Due to previous cases of biopiracy and to prevent further cases, the Government of India has converted  traditional Indian medicinal  information from ancient manuscripts and other resources into an electronic resource; this resulted in the  Traditional Knowledge Digital Library  in 2001. [ 87 ]  The texts are being recorded from  Tamil ,  Sanskrit ,  Urdu ,  Persian  and  Arabic ; made available to patent offices in English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish. The aim is to protect India's heritage from being exploited by foreign companies. [ 88 ]  Hundreds of  yoga poses  are also kept in the collection. [ 88 ]  The library has also signed agreements with leading international  patent offices  such as  European Patent Office  (EPO),  United Kingdom Trademark & Patent Office  (UKTPO) and the  United States Patent and Trademark Office  to protect  traditional knowledge  from biopiracy as it allows  patent examiners  at International Patent Offices to access TKDL databases for patent search and examination purposes. [ 73 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ]


Cannabis  ( / ˈ k æ n ə b ɪ s / ) [ 2 ]  is a  genus  of  flowering plants  in the family  Cannabaceae . The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized:  Cannabis sativa ,  C. indica , and  C. ruderalis . Alternatively,  C. ruderalis  may be included within  C. sativa , or all three may be treated as  subspecies  of  C. sativa , [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  or  C. sativa  may be accepted as a single undivided species. [ 6 ]  The genus is widely accepted as being  indigenous  to and originating from  Asia . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]


The plant is also known as  hemp , although this term is often used to refer only to  varieties  of  Cannabis   cultivated  for non-drug use. Cannabis has long been used for hemp  fibre ,  hemp seeds  and their  oils , hemp  leaves  for use as  vegetables  and as  juice .  Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fibre.


Cannabis  also has a long history of being used for  medicinal purposes , and  as a recreational drug  known as  marijuana  or  weed . Various  cannabis strains  have been bred, often selectively to produce high or low levels of  tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC), a  cannabinoid  and the plant's principal  psychoactive constituent . Compounds such as  hashish  and  hash oil  are extracted from the plant. [ 10 ]


Cannabis  is a  Scythian  word. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ]  The  ancient Greeks  learned of the use of cannabis  by observing Scythian funerals, during which cannabis was consumed. [ 12 ]  In  Akkadian , cannabis was known as  qunubu  ( 𐎯𐎫𐎠𐎭𐏂 ). [ 12 ]  The word was adopted in to the  Hebrew language  as  qaneh bosem  ( קָנֶה בֹּשׂם ). [ 12 ]


Cannabis  is an  annual ,  dioecious ,  flowering   herb . The  leaves  are  palmately compound or digitate , with  serrate   leaflets . [ 14 ]  The first pair of leaves usually have a single  leaflet , the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on  variety  and growing conditions. At the top of a  flowering plant , this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite  leaf arrangement  and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.


The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic  venation  pattern (which varies slightly among varieties) that allows for easy identification of  Cannabis  leaves from unrelated species with similar leaves. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, but in  Cannabis  this originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of the second notch down. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will pass tangentially to the notch, but often will pass by at a small distance; when the latter happens a spur vein (or occasionally two) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. Tiny samples of  Cannabis  also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, requiring special equipment and expertise. [ 15 ]


All known  strains  of  Cannabis  are  wind-pollinated [ 16 ]  and the fruit is an  achene . [ 17 ]  Most strains of  Cannabis  are  short day plants , [ 16 ]  with the possible exception of  C. sativa  subsp.  sativa  var.  spontanea  (=  C. ruderalis ), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be  day-neutral .


Cannabis  is predominantly  dioecious , [ 16 ] [ 18 ]  having  imperfect   flowers , with  staminate  "male" and  pistillate  "female" flowers occurring on separate plants. [ 19 ]  "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the  Cannabis  plant as dioecious", [ 20 ]  and the (c. 3rd century BCE)  Erya  dictionary defined  xi   枲  "male  Cannabis " and  fu   莩  (or  ju   苴 ) "female  Cannabis ". [ 21 ]  Male flowers are normally borne on loose  panicles , and female flowers are borne on  racemes . [ 22 ]


Many  monoecious  varieties have also been described, [ 23 ]  in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers. [ 24 ]  (Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites", true hermaphrodites – which are less common in  Cannabis  – bear staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant.)  Subdioecy  (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ]  Many populations have been described as sexually labile. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ]


As a result of intensive selection in  cultivation ,  Cannabis  exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. [ 31 ]  Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops, [ 25 ]  but  sativa  strains often produce monoecious individuals, which is possibly as a result of  inbreeding .


Cannabis  has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of  sex determination  among the dioecious plants. [ 31 ]  Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in  Cannabis .


Based on studies of sex reversal in  hemp , it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an  XY sex-determination system  is present. [ 29 ]  At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The  X:A system  was first described in  Drosophila  spp in 1925. [ 32 ]  Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, [ 33 ]  and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions. [ 30 ]


Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. [ 18 ]  Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently. [ 34 ]


Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for  Cannabis . Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type". [ 18 ]


The question of whether heteromorphic  sex chromosomes  are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a  karyotype .  Cannabis  was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. [ 35 ]  According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of  Cannabis  had been published as of 1996. [ 36 ]  Proponents of the XY system state that  Y chromosome  is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically. [ 37 ]


More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors [ 38 ] [ 39 ]  have used  random amplification of polymorphic DNA  (RAPD) to isolate several  genetic marker  sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in  Cannabis  (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and  amplified fragment length polymorphism . [ 40 ] [ 28 ] [ 41 ]  Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,


It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination. [ 18 ]


Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. [ 42 ]  Many researchers have suggested that sex in  Cannabis  is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. [ 30 ]  Ainsworth reviews that treatment with  auxin  and  ethylene  have feminizing effects, and that treatment with  cytokinins  and  gibberellins  have masculinizing effects. [ 18 ]  It has been reported that sex can be reversed in  Cannabis  using chemical treatment. [ 43 ]  A  polymerase chain reaction -based method for the detection of female-associated  DNA polymorphisms  by  genotyping  has been developed. [ 44 ]


Cannabis  plants produce a large number of chemicals as part of their  defense against herbivory . One group of these is called  cannabinoids , which induce mental and physical  effects  when  consumed .


Cannabinoids,  terpenes ,  terpenoids , and other compounds are secreted by glandular  trichomes  that occur most abundantly on the floral  calyxes  and  bracts  of female plants. [ 46 ]


Cannabis , like many organisms, is  diploid , having a  chromosome  complement of 2n=20, although  polyploid  individuals have been artificially produced. [ 47 ]  The first genome sequence of  Cannabis , which is estimated to be 820  Mb  in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists. [ 48 ]


The genus  Cannabis  was formerly placed in the  nettle  family ( Urticaceae ) or  mulberry  family ( Moraceae ), and later, along with the genus  Humulus  ( hops ), in a separate family, the hemp family (Cannabaceae  sensu stricto ). [ 49 ]  Recent  phylogenetic  studies based on  cpDNA   restriction site  analysis and  gene sequencing  strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the former family Celtidaceae, and that the two families should be merged to form a single  monophyletic  family, the  Cannabaceae   sensu lato . [ 50 ] [ 51 ]


Various types of  Cannabis  have been described, and variously classified as  species ,  subspecies , or  varieties : [ 52 ]


Cannabis  plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the "high" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, [ 53 ]  and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. [ 54 ]  The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are  cannabidiol  (CBD) and/or Δ 9 - tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. [ 55 ]  Since the early 1970s,  Cannabis  plants have been categorized by their chemical  phenotype  or "chemotype", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. [ 56 ]  Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. [ 40 ]  Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F 1 ) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production. [ 56 ] [ 57 ]


Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of  Cannabis  constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a  species . [ 58 ]  One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." [ 59 ]  Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. [ 59 ]   Physiological barriers to reproduction  are not known to occur within  Cannabis , and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. [ 47 ]  However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled  Cannabis  gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. [ 60 ]  It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and  genetic divergence  occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species. [ 61 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ]


The genus  Cannabis  was first  classified  using the "modern" system of taxonomic  nomenclature  by  Carl Linnaeus  in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. [ 64 ]  He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named  Cannabis sativa  L. [ a 1 ]  Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. This classification was supported by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (in 1807), Lindley (in 1838) and De Candollee (in 1867). These first classification attempts resulted in a four group division: [ 65 ]


In 1785, evolutionary biologist  Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck  published a description of a second species of  Cannabis , which he named  Cannabis indica  Lam. [ 66 ]  Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on morphological aspects (trichomes, leaf shape) and geographic localization of plant specimens collected in India. He described  C. indica  as having poorer fiber quality than  C. sativa , but greater utility as an  inebriant . Also,  C. indica  was considered smaller, by Lamarck. Also, woodier stems, alternate ramifications of the branches, narrow leaflets, and a villous calyx in the female flowers were characteristics noted by the botanist. [ 65 ]


In 1843, William O’Shaughnessy, used "Indian hemp ( C. indica )" in a work title. The author claimed that this choice wasn't based on a clear distinction between  C. sativa  and  C. indica , but may have been influenced by the choice to use the term "Indian hemp" (linked to the plant's history in India), hence naming the species as  indica. [ 65 ]


Additional  Cannabis  species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names  Cannabis chinensis  Delile, and  Cannabis gigantea  Delile ex Vilmorin. [ 67 ]  However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept (monotypic classification) was still widely accepted, except in the  Soviet Union , where  Cannabis  continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name  Cannabis indica  was listed in various  Pharmacopoeias , and was widely used to designate  Cannabis  suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations. [ 68 ]


In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that  ruderal   Cannabis  in central Russia is either a variety of  C. sativa  or a separate species, and proposed  C. sativa  L. var.  ruderalis  Janisch, and  Cannabis ruderalis  Janisch, as alternative names. [ 52 ]  In 1929, renowned plant explorer  Nikolai Vavilov  assigned wild or feral populations of  Cannabis  in Afghanistan to  C. indica  Lam. var.  kafiristanica  Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to  C. sativa  L. var.  spontanea  Vav. [ 57 ] [ 67 ]  Vavilov, in 1931, proposed a three species system, independently reinforced by Schultes  et al  (1975) [ 69 ]  and Emboden (1974): [ 70 ]   C. sativa ,  C. indica  and  C. ruderalis. [ 65 ]


In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex poly-species classification in which they also recognized  C. sativa  and  C. indica  as separate species. Within  C. sativa  they recognized two subspecies:  C. sativa  L. subsp.  culta  Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and  C. sativa  L. subsp.  spontanea  (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two  C. sativa  subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies  culta . However, they did not divide  C. indica  into subspecies or varieties. [ 52 ] [ 71 ] [ 72 ]  Zhukovski, in 1950, also proposed a two-species system, but with  C. sativa  L. and  C. ruderalis . [ 73 ]


In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of  Cannabis  took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting  Cannabis  in the  United States  and  Canada  specifically named products of  C. sativa  as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized  Cannabis  material may not have been  C. sativa , and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while  Dr. Richard E. Schultes  and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. [ 61 ] [ 62 ]  The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear. [ 74 ]


In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small [ 75 ]  and American taxonomist  Arthur Cronquist  published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of  Cannabis  with two subspecies (hemp or drug; based on THC and CBD levels) and two varieties in each (domesticated or wild). The framework is thus:


This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of  phenotypic  characters. [ 56 ] [ 67 ] [ 76 ]


Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist  Richard E. Schultes  and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of  Cannabis  in the 1970s, and concluded that stable  morphological  differences exist that support recognition of at least three species,  C. sativa ,  C. indica , and  C. ruderalis. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ]  For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that  Cannabis  is monotypic, with only a single species. [ 81 ]  According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions,  C. sativa  is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets,  C. indica  is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and  C. ruderalis  is short, branchless, and grows wild in  Central Asia . This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by  Cannabis  aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" strains from wide-leafed "indica" strains. [ 82 ]  McPartland's review finds the Schultes taxonomy inconsistent with prior work (protologs) and partly responsible for the popular usage. [ 83 ]


Molecular analytical techniques  developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on  evolutionary systematics . Several studies of  random amplified polymorphic DNA  (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of  Cannabis , primarily for  plant breeding  and forensic purposes. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 28 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ]  Dutch  Cannabis  researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. [ 40 ]  They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the  Cannabis   gene pool  throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus consists of a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study  per se .


An investigation of genetic, morphological, and  chemotaxonomic  variation among 157  Cannabis  accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in  Cannabis   germplasm . The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of  C. sativa  and  C. indica  as separate species, but not  C. ruderalis .  C. sativa  contains fiber and seed landraces, and feral populations, derived from Europe, Central Asia, and  Turkey . Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to  C. indica . [ 57 ]  In 2005, a  genetic analysis  of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing  C. sativa ,  C. indica , and (tentatively)  C. ruderalis . [ 60 ]  Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the  essential oil  of  Cannabis  revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain  sesquiterpene  alcohols, including  guaiol  and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa. [ 88 ]


A 2020 analysis of  single-nucleotide polymorphisms  reports five clusters of  cannabis , roughly corresponding to hemps (including folk "Ruderalis") folk "Indica" and folk "Sativa". [ 89 ]


Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the  University of British Columbia  found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa, was in fact almost 100% indica (the opposite strain). [ 90 ]  Legalization of cannabis in Canada (as of 17 October 2018 [update] ) may help spur private-sector research, especially in terms of diversification of strains. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore, the rise of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains among private-sector producers. [ 91 ]


The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type  Cannabis .  Cannabis  aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology,  native range , aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia. [ 83 ]


Mapping the morphological concepts to scientific names in the Small 1976 framework, "Sativa" generally refers to  C. sativa  subsp.  indica  var.  indica , "Indica" generally refers to  C. sativa  subsp.  i.   kafiristanica  (also known as  afghanica ), and "Ruderalis", being lower in THC, is the one that can fall into  C. sativa  subsp.  sativa . The three names fit in Schultes's framework better, if one overlooks its inconsistencies with prior work. [ 83 ]  Definitions of the three terms using factors other than morphology produces different, often conflicting results.


Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type  Cannabis  often describe the ancestry or gross  phenotypic  characteristics of  cultivars  by categorizing them as "pure indica", "mostly indica", "indica/sativa", "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa". These categories are highly arbitrary, however: one "AK-47" hybrid strain has received both "Best Sativa" and "Best Indica" awards. [ 83 ]


Cannabis  likely split from its closest relative,  Humulus  (hops), during the mid  Oligocene , around 27.8 million years ago according to  molecular clock  estimates. The centre of origin of  Cannabis  is likely in the northeastern  Tibetan Plateau . The pollen of  Humulus  and  Cannabis  are very similar and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen thought to be from  Cannabis  is from  Ningxia , China, on the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the  Loess Plateau , dating to the early  Miocene , around 19.6 million years ago.  Cannabis  was widely distributed over Asia by the Late Pleistocene. The oldest known  Cannabis  in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years ago. [ 92 ]


Cannabis  is used for a wide variety of purposes.


According to genetic and archaeological evidence, cannabis was first domesticated about 12,000 years ago in  East Asia  during the early  Neolithic  period. [ 9 ]  The use of cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa. [ 93 ]  The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian  Herodotus 's reference to the central Eurasian  Scythians  taking cannabis steam baths. [ 94 ]  His ( c.  440 BCE )  Histories  records, "The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Greek vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy." [ 95 ]  Classical Greeks and Romans also used cannabis.


In China, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the  Shennong Bencaojing  (3rd century AD). [ 96 ]  Cannabis smoke was inhaled by  Daoists , who burned it in incense burners. [ 96 ]


In the Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] [ 99 ] [ 100 ]


Cannabinol  (CBN) was the first compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940, followed by some of the first preclinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo. [ 101 ]


Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis  were produced legally . [ 102 ]


Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. In the U.S. alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year. [ when? ] [ 104 ]  As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried marijuana,  hashish , or various extracts collectively known as  hashish oil . [ 10 ]


Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a  smoking pipe ,  bong  or  vaporizer . [ 105 ]  However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.


Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no intoxicating effects by itself [ 55 ]  (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to  caffeine ), [ 106 ]  is thought to attenuate (i.e., reduce) [ 107 ]  the anxiety-inducing effects of high doses of THC, particularly if administered orally prior to THC exposure. [ 108 ]


According to  Delphic analysis  by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for  dependence  compared to both nicotine and alcohol. [ 109 ]  However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological  withdrawal symptoms , such as irritability or insomnia, [ 105 ]  and susceptibility to a  panic attack  may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. [ 110 ] [ 111 ]  Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are not life-threatening. [ 112 ]  Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures. [ 113 ]


In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users worldwide (3.8% of the global population aged 15–64). [ 114 ]  This percentage did not change significantly between 1998 and 2014. [ 114 ]


Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to  reduce nausea and vomiting  during  chemotherapy , to improve appetite in people with  HIV/AIDS , and to treat  chronic pain  and  muscle spasms . [ 115 ] [ 116 ]  Cannabinoids are under preliminary research for their potential to affect  stroke . [ 117 ]  Evidence is lacking for depression, anxiety,  attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ,  Tourette syndrome ,  post-traumatic stress disorder , and psychosis. [ 118 ]  Two  extracts  of cannabis –  dronabinol  and  nabilone  – are approved by the FDA as medications in pill form for treating the  side effects  of  chemotherapy  and AIDS. [ 119 ]


Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. [ 116 ]  Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations. [ 116 ]   Long-term effects of cannabis  are not clear. [ 120 ]  Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction,  schizophrenia  in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident. [ 115 ]


The term  hemp  is used to name the durable soft fiber from the  Cannabis   plant stem  (stalk).  Cannabis sativa  cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However,  hemp  can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound ( THC ) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.


Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre [ 121 ]  ranging from  paper ,  cordage ,  construction material  and textiles in general, to  clothing . Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than  cotton . It also is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil) and  biofuels . Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from  China  to  Europe  (and later  North America ) during the last 12,000 years. [ 121 ] [ 122 ]  In modern times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success. [ 123 ] [ 124 ]


In the US, "industrial hemp" is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the  2018 Farm Bill  and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp. [ 125 ]


The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. [ 126 ]  The  Yanghai Tombs , a vast ancient cemetery (54 000 m 2 ) situated in the  Turfan  district of the  Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region  in northwest China, have revealed the 2700-year-old grave of a  shaman . He is thought to have belonged to the  Jushi culture  recorded in the area centuries later in the  Hanshu , Chap 96B. [ 127 ]  Near the head and foot of the shaman was a large leather basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. An international team demonstrated that this material contained THC. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent. [ 128 ]  The earliest evidence of cannabis smoking has been found in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the  Pamir Mountains  in Western China, where cannabis residue were found in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals. [ 129 ] [ 130 ]


Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the  Bactria  and  Margiana  contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp (cannabis), and  ephedra  (which contains  ephedrine ). [ 131 ] : 262   Although there is no evidence of ephedra being used by steppe tribes, they engaged in cultic use of hemp. Cultic use ranged from  Romania  to the  Yenisei River  and had begun by 3rd millennium BC Smoking hemp has been found at  Pazyryk . [ 131 ] : 306


Cannabis  is first referred to in  Hindu   Vedas  between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the  Atharvaveda . By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as "food of the gods". [ 132 ]  Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of  Holi . One of the earliest to use this plant in medical purposes was  Korakkar , one of the 18  Siddhas . [ 133 ] [ 134 ] [ self-published source? ]  The plant is called  Korakkar Mooli  in the  Tamil language , meaning Korakkar's herb. [ 135 ] [ 136 ]


In  Buddhism , cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of  meditation  and  clear awareness . In ancient  Germanic culture ,  Cannabis  was associated with the  Norse  love goddess,  Freya . [ 137 ] [ 138 ]  An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain  Cannabis . [ 139 ]


In modern times, the  Rastafari movement  has embraced  Cannabis  as a sacrament. [ 140 ]  Elders of the  Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church , a  religious movement  founded in the U.S. in 1975 with no ties to either  Ethiopia  or the  Coptic Church , consider  Cannabis  to be the  Eucharist , claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of  Christ . [ 141 ]  Like the Rastafari, some modern  Gnostic  Christian sects have asserted that  Cannabis  is the  Tree of Life . [ 142 ] [ 143 ]  Other organized  religions  founded in the 20th century that treat  Cannabis  as a  sacrament  are the  THC Ministry , [ 144 ]   Cantheism , [ 145 ]  the  Cannabis Assembly [ 146 ]  and the  Church of Cognizance .


Since the 13th century CE, cannabis has been used among  Sufis [ 147 ] [ 148 ]  – the mystical interpretation of  Islam  that exerts strong influence over local Muslim practices in  Bangladesh ,  India ,  Indonesia ,  Turkey , and  Pakistan . Cannabis preparations are frequently used at Sufi festivals in those countries. [ 147 ]  Pakistan's  Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar  in  Sindh  province is particularly renowned for the widespread use of cannabis at the shrine's celebrations, especially its annual  Urs  festival and Thursday evening  dhamaal  sessions – or meditative dancing sessions. [ 149 ] [ 150 ]


Cannabis in South Africa  is an indigenous plant with a rich historical, social, and cultural significance for various communities. South Africa’s cannabis policy evolution has been marked by significant shifts, particularly following decriminalisation by the Constitutional Court in 2018, and the passing of the Cannabis for Private Purposes Bill in May 2024. [ 1 ]


Prior to the lifting of the prohibition of cannabis in 2018, advocates pressured the government to amend laws restricting cannabis that were first established in 1922 to allow exceptions for  medical use ,  religious practices , and other purposes. The Afrikaans term commonly used to refer to cannabis is  dagga  ( pronounced   [ˈdaχa] ), derived from the  Khoikhoi  word  dacha , which was adopted by early European colonial settlers in the  Dutch Cape Colony . [ 2 ]


Cannabis is believed to have been introduced to Africa by early Arab or Indian traders, centuries ago. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It was already in widespread use among South Africa's indigenous  Khoisan  and  Bantu peoples [ 4 ]  before  European settlement in the Cape in 1652 . Additionally, it was traditionally utilized by  Basotho  communities to facilitate childbirth. [ 5 ]  According to author Hazel Crampton, historical  Afrikaner recipes  for teas and foods incorporated the use of cannabis. [ 6 ]  The plant's use was primarily associated with traditional African populations and individuals of lower economic status. [ 2 ] [ 7 ]


Long-term research conducted by the  Medical Research Council  (MRC) indicates that the number of cannabis users in South Africa was 2.2 million in 2004, which increased to 3.2 million by 2008. [ 8 ]  In 2003,  Interpol  ranked South Africa as the world's fourth-largest cannabis producer, and the  Institute for Security Studies  reported that a significant portion of cannabis seized in the United Kingdom, and a third seized globally, originated from South Africa. [ 9 ]


The first written record of the plant in South Africa is by  Jan van Riebeeck , who ordered officers of the  Voorman  to purchase "daccha" in  Natal  for trade with the Khoikhoi. The  Dutch East India Company  attempted to establish a monopoly on its sale, and to that end prohibited cultivation of the plant by Cape settlers from 1680. However, the ready availability of cannabis in the wild and through trade with indigenous peoples meant that there was little profit to be made. Consequently, the prohibition was lifted in 1700. [ 10 ]


Beginning in 1860, the  Natal Colony  began to import Indian workers (called " coolies " at the time) to supplement their labour force. These Indians brought with them the habit of consuming cannabis and hashish, which blended with local, extant African traditions. The European authorities were concerned by this practice, believing it sapped the vitality of their workers; [ 11 ]  consequently, in 1870, Natal's  Coolie Law Consolidation  prohibited "the smoking, use, or possession by and the sale, barter, or gift to, any Coolies whatsoever, of any portion of the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa)..." [ 7 ]


Both the Cape and Transvaal colonies restricted the growth of the plant, which they considered a "noxious weed"; [ 12 ]  in 1891, the Cape Colony prohibited cannabis under Act 34, and the Free State outlawed dealing in cannabis in 1903. [ 13 ]  In 1908, Natal began to regulate the sale of cannabis. [ 10 ]  In the Transvaal, dagga was sold "openly and normally" by storekeepers to miners. [ 12 ]


Although white farmers did cultivate cannabis in the 18th century and early 19th century, consumption by the farmers themselves was rare. However, even cultivation fell out of favour later in the 19th century. [ 10 ]   In 1921, "serious signs of a  moral panic  focusing around dagga" appeared, centred on the Western Cape. A concern developed about the "'camaraderie' which led some to lay aside race and other prejudices with regard to fellow" drug users. [ 4 ]


In 1922, regulations were issued under an amended Customs and Excises Duty Act which criminalised the possession and use of "habit forming drugs", including dagga. Under regulation 14, the cultivation, possession, sale, and use of the plant were prohibited. The burden of proof for any defence against a charge lay with the accused; legal scholar Professor Chanock contrasted this with laws regulating alcohol at the time, which laws placed the burden of proof on the accuser; he reasoned that the cannabis regulations were applied differently because they were intended to target black people. [ 12 ]


Following the Fifth Session of the League of Nations  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs , it was at South Africa's wish, expressed by Secretary to the Prime Minister J. C. Van Tyen in 1923, [ 14 ]  that dagga was included in a list of prohibited narcotics, which list had hitherto been almost entirely concerned with  opium  and its derivatives. [ 12 ]  Cannabis was subsequently outlawed internationally in 1925. [ 10 ]


Cannabis was wholly criminalised in South Africa in 1928 under the  Medical, Dental, and Pharmacy Act , for political and moral reasons. [ 4 ] [ 15 ]  In 1937, the government of South Africa introduced the Weeds Act, which made the occupant or owner of a property accountable for preventing the growth of cannabis, or any other plant classified as a "weed", on the property. [ 10 ]  Concern about the extent of dagga use in South Africa continued to grow, resulting eventually in the enactment, in 1971, of the Abuse of Dependence-producing Substances and Rehabilitation Centres Act. [ 13 ]  Under the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act of 1992, people found in possession of more than 115 grams of dagga were presumed to be guilty of dealing. However, following the adoption of the  interim constitution of South Africa , courts found that this unjustifiably infringed the constitutionally enshrined presumption of innocence, and consequently invalidated those parts of the Act. [ 16 ]


On 18 September 2018 the South African Constitutional Court decriminalized the use and cultivation of cannabis in a private space, and provided a 24-month period in which the  Parliament of South Africa  could amend the relevant laws, failing which the court judgement would prevail. Even though private use of cannabis has been decriminalized the buying and selling of cannabis, cannabis oil and cannabis seeds remains illegal. [ 17 ]


Cannabis grows well in South Africa's climate, [ 18 ]  especially in the "dagga belt", an area including the  Eastern Cape  and  KwaZulu-Natal  provinces [ 10 ]  where, per the 2011  International Narcotics Control Strategy Report , it is a traditional crop. According to GroundUp, cannabis is "an important cash crop" that "sustains entire communities in the rural Eastern Cape", which otherwise survive in a  subsistence economy . [ 19 ] [ 20 ]  Rural farmers are typically poor and produce low quality local product that is consumed domestically by the lower class, while middle class growers produce product for the rest of the national and international marijuana market. [ 20 ]  Most of the national product is consumed domestically or regionally, but increasing amounts are seized in Europe. [ 21 ]


In 1996, the  Department of Land and Agriculture , the Tobacco and Cotton Research Institute, and the Southern African Hemp Company conducted agricultural research on the viability of farming non-psychoactive hemp strains of the plant in the  North West  province. [ 18 ]


The state conducted cannabis eradication programs since the 1950s. Police initially uprooted dagga plantations and burned the crops but in 1980 switched to using herbicides, which they would dispense with hand-held pumps. By the end of the 1980s, helicopters replaced ground patrols, and helicopter patrols would release herbicides aerially to destroy entire crops in minutes. [ 19 ]


In 1990, a coalition of civil society organisations successfully lobbied government in the former Natal province to ban the herbicide  paraquat  from use in aerial eradication programmes. The  South African Police Service  (SAPS) now uses a herbicide formulation which includes  glyphosate , and maintains that it is safe, posing "no threat to human, animal, or environmental health". However, a new coalition of the non-profit organisations Fields of Green For All and the Amapondo Children’s Project launched legal proceedings in 2016 to stop the SAPS from performing aerial eradications. [ 19 ] [ 20 ]


In South Africa, the third largest centre of biodiversity in the world, [ 22 ]  a number of Indigenous peoples and local communities have cultivated cannabis for long time and have developed special ties with the plant, including the custodianship of traditional cannabis  plant varieties  ( genetic resources ) and associated agricultural or medical skills and know-hows ( traditional knowledge ) which have been  bioprospected  for decades. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]


These elements are today protected against misappropriation and  biopiracy  by international law, such as the  Nagoya Protocol  to the  Convention on Biological Diversity  that the country has ratified [ 22 ]  or the  GRATK Treaty  signed by South Africa in May 2024. [ 25 ]


Biopiracy is an ongoing issue in the country. According to the reform organisation  Fields of Green for All :


there are cases of international research organisations taking advantage of small scale rural farmers, by exploiting their landrace genetics without adequate compensation or moral recognition. [ 26 ]


In South Africa,  medical cannabis  products may be prescribed for any health condition, once the presiding physician determines that it could assist in treatment. Patients may request medical cannabis through authorised health practitioners who are licensed by the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA). The health practitioner must apply online on their patient's behalf to SAHPRA. Once a prescription has been issued to the patient, it can be fulfilled by pharmacists registered with the South African Pharmacy Council (SAPC). [ 27 ]


It is estimated that the African cannabis market will grow to be worth $7 bn by 2023, with the main stakeholders being Nigeria with $3.7bn, South Africa $1.7bn, Morocco $900m, Lesotho $90m and Zimbabwe $80m. The potential growth has acted as a motivation for legalization considering the traditionally stagnant economic growth of South Africa. A major driving force in the emerging market is European demand with Germany being the largest cannabis market in Europe. [ 28 ]


Besides the large overseas market which draws many investors into the new industry, the local South African market is proving to be another avenue for economic growth. The aforementioned plant, locally known as 'dagga', has had a long history in Southern Africa, dating back to the 1500's. This long history of cultivation within the area has led to the plant being socially accepted by many indigenous communities. [ 3 ]   With its acceptance spreading further within South Africa after the decimalization in 2018. This is clearly seen with the increase in hobby growers and local small-scale farmers who are curious about the plant, and its recently outlawed reputation. Before the decriminalization of Cannabis, procuring the seeds necessary to grow the plant was largely considered illegal and difficult. However, laws allowing people to grow the plant within their own homes as well as the government's mandate to not exclude the poor from the industry, has made the procurement of certified quality seeds a necessity. [ 29 ]


Iqela Lentsango:  The Dagga Party of South Africa  (more commonly known as the Dagga Party) is a South African political party founded in February 2009 by Jeremy Acton, who remains the party's leader.  The Dagga Party was established to allow voters who support the legalisation of dagga to have representation in elections. [ 30 ]  The party's position is that cannabis users should have the same rights as people who use tobacco and alcohol. [ 31 ]


Julian Stobbs and Myrtle Clarke are known as the " Dagga Couple " in South African media. [ 32 ]  In August 2010, their property was raided and they were arrested on charges of possessing and dealing in dagga. In February 2011, they argued before a  magistrate's court  that they had a "human right to ingest anything" they chose, provided that it did not harm them, and applied for leave to make their case before the  Constitutional Court . [ 33 ] [ 34 ]  Their case was struck from the court roll, pending the result of their constitutional challenge of the legality of cannabis prohibition. [ 35 ] [ 36 ]


Since 2000, as part of the  Global Marijuana March  and  NORML  initiative,  Cape Town  and other cities have hosted an annual pro-legalisation Cannabis Walk on the first Saturday of May each year. [ 37 ]


About 400 people took part in 2012, [ 38 ]  a crowd of 500 in 2013, [ 39 ]  and "a few thousand" people marched in 2014/15. [ 40 ]  The participants increased to 3,000 in 2016, [ 41 ]  and to 6,000 in 2017. [ 42 ]


In February 2014, the  Inkatha Freedom Party 's Dr  Mario Oriani-Ambrosini  introduced the Medical Innovations Bill, which would legalise cannabis for medical treatment and industrial use. Under the proposed bill, with the patient's informed consent, doctors can administer unproven but harmless cancer treatments such as cannabis if other treatments are not efficacious; informed consent will shield doctors from common law liability and the requirements of their medical profession in such circumstances. Dr Oriani-Ombrosini was diagnosed with lung cancer, and had been on cannabinoid treatment in the last months leading to his death. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ]  Oriani-Ambrosini's bill was rejected by Parliament’s Portfolio Committee on Health in November 2017. [ 46 ]


The official position of the CDA is that dagga should be decriminalised, reasoning that criminalisation has been shown to have little effect on the prevalence of drug use, and that decriminalisation could improve public health. [ 47 ]  However, the CDA does not currently support commercialisation of the plant. [ 48 ]


In 2015, the  Department of Social Development  commissioned the CDA to conduct research into the feasibility of partially legalising dagga. That research is yet to be completed. [ 49 ]


The South African regulatory body for drugs, the Medicines Control Council (MCC), initially classified dagga as a Schedule 7 substance, which meant that it had no medicinal value and was "illegal to cultivate, analyse, possess, research, use, sell or supply without authorisation from the  Department of Health ." [ 50 ] [ 51 ]  In 2016, it published regulations providing for the use of dagga for medical reasons, and expressed a desire to reclassify "cannabinoid medication" as a Schedule 6 substance, which would make it available for medicinal use. [ 52 ] [ 53 ]  However, the Dagga Couple noted that partial decriminalisation in 2017 has reduced the significance of the proposed change in scheduling, and have called for a more drastic reclassification of the drug. [ 32 ]


In January 2016, following a systematic review of scientific studies on cannabis, the Medicine Research Council concluded that there was evidence that cannabinoids could be used to treat chronic pain and spasticity in multiple sclerosis. [ 48 ]


The Medicines Control Council (MCC) was replaced by the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA) in 2018. They have reclassified CBD as a Schedule 4 substance or Schedule 0 under certain criteria. Similarly, THC now falls under Schedule 6 or Schedule 0 under certain conditions.  See here for a summary . [ 54 ]


On 31 March 2017, in a case brought by Gareth Prince, Jeremy Acton, and Jonathan Rubin before the Western Cape  High Court ,  presiding Judge Dennis Davis ruled that any law disallowing the use and cultivation of cannabis by an adult in a private dwelling was unconstitutional and therefore invalid, on the grounds that such infringement of the constitutional right to privacy could not be justified. [ 57 ]  However due to appeals from the state, this decision needed to be confirmed by the Constitutional Court before taking effect. [ 11 ]  The court also ruled that, in the interim, prosecutions related to the transgression of the laws in question should be stayed. The judge further ordered that “it will be deemed to be a defence that the use, possession, purchase or cultivation of cannabis in a private dwelling is for the personal consumption of the adult accused”. [ 52 ] [ 58 ]  The  Central Drug Authority 's chairperson David Bayever encouraged the  Department of Social Development  to appeal the ruling, citing concerns about the possibility of an increase in road accidents, and the difficulty in limiting children's exposure to the drug. [ 49 ] [ 59 ]  After hearing all appeals in the Constitutional Court during the month of November 2017, the panel announced their decision to reserve judgment in the matter until further notice.


After announcing their decision to rule on the matter, the full panel of judges convened on 18 September 2018 at the Constitutional Court in Johannesburg with  Chief Justice   Raymond Zondo  reading out what he described as a unanimous decision. In his ruling it was stated:


He placed no limits on quantities that adults would be allowed to carry, consume or grow and said that it would be up to parliament to decide once a bill was drawn up to accommodate these recommended changes. The government has been given a period of 24 months to implement the landmark ruling's findings. [ 17 ]


First filed in 2020, the bill proposed no limits on the personal cultivation, possession, sharing and use of cannabis by adults and in private (out of sight). It makes provision for publicly possessing as well as gifting (without any exchange of remuneration) cannabis plants, seeds/seedlings and dried flowers, or the equivalents thereof. It also depicts what quantities will be considered as trafficable and commercial offences, leading to fines and/or up to 6-years and 15-years imprisonment, respectively.


During the four years of debates that followed the initial proposal, the bill was largely edited, with many controversial points withdrawn. [ 61 ]  The final version was approved early 2024 by South Africa's Parliament, and signed by the President on 28 May 2024 (on the eve of  election day ).


Cannabis sativa  is an annual  herbaceous   flowering plant . The species was first classified by  Carl Linnaeus  in 1753. [ 1 ]  The specific epithet  sativa  means 'cultivated'. Indigenous to  Eastern Asia , the plant is now of  cosmopolitan distribution  due to widespread cultivation. [ 2 ]  It has been cultivated throughout  recorded history  and used as a source of  industrial fiber ,  seed oil ,  food , and  medicine . It is also used as  a recreational drug  and for  religious and spiritual purposes .


The flowers of  Cannabis sativa  plants are most often either male or female, but, only plants displaying female pistils can be or turn hermaphrodite. Males can never become hermaphrodites. [ 3 ]  It is a short-day flowering plant, with staminate (male) plants usually taller and less robust than pistillate (female or male) plants. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  The  flowers  of the female plant are arranged in  racemes  and can produce hundreds of seeds. Male plants shed their pollen and die several weeks prior to seed ripening on the female plants. Under typical conditions with a light period of 12 to 14 hours, both sexes are produced in equal numbers because of heritable  X and Y chromosomes . [ 6 ]  Although genetic factors dispose a plant to become male or female, environmental factors including the  diurnal light cycle  can alter sexual expression. [ 7 ]   Naturally occurring  monoecious  plants, with both male and female parts, are either sterile or fertile; [ clarification needed ]  but artificially induced " hermaphrodites " can have fully functional reproductive organs. [ 8 ]  "Feminized" seed sold by many commercial seed suppliers are derived from artificially "hermaphroditic" females that lack the male gene, or by treating the plants with hormones or silver  thiosulfate .


Although the main  psychoactive  constituent of  Cannabis  is  tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC), the plant is known to contain more than 500 compounds, among them at least 113  cannabinoids ; however, most of these "minor" cannabinoids are only produced in trace amounts. [ 9 ]  Besides THC, another cannabinoid produced in high concentrations by some plants is  cannabidiol  (CBD), which is not psychoactive but has recently been shown to block the effect of THC in the nervous system. [ 10 ]  Differences in the chemical composition of  Cannabis  varieties may produce different effects in humans. Synthetic THC, called  dronabinol , does not contain cannabidiol (CBD),  cannabinol  (CBN), or other cannabinoids, which is one reason why its  pharmacological  effects may differ significantly from those of natural  Cannabis  preparations.


Beside cannabinoids, the chemical constituents of  Cannabis  include about 120 compounds responsible for its  characteristic aroma . These are mainly volatile  terpenes  and  sesquiterpenes .


A 1980 study identifying constituents of  C. sativa [ 13 ]  established 19 major chemical families (number of chemicals within group):


Cannabis also produces numerous volatile sulfur compounds that contribute to the plant's skunk-like aroma, with  Prenylthiol  (3-methyl-2-butene-1-thiol) identified as the primary odorant. [ 14 ]  These compounds are found in much lower concentrations than the major terpenes and sesquiterpenes. However, they contribute significantly to the pungent aroma of cannabis due to their  low odor thresholds  as often seen with  thiols  or other sulfur-containing compounds.


A number of specific aromatic compounds have been implicated in variety-specific aromas. [ 15 ]  These include another class of volatile sulfur compounds, referred to as tropical volatile sulfur compounds, that include 3-mercaptohexanol, 3-mercaptohexyl acetate, and 3-mercaptohexyl butyrate. These compounds possess powerful and distinctive fruity, tropical, and citrus aromas in low concentrations such as those found in certain cannabis varieties. These compounds are also important in the citrus and tropical flavors of  hops ,  beer ,  wine , and tropical fruits.


In addition to volatile sulfur compounds, the heterocyclic compounds  indole  and  skatole  (3-Methyl-1 H -indole) contribute to the chemical or savory aromas of certain varieties. [ 15 ]  Skatole in particular was identified as a key contributor to this scent. This compound is found in mammalian feces and is used in the perfuming industry. [ 16 ]  It possesses a complex aroma that is highly dependent on concentration.


A  Cannabis  plant in the vegetative growth phase of its life requires more than 16–18 hours of light per day to stay vegetative. Flowering usually occurs when darkness equals at least 12 hours per day. The flowering cycle can last anywhere between seven and fifteen weeks, depending on the strain and environmental conditions. When the production of  psychoactive   cannabinoids  is sought, female plants are grown separately from male plants to induce  parthenocarpy  in the female plant's fruits (popularly called "sin semilla" which is Spanish for "without seed" ) and increase the production of  cannabinoid -rich resin. [ 17 ]


In soil, the optimum  pH  for the plant is 6.3 to 6.8. In  hydroponic  growing, the nutrient solution is best at 5.2 to 5.8, making  Cannabis  well-suited to hydroponics because this pH range is hostile to most bacteria and fungi. [ citation needed ]


Tissue culture  multiplication has become important in producing medically important clones, [ 18 ]  while seed production remains the generally preferred means of multiplication. [ 19 ]  Sativa plants have narrow leaves and grow best in warm environments. They do, however, take longer to flower than their Indica counterparts, and they grow taller than the Indica cannabis strains as well. [ 20 ]


Broadly, there are three main  cultivar groups  of cannabis that are cultivated today:


A nominal if not legal distinction is often made between industrial hemp, with concentrations of psychoactive compounds far too low to be useful for that purpose, and  marijuana .


Cannabis sativa  seeds are chiefly used to make hempseed oil which can be used for cooking, lamps, lacquers, or paints. They can also be used as caged-bird feed, as they provide a source of nutrients for most animals. The flowers and fruits (and to a lesser extent the leaves, stems, and seeds) contain  psychoactive   chemical compounds  known as  cannabinoids  that are consumed for recreational, medicinal, and spiritual purposes. When so used, preparations of flowers and fruits (called  marijuana ) and leaves and preparations derived from resinous extract (e.g.,  hashish ) are consumed by smoking, vaporising, and oral ingestion. Historically,  tinctures ,  teas , and  ointments  have also been common preparations. In  traditional medicine  of India in particular  cannabis sativa  has been used as hallucinogenic, hypnotic,  sedative ,  analgesic , and  anti-inflammatory  agent. [ 22 ]  Terpenes have gained public awareness through the growth and education of medical and recreational cannabis. Organizations and companies operating in cannabis markets have pushed education and marketing of terpenes in their products as a way to differentiate taste and effects of cannabis. [ 23 ]  The  entourage effect , which describes the synergy of cannabinoids, terpenes, and other plant compounds, has also helped further awareness and demand for terpenes in cannabis products. [ 24 ]


Cannabis  strains  is a popular name to refer to plant varieties of the monospecific genus  Cannabis sativa  L. . They are either pure or  hybrid   varieties  of the plant, which encompasses various sub-species  C. sativa ,  C. indica , and  C. ruderalis . [ 1 ]


Varieties are developed to intensify specific characteristics of the plant, or to differentiate the  strain  for the purposes of marketing or to make it more effective as a  drug . Variety names are typically chosen by their  growers , and often reflect properties of the plant such as taste, color, smell, or the origin of the variety. [ 2 ]  The  Cannabis  strains referred to in this article are primarily those varieties with  recreational and medicinal use . These varieties have been cultivated to contain a high percentage of  cannabinoids . Several varieties of  cannabis , known as  hemp , have a very low cannabinoid content, and are instead grown for their fiber and seed. Due to the legal status of the plant in many jurisdictions,  Cannabis  plant varieties are at high risk of  biopiracy . [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


The two species of the  Cannabis  genus that are most commonly grown are  Cannabis indica  and  Cannabis sativa . [ 5 ]  A third species,  Cannabis ruderalis , is very short and produces only trace amounts of  tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC), and thus is not commonly grown for industrial, recreational or medicinal use. However, because  Cannabis ruderalis  flowers independently of the  photoperiod  and according to age, it has been used to breed  autoflowering  strains. [ 6 ]


Pure  sativas  are relatively tall (reaching as high as 4.5 meters), with long  internodes  and branches, and large, narrow-bladed leaves. Pure  indica  varieties are shorter and bushier, with wider leaflets. They are often favored by indoor growers for their size.  Sativas  bloom later than  indicas , often taking a month or two longer to mature. The subjective effects of  sativas  and  indicas  are said to differ, but the ratio of  tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC) to  cannabidiol (CBD)  in most named drug varieties of both types is similar (averaging about 200:1). Unlike most commercially developed strains,  indica   landraces  exhibit plants with varying THC/CBD ratios. [ 7 ]


The informal designation  sativa  and  indica  may have various, controversial meanings. Morphologically, the name  sativa  designates tall plants with narrow leaves, while  indica  refers to short plants with wide leaves. Among the marijuana community however,  sativa  rather refers to equatorial varieties producing stimulating psychoactive effects, whereas  indica -type plants from Central Asia are used for relaxing and  sedative  drugs (THC:CBD > 1). [ 8 ]


There is an increasing discussion about whether the differences between species adequately represents the variability found within the genus  Cannabis . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]


There are five chemotaxonomic types of  cannabis : one with high levels of THC, one which is more fibrous and has higher levels of CBD, one that is an intermediate between the two, another one with high levels of  cannabigerol  (CBG), and the last one almost without cannabinoids. [ 13 ]


There has also been a recent movement [ 14 ]  to characterize strains based on their reported subjective effects.


Plant breeding is subject to a different set of rules and regulations, at times contradictory. The  International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV Convention)  grants limited proprietary rights to breeders over their seeds, under certain conditions. In parallel, and often in a conflicting way, a series of dispositions aiming to fight against  biopiracy  require breeders to prove that the  free, prior and informed consent  was obtained from the communities (often  Indigenous peoples  or  peasant communities ) from where the seeds used to breed the new variety originates. [ 3 ]  This is the case in particular of the  Nagoya Protocol , a treaty complementing the  Convention on Biological Diversity , in force since 2014 (2017 in the European Union). [ 15 ]


In 2024, the  GRATK Treaty  was adopted, [ 16 ]  preventing national  patent offices  from granting patents based on biopiracy. [ 17 ]  Patent applicants relying on  Cannabis  strains will have to disclose the origin of the variety, which often entails compliance under the Nagoya protocol or other similar mechanisms of  Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement . [ 18 ]


In addition to pure  indica ,  sativa , and  ruderalis  varieties, hybrid varieties with varying ratios of these three types are common, such as the White Widow hybrid which has about 60%  indica  and 40%  sativa  ancestry. These hybrid varieties exhibit traits from both parental types. There are also commercial  crossbred   hybrids  which contain a mix of both ruderalis, indica or sativa genes, and are usually  autoflowering  varieties. "Lowryder" was an early auto-flowering hybrid that retained the flowering behavior of  ruderalis  plants, while also producing appreciable amounts of THC and  CBD . Autoflowering  cannabis  varieties have the advantage of being discreet due to their small stature. They also require shorter growing periods, as well as having the additional advantage that they do not rely on a change in the  photoperiod  to determine when to flower.


Breeding requires pollinating a female  cannabis  plant with male pollen. Although this occurs spontaneously and ubiquitously in nature, the intentional creation of new varieties typically involves selective breeding in a controlled environment.


When  cannabis  is cultivated for its psychoactive or medicinal properties, male plants will often be separated from females. This prevents fertilization of the female plants, either to facilitate  sin semilla  flowering or to provide more control over which male is chosen. Pollen produced by the male is caught and stored until it is needed.


When a male plant of one strain pollinates a female of another strain, the seeds will be  F1 hybrids  of the male and female. These offspring will not be identical to their parents. Instead, they will have characteristics of both parents. Repeated breeding results in certain characteristics appearing with greater regularity.


It is impossible for a hermaphrodite to create any male-only seeds. A hermaphrodite may create female only seeds and hermaphrodite seeds. Also the female-only seeds may carry the hermaphrodite trait. [ 19 ]


Hybridization is the process of plants and animals breeding. Natural wind currents help speed up this hybridization process and promotes a positive growth. Some plants produce many seeds while some produce little to none depending on how it is bred. If seeds are produced traits from both the original parents will be expressed.


Techniques such as  mutation breeding  are used to develop new strains using  irradiation  or chemical  mutagens  such as  colchicine . [ 20 ]  Various companies have been experimenting with creating new strains using  genetic engineering  techniques. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]


During the selective breeding process for medical marijuana, THC:CBD ratios are accounted for and accommodated to the needs of the client's preference/illness. Due to the large genetic diversity and different geographical climates and environments, a wide range of strains and properties exist.


THC is associated with the psychoactive  high , while CBD is not psychoactive and is purported to have medicinal properties. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ]  However,  conversion of CBD to THC  can occur when CBD is heated to temperatures between 250–300 °C, potentially leading to its partial transformation into THC. [ 27 ]


There is little evidence about the safety or efficacy of cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]


In order for there to be genetic stability within a marijuana strain the breeder has to go through selection and breeding, pinpointing the dominant and recessive genes within the two strains being crossed. After analyzing offspring with the preferred traits a breeder is looking for, the breeder will select the preferred traits and continue to breed those offspring to create the desired final product. Selection is a crucial process for a breeder to create a strain, especially if a client is looking for something with specific plant traits the breeder has to ensure that the hybrid's genetic traits have been closed in enough so unwanted traits aren't expressed in future harvests.


In a retail market that is decriminalized such as in  The Netherlands , where wholesale production is illegal but prosecutions are not always enforced because of the contradiction of the law that is recognised by the courts, [ 30 ]  competition puts pressure on breeders to create increasingly attractive varieties to maintain market share. Breeders give their strains distinct and memorable names in order to help differentiate them from their competitors' strains, although they may in fact be very similar.


Acapulco Gold  is a golden-leafed  Cannabis sativa  strain originally from the  Acapulco  area of southwest  Mexico . [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ]


Bedrocan is a medicinal  cannabis  variety cultivated from a  Dutch   medical marijuana   Cannabis sativa  L. strain, having a standardized content of THC (22%) and CBD (1%). It is currently cultivated by Bedrocan Nederland, Bedrocan Canada and Bedrocan Danmark. It was introduced in 2003 and is dispensed through pharmacies after prescription from a physician. [ 34 ]


Blue Dream is a hybrid cannabis strain widely used for both medical and recreational purposes, developed in 2003. [ 35 ]


Charlotte's Web  is a high- cannabidiol  (CBD), low- tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC)  cannabis  variety and extract marketed as a  dietary supplement  under federal law of the United States. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ]  It is produced by the Stanley brothers in Colorado. It does not induce the  psychoactive  " high " typically associated with recreational marijuana strains that are high in THC. [ 39 ]  In September 2014, the Stanleys announced that they would ensure that the product consistently contained less than 0.3% THC. [ 40 ]  Charlotte's Web gained national attention when it was used to treat  Charlotte Figi 's  epileptic seizures . [ 41 ] [ 42 ]  Her story has led to her being described as "the girl who is changing medical marijuana laws across America," [ 43 ]  as well as the "most famous example of medicinal hemp use". [ 44 ]


Skunk refers to  cannabis  strains that are strong-smelling and have been likened to the smell of the spray from a  skunk . These strains of  cannabis  are believed to have originated during the early 1980s in the  United States  prior to larger-scale development and popularization by  Dutch  growers. [ 45 ]  Just as with other strains of  cannabis , skunk is commonly grown in controlled indoor environments under specialized  grow lights , or in a  greenhouse  when full outdoor conditions are not suitable; skunk strains are hybrids of  Cannabis sativa  and  Cannabis indica . [ 45 ]


Sour Diesel  is a hybrid strain of Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica.


An  heirloom plant ,  heirloom variety ,  heritage fruit  (Australia and New Zealand), or  heirloom vegetable  (especially in Ireland and the UK) is an old  cultivar  of a plant used for food that is grown and maintained by gardeners and farmers, particularly in isolated communities of the  Western world . [ 1 ]  These were commonly grown during  earlier periods in human history , but are not used in modern  large-scale agriculture . [ citation needed ]


In some parts of the world, it is illegal to sell seeds of cultivars that are not listed as approved for sale. [ 2 ]  The Henry Doubleday Research Association, now known as  Garden Organic , responded to this legislation by setting up the  Heritage Seed Library  to preserve seeds of as many of the older cultivars as possible. However,  seed banks  alone have not been able to provide sufficient  insurance  against catastrophic loss. [ 2 ]  In some jurisdictions, like  Colombia , laws have been proposed that would make  seed saving  itself illegal. [ 3 ]


Many heirloom vegetables have kept their  traits  through  open pollination , while fruit varieties such as apples have been propagated over the centuries through  grafts  and  cuttings . The trend of growing heirloom plants in gardens has been returning in popularity in North America and Europe.


Before the industrialization of  agriculture , a much wider variety of plant foods were grown for human consumption, largely due to farmers and gardeners saving seeds and cuttings for future planting. From the 16th century through the early 20th century, the diversity was huge. Old nursery catalogues were filled with plums, peaches, pears and apples of numerous varieties, and seed catalogs offered legions of vegetable varieties. [ 4 ]  Valuable and carefully selected seeds were sold and traded using these catalogs along with useful advice on cultivation. Since World War II, agriculture in the  industrialized world  has mostly consisted of food crops which are grown in large,  monocultural  plots. In order to maximize consistency, few varieties of each type of crop are grown. These varieties are often selected for their productivity and their ability to ripen at the same time while withstanding mechanical picking and cross-country shipping, as well as their tolerance to  drought , frost, or  pesticides . [ 5 ]  This form of agriculture has led to a 75% drop in crop genetic diversity. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


While heirloom gardening has maintained a niche community, in recent years it has seen a resurgence in response to the industrial agriculture trend. In the  Global South , heirloom plants are still widely grown, for example, in the  home gardens  of  South  and  Southeast Asia . Before  World War II , the majority of produce grown in the United States was heirlooms. [ 8 ]


In the 21st century, numerous community groups all over the world are working to preserve historic varieties to make a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and flowers available again to the home gardener, by renovating old orchards, sourcing historic fruit varieties, engaging in seed swaps, and encouraging community participation. Heirloom varieties are an increasingly popular way for gardeners and small farmers to connect with traditional forms of agriculture and the crops grown in these systems. Growers also cite lower costs associated with purchasing seeds, improved taste, and perceived improved nutritional quality as reasons for growing heirlooms. [ 9 ]  In many countries, hundreds or even thousands of heirloom varieties are commercially available for purchase or can be obtained through  seed libraries  and  banks , seed swaps, or community events. [ 10 ]  Heirloom varieties may also be well suited for  market gardening ,  farmer's market  sales, and  CSA programs . [ 11 ]


A primary drawback to growing heirloom varieties is lower  disease resistance  compared to many commercially available  hybrid  varieties. Common disease problems, such as  verticillium  and  fusarium wilt , may affect heirlooms more significantly than non-heirloom crops. Heirloom varieties may also be more delicate and perishable. [ 11 ] [ 12 ]  In recent years, research has been conducted into improving the disease resistance of heirlooms, particularly tomatoes, by crossing them with resistant hybrid varieties. [ 13 ]


The term  heirloom  to describe a seed variety was first used in the 1930s by horticulturist and vegetable grower J.R. Hepler to describe bean varieties handed down through families. [ 14 ]  However, the current definition and use of the word  heirloom  to describe plants is fiercely debated.


One school of thought places an age or date point on the  cultivars . For instance, one school says the cultivar must be over 100 years old, others 50 years old, and others prefer the date of 1945, which marks the end of  World War II  and roughly the beginning of widespread hybrid use by growers and seed companies.  Many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first  hybrid  varieties. [ 5 ]  It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the commercial seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older; some are apparently  pre-historic .


Another way of defining heirloom cultivars is to use the definition of the word  heirloom  in its truest sense.  Under this interpretation, a true heirloom is a cultivar that has been nurtured, selected, and handed down from one family member to another for many generations.


Additionally, there is another category of cultivars that could be classified as "commercial heirlooms": cultivars that were introduced many generations ago and were of such merit that they have been saved, maintained and handed down—even if the seed company has gone out of business or otherwise dropped the line.  Additionally, many old commercial releases have actually been family heirlooms that a seed company obtained and introduced.


Regardless of a person's specific interpretation, most authorities agree that heirlooms, by definition, must be  open-pollinated . They may also require open-pollinated varieties to have been bred and stabilized using classic breeding practices.  While there is currently one genetically modified tomato available to home growers, [ 15 ]  it is generally agreed that no  genetically modified organisms  can be considered heirloom cultivars. Another important point of discussion is that without the ongoing growing and storage of heirloom plants, the seed companies and the government will control all seed distribution. Most, if not all, hybrid plants, if they do not have sterile seeds and can be regrown, will not be the same as the original hybrid plant, thus ensuring the dependency on seed distributors for future crops. [ 5 ]


Writer and author Jennifer A. Jordan describes the term "heirloom" as a culturally constructed concept that is only relevant due to the relatively recent loss of many crop varieties: "It is only with the rise of industrial agriculture that [the] practice of treating food as a literal heirloom has disappeared in many parts of the world—and that is precisely when the heirloom label emerges. ...[T]he concept of an heirloom becomes possible only in the context of the loss of actual heirloom varieties, of increased  urbanization  and  industrialization  as fewer people grow their own food, or at least know the people who grow their food." [ 16 ]


The heritage fruit trees that exist today are clonally descended from trees of antiquity. Heirloom  roses  are sometimes collected (nondestructively as small cuttings) from vintage homes and from  cemeteries , where they were once planted at gravesites by mourners and left undisturbed in the decades since. Modern production methods and the rise in population have largely supplanted this practice.


In the UK and Europe, it is thought that many heritage vegetable varieties (perhaps over 2,000) have been lost since the 1970s, when EEC (now EU) laws were passed making it illegal to sell any vegetable cultivar not on the national list of any EEC country. This was set up to help in eliminating seed suppliers selling one seed as another, guarantee the seeds were true to type, and that they germinated consistently. Thus, there were stringent tests to assess varieties, with a view to ensuring they remain the same from one generation to the next. However, unique varieties were lost for posterity. [ 5 ]


These tests (called  DUS ) assess "distinctness", "uniformity", and "stability". But since some heritage cultivars are not necessarily uniform from plant to plant, or indeed within a single plant—a single cultivar—this has been a sticking point. "Distinctness" has been a problem, moreover, because many cultivars have several names, perhaps coming from different areas or countries (e.g., carrot cultivar Long Surrey Red is also known as "Red Intermediate", "St. Valery", and "Chertsey"). [ 5 ]  However, it has been ascertained that some of these varieties that look similar are in fact different cultivars. On the other hand, two that were known to be different cultivars were almost identical to each other, thus one would be dropped from the national list in order to clean it up.


Another problem has been the fact that it is somewhat expensive to register and then maintain a cultivar on a national list. Therefore, if no seed breeder or supplier thinks it will sell well, no one will maintain it on a list, and so the seed will not be re-bred by commercial seed breeders.


In recent years, [ when? ]  progress has been made in the UK to set up allowances and less stringent tests for heritage varieties on a B national list, but this is still under consideration.


When heirloom plants are not being sold, however, laws are often more lenient. Because most heirloom plants are at least 50 years old and grown and swapped in a family or community they fall under the public domain. [ 17 ]  Another worldwide alternative is to submit heirloom seeds to a  seedbank . These public repositories in turn maintain and disperse these genetics to anyone who will use them appropriately. Typically, approved uses are breeding, study, and sometimes, further distribution.


There are a variety of intellectual property protections and laws that are applied to heirloom seeds, which can often differ greatly between states. Plant patents are based on the Plant Patent Act of 1930, which protects plants grown from cuttings and division, while under intellectual property rights, the Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 (PVPA) shields non-hybrid, seed-propagated plants. However, seed breeders can only shelter their variety for 20 years under PVPA. There are also a couple of exceptions under the PVPA which allow growers to cultivate, save seeds, and sell the resultant crops, and give breeders allowances to use PVPA protected varieties as starter material as long as it constitutes less than half of the breeding material. There are also seed licenses which may place restrictions on the use of seeds or trademarks that guard against the use of certain plant variety names. [ 17 ]


In 2014, the  Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture  caused a  seed-lending library  to shut down and promised to curtail any similar efforts in the state. [ 18 ]  The lending library, hosted by a town library, allowed gardeners to "check out" a package of open-pollinated seed, and "return" seeds kept from the crop grown from those seeds. The Department of Agriculture said that this activity raises the possibility of " agro-terrorism ", and that a Seed Act of 2004 requires the library staff to test each seed packet for germination rate and whether the seed was true to type. [ 18 ]  In 2016 the department reversed this decision, and clarified that seed libraries and non-commercial seed exchanges are not subject to the requirements of the Seed Act. [ 19 ]


In disputed  Palestine , some heirloom growers and seed savers see themselves as contributing a form of resistance against the privatization of agriculture, while also telling stories of their ancestors, defying violence, and encouraging rebellion. [ 20 ]  The Palestinian Heirloom Seed Library (PHSL), founded by writer and activist  Vivien Sansour , breeds and maintains a selection of traditional crops from the region, seeking to "preserve and promote heritage and threatened seed varieties, traditional Palestinian farming practices, and the cultural stories and identities associated with them." [ 20 ]  Some scholars have additionally framed the increasing control of Israeli  agribusiness  corporations over Palestinian seed supplies as an attempt to suppress  food sovereignty  and as a form of subtle  ecocide . [ 21 ]


In January 2012, a conflict over seed access erupted in  Latvia  when two undercover investigators from the Latvian State Plant Protection Agency charged an independent farm with the illegal sale of unregistered heirloom tomato seeds. [ 22 ]  The agency suggested that the farm choose a small number of varieties to officially register and to abandon the other approximately 800 varieties grown on the farm. This infuriated customers as well as members of the general public, many of whom spoke out against what was seen as an overly strict interpretation of the law. The scandal further escalated with a series of hearings held by agency officials, during which residents called for a reexamination of seed registration laws and demanded greater citizen participation in legal and political matters relating to agriculture. [ 22 ]


In  Peru  and  Ecuador , genes from heirloom tomato varieties and wild tomato relatives have been the subject of patent claims by the  University of Florida . These genes have been investigated for their usefulness in increasing drought and salt tolerance and disease resistance, as well as improving flavor, in commercial tomatoes. [ 23 ]  The American genomics development company Evolutionary Genomics identified genes found in  Galapagos tomatoes  that may increase sweetness by up to 25% and as of 2023 has filed an international patent application on the usage of these genes. [ 24 ]


Native heirloom and  landrace  crop varieties and their stewards are sometimes subject to theft and  biopiracy . [ 25 ]  Biopiracy may negatively impact communities that grow these heirloom varieties through loss of profits and livelihoods, as well as litigation. One infamous example is the case of Enola bean patent, in which a Texas corporation collected heirloom Mexican varieties of the scarlet runner bean and patented them, and then sued the farmers who had supplied the seeds in the first place to prevent them from exporting their crops to the US. [ 26 ]  The 'Enola' bean was granted 20-year patent protection in 1999, but subsequently underwent numerous legal challenges on the grounds that the bean was not a novel variety. In 2004,  DNA fingerprinting  techniques were used to demonstrate that 'Enola' was functionally identical to a yellow bean grown in Mexico known as Azufrado Peruano 87. [ 27 ]  The case has been widely cited as a prime example of biopiracy and misapplication of  patent rights .


Native communities in the United States and Mexico have drawn particular attention to the importance of traditional and culturally appropriate seed supplies. The Traditional Native American Farmers Association (TNAFA) is an Indigenous organization aiming to "revitalize traditional agriculture for spiritual and human need" and advocating for traditional methods of growing, preparing, and consuming plants. [ 28 ]  In concert with other organizations, TNAFA has also drafted a formal Declaration of Seed Sovereignty and worked with legislators to protect Indigenous heritage seeds.


Indigenous peoples are also at the forefront of the seed  rematriation  movement to bring lost seed varieties back to their traditional stewards. [ 29 ]  Rematriation efforts are frequently directed at institutions such as universities, museums, and seed banks, which may hold Indigenous seeds in their collection that are inaccessible to the communities from which they originate. In 2018, the  Seed Savers Exchange , the largest publicly accessible seed bank in the United States, rematriated several heirloom seed varieties back to Indigenous communities. [ 29 ]


Activism surrounding  food justice , farmers' rights, and seed sovereignty frequently overlap with the promotion and usage of heirloom crop varieties. International peasant farmers' organization  La Via Campesina  is credited with the first usage of the term "food sovereignty" and campaigns for agrarian reform, seed freedom, and farmers' rights. It currently represents more than 150 social movement organizations in 56 countries. [ 30 ]  Numerous other organizations and collectives worldwide participate in food sovereignty activism, including the  US Food Sovereignty Alliance , Food Secure Canada, and the Latin American Seeds Collective in  North  and  South America ; the African Center for Biodiversity (ACB), the Coalition for the Protection of African Genetic Heritage (COPAGEN), and the West African Peasant Seed Committee (COASP) in  Africa ; and the Alliance for Sustainable and Holistic Agriculture (ASHA),  Navdanya , and the Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) in  Asia . [ 31 ]  In a 2022 BBC interview, Indian environmental activist and scholar  Vandana Shiva  stated that "Seed is the source of life. Seed is the source of food. To protect food freedom, we must protect seed freedom." [ 32 ]


Other writers have pushed back against the promotion and proliferation of heirloom crop varieties, connecting their usage to the impacts of  colonialism . Quoting American author and educator  Martín Prechtel  in his article in  The Guardian , Chris Smith writes that  " 'To keep seeds alive, clear, strong and open-pollinated, purity as the idea of a single pure race must be understood as the ironic insistence of imperial minds. ' " [ 33 ]  Writer and journalist Brendan Borrell calls heirloom tomatoes "the tomato equivalent of the  pug —that 'purebred' dog with the convoluted nose that snorts and hacks when it tries to catch a breath" and claims that selection for unique size, shape, color, and flavor has hampered disease resistance and  hardiness  in heirlooms. [ 34 ]


More attention is being put on heirloom plants as a way to restore genetic diversity and feed a growing population while safeguarding the food supply of diverse regions. Specific heirloom plants are often selected, saved, and planted again because of their superior performance in a particular locality. Over many crop cycles these plants develop unique adaptive qualities to their environment, which empowers local communities and can be vital to maintaining the  genetic resources  of the world. [ 7 ]


Some debate has occurred regarding the perceived improved nutritional qualities of heirloom varieties compared to modern cultivars. [ 35 ]  Anecdotal reports claim that heirloom vegetables are more nutritious or contain more vitamins and minerals than more recently developed vegetables. [ 36 ] [ 37 ]  Current research does not support the claim that heirloom varieties generally contain a greater concentration of nutrients; however, nutrient concentration and composition does appear to vary between different cultivars. [ 38 ]  Nevertheless, heirloom varieties may still contain the genetic basis for useful traits that can be employed to improve modern crops, including for human nutritional qualities. [ 35 ]


Heirloom varieties are also critical to promoting global  crop diversity , which has generally declined since the middle of the 20th century. [ 39 ]  Heirloom crops may contain genetic material that is distinct from varieties typically grown in  monocrop systems , many of which are hybrid varieties. Monocrop systems tend to be vulnerable to disease and pest outbreaks, which can decimate whole industries due to the genetic similarity between plants. [ 40 ]  Some organizations have employed seed banks and vaults to preserve and protect crop genetics against catastrophic loss. One of the most notable of these seed banks is the  Svalbard Global Seed Vault  located in Svalbard, Norway, which safeguards approximately 1.2 million seed samples with capacity for up to 4.5 million. [ 41 ]  Some writers and farmers have criticized the apparent reliance on seed vaults, however, and argue that heirloom and rare varieties are better protected against extinction when actively planted and grown than stored away with no immediate influence on crop genetic diversity. [ 42 ]


Hemp , or  industrial hemp , is a plant in the botanical class of  Cannabis sativa   cultivars  grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. [ 1 ]  Along with  bamboo , hemp is among the fastest growing plants [ 2 ]  on Earth. It was also one of the first plants to be spun into usable  fiber  50,000 years ago. [ 3 ]  It can be refined into a variety of commercial items, including  paper ,  rope ,  textiles ,  clothing ,  biodegradable plastics ,  paint ,  insulation ,  biofuel ,  food , and  animal feed . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Although chemotype I  cannabis  and hemp (types II, III, IV, V) are both  Cannabis sativa  and contain the  psychoactive  component  tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC), they represent distinct  cultivar  groups, typically with unique  phytochemical  compositions and uses. [ 6 ]  Hemp typically has lower concentrations of total THC and may have higher concentrations of  cannabidiol  (CBD), which potentially mitigates the  psychoactive  effects of THC. [ 7 ]  The legality of hemp varies widely among countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content into commercial production. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]


The etymology is uncertain but there appears to be no common  Proto-Indo-European  source for the various forms of the word; the Greek term  κάνναβις  ( kánnabis ) is the oldest  attested  form, which may have been borrowed from an earlier  Scythian  or  Thracian  word. [ 10 ] [ 11 ]  Then it appears to have been borrowed into  Latin , and separately into  Slavic  and from there into  Baltic ,  Finnish , and  Germanic languages . [ 12 ]


In the Germanic languages, following  Grimm's law , the "k" would have changed to "h" with the first Germanic sound shift, [ 10 ] [ 13 ]  giving  Proto-Germanic  * hanapiz , after which it may have been adapted into the Old English form,  hænep ,  henep . [ 10 ]   Barber  (1991) however, argued that the spread of the name "kannabis" was due to its historically more recent plant use, starting from the south, around Iran, whereas non-THC varieties of hemp are older and prehistoric. [ 12 ]  Another possible source of origin is  Assyrian   qunnabu , which was the name for a source of oil,  fiber , and medicine in the 1st millennium BC. [ 12 ]


Cognates  of hemp in other Germanic languages include Dutch  hennep , Danish and Norwegian  hamp , Saterland Frisian  Hoamp , German  Hanf , Icelandic  hampur  and Swedish  hampa . In those languages "hemp" can refer to either industrial fiber hemp or narcotic cannabis strains. [ 10 ]


Hemp is used to make a variety of commercial and industrial products, including rope, textiles,  clothing , shoes, food, paper,  bioplastics , insulation, and biofuel. [ 4 ]  The  bast fibers  can be used to make textiles that are 100% hemp, but they are commonly blended with other fibers, such as  flax , cotton or silk, as well as virgin and recycled polyester, to make  woven fabrics  for apparel and furnishings. The inner two fibers of the plant are woodier and typically have industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding, and litter. When  oxidized  (often erroneously referred to as "drying"),  hemp oil  from the seeds becomes solid and can be used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as a moisturizing agent, for cooking, and in plastics. Hemp seeds have been used in bird feed mix as well. A survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the  European Union  was used in animal and bird feed. [ 14 ]


Hemp seeds can be eaten raw, ground into hemp meal,  sprouted  or made into dried sprout powder. Hemp seeds can also be made into a  slurry  used for baking or for beverages, such as  hemp milk  and  tisanes . [ 17 ]   Hemp oil  is  cold-pressed  from the seed and is high in  unsaturated fatty acids . [ 18 ]


In the UK, the  Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs  treats hemp as a purely  non-food crop , but with proper licensing and proof of less than 0.3%  THC  concentration, hemp seeds can be imported for  sowing  or for sale as a food or food ingredient. [ 19 ]  In the US, hemp can be used legally in food products and, as of 2000 [update] , was typically sold in  health food stores  or through  mail order . [ 18 ]


A  100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) portion of hulled hemp seeds supplies 2,451 kilojoules (586 kilocalories) of  food energy . They contain 5% water, 5%  carbohydrates , 49% total fat, and 31%  protein . [ 20 ]


The share of protein obtained from the hemp seeds can be increased in by processing the seeds, such as by dehulling the seeds, or by using the meal or cake (also called hemp seed flour), [ 21 ]  that is, the remaining fraction of hemp seed obtained after expelling its oil fraction. [ 22 ] [ 23 ]  The proteins are mostly located in the inner layer of the seed, whereas the hull is poor in proteins, as it mostly contains the fiber. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]