Among 61 samples taken in  Georgia  (2001), 30% were G. [ 34 ]
Among 77 samples taken in Georgia (2003), 31% were G. [ 31 ]  Georgia has the highest percentage  of G among the general population recorded in any country. Among 66 samples taken in Georgia (2009), 31.6% were G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  Of this 31.6% figure, 1.5% were G2a3a (M406+), and the remainder were unspecified other types of G2a.


Most of states worldwide recognize  Abkhazia  and  South Ossetia  as part of Georgia. In Abkhazia 55% of 60 samples were found to be G as listed in a 2009 presentation by Khadizhat Dibirova. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ unreliable source? ]  In a 2011 study, [ 32 ]  47% of 162 Abkhazians were found G2a.  In South Ossetia 48% of 10 samples were found G2a. G1 was absent from both locations. Another 2011 study [ 39 ]  found among 58 Abkhazians that 12% were G2a1a (P18), 21% were G2a3b1 (P303) and 24% other G2a (P15)


In a study of Jewish men, 4.8% of 62 Jewish men from Georgia were haplogroup G. [ 15 ]


The G concentrations at Alagir and Digora represent the highest reported concentrations of G in any locale in the world. Though not stated in the 2004 studies, most of these were likely typical G2a1a type of G based on corresponding STR marker values.


The reported high G concentration among the  Shapsugs  of the far northwestern Caucasus represents the highest percentage of G among any group worldwide.  This is the highest percentage of G in a single population in the world – slightly higher than among the Madjars of  Kazakhstan .


Note:  The study by Yunusbaev (2006) showed the tiny population of  Northeast Caucasian language family   Andic-speaking   Chamalal  to be 19% (N=5/27) G2a-P15, and  all of this was an unknown sub-clade of G2a-P15 listed as "G2c" (currently classified as G2b) which was  not  defined in 2006 when this study was conducted (no SNP testing was done for true G2b-M377) . Since this study tested only G-M201 and G2a-P15, it is possible that this sub-clade may actually be G2a1-P16, since a number of the likely G haplotypes from Daghestan are actually G2a1-P16. He also reported that 12% (N=76) of the  Kumyks  tested were G – with that figure composed of 11% G2a (P15+) and 1% (1/76) listed as "G2c", which again at the time a sub-clade of G2a-P15, likely G2a1-P16).


In these Russian tabulations above (1) G2a3a-M406 man among the Avars and (1) G1-M285 man each found among Chechens and Adyghe were omitted to simplify the charts. Also, the 2011 Balanovsky study found 12% G2a3a-M406 among the Lezgins which are not included in the chart entry for them.


In  Pashtuns  from  Afghanistan  haplogroup  G2b  6.1%. [ 45 ]


These percentages of G were found in the following number of samples from  China  in a 2006 study: [ 46 ]
(a) The  Uyghurs  who live primarily in far northwestern China 4.5% of 67.
(b) The northern  Han  2.3% of 44.
(c) The southern Han 0% of 40.
(d)  Tibet  0% of 105.
(e) The  Zhuang  who live in southern China or Vietnam, 0% of 20.
(f) The  Yao  of southern China 0% of 60.
(g) In  Manchuria  or among the  Manchus  in northeastern China, 0% of 93.
(h) The  Evenks  who live principally along the border of northeastern China  0% of 31.
(i) The  Oroqen  of northeastern China 0% of 22.
(j) The  Yi  who live principally in southern China and who speak a Burmese language 0% of 43.
(k) The  Tujia  of central China, 0%  of 47.


A 2005 study that sampled five southern Chinese groups found the following percentages of G:
(1) The  Han  less than 1% G in 166 samples.
(2) The  Miao  0% of 58.
(3) The  She  0% of 51.
(4) The  Tujia  0% of 49.
(5) The  Yao  0% of 60. [ 23 ]


A 2008 study that concentrated on the island of  Hainan  off the southeastern Chinese coast found 0% G among 405 men from various island aborigine groups. [ 47 ]


A 2007 study that concentrated on the  Mang  of  Yunnan Province  in southern China found no G among 65 samples. [ 48 ]


Another 2007 study that sampled Tibet found 0% G among 156 samples [ 49 ]


A 2010 study of northwestern China found G (M201) in 2% of 41  Kazakhs ; 2% of 31  Tajikes ; and 2% of 23  Ozbeks .  No G was found among  Tu ,  Xibo ,  Mongolian ,  Tataer ,  Uighur ,  Yugu ,  Kirghiz ,  Russ ,  Dongxiang ,  Bao'an  and  Salar  persons. [ 50 ]


A 2011 study found only a few G samples among hundreds of samples around China of the majority  Han  population. The Han locales with single G samples were  Liaoning  in the northeast with one G2b (M377) man,  Henan  in the east central area with one G2a1 (P16) and Henan again with one G2a (P15) man not M286 or P16. This same study found 2% of  Uyghur  were G2a (P15) but not M286 or P16. These were all in  Xinjiang  in the northwest.  And among 62  Hui  men from  Ningxia  in the north central area, 1.6% were G1 and 1.6% were G2a (P15) but not P16 or M286.  No G at all found among Hui elsewhere or in  Tibet  (262 samples) or among the  Xibe , Hazak,  Evenks ,  Bulang ,  Wa ,  Jing ,  Dai ,  Zhuang ,  Dong ,  Mulao ,  Buyi ,  Li ,  Maonan ,  Shui ,  Gelao ,  Miao ,  Yao ,  She ,  Bai ,  Hani ,  Jingpo ,  Lahu ,  Lisu Naxi ,  Yi ,  Tujia ,  Hui , Man or  Kyrgyz  men sampled at various locations. [ 51 ]


In a newer genetic study, Y-DNA G-M201 was found in the genes of a few Han Chinese individuals from Ningxia province and Beijing. [ 52 ]


In 405 samples taken in  India  in a 2005 study, 1.5% were G. [ 23 ]  In a 2009 study covering mostly  New Delhi  and  Andhra Pradesh  2% of 104 samples were G. [ 53 ]


In another study in 2008 that concentrated on southern Indian locations, [ 54 ]  less than 1% of 155 samples was G in  Tamil Nadu , and the G percentage in Andhra Pradesh was 1% of 167 samples.


A study that sampled 1052 men within 25 diverse populations in India, only one man was G. This man was included in the samples labeled Kash. Pandit. [ 55 ]


A 2006 study that sampled 1074 men within 77 diverse Indian populations found only one man in central India who was G. [ 56 ]


Another study from 2009 found in 560 samples from northern India that 4% were G. [ 57 ]   The authors found no G among 96 Bhargavas or 88 Chaturvedis (both  Brahmins ), but 1.7% of 118 other Brahmins, 9.7% of 154  Shia  and 5.8% of 104  Sunni  samples were G.


In a 2003 study of 286 men belonging to two tribal groups of  Andhra Pradesh  in southern India, as well as five caste groups from various parts of India, only one man in  West Bengal  was G. [ 58 ]


In a 2006 study of 728 Indian samples taken from among 36 populations and 18 castes, 1.2% were G. These were all G2a (P15+) men. [ 59 ]  In this study many of the G2a men were contained within the samples of the  Dravidian  upper caste where G persons comprised 11.9% of 59 samples.


In a 2010 study sampling 45  Cochin Jews  from southern India, none were haplogroup G. The same study found 6.5% of 31  Bene Israel  Jews from  Mumbai  were G. [ 15 ]


In the YHRD database, among 44 samples taken among the  Afridi   Pashtuns  in  Uttar Pradesh , northern India, 28 (64%) were found to belong to haplogroup G.


In a 2010 study of  Muslims  in India, in  Uttar Pradesh  in n. India 2.3% of 129 Indian  Sunni  men were G as were 8% of 161 Indian  Shia  there. In  Andhra Pradesh  in southern India, 8% of 25 Iranian Shia were G.  Among the  Dawoodi Bohra  of west and south India, no G was found in 76 samples, as was the case among Mappla of southern India. [ 60 ]


In a 2009 study of 621 samples from various components of the Indian  caste system , G was found in 10.9% of 64  Gujarat   Brahmins  in the west and 3.3% there among 32  Maharashtra  Brahmins and none among Gujarat  Bhils . In the east, 11.1% of 27  Bihar  Paswan were G, but none found among Bihar Brahmins and  West Bengal  Brahmins. In the central area, no G found among  Uttar Pradesh   Kols  and  Gonds , and among  Madhya Pradesh  Brahmins, Gonds and  Saharia . In the north, 3.6% of 49  Punjab  Brahmins were G and 2% of 51 J&K  Kashmiri  Pandists, but none found among J&K Kashmir  Gujars  or among  Uttar Pradesh  or Himachal Brahmins. [ 61 ]


In 80 samples taken in  Indonesia , 0% were G. [ 46 ]


In another study confined to  Western New Guinea  none of 183 samples were G. [ 62 ]


In a study of the northwestern end of the island of  New Guinea  among 162 samples from 13 populations none were G. [ 63 ]


In another study confined to the island of  Sumba  no G was found among 352 samples. [ 64 ]


A study that gathered 552 samples in  Bali , 21 in western Indonesia and 55 in eastern Indonesia failed to find any G persons. [ 23 ]


Of 33 samples taken in northern  Iran , 15.2% were G.  Of these 5 samples, 4 were G2a (P15+). And 12.8% of 117 samples from the south of that country were G. In this latter location the percentage of G1 almost equaled the G2a percentage. The authors did not provide information about locations sampled. [ 65 ]


Of 91 samples taken at unstated location(s) in northern Iran (2009), 2.2% were G. [ 5 ]


Of 50 samples taken from the  Mazandarani  in northern Iran west of the  Caspian Sea , 14% were G.  Likewise of 50 samples from the  Gilaki  in the same area, 10% were G. [ 66 ]


Of 50 samples taken from the  Talysh  along the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea in north central Iran, 2% were G. [ 33 ]


Samples were taken in another study in  Khuzestan Province  of west central Iran, and 15% G found among 53  Bakhtiari  in  Izeh  and 6% G among  Arabs  in  Ahvaz . [ 67 ]


In a study of Jewish men, there were no haplogroup G men among 49 men with Iranian origins. [ 15 ]


In 259 samples taken among the following groups or locations in  Japan :  Ainu ,  Aomori ,  Okinawa ,  Shizuoka ,  Tokushima  and  Kyushu  0% were G. [ 46 ]


In another study, among 23 samples taken in Japan, none were G. [ 59 ]


Two  Kazakh  tribes are believed to have the highest levels of Haplogroup G in the world. This is striking partly because most Kazakh males fall into  C3 .


A study of the Kazakh  Madzhars  (Madjars) in the  Torgay  area of  Kazakhstan , 86.7% of 45 samples were G. This is the highest concentration of G reported anywhere in the world so far. All the samples were G1. [ 68 ]


A limited study has found  Haplogroup G-M285  (G1) among four out of five  Argyns  sampled in central Kazakhstan. The Argyns, who were  previously known as the  Basmyl , were first documented in the 6th century, residing in what is now the  Xinjiang  region of China.


In 75 samples taken in  Korea  in a 2006 study, 0% were G. [ 46 ]
Among another 85 samples also taken in 2006 in Korea, 0% were G. [ 69 ]  A 2011 study of 64 Korean samples, again found no G among them. [ 51 ]


In 32 samples taken among  Malays  (presumably from  Malaysia ), 6.3% were G. [ 23 ]


In 149 samples taken in  Mongolia , 0.7% were G. [ 46 ]
On 47 samples taken also in 2006 in Mongolia, 0% were G. [ 69 ]


In 188 samples taken in a 2007 study in 3 locations in  Nepal , none were G. [ 49 ]  Also in Nepal among 173  Tharus  in  Terai , no G was found in a 2009 study. [ 53 ]


Of 638 samples taken in  Pakistan , 2.7% were G. [ 70 ]  This same study found the percentage of G among 96 samples from Pakistani  Pathans  was 11.5%; among 44 samples from  Kalash  men was 18.1% and among 97 samples from  Burusho  men was 1% – all groups of northern Pakistan.


Among 176 Pakistani samples gathered in another study, G2a (P15+) men represented 4.6% of the total. G1 (M285+) men represented 0.6%, and G2b (M377+) men were 1.1%. [ 59 ]


In a large study of Northern Island Melanesia within  Papua New Guinea  (2006) none of 685 samples was G. [ 71 ]  Most of these were Papuan-speaking persons.


In 46 samples taken in Papua New Guinea (2006), 0% were G. [ 23 ]


In another study (2008) 19 samples taken on the island of  New Britain  none were found to be G, and none of 52 samples in the  Trobriand Islands  were G. [ 62 ]  In this same study, on the mainland of Papua New Guinea none of 197 samples were listed as G.


In a 2006 study, in  Russia  among 98 Altai samples, 1% were G. [ 46 ]  The  Altai  or Altay are a Turkic group overlapping Mongolia and south central Russia. In this same study among the  Buryats , a Mongol people who live principally just north of Mongolia, 1.2% of 81 samples were G, and no G at all was found among 31 samples from the  Evens  who live principally in the far northeastern area of Russia.


In another 2006 study concentrating on the southern Siberian border region, [ 69 ]  going from west to east:
(a) Of 92 samples from the Turkic  Altaian-Kizhi , 1.1% G.
(b) Of 47 samples from the Teleuts, 0% G.
(c) Of 51 samples from the Turkic  Shors  0% G.
(d) Of 53 samples from the Turkic  Khakassians , 0% G.
(e) Of 113 samples from the Mongolized Turkic  Tuvinians , 0.9% G.
(f) Of 36 samples from the Turkic Todjins, 0% G.
(g) Of 53 samples from the Turkic  Tofalars , 0% G.
(g) Of 34 samples from Sojots, 2.9% G.
(h) Of 238 samples from the Mongol  Buryats , 0.4% G.
Much farther to the north among 50  Evenks , 0% G.


Another 2006 study [ 72 ]  covered primarily the northeastern area of Siberia where  Yakuts  and Yakut-speaking  Evenks  live. The authors did not test for G, but the report suggests the men all belonged instead to the haplogroups shown in the report.


A 2008 study concentrated on two populations of northwestern Siberia.  Among 63  Mansi , 4% were G, and among 106  Khanty  none were G. [ 73 ]


In a small study of 18 Siberian samples, none were G. [ 59 ]  In a 2011 study of the Altai Republic  [ 74 ]  among 119 samples, 3.4% were G1 and 1.7%% were G2a.


In 91 samples taken in  Sri Lanka  in one study 5.5% were G. [ 23 ]


In another study of  Sinhalese  men, none of 39 samples was G. [ 58 ]


In 132 samples taken in  Taiwan , 0% were G. [ 46 ]


Among 48 samples taken among Taiwanese aboriginals, none were G. [ 23 ]


A study of 15 Jewish men from Uzbekistan found 0% were haplogroup G. [ 15 ]   This same study, however, referred to a mixture of studies in which 22% of other Uzbek Jewish men samples belonged to haplogroup G.


In 70 samples taken in  Vietnam , 0% were G. [ 23 ]


Among 55 samples taken in  Albania  in a 2009 study, 1.8% were G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  None were G2a3a (M406+). In a 2010 study, no G was found among sampled Gabel and Jevg men, but 1.2% of  Gheg  and 3.3% of  Tosk  were G (M201+). [ 75 ]


A survey of the general population of  Austria  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 7.0% (n=16) of 230 samples in the  Tyrol  and none of 66 samples from  Vienna  and 1.5% (n=1) at  Graz  are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  Several additional samples are borderline for being G.


A 2010 study of DNA Project Oud-Hertgodom  Brabant  found that 3.6% of 893 samples were haplogroup G2a among those with eastern Belgian ancestry. [ 76 ]  In that same year a study of 477 Brabant men found the following G percentages in these locations:  North Brabant  3.1%,  Antwerp  2.8%,  Campine  2.6%,  Mechelen  4.8% and  Flemish Brabant  3.7%. [ 77 ]


In a 2010 study of men from "Belarus," less than 1% of 196 samples was haplogroup G. [ 15 ]   A 2005 study had found that 1.5% of 68  Belarusians  were G. [ 78 ]


Among 81  Serbs  in  Bosnia , 1.2% were found to be G2a (P15+), and among 90  Croats  in Bosnia none were G. [ 35 ]  And in this same study among 84 Bosnians 3.6% were G2a (P15+).  In none of these groups was any G2a3a (M406+) found.


In another study among 69 samples in Bosnia, 4.4% were G, and according to Serbian DNA Project in  Herzegovina  is high point of G2a haplogroup. . [ 79 ]


In the big sample of 808 Bulgarians of Karachanak 4.6% are G2a [ 80 ]


Among 89 samples taken in  Croatia  in a 2009 study, 1.1% were G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  In this same study, 29 samples were taken separately in the far eastern city of  Osijek , and 13.8% were G2a (P15+). The G2a samples were also tested for G2a3a (M406), and none was found.


In another study from 2005, among 108 samples from 5 Croatian mainland locations, 0.9% were G. [ 79 ]


In yet another study from 2003, among 99 samples on the Croatian mainland, less than 1% were G.  On the island of  Krk , among 74 samples, none were G; on the island of  Brač  6% of 49 samples were G; on the island of  Korčula , 10.4% of 134 samples were G; and 1.1% of 91 samples on the island of  Hvar  were G. [ 81 ]


In a 2009 study of  Roma   Bayash  men in Croatia, 10% of 96 men at  Baranja  in the east were G, but none of 55 men at  Medjimurje  in the north were G. [ 82 ]


Among 257 samples from the  Czech Republic , 5.1% were G and were overwhelmingly G2a (P15+). [ 83 ]


In another study, among 75 samples from Czechs, 4.0% were G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  None of these was G2a3a (M406+)


A survey of the general population of  Denmark  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 247 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 1.2% (n=3) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  There are several additional samples that might be G.


A survey of the general population of  Estonia  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 133 samples from  Tartu  in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates none are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  Several additional samples are borderline for being G.


A study found 5% of 40 samples from  Ostrobothnia  (Osterbotten) in Finland were G. [ 84 ]


A survey of the general population of Finland based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 399 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 0.5% (n=2) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


In a 2003 study, in 23 samples taken somewhere in  France  (2003), 0% were G, but 11.8% of 34 samples on the island of  Corsica  were G. [ 85 ]


A 2011 study found that among 51 men in  Provence  southeastern France, 8% were G with none G2a3a (M406+) [ 26 ]


An approximation method based on use of  STR  markers from 109 samples from  Paris  in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 1.8% (n=2) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  And in 99 similar samples from  Strasbourg  in the far northeast, 4% (n=4) are G.


A 2006 study of the  Finistère  area at the tip of  Brittany  in western France, less than 1.2% of men were G and were found only in the port towns. [ 86 ]


A survey of the general population of  Germany  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation method based on  STR  markers in samples in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  using the Athey haplogroup predictor [ 8 ]  indicates the following G percentages among samples from these German cities: (a)  Freiburg  in the southwest, 433 samples of which 4.4% (n=19) are G; (b)  Munich  in the southeast, 281 samples of which 5.3% (n=15) are G; (c)  Chemnitz  in the northeast. 820 samples of which 3.8% (n=31) are G.


In 76 samples taken somewhere in  Greece  (2003), 2.6% were G. [ 85 ]  In 77 samples taken somewhere in Greece (2007), 9.1% were G. [ 70 ]


In another study (2009) [ 35 ]  3.3% of 92 Greek samples were G. This 3.3% was composed of 1.1% G2a3a (M406+) and the remainder other types of G2a.


In a 2011 study, among 57 men at Nea Nikomedeia 4% were G with none G2a3a (M406+) and among 57 at  Sesklo / Dimini  4% were G2a3a and additional unspecified G men were 2%.  And on the  Peloponnese , of 57 men in the area of  Lerna /Franchtihi Cave, 4% were G2a3a and 2% other G. [ 26 ]


Among 193 samples (2008) taken on the island of  Crete ,  10.9% were G.  Among 57 samples taken on the Peloponnese, 5.3% were G.  And at several mainland Greek sites, 4.4% were G. [ 87 ]


Another study that focused on Crete (2007), found 7.7% of 104 samples in the central part of the island were G, and that 6.3% of 64 samples on the eastern end were G. [ 88 ]


A survey of the general population of  Greenland  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 342 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates none are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


In 100 samples taken in  Hungary , 3.0% were found to G, and all were G2a (P15+). [ 89 ]


In another study, among 53 samples from Hungary, 1.9% were G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  None of these were G2a3a (M406+)


In a 2008 study of 215 Hungarians, G2a (P15+) was found in 4%, and found also in 2% of Hungarian  Roma .  No G1 reported. [ 90 ]


A survey of the general population of  Iceland  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 100 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates none are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


Among 796 samples taken in all areas of  Ireland , none were G. [ 91 ]  The actual figure in the population is certainly not zero because there are dozens of samples from Irish ancestry persons in various databases.


In a large 2007 study of 11 regions of peninsular  Italy  and  Elba , [ 92 ]  10.7% of 699 samples were G.  The authors did not sample the northwestern Milan area and the high mountains of the central north.  The Val Badia samples in the far northeast of Italy had an atypical low 3% of 34 samples.  The other areas all ranged 7% to 15% G.  Elba  had 11% of 95 samples as G.


A 2003 study of Italy had found 11.8% of 51 samples in  Sicily ; 8.1% of 37 samples in  Calabria ; 14.1% of 78 samples in  Sardinia ; and 10% of 50 samples in north central Italy were G. [ 85 ]


In another 202 samples taken in Sardinia 13.9% were G. [ 93 ]  The authors noted the percentage at the sampled sites in the north of the island were 10.4% G, in the central-eastern area 11.1% but only 6.5% in the southwestern area.


And another Sardinian study of 930 males found 12.6% as G.  Among a subgroup of these 930 where geographical information was available, the percentage on the southeastern coast was 13.9%; on the northeastern coast 20.9% and 13.9% in the inland central area. [ 94 ]  This study indicated an unusual percentage of G men there with STR marker value of 23 at DYS390—a percentage not seen in continental Europe where the 23 value is uncommon.


In another Sardinian study confined to towns in the northern sector of the island, 14% of 100 samples were all found to be G2a (P15+) based only on a probability calculation. [ 95 ]  The G2 category as represented by P15 became G2a in the period in which this study was conducted. The men were predicted just "G2" in the study. But P15 (now G2a) was probably the intended category.


A study that sampled only northeastern Italy found 11.3% G2a (P15+) among 67 samples. [ 35 ]  None of these were G2a3a (M406+).


A study that focused on the northeastern coast of Italy south of  Venice , found among 163 samples that 8.6% were G. [ 96 ]


A study that concentrated on 19 upland areas in the Marches region of central Italy found 7.4% G among 162 samples. [ 97 ]


A study that concentrated on  Sicily  found among 236 samples 5.9% were G. [ 98 ]  This 5.9% figure was divided into 5.5% G2a (P15+) and the remainder other types of G.  There were notable high G2a percentages in  Caccamo  (25% of 16 samples), in  Troina  (13.3% of 30 samples) and in  Sciacca  (10.7% of 27 samples).


A 2011 study found 10% of 40 Albanian-speaking  Arbëreshë  men in  Calabria , Italy were G.
 [ 99 ]


Among 113 samples taken among  Albanians  in Kosovo, none were G. [ 79 ]


A survey of the general population of  Latvia  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 145 samples from  Riga  in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates none are definitively G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  Several samples are possibly G.


A survey of the general population of  Lithuania  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 157 samples from  Vilnius  in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 1.3% (n=2) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  One additional sample is borderline for being G.


In a general study of North Macedonia, 5.1% of 79 samples were G. [ 79 ]  This study also found among 57  Romani  in North Macedonia none were G. Another study sampled  Albanians  in North Macedonia, 1.6% of 64 samples were G2a (P15+) but not G2a3a (M406+). [ 35 ]


In 187 samples taken in  Malta , 8% were G. [ 10 ]


In 89 samples taken among the Turkic-speaking  Gagauzes  of southern  Moldova  13.5% were G. [ 100 ]


A survey of the general population of the  Netherlands  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 211 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 4.3% (n=9) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


A survey of the general population of  Norway  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 230 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 1.3% (n=3) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  Several additional samples are borderline for being G.


Among 99 samples taken in  Poland , 0% were found to be G. [ 35 ]


Additional information is available in the form of approximations based on the Polish  STR -marker samples in the YHRD database. [ 7 ]  The G samples were identified using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  Among 182 samples taken in the general population at  Białystok  in the northeast, 0.5% (n=1) were G. At this same locale among  Belarusians  0.6% (n=1) of 157 samples were G; among 129  Old Believers  none were G; among 124  Tatars  0.8% (n=1) were G. In the northwest at  Szczecin  among 105 samples 1% (n=1) was G. In the south at  Kraków  among 207 samples, 0.5% (n=1) were G. In the southeast at  Lublin  among 246 samples, 0.5% (n=1) were G.


In 60 samples taken in northern  Portugal  in a 2008 study, 12% were found to be G, and 9% of 78 samples in the south of the country were G in a 2008 study. [ 1 ]


In a 2004 study, among 109 samples taken in northern Portugal, 7.3% were G. [ 101 ]   In a 2005 study, 5.5% of 657 Portuguese men at 18 locations were G. The highest percentage was recorded in  Évora  in the east central area (29 samples), and at the other extreme none found at  Viseu  (30 samples) and  Beja  (8 samples), north and south respectively of the other town. [ 102 ]


In a 2005 Portuguese study that also included the Atlantic islands, 3.1% of samples in  Madeira  were G, and 8.3% of 121 samples from the  Azores  were G.  In northern Portugal, 5% of 101 samples were G; in central Portugal 7.8% of 102 samples were G; and 7% of 100 samples in southern Portugal. [ 103 ]


In a 2008 study of Portuguese  Roma , of 126 men sampled less than 1% was G. [ 104 ]  In a 2010 study of northeastern Portuguese  Jews , 3.5% of 57 men from  Trás-os-Montes  were G as compared to 3.3% of 30 non-Jewish men from the same area. [ 105 ]


In 97 samples taken among Hungarian-speaking  Szeklers  in Transylvania in  Romania , 5.2% were found to G, and all were G2a (P15+). [ 89 ]


In a more general survey of the Romanian population based on 102 samples of  STR  markers in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  2.0% (n=2) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  One additional sample is borderline for being G.


In a 2008 study, [ 106 ]  259 samples taken in three areas in the northernmost third of European  Russia  (ethnic Russians/ Pomors ), about 1% were G2a (P15+) and 0% G1. In 246 samples from three areas in the central third  of European Russia about 1% were G, with more G1 men than G2a found. In 132 samples from two areas near the border with  Latvia  and  Estonia  0% were G.  In 107 samples from  Roslavl  area near the border with  Belarus , 0% were G. In 394 samples from four areas near the border with  Ukraine  about 1% were G2a and 0% G1. And in 90 samples from among the  Kuban Cossacks  in the south, 1.1% were G2a and 0% G1.


And in a 2006 study [ 69 ]  of 414 samples presumably from western Russia (according to a map provided) 1.2% were G.  In this same study among 68  Kalmyks  (a people of Mongolian origin) who live near the  Caspian Sea  in the south of western Russia, none were G.  In another study of the  Kalmyks  in the Russian Republic of  Kalmykia   the authors found 1% G among 99 samples. [ 107 ]


Another study in 2008 [ 108 ]  reported on 545 samples from 12 locations in western Russia.  Of these, 1.8% of the samples were G. The highest percentage was 9.5% of 42 samples in  Orlovskaja Oblast , east of  Belarus  and north of  Ukraine .


In a study that sampled 116 men of  Chuvash  origin, 1.7% were haplogroup G. [ 15 ]


Among 75 samples taken in  Slovenia  2.6% were G.  This 2.6% was composed of 1.3% G2a3a (M406+) and 1.3% other types of G2a. [ 35 ]


Among 24 samples taken in the northeastern corner of  Spain  in a 2003 study, 8.3% were G. [ 85 ]  In a larger 2008 study covering about 600 mainland Spanish samples outside the  Basque  area, the average was about 5% G with the highest percentage recorded in  Castilla-La Mancha  (10%), and the lowest in parts of  Andalusia  and  Castile  (3%). [ 1 ]


In a 2004 study, among 258 samples taken in 5 populations in southern Spain, about 3% were G. [ 101 ]  This same study found in 3 populations in northwestern Spain among 149 samples, about 7% were G, and in the northeastern quarter of Spain in two populations none of 52 samples were G.


Among 221 samples from  Basque people  in Spain in a 2008 study, 1.4% were G. [ 109 ]   Of these 168 were living in the three Basque provinces.  All were G2a (P15+).  Another study found 0% of 116 samples in Basque country were G. [ 1 ]


In a 2003 study only of  Cantabria  just west of the  Basque Autonomous Community  in northwestern Spain, 7.6% of 118 samples from 3 groupings were G. [ 110 ]


A 2009 study of 169 samples from the  Pyrenees Mountains  in the northeast found almost 2% were G. [ 111 ]


A 2009 study only of  Andalusia  in southern Spain found that 2.1% of Andalusians were G.  And of 68 separate samples specifically from the Pedroches Valley (Valle de los Pedroches) in Andalusia 2.9% were G. [ 11 ]


In the  Balearic Islands  6% of 62 samples in Majorca were G; 0% of 37 samples in Minorca were G, but 13% of 54 samples in Ibiza were G in a 2008 study. [ 1 ]


Among 305 samples taken in seven regions of  Sweden  in a 2006 study, 1.6% were G.  The authors also found 0% G in 38 samples from nomadic  Saami  men of Sweden. [ 84 ]   In a 2009 study, which totaled 883 Swedish samples, no G was found in the regions of  Norrland  in the north and  Götaland  on the southern end.  But in the central  Svealand  area 2.8% of 394 samples were G.  If  Stockholm  is excluded, the percentage increases to 3.7% among 166 samples. While specific Svealand locations were typically 0–1% G,  Uppsala  on the east central coast showed 12.1% but based on only 33 samples. [ 112 ]


A survey of the general population of  Switzerland  based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers of 348 samples from there in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 4.3% (n=15) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]  An additional sample is borderline for being G.


A survey of the general population of the Great Britain for G based on testing of  SNPs  is lacking, but an approximation based on the  STR  markers in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 3.4% (n=8) of 285 samples from  London  are G and 1% (n=1) of 97 samples from  Birmingham  are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


Among 92 samples taken in  Ukraine , 3.3% were found G2a (P15+). [ 35 ]  None of these belonged to G2a3a (M406+).


An approximation of  SNP  results based on the  STR  markers of 183 samples from  Kyiv  in the YHRD database [ 7 ]  indicates 1.1% (n=2) are G using the Athey haplogroup predictor. [ 8 ]


Among 33 samples taken among  Australian Aborigines  of  Australia , 0% were G.
 [ 46 ]


Among 77 samples taken in the  Cook Islands  none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 105 samples taken in  Fiji  none were listed as G. [ 62 ]


Among 9 samples taken in  Niue  none were G. [ 62 ]


In 48 samples taken in the  Philippines  0% were G. [ 23 ]


Among 61 samples taken in  Samoa  none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 30 samples gathered in the  Solomon Islands  none were G. [ 113 ]


Among 6 samples taken in  Tokelau , none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 29 samples taken in  Tonga , none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 100 samples taken in  Tuvalu  none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 50 samples taken in East  Futuna , none were G. [ 62 ]


Among 245 men sampled in  Cuba , 6.1% were G. [ 114 ]


Among 2517 persons in the  United States of America  from a wide variety of locales, 2.5% were found to be G.  When restricted to those with European ancestry the percentage rises to about 4%.  African-Americans were about 1% G, and Native Americans 0.3%. [ 115 ]


In a study of 48  Apalai  men from the  Amazon  in  Brazil  none were G. [ 116 ]


In a 2015 study, they investigated a set of 41 Y-SNPs in 1217 unrelated males from the five Brazilian geopolitical regions, aiming to disclose the genetic structure of male lineages in the country. Haplogroup G-M201 was found to be 5.1% of this study.
 [ 117 ]


In a study of 103 men from 4 Native American groups in  French Guiana  none were G. [ 116 ] [ why? ]


In a study of 28  Machiguenga  men from south inland  Peru  none were G. [ 116 ] [ why? ]


The  European Algae Biomass Association  ( EABA ) is a  non-profit organization  which gathers 200 academic and industrial  stakeholders  from the  algae  sector. Its goal is to promote mutual interchange and cooperation in the field of  algal biomass  production and use in numerous sectors (e.g., food, feed, cosmetics, agriculture). EABA organizes regular events such as  webinars  on a variety of topics and conferences. The organization was founded in September 2009 in  Florence  (Italy) during its inaugural conference at  Villa La Pietra . As of 2022, EABA's President is Carlos Unamunzaga (Fitoplancton Marino S.L., Spain). [ 1 ]


The first President of EABA, Prof. Mario Tredici, served a 2-year term since his election on 2 June 2009. The EABA Vice Presidents were Claudio Rochietta, (Oxem, Italy), Prof. Patrick Sorgeloos (University of Ghent, Belgium), and Marc Van Aken (SBAE Industries, Belgium). The EABA Executive Director was Raffaello Garofalo. EABA had 58 founding members.


In 2018, the election occurred in Amsterdam on the 3rd of December. The EABA President was Mr. Jean-Paul Cadoret (Algama, France). The Vice Presidents were Prof.  Sammy Boussiba  (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel), Prof. Gabriel Acien (University of Almeria, Spain) and Dr. Alexandra Mosch (Germany). The EABA General Manager was Dr. Vítor Verdelho (A4F AlgaFuel, S.A., Portugal) and Prof. Mario Tredici (University of Florence, Italy) was elected as Honorary President.


The last election took place in Rome, on the 12th of December 2022. The newly elected President is Carlos Unamunzaga (Fitoplancton Marino S.L., Spain). The General Manager is Dr. Vítor Verdelho (A4F AlgaFuel, S.A., Portugal) and the Vice Presidents are Dr. Jean-Paul Cadoret (Algama, France), Prof.  Sammy Boussiba  (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel), and Prof. Gabriel Acien (University of Almeria, Spain).


EABA counts 210 academic and industrial members in 2023, coming from 43 different countries. [ 2 ]


The  New Algae For Food (NAFF) Forum  is a platform focused on the establishment of a repository, including  microalgae  and  macroalgae  ( seaweed ), about  “Algae consumption in Europe before 15 May 1997” . This Forum aims to identify and describe the algae species that can be used for human consumption and that are not included in the EU Novel Food catalogue.


EU4Algae  is a European platform that promotes collaboration among European stakeholders in the algae sector, including algae “farmers”, producers, sellers, consumers, and technology developers as well as business-support organizations, investors, public authorities, academia, researchers, and  NGOs . Seven working groups have been defined: “ macroalgae  production” (WG1), “ microalgae  production” (WG2), “ algae  for food” (WG3), “ algae  for feed” (WG4), “ ecosystem services  &  bioremediation ” (WG5), “materials, chemicals, bioactives & algae  biorefining ” (WG6), and “youth & entrepreneurship” (WG7).


The partnership between EABA and the  Algae Biomass Organization (ABO)  has been initiated in 2019. ABO is a non-profit organization that promotes the development of viable commercial markets for renewable and sustainable algae-based products.


Algenol  is an industrial biotechnology company that is commercializing patented algae technology for production of  ethanol  and other fuels. The company was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in  Fort Myers, Florida . The company uses proprietary technologies to produce various products, including personal care products, food supplements, and industrial products, from a patented strain of  cyanobacteria  and a proprietary  photobioreactor  system.


Algenol was founded in 2006 by Paul Woods, Craig Smith, and Ed Legere. [ 2 ]  In 2008 the company announced it would begin commercial production of ethanol by 2009 in the  Sonoran Desert  in northwest Mexico. [ 3 ]  However, the company was still not in commercial production by 2015. In October 2015, founder Paul Woods resigned and the company announced they were laying off 25% of the staff and changing focus to “water treatment and carbon capture" and possibly return to fuels in the future. [ 4 ]


In 2016, their name changed to Algenol Biotech LLC and the company added other algae-based sustainable products to its portfolio. [ citation needed ]


Algenol has a large facility in  Southwest Florida , just north of  Florida Gulf Coast University  in  Fort Myers  which opened in October 2010. The aim of the facility is to produce commercially viable fuel from algae. [ 5 ]  The site features research labs including engineering facilities, advanced molecular biology, CO 2  management, separations, and  green chemistry advanced labs and an outdoor process development production unit on 40 acres. [ 6 ]  In October 2011, Algenol began construction on a pilot-scale Integrated Biorefinery, allowing the company to work with algae from a single strain in the lab all the way to commercial-scale production. [ 7 ]


Algenol also has subsidiaries located in  Berlin ,  Germany  and  Zug ,  Switzerland . [ 8 ]


One of Algenol's primary research goals has been to produce four fuels— ethanol ,  gasoline ,  jet , and  diesel fuel —at commercial scale from marine cyanobacteria using patented  bioreactors . [ 2 ]  They received $22 million dollars of funding from the  U.S. Department of Energy  from 2010 through 2013 for a project to prove viability of algal-produced ethanol at commercial scales using carbon dioxide captured from industrial sources. [ 7 ]  From this project, they built a 2-acre system with over 6,000 photobioreactors and they were able to operate 4,000 of these for over 500 days. While this project made significant progress towards large-scale algal biofuel production, the 2015 report from the Department of Energy notes that it is "unclear whether closed photobioreactors will ever be a viable commercial option". [ 7 ]


Algenol licenses the DIRECT TO ETHANOL® technology. [ 9 ]  One of these licenses is with BioFields SAPI de CV in Mexico, which has access to over 42,000 acres of non-arable land in the  Sonoran Desert  in  Mexico . [ 10 ] [ 11 ]  Algenol has stated that they are discussing commercial "Direct to Ethanol" projects with several partners in the United States, South America, Israel, and Africa. [ 12 ]


A 2017 report from Biofuelwatch has criticized Algenol as a case-study of many failed algae biofuel ventures. [ 2 ]


Algenol has a number of partners including the  United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory ,  BioFields  in Mexico,  Reliance Industries  Ltd. in Mumbai, India, and Membrane Technology and Research. Algenol also is partnered with  Lee County, Florida , the  U.S. Department of Energy , and multiple universities including  Florida Gulf Coast University ,  Georgia Tech , and  Humboldt University of Berlin . [ 13 ] [ 14 ]


In December 2009, Algenol received a $25 million  United States Department of Energy  grant to help build the Integrated Biorefinery Direct to Ethanol project in  Lee County, Florida . [ 15 ]  Algenol also received a $10M grant from Lee County to employ people in Lee County and also build the Integrated Biorefinery Direct to Ethanol project. [ citation needed ]  In 2016, the  Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy  (part of the U.S. Department of Energy) announced another $15 million grant to be split between Algenol and two other companies to continue research on commercial-scale biofuel production. [ 16 ]


Cellana, Inc.  is an American company which develops of  algae -based  bioproducts  for high-value  nutrition ,  ink , and  bioenergy  applications, including  Omega-3  nutraceutical applications, sustainable  ink ,  aquaculture  and  animal feeds , human  food  ingredients,  pigments , specialty  chemicals , and  biofuels . The company, with offices in  Hawaii  and  San Diego , has received (or has been a member of consortia that have received) multiple multimillion-dollar grants from the  United States Department of Energy  and  United States Department of Agriculture .


KDF is located on a 2.5-hectare (6.2-acre) parcel of land leased from the  Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority  (NELHA), which is located on the west shore of the island of Hawaii. NELHA pipes in a constant supply of fresh ocean water. NELHA was originally built to support a DOE project for ocean thermal energy conversion, and it continues to employ the project's seawater supply pipes to support a variety of research projects and commercial enterprises, including facilities that currently grow and harvest  microalgae  for pharmaceuticals and nutritional supplements. Cellana's facility grows only non-genetically modified, marine  microalgae  species using proprietary technology.


Cellana, Inc. was founded in 2004 as "HR BioPetroleum, Inc." and changed its name to Cellana, Inc. in May 2011. On January 31, 2011, Cellana LLC, a  joint venture  company formed by  Royal Dutch Shell  and HR BioPetroleum in 2007, became a wholly owned subsidiary of HR BioPetroleum, Inc./Cellana, Inc. Shell had previously announced on December 11, 2007, that it entered into a joint venture with HR BioPetroleum to, among other things, build and operate a demonstration facility in Hawaii for growing  algae as a source of biofuels . [ 2 ]   This 2.5-hectare facility, known as the  Kona Demonstration Facility  (KDF), was completed and commissioned in 2009.


The original goal of the facility was to cultivate algae in  photobioreactors  and  open raceway ponds  filled with seawater using a proprietary process, then harvest the algae and extract oil for conversion into fuels such as biodiesel and utilize the residual high protein algae meal for additional co-products.


In 2018, Cellana and POS Bio-Sciences announced the signing of a letter of intent for the joint development and commercialization of high-value EPA Omega-3 oils from Cellana's algae biomass. [ 3 ]   In December 2016, the  United States Department of Energy  published a funding opportunity announcement in which Cellana's lead commercial algae strains KA32 and CO46, and the biomass yields demonstrated from these strains as part of the DOE-funded Algae Testbed Public-Private Partnership (ATP3), were designated as DOE's "State of Technology" for the photosynthetic algae sector in the United States. [ 4 ]    In 2013, Cellana and  Neste Oil , the world's largest refiner of  renewable diesel , announced the signing of a multi-year, commercial-scale off-take agreement for algae-based biocrude oil. [ 5 ]


In 2024, Cellana and  PhytoSmart , a producer of algae-based pet supplements, signed a merger agreement, pursuant to which PhytoSmart will become a wholly owned subsidiary of Cellana upon closing of the merger.  [ 6 ] PhytoSmart's first commercial products — whole algae pet supplements containing DHA and EPA  Omega-3  oils, are sold on Amazon and directly on the company's website, www.PhytoSmart.com.


This article incorporates  public domain material  from websites or documents of the  United States Government . -  EERE


Joule Unlimited , formerly known as Joule Biotechnologies, [ 1 ]  was a producer of alternative energy technologies based in  Bedford, Massachusetts . The company developed a process to generate hydrocarbon-based fuel by combining non-fresh water, nutrients,  cyanobacteria ,  carbon dioxide , and sunlight.  After ten years of operation and building a demonstration plant in New Mexico, the company shut down in August 2017. The company shut down after management was unable to raise money.


The company claimed it would be able to produce more than 20,000 gallons of fuel per acre per year (19,000 m 3 /km 2 /annum) [ 2 ]  in almost refined form using carbon dioxide waste from industrial processes and desert land. [ 3 ]


Helioculture uses photosynthetic organisms, but is otherwise distinct from the process that makes  fuel from algae . Oils made from algae usually have to be refined into fuel following a batch process, but helioculture secretes fuel directly rather than storing it in their cells - either ethanol or hydrocarbons - that do not need refining. [ 3 ]   The helioculture process also does not produce biomass.  This process is enabled by the discovery of unique genes coding for enzymatic mechanisms that enable the direct synthesis of such  key molecules as  alkanes ,  olefins ,  ethanol [ 4 ]  and polymers and other high-value chemicals ordinarily derived from petroleum, using bacterial variants. [ 5 ]  Helioculture allows for  brackish water  or  graywater , nonindustrial waste water from sources such as baths and washing machines, [ 6 ]  to be used, while traditional  biofuels  such as  cellulosic ethanol  require fresh water.


Joule Unlimited claimed that its product would have been cost competitive with crude oil at $50 a barrel ($310/m 3 ). The company also stated that its product could supply all of the transportation fuel for the United States from an area the size of the  Texas panhandle . [ 7 ]


Joule Unlimited did not reveal the name of the organism that it used, although it acknowledged that the company had modified the organism. [ 8 ]   In September, 2010, Joule received a patent for genetically altered bacterium. [ 5 ]


Joule Unlimited was founded in 2007 within Flagship VentureLabs by  Noubar Afeyan  and  David Berry . In addition to its founders, Joule's Board of Directors included  Graham Allison ,  Anatoly Chubais , Stelios Papadopoulos, Caroline Dorsa, and  Ruben Vardanian . [ 9 ]   Joule's Scientific Advisory Board includes synthetic biologists  George M. Church  and  Jim Collins .


After building a demonstration plant in New Mexico, Joule Unlimited entered into a strategic partnership with  Audi  in 2012 to accelerate the commercialization of their fuels, ethanol named Sunflow-E and diesel named Sunflow-D. [ 10 ]  Audi brands them as e-ethanol and  e-diesel  respectively. [ 11 ]


Vasudeva Krishnamurthy  (1921–2014), nicknamed Prof. V.K., was an Indian  algologist . [ 1 ]  He established Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology at Chennai to promote the study of  algology .


Krishnamurthy, son of  Sanskrit  professor R. Vasudeva Sharma, was born on 14 August 1921 at  Valavanur ,  Viluppuram district . He died in Tamil Nadu on 9 May 2014. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Krishnamurthy acquired a B.A. (1940, at St. Joseph's college, affiliated to  Madras University ) and a B.Sc. (Hons.) degree (1942, Presidency College, Madras University) at the University of Madras. University of Madras awarded him with the Pulny Gold Medal. He also gained an M.A. (1947, University of Madras), an M.Sc. (1952, Presidency College,  Madras University) and a Ph.D. (1957, University of Manchester, England). At the age of 21, Krishnamurthy became a research scholar at the botany laboratory of the University of Madras and worked under the father of Indian algology, Prof.  M.O.P. Iyengar . [ 4 ] [ 2 ]


Krishnamurthy was the reader in  botany  from 1943 to 1960. In 1960 he joined Thanjavur Medical College as a professor of  biology , and as professor of  microbiology  and  bacteriology  in the Department of Public Health Engineering in the college of Engineering. In 1961 he joined  Central Salts and Marine Chemicals Research Institute  (CSIR), Bhavnagar, Gujarat as a scientist. After working in CSIR's laboratories for a decade (1961–1971) he returned to Tamil Nadu and served as professor of botany in various colleges. When he retired in 1979, he was principal at Arignar Anna Government Arts College for Men Namakkal. [ 2 ] [ 4 ]


He started the Seaweed Research and Utilization Association to encourage research on seaweed in India. On behalf of this association he published the journal  Seaweed Research Utilization . He was the founding president of the association and he served as president until he died. He founded Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology (KIA), Chennai, India. KIA has the largest library in Tamil Nadu on algal studies, and it is fully equipped for algal research. Prof. V. K.  worked in this laboratory until his death. [ 4 ] [ 3 ]


Sapphire Energy  was a  San Diego –based American energy company that aimed to produce  crude oil  with  algae . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Sapphire Energy was founded in 2007.


As of February 2014, Sapphire Energy employed over 150 employees.  The company is headquartered in San Diego, Calif., and has an engineering office in  Orange County , Calif. and a Research and Development facility in  Las Cruces , New Mexico. In addition, the company's Green Crude Farm, the world's first commercial demonstration algae-to-energy facility (also known as the Integrated Algal BioRefinery or IABR), for which construction began in June 2011, is now operating in  Luna County , near Columbus, New Mexico.  Sapphire's Green Crude Farm integrates the entire value chain of algae-based fuel, from cultivation, to harvest, to conversion of ready-to-refine Green Crude, representing the convergence of biotechnology, agriculture, and energy. [ 3 ]   The Farm is now producing barrels of crude oil year-round, and the company expects to be producing 100 barrels of Green Crude per day in 2015, and at commercial scale production in 2018.


In March 2011, Sapphire Energy and Monsanto announced a multi-year collaboration on algae-based research projects. [ 4 ]    In May 2011, the company announced a multi-year agreement with The Linde Group to co-develop a low-cost system to deliver CO 2  to commercial-scale, open-pond, algae-to-fuel cultivation systems, now underway at the Green Crude Farm. [ 4 ]  Later, in July 2013, the companies expanded their partnership with plans to refine and commercialize a new industrial scale hydrothermal treatment technology to upgrade algae biomass to crude oil that they intend to license and market to various industries, including algae, municipal solid waste, and farm waste, for converting other biomass sources into energy. [ 4 ]  In February 2012, Sapphire Energy announced that it will integrate Earthrise Nutritionals' spirulina strain into its growing inventory of cyanobacteria and algae strains to expand resources for algae-to-energy production. [ 4 ]   In November 2012, the company announced a partnership with Institute for Systems Biology to further the scientific research and development of algae biofuels. [ 4 ]


In 2013, Sapphire Energy expanded its partner network to include business agreements with industry leading oil & gas refiners.  In March 2013, Sapphire Energy announced a commercial agreement with Tesoro Refining and Marketing Company, LLC.  Per the agreement, Tesoro will purchase crude oil from Sapphire Energy's Green Crude Farm for processing into fuel at its west coast refineries. [ 4 ]    In December 2013, Sapphire Energy and Phillips 66  announced they will work together to analyze and confirm that Green Crude can be refined in traditional refineries, and that it meets all Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) certification requirements under the Clean Air Act.   The companies will work to complete the EPA certification process to register a new fuel product entering the market. [ 4 ]


Seed financing to launch the company in 2007 was provided by ARCH Ventures and  Larry Bock .  In 2008, Sapphire Energy announced it had raised more than $100 million in a Series B funding round which included  ARCH Venture Partners , Wellcome Trust, Venrock and Cascade Investment, LLC. In April 2012, the company announced it had secured $144 million in Series C investment funding with backers including Arrowpoint Partners, Monsanto and other undisclosed investors, as well as all Series B investors. [ 4 ]


In December 2009, Sapphire Energy was awarded a $54.5 million USDA loan guarantee and a $50 million grant from the US Dept. of Energy as part of President Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and the USDA's Biorefinery Assistance Program 9003, authorized through the 2008 Farm Bill. [ 4 ]   The $54.5 million loan guarantee awarded through the Biorefinery Assistance Program was issued to build a fully integrated, algae-to-crude oil commercial demonstration facility in Columbus, New Mexico.   In partnership with the USDA and the U.S. Department of Energy, Sapphire Energy developed and implemented its facility, known as the Green Crude Farm, on time and on budget.  Today, the Farm is operational and producing renewable crude oil on a continuous basis. [ citation needed ]  In 2013, Sapphire Energy announced that it had paid off of its entire loan guarantee to the USDA. [ 4 ]


Sapphire Energy's Green Crude biofuel has been featured in multiple pilot demonstrations since 2009.  The company used Syntroleum Inc (SYNM) technology to provide fifty gallons of gasoline for the  Algaeus , a plugin-hybrid  Toyota Prius  that drove across the United States in September 2009. [ 5 ]  The tour was conducted to show that gasoline made by algae is viable in today's vehicles, without modification. In 2009, Continental Airlines also tested one of Sapphire Energy's green crude blends.[7] Sapphire Energy provided Green Crude oil for the first flight's using algae derived jet fuel that was refined by UOP into jet fuel for two test flights – Continental Airlines 737-800 and Japan Airlines 747-300.  In 2012, the company provided its Green Crude diesel fuel to power Below the Surface's 'Driving Innovation' Racing Team, which established itself by setting the first official algae-fueled diesel motorcycle speed records through a series of race challenges in the United States and Mexico. [ 4 ]


Sapphire Energy sold off the Integrated Algal BioRefinery in  Luna County  in 2019 to  Green Stream Farms  who use it to grow algae for use in nutritional products and livestock feed. As of August 2021 it was still in operation and being expanded, although the refinery operations seem to have been discontinued. [ 6 ]


Sapphire Energy produces "Green Crude" from algae, creating a crude oil containing many of the properties found in fossil crude oil. Green Crude is a low carbon crude oil offering a reduction in carbon emissions compared to petroleum-based equivalents. [ 7 ]  Its production doesn't impact agricultural crops, land, or water, since algae are grown in salty, non-potable water, using lands not suitable for agriculture, and require only sunlight and CO 2  to grow.  It also drops right into the current infrastructure of today's cars, trucks, and aircraft without modifications. Sapphire Energy's Green Crude can be refined in a typical refinery. [ citation needed ]


According to the company, "Green Crude" oil meets fuel quality standards, and is completely compatible with the existing petroleum infrastructure, from refinement through distribution to retail suppliers. Gasoline produced from the Green Crude achieved a 91  octane   rating  while meeting fuel quality standards. [ 4 ]


In August 2012, Sapphire Energy announced that its commercial demonstration algae-to-energy facility, the Green Crude Farm, is up and running with the on-time and on budget completion of Phase 1 construction, which began June 2011.  The Farm consists of 100 acres of 1.1 acre and 2.2 acre ponds, as well as all the mechanical and processing equipment needed to harvest and extract algae and recycle water for the planned 300 acre facility.  The Farm is now producing Green Crude oil year-round, and the company is in the process of refining its algae-to-energy processes and technologies as it moves towards scaling up production. [ 8 ]


The company expects the Green Crude Farm to produce 100 barrels a day of ready-to-refine crude oil at full operating capacity. In the September 2012 issue of Forbes magazine, Sapphire Energy expects its Green Crude to "be competitive with petroleum by 2018 if it can produce a minimum of 5,000 barrels a day". [ 9 ]


TerraVia Holdings, Inc.  (formerly  Solazyme ) was a publicly held  biotechnology  company in the United States. TerraVia used  proprietary technology  to transform a range of low-cost plant-based sugars into high-value oils and whole algae ingredients. TerraVia supplied a variety of sustainable algae-based food ingredients to a number of brands, which included  Hormel Food Corporation ,  Utz Quality Foods Inc  and enjoy Life Foods. [ 1 ]  TerraVia also sold its own culinary algae oil under the Thrive Algae Oil brand. In 2017, the firm declared bankruptcy.
 [ 2 ]


Solazyme, Inc., was founded on 31 March 2003, with the mission of utilizing  microalgae  to create a renewable source of energy and transportation fuels. Founders Jonathan S. Wolfson and Harrison Dillon, who met while attending  Emory University , started the company in a garage in Palo Alto.  Regarding their partnership, Dillon said: " Neither of us wanted to go work for some giant organization where we were a tiny cog in a huge wheel. We wanted to make a difference and create something that had never existed before. ” [ 3 ]


In 2013 Dillon announced his decision to step down from his full-time position as CTO and member of the Board of Directors of Solazyme and shift to a long-term consulting role focused on further developing the breadth of the technology platform and advising on intellectual property strategy. [ 4 ]


Wolfson continued on as Chairman and CEO of Solazyme until August 2016 when he stepped down from management while he stayed on the Board.


TerraVia appointed Apu Mody, former President of Mars Food America, as new CEO and a member of the Board of Directors, in August 2016. [ 5 ]


In 2004 and 2005, Solazyme began development of an algal molecular biology platform, identified and initiated a platform for microalgae-based oil production. The company then expanded focus on skin and  personal care products .


Solazyme used a technique to grow microalgae, which allows the production process to be extremely efficient in terms of cost, scale, time, and sustainability. In contrast to common open pond and  photo bioreactor  approaches, TerraVia grows  microalgae  in the dark, inside huge stainless-steel containers.


In September 2007, Solazyme received a $2 million grant from the  National Institute of Standards and Technology , signed a joint development agreement with  Chevron  through its division Chevron Technology Ventures, began operating in commercially sized standard  industrial fermentation  equipment (75,000-liter scale), worked with a third party refiner to demonstrate the compatibility of the oil with standard refining equipment, and produced over 400 liters of microalgae-based oils.


In January 2008, Solazyme was featured in  Fields of Fuel , which was played at the  Sundance Film Festival  in  Park City, Utah . At the event, it presented a  Mercedes-Benz  C320 fueled with its Soladiesel brand of algal fuel. [ 6 ]


Also in January 2008, the company announced a partnership with  Chevron  Technology Ventures to explore the commercialization of algal fuel. [ 7 ]  Later that year, the company stated that it had produced the world's first  jet fuel  derived from an algal source.


In 2009, Solazyme was awarded approximately $22 million from the  United States Department of Energy  for the construction of an integrated biorefinery project. It also formed a contract with the  United States Department of Defense  to deliver microalgae-based marine (renewable F-76) diesel fuel to the  United States Navy . [ 8 ]


In 2011, the company announced it had produced over 283,000 liters of military-spec diesel (HRF-76) for the  United States Navy . The initial fuel production for phase 1 of a 550,000 liter contract was completed ahead of schedule.  Also in 2011 Solazyme and United Airlines partnered to fly the first ever commercial flight on biofuels including the signing of an LOI for United to purchase 20 million gallons of Solajet fuel. [ 9 ]


In 2012, Solazyme partnered with the Navy for the Rim of the Pacific Exercises (RIMPAC) Great Green Fleet (GGF) demonstration in which numerous naval vessels and fighter jets ran on a blend of traditional and renewable fuels in the largest demonstration of its kind. [ 10 ]


In May 2011, Solazyme set terms for its  initial public offering . The company planned to raise $160 million by offering 10 million shares at a price range of $15 to $17 and ended up selling 7,901,800 shares for $20 each in its first day of trading. [ 11 ]


Investment banking and securities firm  Goldman Sachs  reported in July 2011 that with the commercialization of new oil products, Solazyme stock had become less risky. [ 12 ]  The bank initiated coverage with a top rating and $31 target. In a note to clients, it said Solazyme ( Nasdaq :  TVIA ) stood to boost sales and become more stable now that it had partnered with major agribusinesses like  Bunge Limited . [ 13 ]


On 8 August 2011, Solazyme announced a joint venture with  agribusiness  company Bunge Limited to develop renewable oils in  Brazil  using Solazyme's algae-based sugar-to-oil technology.


In April 2012, Solazyme and Bunge announced a plan to construct a shared commercial-scale production facility in Brazil. [ 14 ]  As one of the world's largest vegetable oil distributors, Bunge would supply the facility with sugarcane feedstock from its sugarcane processor in Brazil for use in Solazyme algae oil production process.


Construction of the new facility began in June 2012 and in May 2014, the joint venture plant began oil production. [ 15 ]


In late 2015, Solazyme and Bunge announced an expansion of their joint venture, which included an agreement to have Bunge market the food oils produced through the joint venture. [ 16 ]


The production of AlgaPrime DHA was announced in May 2016 and is the first product under the joint venture of TerraVia and Bunge. AlgaPrime DHA is a new algae-based specialty feed ingredient designed to reduce the aquaculture industry's dependence on wild fish populations. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]


In 2010, Solazyme launched its first products, the Golden Chlorella line of  dietary supplements , as part of a market development initiative. Products incorporating Golden Chlorella could be found at retailers including  Whole Foods Market  and  General Nutrition Centers .


AlgaVia and AlgaWise supply algae-based ingredients to food manufacturers, such as South Coast Baking Company, Follow Your Heart, and So Delicious Dairy Free.


TerraVia is also responsible for the Thrive Algae Oil brand. Thrive is marketed as "The Best Oil For Your Heart" due to its high levels of monounsaturated fats, which are known to decrease bad cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke. Thrive has been praised by food industry professionals for its neutral taste, versatility, and high smoke point.


The  Gelson's  grocery chain began supplying Thrive to the Los Angeles area in 2015. Due to its success in this market, TerraVia announced it would expand the distribution of Thrive throughout the West Coast in May 2016. [ 19 ]


In 2024 the original Solazyme/TerraVia team relaunched Thrive Algae oil. [ 20 ]


As part of its joint venture with Bunge Limited, Solazyme/TerraVia supplied aquaculture feed producer BioMar with an algae-based feed ingredient known as AlgaPrime DHA. [ 21 ]  AlgaPrime DHA is a source of  DHA omega-3 fatty acid . which is intended to reduce the aquaculture industry's dependence on wild fish as a source of DHA. AlgaPrime DHA therefore has the potential to boost the sustainability of aquaculture and allow the aquaculture industry to grow in spite of the world's fixed supply of ocean-based DHA. [ 22 ]   As of 2024, Corbion’s AlgaPrime™ DHA (originally developed and commercialized by Solazyme) is the world’s leading source of algae Omega-3. [ 23 ]


TerraVia currently manufactures the Algenist brand for the luxury  skin care  market through marketing and distribution arrangements with  Sephora  and  QVC . It is sold in Canada, France, and the United Kingdom. The idea of using algae for a skincare line came from  Arthur Grossman , the Chief of Genetics at Solazyme and Staff Scientist at the  Carnegie Institution . [ 24 ]  Grossman is an expert in algal photosynthesis and has studied how algae protect themselves from harsh environments and reasoned they could be used to protect human skin. [ 25 ]


TerraVia also markets its AlgaPūr Algae Oil brand to personal care producers.  Unilever , a leading consumer goods company, is one of TerraVia's biggest partners. In 2010, Solazyme and Unilever started its partnership to develop renewable algae oils for use in soaps and other personal care products. [ 26 ]  In 2011, Unilever funded TerraVia's research and development efforts, which ended in Unilever agreeing to the terms of a multi-year supply agreement. [ 27 ]  In September 2013 Unilever agreed to purchase 3 million gallons of  algae oil . [ 28 ]  In March 2016 the companies signed a multi-year supply agreement, where Unilever has agreed to purchase over  $200 million  worth of a broad portfolio of renewable algae oils. [ 29 ]


The company has formerly engaged in development activities with  Chevron ,  Dow Chemical ,  Ecopetrol ,  Qantas , and  Unilever . Additionally, Solazyme started a brand of industrial drilling lubricant known as Encapso. Scientists were able to harness the prolific oil-producing capabilities of microalgae to create a first-of-its kind product, microencapsulated oil cells that burst only under sufficient pressure, friction, and shear. [ 30 ]


As part of the change in focus, TerraVia stated that its fuels, industrial oils, and Encapso business would be grouped together under Solazyme Industrials starting in March 2016. Furthermore, "The company will be pursuing strategic alternatives over the next 12–18 months to unlock the value created [in Solazyme Industrials]. Solazyme's objective is to identify partners who have the operational capabilities needed to realize the potential of those businesses." [ 31 ]


Solazyme officially changed its name to TerraVia Holdings Inc. in March 2016 with a redefined focus on food, nutrition, and personal care. As part of the change, the company stated that its previous fuel and industrial oil products and workings would operate under Solazyme Industrials. [ 32 ]


On 2 August 2017, TerraVia filed for  bankruptcy  protection under  Chapter 11 . [ 33 ]  The company announced a "stalking horse" offer from  Corbion, N.V. , a Netherlands food and biochemical company. [ 34 ]  The offer valued TerraVia's assets at $20 million plus the assumption of debt associated with the Brazilian manufacturing facility. [ 35 ]  By comparison, Solazyme's IPO raised over $197 million. [ 36 ]   The sale closed in September of 2017 [ 37 ]  and by 2023 the legacy Solazyme technology and products were the fastest growing part of Corbion’s portfolio, growing at over 40% yoy with over €110M in sales. [ 38 ]


TerraVia sets a goal of providing replacements for unsustainable products like palm and soybean oil. The brand's food ingredients seek to provide a healthy alternative to animal-based lipids and proteins.


According to its sustainability report, TerraVia states that "transparency is central to all of our sustainability principles." [ 39 ]  TerraVia supports this goal with a number of commitments, which include engaging with and asking for stakeholders' inputs, publishing product data in peer-reviewed journals, and openly communicating about the production of its products.


As part of this transparency, TerraVia has made information regarding the environmental impacts of its products publicly available.


TerraVia had the third party organization Thinkstep conduct life cycle analysis on its products in order to assess their environmental impacts in comparison to other oils. The results show that algae oil production often has significantly lower environmental impacts in comparison to traditional oil sources. [ 39 ]


A life cycle analysis conducted in 2016 compared the sugarcane-fed algae oil produced at the Solazyme Bunge joint venture facility in Brazil against soybean, tallow, palm kernel, olive, palm, canola, and sunflower oil in terms of its carbon emissions and water consumption. Thinkstep found that the algae oil was on par with sunflower oil in terms of  global warming potential  per kilogram of oil produced. All other oils compared had higher carbon emissions. Algae oil also had the second lowest impact in water consumption, second to canola oil. [ 39 ]


The company also analyzed the land impact of its algae oil compared to traditional oils. It found that the algae oil is comparable to palm oil in land use efficiency, with both algae and palm yielding more than six times the amount of oil per hectare than any other oil producing crop. [ 39 ]


The Thinkstep life cycle analysis highlights the advantages of producing algae oil over traditional oil sources in regard to the environmental impacts of oil production.


The  genetic fallacy  (also known as the  fallacy of origins  or  fallacy of virtue ) [ 1 ]  is a  fallacy of irrelevance  in which arguments or information are dismissed or validated based solely on their source of origin rather than their content. In other words, a claim is ignored or given credibility based on its source rather than the claim itself.


The fallacy therefore fails to assess the claim on its merit. The first criterion of a good argument is that the premises must have bearing on the truth or falsity of the claim in question. [ 2 ]  Genetic accounts of an issue may be true and may help illuminate the reasons why the issue has assumed its present form, but they are not conclusive in determining its merits. [ 3 ]


In  The Oxford Companion to Philosophy  (1995), it is asserted that the term originated in  Morris Raphael Cohen  and  Ernest Nagel 's book  Logic and Scientific Method   [ 4 ]  (1934). However, in a book review published in  The Nation  in 1926,  Mortimer J. Adler  complained that  The Story of Philosophy  by  Will Durant  was guilty throughout of "the fallacy of genetic interpretation." Adler characterized the genetic fallacy generally as "the substitution of psychology for logic." [ 5 ]


From  Attacking Faulty Reasoning  by T. Edward Damer, Third Edition  p.  36:


You're not going to wear a  wedding ring , are you? Don't you know that the wedding ring originally symbolized ankle chains worn by women to prevent them from running away from their husbands? I would not have thought you would be a party to such a sexist practice.


There are numerous motives explaining why people choose to wear wedding rings, but it would be a fallacy to presume those who continue the tradition are promoting sexism.


Another example would be from  How to Win Every Argument: The Use and Abuse of Logic  (2006) by Madsen Pirie, p. 82:


The objections of the Council's new bus timetable come only from private property developers, and can be ignored.


As the author points out, private developers may well have legitimate and knowledgeable opinions on such a matter.


Ad hominem  ( Latin  for 'to the person'), short for  argumentum ad hominem , refers to several types of arguments that are usually  fallacious . Often currently this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion often using a totally irrelevant, but often highly charged attribute of the opponent's character or background. The most common form of this fallacy is "A" makes a claim of "fact", to which "B" asserts that "A" has a personal trait, quality or physical attribute that is repugnant thereby going off-topic, and hence "B" concludes that "A" has their "fact" wrong – without ever addressing the point of the debate. Many contemporary politicians routinely use  ad hominem  attacks, some of which can be encapsulated to a derogatory nicknames for political opponents used instead of political argumentation. (But modern democracy requires that voters make character judgements of representatives, so opponents may reasonably criticize their characters and motives.)


Other uses of the term  ad hominem  are more traditional, referring to arguments tailored to fit a particular audience, and may be encountered in specialized philosophical usage. These typically refer to the dialectical strategy of using the target's own beliefs and arguments against them, while not agreeing with the validity of those beliefs and arguments.  Ad hominem  arguments were first studied in  ancient Greece ;  John Locke  revived the examination of  ad hominem  arguments in the 17th century.


A common misconception is that an  ad hominem  attack is synonymous with an  insult . This is not true, although some  ad hominem  arguments may be insulting by the person receiving the argument.


The various types of  ad hominem  arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks.  Aristotle , in his work  Sophistical Refutations , detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. [ 2 ]  His description was somewhat different from the modern understanding, referring to a class of  sophistry  that applies an ambiguously worded question about people to a specific person. The proper refutation, he wrote, is not to debate the attributes of the person ( solutio ad hominem ) but to address the original ambiguity. [ 3 ]  Many examples of ancient non-fallacious  ad hominem  arguments are preserved in the works of the  Pyrrhonist  philosopher  Sextus Empiricus . In these arguments, the concepts and assumptions of the opponents are used as part of a dialectical strategy against them to demonstrate the unsoundness of their own arguments and assumptions. In this way, the arguments are to the person ( ad hominem ), but without attacking the properties of the individuals making the arguments. [ 4 ]  This kind of argument is also known as "argument from commitment".


Italian  Galileo Galilei  and British philosopher  John Locke  also examined the argument from commitment, a form of the  ad hominem  argument, meaning examining an argument on the basis of whether it stands true to the principles of the person carrying the argument. In the mid-19th century, the modern understanding of the term  ad hominem  started to take shape, with the broad definition given by English logician  Richard Whately . According to Whately,  ad hominem  arguments were "addressed to the peculiar circumstances, character, avowed opinions, or past conduct of the individual". [ 5 ]


Over time, the term acquired a different meaning; by the beginning of the 20th century, it was linked to a  logical fallacy , in which a debater, instead of disproving an argument, attacked their opponent. This approach was also popularized in philosophical textbooks of the mid-20th century, and it was challenged by Australian philosopher  Charles Leonard Hamblin  in the second half of the 20th century. In a detailed work, he suggested that the inclusion of a statement against a person in an argument does not necessarily make it a fallacious argument since that particular phrase is not a premise that leads to a conclusion. While Hablin's criticism was not widely accepted, Canadian philosopher  Douglas N. Walton  examined the fallaciousness of the  ad hominem  argument even further. [ 6 ]  Nowadays, except within specialized philosophical usaɡe, use of the term  ad hominem  signifies a straight attack at the character and ethos of a person, in an attempt to refute their argument. [ 7 ]


The Latin phrase  argumentum ad hominem  stands for 'argument against the person'. [ 8 ]   Ad  here means 'against' but could also mean 'to' or 'towards'. [ 9 ]


The terms  ad mulierem  and  ad feminam  have been used specifically when the person receiving the criticism is female [ 10 ]  but the term  hominem  (accusative of  homo ) was gender-neutral in Latin. [ 11 ]


Fallacious  ad hominem  reasoning is categorized  among  informal fallacies , more precisely as a  genetic fallacy , a subcategory of  fallacies of irrelevance . [ 12 ]


Ad hominem  fallacies can be separated into various types, such as  tu quoque , circumstantial  ad hominem , guilt by association, and abusive  ad hominem . All of them are similar to the general scheme of  ad hominem  argument, that is instead of dealing with the essence of someone's argument or trying to refute it, the interlocutor is attacking the character of the proponent of the argument and concluding that it is a sufficient reason to drop the initial argument. [ 13 ]


Ad hominem tu quoque  (literally 'you also') is a response to an  ad hominem  argument that itself goes  ad hominem . [ 14 ]


Tu quoque  appears as:


An example given by professor George Wrisley to illustrate the above is:


A businessman and a politician are giving a lecture at a university about how good his company is and how nicely the system works. A student asks him "Is it true that you and your company are selling weapons to third world rulers who use those arms against their own people?" and the  businessman replies "Is it true that your university gets funding by the same company that you are claiming is selling guns to those countries? You are not a white dove either". The student's  ad hominem  accusation is not fallacious, as it is relevant to the narrative the businessman is trying to project. On the other hand, the businessman's attack on the student (that is, the student being inconsistent) is irrelevant to the opening narrative. So the businessman's  tu quoque  response is fallacious. [ 16 ]


Canadian philosopher  Christopher Tindale  approaches somewhat different the  tu quoque  fallacy. According to Tindale, a  tu quoque  fallacy appears when a response to an argument is made on the history of the arguer. This argument is also invalid because it does not disprove the premise; if the premise is true, then source A may be a  hypocrite  or even changed their mind, but this does not make the statement less credible from a logical perspective. A common example, given by Tindale, is when a doctor advises a patient to lose weight, but the patient argues that there is no need for him to go on a diet because the doctor is also overweight. [ 17 ]


Circumstantial  ad hominem ' points out that someone is in circumstances (for instance, their job, wealth, property, or relations) such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the  bias  of a source. As with other types of the argument, the circumstantial  ad hominem  could be fallacious or not. It could be fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument invalid; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source). But it also may be a sound argument, if the premises are correct and the bias is relevant to the argument. [ 18 ]


A simple example is: a father may tell his daughter not to start smoking because she will damage her health, and she may point out that he is or was a smoker. This does not alter the fact that smoking might cause various diseases. Her father's inconsistency is not a proper reason to reject his claim. [ 19 ]


Douglas N. Walton, philosopher and pundit on informal fallacies, argues that a circumstantial  ad hominem  argument can be non-fallacious. This could be the case when someone (A) attacks the personality of another person (B), making an argument (a) while the personality of B is relevant to argument  a , i.e. B talks as an  authority figure . To illustrate this reasoning, Walton gives the example of a witness at a trial: if he had been caught lying and cheating in his own life, should the jury take his word for granted? No, according to Walton. [ 20 ]


Guilt by association, that is accusing an arguer because of his alleged connection with a discredited person or group, can sometimes also be a type of  ad hominem  fallacy when the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument. [ 21 ]


This form of the argument is as follows: [ 21 ]


Academic Leigh Kolb gives as an example that the  2008 US vice-presidential  candidate  Sarah Palin  attacked  Barack Obama  for having worked with  Bill Ayers , who had been a leader in the  Weather Underground  terrorist group in the 1960s. Despite Obama denouncing every act of terrorism, his opponents still associated him with terrorism. [ 22 ]


Guilt by association is frequently found in social and political debates. It also appears after major events (such as scandals and terrorism) linked to a specific group. Kolb cites the peak of attacks against Muslims in the US after the  September 11 attacks . [ 22 ]


Abusive  ad hominem  argument (or direct  ad hominem ) is associated with an attack to the character of the person carrying an argument. This kind of argument, besides usually being fallacious, is also counterproductive, as a proper dialogue is hard to achieve after such an attack. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ]


Key issues in examining an argument to determine whether it is an  ad hominem  fallacy or not are whether the accusation against the person stands true or not, and whether the accusation is relevant to the argument. An example is a dialogue at the court, where the attorney cross-examines an eyewitness, bringing to light the fact that the witness was convicted in the past for lying. If the attorney's conclusion is that the witness is lying, that would be wrong. But if his argument would be that the witness should not be trusted, that would not be a fallacy. [ 26 ]


An  ad hominem  argument from commitment is a type of valid argument that employs, as a dialectical strategy, the exclusive use of the beliefs, convictions, and assumptions of those holding the position being argued against, i.e., arguments constructed on the basis of what other people hold to be true. This usage is generally only encountered in specialist philosophical usage or in pre-20th century usages. [ 27 ]  This type of argument is also known as the  ex concessis  argument (Latin for 'from what has been conceded already'). [ 28 ]


Ad hominem  fallacies are considered to be uncivil and do not help creating a constructive atmosphere for dialogue to flourish. [ 29 ]  An  ad hominem  attack is an attack on the character of the target who tends to feel the necessity to defend himself or herself from the accusation of being hypocritical. Walton has noted that it is so powerful of an argument that it is employed in many political debates. Since it is associated with negativity and dirty tricks, it has gained a bad fame, of being always fallacious. [ 30 ]


Author Eithan Orkibi, having studied Israeli politics prior to elections, described two other forms of  ad hominem  attacks that are common during election periods. They both depend on the  collective memory  shared by both proponents and the audience. The first is the "precedent  ad hominem ", according to which the previous history of someone means that they do not fit for the office. It goes like this: "My opponent was (allegedly) wrong in the past, therefore he is wrong now". The second one is a behavioral  ad hominem : "my opponent was not decent in his arguments in the past, so he is not now either". These kinds of attacks are based on the inability of the audience to have a clear view of the amount of false statements by both parts of the debate. [ 31 ]


Walton has argued that  ad hominem  reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, [ 32 ]  as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words.


The philosopher  Charles Taylor  has argued that  ad hominem  reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the  apodictic  reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism. [ 33 ]


In an  argument ,  ad personam,  short for  argumentum ad personam , is a tactic aimed at discrediting one's opponent by attacking his personality, unrelated to the substance of the debate.


In his treatise  The Art of Being Always Right , the German philosopher  Arthur Schopenhauer  lists this technique under the title of  Stratagem No. 38  (both last listed and last resort): [ 1 ]


When we realise that the opponent is superior and that we will end up being defeated, become offensive and outrageous; that is, don't focus on the object of the dispute anymore, since it would be a fiasco, but focus directly on the opponent and try to attack them in any way. You could call this an argomentum ad personam, and you should distinguish it from the argomentum ad hominem; in fact, while in the latter we attack what the opponent has said or admitted, with the this stratagem we leave the subject in question aside and rail against the opponent with insolence. It basically is an appeal to the more brutal forces that we have, and as anyone can put it into practice, it is certainly a widespread stratagem. In the event that our opponent starts to use this behaviour, we certainly cannot do the same, otherwise it would turn into a fight, a duel or a trial.


Ad personam  and  ad hominem  are distinct. The former is a personal attack, unrelated to the subject matter of the debate, which aims to discredit the person of the opponent regardless of his arguments; the latter focuses on the argumentation, reasoning or behavior of the opponent in relation to the subject matter of the debate, rather than directly on the subject matter of the debate itself. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


In his  Manuel de Polémique , Stéphane Muras outlines the distinction between an argument concerning character (ad hominem) and an argument concerning personal attributes (ad personam). [ 4 ]  An ad hominem argument pertains to what the opponent has revealed about themselves, identifying an inconsistency between the thesis they are currently defending and a previous thesis, either through their words or through concrete and proven actions. This approach addresses the public figure's credibility. In contrast, an ad personam argument invokes the opponent's inherent identity, which does not involve a conscious decision. This includes factors such as their familial rank, position in a hierarchy, age, physical characteristics, geographical origin, or even zodiac sign.


Appeal to accomplishment  is a  logical fallacy  wherein Person A challenges a thesis put forward by Person B because Person B has not accomplished similar feats (or as many feats) as Person C or Person A. [ 1 ]


The reverse, appealing to the fact that no one has the proper experience in question and thus cannot prove something is impossible, is a version of an  argument from silence .


Appeal to accomplishment is a form of  appeal to authority , which is a well-known  logical fallacy . Some consider that it can be used in a cogent form when all sides of a discussion agree on the reliability of the authority in the given context. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


The  appeal to loyalty  is a  logical fallacy  committed when the premise of an argument uses a perceived need for  loyalty  of some sort to distract from the issue being discussed. [ 1 ]


Problem: Even if B is disloyal, that doesn't mean that B is wrong, as A is not necessarily always right.


Appeal to motive  is a pattern of argument which consists in challenging a thesis by calling into question the motives of its proposer. [ 1 ]  It can be considered as a special case of the  ad hominem circumstantial  argument. As such, this type of argument is an  informal fallacy . [ citation needed ]


A common feature of appeals to motive is that only the possibility of a motive (however small) is shown, without showing the motive actually existed or, if the motive did exist, that the motive played a role in forming the argument and its conclusion. Indeed, it is often assumed that the mere possibility of motive is evidence enough. [ 1 ]


This  logic -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


An  appeal to nature  is a  rhetorical  technique for presenting and proposing the  argument  that "a thing is good  because  it is 'natural', or bad  because  it is 'unnatural'." [ 1 ]  In debate and discussion, an appeal-to-nature argument can be considered to be a bad argument, because the implicit primary premise "What is  natural  is  good " has no factual meaning beyond rhetoric in some or most contexts.


The following is a construction of the Appeal to Nature argument:


That which is natural is good or right.
 N  is natural.
Therefore,  N  is good or right.

That which is unnatural is bad or wrong.
 U  is unnatural.
Therefore,  U  is bad or wrong. [ 2 ]


In some contexts, the use of the terms of " nature " and "natural" can be vague, leading to unintended associations with other concepts. The word "natural" can also be a  loaded term  – much like the word "normal", in some contexts, it can carry an implicit value judgement. An appeal to nature would thus  beg the question , because the conclusion is entailed by the premise. [ 2 ]


Opinions differ regarding appeal to nature in rational argument. By some more permissive views, it can sometimes be taken as a helpful  rule of thumb  in certain limited domains, even if it admits some exceptions. When such a principle is applied as a rule of thumb, natural  facts  are presumed to provide reliable  value judgments  regarding what is  good ,  barring evidence to the contrary , and likewise for unnatural facts providing reliable value judgments regarding what is bad. Within a limited domain, treating a rule of thumb such as "all else being equal, you should generally try to eat natural foods" as if it is an exceptionless principle can sometimes involve a  fallacy of accident . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Julian Baggini  explains the standard view of what makes this a fallacy as follows: "Even if we can agree that some things are natural and some are not, what follows from this? The answer is: nothing. There is no factual reason to suppose that what is natural is good (or at least better) and what is unnatural is bad (or at least worse)." [ 4 ]


The meaning and importance of various understandings and concepts of "nature" has been a persistent topic of discussion historically in both science and philosophy. In  Ancient Greece , "the laws of nature were regarded not [simply] as generalized descriptions of what actually happens in the natural world… but rather as norms that people ought to follow… Thus the appeal to nature tended to mean an appeal to the  nature of man  treated as a source for norms of conduct. To Greeks this… represented a conscious probing and exploration into an area wherein, according to their whole tradition of thought, lay the true source for norms of conduct." [ 5 ]


In modern times, philosophers have challenged the notion that human beings' status as natural beings should determine or dictate their  normative  being. For example,  Rousseau  famously suggested that "We do not know what our nature permits us to be." [ 6 ]  More recently,  Nikolas Kompridis  has applied Rousseau's axiom to debates about  genetic intervention  (or other kinds of intervention) into the biological basis of human life, writing:


[T]here is a domain of human freedom not dictated by our biological nature, but [this] is somewhat unnerving because it leaves uncomfortably open what kind of beings human beings could become… Put another way: What are we prepared to permit our nature to be? And on what basis should we give our permission? [ 7 ]


Kompridis writes that the  naturalistic  view of living things, articulated by one scientist as that of "machines whose components are biochemicals" [ 8 ]  ( Rodney Brooks ), threatens to make a single normative understanding of human being the only possible understanding. He writes, "When we regard ourselves as 'machines whose components are biochemicals,' we not only presume to know what our nature permits us to be, but also that this knowledge permits us to answer the question of what is to become of us… This is not a question we were meant to answer, but, rather, a question to which we must remain answerable." [ 7 ]


Some popular examples of the appeal to nature can be found on labels and advertisements for food, clothing,  alternative   herbal remedies , and many other areas. [ 4 ] [ 9 ]  Labels may use the phrase "all-natural", to imply that products are  environmentally friendly  and safe. However, whether or not a product is "natural" is irrelevant, in itself, in determining its safety or effectiveness. [ 4 ] [ 10 ]  For example, many  dangerous poisons  are compounds that are found in nature.


It is also common practice for medicine to be brought up as an appeal to nature, stating that medicine is "unnatural" and therefore should not be used. [ 9 ]  This is particularly notable as an argument employed against the practice of vaccination. [ 11 ]


On the topic of  meat consumption , philosopher  Peter Singer  argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the "natural way", as the way that humans and other animals  do  behave naturally has no bearing on how we  should  behave. Thus, Singer claims, the moral permissibility or impermissibility of eating meat must be assessed on its own merits, not by appealing to what is "natural". [ 12 ]


The  appeal to novelty  (also called  appeal to modernity  or  argumentum ad novitatem ) is a logical  fallacy  in which one prematurely claims that an idea or proposal is correct or superior,  exclusively  because it is new and modern. [ 1 ]  In a controversy between  status quo  and new inventions, an appeal to novelty argument is not in itself a valid argument. The fallacy may take two forms: overestimating the new and modern, prematurely and without investigation assuming it to be best-case, or underestimating status quo, prematurely and without investigation assuming it to be worst-case.


Investigation may prove these claims to be true, but it is a fallacy to prematurely conclude this  only from the general claim that all novelty is good .


Chronological snobbery  is a form of appeal to novelty, in which one argues that the only relevant knowledge and practices are those established in the last decades. The opposite of an appeal to novelty is an  appeal to tradition , in which one argues that the "old ways" are always superior to new ideas.


Appeals to novelty are often successful in a modern world where everyone is eager to be on the "cutting edge" of technology. The  dot-com bubble  of the early 2000s could easily be interpreted as a sign of the dangers of naïvely embracing new ideas without first viewing them with a critical eye. Also,  advertisers  frequently extoll the newness of their products as a reason to buy.  Conversely, this is satirised by skeptics as  bleeding edge  technology, which may itself be an example of an appeal to tradition.


The appeal to novelty is based on the reasoning that in general people will tend to try to improve the outputs resulting from their efforts. Thus, for example, a company producing a product might be assumed to know about existing flaws and to be seeking to correct them in a future revision. This line of reasoning is obviously flawed for many reasons, most notably that it ignores:


In some cases, there may exist one or more unnamed – but still universally acknowledged –  correlations  between novelty and positive traits. For example, newer technology has a tendency to be more complex and advanced than older. A correlation may, for example, exist between the newness of a  virus definition file  and the security of a computer, or between the newness of a computer and its speed and performance. In these precise cases, something may be more likely to be superior  whenever  it is new and modern, though not  exclusively  because it is new and modern. In some restricted cases, it may even be proven. An appeal to novelty is not always a fallacy. It only becomes one if the supposed connections between the newness of something and its quality are disputed, have not been proven, or are presented as undeniable proof. In other words, it's only a fallacy when the  claim of superiority based on newness lacks valid support . Thus, what may seem like Appeal to novelty is not a fallacy in every case.


Whenever something undergoes some sort of continuous decay, valuing novelty is justified as long as novelty restores some  status quo  with an anterior state (or improves on it). For instance, new clothes are arguably superior to their identical worn out counterparts, as are newly produced body parts to the old in the case of  moulting . Much the same way, in  aesthetics , for example in some arts and music, the value can be held not by the actual product or its performance, but rather by the sentiment of freshness and amazement that it causes; for example, many radio stations play only that music which is currently selling well (or is predicted to sell well following its imminent release), not that which has sold equally well only a few months before. The implication is that it is the currency of the popularity that confers value, rather than any intrinsic quality of the music itself, or of popularity at previous times. If it is the case, a novelty in itself – though not necessarily all forms of novelty – is a key aspect of evaluation. In those cases, if a statement comparing two art forms does mention their respective states of novelty, there is no fallacy (e.g. "Song A is currently a much better bet for your party than song B.").