Hemp seeds are notable in providing 64% of the  Daily Value  (DV) of protein per 100-gram serving. [ 20 ]  The three main proteins in hemp seeds are edestin (83% of total protein content), albumin (13%) and ß-conglycinin (up to 5%). [ 25 ] [ 23 ]  Hemp seed proteins are highly digestible compared to soy proteins when untreated (unheated). [ 26 ] [ 23 ]  The  amino acid  profile of hemp seeds is comparable to the profiles of other protein-rich foods, such as meat, milk, eggs, and soy. [ 27 ] [ 24 ] [ 28 ]   Protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores  were 0.49–0.53 for whole hemp seed, 0.46–0.51 for hemp seed meal, and 0.63–0.66 for  hulled  hemp seed. [ 21 ] [ 29 ]  The most abundant amino acid in hemp seed is  glutamic acid  (3.74–4.58% of whole seed) followed by arginine (2.28–3.10% of whole seed). [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ]  The whole hemp seed can be considered a rich-protein source containing a protein amount higher or similar than other protein-rich products, such as quinoa (13.0%), chia seeds (18.2–19.7%), buckwheat seeds (27.8%) and linseeds (20.9%). Nutritionally, the protein fraction of hemp seed is highly digestible comparing to other plant-based proteins such as soy protein. Hemp seed protein has a good profile of essential amino acids, still, this profile of amino acids is inferior to that of soy or casein. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 30 ]


Hemp seeds are a rich source of  dietary fiber  (20% DV),  B vitamins , and the  dietary minerals   manganese  (362% DV),  phosphorus  (236% DV),  magnesium  (197% DV),  zinc  (104% DV), and iron (61% DV). About 73% of the energy in hemp seeds is in the form of fats and  essential fatty acids , [ 20 ]  mainly  polyunsaturated fatty acids ,  linoleic ,  oleic , and  alpha-linolenic  acids. [ 24 ] [ 28 ]  The ratio of the 38.100 grams of polyunsaturated fats per 100 grams is 9.301 grams of omega-3 to 28.698 grams of omega-6. [ 31 ]  Typically, the portion suggested on packages for an adult is 30 grams, approximately three tablespoons. [ 31 ]


With its gluten content as low as 4.78 ppm, hemp is attracting attention as a gluten-free (<20 ppm) food material. [ 25 ]


Despite the rich nutrient content of hemp seeds, the seeds contain  antinutritional compounds , including  phytic acid , [ 32 ]   trypsin  inhibitors, and  tannins , in statistically significant concentrations. [ 26 ] [ 33 ]


Hemp oil  oxidizes and turns  rancid  within a short period of time if not stored properly; [ 18 ]  its shelf life is extended when it is stored in a dark airtight container and refrigerated. Both light and heat can degrade hemp oil.


Hemp fiber has been used extensively throughout history, with production climaxing soon after being introduced to the New World. For centuries, items ranging from rope, to fabrics, to industrial materials were made from hemp fiber. Hemp was also commonly used to make sail  canvas . The word "canvas" is derived from the word  cannabis . [ 34 ] [ 35 ]  Pure hemp has a texture similar to  linen . [ 36 ]  Because of its versatility for use in a variety of products, today hemp is used in a number of consumer goods, including clothing, shoes, accessories, dog collars, and home wares. For clothing, in some instances, hemp is mixed with  lyocell . [ 37 ]  Its benefits in terms for sustainability also increase its appeal in industries, such as the clothing industry. [ 38 ] [ 39 ]


Hemp as a building construction material provides solutions to a variety of issues facing current building standards. Its light weight, mold resistance, breathability, etc. makes hemp products versatile in a multitude of uses. [ 40 ]  Following the co-heating tests of NNFCC Renewable House at the Building Research Establishment (BRE), hemp is reported to be a more  sustainable  material of construction in comparison to most building methods used today. [ 41 ]  In addition, its practical use in building construction could result in the reduction of both energy consumption costs and the creation of secondary pollutants. [ 41 ]


In 2022, hemp-lime, also known as  hempcrete , was accepted as a building material, along with methodologies for its use, by the  International Code Council , [ 42 ]  and was included in the 2024 edition of the International Residential Code as an appendix: "Appendix BL Hemp-Lime (Hempcrete) Construction". [ 43 ]  This inclusion in the IRC model code is expected to promote expansion of the use and legitimacy of hemp-lime in construction in the United States. [ 44 ]


The hemp market was at its largest during the 17th century. In the 19th century and onward, the market saw a decline during its rapid  illegalization in many countries . [ 45 ]  Hemp has resurfaced in  green building  construction, primarily in Europe. [ 46 ]  The modern-day disputes regarding the legality of hemp lead to its main disadvantages: importing and regulating costs. Final Report on the Construction of the Hemp Houses at  Haverhill , UK conducts that hemp construction exceeds the cost of traditional building materials by £48per square meter. [ 46 ]


Currently, the  University of Bath  researches the use of hemp-lime panel systems for construction. Funded by the  European Union , the research tests panel design within their use in high-quality construction, on site assembly, humidity and moisture penetration, temperature change, daily performance and energy saving documentations. [ 47 ]  The program, focusing on Britain, France, and Spain markets aims to perfect protocols of use and application, manufacturing, data gathering, certification for market use, as well as warranty and insurance. [ 47 ]


The most common use of hemp-lime in building is by casting the hemp-hurd and lime mix while wet around a timber frame with temporary shuttering and tamping the mix to form a firm mass. After the removal of the temporary shuttering, the solidified hemp mix is then ready to be plastered with lime plaster. [ 48 ]


Hemp is classified under the green category of building design, primarily due to its positive effects on the environment. [ 49 ]  A few of its benefits include but are not limited to the suppression of weed growth, anti-erosion, reclamation properties, and the ability to remove poisonous substances and heavy metals from soil. [ 49 ]


The use of hemp is beginning to gain popularity alongside other natural materials. This is because  cannabis  processing is done mechanically with minimal harmful effects on the environment. A part of what makes hemp  sustainable  is its minimal water usage and non-reliance on pesticides for proper growth. It is recyclable, non- toxic , and  biodegradable , making hemp a popular choice in  green building  construction. [ 49 ]


Hemp fiber is known to have high strength and durability, and has been known to be a good protector against vermin. The fiber has the capability to reinforce structures by embossing threads and cannabis shavers. Hemp has been involved more recently in the building industry, producing building construction materials including  insulation ,  hempcrete , and varnishes. [ 40 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ]


Hemp made materials have low embodied energy. The plant has the ability to absorb large amounts of  CO 2 , providing air quality, thermal balance, creating a positive environmental impact. [ 50 ]


Hemp's properties allow mold resistance, and its porous materiality makes the building materials made of it breathable. In addition hemp possesses the ability to absorb and release moisture without deteriorating. Hemp can be non-flammable if mixed with  lime  and could be applied on numerous aspects of the building (wall, roofs, etc.) due to its lightweight properties. [ 49 ] [ 50 ]


Hemp is commonly used as an  insulation  material. Its flexibility and toughness during compression allows for easier implementation within structural framing systems. The insulation material could also be easily adjusted to different sizes and shapes by being cut during the installation process. The ability to not settle and therefore avoiding cavity developments lowers its need for maintenance. [ 54 ]


Hemp insulation is naturally lightweight and non- toxic , allowing for an exposed installation in a variety of spaces, including flooring, walling, and roofing. Compared to mineral insulation, hemp absorbs roughly double the amount of heat and could be compared to wood, in some cases even overpassing some of its types. [ 54 ]


Hemp insulation's porous materiality allows for air and moisture penetration, with a bulk density going up to 20% without losing any thermal properties. In contrast, the commonly used mineral insulation starts to fail after 2%. The insulation evenly distributes vapor and allows for air circulation, constantly carrying out used air and replacing with fresh. Its use on the exterior of the structure, overlaid with breathable water-resistive barriers, eases the withdrawal of moisture from within the wall structure. [ 54 ]


In addition, the insulation doubles as a sound barrier, weakening airborne sound waves passing through it. [ 54 ]


In addition to the  CO 2  absorbed during its growth period, hemp-lime, also known as hempcrete, continues absorption during the curing process. The mixture hardens when the silica contained in hemp  shives  mixes with hydraulic  lime , resulting in the mineralization process called "carbonation". [ dubious  –  discuss ] . [ 53 ] [ 55 ]


Though not a load-bearing material, [ 56 ]  hempcrete is most commonly used as infill in building construction due to its light weight (roughly seven times lighter than common concrete) and vapor permeability. [ 57 ]  The building material is made of hemp hurds (shiv or shives),  hydraulic lime , and water mixed in varying ratios. [ 52 ]  The mix depends on the use of the material within the structure and could differ in physical properties. Surfaces such as flooring interact with a multitude of loads and would have to be more resistive, while walls and roofs are required to be more lightweight. [ 52 ]  The application of this material in construction requires minimal skill. [ 52 ]


Hempcrete  can be formed in-situ or formed into blocks. Such blocks are not strong enough to be used for structural elements and must be supported by brick, wood, or steel framing. [ 41 ]  In the end of the twentieth century, during his renovation of Maison de la Turquie in  Nogent-sur-Seine, France , Charles Rasetti first invented and applied the use of hempcrete in construction. [ 58 ]  Shortly after, in the 2000s, Modece Architects used hemp-lime for test designs in  Haverhill . [ 59 ]  The dwellings were studied and monitored for comparison with other building performances by  BRE . Completed in 2009, the Center for the Built Environment's Renewable  House  was found to be among the most technologically advanced structures made of hemp-based material. A year later the first home made of hemp-based materials was completed in Asheville, North Carolina, US. [ 60 ]


Cannabis  seeds have high-fat content and contain 30-35% of fatty acids. The extracted oil is suited for a variety of construction applications. [ 50 ]  The biodegradable hemp oil acts as a wood varnish, protecting flooring from mold, pests, and wear. Its use prevents the water from penetrating the wood while still allowing air and vapor to pass through. [ 40 ]  Its most common use can be seen in wood framing construction, one of the most common construction methods in the world. Because of its low UV-resistant rating, the finish is most often used indoors, on surfaces such as flooring and wood paneling. [ 54 ] [ 40 ]


Hemp-based  insulating   plaster  is created by combining hemp fibers with calcium  lime  and  sand . This material, when applied on internal walls, ceilings, and flooring, can be layered up to ten centimeters in thickness. Its porous materiality allows the created plaster to regulate air humidity and evenly distribute it. [ 40 ]  The gradual absorption and release of water prevent the material from cracking and breaking apart. [ 61 ] [ 40 ]  Similar to high-density fiber cement, hemp plaster can naturally vary in color and be manually pigmented. [ 62 ]


Hemp ropes can be woven in various diameters, possessing high amounts of strength making them suitable for a variety of uses for building construction purposes. [ 53 ]  Some of these uses include installation of frames in building openings and connection of joints. The ropes also used in bridge construction, tunnels, traditional homes, etc. [ 53 ]  One of the earliest examples of hemp rope and other textile use can be traced back to 1500 BC  Egypt . [ 63 ]


Cannabis   geotextiles  could be put in both wet and dry conditions. Hemp-based  bioplastic  is a  biodegradable  alternative to regular plastic and can potentially replace  polyvinyl chloride  (PVC), a material used for plumbing pipes. [ 53 ]


Hemp growth lasts roughly 100 days, a much faster time period than an average tree used for construction purposes. While dry, the fibers could be pressed into tight wood alternatives to wood-frame construction, wall/ceiling paneling, and flooring. As an addition, hemp is flexible and versatile allowing it to be used in a greater number of ways than wood. [ 40 ]  Similarly, hemp wood could also be made of recycled hemp-based paper. [ 64 ]


A mixture of  fiberglass , hemp fiber,  kenaf , and  flax  has been used since 2002 to make composite panels for automobiles. [ 65 ]  The choice of which  bast fiber  to use is primarily based on cost and availability.
Various car makers are beginning to use hemp in their cars, including  Audi ,  BMW ,  Ford ,  GM ,  Chrysler ,  Honda ,  Iveco ,  Lotus ,  Mercedes ,  Mitsubishi ,  Porsche ,  Saturn ,  Volkswagen [ 66 ]  and Volvo. For example, the Lotus Eco Elise [ 67 ]
and the Mercedes C-Class both contain hemp (up to 20 kg in each car in the case of the latter). [ 68 ]


Hemp paper are paper varieties consisting exclusively or to a large extent from  pulp  obtained from  fibers  of  industrial hemp . The products are mainly specialty papers such as  cigarette paper , [ 69 ]   banknotes  and technical  filter papers . [ 70 ]  Compared to wood pulp, hemp pulp offers a four to five times longer fiber, a significantly lower  lignin  fraction as well as a higher tear resistance and  tensile strength . However, production costs are about four times higher than for paper from wood, [ 71 ]  since the infrastructure for using hemp is underdeveloped. If the paper industry were to switch from wood to hemp for sourcing its cellulose fibers, the following benefits could be utilized:


However, hemp has had a hard time competing with paper from trees or recycled newsprint. Only the outer part of the stem consists mainly of fibers which are suitable for the production of paper. Numerous attempts have been made to develop machines that efficiently and inexpensively separate useful fibers from less useful fibers, but none have been completely successful. This has meant that paper from hemp is still expensive compared to paper from trees.


Hemp jewelry  is the product of knotting hemp  twine  through the practice of  macramé . Hemp jewelry includes bracelets, necklaces, anklets, rings, watches, and other adornments. Some jewelry features beads made from crystals, glass,  stone , wood and  bones . The hemp twine varies in thickness and comes in a variety of colors. There are many different  stitches  used to create hemp jewelry, however, the half knot and full knot stitches are most common.


Hemp rope was used in the  age of sailing ships , though the rope had to be protected by  tarring , since hemp rope has a propensity for breaking from  rot , as the capillary effect of the rope-woven fibers tended to hold liquid at the interior, while seeming dry from the outside. [ 77 ]  Tarring was a labor-intensive process, and earned sailors the nickname " Jack Tar ". Hemp rope was phased out when  manila rope , which does not require tarring, became widely available. Manila is sometimes referred to as  Manila hemp , but is not related to hemp; it is  abacá , a species of banana.


Hemp shives are the core of the stem, hemp hurds are broken parts of the core. In the EU, they are used for animal bedding (horses, for instance), or for horticultural mulch. [ 78 ]  Industrial hemp is much more profitable if both fibers and shives (or even seeds) can be used.


Hemp can be used as a "mop crop" to clear impurities out of wastewater, such as sewage effluent, excessive phosphorus from chicken litter, or other unwanted substances or chemicals. Additionally, hemp is being used to clean contaminants at the  Chernobyl nuclear disaster  site, by way of a process which is known as  phytoremediation  – the process of clearing radioisotopes and a variety of other toxins from the soil, water, and air. [ 79 ]


Hemp crops are tall, have thick foliage, and can be planted densely, and thus can be grown as a  smother crop  to kill tough weeds. [ 80 ]  Using hemp this way can help farmers avoid the use of herbicides, gain  organic certification , and gain the benefits of  crop rotation . However, due to the plant's rapid and dense growth characteristics, some jurisdictions consider hemp a prohibited and noxious weed, much like  Scotch Broom . [ 81 ]


Biodiesel  can be made from the oils in hemp seeds and stalks; this product is sometimes called "hempoline". [ 82 ]   Alcohol fuel  (ethanol or, less commonly, methanol) can be made by fermenting the whole plant.


Filtered hemp oil can be used directly to power  diesel engines . In 1892,  Rudolf Diesel  invented the diesel engine, which he intended to power "by a variety of fuels, especially vegetable and seed oils, which earlier were used for  oil lamps , i.e. the  Argand lamp ". [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ]


Production of vehicle fuel from hemp is very small. Commercial  biodiesel  and  biogas  is typically produced from cereals, coconuts, palm seeds, and cheaper raw materials like garbage, wastewater, dead plant and animal material, animal  feces  and kitchen waste. [ 86 ]


Separation of hurd and bast fiber is known as  decortication . Traditionally, hemp stalks would be water- retted  first before the fibers were beaten off the inner  hurd  by hand, a process known as  scutching . As mechanical technology evolved, separating the fiber from the core was accomplished by crushing rollers and brush rollers, or by hammer-milling, wherein a mechanical hammer mechanism beats the hemp against a screen until hurd, smaller bast fibers, and dust fall through the screen. After the  Marijuana Tax Act  was implemented in 1938, the technology for separating the fibers from the core remained "frozen in time". Recently, new high-speed kinematic decortication has come about, capable of separating hemp into three streams; bast fiber, hurd, and green microfiber.


Only in 1997, did Ireland, parts of the Commonwealth and other countries begin to legally grow  industrial hemp  again. Iterations of the 1930s  decorticator  have been met with limited success, along with steam explosion and chemical processing known as  thermomechanical pulping . [ citation needed ]


Hemp is usually planted between March and May in the northern hemisphere, between September and November in the southern hemisphere. [ 87 ]  It matures in about three to four months, depending on various conditions.


Millennia of  selective breeding  have resulted in  varieties  that display a wide range of traits; e.g. suited for particular environments/latitudes, producing different ratios and compositions of terpenoids and  cannabinoids  (CBD, THC, CBG, CBC, CBN...etc.), fiber quality, oil/seed yield, etc. Hemp grown for fiber is planted closely, resulting in tall, slender plants with long fibers. [ 88 ]


The use of industrial hemp plant and its cultivation was commonplace until the 1900s when it was associated with its genetic sibling a.k.a. Drug-Type Cannabis species (which contain higher levels of psychoactive THC).  Influential groups misconstrued hemp  as a dangerous "drug", [ 89 ]  even though hemp is not a recreational drug and has the potential to be a sustainable and profitable crop for many farmers due to hemp's medical, structural and dietary uses. [ 90 ] [ 91 ]  In the United States, the public's perception of hemp as marijuana has blocked hemp from becoming a useful crop and product," [ 90 ]  in spite of its vital importance prior to World War II. [ 91 ]


Ideally, according to Britain's  Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs , the herb should be desiccated and harvested toward the end of flowering. This early cropping reduces the seed yield but improves the fiber yield and quality. [ 92 ]


The seeds are sown with grain drills or other conventional seeding equipment to a depth of  13 to 25 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2  to 1 in). Greater seeding depths result in increased weed competition. Nitrogen should not be placed with the seed, but phosphate may be tolerated. The soil should have available 89 to 135 kg/ha of nitrogen, 46 kg/ha phosphorus, 67 kg/ha potassium, and 17 kg/ha sulfur. Organic fertilizers such as manure are one of the best methods of weed control. [ 93 ]


In contrast to cannabis for medical use, varieties grown for fiber and seed have less than 0.3% THC and are unsuitable for producing hashish and marijuana. [ 94 ]  Present in industrial hemp,  cannabidiol  is a major constituent among some 560 compounds found in hemp. [ 95 ]


Cannabis sativa  L. subsp.  sativa  var.  sativa  is the variety grown for industrial use, while  C. sativa  subsp.  indica  generally has poor fiber quality and female buds from this variety are primarily used for recreational and medicinal purposes. The major differences between the two types of plants are the appearance, and the amount of Δ 9 - tetrahydrocannabinol  (THC) secreted in a resinous mixture by  epidermal  hairs called glandular  trichomes , although they can also be distinguished genetically. [ 94 ] [ 96 ]  Oilseed and fiber varieties of  Cannabis  approved for industrial hemp production produce only minute amounts of this psychoactive drug, not enough for any physical or psychological effects. Typically, hemp contains below 0.3% THC, while cultivars of  Cannabis  grown for medicinal or recreational use can contain anywhere from 2% to over 20%. [ 97 ]


Smallholder plots are usually harvested by hand. The plants are cut at 2 to 3 cm above the soil and left on the ground to dry. Mechanical harvesting is now common, using specially adapted cutter-binders or simpler cutters.


The cut hemp is laid in swathes to dry for up to four days. This was traditionally followed by  retting , either water retting (the bundled hemp floats in water) or dew retting (the hemp remains on the ground and is affected by the moisture in dew and by molds and  bacterial  action).


Several  arthropods  can cause damage or injury to hemp plants, but the most serious species are associated with the  Insecta  class. The most problematic for outdoor crops are the voracious stem-boring caterpillars, which include the  European corn borer ,  Ostrinia nubilalis,  and the Eurasian hemp borer,  Grapholita delineana. [ 98 ]   A s the names imply, they target the stems reducing the structural integrity of the plant. [ 98 ]  Another lepidopteran, the corn earworm,  Helicoverpa zea ,  is known to damage flowering parts and can be challenging to control. [ 99 ]  Other foliar pests, found in both indoor and outdoor crops, include the hemp russet mite,  Aculops cannibicola,  and cannabis aphid,  Phorodon cannabis. [ 99 ]  They cause injury by reducing plant vigor because they feed on the phloem of the plant. Root feeders can be difficult to detect and control because of their below surface habitat. A number of beetle grubs and chafers are known to cause damage to hemp roots, including the  flea beetle  and  Japanese beetle ,  Popillia Japonica . [ 98 ]  The  rice root aphid , Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale, has also been reported but primarily affects indoor growing facilities. [ 99 ]   Integrated pest management  strategies should be employed to manage these pests with prevention and early detection being the foundation of a resilient program. Cultural and physical controls should be employed in conjunction with  biological pest controls , chemical applications should only be used as a last resort.


Hemp plants can be vulnerable to various  pathogens , including bacteria, fungi,  nematodes ,  viruses  and other miscellaneous pathogens. Such diseases often lead to reduced fiber quality, stunted growth, and death of the plant. These diseases rarely affect the yield of a hemp field, so hemp production is not traditionally dependent on the use of pesticides.


Hemp is considered by a 1998 study in  Environmental Economics  to be  environmentally friendly  due to a decrease of  land use  and other environmental impacts, indicating a possible decrease of  ecological footprint  in a US context compared to typical benchmarks. [ 100 ]  A 2010 study, however, that compared the production of paper specifically from hemp and  eucalyptus  concluded that "industrial hemp presents higher environmental impacts than eucalyptus paper"; however, the article also highlights that "there is scope for improving industrial hemp paper production". [ 101 ]  Hemp is also claimed to require few  pesticides  and no herbicides, and it has been called a  carbon negative  raw material. [ 102 ] [ 103 ]
Results indicate that high yield of hemp may require high total nutrient levels (field plus fertilizer nutrients) similar to a high yielding wheat crop. [ 104 ]
A United Nations report endorses the versatility and sustainability of hemp and its productive potential in developing countries. Hemp uses a quarter of the water required by cotton, and absorbs more carbon dioxide than other crops and most trees. [ 105 ]


The world-leading producer of hemp is China, which produces more than 70% of the world output. France ranks second with about a quarter of the world production. Smaller production occurs in the rest of Europe, Chile, and  North Korea . Over 30 countries produce industrial hemp, including Australia,  Austria , Canada, Chile, China,  Denmark ,  Egypt ,  Finland , Germany,  Greece , [ 106 ]   Hungary , India, Italy, Japan,  Korea ,  Netherlands , New Zealand,  Poland ,  Portugal ,  Romania , Russia,  Slovenia , Spain, Sweden,  Switzerland ,  Thailand ,  Turkey , the United Kingdom and  Ukraine . [ 107 ] [ 108 ]


The United Kingdom and Germany resumed commercial production in the 1990s. British production is mostly used as bedding for horses; other uses are under development. Companies in Canada, the UK, the United States, and Germany, among many others, process hemp seed into a growing range of food products and cosmetics; many traditional growing countries continue to produce textile-grade fiber.


Air-dried stem yields in Ontario have from 1998 and onward ranged from 2.6 to 14.0 tons of dry, retted stalks per hectare (1–5.5 t/ac) at 12% moisture. Yields in Kent County, have averaged 8.75 t/ha (3.5 t/ac). Northern Ontario crops averaged 6.1 t/ha (2.5 t/ac) in 1998. Statistic for the European Union for 2008 to 2010 say that the average yield of hemp straw has varied between 6.3 and 7.3 ton per ha. [ 109 ] [ 110 ]  Only a part of that is bast fiber. Around one ton of bast fiber and 2–3 tons of core material can be decorticated from 3–4 tons of good-quality, dry-retted straw. For an annual yield of this level is it in Ontario recommended to add nitrogen (N):70–110 kg/ha,  phosphate  (P 2 O 5 ): up to 80 kg/ha and  potash  (K 2 O): 40–90 kg/ha. [ 111 ]
The average yield of dry hemp stalks in Europe was 6 ton/ha (2.4 ton/ac) in 2001 and 2002. [ 14 ]


FAO  argue that an optimum yield of hemp fiber is more than 2 tons per ha, while average yields are around 650 kg/ha. [ 112 ]


In the Australian states of  Tasmania , Victoria,  Queensland ,  Western Australia ,  New South Wales , and most recently,  South Australia , the state governments have issued licenses to grow hemp for industrial use. The first to initiate modern research into the potential of cannabis was the state of Tasmania, which pioneered the licensing of hemp during the early 1990s. The state of Victoria was an early adopter in 1998, and has reissued the regulation in 2008. [ 113 ]


Queensland has allowed industrial production under license since 2002, [ 114 ]  where the issuance is controlled under the Drugs Misuse Act 1986. [ 115 ]
Western Australia enabled the cultivation, harvest and processing of hemp under its Industrial Hemp Act 2004, [ 116 ]  New South Wales now issues licenses [ 117 ]  under a law, the Hemp Industry Regulations Act 2008 (No 58), that came into effect as of 6 November 2008. [ 118 ]
Most recently, South Australia legalized industrial hemp under South Australia's Industrial Hemp Act 2017, which commenced on 12 November 2017. [ 119 ]


Commercial production (including cultivation) of industrial hemp has been permitted in Canada since 1998 under licenses and authorization issued by Health Canada. [ 120 ]


In the early 1990s, industrial hemp agriculture in North America began with the  Hemp Awareness Committee  at the  University of Manitoba . The Committee worked with the provincial government to get research and development assistance and was able to obtain test plot permits from the  Canadian government . Their efforts led to the legalization of  industrial hemp  (hemp with only minute amounts of  tetrahydrocannabinol ) in Canada and the first harvest in 1998. [ 121 ] [ 122 ]


In 2017, the cultivated area for hemp in the  Prairie provinces  include  Saskatchewan  with more than 56,000 acres (23,000 ha),  Alberta  with 45,000 acres (18,000 ha), and  Manitoba  with 30,000 acres (12,000 ha). [ 123 ]  Canadian hemp is cultivated mostly for its food value as hulled hemp seeds, hemp oils, and hemp protein powders, with only a small fraction devoted to production of hemp fiber used for construction and insulation. [ 123 ]


France is Europe's biggest producer (and the world's second largest producer) with 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres) cultivated. [ 124 ]  70–80% of the hemp fiber produced in 2003 was used for specialty pulp for cigarette papers and technical applications. About 15% was used in the automotive sector, and 5–6% was used for insulation mats. About 95% of hurds were used as animal bedding, while almost 5% was used in the building sector. [ 14 ]  In 2010–2011, a total of 11,000 hectares (27,000 acres) was cultivated with hemp in the EU, a decline compared with previous year. [ 110 ] [ 125 ]


From the 1950s to the 1980s, the  Soviet Union  was the world's largest producer of hemp (3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi) in 1970). The main production areas were in  Ukraine , [ 126 ]  the  Kursk  and  Orel  regions of Russia, and near the Polish border. Since its inception in 1931, the Hemp Breeding Department at the Institute of  Bast  Crops in  Hlukhiv  (Glukhov), Ukraine, has been one of the world's largest centers for developing new hemp varieties, focusing on improving fiber quality, per-hectare yields, and low THC content. [ 127 ]


After the collapse of the  Soviet Union , the commercial cultivation of hemp declined sharply. However, at least an estimated 2.5 million acres of hemp grow wild in the Russian Far East and the Black Sea regions. [ 128 ]


In the United Kingdom, cultivation licenses are issued by the  Home Office  under the  Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 . When grown for nondrug purposes, hemp is referred to as industrial hemp, and a common product is fiber for use in a wide variety of products, as well as the seed for nutritional aspects and the oil.  Feral hemp  or ditch weed is usually a naturalized fiber or oilseed strain of  Cannabis  that has escaped from cultivation and is self-seeding. [ 129 ]


In October 2019, hemp became legal to grow in 46 U.S. states under federal law. As of 2019, 47 states have enacted legislation to make hemp legal to grow at the state level, with  several states  implementing medical provisions regarding the growing of plants specifically for non-psychoactive CBD. [ 130 ]


The  2018 Farm Bill , which incorporated the  Hemp Farming Act of 2018 , removed hemp as a  Schedule I drug  and instead made it an agricultural commodity. This legalized hemp at the federal level, which made it easier for hemp farmers to get production licenses, acquire loans, and receive federal crop insurance. [ 131 ]


The process to legalize hemp cultivation began in 2009, when Oregon began approving licenses for industrial hemp. [ 133 ]  Then, in 2013, after the legalization of marijuana, several farmers in Colorado planted and harvested several acres of hemp, bringing in the first hemp crop in the United States in over half a century. [ 134 ]  After that, the federal government created a Hemp Farming Pilot Program as a part of the Agricultural Act of 2014. [ 135 ]  This program allowed institutions of higher education and state agricultural departments to begin growing hemp without the consent of the  Drug Enforcement Administration  (DEA).  Hemp production in Kentucky , formerly the United States' leading producer, resumed in 2014. [ 136 ]   Hemp production in North Carolina  resumed in 2017, [ 137 ]  and in Washington State the same year. [ 138 ]  By the end of 2017, at least 34 U.S. states had industrial hemp programs. In 2018, New York began taking strides in industrial hemp production, along with hemp research pilot programs at  Cornell University ,  Binghamton University  and  SUNY Morrisville . [ 139 ]


As of 2017, the hemp industry estimated that annual sales of hemp products were around $820 million annually; hemp-derived CBD have been the major force driving this growth. [ 140 ]


Despite this progress, hemp businesses in the US have had difficulties expanding as they have faced challenges in traditional marketing and sales approaches. According to a case study done by  Forbes , hemp businesses and startups have had difficulty marketing and selling non-psychoactive hemp products, as majority of online advertising platforms and financial institutions do not distinguish between hemp and marijuana. [ 141 ]


Gathered hemp fiber was used to make cloth long before agriculture, nine to fifty thousand years ago. [ 3 ]  It may also be one of the earliest plants to have been cultivated. [ 143 ] [ 144 ]  An archeological site in the  Oki Islands  of Japan contained cannabis  achenes  from about 8000 BC, probably signifying use of the plant. [ 145 ]  Hemp use archaeologically dates back to the  Neolithic Age  in China, with hemp fiber imprints found on  Yangshao culture  pottery dating from the  5th millennium BC . [ 142 ] [ 146 ]  The Chinese later used hemp to make clothes, shoes, ropes, and an early form of paper. [ 142 ]  The classical Greek historian  Herodotus  (ca. 480 BC) reported that the inhabitants of  Scythia  would often inhale the vapors of hemp-seed smoke, both as ritual and for their own pleasurable recreation. [ 147 ]


Textile expert  Elizabeth Wayland Barber  summarizes the historical evidence that  Cannabis sativa , "grew and was known in the Neolithic period all across the northern latitudes, from Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Romania, Ukraine) to East Asia (Tibet and China)," but, "textile use of Cannabis sativa does not surface for certain in the West until relatively late, namely the Iron Age." [ 148 ]
"I strongly suspect, however, that what catapulted hemp to sudden fame and fortune as a cultigen and caused it to spread rapidly westwards in the first millennium B.C. was the spread of the habit of pot-smoking from somewhere in south-central Asia, where the drug-bearing variety of the plant originally occurred. The linguistic evidence strongly supports this theory, both as to time and direction of spread and as to cause." [ 149 ]


Jews living in  Palestine  in the 2nd century were familiar with the cultivation of hemp, as witnessed by a reference to it in the  Mishna  ( Kil'ayim  2:5) as a variety of plant, along with  arum , that sometimes takes as many as three years to grow from a seedling. In  late medieval   Holy Roman Empire  (Germany) and  Italy , hemp was employed in cooked dishes, as filling in  pies  and  tortes , or boiled in a soup. [ 150 ]  Hemp in later Europe was mainly cultivated for its fibers and was used for ropes on many ships, including those of  Christopher Columbus . The use of hemp as a cloth was centered largely in the countryside, with higher quality textiles being available in the towns.


The Spaniards brought hemp to the Americas and cultivated it in Chile starting about 1545. [ 151 ]  Similar attempts were made in Peru, Colombia, and Mexico, but only in Chile did the crop find success. [ 152 ]  In July 1605,  Samuel Champlain  reported the use of grass and hemp clothing by the (Wampanoag) people of Cape Cod and the (Nauset) people of Plymouth Bay told him they harvested hemp in their region where it grew wild to a height of 4 to 5 ft.
 [ 153 ]  In May 1607, "hempe" was among the crops Gabriel Archer observed being cultivated by the natives at the main  Powhatan  village, where  Richmond, Virginia , is now situated; [ 154 ]  and in 1613,  Samuell Argall  reported wild hemp "better than that in England" growing along the shores of the upper  Potomac . As early as 1619, the first Virginia  House of Burgesses  passed an Act requiring all planters in Virginia to sow "both English and Indian" hemp on their plantations. [ 155 ]  The  Puritans  are first known to have cultivated hemp in  New England  in 1645. [ 151 ]


George Washington  pushed for the growth of hemp as it was a  cash crop  commonly used to make rope and fabric. In May 1765 he noted in his diary about the sowing of seeds each day until mid-April. Then he recounts the harvest in October which he grew 27 bushels that year.


It is sometimes supposed that an excerpt from Washington's diary, which reads "Began to seperate [ sic ] the Male from the Female hemp at Do.&—rather too late" is evidence that he was trying to grow female plants for the  THC  found in the flowers. However, the editorial remark accompanying the diary states that "This may arise from their [the male] being coarser, and the stalks larger" [ 156 ]  In subsequent days, he describes soaking the hemp [ 157 ]  (to make the fibers usable) and harvesting the seeds, [ 158 ]  suggesting that he was growing hemp for industrial purposes, not recreational.


George Washington also imported the Indian hemp plant from Asia, which was used for fiber and, by some growers, for intoxicating resin production. In a 1796 letter to William Pearce who managed the plants for him, Washington says, "What was done with the Indian Hemp plant from last summer? It ought, all of it, to be sown again; that not only a stock of seed sufficient for my own purposes might have been raised, but to have disseminated seed to others; as it is more valuable than common hemp." [ 159 ] [ 160 ]


Other presidents known to have farmed hemp for alternative purposes include  Thomas Jefferson , [ 161 ]   James Madison ,  James Monroe ,  Andrew Jackson ,  Zachary Taylor , and  Franklin Pierce . [ 162 ]


Historically, hemp production had made up a significant portion of  antebellum  Kentucky's economy. Before the  American Civil War , many slaves worked on  plantations  producing hemp. [ 163 ]


In 1937, the  Marihuana Tax Act of 1937  was passed in the United States, levying a tax on anyone who dealt commercially in cannabis, hemp, or marijuana. The passing of the Act to destroy the U.S. hemp industry has been reputed to involve businessmen  Andrew Mellon ,  Randolph Hearst  and the  Du Pont family . [ 164 ] [ 165 ] [ 166 ]


One claim is that Hearst believed [ dubious  –  discuss ]  that his extensive timber holdings were threatened by the invention of the  decorticator  that he feared would allow hemp to become a cheap substitute for the  paper pulp  used for newspaper. [ 164 ] [ 167 ]  Historical research indicates this fear was unfounded because improvements of the  decorticators  in the 1930s – machines that separated the fibers from the hemp stem – could not make hemp fiber a cheaper substitute for fibers from other sources. Further, decorticators did not perform satisfactorily in commercial production. [ 168 ] [ 164 ]


Another claim is that Mellon,  Secretary of the Treasury  and the wealthiest man in America at that time, had invested heavily in  DuPont 's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and believed [ dubious  –  discuss ]  that the replacement of the traditional resource, hemp, was integral to the new product's success. [ 164 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ] [ 171 ] [ 172 ] [ 173 ] [ 174 ] [ 175 ]  DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp, nylon became immediately a scarce commodity. [ clarification needed ]  Nylon had characteristics that could be used for  toothbrushes  (sold from 1938) and very thin nylon fiber could compete with silk and  rayon  in various textiles normally not produced from hemp fiber, such as very thin stockings for women. [ 168 ] [ 176 ] [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ]


While the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 had just been signed into law, the United States Department of Agriculture lifted the tax on hemp cultivation during WWII. [ 180 ]  Before WWII, the U.S. Navy used Jute and Manila Hemp from the Philippines and Indonesia for the cordage on their ships. During the war, Japan cut off those supply lines. [ 181 ]  America was forced to turn inward and revitalize the cultivation of Hemp on U.S. soils.


Hemp was used extensively by the United States during World War II to make uniforms, canvas, and rope. [ 182 ]  Much of the hemp used was cultivated in  Kentucky  and the  Midwest . During World War II, the U.S. produced a short 1942 film,  Hemp for Victory , promoting hemp as a necessary crop to win the war. [ 181 ]  By the 1980s the film was largely forgotten, and the U.S. government even denied its existence. [ 183 ]  The film, and the important historical role of hemp in U.S. agriculture and commerce was brought to light by hemp activist  Jack Herer  in the book  The Emperor Wears No Clothes .


U.S. farmers participated in the campaign to increase U.S. hemp production to 36,000 acres in 1942. [ 184 ]  This increase amounted to more than 20 times the production in 1941 before the war effort. [ 184 ]


In the United States, Executive Order 12919 (1994) identified hemp as a strategic national product that should be stockpiled. [ 185 ]


Hemp has been grown for millennia in Asia and the Middle East for its fiber. Commercial production of hemp in the West took off in the eighteenth century, but was grown in the sixteenth century in eastern England. [ 188 ]  Because of colonial and naval expansion of the era, economies needed large quantities of hemp for rope and  oakum . In the early 1940s, world production of hemp fiber ranged from 250,000 to 350,000 metric tons, Russia was the biggest producer. [ 168 ]


In Western Europe, the cultivation of hemp was not legally banned by the 1930s, but the commercial cultivation stopped by then, due to decreased demand compared to increasingly popular artificial fibers. [ 189 ]  Speculation about the potential for commercial cultivation of hemp in large quantities has been criticized due to successful competition from other fibers for many products. The world production of hemp fiber fell from over 300,000 metric tons 1961 to about 75,000 metric tons in the early 1990s and has after that been stable at that level. [ 190 ]


In Japan, hemp was historically used as paper and a fiber crop. There is archaeological evidence cannabis was used for clothing and the seeds were eaten in Japan back to the  Jōmon period  (10,000 to 300 BC). Many  Kimono  designs portray hemp, or  asa  ( Japanese :  麻 ), as a beautiful plant. In 1948, marijuana was restricted as a narcotic drug. The ban on marijuana imposed by the United States authorities was alien to Japanese culture, as the drug had never been widely used in Japan before. Though these laws against marijuana are some of the world's strictest, allowing five years imprisonment for possession of the drug, they exempt hemp growers, whose crop is used to make robes for  Buddhist monks  and  loincloths  for  Sumo wrestlers . Because marijuana use in Japan has doubled in the past decade, these exemptions have recently been called into question. [ 191 ]


The cultivation of hemp in Portuguese lands began around the fourteenth century. [ citation needed ]  The raw material was used for the preparation of rope and plugs for the Portuguese ships. Portugal also utilized its colonies to support its hemp supply, including in certain parts of Brazil. [ 192 ]


In order to recover the ailing Portuguese naval fleet after the Restoration of Independence in 1640, King John IV put a renewed emphasis on the growing of hemp. He ordered the creation of the Royal Linen and Hemp Factory in the town of Torre de Moncorvo to increase production and support the effort. [ 193 ]


In 1971, the cultivation of hemp became illegal, and the production was substantially reduced. Because of EU regulations 1308–70, 619/71 and 1164–89, this law was revoked (for some certified seed varieties). [ 194 ]


The  United Nations agreement on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction  or  BBNJ Agreement , also referred to by some stakeholders as the  High Seas Treaty  or   Global Ocean Treaty , [ 2 ]  is a legally binding  instrument  for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. [ 3 ]  There is some controversy over the popularized name of the agreement. [ 4 ]  It is an agreement under the  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea  (UNCLOS). [ 5 ]  The text was finalised during an intergovernmental conference at the UN on 4 March 2023 and adopted on 19 June 2023. [ 6 ]  Both states and regional economic integration organizations can become parties to the treaty. [ 7 ]


In 2017, the  United Nations General Assembly  (UNGA) had voted to convene an  intergovernmental conference  (IGC) to consider establishing an international legally binding instrument (ILBI) on the conservation and sustainable use of  biodiversity  beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ). This was considered necessary because UNCLOS did not provide a framework for areas beyond national jurisdiction. [ 8 ]  There was a particular concern for marine biodiversity and the impact of overfishing on global fish stocks and ecosystem stability. [ 8 ]


The treaty addresses four themes: [ 9 ] [ 10 ]  (1) marine  genetic resources  (MGRs) and their  Digital sequence information , including the fair and equitable sharing of benefits; (2) area-based management tools (ABMTs), including  marine protected areas  (MPAs); (3)  environmental impact assessments  (EIAs); and (4)  capacity building  and transfer of  marine technology  (CB&TMT). The area-based management tools and environmental impact assessments relate mainly to conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity, while the marine genetic resources and capacity building and transfer of marine technology include issues of economic justice and equity. [ 11 ]


Greenpeace  called it "the biggest conservation victory ever". [ 12 ]  The main achievement is the new possibility to create marine protected areas in international waters. By doing so the agreement now makes it possible to protect 30% of the oceans by 2030 (part of the  30 by 30  target). [ 13 ] [ 12 ]  Though the agreement does not directly address  climate change , it also serves as a step towards protecting the ecosystems that store carbon in sediments. [ 14 ]


The treaty has 75 articles and its main purpose is "to take stewardship of the world’s oceans for present and future generations, care for and protect the marine environment and ensure its responsible use, maintain the integrity of undersea ecosystems and conserve marine biological diversity’s inherent value". The treaty recognizes  traditional knowledge . It has articles regarding the "polluter-pays" principle, and different impacts of human activities including areas beyond the national jurisdiction of the countries making those activities. The agreement was adopted by the 193 United Nations Member States. [ 15 ]


Before the treaty can enter into force, it needs to be ratified by at least 60 UN member states. This process is likely to take some time. The former treaty,  UNCLOS , was adopted in 1982 and entered into force in 1994. As of October 2024, [update]  UNCLOS has 170 parties. [ 16 ]  The European Union pledged financial support for the process of ratification and implementation of the treaty. [ 17 ]


The world's oceans are facing a severe decline in  biodiversity  and degradation of  ecosystems  due to threats related to  climate change  and the expansion of human activities, such as  shipping ,  overfishing ,  plastic pollution  and  deep-sea mining . [ 10 ] [ 9 ]  Consequently, there is a pressing need for a more cohesive  ocean governance  framework, since the existing framework is too fragmented and incomplete to effectively secure conservation and sustainably use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. The High Seas treaty aims to address the regulatory gaps, [ 18 ]  by promoting coherence and coordination with and among existing institutions, frameworks, and bodies. [ 19 ]


The areas beyond national jurisdiction comprise the ' high seas ' (water column) and the ‘ area ’ (seabeds), making up about two-thirds of the ocean. [ 20 ] [ 11 ]  The areas are currently regulated by different regional and sectoral agreements, such as  regional fisheries management organisations  (RFMOs). [ 9 ]  However, they can only implement measures within their own respective mandates and cooperation is lacking. [ 21 ]  Additionally, only a few areas are covered, leaving the majority effectively unregulated. The remaining one-third of the ocean falls under national jurisdiction and is situated within the  exclusive economic zones  (EEZs). The exclusive economic zones extend 200 nautical miles (about 370 km) from the territorial sea baseline. The zones are established under UNCLOS, giving coastal states the  jurisdiction  over the living and non-living resources within the water and the seabeds. [ 22 ]


A new agreement under UNCLOS for areas beyond national jurisdiction has been discussed at the United Nations for almost 20 years. [ 11 ]  The United Nations began preparatory meetings in 2004 to lay the foundation for an Implementing Agreement to UNCLOS addressing governance and regulatory gaps. [ 23 ]


On 24 December 2017, the  United Nations General Assembly  adopted Resolution 72/249 to convene an intergovernmental conference and undertake formal negotiations for a new international legally binding instrument under the UNCLOS for the conservation and sustainable development of marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. [ 3 ]  Between 2018 and 2023, diplomats have gathered at the  UN Headquarters  in New York City for negotiating sessions. There have so far been five sessions in total. [ 3 ]


The  intergovernmental conference  (IGC) convened a total of six sessions in 2018, 2019, 2022 and 2023 to negotiate the text for the BBNJ legal instrument: [ 24 ]


During the first session in September 2018, the concept of 'Beyond National Jurisdiction' seemed to have a greater influence on positions taken than the direct concerns regarding 'Biodiversity' itself. [ 25 ]


In January 2024, Ambassador  Ilana Seid  presented the agreement of Palau to the agreement. Palau was the first of the sixty required to agree with the new treaty. [ 35 ]


Marine genetic resources (MGRs), including the fair and equitable sharing of benefits is the first element mentioned in the treaty. Among other things, marine genetic resources can enable production of biochemicals that can be used in  cosmetics ,  pharmaceuticals  and  food supplements . The  economic value  of the resources is for now unclear, but the potential for profits has created an increased interest in the resources exploration and exploitation among stakeholders. [ 9 ]


During the UN negotiations it has been a contentious point whether or not marine genetic resources should apply to ‘ fish ’ and ‘fishing activities’. [ 36 ]  If not, it would be likely to impact the ability of the High Seas treaty to address its objective, since fish are a major component of marine biodiversity and play an essential role in the functioning of marine ecosystems, according to some experts. [ 37 ]  However, the final treaty text states that the provisions about marine genetic resources do not apply to ‘fish’ and ‘fishing’ in areas beyond national jurisdiction. [ 38 ]


The part about fair and equitable sharing of benefits has also been a point of dispute in the negotiations. [ 11 ]  In the end it was agreed upon to regulate non-monetary as well as monetary benefits. Furthermore, an access and benefit-sharing committee will be established with the purpose of providing guidelines for the benefit-sharing, and ensuring that this is done in a transparent, fair, and equitable way. [ 39 ]


Area-based management tools (ABMTs), including marine protected areas (MPAs) are recognized as key tools for conserving and restoring  biodiversity . [ 22 ]  They can be used to protect, preserve and maintain certain areas beyond national jurisdiction.  Marine protected areas  offer a degree of long term conservation, and are already established in some areas. [ 22 ]  However, the protection level of biodiversity varies a lot and the protected areas only cover a small proportion of the areas beyond national jurisdiction. Area based management tools can be used for short-term and emergency measures and to address a specific sector. [ 22 ]


The process to establish a tool or a protected area is as follows. First, a part under the High Seas treaty has to submit a proposal for an area-based management tool or a marine protected area. The proposal has to be based on the best available sciences and information. It will be made publicly available and transmitted to the Scientific and Technical Body to be reviewed. Hereafter, relevant stakeholders have to be consulted. The proposal has to be adopted by consensus - or if this is not possible, three-quarter majority of the representatives present and voting. The decision will enter into force within 120 days after the voting, and will be binding for all parties of the treaty. However, if a part within the 120 days makes an objection to the decision, an opt-out is possible. [ 41 ]


After the treaty text was finalised, it has been reported that the treaty through marine protected areas will protect 30 pct. of the oceans by 2030 - a target adopted at the  UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15)  in December 2022 - however this is not the case, according to experts. [ 42 ]  The treaty can help to implement the 30 by 30 biodiversity target in the oceans, but it will a require a lot of action by states. [ 43 ]


Environmental impact assessments  have the potential to predict, reduce and prevent human activities affecting marine biodiversity and ecosystems. [ 9 ]  While the institutional and legal framework for environmental impact assessments is well established in areas within national jurisdiction, it is less developed in areas beyond. [ 44 ]  Under the treaty, participating parties are obliged to conduct environmental impact assessments when a planned activity may have an effect on the marine environment, or when there is insufficient knowledge about its potential effects. In such cases, the party possessing jurisdiction or control over the activity is required to conduct the assessment. [ 45 ]


The treaty also includes provisions for  Strategic Environmental Assessments  (SEAs), which are assessments that are more holistic and focused on long-term environmental protection compared to the more specific focus of environmental impact assessments. Parties under the treaty have to consider conducting a strategic environmental assessment for plans and programmes related to their activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction, but are not obliged to conduct one. [ 46 ]


Capacity building  and the transfer of  marine technology  concerns the equitable access to research conducted in  international waters  and enabling cooperation and participation in the activities outlined in the agreement. Different types of capacity building and transfer of technology are mentioned in the agreement, such as sharing of information and research results; develop and share manuals, guidelines and standards; collaboration and cooperation in marine science; and develop and strengthen institutional capacity and national regulation or mechanisms. [ 47 ]


Technology plays an important role in the implementation, making capacity building and technology transfer essential for the enforcement of the treaty. [ 48 ]  A key focus is to support developing and geographically disadvantaged states in implementing the agreement. [ 49 ]


Furthermore, a capacity-building and transfer of marine technology committee will be established, in order to monitor and review the undertaken initiatives, under the authority of the Conference of the Parties. [ 50 ]


The treaty introduces a new institutional framework in part VI about 'Institutional Arrangements', including the Conference of the Parties, the Scientific and Technical Body, the secretariat and the clearing-house mechanism. [ 51 ]


The Conference of the parties (COP)  will have its first meeting one year after the treaty  enters into force , at the latest. The rules of procedure and the financial rules will be adopted at the first meeting. The Conference of the Parties will review and evaluate the implementation of the High Seas treaty. The Conference has to take decisions and adopt recommendations by  consensus  - or if it is not possible to reach consensus after all efforts have been exhausted, adopted by a two-thirds majority of the parties present and voting. The Conference will also have to promote transparency in the implementation of the agreement and the related activities. Five years after the treaty enters into force, the Conference of Parties has to review the treaty. [ 52 ]


The Scientific and Technical Body  will be composed of members nominated by the parties and elected by the Conference of the Parties, serving as experts and in the best interest of the agreement. The need for multidisciplinary expertise has to be taken into account in the nomination and election of members. The Scientific and Technical Body will among other things provide scientific and technical advice to the Conference of the Parties, monitor and review area-based management tools and comment on environmental impact assessments. [ 53 ]


The secretariat  is responsible for providing administrative and logistical support to the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies. This includes tasks, such as arranging and servicing the meetings, as well as circulating information relating to the implementation of the treaty in a timely manner. [ 54 ]


The clearing-house mechanism  will work as an open-access platform, facilitating the access, provision, and dissemination of information. It will promote transparency and facilitate international cooperation and collaboration. The mechanism will be managed by the secretariat. [ 55 ]


In addition, the treaty establishes an 'access and benefit-sharing committee', a 'capacity-building and transfer of marine technology committee', a 'finance committee on financial resources' and an 'implementation and compliance committee'. However, these are not mentioned in the section about institutional arrangements. [ 56 ]


The European Union pledged financial support for the process of ratification and implementation of the treaty. [ 17 ]


The expression  Indigenous Caucus  (or  Caucus of Indigenous Peoples ) refers to informal groups of  Indigenous peoples  representatives with  ad hoc  rules of engagement in certain  United Nations  and other  intergovernmental  fora.


An Indigenous Caucus participates as observer to the  World Intellectual Property Organization  (WIPO), particularly its  Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore  (IGC). [ 1 ]


Indigenous Peoples participate in the  Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore  as observers for their respective organizations, but also collectively through the informal Indigenous Caucus, "averaging around 25 to 30 people per session." [ 2 ]


According to WIPO IGC's Practical Guide for Participants:


Upon invitation of the Chairperson of the WIPO Indigenous Caucus, accredited observers who represent indigenous and local communities meet at the Indigenous Consultative Forum in order to prepare for the IGC on the day preceding its session. A meeting room is made available by WIPO for that purpose. Any accredited observer who represents indigenous and local communities and who wishes to attend the Consultative Forum is requested to advise the WIPO Secretariat in advance in order to be granted a badge at his or her arrival at the WIPO premises. [ 3 ]


The Indigenous Caucus also participated [ 4 ]  in the  Diplomatic Conference on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge  which concluded the  GRATK Treaty  in May 2024 in Geneva, Switzerland. [ 5 ]


During the Conference, the Caucus served as a coordinating forum, enabling its participants with "pivotal roles in liaising with their respective country delegations and others they could connect with." [ 6 ]  In addition, in the middle of the Diplomatic Conference, "a rotating member of the Indigenous Caucus" was allowed to participated in the reduced negotiating group, where other participants were representatives of WIPO's regional country groups. [ 7 ]  As a participant to the Caucus related during the Diplomatic Conference:


The process gets truncated from now on with a much smaller group of representatives, including a rotating member of the Indigenous Caucus, participating in informal negotiations before wording is brought back to the two committees and then to a legal drafting group and into the final plenary session by Friday [24 May]. [ 8 ]


The United Nations Forum on Business and Human Rights (UNFBHR) also has a Caucus of Indigenous Peoples. [ 9 ]


Africa


Eurasia


North America


Oceania


South America


An  intellectual property  ( IP )  infringement  is the infringement or violation of an  intellectual property right . There are several types of intellectual property rights, such as  copyrights ,  patents ,  trademarks ,  industrial designs , plant breeders rights [ 1 ]  and  trade secrets . Therefore, an intellectual property infringement may for instance be one of the following:


Techniques to detect (or deter) intellectual property infringement include:


Designing around  a patent can sometimes be a way to avoid infringing it.


Companies or individuals who infringe on intellectual property rights produce  counterfeit  or  pirated  products and services. [ 3 ]  An example of a counterfeit product is if a vendor were to place a well-known logo on a piece of clothing that said company did not produce. An example of a pirated product is if an individual were to distribute unauthorized copies of a DVD for a profit of their own. [ 3 ]  In such circumstances, the law has the right to punish. Companies may seek out remedies themselves, however, "Criminal sanctions are often warranted to ensure sufficient punishment and deterrence of wrongful activity". [ 3 ]


This  law -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


The  Lacandon Jungle  ( Spanish :  Selva Lacandona ) is an area of rainforest which stretches from  Chiapas, Mexico , into  Guatemala . The heart of this rainforest is located in the  Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve  in Chiapas near the border with Guatemala in the Montañas del Oriente region of the state. Although much of the jungle outside the reserve has been cleared, the Lacandon is still one of the largest  montane rainforests  in  Mexico . It contains 1,500 tree species, 33% of all Mexican bird species, 25% of all Mexican animal species, 56% of all Mexican diurnal butterflies and 16% of all Mexico's fish species.


The Lacandon in Chiapas is also home to a number of important Mayan archaeological sites including  Palenque ,  Yaxchilan  and  Bonampak , with numerous smaller sites which remain partially or fully unexcavated. This rainforest, especially the area inside the Biosphere Reserve, is a source of political tension, pitting the  EZLN or Zapatistas  and their indigenous allies who want to farm the land against international environmental groups and the  Lacandon Maya , the original indigenous group of the area and the one that holds the title to most of the lands in the Montes Azules.


The  jungle  has approximately 1.9 million hectares stretching from southeast Chiapas into northern Guatemala and into the southern Yucatán Peninsula. The Chiapas portion is located on the Montañas del Oriente (Eastern Mountains) centered on a series of canyonlike valleys called the Cañadas, between smaller mountain ridges oriented from northwest to southeast. It is bordered by the Guatemalan border on two sides with  Comitán de Domínguez  to the southwest and the city of  Palenque  to north. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  Dividing the Chiapas part of the forest from the Guatemalan side is the  Usumacinta River , which is the largest river in Mexico and the seventh largest in the world based on volume of water. [ 2 ]


The core of the Chiapas forest is the  Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve , but it also includes some other protected areas such as  Nahá–Metzabok ,  Bonampak ,  Yaxchilan ,  Chan-Kin ,  Lacan-Tun , and the communal reserve of La Cojolita.


The area has a mostly hot and humid climate ( Köppen   Amg ) with most rain falling from summer into fall, with an average of 2,300 to 2,600 millimetres (91 to 102 in) per year. There is a short dry season from March to May when as little as  30 millimetres (1.2 in) falls. The average annual temperature is  24.7 °C (76.5 °F). [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  The abundance of rain supports a large number of small rivers and streams many of which are fast moving and have waterfalls, such as the  Agua Azul  and the Lacanja waterfalls. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  The soils of the area are mostly clay and lacking  phosphorus  but sufficient to support a large diversity of plant species. [ 5 ]


Despite the fact that much of the area has been reduced to a patchwork of clearings for cattle ranches and peasant communities, [ 3 ]  the Lacandon contains some of the most extensive and best preserved remnants of lower montane rainforest in Mexico and  Central America . [ 1 ]  The best conserved area is within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, which has about 290,000 hectares of the Reserve in good condition. [ 9 ]  The Lacandon is the best known of Mexico's rainforest areas because of the attention it has received in the press and efforts by international organizations to protect what is left of it. [ 10 ]  The Lacandon is one of the most biodiverse rainforests in the world, with as much as 25% of Mexico's total species diversity. [ 1 ] [ 6 ]  The predominant native vegetation is perennial high rainforest with trees that can grow to an average height of thirty meters and often to fifty or sixty including  Guatteria anomala ,  Ceiba pentandra ,  Swietenia macrophylla ,  Terminalia amazonia  and  Ulmus mexicana . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  Mammoth  guanacaste  trees shrouded in vines and  bromeliads  among clear running streams, enormous ferns, palms and wild elephant's ear plants can still be seen. [ 8 ]  One of the most common plants is  Cynodon plectostachyus , a non-native grass species introduced as a pasture crop for livestock. [ 5 ]  It has 1,500 tree species, 33% of all Mexican bird species, 25% of all Mexican animal species, 44% of all Mexican diurnal butterflies and 10% of all Mexico's fish species. [ 3 ]  The jungle contains many endangered species such as the  red macaw , the eagle, the  tapir , the  spider monkey , the  howler monkeys , and the swamp crocodile. [ 2 ]   Jaguars  are reported from this forest. [ 8 ] [ 11 ]


Its size and biodiversity has designated it as a " biodiversity hotspot " by the Washington, DC, based environmental group  Conservation International  and under the  Puebla-Panama Plan . It is part of the  Mesoamerican Biological Corridor , which aims to link similar sites from the  Isthmus of Tehuantepec  down through Central America for conservation purposes. This is especially true for those "hotspots" located in remote trans-border tropical forests. [ 3 ]


There are two major attractions in the Chiapas portion of this rainforest, the El Chiflón Waterfall and the Gruta de San Francisco cave. El Chiflón is located  53 kilometres (33 mi) west of Comitán de Domínguez formed by the San Vicente Rivers. The water falls from a height of over seventy meters surrounded by steeply sloped hills. El Chiflón is preceded by two smaller falls called Suspiro and Ala del Angel, which are about six meters in height. A cascade after it is called the Velo de Novia. The Gruta de San Francisco is located in the La Trinitaria municipality near the community of Santa María. The cave has a number of chambers filled with stalactites and stalagmites with capricious shapes, formed by the dripping of water through the cavity. These caves were considered sacred in the pre Hispanic period as passages to the underworld. The cave is also home to millions of bats which emerge at night to feed in the surrounding jungle. [ 12 ]


The jungle is also home to some of Mexico's most numerous and impressive archaeological sites, all of which belong to the  Mayan civilization . [ 6 ]  The most important of these sites are  Palenque ,  Bonampak  and  Yaxchilan , but there are many more sites and ruins that still lie unexcavated under the vegetation. [ 13 ]  Palenque lies on the edge of the Lacandon, where the Eastern Mountains meet the Gulf Coast Plains. It is not the largest Mayan archaeological site, but it has some well-preserved sculpture and architecture the culture produced. Major structures include the  Temple of Inscriptions , the Temple of the Sun and the  Temple of the Cross ; however, only a small fraction of it has been excavated. Away from the ceremonial center and on the way to the site museum are smaller buildings around the Otolum stream with a small waterfall. [ 6 ]


Yaxchilan flourished in the 8th and 9th centuries. The site contains extensive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the  Usumacinta River . The architectural remains extend across the higher terraces and the hills to the south of the river, overlooking both the river itself and the lowlands beyond. [ 14 ]  Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the  monolithic  carved  stelae  and the narrative stone  reliefs  carved on  lintels  spanning the temple doorways. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]


Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site. [ 16 ]  The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis. The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site. [ 16 ]  The site is aligned with relation to the Usumacinta River, at times causing unconventional orientation of the major structures, such as the two  ballcourts . [ 17 ]  The site is relatively natural with howling monkeys, bats, toucans and other wildlife to be seen in and around the buildings. [ 6 ]


The city of Bonampak features exceptionally well-preserved Maya murals, depicting Mayan clothing, rituals, games, food and other aspects of life from that time. The realistically rendered paintings depict  human sacrifices , musicians and scenes of the royal court. [ 6 ] [ 18 ]  The name means “painted murals”. It is centered on a large plaza and has a stairway that leads to the Acropolis. There are also a number of notable  Maya stelae . [ 19 ]


Toniná  is a set of progressively smaller terraces going up a mountain instead of a cluster of buildings. Many of the stones are carved including those of residences belonging to various social strata. The site was discovered in the 17th century and is still being excavated. There is a site museum including photographs of what it looked like before the recent excavations, completely covered in jungle.


Tenam Puente  is on the west side of the Lacandon near Comitán de Domínguez. The site was initially built on a hill overlooking the area as a fortification. It contains about 160 buildings with thick stone walls with access by ramps which act as buttresses. The main areas in the site are the  Mesoamerican ballcourt  and the Acropolis. [ 12 ]


Lagartero  is located 74 km south of Comitán in La Trinitaria. The site contains various mounds covering eight hectares with the largest containing burials. Excavations of burials have yielded clay figures, multicolored pottery shards and musical instruments. One area has been determined to be a Mesoamerican ball court and another as the Acropolis, for the ruling elite. About two-thirds of the buildings have been determined to be for government or religious purposes. Religious structures contain a number of stelae and low reliefs of figures with detailed faces. The site is surrounded by the Lagos de Colón or Columbus Lakes. [ 12 ]


Other ruins include those at Lacanja. [ 7 ]


The population of the area is mostly subsistence peasants. These include indigenous groups of Chiapas, such as the  Tzotzil ,  Tzeltal ,  Ch'ol ,  Tojolabal  and  Lacandon Maya , as well as non-indigenous people. [ 2 ]  However, except for the Lacandon Maya, almost all of the population has migrated to the Lacandon, especially during the 20th century on. [ 20 ]


Of the local inhabitants of the Lacandon Jungle, those living just south of  Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve  belong to three ethnic groups, living in four villages and one town:  Lacandon Maya ,  Tzeltal  (another Maya ethnicity) and  Mestizo . The Tzeltal are the most numerous (15,000) and live in the town of  Nueva Palestina  [ es ] , they immigrated into the jungle from the Chiapas highlands in the 1970s to begin farms, often maize, beans or chili peppers, primarily organised in the  ejido  system. The Lacandon number some 550; they survive from  slash-and-burn  agriculture, growing much the same crops as the Tzeltal, as well as tourism and collecting the leaves of wild  Chamaedorea  palms for the  cut flower  industry. There are two very small Mestizo hamlets of 500 people in total. These people are also farmers, but they also keep livestock, such as cattle and pigs, for the local market, and grow crops, like coffee and cacao, besides the typical crops. [ 11 ]


Until the early 18th century, the Lacandon Jungle and bordering areas of Guatemala were occupied by the now-extinct  Lakandon Ch'ol ., [ 21 ]  who lived along the tributaries of the upper  Usumacinta River  and the foothills of the  Sierra de los Cuchumatanes . [ 22 ]  Most of the Lakandon Ch'ol were forcibly relocated to the  Huehuetenango  area of Guatemala by the Spanish in the early 18th century. The resettled Lakandon Ch'ol were soon absorbed into the local Maya populations there and ceased to exist as a separate ethnicity. [ 23 ]  Prior to the  Spanish conquest , the Xocmo were a  Cholan-speaking  group; they occupied the remote forest somewhere to the east of the Lacandon. [ 24 ]  The Xocmo were never conquered and escaped repeated Spanish attempts to locate them; their eventual fate is unknown but they may be ancestors of the modern Lacandon people. [ 25 ]  After the fall of the  Itza  capital  Nojpetén  to the  Spanish invaders  in 1697, a mix of Itza,  Kejache  and  Kowoj  refugees fled into the Lacandon Jungle, where they too became the ancestors of the modern  Lacandon people . [ 26 ]


A study from 2004 focusing on the use of wild fauna by inhabitants of the jungle found that all local ethnic groups hunt. A  .22  rifle is the most popular hunting tool. There was rather little differences between hunting practices between different ethnicities, but in terms of meat extracted per hunter, Lacandon were the most successful, Mestizo extracted half that, and Tzeltal hunters only took in a tenth of that of Lacandon hunters. Compared in terms of harvest rates, meat extracted per year per km 2 , Mestizo hunted more—this is because they stayed closer to their homes and hunted relatively larger-bodied animals. Mestizo also receive much less governmental support than Native Americans, which is seen as a factor influencing harvest rates. Lacandon people were the richest, and perhaps therefore spent the least effort hunting in terms of meat extracted per km 2 . In total, 51 species were hunted and 8160kg/year of meat was extracted from the forest a year of the 32 most commonly hunted species. There were very few full-time hunters, hunting was not considered a profitable profession; hunting is practised opportunistically. Those who hunted more often, were more likely from a poorer family. Hunters almost never sell the meat, it is used for personal or familial subsistence.


Sometimes tourists or military men stationed in the area will buy objects such as claws, hides, talons, macaw feathers, etc., but this is uncommon; hunters are cognisant of the laws and afraid of fines and having their guns confiscated. Most hunting occurs communal forests in the vicinity of farms, or on farmland, only rarely do some people venture into the reserve to hunt. Because few people can afford to buy meat at the market regularly, hunting is probably an important source of animal protein for local people in terms of dietary requirements. Nonetheless, only 0.5 to 4.5kg of game meat is eaten per person per year, depending on how one calculates this, which is far below that of hunting communities elsewhere in Latin America. This may be due to depletion of the fauna, but may also be due to better participation in the market economy by rural people in Mexico, and access to cheaper and better available domestic meat. [ 11 ]


Species hunted were similar to those hunted in other communities in Latin America, but monkeys were never or rarely hunted. Lacandon once ate monkeys, up until the late 1980s, but Mayan cultural attitudes to game meat in general have shifted, perhaps with greater availability of canned goods and domestic meat. Immigrants from the highlands or elsewhere find monkeys to look too uncomfortably like little people to eat.  Paca  meat, prized for its taste and fat content, was commonly hunted by all ethnic groups, appearing to be capable of tolerating hunting pressure and habitat disruptions.  Ungulates  were the most hunted group of animals, with about two thirds of the biomass extracted being from these animals.  Tapirs  and white-lipped peccaries were becoming rarer according to the hunters, while other animals appeared to be suffering hunting pressure and habitat change without apparent effects on population. [ 11 ]


The Lacandon are descendants of the ancient Maya. Since the 16th century, they have been able to survive as a culture by living deep in the rainforest, with many communities out of contact with the rest of the world until the 20th century. Before the  Conquest , the Lacandon dominated about a million hectares of these lands, but since the early 20th century other people, mostly Maya from other areas of Chiapas, have begun to colonise the forest. This has altered their lifestyle and worldview. [ 20 ] [ 27 ]  Today the Lacandon Maya are primarily found in three villages called  Naja ,  Lacanja Chansayab  and Metzobok. [ 4 ] [ 28 ]  near the ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilan. Local lore states that the gods resided here when they lived on earth. [ 27 ]


The traditional dress an undyed tunic called a  xikul . [ 7 ]  Some Lacandon still wear traditional clothing but others use modern clothes and conveniences as well. [ 13 ]  Traditional Lacandon shelters are huts made with fronds and wood with an earthen floor, but this has mostly given way to modern structures. [ 27 ]  The Lacandon Maya have supported themselves for centuries practicing  slash-and-burn  agriculture called  milpa , [ 11 ]  which can be seen as a method of " swidden   agroforestry ". A part of the primary forest is destroyed by burning it down, crops are temporarily planted, and the field is then abandoned after the  soil fertility  declines. After a cycle of largely natural  afforestation  taking 7 to 30 years, the soil fertility will be restored, and the jungle can be burnt again to grow crops. According to Diemont, this type of farming could be useful in restoring forests. [ 28 ]


In the mid 20th century, Franz and Trudy Blom were one of the first Europeans to make sustained contact with the Lacondons since the Spanish conquest. For the rest of their lives, the Bloms worked to publicize the plight of these people and by the time she died in 1999, Trudy Blom had created a collection of over 55,000 photographs of both the people and the Lacandon Jungle. The couple's efforts, along with those of Lacandon activist Chan Kin, have spurred the Lacandons to work to preserve their land and culture. This has included developing  ecotourism  with cabins, rafting, horseback riding and more. While there are concerns that ecotourism will make the jungle a commodity and cause changes in Lacandon culture, it also helps to keep younger generations from migrating out of the area. [ 29 ]  Today, the Lacandon Maya numbers have increased and are estimated to be anywhere from 600 to 1000 people in about a dozen villages. [ 13 ] [ 27 ]


There has been a large amount of deforestation in the Lacandon forest in Mexico. [ 2 ]  In 1990, a  World Bank  study declared that the following decade would make or break the Lacandon Selva's chances for survival as the rainforest had been "reduced to the minimum size essential for the integrity of its ecosystem". [ 3 ]  Most of the remaining  primary forest  is within the  protected areas . [ 11 ]  Of the remaining forest, about 5% was still lost per year in the early 2000s. [ 28 ]  The clearance of the jungle had been such that a journalist claimed in 2003 that satellite photos show the Mexico-Guatemalan border where the deforestation on the Mexican side stops. [ 3 ]  As of 2019, satellite images show that the forest has shrunk by 70% over the past half century. [ 30 ]


This deforestation began in the mid 19th century with the arrival of loggers and  chicleros , who tapped certain trees for sap to make chewing gum. By the 1940s, much of the old growth forest had already been destroyed. [ 29 ]   Illegal logging  was still a serious concern in 2002. Twenty one municipalities in Chiapas had significant problems with illegal logging, most of which are in or near the Montes Azules Reserve. [ 31 ]  While migration of people into the lowland rainforests had been going on since the 1930s, it accelerated in the 1960s and 1970s, as there was high population growth in the highlands areas. [ 8 ]  The government encouraged people, especially Native Americans, to move to the lowlands and claim lands there. [ 3 ]  During the 20th century, the population of municipalities in this area, such as  Altamirano ,  Las Margaritas ,  Ocosingo  and  Palenque  has risen from 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000. [ 20 ]


Much of the destruction of the rainforest has occurred through  slash and burn farming , which allows for little to no fallow time and creates soil erosion, according to Diemont. [ 28 ]


The little nutrition there is in the soil is depleted by erosion caused by heavy tropical rainfall after logging and agriculture. [ 5 ]  As of 2002, it is estimated about two thirds of the Lacandon outside the main biosphere reserve has been converted into pasture or cropland. [ 8 ] [ 32 ]  Once this land has been used for ranching, it will not revert to rainforest quickly after it has been abandoned, because the soil becomes compacted by the trampling of livestock. [ 5 ]  According to one journalist, grass for pasture is particularly problematic because after it takes hold, it outcompetes natural vegetation. He believes  deforestation  causes streams to dry up as evaporation rates rise from the lack of shade. [ 8 ]


In the latter 1970s, the government changed its policies in regards to the Lacandon, establishing the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. It evicted some  squatters , and granted the tiny group of Lacandones ownership of huge tracts in the reserve. That caused resentment in the other Native American communities, and would be a factor in the  Zapatista uprising  two decades later. However, even with the establishment of the reserve, the government did not sufficiently protect it, and many  squatters  made their way onto the lands, creating patchworks of hamlets. In 2002 there were only about twenty forest rangers for the reserve. [ 8 ]


The  Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve  was established in 1978 as Mexico's first biosphere reserve. [ 33 ]  This reserve covers part of the Lacandon Jungle, covering 331,200 hectares, one fifth of the original rainforest in Chiapas. [ 3 ] [ 7 ]  It obtained some finance in 1994 from the  Global Environment Facility . [ 33 ]  It is recognized by the  UN Environment Program  for its global biological and cultural significance. [ 3 ]  Its management plan endeavors to strike a balance between  habitat conservation  and the demand for research into its vast genetic resources. [ 33 ]


In 1992 the 61,874-hectare  Lacan-Tun Biosphere Reserve  was designated, adjoining the original biosphere reserve to the east. [ 3 ] [ 34 ]


Other Mexican  protected areas  in the Lacandon Jungle include:


There is a significant difference in vegetation between the reserve areas and the jungle outside of it. [ 3 ]  However, areas of the reserve have been damaged as it is carved in disconnected patches. In many areas,  tapirs ,  howler monkeys  and  parrots  no longer occur. [ 8 ]  According to  Conservation International , there are 140 peasant settler communities in the Biosphere Reserve and 225 including those in other protected areas in the Lacandon. All but thirty two of these have a certain amount of legal protection as they were registered as  ejidos  before the Reserve was created. [ 3 ]  Since the Reserve was created, the thirty two have been in limbo, with some efforts by the government to force them to move with promises of other lands in Chiapas. However, these farmers have resisted with support of the  EZLN . EZLN believes the evictions are a pretence to dislodge them from their base of support and the turn over the Lacandon to corporate exploitation as the area is rich in timber, oil, hydroelectric and genetic resources. [ 3 ]


The  EZLN , commonly known as the Zapatistas, came to the forefront of Chiapas politics in the mid 1990s. Since then, their bases of support have mostly come from indigenous communities in the settled areas of the Lacandon Jungle and the areas around San Cristobal de las Casas. While migration to the Lacandon had been occurring earlier in the 20th century, it accelerated even more in the 1990s, with the Zapatistas encouraging people to seize “unoccupied jungle.” [ 6 ] [ 29 ]  For this reason, the Zapatistas do not have the support of the Lacandon Mayas, who have also feared for their villages’ and people's safety when confronted by the EZLN. [ 8 ] [ 35 ]


The Zapatistas claim that as indigenous farmers, they are the best protectors of the rainforest, and that they want to turn Montes Azules into an “Indian Farmers’ Reserve”, a patchwork of farms and jungle. [ 8 ]


This pits them against the Lacandon Maya and environmentalist groups who state that the jungle cannot take any more farming. They also state that the agricultural methods do not help alleviate the migrants’ economic system as they can only farm a plot for a couple of harvests before the soil is depleted. [ 8 ]


The Zapatistas have accused environmentalists of siding with the government and corporate interests, and the Lacandons are too small in number to challenge the other groups, despite being the legal owners of much of the reserve. There were some attempts to evict settlers from the Reserve, especially from the thirty two undocumented settlements, but this was met by fierce resistance by the Zapatistas. [ 3 ] [ 8 ]


In 2005, some Zapatista allied communities decided to relocate on their own, while still opposing forced resettlement. These included the settlements of Primero de Enero, Santa Cruz, Ocho de Octubre and San Isidro, with all moved to areas outside the Reserve. [ 33 ]  Since then in a communiqué, EZLN leader Subcomandante Marcos warned against trying force the removal of any Zapatista allied community. [ 3 ]


In 2008, Zapatistas and allied prohibited the entrance of federal police and army into ejidos such as La Garrucha, San Alejandro and Hermenegildo Galena to search for marijuana fields, claiming that these forces are outside their jurisdiction to do so. [ 36 ]  However, as late as 2010, illegal settlements, new and old, were being dislodged by police and military forces and moved to areas outside the conservation zones. [ 37 ]  In 2011, EZLN issued another warning that operations against these settlements pose a threat to indigenous people in the state. They and certain NGOs such as Maderas del Pueblo de Sureste oppose programs such as  Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation  (REDD), claiming it commodifies indigenous culture, giving a commercial value to it vis-à-vis the environment. One aspect of the REDD program is to pay local ejido or other communal land owners to keep parts of their lands in a wild state and/or participate in reforestation of them. [ 38 ]  In 2011, over 600 communal farmers from  Frontera Corozal , a  Ch'ol  town on the border with Guatemala entered into an agreement with the government to grow forests on their lands in exchange for payment under the REDD+ plan. The communal land owners created seven reserves on their lands. In exchange, each member of the communal organization received 2,000 pesos as a first payment, brought personally by the state's governor,  Juan Sabines Guerrero . The agreement calls for monthly payments as well as assistance in creating tourism opportunities and groves of  oil palms  on non-reserve lands. [ 39 ]


There are some researchers collecting plants in the reserve. One of these is a station run by  Conservation International  to map the flora and fauna of Montes Azules. Mexican  agribusiness  enterprise  Grupo Pulsar  also has research stations in Chiapas. Researchers are often looked upon with suspicion and considered to be thieves by many in indigenous communities. [ 3 ]  Zapatistas have raised concerns that the pressure to explore the area's natural resources is  biopiracy , i.e. the patenting of wild plants and animals at the expense of native peoples. [ 33 ]


Various groups with cultural and environmental interest in the area have generally opposed research into the rainforest's biodiversity. In 2002 a coalition of traditional Maya healers called Chiapas Council of Traditional Indigenous Midwives and Healers managed to get a U.S. funded program into indigenous herbal cures cancelled. In the same year, a venture between the Mexican government and the U.S. firm  Diversa  was cancelled as well due to public pressure, causing the Mexican attorney general to state that the agreement with the national university  UNAM  was invalid. [ 3 ]


Rock formations with oil deposits have been found around the Lacandon area in both Mexico and Guatemala. There has been some exploration and pumping, and known reserves are largely depleted, however it seems likely that there is far more. Some of the rock formations in Zapatista-held areas of the forest show great promise as a potential field according to US accountants, but many geologists and the Mexican government have insisted there is little promise of oil in these areas. The Zapatistas claim that the government is hiding the presence of oil in the area as they try to force them and the indigenous people who support them off the lands, after which they can extract without compensation. [ 40 ]


16°21′N   91°01′W  /  16.35°N 91.02°W  /  16.35; -91.02


Lepidium peruvianum


Lepidium meyenii , known as  maca  or  Peruvian ginseng , is an edible  herbaceous   biennial plant  of the family  Brassicaceae  that is native to South America in the high  Andes  mountains of  Peru  and  Bolivia . It was rediscovered for commercial purposes at the Meseta de Bombón  plateau  close to  Lake Junin  in the late 1980s. [ 1 ]  It is grown for its fleshy  hypocotyl  that is fused with a  taproot , which is typically dried but may also be freshly cooked as a  root vegetable . As a cash crop, it is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw or processed further as a  gelatinized starch  or as an  extract . If dried, it may be processed into a  flour  for baking or as a  dietary supplement .


Its  Spanish  and  Quechua  names include  maca-maca ,  maino ,  ayak chichira , and  ayak willku .


Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa  described the plant following his visit to Peru  circa  1598, and  Bernabé Cobo  described this plant in the early 17th century. [ 2 ]   Gerhard Walpers  named the species  Lepidium meyenii  in 1843. In the 1990s, Gloria Chacon further distinguished a different species. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species,  L. peruvianum . [ 3 ]


However, most  botanists  doubt this distinction and continue to call the cultivated maca  L. meyenii . The  Latin name  recognized by the  USDA  similarly continues to be  Lepidium meyenii . [ 4 ]  It has been debated whether it is botanically correct to consider  meyenii  and  peruvianum  to be distinct from one another. [ 1 ]  A 2015 multi-center study found differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences when comparing  L. meyenii  and  L. peruvianum , suggesting that they are different and that their names should not be considered synonyms. [ 5 ]


The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of  radishes  and  turnips , to which it is related, but it also resembles a  parsnip . The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground. [ 6 ]  The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing more than 12–20 cm (4.7–7.9 in) in height. The leaves show a  dimorphism  according to the reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase and continuously renew from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white,  self-fertile  flowers are borne on a central  raceme , and are followed by 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) siliculate fruits, each containing two small 2.0–2.5 mm (0.079–0.098 in) reddish-gray ovoid  seeds . Seeds are the maca's only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 64 chromosomes. Maca is a  short-day plant  from experiments with different day lengths. [ 1 ]  Some sources consider the maca an annual plant, as in favorable years, it can complete a lifecycle within a year. [ 6 ]


Maca is the only member of the genus  Lepidium  with a fleshy  hypocotyl , which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted pear-shaped body. Traditionally, native growers have acknowledged four varieties of maca based on their root color: cream-yellow, half-purple, purple, and black; varying levels of  anthocyanin  are primarily responsible for the color differences. [ 2 ]   Maca hypocotyls may be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black, or green. Each is considered a "genetically unique variety," as the seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Specific  phenotypes  (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been propagated exclusively to increase commercial interest. [ 7 ]  Cream-colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is both sweet and slightly bitter.


The natural environment of the maca is at 11–12ºS latitude and at an elevation of 3,800–4,400 m (12,500–14,400 ft) above sea level. [ 7 ]  At this elevation, temperatures of the growing season vary from −2 to 13 °C (28 to 55 °F) in monthly mean minimum or maximum, respectively. Temperatures can decline, however, as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and  frosts  are common. Of the cultivated plants, maca is one of the most frost tolerant. [ 8 ]  Strong winds and sunlight are also characteristics of the native habitat of the maca.  Maca today is still mainly cultivated in  Peru , in the high  Andes  of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in  Brazil . [ 6 ]  Maca can be cultivated beyond its natural elevation range, over 4,400 m (14,400 ft) above sea level. [ 9 ]


Maca (Peruvian ginseng) seedlings usually emerge about one month after sowing, with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, from May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl, as well as the upper part of the tap root, grows in size. After 260 to 280 days, it is formed into the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then, it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant can form up to 1000 tiny seeds, 1600 of which weigh about one gram. Thus, only relatively few plants are needed for propagation. The cultivated plants are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50–100 mm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are fertilized heavily, as maca is an exhaustive crop of soil. [ 2 ]  The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality. [ 1 ] [ 6 ]


Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing is also used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures. [ 1 ]  Maca croplands, thus, traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients [ citation needed ] .


Weeding or pesticide application usually is not necessary.  The climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically; maca is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant naturally repels most root crop pests. [ citation needed ]


The harvest is done manually, with the leaves left in the field as  livestock feed  or  organic fertilizer .