The idea is to give people with disabilities more of a choice. There's still a lot of stigma attached [to people with disabilities having relationships] from research I've done and experiences I've had. I think it would be good to bring the Dutch scheme over here to take away that stigma about people with disabilities having sex. But it's not just about that. It's about people with disabilities being accepted when they have relationships ... It needs to be brought out into the open in a managed and constructive way.


In early 2013, former  brothel  owner Becky Adams spoke with the media about her intention to open a non-profit brothel exclusively for people with disabilities in the UK, which, if launched in 2014, will be the nation's first legal initiative of this nature. Adams stated that she will invest £60,000 into the brothel following a stroke in 2009—Adams explained that after the stroke, her "eyes were suddenly opened. I was utterly unaware that such a big group was suffering so enormously." If she is approved for a permit, Adams plans to open a two-room service in  Milton Keynes , near London, that will be staffed by sex workers and assistants. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]


Adams also founded the Para-Doxies service in 2012, which connects people with disabilities throughout the UK with sex workers—at the time, Adams ran the service on a completely voluntary, non-profit basis. In April 2013, the service was receiving over 500 enquiries a week from men, women and couples, and was struggling to cope with the demand. [ 29 ]


A 2011 Australian documentary directed by Catherine Scott,  Scarlet Road , [ 30 ]  explores another aspect of sexuality and disabilities through the life of a sex worker who has specialized for 18 years in a clientele who have disabilities. [ 31 ]  In 2012, the topic was highlighted in a fictional film based on the real life experience of writer  Mark O'Brien .  The Sessions  portrays the relationship between O'Brien, who survived polio as a child, and a " sexual surrogate " to whom he loses his virginity. A member of the British Polio Fellowship states that  post-polio syndrome , which affects polio survivors later in life, is a little-known condition that could have been explored in the film. [ 32 ] [ 33 ]


A survey conducted by the  Disability Now  magazine in 2005 found that 19% of female participants would see trained sex workers, compared with 63% of the male respondents.  Tuppy Owens , sex therapist and disability professional, explained in 2013 that disabled women "don't trust male sex workers to be honourable". [ 26 ]


LGBTQ  people with disabilities face  double marginalization . [ 34 ]  Individuals with disabilities are often either viewed as nonsexual or hypersexual. Because of these misconceptions it is hard to find LGBTQ people with disabilities portrayed in healthy sexual lives. [ 35 ]   In recent decades, scholars have worked to include disabilities studies in  queer theory , with the intention of normalizing disability in LGBTQ spaces. Queer and disabled liberation starts with the rejection of historic ideas on sexuality and disability. [ 36 ]


It is also rare to have a LGBTQ person with disabilities portrayed in media. Some movies and literature do exist for the LGBTQ disabled communities such as: [ 35 ]


This movie is about a bicyclist who gets in an accident and becomes paraplegic. After the bicyclist recovers from his injuries, he comes to terms with his sexuality and falls in love with a man. [ 35 ]


This is a short documentary series documenting the lives of LGBTQ people with disabilities. [ 35 ]


This is a film about a young Indian woman with  cerebral palsy  who relocates to America for her undergraduate education. The movie follows her complex romantic relationship with a blind woman.


Individuals with disabilities access to sexual and emotional partners is restricted by societies de-eroticization of their sexuality. [ 7 ]  The experiences of individuals with disabilities has shown that the basic human need to form close relationships is as relevant for individuals with disabilities as it is for humans without a disability. Furthermore, the social networks of people with disabilities can be small and this restricts the ability to form new relationships. [ 37 ]  Society's view of disability also puts pressure of individuals with disabilities in finding relationships. Even though our society has made great strides with creating a more accepting world, individuals with disabilities are still seen as outsiders. Parents prevent their children from asking individuals with disabilities questions which results in them viewing people with disabilities as "other". [ 38 ]  While the majority of non-disabled people meet other people in public spaces there are many physical and social barriers. [ 39 ]  The lack of access to public spaces, whether it be stairs; an absence of menus written in braille; or no ASL interpreters; could make it difficult and almost impossible for an individual with disabilities to go out. Individuals with disabilities also participate in online dating. Not only are there websites that are for online dating, but there are also websites that are solely for people with disabilities finding someone that is also disabled or someone that wants to date an individual with disabilities.


Disability stereotypes add to the difficulty and stigma experienced by individuals with disabilities. The following myths about individuals with disabilities have been identified: [ 40 ]


According to one survey, up to 50% of adults with disabilities are not in any sexual relationship at all. [ 41 ]  Online dating sites specifically aimed at individuals with disabilities have been founded to fill this void. [ 5 ]


Misperceptions from the broader community has been raised as a prominent issue for individuals with disabilities in terms of their own relationships. The head of a disabled dating service explained in 2010: "Like anyone else, people with disabilities have different preferences. Someone with good mobility may prefer someone also mobile; others don't limit at all." [ 5 ]  In a 2012  Sydney Morning Herald , the mother of a man with cerebral palsy explained, "It's hard being a parent and this [sexuality] comes up. People see them sitting in their wheelchair think, that's it. They don't see what's going on in their lives and Mark [son] would dearly love a relationship." [ 37 ]


There is a long history of seclusion and segregation that has affected society's view of people with disabilities. For years people with disabilities have been segregated from society. People with disabilities were often put in institutions against their will because they were deemed "weak" and "feeble minded". While they were in the institutions they would often experience compulsory sterilization a.k.a. forced sterilization. [ 42 ]  The types of sterilization would include vasectomies, salpingectomy, and other types as well. None of these were considered dangerous to the person in the institution. [ 43 ]  In 1927, the United States Supreme Court case of  Buck v. Bell  stated that it was permissible to sterilize some people with disabilities against their will. [ 43 ]  It also stated in the decision that that did not violate the  Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . [ 44 ]  However, in  Olmstead v. L.C. , 527 U.S. 581 (1999), the Supreme Court of the United States held that under the  Americans with Disabilities Act , individuals with mental disabilities have the right to live in the community rather than in institutions if, in the words of the opinion of the Court, "the State's treatment professionals have determined that community placement is appropriate, the transfer from institutional care to a less restrictive setting is not opposed by the affected individual, and the placement can be reasonably accommodated, taking into account the resources available to the State and the needs of others with mental disabilities." [ 45 ]


According to a series of interviews taken place in  Malta  investigating the sexual lives of men and women with intellectual disabilities, most individuals reported that they felt oppressed by the expectations from families and caretakers to not engage in sexual activity or a relationship. [ 46 ]  As a result of the study, almost all individuals expressed a desire to be able to talk openly about their relationships and spend more time away from the family. And while all people's sexualities are controlled and limited by social norms, people with disabilities feel that they are limited by further factors. [ 46 ]  Another study in Texas explored the beliefs of the families and caretakers of people with intellectual disabilities on their sexualities. The results revealed that the majority of families and caretakers of those with intellectual disabilities believed that those with disabilities should not engage in sexual activity because of the fear that they will be taken advantage of. [ 47 ]  A resolution to the oppression that people with disabilities face when it comes to sexuality is educating families on these findings and educating disabled people on their own sexualities and life options.


People with disabilities are no less vulnerable than people without disabilities to  harassment , assault, and  domestic violence . People with disabilities are more vulnerable to  sexual assault  than the general public, being targeted due to the physical or mental impairments that they have. The  American Journal of Preventive Medicine  has published results of a survey that found that males with disabilities are 4 times more likely to be sexually abused. [ 48 ]  Other studies have shown that for women with disabilities, "regardless of age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or class [they] are assaulted, raped, and abused at a rate two times greater than women without disabilities [... the] risk of being physically assaulted for an adult with developmental disabilities is 4–10 times higher than for other adults". [ 49 ]


It is estimated that 25% of both girls and boys with disabilities will experience sexual abuse before the age of 18. It is also estimated that 20% of these incidents are reported. These rates are much higher than sexual abuse incidents pertaining to nondisabled children. There is a 1 in 4 chance that a girl with developmental disabilities will be molested before the age of 18. This is 10 times higher than the nondisabled population. During the California Committee on Abuse of Person with Disabilities, national statistics estimate the sexual abuse on people with disabilities as such: [ 50 ]


By combining national statistics with specific studies, estimate ranges are as follows: between 39% and 83% of girls with developmental disabilities, and between 16% and 32% of boys with developmental disabilities will be subjected to sexual abuse before the age of 18 years. Incidence of sexual abuse among the population of persons with developmental disabilities was estimated in 1985 by the California State Department of Developmental Services to be 70%.


A majority of the predators are documented to be the father or stepfather of the victim. This is especially true for females with developmental disabilities. It is estimated that 10% of girls with  intellectual disabilities  are victims of  incest . Females are most likely to be victims of sexual abuse. Studies show 50% of disabled females have experience multiple incidents of sexual abuse and 80% of disabled males experienced 1 incident. The numbers for sexual abuse are so high because the perpetrators are well known to the individual, such as a parent, uncle, aunt, cousin, friend, caretaker or sibling. [ 50 ]


The statistics on sexual abuse for people with disabilities are also high because staff and dependent parents are not adequately trained in identifying sexual abuse. Many staff believe that sexual abuse must be proven before it is reported. The issue with this is that certain disabilities restrict the individual from expressing the experience. Adults with training in identifying abuse are more effective in protecting the child. Most programs focus on "stranger danger", which is not effective because most sexual abuse assaults come from the individual's inner circle. [ 50 ]


Several prevention programs against sexual abuse for people with disabilities exist in the United States. [ 50 ]


In Seattle, United States a program called Seattle Project trains individuals with developmental disabilities to prevent sexual assault [ 50 ]


In Minnesota, the Department of Corrections created a prevention program where children and adults with disabilities are trained in all aspects of abuse prevention. [ 50 ]


In California, there is the Waters Child Abuse Prevention Training Act (WCBTA). This program attempts to provide all children with abuse prevention. Each program caters to the child's age and learning level. In Contra Costa County, California, the WCBTA focuses on the needs of various disabilities and sexual abuse prevention. In Los Angeles County Office of Education they have created a Preschool Abuse Prevention Program for Children with disabilities. In this, teachers are instructed to train students with disabilities on physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. [ 50 ]


The subject of the  Scarlet Road  documentary, Rachel Wotton, also co-founded and helps run  Touching Base , an organization based in New South Wales, Australia that provides information, education and support for clients with disabilities, sex workers and Disability Service Providers. The organization has been active since October 2000 following the formation of the founding committee that consisted of disability and health organization representatives. Wotton explains, "I am a sex worker and I make my money from clients seeing me. Some clients just happen to have a disability." Initially, the organization was receiving around one weekly phone call, but by 2012, inquiries were daily. [ 51 ] [ 37 ]


In March 2014, former Australian High Court judge  Michael Kirby  became a patron of the organization, joining four other inaugural patrons:  Eva Cox , Professor Basil Donovan, Associate Professor Helen Meekosha, and NSW Local Government elder statesman Peter Woods. Following his appointment, Kirby stated: "If you deny sexual expression to human beings, cut them off from that aspect of their personalities and of their happiness, then you end up with a lot of very frustrated and very unhappy people", and he praised Touching Base for recognising that people with disabilities need "to have opportunities for sexual expression". [ 52 ]


People with Disability Australia  has developed a sex and relationship education workshop for people with intellectual disabilities. [ 53 ]


The TLC Trust provides a web-based service that facilitates the provision of sexual services—sex workers, therapists, and teachers—for people with disabilities, including a phone call appointment-booking service for those people with speech impairments or care workers who are unable to organize such services for clients due to the policy of their employer. The TLC Trust was founded in 2000 at a Sexual Freedom Coalition Conference and the website was initially run by James Palmer, a man with disabilities. The organization has garnered praise from sex educator and performance artist  Annie Sprinkle , and academic and writer A.C. Grayling. [ 54 ] [ 55 ]


Founded by Owens, Outsiders is primarily an international social club for people with disabilities, but the organization also runs the Sex and Disability Helpline, a telephone support service for people with disabilities that is staffed by both people with disabilities and health professionals. [ 56 ]  Outsiders is supported by the Outsiders Trust, which consists of a board of trustees that assists with the management of matters such as finances and projects. [ 57 ]


The Sexual Health and Disability Alliance, also founded by Owens, was first started to provide a forum in which all of the UK's disability helpline operators, and others, could meet and discuss their work. The individuals who were initially involved state that they were "eager to improve the sex-positive work we do" and the Alliance was eventually formalized in 2008 with a mission to "bring together health professionals who work with people with disabilities to empower and support them in their sex and relationship needs." [ 13 ]  The Alliance does not charge a fee for those interested in becoming members and meets biannually in London. It held its first conference in 2009 at the  Royal Society of Medicine . [ 13 ] [ 58 ]


The Disabilities Trust is over 30 years old and is a leading charitable organization in the UK. It states that it provides "residential and day services to meet the needs of individuals with Autism, Brain Injury, Physical Disability and Learning Disability", as well as helping people to live at home in the community. The Trust has produced written information on sexuality and disability, which are freely available on the Internet. [ 59 ] [ 60 ]


Reach out USA is an advocacy organization that focuses on the relationship between disability and LGBT (gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender) concerns. The group's goal is to influence disabled communities to be more aware of the LGBT communities, and LGBT communities and organizations to be more accountable and welcoming of disabled communities. Reach Out USA also helps out with other topics such as mental illness, suicide, depression and much more. [ 61 ]


Queerability is an LGBT and disabled rights advocacy group that is run by LGBT people with disabilities who hope to increase visibility to the community. The goal of this group is to ensure that the voices of LGBT people with disabilities are heard. The organization gives them a large social platform to express themselves. Queerability does not only advocate for the rights of LGBT disabled communities, but also provides educational sources pertaining to the individuals sexuality and disability. Some of the sources they provide include: How to Meet, Date, and Have Sex When You're Disabled, Practical Sex Tips for people with disabilities, Good Sex Positions for Disabled Sex, Talking About Sensitive Topics and more. [ 61 ]


The idea of sexual support emerged in 2007, when a conference on "Physical dependence: intimacy and sexuality" was organised by  Marcel Nuss . [ 62 ]  The Strasbourg conference is co-organised by Handicap International, the Association des Paralyés de France (APF), the French Muscular Dystrophy Association (AFM) and the Coordination Handicap et Autonomie (CHA). [ 63 ]


In France there are several structures that now provide training for sex assistants: the Swiss association Sexualité et Handicap Pluriels (SEHP), the Association for the Promotion of Sexual Support (APPAS), founded by Marcel Nuss, [ 64 ]  which is organising its first training cycle in 2015, and the association Corps Solidaires, which brings together certified sex assistants. [ 65 ]


Simp  ( / s ɪ m p /   ⓘ ) is an  internet slang  term describing someone who shows excessive sympathy and attention toward another person, typically to someone who does not reciprocate the same feelings, in pursuit of affection or a  sexual relationship . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]   This behavior, known as   simping , [ 3 ]  is carried out toward a variety of targets, including celebrities, [ 1 ]  politicians, [ 4 ] [ 5 ]   e-girls, and e-boys . [ 6 ]  The term had sporadic usage until gaining traction on social media in 2019. [ 7 ]


Originally a shortening of " simpleton ," the  New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English  traces usage of the noun  simp  to 1903. [ 8 ]  An article in the February 1917 edition of  Motion Picture Magazine  by Arthur Le Kaser has an animated drawing of a female director yelling at a male leading man through a megaphone "Kiss Her You Simp, Hurry Up Camera!" The shortening has appeared, for example, in  The New York Times  as early as 1923, [ 1 ]  when the paper reported on a letter by one Lillian Henderson criticizing the members of two clubs in  Atlantic City  for unmarried men:


Those bachelor simps are afraid to take a chance and too tight to share their earnings with a wife. [ 9 ]


Simp  began to have the connotation of someone being "soft" and "overly sympathetic" in the 1980s, when it was used by  West Coast rappers  such as  Hugh E.M.C. ,  Too Short , and  E-40 . [ 1 ]  Simp was referenced by Sir Mix-a-Lot in his 1992 hit "Baby Got Back" in the lyrics, "A lot of simps won't like this song".  2Pac  also used the term in his song "If I Die 2Nite" on his 1995 album  Me Against the World . In 1999, the term was used in the  Three 6 Mafia  song " Sippin' on Some Syrup " [ 3 ] [ 10 ]  as an antonym for  pimp ; [ 11 ]  Too Short has described a "simp" as equivalent to "a knockoff pimp". [ 1 ]  The term has been expressed as a  backronym  for  Sucker/Sucka Idolizing Mediocre  Pussy , [ 3 ] [ 10 ] [ 12 ]  which according to  Gizmodo Australia  is "telling of its 20th century origins". [ 11 ]


A definition of  simp  appeared on  Urban Dictionary  in 2003, [ 13 ]  and the word continued to be used by rappers into the 2010s, when it was adopted by members of the  manosphere , [ 1 ]   incel , [ 3 ]  and MGTOW ( Men Going Their Own Way )  forums [ 10 ]  alongside similar derogatory terms such as  cuck ,  beta , and  white knight . [ 3 ] [ 10 ]


The word became widely popular on  TikTok  in 2019, [ 1 ]  and soon also became popular on  Twitch [ 2 ]  and  Twitter . [ 3 ]  According to  Google Trends , interest in the term doubled between late 2018 and late 2019. [ 10 ]


The word has been used by some  fan communities  who call themselves "simps" for a celebrity figure. [ 1 ]  According to  The Daily Dot , the term is often used  ironically ; [ 3 ]  similarly, Magdalene Taylor at  MEL Magazine  says the term is "used mostly as a joke". [ 10 ]  Nathan Grayson writes at  Kotaku  that it is "difficult to find breaks in the chain of the word's linguistic lineage". [ 2 ]


In July 2020, the official Twitter account for  Archie Comics  said that it would permanently ban people from its  YouTube  channel for comments calling the comics' main character,  Archie Andrews , a simp. [ 14 ]   The A.V. Club  opined that, while it was "pretty safe to say that Archie Andrews is, quite simply, the simpiest of the simps," the Twitter post was likely an attempt at exploiting the  Streisand effect  for  viral marketing . Contrary to the Twitter post, few, if any, comments on the Archie Comics YouTube channel accused the character of being a simp. [ 14 ]


In August 2020,  Australian  politician  Bill Shorten  used the term on national television, saying on an  ABC  segment that Prime Minister  Scott Morrison  needed "to make sure he doesn't look like he's just a simp to  Donald Trump ". [ 11 ]


In September 2020, users of  Reddit  created a pledge called "No Simp September", similar to  No Nut November  (a month-long  abstention from masturbation ). Participation in "No Simp September" required posters to abstain from upvoting women's photos, watching  pornography , and "giving money to online  sex workers ", including " e-girls ". [ 6 ]  In October, Mikael Thalen at  The Daily Dot  described Twitter users as "simping hard" over leaked photos of  Hunter Biden . [ 5 ]


A November 20 article in  Vox  about posting  cringe  on TikTok discussed the  character  of TikTok user Nate Varrone called "Mr. Simp Sexual", of the "biggest stars" of the genre. [ 15 ]  Varrone explained the character thus:


He's from Michigan and he had a girlfriend named Melissa that he just wants back so fucking badly [...] He's just not in a good place right now, emotionally. I think he uses TikTok to fill the hole in his heart and find a new lover. The horniness this guy has, no human has ever felt that amount of horny in their entire life. It's like he has a curse. He thinks he has to hook up immediately or else he'll die. [ 15 ]


In January 2021,  Vogue  reported on an "adoring" Instagram account of self-declared "simps" expressing affection toward then- Georgia  Senate candidate  Jon Ossoff . [ 4 ]  Ossoff won the election and was sworn in as a senator on January 20, 2021. [ 16 ]


Upon achieving broad popularity, it began to be used more loosely. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]   In April 2020, an opinion piece in  Men's Health  described the use of the term as "pretty messed up", and men who labeled others with the term as "entitled assholes", saying, "if you've ever complimented a woman, apparently you're a simp". [ 17 ]  Hayley Soen writes at  The Tab  that "the simp has come to take the place of the  softboi ", describing him as "a boy who is a romantic failure [...] definitely the type of boy you'd tell the girls is 'a little too nice ' ", and "probably doesn't even have a lads' group chat"; Soen writes that the term is used "sometimes to describe even the bare minimum level of respect between a man and a woman". [ 18 ]


According to the  Evening Standard , while "the term could also have some value if it undermines a culture of stringing people along emotionally", it also had "potentially offensive connotations". [ 19 ]  In  The New York Times , Ezra Marcus and Jonah Bromwich describe the term as a  misogynist  insult, one which "expresses discomfort with equality when it comes to gender, and offers a simple way to dismiss the people causing that discomfort". [ 1 ]


Anna María of  The Daily Dot  writes that while the term is mostly used "ironically and without misogynistic undertones", "it doesn't take much to be called a simp" in some  anti-feminist  spaces, and that "everything from pining after a crush to actually respecting women could be considered simping". [ 3 ]  Taylor writes that the idea of the "simp" most often "seems to be a guy who simply treats women well, or just not like trash" and is "just another scapegoat for  MGTOW  misogyny". [ 10 ]


In May 2020,  Kotaku  reported that  Twitch  was "cracking down on" custom  emotes  using the word "simp", and had been "on a simp emote deleting spree" since late February. [ 2 ]  Twitch often requires its "partners" to submit custom emotes for approval prior to users being permitted to embed them; most of these emotes simply depicted a streamer or a fictional character holding up a sign with "SIMP" written on it, or were  rasterizations  of the text of the word itself. [ 2 ]  By December 2020, the word was described as a "favorite in the Twitch community" by  The Verge . [ 20 ]


Twitch announced in December 2020 that administrative action would be taken against the accounts of streamers and commentators who used the word, along with " incel " and " virgin ", saying that those words were offensive; [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ]  Twitch  COO  Sara Clemens said during a "town hall" live-stream that, while use of the words would be permitted under approved circumstances, Twitch would be "proactively denying" custom emotes that included the words. [ 20 ] [ 22 ]  This ban was part of a broader expansion of Twitch's list of forbidden content; [ 24 ]  the policy, viewable on Twitch's website, also prohibited posting that "expresses inferiority" based on "moral deficiencies". [ 25 ]  At the time of the announcement, the policy was planned to take effect on January 22, 2021. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 25 ]


Reception to the announcement and proposed policy changes was largely negative; Bryan Rolli at  The Daily Dot  wrote that Twitch would "probably have a hell of a time enforcing the 'simp' ban", [ 12 ]  and  Gizmodo  said sarcastically that "actual simps and virgins [were] still welcome" on the streaming site. [ 21 ]   Screen Rant  said that a blanket ban on "simp", "incel" and "virgin" contrasted unfavorably with a "context is needed" policy on the much more offensive racial slur " nigger ". [ 26 ]  According to  Ars Technica , Twitch had an "inconsistent history in responding to reports of problematic behavior". [ 24 ]


In interviews with  Kotaku , people affected by the ban described their channels' use of the term as mostly benign—one streamer said it was "mostly banter and, in some cases, a compliment". [ 2 ]  Another streamer, while acknowledging that the word was sometimes used to describe "quite creepy" behavior, said her use of a "simp" emote was "mainly just a joke within my community". [ 2 ]


A  singles' event  is an activity or program made available specifically to the  romantically unattached , often with the underlying or explicit purpose of fostering dating or relationships among attendees.


A singles event with a cocktail party-type atmosphere is also sometimes referred to as a  mixer . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Singles' events are frequently run by organizations focused on building stability in their areas, such as religious organizations [ 4 ]  and community groups. [ 5 ]


Some local businesses, sports teams, and cultural establishments also hold singles events. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


The themes of singles events can cover a broad spectrum. [ 8 ]  These can include, for example, ski trips,  Academy Award viewing parties , dinners, holiday parties, art gallery visits, and  Valentine's Day  mixers. [ 8 ]


Some of the most strongly attended such events are the  Christmas Eve  parties targeted at young Jewish singles in major cities in North America, particularly the  Matzo Ball  and its large city competitors. [ 9 ]


Singles' events have been an area of particular growth in singles-related commerce. [ 10 ]


Singles events have been praised as "ideal settings for meeting people" because attendees are ostensibly present to meet someone and are open to the idea of becoming romantically attached. [ 4 ]


The attendees of singles events have been criticized as "needy folks without a lot to offer". [ 11 ]  Dating via religious-sponsored singles events has been criticized for fostering invasion of daters' privacy and undue expectations. [ 12 ]   Sex ratios  of singles events have been criticized, with many either having too many women or too many men depending on location or targeted race, age, and income groups. As a result, many events often have a policy to even out sex ratios before the event starts. [ 12 ]


Singles events, including those organized by religious organizations, have been criticized for frequently being meet/meat markets [ 13 ] [ 14 ] —places where attendees are rapidly sizing up members of the opposite sex with objectifying criteria, such as attractiveness, wealth, and fashion sense, before taking the time to get to know attendees on a deeper level. [ 15 ]


By the 1970s, singles events had developed a reputation as a "ritual of lies and mistrust", replete with men in search of casual sex, cold and unfriendly women, and frequent misunderstandings. [ 16 ] [ 17 ]


The nature of meet markets has changed dramatically since the 1980s, becoming more inviting, and the term itself has largely become value neutral or positive. [ 18 ]


The stigma that developed in the 1970s around singles events led some organizations to switch to the euphemism " young professionals  events". [ 17 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ]  (However other organizations specifically for young professionals insist that they are not "singles groups". [ 21 ] )


Situational sexual behavior  is a type of sexual behavior that differs from behavior that the person normally exhibits, due to a social environment that in some way permits, encourages, or compels the behavior in question. This can include situations where a person's preferred  sexual behavior  may not be possible, so rather than refraining from sexual activity completely, they may engage in substitute sexual behaviors.


One example of situation-specific sexual behavior would be a person who self-identifies as heterosexual, but will sexually interact with a member of the same sex when lacking other opportunities, such as  among soldiers ,  among prison inmates ,  among college students , or in similar  single-sex  communities and institutions. [ 1 ] : 48   Likewise, a person who self-identifies as gay or lesbian (either at the time, or later) may sexually interact with a member of the opposite sex if a same-sex relationship seems unfeasible. [ 2 ]


Some people change their sexual behavior depending on the situation or at different points in their life. [ 2 ]  For example, some men and women in a university may engage in bisexual activities, but only in that environment. Experimentation of this sort is more common among adolescents and young adults, both male and female. Some colloquialisms for this trend include " heteroflexible ", [ 3 ]   "BUG" (Bisexual Until Graduation), or " LUG " (Lesbian Until Graduation). [ 4 ]


In prison,  heterosexual -identified  men who have sex with men  view their  homosexual  acts as being "situation specific" and may not consider themselves  bisexual . These men often describe how they imagine being with a woman while taking part in sexual activity with a male inmate. During  masturbation , they picture past sexual experiences with women. [ 5 ]   They take part in  homosexual  activity due to having no “heterosexual outlets”. [ 6 ]


In some cultures, sexual relationships with women were unobtainable for many men, because women were sequestered and strictly forbidden from engaging in extramarital sex. This may have resulted in higher numbers of men, especially unmarried men, engaging in homosexual behavior. Examples of this include  pederasty in ancient Greece  and  bacha bazi  in  Afghanistan . [ 7 ]


Recent Western surveys have found that about 87% of women and 93% of men identify themselves as "completely heterosexual". [ 1 ] : 55   An analysis of 67 studies found that the lifetime prevalence of sex between men (regardless of orientation) was 3-5% for East Asia, 6-12% for South and South East Asia, 6-15% for Eastern Europe, and 6-20% for Latin America. [ 8 ]  The  World Health Organization  estimates a worldwide prevalence of  men who have sex with men  between 3 and 16%. [ 9 ]


Space sexology  has been defined as the "comprehensive scientific study of extraterrestrial intimacy and sexuality". [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It aims to holistically understand intimacy and  sexuality in space , including its risks, and potential benefits for the health and well-being of those who travel beyond our home planet. [ 1 ]


Spokespeople for space organizations, such as NASA, have historically gone on record expressing that they do not study sexuality in space. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  In fact, Bill Jeffs, the spokesperson for NASA's Johnson Space Center, has stated that: "We don't study sexuality in space, and we don't have any studies ongoing with that. If that's [your] specific topic, there's nothing to discuss". [ 4 ]  Some researchers and scientists have argued that decisions made by space organizations are often heavily influenced by the sociocultural norms of their benefactors. [ 1 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  As such, they posit that sexually conservative ideologies may hinder furthering the study of space sexology. [ 1 ]  Given the persistent lack of research on human sexuality and intimacy in space, scientists and researchers have called for studies in this area for decades. [ 1 ] [ 7 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ]


In 1989, Roy Levin wrote the first paper exploring the potential effects of space travel on human sexuality and the human reproductive system, and called attention to the lack of research in this area. [ 14 ]


In 1998, Ray Noonan wrote the first philosophical inquiry on human intimacy and sexuality for extended spaceflights. In his doctoral thesis, Noonan discussed possible sexological challenges faced by astronauts on long-duration missions and related implications for mission success. [ 7 ]  Expanding on his own work, Noonan proposed in 2001 that space agencies should collaborate with scientific communities to form programs to study sex in space. [ 13 ]


In 2005, Shimizu and colleagues echoed this belief, arguing that human sexuality research was crucial in order to successfully envision a future in space. [ 12 ]


In her 2016 book titled "Sex in Space", Laura Woodmansee explored questions relating to interstellar intercourse, from sexual mechanics, to conception, pregnancy, and birth in low gravity situations. [ 11 ]  She further emphasized the need for extraterrestrial sex research. [ 11 ]  That same year,  Alexander Layendecker shed light on the absence of human sex research conducted by the NASA. [ 10 ]  He further advocated for the development of an Astrosexological Research Institute. [ 10 ]  Layendecker raised important questions regarding the possible effects of space conditions (e.g., exposure, radiation, microgravity, etc.) on phenomena such as conception, pregnancy, and child development. [ 10 ]


In 2018, Alexander Layendecker and Shawna Pandya co-wrote "Logistics of Reproduction in Space". [ 9 ]  In it, they present the body of research that has been produced on topics of human sexuality, reproduction and development in space. [ 9 ]  They also explored some of the logistical challenges associated with these topics. [ 9 ]  However, they concluded that the current literature on such topics remains scarce, and that there is not enough data to assert whether conception, gestation, and development can safely (or successfully) occur in space. [ 9 ]


Most recently, in 2021, Dubé and colleagues highlighted the importance of considering space sexology as a scientific field and research program. [ 1 ]  Noting a significant lack of research related to space intimacy and sexuality, their article titled "The Case for Space Sexology" explores the risks and benefits of studying these basic human needs in an extraterrestrial context. [ 1 ]  They posit that the use of a biopsychosocial framework could expedite and improve research among space organizations while contributing to the health and well-being of future space inhabitants. [ 1 ]  Since the publication, the authors have commented on the growth of support among the research community and space sector for the advancement of space sexology. [ 5 ]  For example, Maria Santaguida, co-author of the article, stated in an interview with Mic that: "More and more researchers around the globe and people working in the space sector recognize that addressing human intimate and sexual needs in space is one of the keys to unlocking our long-term expansion into the universe". [ 5 ]


It has been argued that NASA's rigid stance on sexuality in space may be softening. [ 5 ]  When asked to comment on Dubé and colleagues' "The Case for Space Sexology" by a MIC journalist, a NASA representative stated that "Should a future need for more in-depth study on reproductive health in space be identified, NASA would take the appropriate steps." [ 5 ]  In contrast with NASA's historically blunt rejections of proposals regarding sex and space, this response has been interpreted as a signal of change – one which may open the door for future exploration of human sexuality in space. [ 5 ] [ 4 ]


Dubé et al. (2021) proposed that space organizations should embrace the discipline of space sexology to enhance the benefits and mitigate the risks of human sexuality and intimacy in space. [ 1 ]  The researchers described risks associated with the physical and chemical properties of space environments, such as the effects of ionizing radiation and gravitational changes on fertility, conception, pregnancy and fetal/child development. [ 1 ]  Other risks are related to the intimacy and needs of space-travelers, such as the limited privacy on spacecraft, hygienic concerns, long-term isolation and mental health repercussions arising from lack of sexual fulfilment. [ 1 ]   Dubé and colleagues (2021) also expressed concern over the potential sexual violence and harassment as these acts have already occurred in space simulation contexts. [ 1 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ]  This concern was reiterated by Santaguida and colleagues (2022) who argued that it is “time to plan for #MeToo in space.” [ 17 ]  For example,  Judith Lapierre , co-author of the article, experienced sexual harassment on a 110-day experiment on a Mir Space Station replica. [ 16 ] [ 15 ]  Less than a month into the experiment, Lapierre was non-consensually grabbed and kissed by a Russian crew member who oversaw the mission. [ 18 ]  She was also subjected to other forms of sexist behaviors by her male colleagues. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 1 ]  While discussing these events in another publication, Lapierre stated: "It is time, more than ever, to meet the real challenges of space exploration, with honesty, transparency, and by recognizing that Earth's unacceptable behaviors are also Space's unacceptable behaviors for a spacefaring civilization". [ 15 ]


Dubé and colleagues (2021) identified some of the benefits that could accompany studying sex in space. [ 1 ]  Such benefits directly impact the health and well-being of astronauts, an idea supported by an extensive body of research conducted on the positive benefits of sex on both physiological and psychological aspects of human functioning. [ 1 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ]  Physiologically, sex can have a positive impact on stress levels, blood pressure, sleep, immune functioning and cardiovascular health. [ 1 ]  Psychologically, sex is important in maintaining a positive self-esteem and body image, and masturbation (a practical and accessible practice) has been shown to be particularly healthy and important in relieving sexual tension and stress. [ 20 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 1 ]


Despite intimacy and sexuality becoming increasingly recognized as  a fundamental human right , [ citation needed ]  space organizations have historically evaded sex-related research. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Researchers have speculated that these organizations tend to avoid controversies that could result in reduced funding. [ 1 ] [ 9 ]  Dubé et al. (2021) proposed that space organizations should be reminded of the risks of limiting sex and intimacy in space while highlighting the potential benefits of enabling them as a possible solution. [ 1 ]  They argue that organizations are ultimately responsible for the health and well-being of their astronauts and as such, intimate and sexual needs ought not be overlooked. [ 1 ]  To better meet the needs of their space travellers, they state that space organizations may want to adopt a progressive, sex-positive agenda that values sexual rights. [ 1 ]  They suggested that emphasizing the importance of intimacy and sex in space could in turn help investors and the public view this discipline as valuable and necessary. [ 1 ]


Dubé and colleagues (2021) proposed that technological systems and guidelines enabling intimacy and sexuality in the limiting artificial ecosystems of space will need to be created. [ 1 ]  They describe that these systems and guidelines will likely need to be designed to be both safe and hygienic, similar to the already established systems in place for other basic needs such as eating and grooming. [ 1 ]  They also suggest that this challenge can be addressed by space organizations by considering the use of sexual technology adapted for space to meet the intimate needs of their astronauts, such as erotic stimuli, sex toys, and artificial erotic agents (e.g., virtual partners, erotic chatbots, and sex robots). [ 1 ]


Dubé and colleagues (2021) indicate that successfully researching space sexology will likely require cooperation and contributions from both space organizations and their astronauts. [ 1 ]  They acknowledge that this may prove challenging, as conflicting sexual views between administrators and astronauts alike could complicate group cohesion. [ 1 ]  To facilitate an inclusive understanding of the value of extraterrestrial sex and intimacy, Dubé and colleagues (2021) recommend that space organizations invest in training programs that encapsulate the complexity of human intimacy and sexuality. [ 1 ]  Such programs could aim to foster sex-positive ethics among space organizations and their respective personnel. [ 1 ]


A  stripper  or  exotic dancer  is a person whose occupation involves performing  striptease  in a public adult entertainment venue such as a  strip club . At times, a stripper may be hired to perform at private events.


Modern forms of stripping minimize the interaction of strippers with customers, reducing the importance of the  tease  in the performance in favor of speed of undress (the  strip ). [ 1 ]  Not all strippers are comfortable dancing topless or fully nude, [ 2 ]  but in general, full nudity is common where not  prohibited by law . The integration of the  burlesque pole  as a frequently used  prop  has shifted the emphasis in the performance toward a more acrobatic,  explicit  form of expression compared to the slow-developing burlesque style. Most strippers work in strip clubs. A  house dancer  works for a particular club or  franchise , while a  feature dancer  typically has her own  celebrity , touring a club circuit and making appearances. Strippers are often not direct employees of clubs but instead perform as  independent contractors .


Before the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences, usually in strip clubs. At the same time, strippers of all genders were dancing in underground clubs or as part of a theatre experience. Since the 1970s, mainstream stripping has adopted a greater gender diversity and male strippers have become an established form of entertainment for female audiences. Their performances are usually fully choreographed, involving dance routines and costumes. Certain male and female strippers also perform for  LGBT  audiences as well as for all genders in  bisexual  contexts. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  The term "male stripper" has decreased in use in books published in the 21st century. [ 5 ]


Strippers perform striptease for a number of reasons, predominantly to make money. The  physical attractiveness ,  sex appeal  and techniques of the dancer determines the business the stripper tends to generate. In some localities, strippers are required to obtain permits to work in adult entertainment. [ 6 ]  Most of the time dancers have to audition to get the job. [ 7 ]  Once a dancer has secured the job the formal training is minimal, primarily on the job and provided by more senior dancers. Dancers learn a set of rules, such as never leave money unattended; never leave the club with a customer; and never refuse a table dance.


Touching strippers is not permitted in many localities; few dancers and clubs allow touching of dancers during private dances. If permitted, during a lap dance the dancer may dance sitting in the customer's lap, clothed or topless. [ 8 ]  In parts of the US, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which the dancers must cover with  pasties . [ 9 ]  The common practice of hiring strippers as contractors rather than full-time employees often leads to job insecurity, unstable pay and a lack of health benefits. Strippers are also sometimes required to pay fees to the club for renting their stage. Strippers typically use make-up, costume, and perfume to enhance their performance. [ citation needed ]


Strippers most commonly work as providers of live entertainment in strip clubs. House dancers work for a particular club or  franchise , while feature dancers usually have  celebrity  status, touring a club circuit and making live appearances.  Porn stars  often become feature dancers to earn extra income and build their fan base. High-profile adult film performers such as  Jenna Haze  and Teagan Presley have participated in feature shows throughout the US, as did now-retired stars such as  Jenna Jameson . These dancers are not usually direct employees of the club but instead perform as independent contractors for a predetermined house fee. [ 10 ]


Most clubs have a dancer rotation where each dancer in turn will perform for one or more songs in a fixed sequence, which repeats during a shift. More informal clubs will have dancers take turns when a stage becomes empty or have a free flow of entertainers, where they can wander off and on stage at their own will. Feature entertainers have set times for their performance, and are not usually part of the rotation. If a  DJ  is present, they will  emcee  the rotation, advertise the feature entertainers performance and typically announce the current dancer(s) on stage and possibly whom to expect in future sets. [ 11 ]


During each set of one or more songs, the current performer will dance on stage in exchange for tips. Dancers collect  tips  from customers either while on stage or after the dancer has finished a stage show and is mingling with the audience. A customary tip (where customers can do so at the stage) is a dollar  bill  folded lengthwise and placed in the dancer's  garter  from the  tip rail . Other common tip methods are to insert the dollar into the stripper's cleavage from the hand or mouth, or to simply place it or toss it onto the stage. Tipping during a stage performance is prohibited by some clubs due to restrictions in local ordinance or past incidents on the premises. Each club and dancer will have individual tolerance levels for customer interaction including tipping. Some clubs will have multiple stages on the premises that dancers will move between, but typically the dancer would collect for her time on the main stage during a rotation. Tips can also be collected during private dances. [ 12 ]


Where legal (or legal restrictions are ignored), dancers may offer additional services such as lap dances or a trip to the champagne room for a set fee rather than a tip. This fee will typically include a set fee for the room, for a set amount of time. Private dances in the main club areas most often take the form of  table dances ,  lap and couch dances , and bed dances among others. An  air dance  is a particular form of private dance where little to no contact between the dancer and customer occurs. This class of dance spans the different categories above, and some dancers can perform air dances when more contact-heavy forms of dance were expected and paid for. [ citation needed ]


Table dances are distinguished from other forms of dances in that they can be performed where the customer is seated on the main floor. Table dances also refer to a form of minimal touch private dance where the performer is physically located on a small table in front of the customer(s). Table dances should not be confused with table stages, where the stripper is at or above eye level on a platform surrounded by chairs and usually enough table surface for customers to place drinks and tip money. These stages are configured for close viewing of the striptease and are known for dancers lowering themselves from the stage onto customers during their set. [ citation needed ]


Lap dances can be (and are) performed in all manner of seating, ranging from plain stools and kitchen-grade chairs to plush leather armchairs. They can also be performed with the customer standing in these designated areas. A service provided by many clubs is for a customer to be placed on stage with one or more dancers for a public lap dance. Occasions for this type of performance are  bachelor parties  and birthdays in the club among others. Bed dances are designed for the customer to be lying down with the entertainer(s) positioned on top of them. Bed dances are the least common of the three, and in many clubs, these are a more expensive option than a lap dance because of the novelty and increased level of contact between customer and service provider. [ citation needed ]


A  champagne room  (also called a  champagne lounge  or  champagne court ) is a specialized VIP Room service offered by gentleman's clubs where a customer can purchase time (usually in half-hour increments) with an exotic dancer in a private room on the premises. Depending on the quality of the club, the room, which is away from the hustle and bustle of the main club, is well decorated and usually has its own bar. Clubs sell  champagne  by the glass or by the bottle for both the dancer and the customer. [ citation needed ]


Strippers can be contracted for performances outside the strip club environment. Some strippers will only strip for private engagements and do not have a regular affiliation with a strip club. [ citation needed ]


Adult industry trade shows often have strippers working, though many of them are affiliated with individual companies and not necessarily  freelancers . There are also exhibitions, festivals, and competitions where independent strippers perform.  Nudes-A-Poppin'  was a popular festival scheduled annually which features both female and male dancers competing in erotic dance. [ citation needed ]


A  bachelor party  may involve activities beyond the usual party and social-gathering ingredients, such as going to a strip club or hiring a stripper to perform in a private setting like a home or hotel. In some traditions, there are  hazing -like tests and pranks at the future groom's expense. These pranks can involve a stripper if the entertainer is willing. Some women also participate in a similar party to be held for the bride-to-be. This is known as a  bachelorette party  or Hen party. [ citation needed ]


Private parties are popular events for which to hire strippers. There are many  entertainment  businesses that have strippers contracted for private performances. Some of these companies have a national presence, with strippers contracted in multiple states and some who work regionally over a multi-state area. Strippers will also do side work and handle their own  agreements  and  payment  arrangements. Written agreements are atypical in this type of transaction unless a formal, registered business is involved. They could also travel over significant (i.e. flight required) distances for private events and appointments, most of the time passing the cost of travel and  accommodations  onto the customer. Patrons at the clubs in which the strippers work are a primary source of  customers  for their work outside the club. Much like activities inside the club, different dancers have different comfort levels for services they will provide during a private party. [ citation needed ]


While working, a stripper is not necessarily required to remove all of their clothing. Regardless of size, name, or location in the world, strip clubs can be full nude, topless or bikini. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]  For any type of strip club there are exceptions based on the individual dancer and management, and clubs are classified based on typical performances, zoning, and advertised services. [ citation needed ]


During a performance, both the breasts and the genitals typically remain covered by revealing clothes, while dancers provide services and entertainment. A female stripper whose  upper body  is exposed, but whose genitals remain covered during a performance, is said to be  topless . Strippers who uncover the genital areas while removing the rest of their clothing during a performance are said to be dancing fully nude. The fully nude practice is banned in many jurisdictions, [ 14 ]  but many dancers work around these  constraints  by selective uncovering of the  vulva ,  anus , or both, for short periods of time, followed by immediate replacement of the clothing. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]


In many clubs, entertainers will walk the floor in their revealing clothing. When a stripper performs personal services (such as lap or  bed dances ) they come into contact with a customer, and are required to remain in their revealing clothing in more restrictive club environments. Private dances in particular are scrutinized to ensure that no club policies or  local ordinances  are being  violated  during the performance. The additional clothing also acts as a deterrent to prevent a customer from exceeding the  boundaries  set by a particular dancer. On 19 June 1964,  Carol Doda  began  go-go dancing   topless  at the  Condor Club  on Broadway and Columbus in the  North Beach  neighborhood of San Francisco. [ 17 ]  She became the world's most famous go-go dancer, and a prototype for the modern stripper, while dancing at the Condor for 22 years. [ 18 ]


Women are at times employed in adult-only venues to perform or pose topless in forms of commercial erotic entertainment. Such venues can range from  downmarket  strip clubs to upmarket  cabarets , such as the  Moulin Rouge . Topless entertainment may also include competitions such as  wet T-shirt contests  in which women display their breasts through translucent wet fabric—and may end up removing their T-shirts before the audience. Strippers can engage in these alternate topless activities at sanctioned times inside the club or as independent contractors at outside venues. Not all strippers are comfortable dancing  topless . In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to profit. [ citation needed ]


Even the dancers that will go topless have been known to stay covered during a dance during slow periods in the club with few customers. This is particularly true if the customers do not appear to be engaged or actively tipping because they are not being  compensated  for their time on stage. The practice of topless dancing is banned in many jurisdictions, but strippers have been known to work around the constraints by selectively uncovering her breasts "peek-a-boo" style for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a  male dancer , a  bare chest  is not considered in the same light and does not face the same  legal   restrictions . During a show where customer tipping is permitted, most strip clubs limit contact with a dancer's breasts to one way—from dancer to customer. Many clubs do not allow any breast contact, and some go so far as to place markers on stage that a dancer is not permitted to cross while nude. This physical separation enforces  compliance  with the no-touch policy. [ citation needed ]


Strippers are banned from dancing  fully nude  in many jurisdictions, but many dancers will work around the regulations by selectively uncovering their  vulva ,  anus , or both for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a male dancer, exposing the  penis  or anus is equivalent. [ citation needed ]


Not all strippers are comfortable dancing fully nude. If viewed as a continuum, fewer dancers will dance topless than go-go and fewer still would dance fully nude. It has been reported when in direct competition with more conservative offerings, fully nude formats are seen by customers as a superior enough substitute for them to switch clubs. [ 19 ]  In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to  profit . Still, strippers have been known to dance only at topless clubs because of their desire not to strip completely nude. [ 20 ]  Some clubs permit both nude stage dancing and fully nude lap dances. Where nude private dances are allowed with contact, some dancers choose to place some type of barrier (cloth or occasionally plastic) over the customer's lap as a precautionary measure. [ citation needed ]


Strippers are focused on making money from customers. Strippers are employed as independent contractors and expected to generate income themselves making the profession similar to a sales job. How dancers go about maximizing revenue varies. For customers they do not already know, dancers use factors such as clothing, shoes, age, and race to determine whom they wish to interact with. Dancers are the primary enablers to encourage potential patrons to spend time in strip clubs. The dancers continually interact with the customers in the club by walking around and attempting to solicit drinks and lap dances, usually scanning the floor of a club to find the most lucrative customer to target. [ 21 ]


While clubs can generate revenue through means such as cover charges and drink fees, dancers make most of their profit from giving lap dances or VIP dances where regulations allow. Otherwise, customer tips to dancers from a stage set are their primary form of payment per shift. The dancer qualifies a customer by sizing up their appearance and personal characteristics. Once the dancer identifies her mark, she approaches and attempts to create social relationship with her customer using tactical interactions and manipulations. Alternatively, customers can make the first move and engage the dancer directly. Strippers appeal to  masculine  desires, but they can adapt to fit the needs of female patrons to view them as customers. Adapting the experience to the  customer  is an integral part of exotic dancing. [ 21 ]


In the 21st century, as adult themes and work are becoming more commonplace, more of the population is attracted to this type of work. [ 22 ]  For example, a  University of Leeds  study, published by the  British Journal of Sociology of Education , revealed that as many as one third of "strip club dancers are students, with many using the cash earned to support themselves throughout their studies" and likely to come from  middle class  backgrounds. [ 23 ]  The study also stated that "students were now a 'core supply group into the sex industries', with clubs even targeting  freshers' week  events with recruitment leaflets." [ 23 ]  This is supported by a 2014 story in the  New York Daily News  regarding San Francisco strip clubs taking out recruitment ads in the university newspaper for the  University of California at Berkeley ,  The Daily Californian . [ 24 ]  One distinction made is that many view working as a strip club dancer as a short-term means to address financial needs, while others view it as a profession and go on to other types of  sex work  such as performing in  adult films . [ 23 ]


Until the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences. Male and female strippers also perform for all types of adult audiences.


The modern male stripper show usually involves  full nudity , although sometimes they may retain underwear, especially g-strings, bikini briefs or thongs throughout the show, or only remove all clothing for a brief time. Performances are usually fully choreographed, involve dance routines and a costume of some sort. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  Prominent male strip groups include the  Dreamboys  in the UK &  Chippendales  in the US. [ citation needed ]


A male stripper will likely perform at club, bar, workplace or private home with private advanced bookings or ladies nights being prevalent over strip clubs which is the norm for female strippers. [ 25 ]  This is different from the  Chippendales  scene that emerged to prominence in the 1980s with today's norm being one sole performer, or a series of individual performers rather than a group of strippers. [ 26 ]


The social psychologist Richard Tewksbury says that male strippers 'masculinise' the role; thus are not disempowered in the way that, he asserts, female strippers are. [ 27 ]


Ethnographic  research has observed that strippers, regardless of  sexual orientation , have a tendency to treat female customers differently than males. Because of the non-physical motivations ascribed to female intimacy, dancers select women to approach who are smiling and sitting comfortably with open body language such as uncrossed arms, actively participating with the crowd, laughing and engaging with fellow customers, and applauding for dancers at the main stage also increase the likelihood they will be approached. Dancers tend to avoid women with unfriendly facial expressions or visibly hostile body language, again regardless of sexual orientation. In order to become approached, men must indicate financial potential through their appearance. Women must demonstrate their good attitude and willingness to participate in club activities. At that point, a woman's perceived profitability is also a factor in a dancer's decision to approach a female patron. The presence of male companionship has been cited in research as an indicator used by dancers to gauge the profitability of a female once she is perceived to be a customer. [ 21 ]


The image of strippers has evolved through the late  1960s and 1970s  in the U.S. and international cultures which embraced Americanized striptease. By the 1980s pole dancing had become popular in America, and the highly sexual imagery associated with the period's performers was widely accepted and frequently portrayed in film, television, and theater. [ citation needed ]


In addition to lesser-known videos, the 1980s also featured mainstream films involving strippers and their work as part of the central narrative. These included  Flashdance  (1983), which told the story of blue-collar worker Alexandra "Alex" Owens ( Jennifer Beals ), who works as an exotic dancer in a  Pittsburgh  bar at night and at a steel mill as a welder during the day.  Blaze  (1989) features  Lolita Davidovitch  as notorious stripper  Blaze Starr . Starr herself appears in the film in a cameo role.  Exotica  (1994), directed by  Atom Egoyan , is set in a Canadian lap-dance club, and portrays a man's ( Bruce Greenwood ) obsession with a schoolgirl stripper named Christina ( Mia Kirshner ).  Showgirls  (1995) was directed by  Paul Verhoeven  and starred  Elizabeth Berkley  and  Gina Gershon .  Striptease  (1996), was an adaptation of the novel starring  Demi Moore .  The Players Club  (1998) starred  LisaRaye McCoy  as a girl who becomes a stripper to earn enough money to enter college and study journalism. [ citation needed ]


In  Jekyll and Hyde  (1997), the character of Lucy Harris (originally portrayed by  Linda Eder ) works as a prostitute and stripper in a small London club called The Red Rat, where she meets a multi-dimension man named Doctor Henry Jekyll, who turns into his evil persona Mr. Edward Hyde. Lucy performs the song "Bring on the Men" during a show at The Red Rat (which was later replaced with "Good 'n' Evil" in the Broadway production, some claiming "Bring on the Men" was too "risqué"). In  Neighbours  (1985), the character of  Daphne  is originally a stripper at Des's bucks party, and eventually goes on to marry him.  Married... with Children  (1987–97) often featured  Al Bundy ,  Jefferson D'Arcy , and the NO MA'AM crew spending a night at the Nudie Bar. In  The Sopranos  (1999–2007) business was often conducted at the  Bada Bing  strip club. [ citation needed ]


Dancing at the Blue Iguana  (2000) is a feature film starring  Sandra Oh  and  Daryl Hannah . The female cast of the film researched the film by dancing at strip clubs and created their parts and their storylines to be as realistic as possible.  Stripsearch  (2001–), an ongoing Australian  reality television  show which centers around the training of male strippers.  The Hot Chick  (2002) stars  Rachel McAdams , in her film debut, as a high school cheerleader who, after switching bodies with a small time criminal ( Rob Schneider ), starts working at a strip club called Pole Cat.  The Raymond Revuebar: The Art of Striptease  (2002) is a documentary, directed by Simon Weitzman.  Los Debutantes  (2003) is a  Chilean  film set in a strip club in  Santiago . In  Closer  (2004),  Natalie Portman  plays Alice Ayres aka Jane Jones, a young American stripper who arrives in London, England. Portman won the  Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture  for her performance.  Rob Zombie 's 2007  Halloween  remake features  Michael Myers ' mother Deborah (played by Zombie's wife  Sheri Moon Zombie ), dancing to " Love Hurts " by  Nazareth . [ citation needed ]


I Know Who Killed Me  (2007) stars  Lindsay Lohan  as Dakota Moss, an alluring stripper involved in the machinations of a serial killer, and features a long striptease sequence at a strip club. [ 28 ]  In  Planet Terror  (2007),  Rose McGowan  plays go-go dancer Cherry Darling who, after having her leg eaten by a zombie, uses an assault rifle as a prosthetic leg. [ 29 ] [ 30 ]  In the two-part season 6 finale of  Degrassi: The Next Generation ,  Alex Nunez  resorts to stripping after she and her mother do not have enough money to pay the rent on their apartment.  Darren Aronofsky 's 2008 drama film  The Wrestler  features  Marisa Tomei  playing a stripper and single mother who is romantically pursued by professional wrestler Randy "The Ram" Robinson ( Mickey Rourke ). Tomei received a nomination for the  Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress  for her performance.  Zombie Strippers  (2008) chronicles a zombie virus that makes its way to a strip club.  Barely Phyllis  is a play on  Phyllis Dixey  which was first staged at the Pomegranate Theatre,  Chesterfield  in 2009.  The Hangover  (2009) features  Heather Graham  as a  Las Vegas  stripper and  escort  who marries Stu ( Ed Helms ) despite his plan to propose to his controlling girlfriend ( Rachael Harris ). [ 31 ]  She reprised her role in the sequel  The Hangover III . [ 32 ]


The seventh episode of season 6 of the  CBS  crime drama  Criminal Minds  focuses on the BAU team tracking down a trio of young men, one of whom is revealed to be the son of the sheriff leading the investigation, who kidnap, rape, and murder several exotic dancers in  Indiana . The 2012 film  Magic Mike  and 2015 sequel  Magic Mike XXL  are fictionalized stories of the lives of several male performers. [ citation needed ]  In  We're the Millers  (2013),  Jennifer Aniston  plays a stripper who is hired by her drug dealer neighbor to pose as his wife in order to smuggle marijuana from Mexico into America. [ 33 ]   Lap Dance  (2014), which stars  Briana Evigan  and  Carmen Electra , focuses on an aspiring actress who makes a pact with her husband to take a job as an exotic dancer so she can make money to care for her cancer-stricken father. It is based on the true story of the film's director Greg Carter.  Dixieland  (2015) involves  Riley Keough  as a stripper making money to support her sick mother and is also being abused by her manager. [ 34 ] [ 35 ]  In the TV series  La que se avecina , Lola Reynolds (played by  Macarena Gómez ), changes her job and works as a stripper after know she will earn more money. [ 36 ]


Strippers have been the inspiration for a number of musical artists, with several of the songs resulting in hit singles. An instrumental, " The Stripper ", was a  No. 1 hit  on the U.S. pop singles charts for  David Rose and His Orchestra  in 1962. That song pre-dated the opening of what is considered to be the first modern strip club,  Condor Club  on  Broadway  in the U.S. city of San Francisco,  California . " Private Dancer " by  Tina Turner  was an international hit and her second highest-charting single reaching No. 7 on the U.S.  Billboard  Hot 100  chart. " Girls, Girls, Girls " by  Mötley Crüe  was also a Top 20 hit on the U.S. charts. [ citation needed ]


T-Pain  had a No. 5 hit on the Billboard chats with " I'm 'n Luv (Wit a Stripper) " in 2006. Hip hop artist  Flo Rida  had two No. 1 hits in the U.S. in the 2000s with " Right Round " and " Low ". For both hip-hop artists, the depictions of strippers and expressions of lust are far more explicit than in songs released in earlier music eras. This is not limited to hip-hop, with contemporary songs in other styles of music sharing similar traits. "Worked Up So Sexual" by  The Faint  is graphic in its depiction of dancer rivalry ( older dancers gag at what new talent seems to mean, smaller tits and younger limbs ) and customers longing to bed them. Public acceptance of the music has not faltered, and many dancers perform to these and other songs depicting women in subjectively negative ways while on stage. [ citation needed ]


Achille Lauro  represented  San Marino  in the  Eurovision Song Contest 2022  with the song " Stripper ". [ citation needed ]


Duke Nukem 3D , released in 1996, became the original pioneer video game for the inclusion of strippers. [ 37 ]  The  Grand Theft Auto  series has strippers and strip clubs in many of its games, starting with  Grand Theft Auto: Vice City  (2002). [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ]


Many U.S. jurisdictions have specific laws on the books related to striptease, with more being added increasing both complexity of enforcement and impact. For example, the classification of dancers as independent contractors has been challenged in court, successfully in Massachusetts in 2009. [ 44 ]  One of the more notorious local ordinances is San Diego Municipal Code 33.3610, [ 45 ]  specific and strict in response to allegations of corruption among local officials [ 46 ]  which included contacts in the nude entertainment industry. Among its provisions is the "six foot rule", copied by other municipalities in requiring that dancers maintain a six-foot distance while performing. [ citation needed ]


There are a limited amount of dancers and clubs that condone touching of dancers during private dances, and it is illegal in many U.S. states. In some locales, dancers may give a customer a "lap dance", whereby the dancer grinds against the customer's crotch while they are fully clothed. Other rules forbid "full nudity". In some parts of the US, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which have thus to be covered by pasties by the dancer (though not applied to the exposure of male nipples). In early 2010, the U.S. city of Detroit, Michigan banned fully exposed breasts in its strip clubs, following the example of Houston, Texas who began enforcing a similar ordinance in 2008. [ 9 ]  The Detroit city council has since softened the rules eliminating the requirement for pasties [ 47 ]  but kept other restrictions. Both municipalities were reputed to have rampant occurrences of illicit activity including prostitution linked to its striptease establishments [ 48 ] [ 49 ]  within their city limits.


In 1930 the  Windmill Theatre , opened in London, and began to present nude shows, British law prohibited performers moving whilst in a state of nudity. [ 50 ]  To get around that rule, models appeared naked in stationary  tableaux vivants . To keep within the law, sometimes devices were used which rotated the models without them moving themselves.  Fan dances  were another device used to keep performances within the law. These allowed a naked dancer's body to be concealed by her fans or those of her attendants, until the end of an act, when she posed naked for a brief interval whilst standing stock still, and the lights went out or the curtain dropped to allow her to leave the stage. [ citation needed ]


In 2010, Iceland outlawed  striptease . [ 51 ]   Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir , Iceland's prime minister, said: "The Nordic countries are leading the way on women's equality, recognizing women as equal citizens rather than commodities for sale." [ 52 ]  The politician behind the bill,  Kolbrún Halldórsdóttir , said: "It is not acceptable that women or people in general are a product to be sold." [ 52 ]


As the sex industry has grown and become a more established sector of national economies, sex workers—strippers included—have mobilized to negotiate or demand  workplace rights . One means of collectivization pursued by strippers is the formation of labor unions, which involves formal membership. These strippers' unions have tended to focus on economic and workers' rights rather than civil rights, which constitutes a significant departure from the advocacy groups for prostitutes' rights that began in the 1970s and 1980s. [ 53 ]  The stigma attached to sex work also creates another obstacle to organization because many strippers and other types of sex workers are uncomfortable with declaring their profession publicly, even in a movement to improve their work environment and benefits. [ 54 ]


One potential critique of the organization of strippers and sex workers of other types is that people in management positions in these industries, who are in a position to perpetuate the exploitation that sex workers face, can infiltrate these labor organizations and lobby for the maintenance of a status quo. [ 55 ]


The Striptease Artists of Australia formed in 2002. The SAA successfully negotiated an  industrial award  with the  AIRC  in 2006. Despite this establishment of an industry-wide minimum standard for labor rights, changes to employment legislature under a Conservative government enabled employers to utilize loopholes such as employing strippers as sub-contractors. [ citation needed ]


Another group, the  Scarlet Alliance , has been involved in advocacy and projects geared towards improving the standing of sex workers since its inception in 1989. While labor rights are an important part of this group's agenda, it is not a labor union. [ 53 ]


The  International Union of Sex Workers  is a branch of the  GMB , a major  general union  in Great Britain. [ 53 ]


In the 1980s, the Vancouver Exotic Dancers Alliance formed and was active for about a decade. [ 54 ]  The Canadian Guild for Erotic Labour was established in 2004. [ citation needed ]


The  Lusty Lady  of San Francisco is a notable example of collectivization of strippers in the U.S. When the strippers of the establishment successfully unionized in 1996 through the Erotic Dancers' Alliance, the owners of the club closed it. In response, the strippers formed a  cooperative  in 2003 to run the club themselves, renamed the Looking Glass Collective. [ 53 ]  The Lusty Lady closed in 2013. [ 56 ]


In 2023, strippers at the Star Garden Topless Dive Bar in  North Hollywood, California  voted to unionize and join the  Actors' Equity Association , which made them the only group of unionized strippers in the United States. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ]


In  psychology ,  sublimation  is a  mature type  of  defense mechanism , in which socially unacceptable  impulses  or  idealizations  are transformed into  socially acceptable  actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.


Sigmund Freud  believed that sublimation was a sign of  maturity  and  civilization , allowing people to function normally in culturally acceptable ways. He defined sublimation as the process of deflecting  sexual instincts  into acts of higher social valuation, being "an especially conspicuous feature of cultural development; it is what makes it possible for higher psychical activities, scientific, artistic or ideological, to play such an 'important' part in civilized life." [ 1 ]


Psychology textbooks present a similar view, stating that sublimation is "translating a distressing desire into an acceptable form." [ 2 ]  It occurs when  displacement  involves "the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into culturally acceptable, even admirable, behaviors," [ 3 ]  and "serves a higher cultural or socially useful purpose, as in the creation of  art  or  inventions " [ 4 ]


In the opening section of  Human, All Too Human  entitled "Of first and last things",  Friedrich Nietzsche  wrote: [ 5 ]


There is, strictly speaking, neither unselfish conduct, nor a wholly disinterested point of view. Both are simply sublimations in which the basic element seems almost evaporated and betrays its presence only to the keenest observation. All that we need and that could possibly be given us in the present state of development of the sciences, is a chemistry of the moral, religious, aesthetic conceptions and feeling, as well as of those emotions which we experience in the affairs, great and small, of society and civilization, and which we are sensible of even in solitude. But what if this chemistry established the fact that, even in its domain, the most magnificent results were attained with the basest and most despised ingredients? Would many feel disposed to continue such investigations? Mankind loves to put by the questions of its origin and beginning: must one not be almost inhuman in order to follow the opposite course? [ 6 ]


In Freud's  psychoanalytical theory , erotic energy is allowed a limited amount of expression, owing to the constraints of human society and civilization itself. It therefore requires other outlets, especially if an individual is to remain psychologically balanced. The  ego  must act as a mediator between the moral norms of the  super-ego , the realistic expectations of reality, and the drives and impulses of the  id . One method by which the ego lessens the stress that unacceptably strong urges or emotions can cause is through sublimation. [ 7 ]


Sublimation ( German :  Sublimierung ) is the process of transforming  libido  into "socially useful" achievements, including artistic, cultural, and intellectual pursuits. Freud considered this psychical operation to be fairly salutary compared to the others that he identified, such as  repression ,  displacement ,  denial ,  reaction formation ,  intellectualisation , and  projection . In  The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence  (1936), his daughter,  Anna , classed sublimation as one of the major 'defence mechanisms' of the psyche. [ 8 ]


Freud developed his idea of sublimation while reading  The Harz Journey  by  Heinrich Heine . The story is about  Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach , who cut off the tails of dogs he encountered in childhood and later became a surgeon. Freud concluded that sublimation could be a conflict between the need for satisfaction and the need for security without perturbation of awareness. In an action performed many times throughout one's life, which firstly appears sadistic, thought is ultimately refined into an activity which is of benefit to mankind. [ 9 ]


Sexual sublimation was, according to Freud, a  deflection  of sexual instincts into non-sexual activity, based upon a principle akin to the  conservation of energy  in  physics . [ 10 ]  There is a finite amount of activity, and it is converted, in a mechanistic fashion like a mechanical engine, from sexual activity to non-sexual. [ 10 ]  One such example is the case of Wolf Man, a case in which a young boy's sexual attraction to his father was redirected toward  Christianity  and eventually led the boy to obsessional  neurosis  in the form of uncontrollable sacrilegious reverence. [ 11 ]  Freud travelled to Clark University to speak about instances of sexual sublimation, but he was not wholly convinced of his own theories. [ 12 ]  20th century psychological thought by the likes of  Melanie Klein  has largely relegated the idea and replaced it with subtler ideas. [ 13 ]  One such idea is that the sexual desires are not made totally non-sexual, but rather transformed into a more appropriate desire. [ 14 ]


The concept is superficially evident, and anecdotal examples abound across time, occupation, and culture of origin (e.g.  Renoir  "painting with his cock",  Wayland Young  stating that "love's loss is empire's gain",  Lawrence Stone 's view that Western civilization has achieved so much because of sublimation, and the claims by biographers of many people from Higgins on  Rider Haggard  to Sinclair on  George Grey [ 13 ] ). Sexual sublimation is, however, ill-defined [ 13 ]  and comes with the caveats that it rarely happens in practice, that many outcomes attributed to it are actually the results of other motivations, and that it is most definitely not some quasi-physical transfer of some sort of "sexual energy" in the modern psychoanalytical view but rather an internal thought process. [ 13 ]


C. G. Jung  argued that Freud's opinion:


...can only be based on the totally erroneous supposition that the unconscious is a monster. It is a view that springs from fear of nature and the realities of life. Freud invented the idea of sublimation to save us from the imaginary claws of the unconscious. But what is real, what actually exists, cannot be alchemically sublimated, and if anything is apparently sublimated it never was what a false interpretation took it to be. [ 15 ]


In the same article, Jung went on to suggest that unconscious processes became dangerous only to the extent that people repress them. The more people come to assimilate and recognize the unconscious, the less of a danger it becomes. In this view sublimation requires not repression of drives through will, but acknowledgement of the creativity of unconscious processes and a learning of how to work with them.


This differs fundamentally from Freud's view of the concept. For Freud, sublimation helped explain the plasticity of the sexual instincts (and their convertibility to non-sexual ends) - see  libido . The concept also underpinned Freud's psychoanalytical theories, which showed the human psyche at the mercy of conflicting impulses (such as the  super-ego  and the  id ). In his private letters, Jung criticized Freud for obscuring the  alchemical  origins of sublimation and for attempting instead to make the concept appear scientifically credible:


Sublimation is part of the royal art where the true  gold  is made. Of this Freud knows nothing; worse still, he barricades all the paths that could lead to true sublimation. This is just about the opposite of what Freud understands by sublimation. It is not a voluntary and forcible channeling of instinct into a spurious field of application, but an alchymical transformation for which fire and prima materia are needed. Sublimation is a great mystery. Freud has appropriated this concept and usurped it for the sphere of the will and the bourgeois, rationalistic ethos. [ 16 ]


The French psychoanalyst  Jacques Lacan 's exposition of sublimation is framed within a discussion about the relationship of psychoanalysis and ethics within the seventh book of his seminars. [ 17 ]  Lacanian sublimation is defined with reference to the concept  Das Ding  (later in his career Lacan termed this  objet petit a );  Das Ding  is German for "the thing" though Lacan conceives it as an abstract notion and one of the defining characteristics of the human condition. Broadly speaking it is the vacuum one experiences as a human being and which one endeavours to fill with differing human relationships, objects and experiences, all of which are used to plug a gap in one's psychical needs. Unfortunately, all attempts to overcome the vacuity of  Das Ding  are insufficient in wholly satisfying the individual. For this reason, Lacan also considers  Das Ding  to be a non-Thing or vacuole. [ 18 ]


Lacan considers  Das Ding  a lost object ever in the process of being recuperated by Man. Temporarily the individual will be duped by his or her own psyche into believing that this object, this person or this circumstance can be relied upon to satisfy his needs in a stable and enduring manner when in fact it is in its nature that the object as such is lost—and will never be found again. Something is there while one waits for something better, or worse, but which one wants, [ 19 ]  and again  Das Ding  "is to be found at most as something missed. One doesn't find it, but only its pleasurable associations." [ 19 ]  Human life unravels as a series of detours in the quest for the lost object or the absolute Other of the individual: "The pleasure principle governs the search for the object and imposes detours which maintain the distance to  Das Ding  in relation to its end." [ 20 ]


Lacanian sublimation centres to a large part on the notion of  Das Ding . His general formula for sublimation is that "it raises an object ... to the dignity of The Thing." [ 21 ]  Lacan considers these objects (whether human, aesthetic, credal, or philosophical) to be signifiers which are representative of  Das Ding  and that "the function of the pleasure principle is, in effect, to lead the subject from signifier to signifier, by generating as many signifiers as are required to maintain at as low a level as possible the tension that regulates the whole functioning of the psychic apparatus." [ 22 ]  Furthermore, man is the "artisan of his support system", [ 22 ]  in other words, he creates or finds the signifiers which delude him into believing he has overcome the emptiness of  Das Ding .


Lacan also considers sublimation to be a process of creation  ex nihilo  (creating out of nothing), [ 23 ]  whereby an object, human or manufactured, comes to be defined in relation to the emptiness of  Das Ding . Lacan's prime example of this is the courtly love of the troubadours and  Minnesänger [ 21 ]  who dedicated their poetic verse to a love-object which was not only unreachable (and therefore experienced as something missing) but whose existence and desirability also centered around a hole (the vagina). [ 24 ]  For Lacan such courtly love was "a paradigm of sublimation." [ 25 ]  He affirms that the word 'troubadour' is etymologically linked to the  Provençal  verb  trobar  (like the French  trouver ), "to find". [ 26 ]  If we consider again the definition of  Das Ding , it is dependent precisely on the expectation of the subject to re-find the lost object in the mistaken belief that it will continue to satisfy him (or her).


Lacan maintains that creation  ex nihilo  operates in other noteworthy fields as well. In pottery for example vases are created around an empty space. [ 27 ]  They are primitive and even primordial artifacts which have benefited mankind not only in the capacity of utensils but also as metaphors of (cosmic) creation  ex nihilo . Lacan cites Heidegger who situates the vase between the earthly (raising clay from the ground) and the ethereal (pointing upwards to receive). [ 28 ]  In architecture, Lacan asserts, buildings are designed around an empty space and in art paintings proceed from an empty canvas, [ 29 ]  and often depict empty spaces through perspective.


In myth,  Pan  pursues the nymph  Syrinx  who is transformed into hollow reeds in order to avoid the clutches of the god, who subsequently cuts the reeds down in anger and transforms them into what we today call panpipes (both reeds and panpipes rely on their hollowness for the production of sound). [ 24 ]


Lacan briefly remarks that religion and science are also based around emptiness. In regard to religion, Lacan refers the reader to Freud, stating that much obsessional religious behavior can be attributed to the avoidance of the primordial emptiness of  Das Ding  or in the respecting of it. [ 29 ]  As for the discourse of science this is based on the notion of  Verwerfung [ 30 ]  (the German word for "dismissal") which results in the dismissing, foreclosing or exclusion of the notion of  Das Ding  presumably because it defies empirical categorisation.


A study by Kim, Zeppenfeld, and Cohen studied sublimation by empirical methods. [ 31 ]
These investigators view their research, published 2013 in the  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , as providing "possibly the first experimental evidence for sublimation and [suggesting] a cultural psychological approach to defense mechanisms." [ 31 ] : 639


In the ethics tractate known as  Pirkei Avot  (4:1), the Jewish scholar  Shimon ben Zoma  writes that true strength is found in the sublimation of evil inclinations into self-control, and true richness is found in the sublimation of desire for more into gratitude for what is already possessed. [ 32 ]


As espoused in its foundational text, [ 33 ]  the  Tanya , the  Chabad  Lubavitcher sect of  Judaism  views sublimation of the animal soul as an essential task in life, wherein the goal is to transform animalistic and earthy cravings for physical pleasure into holy desires to connect with God. [ 34 ]


Several scholars propose that Freud's Jewish background was central to his development of psychoanalytic theory.  [ 35 ]   [ 36 ] [ 37 ]


Different schools of thought describe general sexual urges as carriers of spiritual essence, and have the varied names of vital energy, vital winds ( prana ), spiritual energy,  ojas ,  shakti ,  tummo , or  kundalini . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ]


In  Tantric sex , sexual energies and practices may be considered spiritual offerings. These sexual energies (eros) serve as substitution for sacrifices to deities (thanatos) [ 41 ]


Tantric sex  or  sexual yoga  refers to a range of practices in  Hindu  and  Buddhist tantra  that utilize  sexual activity  in a  ritual  or  yogic  context. Tantric sex is associated with  antinomian  elements such as the consumption of alcohol, and the offerings of substances like meat to  deities . Moreover, sexual fluids may be viewed as power substances and used for ritual purposes, either externally or internally. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


The actual terms used in the classical texts to refer to this practice include " Karmamudra " ( Tibetan : ལས་ཀྱི་ཕྱག་རྒྱ  las kyi phyag rgya , "action seal") in Buddhist tantras and " Maithuna " ( Devanagari : मैथुन, "coupling") in Hindu sources. In Hindu Tantra, Maithuna is the most important of  the five makara  (five tantric substances) and constitutes the main part of the Grand Ritual of  Tantra  variously known as  Panchamakara ,  Panchatattva , and Tattva Chakra. In  Tibetan Buddhism , karmamudra is often an important part of the  completion stage of tantric practice .


While there may be some connection between these practices and the  Kāmashāstra  literature (which include the  Kāmasūtra ), the two practice traditions are separate methods with separate goals. As the British Indologist  Geoffrey Samuel  notes, while the kāmasāstra literature is about the pursuit of sexual pleasure ( kāmā ), sexual yoga practices are often aimed towards the quest for liberation ( moksha ). [ 3 ]


In its earliest forms, Tantric intercourse was usually directed to generate sexual fluids that constituted the "preferred offering of the Tantric deities." [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  While there is already a mention of ascetics practicing it in the 4th century CE  Mahabharata , those techniques were rare until late Buddhist Tantra. Up to that point, sexual emission was both allowed and emphasized. [ 4 ]  Around the start of the first millennium, Tantra began to include practices of semen retention, like the  penance ceremony  of  asidharavrata  and the posterior  yogic  technique of  vajroli mudra . They were probably adopted from ancient, non-Tantric celibate schools, like those mentioned in  Mahabharata . [ 4 ]


The  Brhadaranyaka Upanisad  contains various sexual rituals and practices which are mostly aimed at obtaining a child which are concerned with the loss of male virility and power. [ 6 ]  One passage from the  Brhadaranyaka Upanishad  states:


Her vulva is the sacrificial ground; her pubic hair is the sacred grass; her labia majora are the Soma-press; and her labia minora are the fire blazing at the centre. A man who engages in sexual intercourse with this knowledge obtains as great a world as a man who performs a Soma sacrifice, and he appropriates to himself the merits of the women with whom he has sex. The women, on the other hand, appropriate to themselves the merits of a man who engages in sexual intercourse with them without this knowledge. ( Brhadaranyaka Upanishad  6.4.3, trans. Olivelle 1998: 88) [ 7 ]


According to Samuel, late Vedic texts like the  Jaiminiya Brahmana , the  Chandogya Upanisad , and the  Brhadaranyaka Upanisad ,  "treat sexual intercourse as symbolically equivalent to the  Vedic sacrifice , and ejaculation of semen as the offering." [ 6 ]  However, he also writes that while it is possible that some kind of sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries, "Substantial evidence for such practices, however, dates from considerably later, from the seventh and eighth centuries, and derives from Saiva and Buddhist Tantric circles." [ 8 ]


Tantric sexual practices are often seen as exceptional and elite, and not accepted by all sects. They are found only in some tantric literature belonging to Buddhist and Hindu Tantra, but are entirely absent from Jain Tantra. [ 9 ]  In the  Kaula  tradition and others where sexual fluids as power substances and ritual sex are mentioned, scholars disagree in their translations, interpretations and practical significance. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]


Emotions, eroticism and sex are universally regarded in Tantric literature as natural, desirable, a means of transformation of the deity within.  Pleasure  and sex is another aspect of life and a "root of the universe", whose purpose extends beyond procreation and is another means to spiritual journey and fulfillment. [ 13 ]  This idea flowers with the inclusion of kama art in Hindu temple arts, and its various temple architecture and design manuals such as the  Shilpa-prakasha  by the Hindu scholar Ramachandra Kulacara. [ 13 ]


The actual term used in Hindu classical texts to refer to this practice is   maithuna  ( Devanagari : मैथुन, "coupling"). In the  Hindu Tantras ,  maithuna  is always presented in the context of  panchamakara  (the five  makara  or tantric substances) which constitutes primary ritual of Tantra. These may also be referred to as "the five Ms",  panchatattva  or the  tattva chakra , which consist of  madya  ( alcohol ),  māṃsa  ( meat ),  matsya  ( fish ),  mudrā  (pound grain), and  maithuna  ( sexual intercourse ).  Taboo -breaking elements are only practiced literally by "left-hand path" tantrics ( vāmācārin s), whereas "right-hand path" tantrics ( dakṣiṇācārin s) use symbolic substitutes. [ 14 ]


Jayanta Bhatta , the 9th-century scholar of the  Nyaya  school of  Hindu philosophy  and who commented on Tantra literature, stated that the Tantric ideas and spiritual practices are mostly well placed, but it also has "immoral teachings" such as by the so-called "Nilambara" sect where its practitioners "wear simply one blue garment, and then as a group engage in unconstrained public sex" on festivals. He wrote, this practice is unnecessary and it threatens fundamental values of society. [ 15 ]


Ascetics of the  Shaivite  school of  Mantramarga , in order to gain supernatural power, reenacted the penance of  Shiva  after cutting off one of  Brahma 's heads ( Bhikshatana ). They worshipped Shiva with impure substances like alcohol, blood and sexual fluids generated in orgiastic rites with their consorts. [ 16 ]


Douglas Renfrew Brooks states that the antinomian elements such as the use of intoxicating substances and sex were not  animistic , but were adopted in some Kaula traditions to challenge the Tantric devotee to break down the "distinctions between the ultimate reality of Brahman and the mundane physical and mundane world". By combining erotic and ascetic techniques, states Brooks, the Tantric broke down all social and internal assumptions, became Shiva-like. [ 17 ]  In Kashmir Shaivism, states David Gray, the antinomian transgressive ideas were internalized, for meditation and reflection, and as a means to "realize a transcendent subjectivity". [ 18 ]


As part of tantric inversion of social regulations, sexual yoga often recommends the usage of consorts from the most taboo groups available, such as close relatives or people from the lowest, most contaminated  castes . They must be young and beautiful, as well as initiates in tantra. [ 19 ]


According to English, Buddhist sexual rites were incorporated from Shaiva tantra. [ 19 ]  One of the earliest mentions of sexual yoga is in the  Mahayana  Buddhist  Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra  of  Asanga  (c. 5th century). The passage states:


Supreme self-control is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the untrammelled vision of one's spouse. [ 8 ]