claim of incompatibility. His contention in this regard is directly to the contrary. However, in our disposition of this question, we assume her position to he correct. Marie alleged in her counterclaim and Edward admitted that she was suffering from choriocarcinoma, a very rare and unusual form of cancer; she was under treatment by military physicians, and as long as she remained married to Edward she would be entitled to continued medical treatment and benefits as his dependent at no cost to her; treatment for her disease would be exorbitantly expensive in the civilian community, ranging from $1,500 to $5,000 per month; and she had no funds with which to defray such expenses. The case came on for trial before Respondent on April 12, 1973. At the commencement thereof, Respondent was informed by the attorneys for both parties of her disease, that she was concerned over her inability to obtain free medical attention therefor if a divorce were granted, that each required chemotherapy treatment therefor would cost $5,000, and that she had been receiving such a treatment every six or eight weeks. On March 16, 1973, following trial, Respondent entered a final decree awarding Edward a divorce from Marie, which was predicated upon and supported by a finding: “That the Plaintiff [Edward] and Defendant [Marie] are irreconcilably incompatible.” It was also ordered and decreed : “That, after Defendant has had a medical examination and if it should be ascertained that said Defendant continues to suffer from choriocarcinoma, then and in that event Plaintiff will be directed to pay to Defendant a reasonable amount, to be fixed by this Court, as alimony for so long as the Defendant is unable to work; and in such event' the Court will order Plaintiff to pay all medical bills and expenses incurred in connection with the treatment of said desease [sic].” Edward married Hazel on March 17, 1973. On April 4, 1973, upon motion for rehearing by Marie, Respondent entered an amended decree. Insofar as here pertinent, it was ordered, adjudged and decreed therein: “That so much of the Final Decree entered on March 16, 1973, as grants plaintiff a divorce from the defendant is hereby set aside, vacated and voided and for nothing held;” “[t]hat defendant Marie Alice DuBois is hereby granted and awarded a legal separation from the plaintiff Edward A. DuBois;” and “that except as herein modified, all the remaining provisions of the Final Decree entered March 16, 1973, will remain in full force and effect.” On April 10 Edward moved to set aside the amended decree on the grounds that Respondent was without jurisdiction or authority to vacate the final decree of March 16; he had married and consummated his marriage following the entry of the final decree of March 16; and he should not be deprived of his legal right to a divorce or be penalized simply because he was a member of the United States Air Force. . On April 24 Hazel moved for leave to intervene and file a motion to set aside the amended decree. Leave was granted and she filed her motion. This motion and the motion filed by Edward to set aside the amended decree were denied by orders entered by Respondent on May 3. Both Edward and Hazel promptly filed notice of appeal to this Court from the amended decree. About this time, Edward was notified by the United States Air Force that he was to depart from the United States on May 29 for duty in Taiwan, Nationalist China. Thereupon he and Hazel instituted these proceedings by petition for writ of mandamus, and, as above recited, we entered a permanent order pursuant to the power of superintending control vested in this Court by N.M.Const. art. VI, § 3. Our power of superintending control is distinct from our appellate and original jurisdiction. N.M.Const. art. VI, §§ 2, 3; State v. Gunzelman, 85 N.M. 295, 512 P.2d 55 (1973); State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646 (1936). Even though Petitioners had taken an appeal to this Court from the orders of the trial court denying their motions to set aside the amended decree, the extremely unsual circumstances of this case made Petitioners’ remedy by appeal substantially inadequate. On prior occasions we have held that our superintending control will be exercised if the remedy by appeal is wholly or substantially inadequate, or if the exercise thereof will prevent irreparable mischief, great, extraordinary or exceptional hardship, costly delays, or unusual burdens in the form of expenses. Montoya v. McManus, 68 N.M. 381, 362 P.2d 771 (1961); State v. Carmody, 53 N.M. 367, 208 P.2d 1073 (1949); Albuquerque Gas & Electric Co. v. Curtis, 43 N.M. 234, 89 P.2d 615 (1939). At the time we made the writ permanent, we were, and still are, of the opinion that the accomplishment of justice between the parties compelled the exercise of our superintending control. As shown by the above recited facts, Respondent granted Edward a divorce from Marie on the ground of incompatibility. This has been a ground for divorce in New Mexico since 1933. Section 22-7-1, N.M.S. A.1953. New Mexico was the first state to recognize incompatibility as a ground for divorce. It was taken from the Danish law in force in the Virgin Islands prior to their purchase by the United States from Denmark in 1917. Kirkpatrick, Incompatibility as a Ground for Divorce, 87 Marq.L.Rev. 453, 455 (1963-64). See also Annot., 58 A.L.R.2d 1218 (1958). Either husband or wife may secure a divorce on the ground of incompatibility regardless of whether either, both or neither has been guilty of misconduct, and regardless of whether either, both or neither is at fault or to blame. Misconduct, fault or blame is of no significance, if in fact incompatibility exists. Bassett v. Bassett, 56 N.M. 739, 751, 250 P.2d 487, 495 (1952). See also Burch v. Burch, 195 F.2d 799, 808-810 (3d Cir. 1952). Incompatibility is difficult, if not impossible, to define with exactness. We earlier declined an invitation to give an exact definition thereof. However, we did suggest that “irreconcilableness” is an important factor to be considered in deciding this issue. Poteet v. Poteet, 45 N.M. 214, 222, 114 P.2d 91, 96 (1941). The Respondent’s finding on this issue, which was not disturbed by the amended decree and is in no way challenged, was that Edward and Marie are “irreconcilably incompatible.” Unless Edward has been deprived of his right to a divorce on the established ground of incompatibility by reason of the defense of recrimination, which we have assumed Marie pleaded and proved, it would appear inescapable that Respondent had no choice but to award Edward a divorce. This Court has not been entirely consistent in its views as to the validity and effectiveness of recrimination as a defense to divorce on the ground of incompatibility. See Chavez v. Chavez, 39 N.M. 480, 50 P.2d 264 (1935); Pavletich v. Pavletich, 50 N.M. 224, 174 P.2d 826 (1946); Clark v. Clark, 54 N.M. 364, 225 P.2d 147 (1950). However, in the recent case of Garner v. Garner, 85 N.M. 324, 512 P.2d 84 (1973), we held that the doctrine of recrimination as a defense is abolished in proceedings in which divorce is sought on the ground of incompatibility, and that evidence of recriminatory acts is admissible in such proceedings only insofar as it may be' relevant to and weigh on the issue of incompatibility as a ground for divorce. Thus, the amended decree vacating the award of divorce to Edward on the ground of incompatibility cannot be justified on the basis of Marie’s claimed defense of recrimination. As already stated, Respondent found Edward and Marie to be “irreconcilably incompatible.” The question then arises whether Respondent had the discretionary power to deny Edward a divorce after the existence of one of the expressly provided statutory grounds therefor had been established. The rule is stated as follows in one of the specially concurring opinions in Chavez v. Chavez, supra, at 484 of 39 N.M., at 266 of 50 P.2d: “It is, I believe, universally recognized that the Legislature has power to prescribe the causes affording grounds for divorce, and that where a statutory ground is shown to exist, the court has no discretionary right to deny a divorce.” To the same effect see Kennon v. Kennon, 150 Me. 410, 111 A.2d 695 (1955); Reddington v. Reddington, 317 Mass. 760, 59 N.E.2d 775 (1945); Billion v. Billion, 137 Or. 622, 1 P.2d 1108, 3 P.2d 1113 (1931); Lucich v. Lucich, 75 Cal.App.2d 890, 172 P.2d 73 (1946); Willis v. Willis, 274 S.W.2d 621 (Mo.Ct.App.1954); Annot., 74 A.L.R. 271 and cases cited therein in. support of the general rule (1931) ; 24 Am. Jur.2d, Divorce and Separation, § 416 at 540-41. The trial court, having found Edward and Marie to be incompatible, having awarded a divorce on that ground, and not having vacated that finding, lacked discretion and power to vacate the award. The action of this Court in entering the writ of superintending control is hereby reaffirmed. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. This is an appeal by plaintiffs from a judgment entered in favor of defendant, American Title Insurance Company, hereinafter called Title Company, and dismissing plaintiffs’ complaint against this defendant. The judgment was entered pursuant to the provisions of Rule 41(b), Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(41) (b), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)], after plaintiffs had completed the presentation of their evidence at trial. We affirm in part and reverse in part. Defendant, Sedillo Title Guaranty, Inc., hereinafter called Sedillo, was the Title Company’s agent in Albuquerque and actually sold and delivered to plaintiffs a mortgagee policy of title insurance on the Title Company’s form. Plaintiffs were insured under the policy against loss up to the amount of $10,000, which is the amount plaintiffs loaned the mortgagor in July 1966. It developed that an instrument evidencing a prior lien on the real estate was in existence and of record. The record of this prior lien was either overlooked by Sedillo, or for some other reason was not mentioned in or excepted from coverage under the policy. The mortgagor became delinquent on the indebtedness secured by the mortgage lien to plaintiffs. Plaintiffs’ attorney, some time before March 8,- 1967, learned of the existence of the prior lien. On March 8, 1967, plaintiffs filed suit to foreclose their lien, and the holder of the prior lien was named as one of the defendants. These foreclosure proceedings were concluded by a judgment and decree in which it was determined 'and adjudicated that the prior lien constituted the first, prior and paramount lien upon the real estate, and plaintiffs’ mortgage lien consti tuted a second and inferior lien thereon. The property was subsequently sold at a foreclosure sale and the proceeds thereof applied on the indebtedness secured by the prior lien. Plaintiffs then brought the present suit against the Title Company and Sedillo. Judgment was entered for the Title Company but against Sedillo, and, as above stated, plaintiffs have appealed from the judgment entered for the Title Company. They rely upon four separately stated points for reversal, and these points will be considered in the order of their presentation in the brief in chief. The first is that: “The judgment below is erroneous for the reason that the defendant American Title Company did not establish that it was prejudiced by any failure of the insured to comply with any notice conditions of the policy, nor did it establish, if it were prejudiced, the extent of such prejudice.” Insofar as plaintiffs’ position under this point is concerned, it is assumed they failed to comply with the notice provisions of the policy. The two issues presented are: (1) Was there evidence to support the trial court’s findings to the effect that plaintiffs’ failure to notify the Title Company prejudiced it? (2) If there was actual prejudice to the Title Company, was the extent of such prejudice proven? Upon dismissal of a plaintiffs’ case under Rule 41(b), supra, the trial court weighs the evidence and gives to it such weight as the court believes it deserves. Komadina v. Edmondson, 81 N.M. 467, 468 P.2d 632 (1970); Giles v. Canal Insurance Company, 75 N.M. 25, 399 P.2d 924 (1965). On appeal the evidence will be examined by the appellate court only to the extent necessary to determine whether it gives substantial support to the trial court’s findings. Giles v. Canal Insurance Company, supra. In making this determination, the evidence will be viewed in its most favorable light to support the findings, and evidence inconsistent with or unfavorable to the findings will be disregarded. Trujillo v. Romero, 82 N.M. 301, 481 P.2d 89 (1971); Giles v. Canal Insurance Company, supra. Substantial evidence is that relevant evidence which is acceptable to a reasonable mind as adequate support for a conclusion. State ex rel. Reynolds v. Lewis, 84 N.M. 768, 508 P.2d 577 (1973); State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co. v. Gonzales, 83 N.M. 296, 491 P.2d 513 (1971). Only the trier of the facts may weigh the evidence, determine the credibility of the witnesses, reconcile inconsistent or contradictory statements of a witness or of witnesses, and decide where the truth lies. State ex rel. Reynolds v. Lewis, supra. The notice provision in the policy with which we are here concerned provides in pertinent part: “ * * * provided, however, that failure to notify shall in no case prejudice the claim of any insured unless the Company shall be actually prejudiced by such failure and then only to the extent of such prejudice.” The first notice by plaintiffs to the Title Company at its home office, as expressly required by the policy, was not received until eighteen months after plaintiffs’ complaint had been filed and over a month after judgment had been entered adversely to the plaintiffs in the foreclosure suit to which reference is above made. The Title Company was thereby denied its rights under the policy to defend against the claims of the prior lienholder and to make timely efforts to recover under its right of subrogation from the mortgagor, or from others who might well have been involved in what appears to have been a fraudulent scheme. The Title Company had the right to protect the title it insured and also to mitigate its damages. Stewart Title G. Co. v. Lunt L. Co., 162 Tex. 435, 347 S.W.2d 584 (1961). Without trying to detail the chain of events over a period of about eighteen months in court, or what the evidence clearly suggests might have been accomplished by the Title Company in defending plaintiffs and, thus, itself, against liability under the policy of insurance, or in mitigating its possible loss, we are convinced the evidence does substantially support the findings by the trial court that the Title Company was actually prejudiced by plaintiffs’ failure to give it notice within the time and at the place required by the policy. As to the extent of such prejudice, the Title Company made no request for a finding on this issue. Plaintiffs requested a finding that if “ * * * prejudice did result to the American Title Company by the absence of such formal written notice, the extent of such prejudice was never established.” We agree with plaintiffs that the prejudice with which we are here concerned is prejudice measured in terms of money, since the Title Company’s obligation under its policy was expressed in terms of dollars. Plaintiffs have asserted, the Title Company takes no issue therewith, and we agree that the burden was on the Title Company to establish actual prejuudice to it and the extent of such prejudice. It failed to establish the extent thereof, or at least there was no finding as to the extent. The Title Company has suggested that a reasonable inference to be drawn from the evidence is that the prejudice sustained by it equalled or exceeded the maximum amount of its liability under the policy. Even if there were evidence from which this inference might reasonably be drawn, it is not for us to draw such an inference. As indicated above, it is for the trial court to determine all issues of fact. The failure of the trial court to make a finding on this material issue of fact would ordinarily be regarded on appeal as a finding against the Title Company, upon whom rested the burden of proof thereon. Gibbons and Reed Company v. Bureau of Revenue, 80 N.M. 462, 457 P.2d 710 (1969); Tsosie v. Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, 77 N.M. 671, 427 P.2d 29 (1967); Begay v. First National Bank of Farmington, 84 N.M. 83, 499 P.2d 1005 (Ct.App.1972). However, the refusal of the trial court to make plaintiffs’ requested finding on this issue would ordinarily be regarded on appeal as a finding against plaintiffs. Gallegos v. War, 78 N.M. 796, 438 P.2d 636 (1968). See also Clark v. Foremost Insurance Co., 80 N.M. 584, 458 P.2d 836 (Ct.App.1969). In any event, it is obvious the trial court declined to find this issue in favor of plaintiffs, and it failed to find thereon in favor of the Title Company. This essential factual issue has not been decided. Thus, the judgment must be reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings upon the issue of the extent of prejudice. In their second point, plaintiffs assert that: “The actual knowledge of the title defect received by the Title Company’s agent constituted a compliance with the policyholder’s notice requirement.” The following is the pertinent finding of the trial court as to notices given by plaintiffs of the adverse claims: “7. On March 8, 1967, and prior thereto, plaintiffs knew of adverse claims but gave no notice nor statements required by the policy. In April and May, 1967, plaintiffs gave oral and written notice to Sedillo Title Guaranty, Inc. In said Cause numbered A 25709 [the foreclosure suit filed by plaintiffs on March 8, 1967], the defendant, Virgil Justice filed answer on June 2, 1967, together with counterclaim and cross-claim alleging a mortgage prior in time dated July 14th and recorded July 19, 1966, which mortgage was subsequently decreed to be found prior in time to that of plaintiffs. Partial judgment was entered of record on September 26, 1967; deposition of Justice was taken December 8, 1967, trial on the merits was held February 20, 1968, deposition of Milburn E. Nutt, Trustee, was taken in May, 1968, the Trial Court rendered its opinion by letter of June 14, 1968, and supplemental decree of foreclosure was filed August 1, 1968. Plaintiffs gave no notice to American Title Insurance Company of any of these actions until letter of September 4, 1968.” The only attack made on this finding by plaintiffs is that by giving notice to Sedillo they thereby gave notice to the Title Company. References are made in the briefs to estoppel and waiver. The question of waiver as such was not litigated. Neither party requested findings or conclusions on this question, and no reference thereto is made in the trial court’s findings or conclusions. The only question as to waiver with which we are concerned is simply whether Sedillo had authority under the agency relationship to waive policy provisions, and particularly the policy requirement that “ * * * [a] 11 notices required to be given the Company and any statement in writing required to be furnished the Company shall be addressed to it at its Home Office at Miami, Florida.” There was some little reference made to estoppel at the trial and plaintiffs did request a conclusion of law to the effect that the Title Company is estopped from asserting failure of plaintiffs to give notice in accordance with the policy provisions concerning notice. However, no complaint as to the ruling of the trial court in denying the request was asserted in plaintiffs’ brief in chief as required by Supreme Court Rule 15(16) (e), [§ 21-2-1(15) (16) (e), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. Accordingly, the question of estoppel is not before us. Compare Gonzales v. Gonzales, 85 N.M. 67, 509 P.2d 259 (1973); McCroskey v. State, 82 N.M. 49, 475 P.2d 49 (Ct.App.1970). Besides, it is apparent that the elements of estoppel were not present. For statements as to the essentials of estoppel see Tome Land & Improvement Co. v. Silva, 83 N.M. 549, 494 P.2d 962 (1972); State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co. v. Gonzales, 83 N.M. 296, 491 P.2d 513 (1971). The finding of the trial court as to the nature of the agency relationship between the Title Company and Sedillo was as follows: “2. The defendant, Sedillo Title Guaranty, Inc. was the authorized representative of American Title Insurance Company for purposes of soliciting and issuing title insurance policies.” There is no claim made by plaintiffs that this finding is not supported by the evidence. Their challenge to this finding is: “We also challenge Finding No. 2 in Point II insofar as it tends to limit the authority of Sedillo as an agent of American [Title Company].” Plaintiffs assert that: “ * * * In New Mexico even a mere soliciting agent is held to have considerable authority.” They then cite the case of Douglass v. Mutual Ben. Health & Accident Ass’n, 42 N.M. 190, 196, 76 P.2d 453, 456 (1937), and quote as follows from the opinion therein: “ ‘ * * * If thel^principalMeads third persons, acting reasonably and in good faith, to believe that his agent possesses a certain authority, then, as to them, the principal will be estopped to deny that the agent does possess it.’ 2 Mechem on Agency, § 1722. “ ‘ * * * The principal cannot, however, expect third persons to have notice of limitations and restrictions, which are in their nature secret and undisclosed. And while, as has been stated, persons"', dealing with the agent are bound to j know the extent of his authority, they<J may reasonably take the visible and ap-'\ parent interpretation of that authority by j the principal himself as the true one, and ! as the one by which he chooses to be ; bound. It is therefore the rule of the ' law that the rights of third parties, who, have reasonably and in good faith relied upon the apparent authority of the agent as previously explained, cannot be preju diced by secret limitations or restrictions upon it of which they had no notice. * * *’ 2 Mechem on Agency, § 1723.” Not only does the holding in the Douglass case fail to support plaintiffs’ contention that Sedillo, as soliciting agent for the Title Company, had apparent authority to receive notices of adverse claims, litigation, etc. on behalf of the Title Company, but, in our judgment, the quoted language from the Douglass opinion also fails to support the contention that notice to Sedillo was notice to the Title Company. As to that portion of the quotation dealing with estoppel, we have already disposed of this question above. In addition thereto, insofar as the notice here under consideration is concerned, the only thing the Title Company did, as reflected by the record before us, was to include in the written policy an express and clearly understandable provision that notices must be given to it in writing by addressing the notices to the Title Company’s home office at Miami, Florida. As to the applicability of the remainder of the quotation from the Douglass case to the present case, the policy of title insurance here involved was the written evidence of the contract between the parties and of the rights and obligations of the parties thereunder. Even a cursory examination thereof by plaintiffs should at once have answered any question they had as to whom, by what means, and when the notice in question should have been given by them. In fact, the very first reading of the policy by anyone on their behalf resulted in the prompt mailing to the Title Company by their attorney of the notice dated September 4, 1967, which was received by the Title Company on about September 6, 1967. By this time the judgment had been entered in the foreclosure proceedings initiated by plaintiffs. The policy provisions as to notice were not secret and undisclosed. We fail to understand what visible and apparent interpretation by the Title Company of Sedillo’s authority could reasonably have been relied upon by plaintiffs for giving the notices to Sedillo and not to the company. There has been no evidence brought to our attention which shows any secret limitations or restrictions upon Sedillo’s authority. We are not here concerned with representations made by the agent in securing plaintiffs’ application for insurance, or with undisclosed restrictions upon an agent’s authority, but with plaintiffs’ total disregard of the plain conditions imposed upon them by the provisions of the written contract under which they seek recovery. In addition to their reliance on the Douglass case, and particularly upon the language above quoted from the opinion therein, plaintiffs also rely upon Tri-State Ins. Co. v. Smith, etc., 248 Ark. 71, 449 S.W.2d 698 (1970); Green v. Star Fire Insurance Co., 190 Mass. 586, 77 N.E. 649 (1906); Harnden v. Milwaukee Mechanics’ Ins. Co., 164 Mass. 382, 41 N.E. 658 (1895); American Family Mutual Insurance Company v. Bach, 471 S.W.2d 474 (Mo.1971); Insurance Co. of North America v. McLimans, 28 Neb. 653, 44 N.W. 991 (1890); Purcell v. Land Title Guarantee Co., 94 Mo.App. 5, 67 S.W. 726 (1902). The facts and the questions presented and decided in those cases are so materially different from the facts and questions presented in the case now before us that we are unable to accept anything said by the courts in their decisions in those cases as being applicable to the facts and the issue of notice here involved. The notices to Sedillo were not notices to the Title Company. The third point asserted by plaintiffs is that: “The trial court erred in sustaining objections to the testimony of the witness Carlos Sedillo to telephone conversations by his deceased father with the American Title Company.” Their argument in support of their position under this point is that the trial court erred in sustaining objections to their questions asked of Carlos Sedillo, a principal officer of Sedillo, by which plaintiffs sought to establish that the witness’s father, who also had been a principal officer of Sedillo, prior to his death, had notified the Title Company in telephone conversations with a Mr. Weatherford, Senior Vice President of the Title Company, of the outstanding claims and particularly of the lien prior in time to that of plaintiffs. Regardless of the validity of the Title Company’s objections, they were sustained by the trial court and no offer or tender of proof was made by plaintiffs. Thus, no error was preserved for review, if the trial court in fact excluded evidence which. should have been admitted had it been properly presented. Wood v. Citizens Standard Life Insurance Company, 82 N.M. 271, 480 P.2d 161 (1971). The following are the question and answer most nearly suggestive of what plaintiffs claim they were seeking and to which objection was sustained: “MR. GALLAGHER: “Q. I understand that from your affidavit, but I’m trying to find out, did you, not conversations that your father had or Corey [plaintiffs’ attorney] had or anything, but did you ever advise Corey that American Title had been notified of this loss? “A. I cannot remember any specific instance where I said, ‘Mr. Corey, American Title has been notified.’ I can say this, that I — it is very possible that on some occasions I may have told him that my dad had talked to John Weatherford by telephone.” Plaintiffs’ entire argument in support of their contention that no tender of proof was required is: “III. THE EVIDENTIARY ISSUE “‘[1] The purpose of the requirement that certain formalities and rules be observed with respect to offers of proof is to make certain that the trial court and opposing counsel understand what evidence is being offered and its relevancy and materiality. Stipp v. Tsutomi Karasawa, Mo., 318 S.W.2d 172, 175 [5], It follows that the reason for a formal offer of proof does not exist if the trial court and counsel by other means are sufficiently advised as to what the testimony of the witness will probably be if he is allowed to testify.’ “State v. Northeast Building Co., 421 S.W.2d [297] 300 (Mo.) “Appellee cannot complain of ignorance of what we were trying to glean from the witness Carlos Sedillo — actual reporting of the title defect to the home office.” Even if we were to assume, as plaintiffs urge, that the Title Company was aware of what plaintiffs “were trying to glean from the witness Carlos Sedillo,” which we are unwilling to assume, this was not sufficient. The trial court, which sustained the objection, was not sufficiently advised as to what the testimony of the witness would probably be if allowed to testify. If plaintiffs intended to preserve the error, if any, they should have made a proper tender of proof. In their final two points relied upon for reversal, plaintiffs express their inability to understand the meaning and purpose of certain findings made by the trial court. We are unable to determine any real reason for either finding. In any event, the elimination of these findings would not require a reversal of the judgment. The judgment is reversed and the cause remanded for such further proceedings as are required to determine the extent of the prejudice suffered by the Title Company by reason of plaintiffs’ failure to notify it of the prior lien upon the mortgaged premises. It is so ordered. MONTOYA, and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION PER CURIAM: The petition filed in this proceeding seeks review and an evaluation by this court of petitioner’s answers to the March 1973 bar examination given and graded by the New Mexico Board of Bar Examiners. The matter having been heard on the legal defenses filed by the Board and the court having directed counsel to examine the tally sheets containing grades of petitioner and submit a report to the court, and the court having examined and considered said report and being otherwise fully advised, the court concludes as follows: The facts and issues of this cause are substantially similar to those presented in Petition of Pacheco, 85 N.M. 600, 514 P.2d 1297 (1973). We hereby adopt the Pacheco opinion, supra, as authority and dismiss this petition for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concurring.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. Defendant appeals his conviction of burglary of a residence. Section 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). He claims that references made by the prosecuting attorney to in-court fingerprinting (1) violated his privilege against self-incrimination and (2) were so prejudicial that he was denied a fair trial. A latent fingerprint was lifted from a metal box located in a bedroom closet of the burglarized premises. This latent print was compared with a fingerprint card taken from the files of the Albuquerque Police Department. The evidence is that the latent print and the rolled fingerprint of the left thumb on the fingerprint card came from the same individual. The evidence fully sustains the inference that the prints on the fingerprint card were fingerprints of defendant. Defense cross-examination attacked this inference. Defense cross-examination was also directed to the quality of the latent print, the details of “lifting” a latent print and the technique of comparing fingerprints. During redirect examination of the officer who made the fingerprint comparison, the State moved that the officer be allowed to take a rolled impression of defendant’s left thumb “to resolve all doubt as to whether or not the fingerprints appearing on [the fingerprint card] . . . are in fact those of the Defendant.” The motion was denied. Defendant then moved for a mistrial on the basis that the State’s fin gerprint motion was a comment on defendant’s failure to testify. At the conclusion of argument, upon submission of the case to the jury, defendant moved for a mistrial. The basis for the motion was an allegation that the prosecutor, during argument, had stated that any question concerning identity of the prints on the fingerprint card could have been resolved during the trial. No question of timeliness arises. Although closing arguments were not recorded, the trial judge stated, for the record, that this motion was a renewal of a motion made during the arguments to the jury. This mistrial motion asserted two grounds: (1) that the prosecutor’s alleged statement was prejudicial because it was outside the evidence in the case and (2) the statement was a comment on defendant’s failure to testify. Privilege against self-incrimination. The constitutional privilege against self-incrimination prohibits comment on a defendant’s failure to testify. State v. Miller, 76 N.M. 62, 412 P.2d 240 (1966). Defendant asserts that the motion to fingerprint defendant in the courtroom and the prosecutor’s statement during jury argument are comments about defendant’s failure to testify. We disagree. The privilege against self-incrimination applies to disclosures that are “communicative” or “testimonial;” the privilege does not include identifying physical characteristics. State v. Mordecai, 83 N.M. 208, 490 P.2d 466 (Ct.App.1971) and cases therein cited. Fingerprints are an identifying physical characteristic. The privilege does not protect “against compulsion to submit to fingerprinting.” Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S.Ct. 1826, 16 L.Ed.2d 908 (1966); see United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218, 87 S.Ct. 1926, 18 L.Ed.2d 1149 (1967). Fingerprinting is not within the privilege against self-incrimination. The motion during trial and the alleged statement during closing argument, both of which referred to fingerprinting, did not violate the privilege. Compare State v. Mordecai, supra; State v. Archuleta, 82 N.M. 378, 482 P.2d 242 (Ct.App.1970). ’ Prejudicial comment. Defendant asserts the prosecutor’s “comments were the product of an unrestrained zeal to get before the jury facts which would inflame their passions.” Thus, he argues that the fingerprint comments were prejudicial. In United States v. Rundle, 266 F.Supp. 173 (E.D.Pa.1967), aff’d, 384 F.2d 997 (3rd Cir. 1967), cert. denied, 393 U.S. 860, 89 S.Ct. 138, 21 L.Ed.2d 128 (1968), defendant’s fingerprints were taken in open court during trial. It was held that this did not violate the privilege against self-incrimination. It was also argued that the fingerprinting in the presence of the jury was prejudicial and made the trial fundamentally unfair. The trial court opinion states: “. . . Fingerprinting is commonplace, and juries know it. We cannot believe that the mere fact that the jurors saw it, instead of hearing about it, was so inflammatory that defendant’s trial was rendered fundamentally unfair.” In this case, the jury had heard testimony about the latent print and the technique of fingerprint comparison. The jury also heard the motion for in-court fingerprinting. This motion was not prejudicial when considered in the context of the testimony which preceded the motion. United States v. Rundle, supra. The closing arguments were not recorded. The trial court stated its “recollection” of the prosecutor’s statement. At the hearing, after the jury had retired to consider its verdict, the prosecutor argued that his statement was in response to jury argument made by defense counsel. The trial court agreed that defense counsel had argued an absence of proof as to the identity of the prints on the fingerprint card. However, in response to the prosecutor’s contention, the trial court stated: “I don’t know if that was in rebuttal or not.” The record is ambiguous — both as to what the prosecutor stated to the jury and the context in which the statement was made. With this record, we cannot hold that the prosecutor’s statement was prejudicial or that error occurred in denying the mistrial motion. State v. Gonzales, 78 N.M. 218, 430 P.2d 376 (1967); State v. Paris, 76 N.M. 291, 414 P.2d 512 (1966); State v. Gunthorpe, 81 N.M. 515, 469 P.2d 160 (Ct.App.1970), cert. denied, 401 U.S. 941, 91 S.Ct. 943, 28 L.Ed.2d 221 (1971); State v. Gutierrez, 78 N.M. 529, 433 P.2d 508 (Ct.App.1967). Judgment and sentence is affirmed. It is so ordered. HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. Defendant appeals from his conviction of murder in the first degree. We affirm. He seeks reversal of the judgment of conviction upon the grounds that: (1) “DEFENDANT WAS DENIED EFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL,” and (2) “THE [TRIAL] COURT ERRED IN PERMITTING A TRANSLATION OF TAPES TO BE READ TO THE JURY EVEN THOUGH OFFERED BY DEFENDANT.” Counsel was appointed for defendant. Early in the proceedings this attorney sought discovery of, among other things, transcripts of certain tapes translated into English from Spanish. These tapes were recordings of conversations between defendant, a New Mexico State Police officer, who often operates in an undercover capacity, and a Mexican National, who had become a rather close friend of defendant and who at times gave information to the police on drug offenses and offenders in the area. These tapes were made long after defendant had confided in his friend, the Mexican National, that he had killed the woman for whose murder he was convicted. The trial court conducted a hearing on defendant’s motion for discovery and the motion was granted. An English transcription of the tapes was made available to defendant and his attorney. The defendant then filed a motion to suppress the statements contained in the transcript. One of the grounds for this motion was the claim that defendant, at the times of the conversations, had been under the influence of alcohol to such an extent that he was incapable of knowing what he was saying. This motion was denied after hearing testimony, including that of defendant himself. No attack is made upon the denial of this motion. At trial both the Mexican National and the undercover officer testified at length concerning the conversations, and particularly concerning those portions thereof in which defendant talked of the murder and the events leading thereto and surrounding the same. During the cross-examination of these witnesses by defendant’s attorney, efforts were made to develop evidence from which the jury might find that defendant was intoxicated; failed to under stand what he was saying; was endeavoring to “test” the sincerity of statements by the officer to the effect that he was interested in assisting defendant in accomplishing some burglaries or robberies; was putting on an act; or was just “fooling” with the witnesses. The evidence as to defendant’s guilt was very persuasive and conclusive, unless the testimony of the witnesses could in some way be discounted or properly disregarded, and it appears defendant’s attorney fully realized this. During the presentation of the defense, and immediately before defendant took the witness stand on his own behalf, he offered, through his attorney, a portion of the translation from the tapes. Defendant then took the stand and testified as to how drunk he was, how he could remember but little of what he had said during the conversations, and that he had not killed or admitted to killing the woman. Another attorney represents defendant on this appeal. The only attack upon the competency of trial counsel, the propriety of the conduct of the trial judge, and the validity of the trial proceedings, as shown by the above quoted grounds or points relied upon for reversal, arises entirely out of the offer and reception into evidence of the portion of the translation taken from the tapes. It is now defendant’s position that the offer and receipt into evidence of this portion of the translation was so prejudicial to him that it establishes the incompetency of his trial counsel in making the offer and a disregard by the trial judge of defendant’s fundamental right to a fair trial in accepting the translation into evidence. It is urged that: “ * * * [N]o valid or legitimate defense purpose could be, or was served by ■ a reading of a translation of the tapes. Such a reading could only result in complete revulsion in the mind of the jury. Prejudice must ensue. Defendant is pictured as a callous, crude, uncouth, amoral, vulgar, bestial, murderous, unfeeling, uncaring animal by his own evidence.” If defendant’s appraisal of the result of this evidence be correct, it is equally correct that the testimony of the Mexican National and the undercover police officer had very largely, if not entirely, already accomplished this same result. The picture of defendant was created by no one but himself through his own words and acts. Obviously his efforts on the witness stand to create an entirely different picture of himself were unavailing. It is apparent that defendant’s trial attorney, as a trial stratagem, elected to introduce this evidence for one or all of the following, and perhaps other, purposes: (1) To persuade the jury that defendant was so intoxicated that he knew not what he was saying, and that the truth of what he said was at least questionable. (2) To suggest to the jury that defendant was bragging and endeavoring to impress the Mexican National and the undercover officer, whom he believed to be underworld characters with criminal records, and that his statements made for this effect were not consistent with truth. (3) To suggest that defendant admitted the murder and other criminal 'activities for the sole purpose of testing the sincerity and true character of the undercover police officer, whom defendant had been told was a felon on the run and looking for an opportunity to make a strike. (4) To suggest that defendant was just putting on an act for the purpose of fooling or making fun of the Mexican National and the undercover officer, and for testing their credulity. (5) To in some degree impeach the testimony of the Mexican National and the undercover officer, since their testimony did not in all particulars agree with the transcript. If in fact the trial attorney, by introducing the portion of the transcript, used bad tactics or improvident strategy, this did not amount to incompetency or ineffective assistance of counsel. A defendant is denied effective assistance of counsel only if the trial, considered as a whole, is a mockery of justice, a sham, or a farce. State v. Hines, 78 N.M. 471, 432 P.2d 827 (1967); State v. Moser, 78 N.M. 212, 430 P.2d 106 (1967); State v. Trejo, 83 N.M. 511, 494 P.2d 173 (Ct.App.1972). A reading of the entire record in this case clearly demonstrates the guilt of defendant, and the trial proceedings cannot reasonably be considered a sham, a farce or a mockery of justice. It is true that a trial court has the duty to protect the essential rights of an accused. State v. Tapia, 75 N.M. 757, 411 P.2d 234 (1966). However, this does not require, or even permit, the trial courtto direct the strategy or tactics to be followed in the presentation of defendant’s case. It is the trial court’s duty to be impartial and judicious, and this position is totally inconsistent with any attempt on the court’s part to control the tactics or strategy of a litigant in the presentation of his case. The trial court may not properly receive or reject tendered evidence solely on the basis of the weight or credibility which the court believes the jury will ascribe thereto. The portion of the transcript was apparently offered'by defendant’s attorney with the hope that it would in part impeach and to some extent militate against the extremely damning evidence of defendant’s guilt. This hope was not realized, but this does not demonstrate a failure on the part of the trial court to conduct a trial in which defendant’s guilt or innocence was soberly and fairly tested. The judgment of conviction should be affirmed. It is so ordered. STEPHENSON and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION OMAN, Justice. An alternative writ of prohibition was entered herein by which we commanded Respondent, a district judge, to desist and refrain from enforcing an oral order announced in a criminal case. By this order, Respondent directed Petitioner to deliver to the attorneys for the accused a copy of the transcript of the stenographically reported notes of the testimony adduced before the grand jury. The authority of a district court to enter such an order is properly a subject for determination in an original proceeding before this court. See State v. Zinn, 80 N.M. 710, 460 P.2d 240 (1969); State v. Tackett, 78 N.M. 450, 432 P.2d 415, 20 A.L.R.3d 1 (1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1026, 88 S.Ct. 1414, 20 L.Ed.2d 283 (1968). The stenographic reporter delivered a copy of the transcript to the attorneys just prior to service of the alternative writ on Respondent. Notice of the writ was given the attorneys before they had removed the transcript from the sealed envelope in which it was enclosed when delivered to them. They properly refrained from opening the envelope, and it is now in the custody of this court. After considering the briefs and arguments presented by Petitioner and Respondent, we took the matter under advisement. We now order that the writ be made permanent. Approximately a week before the scheduled trial date of the criminal case, the district attorney disclosed that the State proposed to call as trial witnesses four persons who had testified before the grand jury. This disclosure, coupled with the recently issued opinion of the Court of Appeals in State v. Sparks, 85 N.M. 429, 512. P.2d 1265 (Ct.App.1973), prompted counsel for the accused to orally move for a copy of the transcript of the testimony presented to the grand jury. As indicated above, the motion was granted. The facts in the Sparks case are not comparable to those in the case now before, us. In that case, an undercover agent, who had testified before the grand jury, was called as a trial witness. The cross-examination of him by defendant’s attorney developed discrepancies between his testimony and the testimony of a police officer with whom he had worked. At that ■ point in the proceedings, defendant sought inspection of a transcript of the grand jury testimony of the witness. The trial court denied the request and the Court of Appeals reversed. We agree with the decision of the Court of Appeals under the particular facts of that case, and agree with the statement in its opinion that “once the witness has testified at the criminal trial about that which he testified before the grand jury, the accused is entitled to an order permitting examination of that portion of the witness’ grand jury testimony relating to the crime for which defendant is charged.” Attention is particularly called to the fact that the accused’s examination of the grand jury testimony of the witness should be confined to matters relating to the offense with which the accused is charged and for which he is being tried, and about which the witness testified before the grand jury. We anticipate that ordinarily this will include all of the witness’ testimony before the grand jury. However, we can readily conceive of cases in which the grand jury testimony of a witness will cover far more than matters relating to the offense with which the accused is charged and for which he is being tried. In those cases the examination of the grand jury testimony should be confined solely to matters relating to the offense with which the accused is charged and for which he is on trial. The reasons for making this portion of the grand jury testimony of a trial witness available for examination by the accused are set forth in the opinion of the Court of Appeals in State v. Sparks, supra. We do not, however, agree with that portion of the opinion of the Court of Appeals in the Sparks case which holds that Mascarenas v. State, 80 N.M. 537, 458 P.2d 789 (1969), modifies State v. Tackett, supra. There are differences other than that of availability between the right to examine “statements,” which was the question in the Mascarenas case, and the right to examine “grand jury testimony,” which was the only question in the Tackett case with which the Court of Appeals was concerned in the Sparks case. In any event, the solution to the problem of availability of “grand jury testimony” is found in § 41-5-8, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 6, 1972), and not in any language in the Mascarenas case. Admittedly language in the Mascarenas case, concerning the right of effective cross-examination of a witness, has applicability to that witness’ “grand jury testimony” under certain circumstances. However, we do not believe this language can properly be said to have modified the requirement announced in the Tackett case of showing a particularized need before a grand jury transcript may be made available to an accused. A particularized need for the grand jury testimony of the witness in State v. Sparks, supra, was clearly shown by the accused. A failure to furnish the transcript in that case would have impaired the accused’s right of cross-examination, and, thus, the full exercise of his right of confrontation. In the present case we are unable to find the existence of a particular ized need for the grand jury testimony before the witnesses have actually testified at trial. The alternative writ heretofore issued in these proceedings should be made permanent. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION HERNANDEZ, Judge. Plaintiff, Gulf Refining Company [hereinafter “Gulf”], owner of a right-of-way across land held under a state grazing lease by defendant Etcheverry [hereinafter “Etcheverry”], applied for a preliminary and permanent injunction in the court below, alleging interference by Etcheverry with Gulf’s construction of a pipeline along the right-of-way. Etcheverry counterclaimed on the grounds that Gulf’s construction of the pipeline had caused injury to his livestock and to the natural grasses lying over and near the route of the pipeline. The trial court granted the preliminary injunction but denied Gulf’s request for the permanent injunction “inasmuch as the Defendant in open court has acknowledged the validity of Plaintiff’s right-of-way.” Etcheverry’s counterclaim for damages for injury to the land and to the livestock was denied because he “failed to prove that any damages were committed by Gulf Refining Company.” Etcheverry appeals the denial of his counterclaim asserting: (1) that Gulf caused the injury to his livestock and the leasehold by an unreasonable exercise of the easement rights; and (2) that the judgment must be reversed because his, Etcheverry’s, evidence as to damages was uncontradicted and the trial court erred in making findings of fact to .the contrary. We will consider the second claim first because it is dispositive of this appeal. At the outset we would point out that it is not the duty of this court to be concerned with the weight of evidence but rather to determine whether there is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s finding that the appellant failed to prove that he was damaged by the actions of appellee. Svejcara v. Whitman, 82 N.M. 739, 487 P.2d 167 (Ct.App.1971). Furthermore, it is our duty to indulge all reasonable inferences in support of the judgment and view the facts in the aspect most favorable to the appellee. Durrett v. Petritsis, 82 N.M. 1, 474 P.2d 487 (1970). (3) The question of whether a jury or trial court can disregard uncontradicted testimony and if so under what circumstances has been considered many times by the appellate courts of this State. The landmark case is that of Medler v. Henry, 44 N.M. 275, 101 P.2d 398 (1940) wherein the following rule was laid down: “. . . the testimony of a witness, whether interested or disinterested, cannot arbitrarily be disregarded by the trier of the facts; but it cannot be said that the trier of facts has acted arbitrarily in disregarding such testimony, although not directly contradicted, whenever any of the following matters appear from the record: (a)That the witness is impeached by direct evidence of his lack of veracity or of his bad moral character, or by some other legal method of impeachment. (b) That the testimony is equivocal or contains inherent improbabilities. (c) That there are suspicious circumstances surrounding the transaction testified to. (d) That legitimate inferences may be drawn from the facts and circumstances of the case that contradict or cast reasonable doubt upon the truth or accuracy of the oral testimony.” However, there is another rule of law which is controlling in this situation and that is that a party suing for specific damages has both the burden of proving the existence of injuries and the burden of proving damages with reasonable certainty so that the determination of the amount of damages by a judge or jury will not be based on speculation or conjecture. Fredenburgh v. Allied Van Lines, Inc., 79 N.M. 593, 446 P.2d 868 (1968); Bank of New Mexico v. Rice, 78 N.M. 170, 429 P.2d 368 (1967); Louis Lyster, Gen. Con., Inc. v. Town of Las Vegas, 75 N.M. 427, 405 P.2d 665 (1965). While we do not propose to outline all of the evidence presented concerning damages, we will point out certain deficiencies which lead us to the conclusion that there is substantial evidence to support the trial court’s finding that appellant failed to prove that he was damaged by the actions of appellee.. The right-of-way granted to Gulf was 50 feet in width and 1,684.95 rods in length for the purpose of laying and maintaining a pipeline. The document granting the right-of-way provided in part that Gulf “. . . its successors and assigns, hereby agree carefully to avoid destruction or injury to any improvements or livestock lawfully upon said premises, carefully to close all gates and pay the reasonable and just damages for such injury or destruction, if any, arising from laying, maintaining, operation and removing said pipe line.” The entire operation, which was done in the first part of November 1969, digging the excavation, laying the pipe and filling it, took about two weeks. The equipment and vehicles used in the construction raised a considerable amount of dust which settled in the adjoining pastures. Some debris in the form of rocks and clumps of dirt were left along the right-of-way. after completion, and since then various undesirable grasses and weeds had grown up along the right-of-way. The exact size of the Etcheverry ranch was not brought out but the record does disclose that he leased 12,605.-51 acres from the State of New Mexico and that the area within the Gulf right-of-way totaled 32 acres. The record also discloses that the ranch was fenced off into several pastures and that the right-of-way crossed only two of them. On these two pastures there were 140 yearling steers, 39 cows and 400 yearling ewes. Etcheverry called four witnesses: a photographer who had taken some pictures of the right-of-way; Mr. James Goodrum, a rancher and wool warehouseman; Mr. Howard Benham, a botanist and range ecologist; Dr. L. P. Clark, a doctor of veterinary medicine. Etcheverry also testified in his own behalf. Mr. Goodrum testified that whenever range land is disturbed by digging, such as in this case, that many undesirable weeds and grasses will crop up. Some of these penetrate the wool and cleaning them out costs about 25 cents per pound. The cleaning process damages the wool and reduces the sale price by about one third or about 20 cents per pound. He said, referring to contamination, that Etcheverry had always had an outstanding clip. Mr. Goodrum was asked to compare Etcheverry’s 1969 wool clip with those of 1970 and 1971. He said that ’70 and ’71 showed more foreign matter. However, on cross examination he was asked to compare these two years with those of other ranchers in the area for the same period and he said that the clip was average. Mr. Good-rum indicated he knew how many sheep Etcheverry had, but never testified to that number. Mr. Goodrum was not asked to compare the wool from the 400 yearling ewes with wool from other Etcheverry sheep. Mr. Goodrum testified that he did not know how much per pound Etcheverry had suffered because of cleaning and reduction in value. Mr. Benham also testified to the growth of undesirable weeds and grasses after the soil was disturbed and that the way to counteract them was by reseeding with desirable grasses. He said that the cost of reseeding could be as low as two dollars and as high as fifteen dollars per acre. He was not asked how much it would cost to reseed the Etcheverry land, nor was he asked how much of the Etcheverry land had undesirable weeds as a result of laying the pipeline. Dr. Clark testified that some of the undesirable weeds were highly toxic to animals and that if eaten could make them very sick or even kill them. He also testified that some of these weeds would cause the ewes to abort. However, when questioned specifically about Mr. Etcheverry’s sheep he could not remember ever treating any of them for poisoning from eating noxious weeds. He went on to say that some of the Etcheverry sheep had died from eating turpentine weed, but he did not remember when this occurred. He was not asked if any of those that died were part of the 400 yearling ewes. He also testified that sheep were “fright” animals, that they would not readily cross an obstacle such as a shallow ditch and that they would not drink water that had a film of dust on it. It was brought out that he had never personally seen the area in question. Mr. Etcheverry testified concerning his damages a,s follows: "... I had two pastures that this pipeline crossed, and in one, I had 140 steer yearlings, and 400 yearling ewes, and the other I had 39 grown cows. Okay, I figured I had about a ten percent loss, and in lamb growth, because I did not get a good breeding season . . I figured I had lost some of my lambs, you know, due to poor breeding, and then I figured just a flat $25.00 a head on steers, because of their inability to get to the minerals and water . on these 39 cows, these cows at this time, were carrying calfs, they calf in March, and I figured they affected that because of an undue stress on the cow and the unborn calf, so I figured a flat $30.00 a head for that. And, then I had wool, two years wool clip here in Roswell, consisting of 31,891 pounds of wool, and our base incentive price how is 72 cents . . . and I felt I had a 25% damage of my wool . . . and, the total figure on the livestock, I figured to the 140 steers, 400 ewes, and the coming lamb crop . . . plus the 39 cows . I might have aborted a calf or twenty because of this, and I am not sure, no way to tell. A total damage of $8,170.00 . . . Mr. Rodriguez, he spent two or three hours a day making sure that the livestock was getting water, and I lumped all this together and came up with a figure of $11,000.00.” As was stated in Industrial Supply Company v. Goen, 58 N.M. 738, 276 P.2d 509 (1954) “Testimony of this inconclusive sort cannot be substituted for accurate testimony as to damages when the accurate testimony is available.” Mr. Etcheverry could have been asked to compare the percentage of calves born to the 39 cows in the affected pasture with those of other cows. He could have had Mr. Goodrum compare the wool clip from the 400 yearling ewes with those of other sheep as to cleanliness. Furthermore it is obvious that those 400 yearling ewes did not produce 31,891 pounds of wool in two years. The exact amount could have been determined. He could have compared the weight of some of the 140 steer yearlings with some other steer yearlings in other pastures. We assume that there was evidence that damage occurred. However, on the basis of the evidence presented, the trial court could properly consider the amount of the damages was so inconclusive as to be speculative and could properly find there was an absence of proof of damages committed by Gulf. Since there was an absence of proof, the uncontradicted evidence rule of Medler v. Henry, supra, is inapplicable. Having held that the trial judge could properly find that damages were not proved, we do not reach the question of the type of damages recoverable, or the question of the meaning and applicability of Czerner v. Kerby, 53 N.M. 311, 207 P.2d 531 (1949) and Lea County Water Company v. Reeves, 43 N.M. 221, 89 P.2d 607 (1939). The judgment of the district court is affirmed. It is so ordered. WOOD, C. J., and HENDLEY, J., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. The jury verdict was for defendants in this two-car collision case. Plaintiff’s appeal raises issues as to: (1) summary judgment on the basis of defendants’ negligence; (2) instructions on turn signals, obstruction of traffic and contributory negligence; and (3) refusal to instruct concerning road lighting equipment. Both vehicles were going east, during darkness, on Candelaria Road in Albuquerque. Defendants’ vehicle ran into the left rear of plaintiff’s vehicle. A frontage road, south of and adjacent to Candelaria, is separated from Candelaria by a divider. There are periodic openings in the divider. Plaintiff intended to turn right off of Candelaria when she came to the opening in the divider at Carolina Street. Her theory is that her car was hit as she made this turn. Defendants’ theory is that the collision occurred east of the divider opening. There is evidence to support both theories. Summary judgment as to defendants’ negligence. Plaintiff moved for summary judgment on the issue of defendants’ liability. In claiming denial of the motion was error, she argues that she was entitled to summary judgment on the issue of defendants’ negligence. Plaintiff’s theory' of defendants’ liability was that defendants’ negligence was the proximate cause of the accident. Negligence and proximate cause are separate concepts. N.M. U.J.I. 12.10; Fitzgerald v. Valdez, 77 N.M. 769, 427 P.2d 655 (1967); Isaac v. Seguritan, 66 N.M. 410, 349 P.2d 126 (1960). Assuming plaintiff made a prima facie showing of defendants’ negligence, this was insufficient. A showing of proximate cause was also required. There being neither showing nor argument as to proximate cause, the trial court did not err in denying summary judgment on the issue of liability. See Goodman v. Brock, 83 N.M. 789, 498 P.2d 676 (1972). Instruction on turn signals. There is evidence that plaintiff was in the process of turning her car when the accident occurred. The jury was instructed on the turn signal requirements of § 64-18-24, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2), and the effect of violating the statute, N.M. U.J.I. 11.1. Objecting to the instruction, plaintiff asserted there was no evidence of an absence of proper turn signals; that all the evidence was that the signals were on and operating. Thus, she contends the instruction interjected a false issue into the case. Embrey v. Galentin, 76 N.M. 719, 418 P.2d 62 (1966). There is evidence that the turn signals on plaintiff’s car were on and operating. There is an inference that the signals had .operated for the distance required by § 64 — 18-24, supra. Christine Baklini, the driver of defendants’ car, testified there was a “possibility” that the signals were not on. Such a possibility is no more than speculation which would not be a sufficient basis for the instruction. Elder v. Marvel Roofing Co., 74 N.M. 357, 393 P.2d 463 (1964). Christine Baklini also testified: “. . .1 didn’t see the other car, I was coming down Candelaria. I had my head forward, I was watching the road, and I didn’t see her. I didn’t see anything.” If a person is looking and does not see, a reasonable inference follows that the signals were not on. Turner v. McGee, 68 N.M. 191, 360 P.2d 383 (1961). The inference from the above quoted testimony is that the turn signals were not on. On the basis of this inference, the instruction was proper. Instruction on obstructing traffic. The jury was instructed that an Albuquerque ordinance makes it unlawful “. . .to operate or to stand a vehicle on any public way in such manner as to obstruct the free use of such public way.” Plaintiff contends the ordinance cannot be considered to apply to “slow-speed” because if so considered it would be invalid on the basis it conflicts with a State statute, § 64-18-49, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2). See City of Hobbs v. Biswell, 81 N.M. 778, 473 P.2d 917 (Ct.App.1970). We do not consider a possible conflict between the ordinance and the statute because no such contention was raised in the trial court. Tafoya v. Whitson, 83 N.M. 23, 487 P.2d 1093 (Ct.App.1971). What we do consider is plaintiff’s objection to the instruction — that there was no evidence that plaintiff’s vehicle was operated or stood so as to obstruct free use of the public way. There is evidence that plaintiff’s passenger was directing the plaintiff; telling plaintiff where to turn. There is evidence that plaintiff’s car slowed when plaintiff came to California Street, west of Carolina. There is evidence that plaintiff and her passenger were looking for the street signs and continued at a reduced speed from California to Carolina. Plaintiff testified: “. . . when we got ready to slow down to make the turn, we weren’t going.” The evidence permits a reasonable inference that the accident did not occur at the opening in the divider at Carolina Street, but east of that opening. The jury could conclude from the foregoing that plaintiff either stopped or, proceeding slowly, started to turn after passing the opening in the divider. The evidence referred to above raised a factual question as to whether plaintiff’s vehicle was obstructing free use of Candelaria. Lafferty v. Wattle, 349 S.W.2d 519 (Mo.App.1961); see Jacobsen v. Hala, 255 Iowa 918, 125 N.W.2d 500 (1963); Aanenson v. Engelson, 267 Minn. 1, 124 N.W.2d 360 (1963). Plaintiff asserts the evidence is insufficient because Candelaria has four lanes for traffic and there were no other cars in the vicinity when the accident occurred. She asserts that under- the evidence, at most, she could have been obstructing only one lane. We disagree. Other traffic in the vicinity is not necessary to raise a factual question as to plaintiff’s obstruction. Lafferty v. Wattle, supra. Instruction on contributory negligence. Plaintiff objected to the instruction on contributory negligence, asserting there was no substantial evidence on that issue. We disagree. Contributory negligence embraces two concepts — plaintiff’s negligence and proximate cause. Fitzgerald v. Valdez, supra. The evidence justifying the instructions on turn signals and on obstructing the road was evidence of plaintiff’s negligence. Whether that asserted negligence was the proximate cause of the accident was also a factual question. Le Doux v. Peters, 82 N.M. 661, 486 P.2d 70 (Ct.App.1971), aff’d 83 N.M. 307, 491 P.2d 524 (1971). Refusal to instruct concerning road lighting equipment. Plaintiff requested instructions as to the requirements for and use of road lighting equipment under §§ 64-20-30 and 64-20-31, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2). She claims refusal of these instructions was error because “. . . the defendant could not state whether the lights on her automobile were in compliance with this statute or not. . . .” She claims this lack of knowledge, together with the testimony from Christine Baklini that she did not see plaintiff’s car before the collision, justified an instruction on the statutory requirements for road lighting equipment. We pass this question. We also pass the question as to whether the requested instructions covered elements of the statutes for which there was no evidence. See LaBarge v. Stewart, 84 N.M. 222, 501 P.2d 666 (Ct.App.1972). Plaintiff requested an instruction which stated the claimed acts of negligence on the part of defendants. This instruction, based on N.M. U.J.I. 3.1, is the post to which other instructions are tied. See N. M. U.J.I. 3.1, Directions on Use. Plaintiff’s instruction was given as requested. The instruction stated three theories of negligence — failure to have the car under control, failure to keep a proper lookout and following too closely. A claimed violation of statutory provisions for road lighting equipment is not included in these three theories. The requested instructions on road lighting equipment would have informed the jury that if defendants violated either § 64-20-30 or § 64 — 20-31, supra, their conduct amounted to negligence. See N.M. U.J.I. 11.1. Since plaintiff did not claim defendants were negligent on the basis of these statutes, to have given the requested instruction would have been to inject a false theory of negligence into the case. The trial court did not err in refusing to instruct on a theory of negligence which plaintiff had not asserted. See Abeyta v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co., 65 N.M. 291, 336 P.2d 1051 (1959). Affirmed. It is so ordered. LOPEZ, J., concurs. SUTIN, J., concurred in part and dissented in part.
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OPINION STEPHENSON, Justice. The issue presented by this appeal is whether the District Court of Bernalillo County has jurisdiction to determine the temporary custody and guardianship of Noel Montoya, a child about two years old. Noel was the daughter of George Montoya and Cheryl Collier Montoya. On April 2, 1972, Cheryl took Noel and left the house of Julia Montoya (“Appellant”), George’s mother, with whom she, George and Noel had been living, and went to the home of her párents. On April 4th, George Montoya went to Cheryl’s parents’ house, took Noel, and brought her to the Montoya home. Cheryl subsequently commenced an action for divorce in Bernalillo County District Court. An ex parte order giving temporary custody to her was ob tained and on April 5, 1972, she and Mr. Collier, her father, went to the Montoya home and obtained Noel from that house. On April 6th, 1972, a tragedy which precipitated this proceeding occurred. George shot to death Cheryl, his mother-in-law, and himself. On the night after the funerals of Cheryl and her mother, Constance Carden, Cheryl’s half-sister and Noel’s aunt, took Noel to her residence in Texas, and Noel has been living there since that time. Appellant is Noel’s paternal grandmother. Her petition seeking temporary custody and guardianship of Noel, was filed several days later. An order, addressed to Mr. Collier, (“Appellee”) the maternal grandfather, to show cause why temporary custody should not be awarded to appellant was issued. In his response, he took the position that the district court had no jurisdiction with respect to the custody of Noel. Appellant’s basic contention is that Noel is domiciled in New Mexico and therefore New Mexico has jurisdiction to determine her custody even though she is now living in Texas. Reliance is placed upon Evens v. Keller, 35 N.M. 659, 6 P.2d 200 (1931), a case in which the custodian of a child under a prior Colorado decree sought to have a New Mexico decree set aside on the basis that the Colorado decree was entitled to full faith and credit. This reliance is misplaced because our decision in that case was not based upon jurisdiction. Moreover, to the extent that case could be said to be instructive here, it is not helpful to appellant, for in holding that the Colorado decree was entitled to full faith and credit, we referred to the fact that not all claimants to custody were parties to the New Mexico proceeding. The same is true here. We held in Bassett v. Bassett, 56 N.M. 739, 250 P.2d 487 (1952) that New Mexico has jurisdiction in a habeas corpus proceeding to determine the custody of a child when the child is legally domiciled in another state, but physically present and actually residing in this state. The reverse factual setting is presented here. In Payton v. Payton, 29 N.M. 618, 225 P. 576 (1924) we held that in a New Mexico divorce proceeding brought by a husband against a non-resident wife who had custody of the child in another state, our courts had no jurisdiction to determine the custody of the child since both the child and the custodian were not physically present in the state. However, in Payton, the argument which appellant makes here, that-jurisdiction can be based upon domicile alone, was not presented. Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws, § 79 (1971) adopts the following approach to jurisdiction over custody and guardianship: “A state has power to exercise judicial jurisdiction to determine the custody, or to appoint a guardian, of the person of a child or adult (a) who is domiciled in the state, or (b) who is present in the state, or (c) who is neither domiciled nor present in the state, if the controversy is between two or more persons who are personally subject to the jurisdiction of the state.” We will consider whether New Mexico has jurisdiction to determine the temporary custody and guardianship of Noel under any of the above theories. We first consider whether Noel is domiciled in New Mexico. Generally, physical presence within a state and the intention to make it one’s home are the requisites of establishing a domicile therein. 25 Am.J'ur.2d Domicil §§ 20 and 24 (1966) ; Restatement (Second), supra, §§ 15, 16, and 18 (1971). See also, State v. Williams, 57 N.M. 588, 261 P.2d 131 (1953). Obviously, a small child cannot possess the requisite intent. Accordingly, varying rules have been developed to determine the domicile of minors in varying situations. See 25 Am.Jur.2d, supra, § 63 et seq.; Re statement (Second), supra, § 22. Comment i to Restatement (Second) § 22 concerns the special rule applicable in this case: “i. 'Natural1 guardian. If both parents of a child are dead, or if the child is abandoned by both parents or by a surviving parent, and no guardian of the child’s person is appointed, the child should acquire a domicil at the home of a grandparent or other person who stands in loco parentis to him and with whom he lives. To date, the cases have placed the child’s domicil, in the circumstances dealt with here, at the home of a grandparent or other close relative. Absent some compelling reason to the contrary, the child’s domicil should be in the place to which he is most closely related. The child should therefore have a domicil at the home of the person who stands in loco parentis to him and with whom he lives even though this person is not a blood relative.” (Emphasis added.) The so-called “natural guardianship” doctrine originally applied only to the grandparents of an orphaned infant. See 25 Am.Jur.2d, supra, § 72; Annot., 32 A.L.R. 2d 863 (1953). We think the Restatement view is sound, however, in placing the domicile of a child in the place to which he is most closely related, absent some compelling reason to the contrary, and proceed to determine whether Noel’s aunt’s home in Texas is her present domicile. 59 Am.Jur.2d Parent and Child § 88 (1971) states: “A person is said to stand in loco parentis when he puts himself in the situation of a lawful parent by assuming the obligations incident to the parental relation without going through the formalities necessary to a legal adoption. * * * The relationship of in loco parentis is established only when the person intends to assume toward the child the status of parent. It has been said that when a person takes a child not his own into his custody as a member of his own family, this constitutes the clearest evidence of consent to stand in loco parentis.” Noel is living with her aunt in Texas. Legal proceedings with respect to the custody of Noel have apparently been instituted by the aunt in Texas. The aunt has put herself in the situation of a lawful parent with the intention to assume the status of parent. Since she stands in loco parentis to Noel and Noel lives with her, we hold Noel’s domicile is in Texas and that New Mexico has no jurisdiction with respect to her custody and guardianship under the domicile theory. Neither can we find jurisdiction on the basis of Noel’s physical presence within the state, since she is in Texas. We come now to the final theory which allows a state to exercise its jurisdiction notwithstanding the fact that a person is neither domiciled nor physically present within the state, if the controversy is between two or more persons who are personally subject to the jurisdiction of the state. Both of the parties to this suit are personally subject to the jurisdiction of this state. However, appellee does not have physical custody of Noel nor is he claiming any right to her legal custody. The real dispute is between appellant and Noel’s aunt in Texas, who is not personally subject to the jurisdiction of New Mexico for the purpose of determining custody and guardianship. Therefore, we can find no basis for jurisdiction under the third theory. Moreover, even were we to assume jurisdiction in this case, it is doubtful that our decree would be entitled to full faith and credit since we do not have personal jurisdiction over the child or the aunt who has physical custody of the child. See May v. Anderson, 345 U.S. 528, 73 S.Ct. 840, 97 L.Ed. 1221 (1953); McLam v. McLam, 81 N.M. 37, 462 P.2d 622 (1969). The action of the trial court is affirmed. It is so ordered. OMAN and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION McMANUS, Chief Justice. On March 19, 1969, a complaint for divorce was filed by the appellee, a resident of New Mexico, against the appellant, a resident of Massachusetts. The requisite period of the appellee’s residence in New Mexico is not disputed. Appellant filed her answer on May 23, 1969, and requested, among other things, that she be granted an appropriate sum for support and maintenance of the parties’ two children who are domiciliaries of Massachusetts. The trial on the merits was held on January 22, 1973, and on February 27, 1973, the District Court of Los Alamos County found that the children of the parties were over 18 years of age (but under 21) and were considered adults under Massachusetts law; therefore, no provision should be made concerning their support or custody. Appellant now contends that the trial court committed prejudicial and reversible error in refusing to award support and maintenance for the children. We agree and reverse the trial court’s decision. Appellee contends for the first time that there is a conflict of laws question concerning whether New Mexico or Massachusetts law should determine whether or not the children were minors or adults. The trial court determined that the law of Massachusetts should apply. The appellee failed to object to the application by the trial court of Massachusetts law and thus the objection here is untimely and cannot be allowed. The only real issue which we must now determine is what the precise age of majority is in Massachusetts for the purpose of awarding support and maintenance. At common law the age at which an infant reached full majority was fixed at 21 years. See, The Inhabitants of Danvers v. City of Boston, 27 Mass. (10 Pick.) 513 (1830), for the Massachusetts adoption of the common law rule of majority generally, and Oliveria v. Oliveria, 305 Mass. 297, 25 N.E.2d 766 (1940), for the adoption of the common law rule in support cases. However, this common law rule may be changed by statute. See 43 C.J.S. Infants § 2 (1945); 42 Am.Jur.2d, Infants, § 3 (1969). Therefore, unless the common law age of majority has been changed in Massachusetts by statute, the appellant should be able to recover maintenance and support for her two children under the age of 21. As stated in Mass.Const., pt. 2, c. 6, art. 6: “All the laws which have heretofore been adopted, used and approved in the Province, Colony or State of Massachusetts Bay, and usually practiced on in the courts of law, shall still remain and be in full force, until altered or repealed by the legislature; * * As far as we can tell, Massachusetts statutes do not define the age of majority for the purposes of child support and maintenance. Appellee relies on the fact that Massachusetts has enacted several laws which lower the age of majority, for specific purposes, to age 18. [See, Mass. Laws Ann., ch. 51, §§ 1, 4 (Supp.1972); ch. 119, §§ 61, 74 (1965); ch. 138, § 34B (Supp.1972); ch. 207, § 7 (Supp.1972); ch. 234, § 1 (Supp.1972) for various examples.] It might be noted at this point, although not necessary for our holding, that some of the statutes relied upon by appellee in his argument went into effect after February 27, 1973, the date of the divorce judgment. The general rule is that a statutory change of the age of majority does not affect the pre-existing rights of a person. See 42 Am.Jur.2d, Infants, § 4 (1969). This rule was used in Baker v. Baker, 80 Wash.2d 736, 498 P.2d 315 (1972), which held statutes providing that persons shall be of majority age at 18 are not retroactive and therefore do not apply to judgments entered in divorce decrees entered prior to the effective date of the statute. We concur with the result so obtained in Baker, supra, as applied to any of the statutes so cited by the appellee that did not become effective until after the date of the divorce judgment. Furthermore, there are several statutes still in effect in Massachusetts in which the age of majority has not been so lowered. [See, Mass.Laws Ann., ch. 90, § 2C (Supp.1972); ch. 149, § 62 (Supp.1972); ch. 175, § 113K (1970); ch. 191, § 1 (Supp.1972)] Also, there is no Massachusetts statute which lowers the age generally, such as the one enacted in New Mexico. See, § 13-13-1, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Supp.1973). This lack of a general statute would seem to indicate that the Massachusetts legislature chose only to lower the age requirements in specific areas, and not as a general proposition. Therefore, since there is no legislative enactment to the contrary, we hold that the common law age of 21 should apply and that the children were minors under Massachusetts law. The cause is remanded to the district court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered. OMAN and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. Marie Hale slipped and fell on some pinto beans in defendant’s grocery store. She, and her husband, sued defendant for damages. The jury verdict was for plaintiffs. Defendant’s appeal presents four issues: (1) sufficiency of the evidence; (2) reference to insurance; (3) argument to the jury outside the record; and (4) excessive damages. Sufficiency of the evidence. Defendant challenged the sufficiency of the evidence by appropriate motions at the close of plaintiffs’ case and at the close of all the evidence. In considering whether the trial court properly denied these motions, we review the evidence in the light most favorable to plaintiffs, who were resisting the motions. Garcia v. Barber’s Super Markets, Inc., 81 N.M. 92, 463 P.2d 516 (Ct.App.1969). The challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence is directed to the evidence of defendant’s negligence and Marie’s contributory negligence. (a) Defendant’s negligence. There is evidence that the manager of defendant’s store knew that beans had been spilled on the floor and had instructed an employee to sweep them up; that some sweeping was done but the employee did not get all of the beans; that there was still a handful of beans scattered about; that another employee cleaned up the beans after Marie fell. The instruction from the manager occurred between five and thirty minutes prior to the incident. There is evidence that the floor had been waxed the night before; that the manager knew that a person could slip on beans on the type of .floor involved here and had experienced persons slipping on beans. This evidence raises a factual question as to defendant’s knowledge of the condition and a factual question as to whether the condition involved an unreasonable risk of harm to invitees. There is- evidence that the incident occurred at a very busy time — around 5 :30 p. m. of “double stamp day;” that the beans were in an area where patrons of the store would be walking. There is evidence that employees were instructed to be continually on the lookout for items which had fallen to the floor. According to the manager, it was company policy that “ . whoever first saw the spill or had . what was on the floor brought to their attention, they were to get someone to stand over the particular spot where it was spilled and dean it up right then. . . .” There is an inference that Marie never saw the beans before she slipped. The foregoing evidence raised a factual question as to whether defendant should have expected that an invitee would not discover the danger and a factual question as to whether defendant exercised reasonable care to protect invitees from the spilled beans. Accordingly, there were factual questions as to defendant’s negligence under Restatement Torts 2d § 343 (1965) and Proctor v. Waxler, 84 N.M. 361, 503 P.2d 644 (1972). (b) Marie’s contributory negligence. There is evidence the beans were in plain sight. This, together with the inference that Marie never saw the beans before she slipped, according to defendant, is a showing of Marie’s contributory negligence as a matter of law. Defendant asserts that a possessor of land is not liable to an invitee for a condition which is known or obvious. See Restatement Torts 2d § 343A, comment (b) (1965). Marie was carrying her one year old grandchild at the time of the incident. The husband testified the beans were in plain sight “[i]f you walk watching the floor.” When asked if the beans would have been seen had you been watching where you were going, the husband said: “Not with the people that was going in and out and all. . . .” There is evidence that the beans were spilled near a checkout counter. With this evidence, we cannot hold Marie contributorily negligent as a matter of law. Behymer v. Kimbell-Diamond Company, 78 N.M. 570, 434 P.2d 392 (1967); Garcia v. Barber’s Super Markets, Inc., supra. Marie, an invitee, was not required to be constantly watching the floor m order to avoid being contributorily negligent; as a customer she could assume that the floor was reasonably safe to walk on. Barakos v. Sponduris, 64 N.M. 125, 325 P.2d 712 (1958). The trial court did not err in denying the motions. Reference to insurance. Ray Nichols, adult son of Marie, was an employee of defendant. He testified that he was at work at the store on the day of the incident and was the one who cleaned up the beans after Marie fell. Nichols was cross-examined as to statements made by him when interviewed by Bill Arias. Arias, a defense witness, testified that he interviewed Nichols four weeks before the trial at the request of defense counsel. According to Arias, at the interview, Nichols stated he had not been at the store when Marie slipped on the beans and knew nothing about it. On cross-examination, Arias was asked if, in investigating the claim, he was working for an insurance company. He replied: “Yes, sir.” Defense counsel then objected on the grounds of immateriality; the objection was sustained. Plaintiffs’ counsel insisted to the judge that his question concerning insurance was proper; “it goes to show his bias.” Plaintiffs’ counsel stated he wished to make a tender. The jury was excused. Counsel argued the question of bias. The trial court remarked that it would be proper to ask Arias if he investigated the accident for the defendant. Plaintiffs’ counsel made his tender by questioning Arias. Arias stated he investigated the case for the insurance carrier for defendant and named the insurance company. At the conclusion of the tender, defendant moved for a mistrial. The contention was that defendant had been “. . . prejudiced to the point we can’t receive a fair trial.” Defendant argued that “ . . . Mr. Rivera has thoroughly indoctrinated and attempted to indoctrinate the Jury on this insurance question . . . ,” and asked the question about an insurance company “to show that there is coverage.” The trial court refused to declare a mistrial ; it also denied the tender. Defendant then asserted that plaintiffs’ counsel wished to question Arias about a statement he took from Marie and asked that plaintiffs’ counsel be instructed not to go beyond the scope of defendant’s direct examination of Arias. The trial court declined to do so, on the basis he did not know what questions would be asked on cross-examination. The trial court did caution Mr. Rivera that he took a chance on a mistrial if his cross-examination of Arias went beyond the scope of the direct examination. Proceedings were resumed before the jury. Plaintiffs’ counsel asked Arias who employed him in the case. Defendant objected, claiming the question was immaterial. The objection was overruled. Arias then testified that he was employed by the insurance carrier for defendant, named the insurance carrier and stated he was their employee in the case. Plaintiffs’ counsel then asked Arias if his investigation commenced immediately “after this happened.” This question was objected to; the objection was sustained. There were no further questions of Arias. In its brief, defendant states that the questioning of Arias about insurance . .in light of the Court’s prior admonishment and specific denial of the tender indicates an open and concerted effort to inject the question of insurance coverage into the case. . . .” Defendant asserts the overruling of defendant’s objection was error since the court had limited plaintiffs’ counsel to asking Arias if he investigated the case for the defendant. Defendant relies on the following from Falkner v. Martin, 74 N.M. 159, 391 P.2d 660 (1964): “ . . . A mistrial will generally be declared in a negligence action if the question of insurance is brought into the case in such manner as to be calculated to influence the verdict of the jury. ...” Fort v. Neal, 79 N.M. 479, 444 P.2d 990 (1968) states: “. . . we recognize that a jury may be prejudiced by knowledge that insurance is present. .” See also, Garcia v. Sanchez, 68 N.M. 394, 362 P.2d 779 (1961). Defendant recognizes that these decisions do not, on their facts, apply to the situation in this case. Plaintiffs, on the other hand, rely on recent decisions applying the rule stated in Annot, 4 A.L.R.2d 761, § 7 at 779 (1949): “It is usually held that it is permissible for plaintiff’s counsel, when acting in good faith, to show the relationship between a witness and defendant’s insurance company where such evidence tends to show the interest or bias of the witness and affects the weight to be accorded his testimony.” It is not claimed that it would be improper cross-examination to show that a witness’ employer had a financial interest in the case. The claim is that plaintiffs’ counsel proceeded in bad faith in persisting in questions about insurance after the trial court had remarked that it would be proper to ask Arias if he investigated the case on behalf of defendant. Good faith on the part of plaintiffs’ counsel, that Arias was in fact employed by defendant’s insurance company, is established by the tender. Compare Canter v. Lowrey, 69 N.M. 81, 364 P.2d 140 (1961). The good faith issue then is limited to counsel’s persistence in insurance questions after the trial court’s comments and rulings on the tender. Disregarding the fact that when proceedings resumed before the jury the trial court overruled the objection to the first question about insurance, the situation is similar to that in Chavez v. Valdez, 64 N.M. 143, 325 P.2d 919 (1958). There, it was held that an opening statement by counsel in violation and in defiance of a ruling by the court required a reversal. We do not apply Chavez v. Valdez, supra, nor do we decide whether insurance may be brought into the case by cross-examination to show a witness’ interest or bias. The jury knew the defendant was insured. In cross-examining Nichols, defendant’s counsel identified Arias as being with Lyle Adjustment Company. Plaintiffs introduced the deposition of Dr. Postlewaite. The doctor testified, without objection, that he wrote a letter concerning Marie and a copy was sent to “Mr. Bill Arias, Southwestern-Lyle Claim Service.” Defendant, in direct examination of Arias, elicited his occupation as “claims investigator.” If the reference to “adjustment,” “claim service” and “claims investigator” failed to convey “insurance” to the jury [see Olguin v. Thygesen, 47 N.M. 377, 143 P.2d 585 (1943); see definition of “investigator” in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966)], the matter was made explicit when Arias answered on cross-examination, at the beginning of the sequence of events outlined above, that he was working for an insurance company. An objection was made and sustained, but the question and answer about insurance was not stricken. We are not concerned here with evidence in the case but with the fact that the jury knew of the existence of insurance. , Since the jury knew about insurance in this case, we consider the persistence of counsel’s questions in the light of three other items: (a) the jury was instructed: “Whether a party is insured has no bearing whatever on any issue that you must decide. You mu'st refrain from any inference, speculation or discussion about insurance;” (b) the verdict returned is fully supported by the evidence; (c) defendant’s liability is reasonably clear. The questioning by plaintiffs’ counsel about insurance being cumulative, the jury having been instructed that insurance had no bearing on any issue, the verdict being fully supported by the evidence and liability being reasonably clear, any error in counsel’s persistent questioning was harmless. See Annot., 4 A.L.R.2d, supra, §§ 20 and 21 at 818; § 26 at 821. Argument to ptry outside the record. Plaintiffs’ counsel, during the trial, introduced portions of the deposition of Dr. Breck into evidence. In closing argument he read selected portions of the deposition to the jury. In this reading he included comments by Dr. Breck as to Marie’s neck condition. These comments went to Marie’s ability to turn or twist her neck and ability to “reach up.” Defendant objected to these comments of Dr. Breck on the basis that they were not in evidence. On appeal it claims that reading these comments “. . . was prejudi cial in that it appealed to the sympathy of the jury by bringing out specific limitations on movements not otherwise alluded to by other testimony. . . . ” Defendant claims this asserted prejudice requires a reversal. See State v. Pace, 80 N.M. 364, 456 P.2d 197 (1969); Hunter v. Kenney, 77 N.M. 336, 422 P.2d 623, 36 A.L.R. 3d 1362 (1967). The record shows that after defendant’s objection there were arguments from counsel. The trial record does not show that the court ruled on the objection. The praecipe called for “the complete record and all proceedings.” The clerk’s certificate, to which there was no objection, certifies a “full, true and correct transcript.” With this showing, the answer to defendant’s contention is that it did not invoke a ruling of the trial court on its objection and, thus, cannot complain of plaintiffs’ argument. Jackson v. Southwestern Public Service Company, 66 N.M. 458, 349 P.2d 1029 (1960) states: “. . . that any objections to the argument of counsel should be made in time for the court to rule on them, and if necessary, to correct them before the jury retires. .” (Our emphasis). Defendant’s motion for a new trial asserts the trial court “. . . advised the jury to disregard these statements (those to which defendant objected). . . .” If this be so, we do not have the benefit of the trial court’s ruling. Defendant’s brief states: “It is not claimed that counsel for plaintiffs persisted in this line of argument. . . .” As one of its instructions, the trial court gave N.M.U.J.I. 17.7, which told the jury that arguments of counsel were not to be considered as evidence. Not knowing what admonition was given by the trial court, having the admission that plaintiffs did not persist in argument outside the record, and knowing the instruction given concerning arguments by counsel, we cannot rule, as a matter of law, that defendant was prejudiced. State v. Pace, supra, or that the trial court abused its discretion, Hunter v. Kenney, supra. Excessive damages. The jury awarded medical expenses to the husband in the amount of $2,500.00. It awarded $25,000.00 to Marie for the following two items: (a) the nature and extent and duration of the injury and (b) the pain and suffering experienced. Defendant asserts the damages awarded Marie are excessive. Defendant claims the verdict for Marie was based on a mistake as to the measure of damages. It points out there was no testimony as to lost income or for future expenses for domestic help. It points out that proof as to present and future medical expenses came to a total of approximately $3,900.00, yet the medical award was $2,-500.00. We fail to understand how any of these factors show a mistaken measure of damages. There is evidence that Marie experienced pain in her neck and low back immediately after she fell; evidence of a subluxation of the cervical spine and a narrowing of the interspace at the C5-6 level; evidence of loss of the normal curve of the cervical spine and diagnosis of the neck condition varying from sprain to soft tissue injury. There is evidence of a chronic lumbosacral strain. Orthopedic evaluation was of a 15% permanent disability of the body as a result of the neck injury and of a 5% permanent disability of the body as a result of the low back injury. There is evidence that the neck and back injury might not be considered serious in themselves, but that superimposed on the neck and back condition is a “very marked neurotic condition” characterized as an “extreme anxiety neurosis.” There is evidence that Marie is not and had not been a malingerer; that she was totally disabled at the time of trial, some thirty-three months after the fall; and is permanently disabled. There is evidence of continuing pain since the fall and evidence that she will have pain in both the cervical and lumbar area that “will come and go” for the rest of her life. Her life expectancy at the time of trial was over 26 years. There is evidence showing the limitation upon her physical activities since the fall. This evidence was to the effect she could no longer ride horses, build corrals or dance as she had before the accident; could no longer do maintenance work at the trailer court of the plaintiffs as before; and could no longer do housework. The foregoing is substantial evidence to support an award of $25,000.00 for the nature, extent and duration of the injury and for the pain and suffering experienced. Hughes v. Walker, 78 N.M. 63, 428 P.2d 37 (1967); compare Schrib v. Seidenberg, 80 N.M. 573, 458 P.2d 825 (Ct.App.1969). Defendant asserts the jury disregarded an instruction to the effect that Marie was required to exercise ordinary care to minimize her damages. This argument is based on evidence that Marie needed psychiatric evaluation and had not gone to a psychiatrist, and on evidence that a person with a neurosis who goes over six months without a cure has an “irreversible” condition. However, there is evidence that the “six month” period was set by psychiatrists; that the recommendation for psychiatric evaluation did not occur until more than five months after the accident; that the recommendation was “maybe a little bit late.” With this conflict, we cannot say, as a matter of law, that the jury disregarded the instruction on minimizing damages. See Sierra Blanca Sales Co., Inc. v. Newco Industries, Inc., 84 N.M. 524, 505 P.2d 867 (Ct.App.1972). Defendant contends the verdict for Marie was based on sympathy, passion and prejudice. It relies on the questioning as to insurance and the argument of counsel that went beyond the evidence. Both items have been previously discussed. It also relies on evidence that Marie had little ability to read or write and on evidence inferring that Nichols, her son, lost his job with defendant because of this lawsuit. The answer is that substantial evidence supports the amount of damages awarded and there is nothing in the record indicating any of the above items influenced the damage award. See Sweitzer v. Sanchez, 80 N.M. 408, 456 P.2d 882 (Ct.App.1969); Maisel v. Wholesome Dairy, Inc., 79 N.M. 310, 442 P.2d 800 (Ct.App.1968). The judgment is affirmed. It is so ordered. HENDLEY, J., concurs.
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OPINION WOOD, Chief Judge. After an audit, the Bureau of Revenue issued its notice of assessment of taxes to taxpayer, Santa Fe Downs, Inc. The assessment was for state gross receipts and compensating tax, penalty and interest, and county sales tax. Taxpayer protested the assessment. After a formal hearing the Commissioner of Revenue denied the protest. Taxpayer appeals directly to this Court from the decision and order of the Commissioner. Section 72-13-39, N.M.S. A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971). The dispositive issue is whether, under § 60-6-9, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, Supp.1971), the taxpayer is liable for these taxes. We hold it is not liable. At all material times, taxpayer operated a race track under license from the New Mexico Racing Commission. Section 60-6-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1). It is stipulated that at all material times, taxpayer paid the license fee provided by § 60-6-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, Supp.1971), and the taxes provided by § 60-6-9, supra. Section 60-6-9, supra, states: “A. In addition to the license fees provided in section 60-6-4 New Mexico Statutes Annotated, 1953 Compilation, the following additional taxes are imposed which shall be paid in lieu of all other or further excise or occupational taxes levied by the state, or any county, or municipality, or other political subdivision The “in lieu of” provision applies to state and county excise taxes. Section 72-16A-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.VoL 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971) identifies the gross receipts tax as an excise tax. Section 72-16A-7, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.VoL 10, pt. 2, Supp. 1971) identifies the compensating tax as an excise tax. Section 13-2-31, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.VoL 3) refers to a county sales tax. Although the reference to “excise” tax in §§ 72-16A-4 and 72-16A-7, supra, is not controlling, all the taxes here involved-—■ gross receipts, compensating and sales—are excise taxes under the definition of that tax in Flynn, Welch & Yates v. State Tax Commission, 38 N.M. 131, 28 P.2d 889 (1934). See Iden v. Bureau of Revenue, 43 N.M. 205, 89 P.2d 519 (1939); Continental Oil Co. v. City of Santa Fe, 36 N.M. 343, 15 P.2d 667 (1932); Geo. E. Breece Lbr. Co. v. Mirabal, 34 N.M. 643, 287 P. 699, 84 A.L.R. 827 (1930), aff’d 283 U.S. 788, 51 S.Ct. 352, 75 L.Ed. 1415 (1931). Taypayer has brought itself literally within the provisions of § 60-6-9, supra. It is stipulated that taxpayer has paid the license fee and the additional taxes provided by that section. Such payment is “in lieu of” the excise taxes assessed by the Bureau. We now examine the Bureau’s arguments as to why the “in lieu of” provision should not be applied. The additional taxes imposed by § 60-6-9, supra, are on amounts received on tickets sold for admission to' the grounds where horse races are held and on gross amounts wagered. The Bureau contends that the “in lieu of” provision applies only to additional taxes on activities subject to these two taxes. Since the taxes which the Bureau seeks to impose involve activities not subject to the admission or wagering taxes, it contends the “in lieu of” provision is inapplicable. The answer is that the “in lieu of” provision of § 60-6-9, supra, contains no language suggesting the limitation sought by the Bureau. Legislative intent is determined primarily by the language of the act. Till v. Jones, 83 N.M. 743, 497 P.2d 745 (Ct.App.1972). Payment of the license fees and taxes as provided in § 60-6-9, supra, is in lieu of “. . . all other or further excise . . . taxes levied by the state, or any county. . . . ” The Bureau asserts that not to limit the “in lieu of” provision in accordance with its contention stated in the preceding paragraphs would result in the taxpayer-being able to engage in completely unrelated business activities and avoid payment of excise taxes on those activities. It states the taxpayer “ . . . could open a grocery store and could, by reason of § 60-6-9, be exempt from the gross receipts tax on its receipts from the sale of groceries. Such a result is obviously contrary to the intent of the legislature.” The answer is that the “in lieu of” provision applies only to a race track licensee, see Till v. Jones, supra, and to acts done as licensee. Commissioner of Corporations, etc. v. Bristol Co. K. C., 301 Mass. 27, 16 N.E.2d 43 (1938). See First Nat. Bank of Santa Fe v. Commissioner of Rev., 80 N.M. 699, 460 P.2d 64 (Ct.App.1969), appeal dismissed, 397 U.S. 661, 90 S.Ct. 1407, 25 L.Ed.2d 643 (1970); State v. State Tax Commission, 40 N.M. 299, 58 P.2d 1204 (1936). Here, the gross receipts tax and county sales tax were assessed on receipts from sale of membership in the jockey-club. The compensating tax was assessed on the cost of supplies purchased outside New Mexico; the supplies (for example, a water tank and a control system) were used in the operation of the race track. There is nothing indicating the sale of club memberships and the purchase of supplies for race track operations were other than acts done under taxpayer’s race track license. The Bureau states: “ . . . The purposes of the statutory provisions relating to horse racing and those of the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act are obviously different; and an exemption from a general revenue statute, such as the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act, should be clearly expressed in that general revenue statute.” The answer is that the “in lieu of” provision is clearly expressed in § 60-6-9, supra, and the Bureau presents no authority for its view that the “in lieu of” provision cannot be given effect unless included in a general revenue statute. The Bureau states: “ . . .it is argued that the ‘in lieu of’ portion of § 60-6-9 was repealed by implication when the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act was enacted, because of the absence of a section in the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act specifically exempting any portion of the receipts of ‘licensees,’ .” The answer is that repeals by implication are not favored and such a repeal is held to exist only in necessarily giving effect to an obvious legislative intent. Further “. . . a general act later enacted does not affect an earlier special act. .” Saiz v. City of Albuquerque, 82 N.M. 746, 487 P.2d 174 (Ct.App.1971); Compare Cardinal Fence Co., Inc. v. Commissioner, Bur. of Rev., 84 N.M. 314, 502 P.2d 1004 (Ct.App.1972). The gross receipts and compensating tax act is general and contains no obvious legislative intent to repeal the special “in lieu of” provision of § 60-6-9, supra. The Bureau has advanced no reason why the “in lieu of” provision should not be given effect. See Continental Oil Co. v. City of Santa Fe, supra. The decision and order of the Commissioner is not in accordance with law, § 72-13-39, supra, and is reversed. It is so ordered. HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur.
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OPINION STEPHENSON, Justice. Mr. and Mrs. Nowlin (Appellees) filed this tax suit in the District Court of Bernalillo County alleging that they were purchasing a certain tract of land (the land) under a contract dated in 1965; that for 1970 the land had been assigned a market value of $22,200.00 and an assessed value of $7,400.00, but that for 1971 it had been assigned the market value of $80,586.00 and an assessed value of $26,859.00 (The term “assessed value” is the figure against which the tax levy is applied, and is supposed to be one-third of the market value). They alleged that they had paid the first half of 1971 taxes under protest and that the 1971 assessment “was incorrectly and erroneously assessed for taxation” and should have been assessed as it had been in 1970. Relying on §§ 72-4-6 and 72-4-7, N.M.S.A.1953 they sought an order correcting the assessment and the tax rolls for 1971. By the time of hearing the second half of 1971 taxes in the amount of $840.01 had been paid under protest and after contact between Mr. Nowlin and a member of the assessor’s staff, the 1972 assessment had been made at a market value of $40,293.00 and an assessed value of $13,430.00, which figures were accepted by appellees, and the relief sought was amended accordingly to establish the same figures for 1971. Appellant, Bernalillo County, answered with admissions and denials and three affirmative defenses; that the complaint failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted; that the appellees failed to exhaust their administrative remedies; and that the appellees were attempting to induce the trial court to substitute its judgment for that of the taxing authorities and to re-assess the property. Judgment was entered directing the assessor of Bernalillo County to correct the 1971 tax roll to reduce the market valuation thereof to $13,430.00. Little discussion of the facts is required. The hearing established the accuracy of the figures that we have mentioned for the tax years 1970, 1971 and 1972. There is no evidence as to how the land was situated in respect to streets, utilities, topography, zoning or general surrounding area. Nor is there any such evidence as to any surrounding lands except a 'general statement that the land as well as surrounding lands were vacant and unimproved. There was no evidence as to market value of any land. Mr. Nowlin testified to a conversation with a Mr. Nations, identified as an employee of the assessor’s office, to the effect that the land was assessed for 1971 at fifty cents per square foot whereas surrounding lands were assessed at. twenty-five cents per square foot for 1972. Assuming the accuracy of these figures, about all that can be gleaned from them is that for some entirely unexplained reason the market value figure rose from 13.8 cents per square foot for 1970 to 50 cents per square foot for 1971 and descended to 25 cents per square foot for 1972. An administrative procedure is provided by statutes for those who wish to protest their assessed valuation as follows: A. A taxpayer dissatisfied with the valuation placed on his property by the assessor has a right of appeal to the County Board of Equalization which sits annually commencing on the first Monday in May. § 72-2-38, N.M.S.A.1953. B. A taxpayer, respecting matters of assessment and valuation, can appeal the action of the County Board of Equalization to the Property Appraisal Department (P. A.D.). Such appeals may be taken only where the taxpayer has exercised his right of hearing before the County Board of Equalization. § 72-6-13.1, N.M.S.A.1953. The cited statute actually refers to the State Tax Commission but the Property Appraisal Department Act [§ 72-25-1 et seq., N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971)] provides that laws administered by the State Tax Commission shall be administered by the P.A.D. to which was transferred all authority, powers and duties of the Commission. § 72-25-3, subd. B., N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971). C. A taxpayer may protest any decision of the P.A.D. concerning the assessed value of his property to an Appeals Board, but such protests must be filed with the Appeals Board within thirty days after the date of mailing of notice of the decision of the Director of the P.A.D. § 72-25-10, N. M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971). D. Decisions of the Appeals Board may be appealed to the Court of Appeals. § 72-25-19, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971). The foregoing series of statutes constitutes an elaborate legislative scheme to provide a hearing before no less than four administrative or judicial tribunals for the taxpayer who is dissatisfied with his assessed valuation. The statutory language is clear and the legislative intent is certain that for a taxpayer to appeal to any one of those tribunals and invoke its decision, he must have done the same with its predecessor. Appellees did not commence this procedure or follow any part of it but rather attempted to go directly from the assessor to the district court pursuant to §§ 72-4-6 and 72-4-7. The leading and oft cited New Mexico case on this subject is In re Blatt, 41 N.M. 269, 67 P.2d 293, 110 A.L.R. 656 (1937). The facts before the Blatt court were very similar to those which confront us, but that suit was brought under Laws 1933, ch. 143, presently compiled (after certain amendments which are not pertinent) as § 72-5-4, N.M.S.A.1953. The statute permitted recovery of ad valorem taxes which had been "erroneously or illegally charged.” The statute under which this action was brought permits district court action for the “correction of obvious clerical errors in name, description of property or computation of amount of taxes.” Certain duties are imposed upon the treasurer in respect to “any errors of other kinds in said assessment roll by which any injustice would be done to any taxpayer” and relief is authorized by the court if it finds that real property “has been incorrectly assessed for taxation, due to an error or clerical mistake in description.” The Blatt court in a learned and exhaustive opinion, speaking through Justice Zinn, held that suits to recover taxes are entirely statutory. Precedents from other jurisdictions as well as texts were analyzed and the conclusion was reached that the statute under consideration applied to errors of such magnitude as to go to the very jurisdiction of the taxing officials as a result of which the pretended assessment is invalid and void, and that such statutes furnish no basis for relief as to assessments which are merely excessive. The precedents upon which Blatt relies and the reasoning of the court in arriving at its opinion, convinces us that its rationale applies with equal force to a case brought under § 72-4-6, as this one was. We have had occasion to interpret § 72-4-6 a number of times. Morris v. State by State Tax Commission, 41 N.M. 385, 69 P.2d 924 (1937) involved a claim by taxpayers that their real property had been overvalued and therefore, they (taxpayers) were entitled to relief under the provisions of § 141-306, Comp. 1929 (now § 72-4-6, N.M.S.A.1953). At 41 N.M. 387, 69 P.2d 926, the court said: “We have held that these statues do not authorize the court to set aside assessments duly made by the assessing authorities; nor do they authorize the district court to assess property. This is settled by Bond-Dillon Co. v. Matson, 27 N.M. 85, 196 P. 323, 326, First State Bank of Bernalillo v. State, 27 N.M. 78, 196 P. 743, 745, and In re Blatt (State v. Blatt), 41 N.M. 269, 67 P.2d 293. In the First State Bank case we'said: ‘If the term “injustice” is used in its ordinary sense, the taxpayer could by presenting his petition to the court and satisfying the judge that an injustice had been done him set at naught the whole system of assessment and collection of taxes and place in the hands of the courts the final determination of all questions of fact, law, and policy regarding taxation. We do not believe that the legislature by this section intended to thus turn over to the courts the power and authority to pass upon all these questions.’ ” And at 41 N.M. 388, 69 P.2d 926, the court said: “The statute under which this proceeding is brought is for the correction of errors in assessments; and it gives the court no authority to cancel or hold assessments invalid upon equitable grounds or to reassess property.” In essence, the court was saying that the purpose of § 141-306 (now § 72-4 — 6) was the correction of clerical errors and was not a procedure by which the taxpayer could obtain review in the district court of the wisdom or opinion of the assessor. To the same effect as Morris, see In re United Power Co. Taxes for 1937, 44 N.M. 542, 105 P.2d 741 (1940) wherein it was held that the district court did not have jurisdiction to cancel or hold invalid an assessment on property of a power company by proceeding under § 141-306, Comp.1929. It is basic to the reasoning of these cases that courts should not fix assessment, thereby substituting their judgment for that of the taxing authorities. See also Perez v. Velasquez, 80 N.M. 319, 455 P.2d 185 (1969) in which the court quoting with approval from 3 Cooley, Law of Taxation 4th Ed. § 1144 at 2299, 2300 (4th Ed. 1924). “ * * * Value is a matter of opinion, and when the law has provided officers upon whom the duty is imposed to make the valuation, it is the opinion of those officers to which the interests of the parties are referred. The court cannot sit in judgment upon their errors, or substitute its own opinion for the'conclusions the officers of the law have reached. * * * ” We are of the opinion that § 72-4-6 cannot be utilized to attack assessments which are merely excessive. Appellees are also confronted with their failure to follow and exhaust administrative remedies open to them. In re Blatt, supra, involved an administrative procedure different than that which now exists, but the principle remains the same. That case makes clear the necessity for exhausting such remedies. See also State Racing Commission v. McManus, 82 N.M. 108, 476 P.2d 767 (1970); State Tax Commission v. Dick, 28 N.M. 218, 210 P. 392 (1922); Compare Pan American Petroleum Corp. v. El Paso Nat. Gas Co., 77 N.M. 481, 424 P.2d 397 (1966). Appellees place their principal reliance on the phrase “any such injustice” that appears in § 72-4-6. The significance of that phrase was determined adversely to them in First State Bank v. State, 27 N.M. 78, 196 P. 743 (1921) quoted with approval in Morris v. State by State Tax Commission, supra. Appellees also rely on Perez v. Velasquez, supra, as support for the proposition that relief can be granted where the action of the assessor is arbitrary, capricious or whimiscal. The Perez court had reference to conduct of an assessor so outrageous as to amount to systematic and intentional discrimination or the like, i. e., constructive fraud. In re Blatt, at a time when no court review of the then administrative procedures was provided by law, recognized that a court of equity may review assessors’ actions where the assessment is so excessive as to be constructively fraudulent, but even then only after other remedies had been exhausted. This is not such a case. No fraud is alleged here as is required by our Rules of Civil Procedure, § 21-1-1 (9) (b), N.M.S.A.1953. The assessment is merely alleged to be incorrect and erroneous. The judgment of the District Court of Bernalillo County is reversed, and the case remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur.
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OPINION MARTINEZ, Justice. Appellees brought an action to quiet title in land in the District Court of Taos County. The land involved in this appeal are Tracts 34 and 36 of Map 43, Survey 4, of the New Mexico Reassessment Survey for Taos County. Appellees claimed title to both tracts and particularly Tract 36 pursuant to a judgment, obtained by their predecessors in title in cause Number 5598-A, filed on February 11, 1965 in the District Court of Taos County. Appellant, Pedro Lucero, raised a number of defenses in his amended answer, the most pertinent being possession of the contested real property by way of adverse possession. Appellant, Pedro Lucero, also alleged by way of cross claim that he was the sole owner in fee and entitled to the possession of the land described in the complaint. The trial court, sitting without a jury, on February 28, 1972 found that Tract 36, Map 43, Survey 4 of the New Mexico Reassessment Survey for Taos County, New Mexico in District Court cause Number 5598-A was the same as described in the instant action, and is res judicata as to the appellant who was a defendant in cause Number 5598-A. Therefore, the trial court awarded appellees qüiet title to Tract 36. It further found and concluded that the appellees and appellant wholly failed to establish their title to Tract 34, Map 43, Survey 4. It is from this decision of the trial court that the appellant makes his appeal. Appellant has raised two main points on appeal, the first being that the trial court erred in its findings of fact that cause Number 5598-A is res judicata as to Tract 36, Map 43, Survey 4, and that appellant has no right, title, or interest in the aforementioned tract. We disagree. The trial court found that cause Number 5598-A filed on February 11, 1965, an action in which appellant was a defendant, vested title to this same tract in the predecessors in title of the appellees. It also found that cause Number 5598-A was determinative as to the vesting of title and was res judicata as to appellant who had no right, title, or interest in the tract. The trial court has mistakenly labelled these two determinations “findings of fact” instead of “conclusions of law.” We have long held that findings are sufficient where they justify the judgment, though they intermingle matters of fact and conclusions of law. Fraser v. Bank, 18 N.M. 340, 137 P. 592 (1913). In that case the Court in quoting from O’Reilly v. Campbell, 116 U.S. 418, 6 S.Ct. 421, 29 L.Ed. 669 (1886), stated: “ ‘Findings are not to be construed with the strictness of special pleadings. It is sufficient if from them all, taken together with the pleadings, we can see enough upon a fair construction to justify the judgment of the Court notwithstanding their want of precision and the occasional intermixture of matters of fact and conclusions of law.’ ” Id. 18 N.M. at 351, 137 P. at 594. See also, White v. Morrison, 62 N.M. 47, 304 P.2d 572 (1956); Jones v. Friedman, 57 N.M. 361, 258 P.2d 1131 (1953). We have examined the findings of fact and, based on the aforementioned rule, we believe that the record reveals sufficient evidence to support the trial court’s judgment. Appellant’s second point is that the trial court erred in finding that appellant had not established his fee simple title to Tract 34 by adverse possession and in not finding that a particular portion of Tract 36 was encompassed by the description of Tract 2, as described in the judgment of cause Number 5598-A. Tract 2 was a particular tract involved in the aforementioned judgment. We have reviewed the transcript of the proceedings and there exists no substantial evidence supporting a finding of fact that a particular portion of Tract 36 was encompassed by the description of Tract 2, as described in the judgment of cause Number 5598-A. Thus, the trial court was correct in making no such finding. We have recognized on several occasions that a judgment cannot be sustained on appeal unless the conclusion on which it rests finds support in one or more findings of fact. Langdon v. Jaramillo, 80 N.M. 255, 454 P.2d 269 (1969); Galvan v. Miller, 79 N.M. 540, 445 P.2d 961 (1968); and Thompson v. H. B. Zachry Co., 75 N.M. 715, 410 P.2d 740 (1966). The trial court’s conclusion of law in this particular matter is based solely on the finding of fact which reads as follows: “19. That the Plaintiffs and Defendant Pedro Lucero have wholly failed to establish their title to Tract 34, Map 43, Survey 4, of the New Mexico Survey for Taos County, New Mexico; * * * ” Clearly, this is not only a conclusion of law but also the very issue to be decided by the trial court. In Porter v. Mesilla Valley Cotton Products Co., 42 N.M. 217, 221, 76 P.2d 937, 939 (1937) in quoting from Merrick v. Deering et al., 30 N.M. 431, 236 P. 735 (1925) we stated: “ ‘ * * * [T]his court, in the review of cases tried without a jury, may be able to traverse the same ground as the lower court, reaching not a conclusion of its own, but a determination as to whether that of the trial court is justified in fact and in law. To that end the trial court must state in writing the facts upon which it bases its conclusion * * *. For such purpose, it is apparent that it is the ultimate facts, rather than the evidentiary facts, which should be so found. It is equally apparent that a finding upon the very issue in the cause is not, in a case like this, a finding of ultimate fact, but a conclusion.’ ” It follows that the trial court’s conclusion that both parties had failed to establish their title to Tract 34 is not supported by any finding and therefore cannot be sustained on appeal. Goldie v. Yaker, 78 N.M. 485, 432 P.2d 841 (1967); Star Realty Company v. Sellers, 73 N.M. 207, 387 P.2d 319 (1963). Since the Supreme Court on appeal will not originally determine the questions of fact in a case since such function lies entirely within the province of the trial court, Jontz v. Alderete, 64 N.M. 163, 326 P.2d 95 (1958), the questions of the parties’ fee simple title to Tract 34 is remanded to the trial court with directions to make proper findings thereto. In light of the foregoing, the decision of the trial court is affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded for further findings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, J., concur.
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 979, 85 N.M. 157, 509 P.2d 1352 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 932, 85 N.M. 266, 511 P.2d 752 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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Original Proceeding On Certiorari Ordered that permission to withdraw application for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby granted. Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals 84 N.M. 757, 508 P.2d 27, be and the same is hereby returned’ to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals.
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OPINION MONTOYA, Justice. Plaintiff Albuquerque Auto Sales, Inc. brought an action in the district court against defendants, Fermin Medina and C & H Construction & Paving, Inc., for damages allegedly suffered in an automobile collision. Defendant Medina answered, denying all but the jurisdictional allegations of the complaint. Defendant C & H Construction & Paving, Inc. answered, denying all of the allegations of the complaint and asserting the affirmative defense of contributory negligence. C & H Construction & Paving, Inc. thereafter filed an amended-third-party complaint against Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, Inc. seeking payment of attorney’s fees incurred in defending the action and judgment over for any sum which might be awarded plaintiff. This amended-third-party complaint was based on the premise that Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, Inc. had issued to C & H Construction & Paving, Inc. a certificate of insurance, certifying that it had issued a liability policy of insurance to Fermin Medina, who had entered into a contract with C & H Construction & Paving, Inc., and containing a statement that it would notify C & H Construction & Paving, Inc. of any change or cancellation of said policy. Subsequently, Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, hereinafter referred to as “appellee,” moved to dismiss the amended-third-party complaint of C & H Construction & Paving, Inc., hereinafter referred to as “appellant,” for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. The trial court granted appellee’s motion and this appeal ensued. Appellee’s motion to dismiss was based on Rule 12(b)(6), Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1 (12) (b)(6), N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., Repl. Vol. 4, 1970], which provides, among other things, that it may be based upon “failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.” The alleged facts of this case, which for the purpose of the motion to dismiss are admitted, indicate that appellant entered into a contract with Fermin Medina and that, as a result of that contract, third-party defendant (appellee) issued its certificate that an insurance policy was in force allegedly protecting third-party plaintiff (appellant) from any acts of negligence attributable to the operation of a motor vehicle by Medina. In addition to notifying appellant of the required coverage, the certificate stated in pertinent part: “In the event of any material change in or cancelation of said policies the company designated below will notify the party to whom this certificate is issued of such change or cancelation.” This certificate was issued May 22, 1970. On December 6, 1970, Fermin Medina’s insurance was cancelled. Notice of such cancellation was mailed by appellee to Medina on November 25, 1970, but appellee failed and neglected to notify third-party plaintiff and appellant herein. Appellant alleges, in his amended-third-party complaint that it relied upon the certificate of insurance coverage to its detriment and that, therefore, appellant is estopped to deny coverage and to deny the obligation owed to defend the law suit. The issue, as presented, is whether the trial court erred in granting the motion to dismiss the first amended complaint for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted under Rule 12(b) (6), supra. The motion to dismiss, which was considered by the court, had attached to it an affidavit of the vice president of third-party defendant, as well as instruments entitled “Copy of Notice of Cancellation to Mortgagee” and another form entitled “Post Office Department Form No. 3817,” which is the third-party defendant’s copy of notice of cancellation to the insured. Having attached such documents to its motion, and apparently argued before the trial court on that basis, the motion then is to be treated as a motion for summary judgment under the terms of Rule 12(b)(6), supra, which reads as follows: “ * * *. If, on a motion asserting the defense numbered (6) to dismiss for failure of the pleading to state a claim upon which relief can be granted, matters outside the pleading are presented to and not excluded by the court, the motion shall be treated as one for summary judgment and disposed of as provided in Rule 56, and all parties shall be given reasonable opportunity to present all material made pertinent to such a motion by Rule 56.” However, the matter was submitted to the trial court and to this court on the basis of Rule 12(b)(6), supra, and we will dispose of it on that basis and will not treat it as a motion for summary judgment, since appellant did not object and makes no claim of prejudice or that the rule was inapplicable. We are persuaded to pursue this approach, since the parties do not question the procedure, and in view of the provisions of Rule 43(e), Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1 (43) (e), N.M.S. A., 1953 Comp., Repl. Vol. 4, 1970], which permits the court to hear motions on affidavits presented by the parties. Accordingly, we apply the test applicable to Rule 12(b)(6), supra. The general rule is stated in Jones v. International Union of Operating Engineers, 72 N.M. 322, 325, 383 P.2d 571, 573 (1963): “ * * *. In considering whether a complaint states a cause of action, we, of course, accept as true all facts well pleaded. Jernigan v. New Amsterdam Casualty Co., 69 N.M. 336, 367 P.2d 519. A motion to dismiss under Rule 12(b)(6) is properly granted only when it appears that plaintiff cannot recover or be entitled to relief■ under any state of facts provable under the claim. [Citations omitted.]” (Emphasis added.) See also Pattison v. Ford, 82 N.M. 605, 485 P.2d 361 (Ct.App.1971). In discussing the rule in question, 2A Moore’s Federal Practice, 2d Ed. 1972, § 12.08 at 2265, states as follows: “The motion to dismiss under Rule 12(b)(6) performs substantially the same function as the old common law general demurrer. A motion to dismiss is the usual and proper method of testing the legal sufficiency of the complaint. For purposes of the motion, the well-pleaded material allegations of the complaint are taken as admitted; but conclusions of law or unwarranted deductions of fact are not admitted. ‘A [complaint] may be dismissed on motion if clearly without any merit; and this want of merit may consist in an absence of law to support a claim of the sort made, or of facts sufficient to make a good claim, * * *.’ ” Under the pleaded facts, an insurance policy had been issued by appellee to Medina and a certificate furnished appellant regarding the issuance of such policy. Before the accident in question, as shown by the record before us, the insurance policy herein had been cancelled and notice of cancellation had been mailed to the insured, but not to appellant. The question then arises — what is the effect of the failure of appellee to notify appellant of the cancellation of the insurance policy? This presents a question of fact, as well as one of law, which should be decided at the trial level. In passing upon the allegations of the amended-third-party complaint, it would appear to present at least a possibility of liability on the theory of a third-party-beneficiary contract, or under the doctrine of equitable estoppel, and lastly, on the doctrine of detrimental reliance upon an alleged contract claimed to have resulted from representations contained in the certificate. Pabellon v. Grace Line, 191 F.2d 169 (2d Cir. 1951), involved a seaman working on the defendant’s vessel, who was mixing cleansers and detergents which allegedly caused the explosion which injured the seaman. Defendant shipowner brought in the suppliers of the cleansers and detergents and their manufacturers and the United States Court of Appeals, in passing upon the dismissal of the third-party complaints, at 171, said: trial in advance of knowledge of what might develop there. Viewed as a pleading under the liberal Federal Rules, 28 U.S.C.A., the amended third-party complaint now before us seems to us fully adequate. Hickman v. Taylor, 329 U.S. 495, 501, 67 S.Ct. 385, 91 L.Ed. 451; Dioguardi v. Durning, 2 Cir., 139 F.2d 774, 775. Indeed, it sets forth quite fully and frankly the situation in which the Grace Line finds itself by reason of the claim made against it by the plaintiff and its view that if it is to be held liable it has a proper claim for indemnity or at least contribution from those who put in its hands these instrumentalities which eventually proved dangerous in combination. Had it said more, it would have had to make allegations by guess; had it said less, we might have 'found no ground whatsoever for recovery. But as it stands we cannot say that there is no legal basis in any event for a claim of liability. Hence dismissal of the third-party complaint at this early stage of the case was not justified. “In thus dismissing the complaints over on the face of the pleadings, we think the court has committed the not unusual error of attempting to make haste too rapidly by dispensing with a “Upon the allegations before us, there would appear to be at least a possibility of liability against the suppliers for breach of warranty and against all of the defendants for negligence as alleged. # * *» Again, in passing upon the sufficiency of the fourth-party complaint filed in the same case, the same court, in ruling on that issue, stated as follows at 173: “The district court also dismissed the fourth-party complaint of the supplier Rudman & Scofield against its supplier and manufacturer. These defendants contend that in any event this complaint does not allege negligence or breach of warranty against them and is not justifiable in law. While the claims are obviously still more remote we think there is no basis at this time in holding them legally impossible. From the standpoint of pleading, the fourth-party plaintiff has stated its allegations alternatively and contingently on the basis that if it is held responsible over to the Grace Line then such liability is entirely upon the fourth-party defendants. True, before recovery this plaintiff must show either breach of warranty or negligence of a foreseeable nature. Nevertheless alternative or hypothetical pleadings are permissible, Fed.Rules Civ.Proc. rule 8(e)(2), 28 U.S.C.A.; and we read this complaint to make the required allegations, albeit hypothetically. In case of any real lack of clarity the district court has of course power to order an amendment.” In accordance with the foregoing authority, we hold that the trial court erred in dismissing the amended-third-party complaint. Appellee primarily relies on Rhodes v. Lucero, 79 N.M. 403, 444 P.2d 588 (1968), in arguing that the trial court’s dismissal of the action is correct. We believe that Rhodes v. Lucero, supra, is distinguishable on the facts, since it involved an action for declaratory judgment by plaintiff Rhodes and his insurer who had paid for damages suffered in an accident, less the deductible, seeking a declaration that defendant Lucero was an insured person under the terms and conditions of the policy of insurance issued to Lucero and in force at the time of the accident. By coincidence, the third-party defendant herein was also one of the defendants in the Lucero case, supra. However, in the instant case, appellant does not, as we understand the pleadings, make a claim upon the policy itself, but on actions of the appellee which were relied upon to the detriment of appellant, upon estoppel, and upon the theory of an alleged third-party-beneficiary contract. We are not to be understood, in arriving at this decision, as departing from the general rule that an insurance company cannot be joined as a party-defendant in a suit on a liability policy, absent statutory or ordinance provisions, or unless the insurance policy itself confers that right upon the injured person. Compare Breeden v. Wilson, 58 N.M. 517, 273 P.2d 376 (1954). The judgment of the trial court will be reversed and the cause remanded to the trial court with directions to reinstate the amended-third-party complaint, and for further proceedings consistent with the views expressed in this opinion. It is so ordered. McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur.
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